The Nation-wide Learning System of Singapore 9789814377454

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The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

Established as an autonomous organisation in May 1968, the bstitute of Southeast Asian Studies is a regional research centre foe scholars and other specialists concerned with modern Southeast Asia. The Institute's research interests are focused on the many-faceted problems of modernization and development. and political and social change in Southeast Asia. The Institute is governed by a twenty-four-member Board of Trustees on which are represented the University of Singapore and Nanyang University, appointee~ from the Government, as well as representatives from a broad range of professional and civic organizations and groups. A ten-man Executive Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is ex officio chaired by the Director, the Institute's chief academic and administrative officer.

"Copyright subsists in this publication under the United Kingdom Copyright Act, 1911, and the Singapore Copyright Act (Cap. 187). No person shall reproduce a copy of this publication. or extracts therefrom, without the written permission of the I nstitute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore."

An Introdu ction to

the Nation -wide Learnin g System in Singap ore

by

Richard L. Skolnik

Occasi onal Paper No. 42 Institu te o f Southe ast Asian Studie s Price:

S$7.00

Mr. Richard L. Skolnik's "An Introduction to the Nation-wide Learning System of Singapore" is the fortysecond publication in the Institute's Occasional Papers series. This series was inaugurated in 197o and for the most part consists of discussion and other papers presented at the Institute's Occa s ~ onal and In-House seminars. Based on research conducted in Singapore whilst he was a Rese arch Ass ociate of the Institute, Sk o lnik's paper is an introductory attempt at assessing the major aspects of education in the Island Republic as part of a "nation-wide learning system." Skolnik's findings, tentat~ve though they may be, ahould be of considerable interest to educational pl~nners and policy makers as well as those concerned with educat~on in general. Perhaps, more 1mportant, let us hope they will stimulate further analysis and discussion of the topic both in Singapore and elsewhere. In the meantime, wh~le wishing Mr . Skolnik and his work all the best, it is clearly understood that responsibili ty for facts and opinions expressed in the material that follows rests exclusively with Mr. Skoln~k and his interpretat1o ns do not necessarily reflect the views or policy of the Institute or 1ts supporters. 24 August 19 i6

Director Inst1tute of Southeast Asian Studies

Dedication This paper is dedicated to the memory of Professor Frederick Harbison who,with his great compassio n, pro found wisdom, and infinite stores of wit and energy, was an inspiratio n to this student and many others through out the world.

Acknowledgements The author wou ld like to extend his deepest thanks to the many people who helped to make this study possible. The Neil A. McConnell Foundation and the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs of Princeton University provided financial support . Professor Kernial s. Sandhu, the Director of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, and the staff of the Institute offered friendship, an edifying environment and scholarly advice . Ms. Christine Tan, of the Institute, extended useful editorial comment. My wife Sophia compiled many of the tables and in a variety of additional ways enabled me to engage in this project. Finally, the author received the valuable assistance of many others in s~ngapore , at the Universities, in the ministries and statutory bodies, and in private organizations .

Introduction S i ngapore has few natural resources. Its only economic advantages in the traditional sense are the granite in the centre of the island, a geographic l ocation which places the c~ty-state on the crossroads o f international trade, and a fine port wh~ch has helped it to become an important entrep6t. Singapore has neither agricultural nor mineral wealth. The is land republic, however, does have other resources. Most significant are the 2,260,000 Singaporeans - the human resources of the nation. The government of Singapore has in the past made the education and training of its citizens central to its strategy of economic development. Today in Singapore there ~s renewed emphasis on improving educational standards, ra~sing the levels of educational attainment, tra~ning increas~ng numbers of sk~lled workers, and organizing better the ut i lizat~on of Singapore's human resources potential. Few Singaporeans dispute these goals and most accept them as art~cles of the nat1onal faith. It 18 the purpose of this paper to focus on these national priorlties by examining critically the most salient aspects o f the "natt.on-wide learning system" of Slngapore.l This study w1ll, of necessity, be broad rather than deep. first , to suggest an approach for Its goals are threefold: review1ng a nat ional system of learn1ng1 second, to stimulate crltical discussion of Singaporean strategies for human resources development: and th1rd, to bring the Singaporean experience in this field to the attent1on of those outside Singapore . The Approach Educational planners and policy makers have been concerned unt~l recently pr1ma r1ly, if n o t exclus1vely , with the f o rmal educat1onal sector. Analysts have made few attempts to examine systemat1cally and comprehens1vely the vari ed programmes for skill and knowledge generat ion wh1ch take p l ace within a nat~on. Lately, however, there has been an 1ncreasing tendency among those concerned w1th education i n develop1ng count ries l

See the next se c. tlon for a detailed des c uptlon of the "nat i on-wide leatning system."

2

to take a broader view of "education." The World Bank , for example, has written of the need to view a national education system" •.. as a comprehensive system of learning embracing formal, nonformal, and informal education • ••• "2 Professor Frederick Harbison, a well-known pioneer in planning for human resources development, has stated the need for a "sector-wide approach" to education which" ..• involves a comprehensive analysis of national development from a human res ources perspective." 3 The Ethiopians have attempted to put such approaches into practice in their Education Sector

Re vi ew.4

This study is not an education sector review. It is, however , an introductory assessment of the most important aspects of •education" in Singapore. Our approach will be to view learning programmes, the linkages among them, and their relationship to the social, political, and economic environment as parts of a "nation-wide learning system."S Our objectives are to classify learning services, describe some of the most significant learning programmes, and critically review a few of the dominant policies regarding human resources development. Our cri teria for assessing both the parts of the system and the system as a whole will be access, orientations , constraints, efficiency and income distribution effects.6 Ultimately, we are concerned with encouraging discussion of the larger question, "What is the most appropriate and effective combination of learning programmes for Singapore?"

2

International Bank for Reconstruct i on and Development, Education IBRD , 1974) .

Sec tor Review (Washington, D.C . : 3

Frederi ck Harbison, Education Sector Planning f or t he Deve l opment of Nation-wide Learning S,Vst Bms , Overseas Liaison Committee, American Council of Education Paper No.2 (Washington, D. C.: 1973), p. 8.

4

Government of Ethiopia, Education Sector Revi ew (Addis Ababa: Government of Ethiopia, 1970).

5

See Harbison , op. c it., for a full descripti on of his nation-wide l e arning system approach, on whi ch th i s one i s based.

6

These criteria are derived from Harbison, op . cit., and partici pation in a seminar led by Professor Frederick Harbison at the Woodrow Wilson School of Princeton University on "Human Resources in the Development Process" in September-Novem ber 1975.

3

The learning programmes, which are the primary components of the nation-wide learning system, can be classified into four types:? 1.

Formal Education - broadly based preemployment learning that takes place in .school and schoolrelated activities; this schooling is generally age-specific and leads to some kind of certificate

2.

Nonformal Education - organized educational activities that take place out of the formal school system and outside of work environments, such as adult education courses, agricultural extension courses, etc .

3.

Work-Related Education - skill and knowledge generated in work environments and employing institutions; this takes a variety of forms such as apprenticeship programmes regular on-the-job train1ng, managerial training, etc.

4.

Informal Educat1on - learn1ng that is not organized and does not take place in the formal school system or in working environments, such as "learning by do1ng," reading, watching educational TV, etc.

This classification scheme is not intended to be definitive; a single learn1ng programme may fit into more than one class. In fact, we shall often refer to instances where this occurs and discuss the rationale for placing a programme into a distinct category. Our method of assessment will also be more eclectic than exclusive. In addition to apply1ng the criteria we have already presented there will be frequent reflections on the system as seen from the perspective of "the social demand approach," "the manpower needs approach," "the employment generation approach," a.nd "the rate of return approach."8 Diagram I 1s an 1llustration of a nation-wide learning system and 1t is intended to help the reader conceptualize 7 These class1ficat1ons are based on Harbison, op.cit., and John Sommons, "Educatlon, Poverty, and Development," mimeographed, IBRD, Bank Staff Working Paper No . 188, February 1974 8

Harbiaon, op.cit., pp. 10-13, briefly describes these approaches.

· ram 1 D1ag :

A Sche mat ic Diagram of the Nat ion- wid e Lea rnin g System _ FORMAL EDUCATION

TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY

WORK-RELATED

TRAINING

ABk>AD

EDUCATION

• •

•

•

SOCIETY •

•

•

•

STUDY ABROAD

MIGRATION

INFORMAL EDUCAT ION

5

our approach . The lines represent linkages between programmes and other factors relevant to our consideration of the nation-wide learning system . In addition to the social, political, and economic ones already mentioned , the most important of such factors will be study and training abroad, migration , and the transfer of technology. In our conclus1on we shall present a detailed illustration of the nation-wide learning system of Singap~re. The major portion of this study will be concerned with learning programmes . However~ in order to understand their role in S1ngapore today and what role they may play in the future, i t is necessary that an introduction to Singaporean society be included in this essay. We shall begin, therefore, with an outline of those aspects of the social, political , and economic setting which impinge most heavily on the nation-wide learning system. Singapore :

the People9

Singapore 1s a multicultural and multilingual nation . Of its 2,268,000 pe.ople , about 75% are Chinese, 16% Malay, 6% Indians, and 2% "others."lO The Chinese are members of several ethnolinguistic groups, the most prominent of which are Hokkien , Teo Chew, Cantonese, Hakka, and Hainanese . The Malays are indigenous to the region , 1f not the island, and speak Malay as their first language . The Indians are, for the most part, Tamil speakers from South India. The "others " are primarily Eurasians , Americans , and Europeans. The official languages of the nation are English, Malay, Mandarin , and Tamil; there is a large variety of unofficial languages . In addition to being an ethnically diverse population, Singapore's population is young relative to those of the developed Western economies. In 1974, approximately 47%

9

For a derailed v1ew, see the writings on Singapore of Willard Hanna, particularly the American Vnive~sities Field Staff Reports, Southeast Asia Se~ies (Washington , D. C. ); Ilsa Sharp, ed., This Singapo~e ( Singapore : Times Publishing , 1975); You Poh Seng and Lim Chong Yah, eds. , The Singapo~e Economy (Singapore : Eastern UniversiLies Press ~ 1971) .

10

Singapore, Department of Statistics , Yearbook of Statistics., Singapore 1974/75 (Singapore: Department of Statistics, 1975), pp . 11 and 14 .

6

of the population was under 19 years of age, 31% between 20- 39 , 16% between 40-59, and 6% over ' the age of 60 (see Table 1 - figures do not add to 100% due to roundi n g). The proportion of the young in the population , however, has declined continuously over the last decade, largely a function of an unusually successful campaign to encou rage population control. In fact, the average annual rate of population growth has dropped dramatically in the past twenty years - from 4.4 per 1,000 for the period 1 947-57 to 1 . 8 per 1,000 du~ing the years 1966-7o. l l Another important demographic trend has been the decrease in immigration which is now negligible.l2 This has further slowed the growth rate of the population of Singapore. Of course , numerous characteristics of the population have changed as fertility has been reduced and rapid economic and social development · taken place. Among the most significant have been the improvement in educational backgrounds. Since 1959, when internal self- government was achieved, average educational attainments have increased for all ethnic groups and both sexes,l3 enrolment ratios have been raised for all groups,l4 and the percentage of illiterates in the population has decreased sharply.l5 Moreover, as a result of social and economic progress, the nation-wide learning system of Singapore does not face today population pressures and economic constraints of the magnitudes confronting the learning systems of most of the developing countries.

11

See You Poh Seng, V.V. Bhanoji Rao, and G. Shantakumar, "Population Growth and Population Characteristics," in The Singapore Economy (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 1971), pp. 43-73.

12

Ibid., p. 54.

13

Ibid., p. 55.

14

Enrolment ratios are not available to the public in Singapore. This statement is based on discussions in Singapore and on the UNESCO annual Yearbook .

15

This is based on "Population Growth and Population Characteristics,"

in The Singapore Economy (Singapore: 1971) .

Eastern Universities Press,

7

Table 1:

Number and Percentage Distribution of Population by Age

Number

Percentage

0-4

203,732

9. 2

5-9

246,761

11.1

10- 14

294,743

13 . 3

15-19

295,909

13 . 3

20-24

245,352

11.1

25-29

185,520

8.4

30-34

132,389

6. 0

35-39

127,436

5.7

40-44

108,981

4.9

45-49 S0-54

93.343 76,636

4.2

55-59

64,786

2. 9

60-64

59,250

2. 7

65-69

38,755 25,351

1.7 1.1

11,94 7

0.5

5,051

0.2

3,157

0.1

Age Group

70-74 75-79 80- 84 85 and over Source:

3. 5

Compiled from Labour Foroe s'urvey~ 19?4 (Singapore: Ministry of Labour and Naticnal Statistical Commission, 1975), P• 21.

8

Rather, the most important population characterist ic in terms of effect on the learning system is the ethnic composition of the nation. This has direct implications , raising problems of language of instruction and cultural content of curriculum. It also has indirect implications since ethnicity is linked to education (see Table 2 ) , occupation , and income . We shall comment on these issues , the interplay between the learning system and ethnicity, and related matters as we proceed. Geography Geographic, as well as social, factors influence the nation-wide learning system . The small area of Singapore, for instance , and the fact that most Singapo reans live close to the city or a few outlying towns sharply diminishes urban/rural . distinctions which might plague the learning system . Relatively high population density on a compact island with good physical infrastructur e offers other advantages as well, such as ease in communicatio n between different parts of the population and the possibility of efficient use of educational technology. Size, however, is not the only geographic feature of importance to the learning system. The location of Singapore in the Straits of Malacca between Malaysia and Indonesia has major social , pol i t~cal, and economic consequences for Singapore and some of these, in turn, affect the nationwide learning system. Furthermore, the nearness of Singapore to China and what have been turbul ent areas ,in Southeast Asia also indirectly influences the design and administratio n of learning programmes. Politics and National Priorities 16 Singapore is a republic, the political system of which is ostensibly organized along the lines of British parliamentary democracy. Despite periodic elections , however, one party , the People's Action Party (hereafter PAP) has governed Singapore since internal self- government was achieved in 1959

16

For detailed and differing views of the Singapore political system see works by Buchanan, Busch, Chan, George, Josey, and Seah which are listed in the bibliography.

Table 2:

Number and_Percentage Dis t ribution within Racial Groups ot Hi ghest Qualificati on Attained

Othe rs

Indians

Malays

Chinese

Total

Highest Qualificati on Attained

Persons

%

Persons

%

Persons

%

Persons

%

Persons

%

1,768,606

100.0

1 , 349,875

100 . 0

275,463

100 .0

108 t 398

100 . 0

34 , 870

100.0

Nil. I Not applicable

879,277

49 .7

6 71 ,659

49 . 8

14 7 t 979

53.7

50,751

46.8

8, 887

25.5

Primary School Leaving Cert .

505,080

28.6

374,828

27.8

89,652

32 . 5

32 , 053

29.6

8 , 548

24.5

59,493

3.4

45,020

3.3

9,470

3.4

3, 400

3.1

1,603

4.6

230,540

13.0

181,7 32

13 .5

24 , 574

8.9

15,298

14 .1

8,936

25.6

Postseconda ry

69,594

3.9

57,696

4.3

3,545

1. 3

4,662

4.3

3,691

10.6

Tertiary

22,826

1.3

17.775

1.3

194

0.07

2, 088

1.9

2, 768

7.9

1 t 797

0. 1

1,166

0.08

49

146

0.1

437

1.3

Total

Post primary Secondary

Qualificati ons not el sewhere classi fiable --

Sour ~e :

-

--

-·-

--

0.017

-

Compiled from Labour Foroe Survey~ 1974 (Singapore: Commission, 1975), p. 25.

Ministry of Labour and National Statistical

10

and s ince 1966 the state has had a one-party parliament dominated by the PAP. Moreover, Lee Kuan Yew has been the only Prime Minister from 1959 to the present, a per~od which encompasses internal self- government, federat1on with Malaysia , and independence . Singapore is governed, for the most part, as a "bureaucratic state." The Prime Minister and his cabinet f o rmulate policy, direct its implementatio n, and hold the bureaucracy accountable for loyal , honest , and efficient administratio n. Parliament exercises little effective authority. The style of government is best called " p aternalistic a u thoritarianis m." The PAP Government is honest, efficient , highly organized, prudish, vehemently anticommunis t and convinced of its own superiority. Lee Kuan Yew and the PAP leadership have set the n a tional priorities and have made them known to the people o f the city-state. First, everyone must contribute to establishing a secular, multilingual , and multicultura l "Si ngaporean Singapore." Second , the people of Singapore a re to unify and organize, and create a disciplined, hard- working , "rugged " society. Third , Singaporeans must p a rticipate in building the national economy. Economic improvement will be stimulated through hard work and en l i ghtened government policies. Finally , the ultimate n a t ional aim is f o r the government and people to work tog e ther to create a stable, noncommunist , viable Singapore cap able of providing its people with "the good life . " The importance of rapidly achieving these aims is hi ghl i ghted by the fear that Singapore is not " viable . " Geogra phic smallness , limited natural resources , cultural distinctivene ss in a Malayan milieu, and the dependent nature of an export-orien ted economy have encouraged this view among many Singaporeans . Furthermore , the leadership of Singapore cannot forget the challenges to viability which it has already faced. The PAP split , the left wing politics of the Barisan Sosialis (Socialist Party} , and student and u n i on radicalism brought on fear of incipient communism in t he e arly 1960s. Kon fr ontasi , a political, economic, and military attack on the Malaysian Federation (of which Singapore was then a part) was launched in 1963. New traumas surfaced in 1965 when the Malays i an Federation split and Singapore became independent . F i nally , Singapore confronted almost overwhelming economic problems throughout

11

the 1960s " In part~cular, unemployment was rampant and the promised withdrawal of the British military would e x acerbate the situation by eliminating thousands of jobs . l7 Given this background, and the present political climate of Southeast Asia, it is not difficult to understand why the PAP Government believes that in order to prevent internal instability, political take - over by communists , and the collapse of the nation, there must be rapid social and economic deve l opment . These goals may be cliches. However , what distinguishes Singapore from other developing nations has been its zealous pursuit of national aims and its conspicuous success in achieving them . This is apparent in the examination of the economy which follows . Economic Strategy, Structu re of the Economy and ~abour Forcel8 Singapore met the economic problems of the 1960s with organized and efficient efforts . The first economic plans in the post~l959 period called for industrialization through import substitution. The dissolution of the Malaysian . Federation in 1965 deprived Singapore of the domestic market i t needed for successful import substitution and signalled the end of this policy . A new strategy emphasized the establishment of labour- intensive exportoriented industries. This policy was designed to promote growth and create jobs for a labour force which was rapidly expanding (see Table 3). In the last several years, Singapore's leaders have embarked on a policy of continued economic development through increased investment in skillintensive high technology industries and the transformation of Singapore i n to an international centre for banking and fi nance and consultancy services. We shall later comment extensively on present economic plans . 17

Theodore Geiger and Frances Geiger, Tales of Two City-States : The Progress of Hong Kong and Singapore (Washington , D. C. : National Planning Association, 1973), p , 165, estimate that the Bt~tish bases indirectly and directly provided about 50,000 jobs.

Developm~nt

18

see The Singapore Eaonomy, Tales of Two CityStates , Yearbook of Statistias and Singapore, Ministry of Labour and National Statistical Commission, Report on the Labour Forae Survey of Singapore, 1974 (Singapore : Ministry of Labour , 1974 )

For a detailed view

..... N

Table 3:

Estimates of Labour Force and Employment for Selected Years:

1957-72*

1957

1965

1966

1969

1972

Labour force (in thousands)

480

557

575

654

751

Employed persons (in thousands)

456

509

524

610

715

24

48

51

44

36

Unemployed as % of labour force

5 . 0%

8.7%

8. 8%

6.7%

4 . 8%

Average annual rate of increase in labour force

1.9%

3 . 2%

4.4%

4.7%

Average annual rate of increase in employment

1.4%

2.9%

5.2%

5.4%

Unemployed persons (in thousands)

*

For 1957, based on persons aged 10 and over, other years on persons aged 15-16.

Source Notes:

For 1957, data is from State of Singapore , Report on the Census of Popu~ation 195?~ Table 57 . Data for other years i s from Singapore Government, Annua~ Budget Statement~ February 1973, Table 9 . Cited from Theodore Geiger, Frances M. Geiger, Ta~es of Two City-States ~ p. 160.

13

At this time, however, it is most useful to examine the Singaporean approach to the effective implementation of economic strategy and identify the most critical actions which have been taken to hasten development. First, the PAP f1 rrnly established its control over Singapore and sought to c reate a stable political environment in which Singaporean c 1tizens could be mobilized for participation in social and e conomic development. Second, the national bureaucracy was o rganized in a manner conducive to efficient administration a nd the realization of economic aims . Statutory boards such as the Economic Development Board were established to serve as "economic ombudsman, " clear red tape, and speed economic growth. Third, i nfrastructural and tax incentives were offered to encourage foreign investment . Part of ~he "infrastructural investment" was in human capital - promot1ng education in order that the availability of a "well-educated" l abour force would further stimulate the inflow of foreign c apital . Fourth, labour productivity and the maintenance of comparative advantage were emphasized as absolutely crucial t o economic survival . The government tried ~o control wage inflation, going so far in 1968, through the "Employment Act " and the ''Industrial Relations Act," as to legislate what represented in some respects an effective wage cut. F1nally, the National Service was created, in part for the purpose of defence and, in part, to put young Singaporean men into an "aging vat" and remove them from competitio n for scarce jobs. The success of economic policies is attested to by the r apid g rowth of per capita gross domestic product over the past ten years . From 1966-73 GDP in 1968 market prices was g r owing at a rate of at least 10% per annum, while the population growth rate was being lowered beneath 2 per 1 , 000 It is not surprising, therefore, that gross per annum. domestic product per capita for 1974 measured in 1968 market prices was almost 250% greater than the equ iv a lent figure for 1 964 < These trends in the growth of gross d omes ~ic product and gross domestic product per cap1ta are i llustra ted in Table 4. Growth, however , has not been the only prominent economic phenomenon of the last dec ade. There has also been continuous Simply stated, we might say tha~ , in structural change. terms of output , entrep8t trade has become relatively less significant while manufacturing, construction , and financial services have become relat1vely more important . These patterns are shown in Table 5 . Moreover, the s~ Luc t u re of t he manufacturing sector itself has been altered. Th e le ad1 n~

Table 4:

Year

..... ,A::.

Gross Domestic Product Per Capi ta, 1964-74

Population (mid-year estimates)

'ooo

Gross Domes tic Product Current Prices

1968 Market Pri ces

Per Capita GDP at Current Market Prices

Pe r Capi ta GDP a t 1968 Market Prices

$

$

$ million dollars

1964

1, 841.6

2,714.6

2 , 835 . 6

1 ,474 .0

1965

1,886.9

2 , 956.2

3 ,048 . 7

1 , 566 . 7

1,539 . 7 1 , 615.7

1966

1,934.4

3, 330 . 7

3 , 387.8

1 , 721.8

1,751.3

1967

1,977.6

3 , 745 . 7

3 , 788.9

1,894.1

1,915.9

1968

2,012.0

4,315.0

4 , 315.0

2,144.6

2,144 . 6

1969

2,042.5

5,019.9

4 ,906.1

2,457.7

2,402 . 0

1970

2,074.5

5 ,804.9

5 ,579.3

2 , 798 . 2

2,689.5

1971

2 , 110 . 4

6,823. 3

6 , 276. 7

3,233.2

2,974.2

1972

2 , 147.4

8,155 . 8

7,119.7

3, 798 . 0

3 ,315 . 5

1973

2 , 185 . 1

10 , 387.8

7 ,932.9

4 , 753.9

3,630.5

1974

2 , 219.1

12 , 927.5

8 , 425.4

5 , 825.6

3,796.8

--

Source:

----

-

--

··---- -

------

- - - '--~- -

Singap ore , Department of Statistics, Yearbook of Department of Statistics, 1975) , p. 1.

Statis tics ~

1974/7 5 (Singapore:

Table 5:

Amount and Percentage Distribution of Gross Domestic Product by Irtdustry (in million dollars) 1964 Amount

1968

%of GDPI Amount

1972

%of GDP I Amount

1974

%of GDP I Amount

%of GDP

GDP at current market prices

12,714.6

100 . 0

4,315.0

100.0

8,155.8

100 .0

12 ,927.5

Agriculture & fishing

82 . 4

3.0

121.3

2.8

160.6

2.0

227 . 3

1.8

Quarrying

10.9

0.4

14.7

0.34

28.5

0 .35

29.5

0.22

384 . 2

14 . 2

769 .7

17.8

1,853.5

22.7

3,240.4

25.1

66.1 159 . 9

2.4

117.2

2.7

185.0

2.3

250.1

1.9

5.9

256.2

5.9

692.0

8.5

980.0

7.6

Wholesale & retail trade, restaurants & hotels 1

777.0

28.6

1,286.4

29.8

2,067.2

25.3

3,666.9

28.4

Transport, storage & communication

312 . 3

11 . 5

475.1

11.0

924.8

11.3

1,332 . 1

10.3

Finance, insurance, real estate & business services 232 .0

8.5

366.4

8.5

793.5

9.7

1,213.3

9.4

137.6

5. 1

211.8

4.9

438.8

5.4

643 . 2

5.0

Public administration & defence

73.1

2. 7

137 .o

3.2

259.9

3.2

386.5

3.0

Community, social & personal services

418.9

15.4

509.4

11.8

711.4

8.7

999 . 5

7.7

Manufacturing Electricity, gas & water Construction

Ownership of dwellings

Source:

I I

I

Singapore, Department of Statiatica, Yearbook of of Statistics, 1975), p. 41.

Statistias ~

1974/?S (Singapore:

100.0

Depart. .nt

16

i ndustrial groups in terms of output are now petroleum and petroleum products, electrical machinery and appliances , and transportation equipment. The relative . shares of output of these groups have grown as Singapore has been transformed into a major centre of petroleum- refining, shipbuilding., and . the manufacturing of electronic equipment. Table 6 lists the amount and percentage distribution of output by select . industrial groups and indicates what are likely to be the leading groups in the near future . Of course, the structure of employment has varied with the changing structure of the economy. Tables 7 and 8 indicate the growth of employment in various industries and occupations for the period 1970-74 . Manufacturing and financial services were clearly the most significant industries in terms of employment . generation during this period. In addition, commerce, transport, storage, and communications, and community, social, and personal services also showed relatively large increases in the number of persons employed. The columns in Table 7 showing percentage increase indicate the pace of job creation in various industries and suggest future directions for the Singapore economy . As we might expect, manufacturing was the largest employer of Singaporean labour in 1974 . Community , social , and personal services were the next largest, and commerce was third • . The distribution of . employed persons by industry and occupation is shown in Table 9 and the overall distribution . of the employed persons by occupation is given in Table 10. We . shall . see that any attempt to plan education based on prospective manpower needs must relate present distribution of employed by occupation with a desired future distribution . The gross monthly i ncome of employed persons in Singapore varies with age , sex, educational attainment, occupation, and ethnicity, and in many instances there is a strong correlation among several of these factors. This pattern, of course, prevails - in most countries and is certainly not unique to Singapore. The available data on gross monthly income in relation to ethnicity, sex, educational attainment, and occupation are displayed in Tables 11, 12 and 13 . Again speaking in simplistic terms, we can identify certain patterns . in the data. First, the average gross monthly income of male workers is far higher than the average gross monthly income of femaleworkers. This is largely a reflection of the fact that female labour predominates in the

Table 6:

Amoun t and Pe rcent age Distribution of Output by Select Industri al Group (in million dollars) 1973

19 74

Amount

%

Amount

%

Food

714.9

8. 2

815.5

5.8

Textiles

313.8

3.6

340.4

2.4

Wearing apparel , except footwear

289 .3

3.3

313 . 1

2.2

Sawmills & wood products

466.2

5.4

366 . 6

2.6

1,96 7.9

22.6

5 ,850.0

41.3

Fabrica ted metal products , except machinery & equipment

196 .0

2.3

430.1

3.0

Machinery , except electrical

115.0

1.3

252.1

1.8

Electrical mach inery & appl i ances

762.6

8.8

1, 715.9

12.1

Transport equipment

330.0

3.8

1,015.6

7.2

Sc ientific equipment & optical goods

80 .0

0.92

157.8

1.1

Paper & paper products

84 . 9

0.97

108.1

0.77

168 .3

1.9

209.8

1.5

92.8

1.1

176 . 8

1.2

184.3

2. 1

244.9

1.7

Industrial groups:

Petroleum-refining & petroleum products

Printing , pub lishing & allied industries Industrial chemicals Other chemi cals Tot.al output

8,705.6

14 , 158.4 ......

.......

Source :

Singapore , Department of Statistics , Yearbook of Department of Statistics , 1975) , pp. 63- 67.

Stat i stics ~

1974/?5 (Singapore:

18

T~ble

7:

Employed Persons by Major Industrial Division by Sex , 1970 and 1974

1974

1970

Indus try Persons

Males

Females Pe rsons

Males

Females

Number ( '000) Agri culture, hunting , forestry and fishing Mining and quarrying Manu f acturing Electrici ty, gas & water Constructio n Conunerce Transport , storage & conununicati ons Financing , insurance, real estate & business services Comn1uni ty s sc c ial & per sonal services Ac tiv i ties not adequately de f i ned Tot a l

22.5 2. 2 143.1 7.6 43 . 1 152 . 9

17.7 2.0 95.0 7.1 40 . 3 123 . 9

4.8 0.2 48.1 0.5 2.8 29 . 0

21.7 1.8 234 . 2 10.3 42 . 5 172.7

15.4 1.5 129.3 9.2 38 . 5 122 . 5

6.3 0.3 105 . 0 Ll 4.0 50 . 2

79. 0

75.1

3.9

97.5

86 . 4

11 . 2

23.1

17.8

5.3

46 .6

30.6

16 .0

177.0

118.2

58.8

195.1

12 7.6

6 7.5

0 .4

0.3

0.1

1.9

1.3

0.7

650.9

497.3

153.6

824 . 4

562.2

Z6 2 . 2

Percentage Incre as e (19 70-74)

Absolute Increase (1970-74) Agri culture , hunting , forestry and fishing Mining and quarrying Manu f ac turing Ele c tricity, gas & water Constructio n Comme r ce Transpo rt, storage & conunun i c ations Fi nanc ing , i nsurance , real e st a t e & business serv1ces Community , so c ial & pe r sonal services Ac t i vitles not adequately de ft ne d Tot al Sou r ce :

-1.4 12.9

-13 . 0 - 25 . 0 36 . 1 29 . 6 -'+.5 -1.1

3L 3 50 . 0 118 . 3 120 . 0 42 .9 73 .1

7. 3

23.4

15 . 0

18 7. 2

12.8

10 . 7

101 . 7

71.9

201. 9

18.1

9. 4

8. 7

10 . 2

8 .0

14.8

1.5

1. 0

0.6

375 . 0

333 . 3

600 . 0

173.5

64.9

108.6

26.7

13 . 1

70.7

-0. 8 -0 . 4 91.1 2. 7 - 0 .6 19 . 8

-2. 3 - 0.5 34.3 2.1 -1.4

0.1 56 . 9 0 .6 1.2 21.2

18.5

11.3

23.5

-l. 8

Labour Force Survey, 1974 (Singapore: St atisti ca l Commission, 1975) , p . 14.

1.5

-3.6 -18 . 2 63 . 7 35 .5

Hinistry o f Labour and Nat : onai

19

Table 8:

Employed Persons by Occupation and Sex , 1970 and 1974

1970 Occupation

Persons

Males

1970 Females

Persons

Males

Females

Number ( '000) Pr ofessional, te chnical & related workers

55.9

34.1

21.8

90.5

60.7

29 .8

managerial workers 11. 3 Clen c al & related workers 84 .2 Sales workers 105.6 88 . 8 Service wo rkers Agricultural, animal husbandry & forestry workers, 26.9 f i shermen & hunters Produc tion & related workers , transpo rt equipment operators & lab ourers 255 . 0 Workers no t c lass~fiab l e by occupati on 23 . 1

10.7 58.2 89 . 1 52 . 9

0.6 26.0 16.4 35.9

16 . 9 134 . 5 117.3 84.3

15.6 74.8 91.0 46 . 0

1.3 59 .7 26 . 4 38 . 3

22.0

5.0

24 .5

17.8

6. 7

207.6

47 . 4

320 . 0

222.0

98 . 0

22 .7

0.4

36.4

34 . 4

2.0

497 . 3

153 . 6

824 . 4

562.2

262 . 2

Adm i n i strat~ve

To tal

&

650.9

Percentage Increase (1970- 74)

Abs ol ute Increase (1970-74) Profes s ional , te chni cal & rela ted wo rkers 34.6 Admin is trative & 5.6 managerial workers 50.3 Clencal & related workers Sales workers 11. 7 Serv~ce workers -4 .5 Agri cultural , an i mal husbandry & forestry workers, -2. 4 fishermen & hunters Production & related workers, transport equ i pment 65.0 o per ators & labourers Workers no t cla ss ifiable 13 . 3 by occ upat ion Total Sour ce :

17 3. 5

26. 6

8.0

61.9

78 . 0

36 .7

4 .9 16 . 6 1.9 -6.9

0.7 33.7 10.0 2.4

49.6 59.7 11.1 -5 . 1

45.8 28.5 2.1 -13. 0

116. 7 129 . 6 61.0 6. 7

-4 . 2

1. 7

-8.9

-19.1

34. 0

14.4

50 . 6

25.5

6.9

106 . 8

11.7

1.6

57.6

51.5

400.0

64.9

108 . 6

26 . 7

13.1

70 . 7

Labold' Fo rce Survey .. 19?4 (Singapore: Statisti cal Commission, 1975) ,

P•

15.

Mini stry vf Labour and Nat ional

Table~:

Persons Engaged by Industry and Oc cupation ) 1974

Occupation Total Industry

Total

Profess. 1 1ona t h ., ec n1cal & re 1 a t e d k wor ers

Ad m~n~s. . . Cl er~ca . 1 trat1ve & & managerre lated . ~al workers workers

Sales workers

Service workers

Agricu1- Production tural & & re la ted Workers animal worke rs, noc husban- transport classifidry equipment able by workers& operators & occupation fishennen labourers

824,349

90,526

16,852

134,4 78

117,334

21 , 709

49

146

194

340

1,748

146

97

243

146

49

234, 231

20 , 009

4,225

20,106

7 , 916

4 , 031

631

176 , 924

Ele ctricity, gas & water

10 , 344

2,137

49

2,040

1,020

146

4,954

Construc tion

42,49 5

3, 448

1,943

2,62 3

874

437

194

32,9 76

172 , 650

2 , 623

4 , 759

31 , 179

100 , 336

19,766

146

13,695

146

97 , 519

5,196

1,651

26 , 808

1, 263

3 , 497

340

58,716

49

Fi nanc i ng. insurance, real estate & business services 46,5 74

7 , 625

2,185

26,51 7

3, 448

1,797

340

4,662

195, 136

49 , 245

l, 748

23 ,94 3

2 , 817

53 , 568

2 ,234

25 , 788

35 . 793

1,943

49

49

826

194

146

631

49

Agri cul ture & fishing Quar rying Manuf ac turing

Commerce Transport . storage & communications

Community. social & personal services Act ivities not adequately defined Source:

Yearbook of

Stati stics~ Singapore ~

1974/75 , p . 32 .

-

84 , 310

-

24,4 77 20 , 446

-

319 , 949 534

36 , 422

1,068

-

389

21

Table 10:

Number and Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons by Occupational Classificati on

Occupational Classificat ion

Total Persons

%

824.349

100.0

Professional , technical & related workers

90,526

1.1

Administrat ive & managerial workers

16,852

2.0

Clerical & related workers

134,478

16.3

Salea worker•

117.334

14.2

84.310

10 .2

& foreatry workers, fisherme n & hunters

24 , 477

3.0

Production & related workers, transport equipment o perators & labourers

319 ,949

38 . 8

36 ,424

4 .4

Total

Service worker• Aaricultura~

an i mal husbandry

Workers not classifiable by occupation Source:

Compiled from Labour Force Survey~ 1974 (Singapore: Ministry of Labour and National Statistical Commission, 1975), pp. 58-62.

Table 11:

Number and Percentaae Distribution of

Gross

To·tal

~nthly

Person Income (in dollars)

Male

E~loled

Persons bl Sex 1 Ethnicitl 1 and Income

Malays

Chinese Female

Person

Male

Female

Others

lndiua

Person

Male

Female

Peraon

Male

Fe. .le

Penoa

Male

Female

Total

824.349

562,193 (68. 2)

262,156 (31. 8)

639,655 (77.6)

426,937 (51.8)

212,668 (25.8)

119,568 (14.5)

84.74 7 (10. 3)

34,821 (4 .2)

49,828 (6.0)

38,124 (4 .6)

11,704 (1.4)

15,298 (1.9)

12,336 (1.5)

26962 ( .4)

Under 200

334,56 7

175,224 (52 .4)

159. 34 3 ( 47.6)

245,110 (73. 3)

121,656 (36 .4)

123,453 (36. 9)

64.932 (19.4)

37,590 (11.2)

27,342 (8. 2)

21,952 (6.6)

14,750 (4 .4)

7. 382 (2 .2)

2,574 (0. 7)

1,408 (0.4)

1,166 (0.3)

200-399

305,185

234,959 (77 .0)

70,226 (23.0)

241,321 (79. 1)

180,226 (59.1)

61 , 095 (20.0)

4 3,466 (14.2)

37,881 (12 .4)

5,585 (1.8)

l7 ,289 (5 .6)

14,4 72 (4. 7)

2,817 (0.9)

3,108 (l.O)

2,380 (0.8)

708 (0.2)

400-599

98,296

78,045 (79 .4)

20,252 (20.6)

82,950 (84.4)

65.563 (66. 7)

17.386 (17. 7)

8,499 (8.6)

6,896 (7 .0)

1,603 (1.6)

5,439 (5. 5)

4 , 517 (4.6)

923 (0.9)

1,408 . (1.4)

1,068

340 \0. 3)

600-799

34,044

27,245 (80.0)

6,799 (20.0)

29.771 (87.4)

2 3. 79 7 (69. 9)

5,974 (17. 5)

1,408 (4 .l)

1,166 ().4)

243 (0. 7)

1,45 7 (4. 3)

1,214 (3.6)

243 (0. 7)

1,408 (4.1)

1,068

800-999

15,929

13,647 (85. 7)

2,283 (14. 3)

13,113 (82. 3)

11,073 (69. 5)

2,040 (12 .8)

B4 (3.4)

486 ().1)

49 (0.3)

1,263 (7 .9)

1,068 (6. 7)

194 (1 . 2)

1,020 (6.4)

1,020 (6.4)

1,0001,499

23,360

20,932 (89.6)

2,428 (10.4)

17 . 921 (76.7)

15,929 (68. 2)

1,991 (8.5)

486 (2.1)

486 (2 . 1)

--

1,603 (6.8)

1,457 (6.2)

146 (0.6)

3,351 (14. 3)

3,060 (13.1)

291 (1.2)

1,000 over

12,967

12,141 (93.6)

826 (6 .4)

9,470 (73.0)

8, 742 (6 7.4)

728 (5.6)

243 (1.9)

243 (1.9)

--

826 (6. 3)

126 (6. 3)

-

2,428 (18. 7)

2,)31 (11.0)

97 (0. 7)

Source:

Compiled . from

&

Labour Force Survey. 1974 (Sinaapore:

Hiniatry of Lab our aDd ~atiooal Statiatica1 Ca..iaaioD, 1975).

(1.1)

(3.1)

340 (1.0)

Emflo~ed

Table 12:

Persons

b~

Hi ah est gualifi c ation Attained and Gross

To tal

Higheat Qualification Attained

Under $200

Monthl~

In come

$200-399

$400-599

$600-799

$800-999

$1,000-1,499

$1,500 & over

Total

824,349

334.56 7

305,185

98,296

34,044

15.929

23 , 360

12.96 7

~il./not

appli cable

332,0 42

166,239

128,601

24,914

5 , 876

l. 748

3, 254

1 , 408

Primary Primary School Leaving Cert.

220 , 633

102 ,13)

79. 79 3

24. 3)I

7,188

3,400

2,525

l. 263

37,930 4,419 49 33 .426

1 7, 0 46 3,108 49 13,890

14,230

3, 254

1 ,554

826

680

340

1,263

49

12,967

3,205

1 , 554

826

680

)40

162,451 159,877 1. 748 291 49 389 97

41 ,669 40 ,601 777

66,826 66 , 000 583 146

28,945 28,605 24) 97

ll •26 7 ll ,170 49

4,468 4,371 49

6,411 6,265 49 49

2.865 2,865

Postsecondar y Higher Sc hool Ce rt. Techn ici an Cert. Techn i c i an Diploma Teachers Trai ning Ce rt. l' u r s i ng Cert . Ot hers

50, 799 38, 0 27 1 ,166 ) ,83 7 7 ,0 42 5 34 194

6,848 6,071 437 243 97

Tertiar y Arts / Soci a l Sc ien ce s Sci t'n ce Engineer i ng Ar chitt' c ture

19 , 426 5 . 731 ) •9 34 2 . 86 5 728 I , 408 4) 7 3,885 07

58 3 291 49 146 49

Postprimary Preparatory Vocat i onal Sc hoo l Ce rt. Art iaan Ce rt. School Leavin.g Cert. Others Secondary School Ce rt. Schoo 1 Ce rt. Scho o l Ce rt. Applied Arts. Trade Cert. Others

(General) (Technical / Vocat ional) (Conmerc ia1 ) Cert.

~di c i ne / De n t is tr y

Law Comme r ce Othe r s Qual i f i cati ons not t'ISt'wh e re c I ass i r' ab I e Source:

L,ai>oa.r

Fo rce Sw1'V€!f ,

-

49 194 49

-

-

197 4 ( Singapo re :

-

49 ~inistry

-

97

-

-

-

-

49

14,910 10,442 194 6 31 ) , 205 24) 194

5 , 488 3,448

923 389 49 146

1 ,845 923 389

2,4 77 1 ,0 20 583 97 49 196

-

-

49

24) 49

-486 -

97

97

49

-

-

49 49

14 , 715 I 3,0 16 24 3 534 777 146

-

- 49

I ,068

-

-

6)1 I , 311 97

-5 )4 -

194

3,351 l , 651 97 534 1 ,068

4,274 2,574 146 92) 583 49

1 ,214 826 49 340

2,0 40 971 4)7 49

5,876 1 ,11 7 1,506 1 ,068 291 389 146 1,166 194

5 . 682 I ,0 20 923 I ,360 291 777 243 874 194

340

194

-

-

49 534

-

97

o f Labour and National Statistical Commission, 1975), p. 95.

Number and Per centage Distribution of

Table 13:

Employ~d

Persons by Occupation and Gross Monthly In come

Total

Under $200

$200399

$400599

$600799

$800999

824,349

334,567 (40 . 6)

305,185 (37 .0)

98 , 296 (11. 9)

34,044 (4 .1)

15 . 929 (1.9)

23 ,360 (2.8)

12,967 (1.6)

90,526

11,704 (12.9)

26 , 760 (29. 6)

23 ,792 (26. 3)

10 , 053 (11.1)

5,294 (5. 8)

8,208 (9 .0)

4, 711 (5. 2)

16,852

291 (1. 7)

826 (4.9)

2 , 962 (17.6)

1,991 (11. 8)

2,185 (13.0)

4 , 225 (25.1)

Clerical & related workers

134,478

30,499 (22. 7)

68,332 (SO. 8)

21 ,1 26 (15 . 7)

8,159 (6 .1)

2 ,865 (2.1)

2,817 (2 .1)

4,371 (25.9 ) 680 (0. 5)

Sales workers

117 , 334

49,002 (41. 8)

37 . 978 (32 .4)

16,512 (14.1)

5,682 (4.8)

2, 331 (2.0)

3,788 (3. 2)

2,040 (1. 7)

84.310

47,303 (56.1)

27,877 (33.1)

7,188 (8.5)

1,020 (1. 2)

340 (0.4)

437 (0 .5)

146 (0 . 2)

24,4 77

15,444 (63.1)

6,508 (26.6)

1,894 (7. 7)

389 (1.6)

146 (0 .6)

49 (0. 2)

49 (0.2)

Production & related workers, 319,949 transport equipment operators & labourers

160,023 (50.0)

128,990 (40. 3)

21,854 (6. 8)

4,759 (1 . 5)

1,748 (0.5)

1,845 (0 . 6)

728 (0. 2)

36,424

20,300 (55 . 7)

7,916 (21 . 7)

2,962 (8.1)

1,991 (5.5)

1,020

1,991 (5. 5)

243 (0 . 7)

Occupation

To tal Professi onal , techni cal & related workers Administrative and managerial workers

Service workers Agricultural, animal husbandry & forestry workers, fishermen & hunters

Workers not classifiable by occupation Source :

Compiled from Labour Force Survey, 1974 (Singapore: Commission, 1975).

(2. 8)

$1,0001,499

$1,500 & over

Ministry of LaBour and Statistical

25

low paid production jobs. Second, there is a significant positive correlation between educational attainment and gross monthly income. Third, administrative and managerial workers have the highest gross monthly incomes, professional , technical and related workers the next highest, and service, agriculture and production workers, the lowest. Finally, Malays are appreciably underrepresented in all income groups earning more than S$400 per month.l9 This should be no surprise , given the relatively low educational attainments of Malays (see Table 2) and their minority standing in a city-state dominated politically and economically by Singaporean Chinese. Labour force participation rates also vary with age , sex, ethnicity, and educational attainment , with Malay and Indian women having the lowest rates of participation.20 The relationships between age and participation and sex and participation are clearly portrayed in Table 14, where we see the low female participation rates relative to the rates for males and the continually decreasing female participation It is also important to note rates after the age of 24. participation rates among 1974, however, that from 1970 to in direct response dramatically women aged 15-54 increased to the growth of the economy. Participation rates among females have been particularly important in the last several years because Singapore has tended to be labour-short and skill-short. Table 15 shows that in 1974, for example, almost 7% of the employed workers in Singapore were not Singapore citizens. All noncitizen workers are given work permits which allow them to be employed Increased participation rates among females, in Singapore. with high educational attainment and/or those especially mitigate the need to import foreign could skill training, labour. This need for increasing Singapore's effective supply of labour has arisen in the last few years as employment has grown more rapidly than the available addition t o ~he labour In fact, the percentage of the economically active force.

19

At the time of writing, US$1 is equivalent to S$2 . 35.

20

See Ton Thuan Ser, "Increasing Singapore's Effect ive Supply of Labour," mimeographed (Singapore: National Produc t ivi ty Unit ~ October, 1971) .

26

Table 14:

Age- Specific Participation Rates, 1970 and 1974

1970 Census Age Group

Persons

Males

1974 Sam21e Survex Females

Persons

Males

Females

Per hundred population Total

46.6

67.6

24 . 6

48 . 5

65.6

31.3

10-14

3.3

3.7

2.8

2 .5

2. 7

2.2

15-19

49.5

55.7

43.0

44.4

43 . 5

45 . 3

20-24

73.5

92.9

53.6

79.4

90 . 0

68 . 4

25-29

64 . 5

98.0

30.8

71.9

96.7

46 . 3

30-34

60.6

98.3

22.7

63.7

97 .s

31.3

35- 39

60.2

98.4

19.3

64 . 0

97.1

29 . 3

40-44

60.8

98.1

17.8

59.7

97 .o

22 . 6

45 - 49

60.0

96.2

17.5

58.3

94 . 4

20.4

S0-54

55.0

88.1

17.5

56.3

90.1

19 , 2

SS-59

46.2

73.9

16.2

43.9

69 . 4

17.3

60-64

35 . 0

55.6

13.4

33 . 0

54.3

12.6

65- 69

25.3

41.2

9.8

26 . 4

41.9

11.7

70-74

14.5

25 . 8

5.7

14 . 4

26 . 0

5. 4

6.3

14.4

2.1

6 .5

15.6

1.2

75 and over Source:

Yearbook of Statis t ics , Singapore, 1974/7 5. pp . 28 & 32.

Table lS:

Number and PercenLage Distribution of Employed Persons by Citi&enship

Citiunahip

Person

Total

824.349

Sin,apon

767,479

93.1

517 , 561

92 . 1

249 ,918

9S.l

Malayaiana

30,062

3.6

21 , 709

3.7

8 , 353

3.2

Othera

14,618

1.8

13 ,404

2.4

1 , 214

0.5

Stateleaa peraona

12,190

1.5

9,519

1.7

2,671

1.0

Soutce:

%

Male

%

562,193

Comp1led !rom the Labour Foro. S~rv•y ~ 19 74 (Sinaapore: Statiali cal Co~aaion, 1975) , p . 46.

Female

%

262,156

Hiniatry of Labour and National

t.J

....,

28

population who were unemployed in 1974 was in aggregate terms under 4% (see Table 16). Altqough the recent worldwide recession has increased the aggregate level of unemployment in Singapore , the problem of "chronic unemployment" mentioned earlier seems to have been conquered. Moreover, there is no distinguishable problem of graduate unemployment or underemployment, although graduates of the Chinese- medium Nanyang University find it more difficult t o obtain well-paid jobs than their counterparts from the English - medium University of Singapore. Despite the " solution" to the unemployment crises of the 1960s, Singapore has other pressing economic problems which it must now confront . One such problem, already mentioned , is that Singapore now has a shortage of many types of labour. There are not enough Singaporean adminis trative and managerial workers , Singaporeans with some of the technical skills needed by industry, or Singaporeans willing to take "rugged jobs " at low pay . The immediate solution has been the importation of foreign labour, and imported high level manpower, at least, is supposed to be rapidly training Singaporean counterparts to take over their roles. However, there may be serious social and political implications of having a labour force which is 7% foreign . In the medium and long-run , therefore , Singapore plans to effect a better "fit" between manpower needs and the output of the nationwide learning system in order to reduce the demand for imported labour , as well as to spur economic growth . Continued economic progress may depend, additionally, on the ability of Singapore to compete economically with a number of countries , especially Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea.21 Industrial wages in Singapore have been higher than industrial wages in any other Asian nation except Japan, and Singapore has continuously stressed labour productivity in an attempt to maintain comparative advantage. Singapore is basing its hopes for economic competitiveness in the future on high productivity in specialized skill- intensive and high technology industries primarily for the export market. Of course, as long as Singapore depends primarily on the export of manufacturers for its economic development, it will be "vulnerable" to decreased demand from abroad. This

21

See Ng Kia t Chong, 11 A Comparative Evaluation of Hong Kong, Sout:h Kor ea and Singapore," mimeographed (S i ngapore : Ministry o f Fi nance, 19 70 ) .

Table 16:

Unemployment by Age Group, 1974

Total Economically Active

Age Group

Unemployed

Percentage Unemployed

~

858.4 -

34.0

3.96

10-14

7.3

0.9

12.33

13-19

131.3

13.1

9.97

20-24

194.8

9.6

4.93

25-29

133.3

3.6

2. 70

30-34

84.3

1.2

1.42

35-39

81.5

1.6

1.96

40-44

65.1

1.4

2.15

45-49

54.4

1.0

1.84

50-54

43.1

0.4

0.93

55-59

28.4

1.0

3.52

60 and over

34.8

0 .3

0.86

Source:

Singapore, Department of Statistics, Yearbook of Statistics, 1974/75 (Singapore: Department of Statistics, 1975), p. 27. ....., \D

30

problem, however, has no apparent solution since Singapore has a small domestic market, lacks natural resources , and is dependent on other nations for items as basic as its water and food. We can expect , therefore , that Singapore will pursue present economic plans with the determina tion that has character ized its econ omic efforts in the past. If so , the nation- wide learning system will be increasin gly oriented toward the filling of manpower needs, an approach which will demand far more manpower planning than Singapore has been accustome d to. In the next section we shall outline the trend toward such planning and the technique s which manpower planners in Singapore are now utilizing . Manpower and Education al Planning 2 2 The rapid industria lization of Singapore in the last decade has prompted the Singapore Governmen t to take an increasin gly formalize d approach to manpower and education al planning . Today, despite dissensio n from some education ists and concerned citizens, the nation-wi de learning system is oriented toward preparing Singapore ans to fill the manpower needs of economic developme nt . In this section we shal l examine how Singapore determine s manpower needs, what the planners have found to be the most critical manpower . requireme nts , what the governmen t expects from the learning system, and how it is trying to reorient the system to achieve it. The present means by which Singapore forecasts future manpower needs are conventio nal and a continuat ion of practices begun in the last decade. It is useful, therefore , to review a few of the most important planning exercises that were carried out in the past, especiall y since a number of the concl usions of those studies remain valid today. The first comprehen sive manpower survey 23 was conducted 22

For an introduction to this topic , see David Clark, "Manpower Planning in Singapore," Malayan Economic Review, vol. 16, no . 2 (October 1971) : 194-211 and Hermann Hatzfeldt , "Economic Development Planning 1n Singapore," mimeographe d (Bangkok: The Ford Foundation, July 1969).

23

See David Clark, "Manpower in Larger Manufacturi ng Firms in Singapore," Malayan Economic Review , vol . 16, no . 1 (April 19 71) ; 33- 45.

31

in 1969-70 under the guidance of economists affiliated with the Economic Research Centre in Singapore.24 The pu rpose of this survey was to determine the stock of manpower i n the larger manufacturin g firms in Singapore, the relationship between education, tra1n1ng and occupation, the amount of on-the-Job training , and the mobility o f workers within the f i rm. The survey leads to several First, there did not seem t o be prelim1nary c o nclusions. a one-to-one corresponden ce between educat1on and occupa t ion . Rather, there was a wide variety of educat1onal back grounds Second, among workers with1n the same occupat1onal category actual the1r adJUSt to able qu1te were rms i f that it appeared different of pr1ce and availabil1ty the to needs manpower types of labour by substituting one type o f labour for another. Third, the survey was able to d1fferentiat e the occupational pattern w1thin these manufacturin g firms from the occupational patterns in the entrep8 t sector o f the Unfortunatel y, the study was not able to discern economy . the amount, type and effect of on-the-Job tra1ning given to workers in this part of the manufacturin g sector. A later study, however, did calculate the monetary returns from trainlng . 25 Th1s study also determined the internal rate of return to various types and levels of Using conventional methods of schooling in Singapore . rate of return analysis, the authors arr1ved at the results displayed in Tables 17, 18 and 19 which may be compared with the rates from other countr1es wh1ch are l1sted 1n Table 21. The preliminary conclus1 o ns of the study were that the returns to train1ng were higher for those with a secondary than those with a pr1mary educat1on, that the expansion of second and third level education might be warranted, that the demand for technical and vocational graduates would rise rap1dly, and that job train1ng should be left to employing institutions , although government subsidies might be offered if th1s was found t o be efficient.

24

The Economi c Resear ch Centre in the Un~vers~ty of Singapore ~s generally in charge of the most ~mporcant pol~cy ot~ented r esearch in Singapore . Con clusions and suggest~ons of 6tud~es catried out by the ERC play an ~mportant role in det£rm~ ning government pvlicy.

25

David Clark and Pang Eng Fong, "Returns to Schv.:>llng and Tra~ning," MaLayan E~onomi~ Revie~. vol. 15, no . 2 (Ottober 19 70J: 79-103.

32

Tc:.ble 17 :

Rates of Rei:urn to Education fu·c Hen in Singapore , 1966

Primary Some secondary, Chinese medium Some secondary , English medium Some secondary Completed secondary, Chinese medium Completed secondary , English medium Comple ted secondary Universi ty , local Uni ve rsi ty, foreign

Table 18 :

Private After Tax

9.4% 5.5 17 .o 11.9

7.5% 21.5 17 .o

7.2% 20.9 16.3

11.2

14.5

14.1

20 . 0 18 . 2 15 . 4 18 . 0

22.8 21.6 27 . 3 18.0

22 . 1 21.0 25.5 16.1

Rates ot Return to Education for Women in Singapore, 1966

------

Education Primary Some secondary , Chinese medium Some secondary, English medium Some secondary Completed secondary , Chinese medium Completed secondary, English medium Completed secondary University , local Source :

Private Before Tax

Total

Educr.tion

Total

Private Before Tax

Private After Tax

3.8 1.5 15.2 11.7

3.9 20.2 16 . 3

3.7 19.9 16.0

10.7

13.5

13.1

18.4 17.0 13.7

21.4 19.5 26 . 5

20.9 19 . 0 25.3

Clark and Pang , "Returns to Schooling and Training," p . 90 .

33

Table 19: Edu c at~on

Income of Males and Age, s~ngapore 1

Status,

Education

Age

Without Training

With Training

Primary

10- 19 20-29 30-39 40- 49

$97.53 167.53 232.12 265.02

$116.12 233.41 258.63 307.36

Some secondary

10-19 20-29 30 . 39

109.85 192.13 330. 99

162.30 195.45 401.04

Complet ed secondary

10-19 20-29 30-39

169.90 259.65 489.37

178.13 367.08 512.07

Table 20:

Costs and Benefits of Job Training by Education, singapore 1966

Gross Lifetime Benefits (r • 10%)

Education

Foregone Earnings

Direct Costs

Total Cos t s

Net Benefits

Completed primary

3 ,614

692

2 , 242

2,934

680

Completed se condary

4,910

1, 325

2 , 242

3,56 7

1, 343

Source:

Clark and Pang, "Returns to Schooling and Training," p. 91.

34

There are intrinsic difficulties of applying rate of Ieturn analysis to education and tr~ining and Clark and Pang bring them to the attent ion of the reader. Despite these problems, however, the study probably portrays accurately the ranking of rate of return by level and type of school , regardless of the degree of accuracy in terms of the magnitude of th e differences . In fact, we shall later see that varying rates of return are significant in terms of the courses of stc dy which Singaporeans are now choosing . For the moment, suffice it to say that this study and other such studies are not likely to be strict guides to formulating manpower and educational policy; they are , however , used to suggest what appropriate policies might be. Another early analytical tool of the manpower planner was the tracer study .26 These tracer studies were simple approaches to monitoring the postgraduatio n employment experiences of recent technical, vocational, and university graduates. The first studies of this type showed little problem of unemployment or underemp loyment among university graduates and a relatively r api d absorption of technical graduates. Manpower planning in Singapore today is still based partly on manpower surveys, rate of return calculations , and tracer studies . At present, for ex a mple , information is regularly gathered from firms on their occupational structure and prospective manpower needs. In addition, an annual survey is made of the labour force ,2 7 regular surveys are made of the stock of specific types of manpower , 28 and a variety of tracer studies are also carried out regularly.29 The surveys are most useful in having an accurate base from which forecasts may be made; the tracer studies can be used f or "fine tuning."

26

See Harbison , Eduaation Seator PZanning f or t he DeveZopmnet of Nationwide Learning Systems, pp. 47 - 51 , for an explanation of tracer studies.

27

See, for instance, Labour Force Survey , 1974 .

28

Two examples would be National Sur vey of Scientif i c Manpower, 1974 (Singapore: Ministry of Sc ience and Technol ogy , 1974) and Nati onal SUrvey of Engi neering Manpower, 1974 (Singapore: Ministry of Science and Technology , 1974).

29

Unfortunately , these studies are cl assified do cuments .

35

The actual determination of manpower needs and translation of these needs into educational requirements, however, is now the core of manpower and educational planning. In general, several stages of calculations are made to arrive at appropriate figures for manpower and educational needs at a specified target date:30 1.

GDP for the target year is forecast

2.

sectoral output for the target year is projected

3.

sectoral distribution of workers for the target year is forecast

4.

sectoral labour requirements are converted into mutually exclusive occupational groups

5.

occupational requirements are summed across sectors and translated into educational needs

6.

appropriate corrections are made.

The results of a comprehensive study of this kind have recently been brought together to form a "Manpower Budget" for the years 1975-80.31 As one would expect from the earlier discussion of the

economy, this budget is likely to stress present shortages of professionals and skilled workers and emphasize the need to produce a larger output of these kinds of labour for the future. There is no doubt that manpower studies of this kind now play the major role in setting the orientations of the nation-wide learning system .32 It is also clear that the Singapore Government has the capacity to orient the learning system in whatever direction it deems necessary. This ability stems primarily from the 30

This summary is from Pang Eng Fong, "An Economic Perspective of Universities and Manpower Development," in RIHED News, vol . 2, no . 1 (January-March 1975), pp. 6-8.

31

Unfortunately, th1s document was also "classified" when the author was in Singapore.

32

For a nonacademic view of this see Ismail Kassim, "Planning for Our Future Manpower Needs," New Nation, 26 August 1975 , p . 7.

Table 21:

Social and Private Rates of Return by Educational Leve l

Soci al Country (1)

United States Canada Puerto Rico ~x i co Venezuela Colombia Chile Brazil Great Britain !llorway Sweden Denmark :.!ether lands Belgium Germany Greece Israel India ~alaysia

Philipp ines Japan S. Korea Thailand Hawaii W. ~i ger ia Ghana Kenya Uganda :-J. Rhode si a :-J. Zealand

Year (2)

1959 1961 1960 1963 1957 1966 1959 1962 1966 1966 1967 1964 196 5 1967 1964 1964 1958 1960 196 7 1964 1961 1967 1970 1959 1966 196 7 1968 1966 1960 1966

Primary (3)

17 . 8 20.9 25. 0 82. 0 40 .0 24 .0 10 .7

Secondary (4)

Higher (5)

14.0 11. 7 23.8 17.0 17 .o 24.0 16.9 17.2 3.6 7. 2 10 .5

9.7 14.0 16 .0 23.0 23. 0 8.0 12.2 14.5 8.2 5.4 9.2 7.8 6. 0 8.6

6 .8

16.5 20 .2 9.3 8. 0 12.0 18.5 24 . 1 23. 0 18 .0 21.7 66. 0 12.4

Private

3.0 6 .9 16.7 12.3 21.0 5.0 9 .0 11.0 4.4 12.8

8.0 6.6 12.7 10.7 11.0 6. 0

155.1 a

32.0 b

11.3

Se condary (7)

19. 5 16. 3 24.4 23. 0 29.0 32.0

13 . 6 19.7 23.0 29.0 2.7. 0 15.5

21.4 6.2 7.1

38.1 12.0 4.5 10.3 10 . 0 10.4 25.0 4.9 14.0 8 .0

8.4 5.0

27 .o 21· . 7

8.5

Higher (8)

6.9 19.2

ll4 .3

28.0 6.0

ll2 . 5

13. 0 5.1 14.0 17 .0 35.2

14.0

20.0

14 .7

9 .0

5. 0

22.9 28.6

11.0 9.2 17 .o 16.5 8. 8 12.0

19.4

13.2

13.0

Primary (6)

26.5 a 30.0

24 . 5 32.7

11. 0

34 .0 37. 0 27 . 4

!llotes: a ove r 100.0 b over 50.0 -Not available Source Notes: Psacharopou l os (1972). Cited from: J ohn Sinmons, "Education , Poverty and Unempl oyment," mimeographed, Bank Sta ff Working Paper No. 188 (Washington, D. C.: IBRD , March 1974).

37

facts that nonforrnal and formal education are highly centralized and under almost complete government financial and administrative control. It also comes from the significant role government plays in work-related education, the nature of Singaporean politics, and the command government has over the use of incentives (and disincentives) for encouraging individuals and organizations to make choices that are commensurate with government policy. As we shall see, government is, indeed, fond of offer i ng incentives for this purpose . It may, for example, subsidize training on the job, or share with a firm or firms the cost of operating a centre for training technical or vocational workers. In addition, it may sponsor individual study or training, usually in designated fields, through scholarships, loans, or bursar i es .

In fact, the Public Service Commission (PSC) in Singapore is the clearing-house for all monies of this kind which are

offered to Singapore citizens by the Singapore Government, foreign governments, or donor organization~and the PSC usually offers f~nancial assistance for study or tiaining in an academic or labour area in which Singapore faces shortages. Th i s is clearly reflected in Table 22. Moreover, to guarantee that the public investment yields the expected social benefits, recipients of aid from the PSC are bonded . One who is bonded must serve in whatever capacity the government places him for the period of the bond or he may buy out of the bond at any time before it is served . Bonding is an important aspect of manpower policy and we shall comment extensively on ~t ~n several parts of the essay. At this time, however, having seen the Singaporean move toward a manpower requirements approach to educational planning, we must examine what other functions Singapore's leaders wish the learning system to fulfill in addition to providing trained "graduates" for filling prospective manpower needs. The most important additional function is to foster social education in o rder to prevent national development from foundering on social disorganization, ethnic disharmony, or severe social malaise. Moreover, the government is concerned that the design of the learning system leads to an operation that is cost effici ent, flexible enough to be reoriented whenever necessary to meet the needs of economic development, and easily subject to government control and review. Although most Singaporeans agree with government as to the proper functions of the learning system there is some

Table 22:

w

Classificat ion of Scholarship s Awarded in 1973

Fields of Training

Undergraduate Study

Postgraduate Study

(X)

Formal Training (leading t o award of Dipl oma/ Certificate )

Practical Training

Total

103

5

7

26

141

Humanities/ social science/ coumerce

10

11

8

44

81

Medicine and related fields

20

46

7

2

75

Managemen t/administra tion

-

3

3

29

35

Science

6

-

-

-

Teacher training/ed ucation

-

5

32

22

59

Other specialized technical/ professiona l training

3

4

2

73

82

150

74

59

196

479

Engineering and related fields

Total Source:

Singapore, Public Service Commission, AnnuaZ Report, 1973 (Singapore: Service Commission, 1974) .

6

Public

39

fear that a technic al determin at1on of manpowe r and educatio nal needs . may lead to mistakes in policy that will be very costly in a nation with such a small labour force. Some would suggest that educatio nal policy should be less determi nistic and more flexible and responsi ve to market signals. Others are simply uncertai n of an approach that has only recently been attempte d. In any case it is now t oo early to assess the Singapo rean experien ce with formaliz ed manpowe r planning of the type discusse d above.33 Neverth eless, as we proceed we shall see how present manpowe r policy has affected the nation-w ide learning system. We shall also offer a very prelimin ary review o f the degree to which the learning system has fulfille d its assigned function s. Work-re lated Educatio n

34

There is a wide array of work-re lated learning programm es in Singapo re and there are always large numbers of workers particip ating in such programm es. Work-re l a ted educatio n is sponsore d by the private sector, the public sector, or by both in co-oper ation with each other. Clearly , work-re lated educatio n has special importan ce in the present Singapo re drive to prepare its people to have the skills they will need to speed up economi c developm ent. Despite the signific ance of this type of learning , relative ly little systema tic academi c research has been directed toward work-re lated educatio n. In this section , therefo re, we will briefly review the existing body of knowled ge on this subject , describ e the most importa nt typ e s of work-re lated educatio n in Singapo re, and examine what are likely to be the future directio ns of these types of learn i n g programm es. We will conclude with a prelimin ary assessme nt o f this sector of the nation-w ide learning system. 33

See Pang, "An Economic Perspecti ve of Universi ties and Manpower Developm ent," in RIHED News , vol. II, no. 1 (January- March 1975) for a summary of the techni cal problems of this approach.

34

For further informati on on the governmen t role in work-rela ted education see Singapore , Industrial Train i ng Board, First Annual Repor t of t he Indust~a z Trai ning Board~ 1973- 74 (Singapor e : Industria l Training Board, 1975) and Singapore , Economic Devel opment Boa r d, Annual Economic Development Board, 1975). Repo rt ~ 1971-74 (Singapor e:

40

The relatively few studies on work-related education have led to some . tentative conclus~ons about this type of learning in Singapore. First, . it seems that a large proportion of the work force undergoes work-related training and that this proportion has been increasing with the rapid pace of industrialization.35 Second, the amount and type of training sponsored by employing institutions appears to vary according to the type, size, and nationality of ownership and management of the firm.36 Third, as we have already seen, training probably yields substantial returns to workers who are more likely to benefit from such training the more formal education- they already have had.37 Let us examine in greater detail issues relating to these conclusions and survey some of the present work-related learning programmes. Several attempts have been made to determine the number of Singaporean . workers who have undergone on-the-job training. According to the 1966 Sample _Household Survey, for instance, about 10% of the economically active male population reported they had some training - training being defined as "job training of six hours a week or more for at least six months to prepare you for a job."38 Another survey, this one of the larger manufacturing firms,39 found that About 56% of the manufacturing employees had obtained some kind of training for their jobs. Eleven percent had gone through formal apprenticeship or prejob training ••• 10% had gone through a formal training programme after coming on . the job .•. the largest number, about 35%,had . on-the-job training defined as informal familiarization with the job ••••

35

36

For introductory information on this see Clark, "Manpower in Larger Manufacturing Firms," and Clark and Pang, "Returns to Schooling and Training . " See sections on training in Helen Hughes and You Poh Seng, Foreign Australian National University Press, 1969) .

Investment and Industry in Singapore (Canberr.a: 37

Clark and Pang, "Returns to Schooling and Training."

38

Cited in Clark and Pang, "Returns to Schooling and Training," p. 92.

39

Clark, "Manpower in Larger Manufacturing Firms," p. 36 .

41

Unfortuna tely, neither of these surveys was able to different iate furth ,e r types of training and the effects of such training on wages or occupatio nal mobility. The authors of another study attempted to disaggreg ate the concept of "training. "40 This study found that about SO% of the firms surveyed had special training rooms, others trained within the production areas, and a few sent their workers to governmen t training centres. The study also concluded that training time could be extensive . In the firms surveyed, the range of training time was fr om 80-264 hours for technicia ns, 132-220 hours for craftsmen , and 60-350 hours for operative s. Some firms had full-time instructo rs who were "qualified "; most , however, had part-time "unqualif ied" instructo rs. The findings of the surveys discussed above on ly hint extent and variety of work-rela ted learning. Today the at , workers in private firms and governmen t Singapore in te in on-the-job training, off-th e -j ob participa service offered in the nonformal o r formal sector, courses training, several types of learning programme s both of on combinati a or We will comment briefly on these abroad. and Singapore in points. Small firms in Singapore , f or example, sponsor workrelated education which is primarily informal in approach. Generally , "apprenti ces" do odd jobs in the se firms, watch the master craftsmen at work, and under the craftsmen 's direction s, occasiona lly practise complicat ed tasks. The training period for this kind of arrangeme nt probably varies widely from establishm ent to establishm ent.41 Of course, small firms are constraine d in the types of work-rela ted educat ion they can sponsor by numbers of employees , their limited financial means, and what is likely to be a tradition al outlook on business. Present governmen t policy is aimed at encouragi ng smaller firms to play a more active r o le in training new workers and upgrading the skills of those already employed. The mechanism s for realizing these

40

H. Choe and S. Thiagarajah , " Singapore Electronics Industry: A Survey," mimeographed (Singapore: Ministry of Education, 1970).

41

Charlotte Wong, "Demand for Welders in Singapore," mimeographed (Singapore: Ministry of Finance, 1970) .

42

g oals , as we shall see , generally focus on government p r ov isi on of training centres to which firms can send their workers . They also centre on government's p lan to increase t he number of formal apprenticeship programmes and get s mal l er firms to par ticipate in them. Larger firms in Singapore have more employees, more d i ve r se manpower needs , more capital , and mo re knowledge o f e mployee training than do smaller firms . I t is no sur p r ise , then, that larger firms sponsor and /o r part icipate i n a l most every type of work - related educat i on. They may d i rect their workers to on or off-the- job training for pos i tions from operative to manager, reimburse the i r employees for the cost of taking courses in the n onformal or formal sector , send their workers abroad f o r study and t raining, send workers to an i n dus t rial training centre, or share with government the costs of operati ng an industrial t r a i ning centre.42 Governmen t has emphasized that i t will continue to offer financial incentives to encourage large r f i rms to train increasing numbers of skilled workers at all occupational levels . In addition , the governme n t . has ou tlined two related fu nctions of larger firms - especially . Singaporean branches of mu l t inational corporations . First , these f i rms are t hou ght to bring new technology to Singapore a n d it is hoped t hat some of that technology and its concomitants will be transferred to Singaporean workers and made available for l ocal use . Secondly , expatriate workers in multinational f i rms are expected to train Singaporean counterparts to assume the i r roles.~3 There is no . doubt that Singapore intends to maximize the " instructional " as well as directly economic potential of multinationals ope rating in the is l and republic. The government also realizes the vast opportunities for the public sector to train workers . On the one hand, government actively promotes training for potential and present public sector employees. On the other hand , governmen t and the statutory bodies p l ay a direct and major role in organizing work - related l earning programmes in which the private sector may participat e. 42

See the dis cussion of j oin t government-indus crial t r aini ng centres l a t er in this sect i on .

43

I mmi gr at i on of fici a l s i n Singapore care f ully s cr utini ze applications for visa extens i ons from fore i gn high- level manpower .

43

Governmen t, for example, conscious ly promotes training for public sector employees . The large number of such employees , the variety of occupatio nal roles they play, the function of governmen t in providing ski lled workers to the overall economy,4 4 and the emphasis on "skil l training for economic developme nt" demand that the public sector emphasize the training of its own workers. Programme s for training public sector employees , therefore , are wide. Moreover, the training capacity of the public sector is raised significa ntly when we include the "work-rela ted education " which takes place in the armed forces of Singapore .45 The role of the public sector in foster ing work-rela ted education to serve the needs of the private sector and economic developme nt in general is also broad. First, the governmen t may directly subsidize training by the private sector. The Economic Developme nt Board operates programme s related to this function and reviews applicatio ns from private industry for subsidies .46 Secondly, governmen t may second bonded or other public sector workers to industry, thereby saving industry the expense of training such a worker. Thirdly, governmen t may operate alone or in co-operat ion with industry learning programme s in which private sector employees may participa te. In general, the Industria l Training Board (ITB) oversees these programme s, training centres, technical and vocationa l institute s, and the certifica tion of skilled workers.4 7 There are, of course, other linkages between the public sector and work-rela ted education that are less obvious than those cited above. "Industri al Extension Services" ,for example, have no doubt been critical to Singapore 's developme nt effort, especiall y where l ocal firms are concerned . In this case, statutory bodies such as the Economic Developme nt Board, the National Productiv ity Centre, the Singapore Institute of Standards and Industria l Research, and the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board seek to keep

44

This function will be discussed later in this section .

45

We will speak of the National Service later in the essay.

46

EDB, AnnuaL Report~ 1971- 74; of course, the possibility of receiving training grants from government is also supposed to be an incentive for industry to locate in Singapore.

47

See ITB, AnnuaL

Report ~

1973- 74 , for details .

44

i ndustry informed on standards, production techniques, innovat i ons, and market demand. In addition, government ministries have performed extension · services for the agriculture and fishing industries. Still another public sector role in work-related education is played by statutory bodies such as the People's Association, the Adult Education Board, and the extramural studies department of the University of Singapore. As we h a 'Je already noted and will elaborate further in the section on nonformal education, these organizations are often called upon by government and/or industry to organ~ze particular courses of study . Finally, we should note that the public sector and the unions also sponsor some training within industry. The Ministry of Labour has for several years, for instance, operated "Training within Industry," a progranune in which workers have taken such courses as "Job Relations," "Job Instruct~on," "Job Safety," and "Conference leadership." 48 The unions play a role i n training their workers in ~ndustrial relations and may i n the future play a larger role in formal apprenticeship schemes. Although we hav e outlined the most important aspects of work-related education in Singapore, the details of most of the related l earning programmes in the near future will probably be oriented in the same directions as present programmes. In add i tion, government is likely to encourage stronger links between on-the-job training and off-the-job training, an expansion of formal apprenticeship and formalization of some informal apprenticeship schemes already in existence, and the certification of skill levels through a system of standardized national examinations.49 Wider participation of industry in joint government-industry training centres will probably be another policy goal. There are presently three such training centres in Singapore and it is useful here to examine their reason for being, aims, and organization. Such a review is especially important because the ideas on which these centres are based

48

Si ngapore, Ministry of Labour , AnnuaL Ministry of Labour, 1973) .

49

ITB, AnnuaL

Report~

19 73- 74.

Report ~

19?2 (Si ngapore:

45

are derived from a synthesis of government policies on economic and educational development . SO The joint government- industry training centres have been established to utili z e the experience of foreign corporations to help train skilled workers in a cost efficient manner in an institution approaching optimum size . The government position in such schemes is a reflection of the i nexperience of Singaporean firms in training highly skilled workers and the willingness of government to invest in training in order that the learning programmes can be on a large scale and ori ented toward the national economy. In general, government pays the capital costs for constructing and furnishing the centre and government and industry share the recurrent expenditures according to the percentage of graduates 11 employed" by the sponsoring firm or 11 taken" by the government. Some members of the faculty are expatriates under contract to the foreign firm; others are Singaporean employed by the government. In the long run Singaporeans should., ideally, have enough experience to manage the contents without foreign assistance. Students of these centres are chosen by a competitive examination open to anyone who has finished four years of academic or technical secondary school or has graduated from a techni cal institute. Normally , students spend two years undergoing formal instruction and practical training within a centre. They then do two more years of training either in the sponsoring firm or in another which has agreed to employ and continue training . a centre graduate . Trainees receive stipends throughout the duration of their training and the amount of the stipend increases as they progress in their progra~~e. During the first two years their stipends come f r om the funds of government and its partner in operating the centre ; during the last two years they come from employing institutions. An example of the curriculum at these centres is shown i n Diagram II. In this case, the government's co- sponsor is Rollei and the curriculum is organi zed along the lines of a German training programme with some modifications in time . 50

For a more detai led vi ew see Economic Development Board, Annual Report, 1971- 74, and Si ngapo r e, Rol l ei - Government Tr ai ning Centre, Fi r•st Annual. (Singapore: Rollei- Government Train i ng Cen t r e, 1975) .

il

Diagram

:n '

Training

48-IFinal Certificate 1-

Programme

~

TOOL aDIE MAKERS

PRECISION OPTICIANS

"Facharbeiter" Standard

42

zcr:

en

-cr: o >- ~ Q. cr !::: w 0

cr:~ - 0 0 x ti; :::t: c:n - 4

Q.~cr:z::

cu ::!:: 1

:::ELLen 0

w ~

~

~ en

:::!:

w

o

>cr:I +=

:::!: Q. ::::> o w

0

(.!)

~

&

47

Although the German Governm ent does not wish to certify the skill level of the trainees , Sl company official s have made it clear that th e level of skills attained by Singapo rean trainees is equiva lent t o that of their German counter parts. The curricul um o f other joint training centres will probably be structur a lly similar to that o f In each case , however , the sponsori ng the Rollei Ce ntre. firm will special ize in ge neral training for skills for This kind of training wh ~ch it has the greates t need. centre has not been in operatio n long enough to enable It would seem , us to make a compreh ensive evaluati on. highly qua lified produced have centres existing that , however and encourag ing industry in places filling are o wh s graduate in the nt investme further some y labilit i ava by their are graduate one training of costs d~rect economy . The other of costs t recurren the to compared high re latively learn i ng programm es in Singapo re but only about one-hal f the cost of tra~ning such a worker in Europe . 5 2 Of course, there have been some problems with these Neither th e students nor those Singapo rean centres. members of the faculty who are bonded are pleased with the duration of the bonds they must serve. There have a l so been some tensi o n s b etween l ocal and expatria te staff. In add~tion , some students - fr om Chinese medium secondar y sch ools - have been linguis tically unprepa red for the formal ~ nstr uction and a fe w of the employin g firms have n ot given adequate follow - up training . Finally , the economi c difficu lties of the p a st few years have indicate d that the governm ent's partners in these ventures may occasio nally be hard- pressed to fulfil their financia l commitm ents to the centre s . Despite these problem s, however , there is general agreeme nt in Singapo re that th e first few governm ent-indu stry training centres have admirab ly and efficien tly realized In future the respons ibility for these cent res their aims. may be removed fr om the EDB and the centres may be integra te d into the continui ng programme s of the Industri al Training Board .

51

Apparent ly, the Ge rman Governmen t does not wish to set a pre cedent f o r es tab lishing any k~nd of internat~onal examinati on or certifica tion system.

52

Bruno Wuesterma n, Dire c tor of the Rollei Governmen t Train~ng Centre, provided 1nformati oo on the comparat ive costs of training ~n Europe and Singapore .

48

Hopefully, continuous evaluations of joint governmentindustry training centres and other types of work- related education will be made in the next several years as Singapore ' s relatively new education and manpower programmes ~ove into high gear. These assessments should indicate the degree to which these programmes are efficiently meeting their aims. At this time, our concluding overview of work - related education can only be preliminary and suggestive of issues which must be examined in more detail . First of all , it is clear that access to work - related education is determined largely by employing institutions, public sector sponsoring of individual work- related training programmes, and the available number of places at training centres , vocational and technical institutes. In addition, worker participation in work-related education may be a function of age, sex, and educational background. This is probably true because individuals and employers are most likely to invest in training for younger rather than older workers, for men rather than women and for those with more formal education rather than less.53 Work-related -education h as many linkages with nonformal education. Linkages between work- related education and the formal sector , however , are relatively weak. The orientation of work - related learning and of government policy toward those programmes is easily distinguishable . In almost all instances, individuals are trained in order that their productivity can be increased, they can fill manpower needs, and they can encourage further investment and . economic development. Government policy is geared toward stimulating rapid expansion of training and appreciation by the entire economy of the need to participate in such training to help Singapore meet its economic aims . Government subsidizes training in order to promote it; this subvention will probably lead in the future to increasingly centralized and formali zed planning of work~related learning programmes. If this occurs , flexibility in programme planning will have to be emphasized . There seem to be few economic constraints which prevent a greater focus on work - related education . Government has in

53

On this last point see Clark and Pang , "Returns to Schooling and Training . "

49 54 finances to support the past raised from a 2% payroll tax industrial training and it will probably continue this means for generating needed revenues.SS Other funds for supporting training will come from industrial partners in government ventures in work-related education. The most i mportant constraints on work-related education are probably traditi o nal attitudes toward training prevalent in the smaller firms. Government will no doubt continue searching for an effective means of overcoming these limitations.S6 Although the Singapore Government stresses cost efficiency and a high rate of return in all pub lic investments, it is difficult to measure either the short-run or the longrun benefits of present programmes in work-related education or the efficiency with which such programmes are operated. It is even more difficult to assess the economic aspect s of programmes entirely in the private sector. For the moment, all we can say is that government is convinced that its investment will yield high returns in the medium and long-run as private investment comes to Singapore to take advantage of training subsidies and the availability of a skilled work force . Finally, there is little definitive information we can add about the income redistribution effects of work -related education . On the one hand, it has been suggested that the greatest benefits from train ing accrue to those with a higher level of formal education . 57 This would probably tend to exacerbate income differentials . On the other hand, it has been said that tra~ning can be more important than education in determining wages.S8 This would probably mitigate

54

On all renumeration to workers earn i ng more than S$500 per month.

55

Theoretically, the payroll tax discourages labour intensity in a labour short economy.

56

Ng Kiat Chong, "Off the Job Industrial Training," mimeographed (Singapore , Ministry of Finance, 1970) considers policy alternatives concerning this issue.

57

Clark and Pang, "Returns to Schooling and Training."

58

Amy Wong, "·A Study of Selected Small Scale Manufacturing Industries in Singapore . '' mimeographed (Singapore: Economic Researc.h Centre, 1973) cites the results of a linear regression analysis of the det e rminan~s of wages . See also John Simmons, "The Determit.an ts of Earnings: To~ar d an Improved Model," mimeographed (Washington, D.C . : B2nk Staff Work~ng Paper No . 173, IBRD, 1974).

50

income differentials . In any case, income distribution effects are not considered to be an issue of major consequence in Singapore and it is unlikely that we will know more about this question in the near future. Nonformal Education 59 There are extensive opportunities for nonformal education in Singapore and large numbers of people participate in nonformal programmes.60 Nonformal learning services are provided by government, statutory bodies, professional organizations, and voluntary associations. As we shall see · in this section, the nonformal sector fulfils a variety of the critical functions of the nationwide learning system . In general, nonformal learning programmes in Singapore can be classified under the following categories:61 1.

Further education - general knowledge, self-improvement and recreational courses

2.

Language studies - courses on languages spoken in Singapore or the study of a "foreign language"

3.

Vocational/Technical/Commercial Courses courses in these "skill" areas usually directly related to employment opportunities and often leading to a certifying examination

4.

Preschool and Remedial Education - Kindergarten and courses from Primary Six to Preuniversity

59

For an introduction, see appropriate sections in Education in Singapore , and publications of the People's Association, Adult Education Board, and the Department of Extramural Studies at the University of Singapore .

60

A rough estimate of the number of people enrolled in nonformal programmes in 1974 would be 100,000 or about 20% of the entire population.

61

These divisions and definitions are based large l y on chose made in Singapore, Adult Education Boa~ d, Annual Report , 1-4-?3 31-3-?4 (Singapore: Adult Education Board, 1974).

51

which are nearly parallel to those in the formal sector. These courses generally lead to certificatio n. 5. 6.

"Advanced Level" Professional , Technical, and Related Studies Instructiona l Media Courses - courses delivered by radi o and/or telev~sion or film

The prevailing pattern in Singapore is for specific organization s to concentrate their efforts on programmes in a limited number of categories. Moreover, the planning of much nonformal education is "co -ordinated" to ensure that needed courses are offered and that organization s do not engage in wasteful duplication of learning services . This "co-ordinatio n" is achieved through government liaison and interlocking directorship s among the most important organization s act ive in nonformal education. Those who participate in nonformal programmes come from the entire spectrum of educational and socioeconomi c backgrounds . However, there is a tendency for students of similar backgrounds to follow programmes offered by similar organization s. We shall examine this phenomenon in more detail later in this section. Of course, we shall also review some of the economic aspects of nonformal education. At this time, however, we should note that, for the most part,fees must be paid in order to participate in nonformal learning. Although we could present more background information before proceeding, it is probably best that we begin to examine in more detail some nonforrnal services. Because the nonformal sector tends to be formalized and centralized and the vast majority of students are enrolled in courses offered by three quasi-govern mental bodies, we turn now to a review of the work in nonforrnal education carried out by the People's Association, the Adult Education Board, a nd the Extramural Studies Department of Singapore University. 62 is primarily The People's Association (PA) , concerned with community development and, as a corollary 62

The People's Assoc iation (PA) is a statutory body with important conne c tions with the Government and its role in Singapor e' s

52

to this, it has assumed a role in nonformal education. One aspect of this role is the sponsoring of courses at the community centres which are spread throughout Singapore.63 The PA classifies its course offerings into three fields: cultural, athletic , and vocation al. "Cultural" courses usually concern music or dance. Athletic "courses" are varied and include instruction in individual sports, team sports, and physical fitness. Vocational activities comprise courses in art, basic homemaking, hobbies, and a few employment-related vocations such as dressmaking, tailoring, radio and TV repair, and woodwork. Generally , "vocational" courses are at a basic or intermediate level and do not lead to certification. The vast majority of participants in FA-sponsored courses are Chinese of relatively low educational attainment and socioeconomic status. Furthermore, about 95% of those enrolled in vocational courses in 1973 were Chinese females under 34 years of age.64 The nature of the work of the PA and the nature of its primary clientele have led to instruction in Chinese for most of these courses. Although the PA is committed to expanding the range of participants in its work, its overwhelmingly Chinese constituency is unlikely to alter quickly.65 PA courses are not free but the fees for enrolment are quite low. In most cases they range from S$5 to S$25 depending on the type and duration of the course and the kinds of materials needed for instruction. In 1973 the enrolment was 2,664 in cultural activities, 11,604 in athletic activities , and 7,749 in vocational activities.66 In addition to operating the programmes discussed above, the PA has the important role of sponsoring over development is worthy of note.

For details see Seah Chee Meow, (Singapore: Singapore University Press , 1973) and publications of the People's Association.

Corrmunity Centres in Singapore 63

The PA operates these centres.

64

People's Association, Annual Report~ 19?3 (Singapore :

65

See Seah , Community Centres in Singapore 1 for an historically based analysis of this issue.

66

People's Association, Annual

Report~

19?3.

PA, 1974) .

53

500 kindergar ten classes in more than 130 community c entres. Initially , the PA became involved in kindergar tens in the early 1960s when the PAP wanted to compete against kinde rgartens opened by the Barisan Sosialis and 11 Win the hearts and minds" of the rural people.67 Since that time, however , the number of PA kindergar ten classes has rapidly expanded. Almost 16,000 children attended these classes in 1973, for which they paid the nominal fee of S$3 per month. For the moment the PA is likely to retain control over these kindergar tens and promote better organizat ion In the and managemen t of the programme s they offer. long-run , however, it would not be surprising if the PA kindergar tens and other private kindergar tens were more closely integrate d into the formal education al sector . The Lembaga Gerakan Pelajaran Dewasa or Adult Education Board (AEB)68 sponsors the widest array of n onformal offerings , the largest number of courses, and caters to the greatest number of students. The AEB , in fact, operates nonformal programme s of each of the six types mentioned earlier. Moreover , the AEB maintains a pivotal position in the nation-wi de learning system , as we shall soon see. One prominent feature of the AEB p r ogrammes is language courses . Singapore is an extremely heterogen eous state linguistic al ly and facility in a variety of languages is a prerequis ite for social and o ccupation al success. Knowledge of English, Chinese and Malay is especiall y important for business and official affairs . There is also in~erest in Singapore , however , in any For all of these language that has commercia l use . in language courses enrolment monthly average the reasons, cour ses at these conducts AEB The 1974. n i was 7,412 as well as part groups special of behalf several levels on courses in has now AEB The . o f the regular programme German , Japanese, dialects, Chinese several Malay, Engl~sh, . French , Arabic, Thai , and Russian

67

Seah, Community Centres in Singapore , p. 35.

68

Data here is taken from the Annual Report of t he Lembaga Geralbook of Statistics, Singapore, 1974/75 (Singapore: Department of Statistics, 1975), p. 188 , Chart 14.5, and p . 192, Chart 14 . 8 .

91

Appe ndix G:

Inter view s

Mr. J.F. Conc eicao , Dire ctor, Extr a-mu ral Stud ies , Univ ersit y of Sing apor e.

Cent re, Dr. Pang Eng Fong , Dire ctor, Econ omic Rese arch Univ ersit y of Sing apor e. Publ ic Mr. Geor ge Thom son, Prof esso r of Gove rnme nt and . y ersit Univ ang Adm inist rat i o n, Nany l and Dr . Khoo Che n g Lim, Di visio nal Dire ctor (Pers onne d. Boar Deve lopm ent) , Indu stria l Trai ning

Mr . Chua Soo Tian , Divi sion al Dire ctor, Manp ower , Econ omic Deve lopm ent Boar d .

Asia . Mr. Foo See Luan , Empl oyee Rela tions Mana ger, Esso Mr.

Jit Poh , Offi cer- in -cha rge, Deve lopm ent, Mini stry o f Edu catio n.

L~m

al Mr. Pete r Seow , Depu ty Head , ETV, Sing apor e Educ ation Mass Se rv ice.

of Scie nce Dr. Han Chen g Fon g, Depu ty Dire ctor, Mini stry and Tech no logy . Educ ation , Mr. Ho Wah Kam, Depu ty Dire ctor , Inst itute of and Mr. Au Keng Ch u, Regi strar , Inst itute o f Educ at ion. d. Mr. Ch an Kok Kean , Dire ctor , Adul t Educ ation Boar , Mr. Ng Kiat Cho ng, De puty Secr etary (Dev elopm ent) Mini stry of F i nan c e .

Ms. Ch ong Hoo Tuan , Assi stan t Depu ty Dire ctor (Adm ini stra t l o n) , Peop le's Asso ciati on.

uctio n and Dr. Chri stian Grot e, Dire ctor, Cent re for Prod ) · Trai ning f o r Adul t Educ ation Tele visio n (CEPTA-TV Trai ning Mr. Brun o Wues terma nn, Dire ctor, Rolle i-Go vern ment Cen tre.

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Tan Khye Hock.

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Seconda ry compare s notes with

Toh .Peng Kiat.

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Paris:

UNESCO. BuLletin of the UNESCO RegionaL Office in Asia. "Organi zation of Educati onal Planning in the Asian Region." vo1. III, no. 1 (Septem ber, 1968). Bangkok : UNESCO, 1968.

UNESCO . Bul l e ti n o f th~ UNESCO RBgion al Offiae in Asia. "Scien ce Educat ion in the Asian Region ," vol. IV , no . 1 (Septem ber, 1969). Bangko k: UNESCO, 1969. "Explor ing Region al Bulleti n for Southe ast Asia. UNESCO. " Asia, in ion Educat in s Method and New Approa ches , UNESCO k: Bangko . ) 1971 ber, (Septem 1 o. n vo l. VI, 1971. "Litera cy UNESCO. Reg1-ona l Bulleti n for Southe ast Asia. and Adu lt Educat ion in the Asian Region ," vol. v, no . 2 (March , 1971). Bangko k: UNESCO , 1971. UNESCO . Bu lleti n o f th e UNES CO Region al Offiae i n Asia . "First Level of Educat ion in the Asian Region , " vol. VII, n o. 14 (June, 1973). Bangkok : UNESCO, 1973. Univer sity of Singap ore , Departm ent of Extra-M ural Studie s. Gs nera l Prospea tuB o f Course. Singap ore: Univer sity of Singap ore, 1975. "Educa tional Policy and Perform ance in Wi lson, Harold . Si ngapor e, 1942 - 19 45. " Occasi onal Paper No . 16, Institu te of Southe ast Asian Studie s, Singap ore . Singap ore: !SEAS, 1973. "A Study of Selecte d Small- Scale Manufa cturing Wong, Amy . Indust ries ~ n Singap ore." Mimeog raphed. Singap ore : Econom ic Researc h Centre , Univer sity o f Singapo re , 1973.

De mand for Welders in Singapo re . Wong, Charlo tte. ry of Finance , Septem ber , 1970 . Minist Singapore: Perspe ctives: ia and Si ngapore . Malays in ion Eduaat of ment The Develop 1972. an, Heinem : Kuala Lumpur

Wong Hoy Kee, Francis , and Gwee Yee Hean.

De vel opment of Higher Eduaat ion i n Problem s and Issues. Singap ore: . Asia ast Southe Region al Institu te of Higher Educat ional Develop ment, 1973 .

Yip Yat Hoong, ed .

You Poh Seng and Lim Chong Yah , eds. The Singapo re Eao nomy . Singap ore: Eastern Uni v ersiti es Press , 1971 .

INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

Occasional Papers 1

Harry J. Benda, Research in Southeast Asian Studies in Si ngapore, 1970. lOpp. Gratis (Out of print)

2

P. Lim Pui Huen , Newspape rs published in the Malaysian Area: With a union list of local holdings, 1970. 42pp. Gratis (Out of print)

3

Chan Heng Chee, Nation-Building in Southeast Asia: The Singapore Case , 1971. 19pp. S$2.00 (Out of print)

4

Eva Horakova, Problems of Filipino Settlers , l971. S$2.00 (Out of pri nt)

5

Mochtar Nairn, Merantau: Causes and Effects of Minangkqbau Voluntary Migration , 1971 . 19pp. S$2.00 (Out of print)

6

Paul Pedersen , comp., Youth in Southeast Asia: A Bibliography . Modified and expanded by Joseph B. Tamney and others , 1971. 69pp. S$4.00 (Out of print)

7

J.L.S. Gir1ing , Cambodia and the Sihanouk Myths , .1971. 26pp. S$2 . 00 (Out of print)

8

R. P. Dore, Japanese Industrialization and the Developing Countries : Model, Warning or Source of Healthy Doubts? 19 71. 18pp. S$3.00

9

Michael Stenson , The 1948 Communist Revolt in Malaya: A Note of Historical Sources and Inte rpreta tion and A Reply by Gerald de Cruz, 1971. 30pp. S$3 . 00 (Out of print)

10

Riaz Hassan, Social Status and Bureaucratic Contacts Among the Public Housing Tenants in Singapore , 1971 . 16pp. S$2.00 (Out of print)

11

Youth in Southeast Asia: Edited Proceedings of the Seminar of 5th - 7th March 1971. Edited by Joseph B. Tamney, 1972. 75pp. S$4 . 00 (Out of print)

12

A.W. Stargardt, Problems of Neutrality in South East Asia : The Relevance of the European Experience , 197i. 29pp. S$3.00 (Out of print)

11

William R. Roff , Autobiography & Biography in Malay Historical Studies , 1972. 2lpp. S$ 2 . 00 (Out of print)

24pp.

The S$3.00

Regiona~ Seauroity : D,jakarta Conferenae on Cambodia, 1972. 20pp.

14

Lau Teik Soon,. Indonesia and

15

Syed Hussein Alatas, The Seaond Malaysia P~an 1971 -

1975: 16

A Critique, 1972.

16pp.

S$3.00

Harold E. Wilson, Eduaationa~ Policy and Performanae

in Singapore, 1942 - 1945 , 1973.

28pp.

S$3.00

Potentia~ for Ru~a~ Deve~opment in the New Seventh Division of Sarawak: A Preliminary Baakgraund Report, 1973. 39pp. S$4.00

17

Richard L. Schwenk , The

18

Kunio Yoshihara, Japanese Direat Investments in

Southeast Asia , 1973. 19

18pp.

S$4.00

Richard Stubbs, Counter- insurgenay and the Eaonomia

Faator: The Impaat of the Korean War Priaes Boom on the Ma~ayan Emergenay , 1974. 54pp. S$5.00 20

Relations with China , 1974. 21

Ma~aysia's

John Wong, The Politiaal Eaonomy of

3lpp.

S$3.00

Riaz Hassan, Interethnic: Marriage in Singapore:

Study of Inte rethnic: Relations, 1974. 22

Tatsumi Okabe,

1974. 23

Trade ·

Reviva~

A

S$6 . 00

85pp.

of Japanese Militarism?

26pp. · S$3.00

Chin Kin Wah, The Five Power Defenae Arrangements and

AMDA: Some Observations on the Nature of an Partnership, 1974. 2lpp. S$3.00

Evo~ving

Eao~.ogy of Ear~y Nineteenth Century Java: Pangeran Dipanagara , a Casi Study , 1974. 56pp. S$4.00

24

Peter Carey, The Cultural

25

Chandrasekaran Pillay, The 1974 Gen'eral Eleations in

Malaysia: 26

I.W. Mabbett, Displaaed

Century China, 1975. 27

20pp ~

A Post-Mortem, 1974.

Intelleatua~s 45pp ~

J. Stephen Hoadley , The Future of M. Ladd Thomas,

Po~itiaa~

Provinaes of Southern 29

in Twentieth

S$4.00 P~rtuguese

Dilemmas and Opportunities , 1975. 28

S$3.09

Vio~enae

Thai~and ,

28pp.

Timor: S$4 . 00

in the Mus~im 1975. 27pp. S$4.00

Joseph Camilleri, Southeast Asia in China 's Foreign Po~iay,

1975.

37pp.

S$5.00

30 31 32

Welli ngton K.K. Chan, Polit ics and Indus tPial izatio n i n Late Impe rial China , 1975. 19pp. S$4.0 0 Leali e E. Bauzo n, Phili ppine AgraP ian Refor m 1880- 1965: The Revo lution that N~ver Was, 1975. 2lpp. S$4.0 0 Paul H. Krato aka, Th~ Ch~ttiaP and the Yeoma n: Briti sh Cultu ral Cat~ gori~s and Rural Indeb tedne ss in Malay a, 1975. 29pp. S$4.0 0

33

Morr is I. Berko witz, The Tenac ity of Chine se Folk Trad itio n -Two Studi es of Hong Kong Chine se, 1975. 32pp. S$4. 00

34

M. Rajar etnam , U.S. En~rgy-Security InteP ests in the Ind i an Ocean , 1975. 36pp. S$5.0 0

35

Chand ran Jeshu run, The Growt h of th~ Malay sian APmed Some FoPei gn Press Reac tions , F o rc~s, 196J- 7J: 1975. 25pp. S$4.0 0

36

Peter Polom ka, ASEAN and the Law of the Sea: A nal P r~ limi nary Look at th~ Prosp ects of Regio print ) of (Out 0 Co - ope rat io n, 1975. 16pp. S$4.0

37

Sharo n A. Carst ens, Chi nes~ Assoc i ation s in Singa pore So ciety : An Ezam inatio n of Funct ion and Mean ing, (Out of print ) 19 75. 30pp. Hans H. Indo rf, ASEAN: Probl ems and Prosp~cts, 1975. 62pp. S$5.0 0 Robe rt 0. Tilma n, In Quest of Unity : The Cent ralis ation 1957- ?5, Th~m~ in Nalay •ian F~deral-State Relat ions, 1976. 69pp. S$6.0 0 Saras in Virap hol, Di rect ions in Thai Forei gn Polic y , 1976. 63pp. S$7.0 0

38 39

40 41 42 43 44

Somp orn Sang chai, Coal itio n B~haviour in Modern Thai Po litic s: A Thai Persp ectiv e, 26pp. S$4.0 0 1976 Richa rd L . Skoln ik, An Int roduc t ion to th~ Natio n-wid0e Learn ing Sy st~m of Singa pore, 1976. lOOpp . S$7.0 Sompo rn Sang chai, Som~ Obs~rvati on s on the Elect ions S$6.0 0 and Co aL ition Form ation in Thail and, 1976. 75pp. Robe rt Orr Whyt e, Th~ Asian ViZ Zage as a Basis f e r' Node rniaa tion, 1976. 77pp. S$8.0 0

P.u1' .2 L

Field Report Series 1

Yon g Mun Cheong , ConfL i cts within the Prijaji WorLd o f the Par ahyangan i n Wes~ Java , 1914 - 1927 , 1973 . 24 pp . S$ 4. 00

2

Patrick Low a nd Yeung Yue-man, The Proposed Kra CanaL : A CriticaL EvaLuation and Its Impact on Singapore , 1973. 39pp . S$3.00 (Out of print)

3

Robert Fabrikant , LegaL Aspects of Production Sharing Contracts in the Indonesian PetroLeum Industry , 2d Edition. 1973 . 235pp. S$2 5.00 (Out of print)

4

The Indonesian PetroLeum Industry: Miscettaneou s Source MateriaLs . Collecte d by Robert Fabrikant, 1973 . 516pp. S$25 . 00 (Out of print )

5

C. V. Das and V.P. Pradhan , Some InternationaL Law Problems Regarding the Straits of Malacca , 1973. 95 pp . S$10.00 (Out of print)

6

M. Rajaretnam, PoLitics of OiL in the PhiLippines , 1973. 8lpp. S$5.00 (Out of print )

7

Ng Shui Meng , The Population of Indochina: Some Preliminary Observations , 1974 . 126pp . S$7.00

8

Ng Shui Meng , The OiL System in Southeast Asia : A PreLiminary Survey, 1974. 93pp. S$10 . 00

9

Wong Saik Chin , PubLic Reaction to the OiL Crisis : The Singapore Case , 1975. 87pp. S$6.00

10

Kawin Wilairat , Singapore's Foreign PoLicy: First Decade , 1975. 105pp. S $10.00

11

Eddie C.Y. Kuo , Families Under Economi c Stress, 1975. 72pp. S$6.00

12

Lee Ting Hui, The Communist Organization in Singapore : Its Techniques of Manpower Mobilization and Management , 1948-66 , 19 76. 15lpp. S$10.00

The

Cur rent Issues Seminar Series 1

Corporations and their Imptica~ions for Southeast Asia. Edite d by Eileen Lim Poh Tin, 1973. 140pp . S$12.00 (Out of print)

MuLt inationa~

2

E conom~ c and Po~i~i oa l Trends i n So u theast Asia ,

3

So~~ he as~ Asia Today :

4

Japan as an Economic Powe r and its Imp Li cat ions f o r Edited by Kernial S. Sandhu and Southea st Asia.

66pp.

19 73 ,

llOpp.

S$6.00

Pr obL e ms and Prospec ts , 1973.

S$10 . 00

(Singapo re Univers i t y Press } , Eileen P.T. Tang. 1974. 147pp. S$15.00

5

The Future Pattern o f Japanese Econ omic and PoLitica l 82pp. S$6. 00 ReLation s with Southea st Asia , 1975 .

(Out of print) Oral History Programm e Series 1

Philip Hoalirn, Senior, The Ma Layan Democ rat ic Unio n: Singapo r e's First Democra tic

26pp.

1973 .

PoLi~icaL

Party ,

S$3.00 (Out of print } RehabiLita~ion

of

2

Andrew Gilmour , My RoLe in the 1948-195 3 , 1973. S i ngapore :

3

Marnoru Shinoza ki, My Wartime E x p~ rienc es in 124pp. S$6.00 (Out of print} Singapo re , 1973.

lOOpp.

S$6.00

Southea st As i an Perspec tives 1

U Khin Mg . Kyi and Daw Tin Tin, Adminis trative 67pp. S$3.00 Patterns in Historic aL Burma , 1973.

2

Harsja

Some Problem s o f Integra tion and Disint egration , 1974.

62pp. 3

w.

Bachtia r, The I ndonesia n Na tio n:

S$5 .00 (Out of print}

PoL iti caL and SociaL Change in Si ngap o r e .

Wu Teh-yao .

205pp.

S$10.00

Edited by

1975.

Monogra phs 1

Sartono Kartodi rdjo, Protest Movemen ts in Rural Java (Oxford Univers ity Press), 1973. 229pp. S$18.00

2

Moderni zatio n in Southeas~ Asia.

Edited by HansPress}, 1973. ity Dieter Evers (Oxford Univers 249 pp. S$18.00

Library Bulletins l

Rosalind Quah, Library Resouraes in Singapore on Contemporary Mainland China, 1971. llpp. S$2.00

2

Quah Swee Lan, comp., Oil Disaovery and Teahniaal Change i n Southeast Asia: A Preliminary Bibliography, 1971. 23pp. S$2.00

3

P. Lim Pui Huen, comp., Direatory of Miarofilm Faailities in Southeast Asia, 1972. 24pp. (Out of print)

4

CheakZist of Current Serials in the Library, 1972. 30pp. S$4.00

5

Tan Sok Joo, Library Resouraes on Burma in Singapore, 1972. 42pp. S$4.00

6

Quah Swee Lan, comp., Oil Disaovery and Teahnioal Change in Southeast Asia: A Bibliography, 1973 . 32pp. (Out of print)

7

P. Lim Pui Huen, comp., Direatory of Miarofilm Faailities in Southeast Asia. 2d Edition. 1973 . 32pp . S$4 . 00

8

Ng Shui Meng, comp . , Demographia Materials on the Khmer Republia , Laos and Vietnam, 1974. 54pp. S$5.00

9

Saengthong M. Ismail, Library Resouraes on Thailand in Singapore, 1974. 130pp. S$7.00

Trends in Southeast Asia 1

Trends in Indonesia: Proaeedings and Baakground Paper, 1971. 58pp. S$3.00 (Out of print)

2

Trends in MaLaysia: Proaeedings and Baakground Paper, Edited by Patrick Low, 1971. 120pp. S$5.00 (Out of print)

3

Trends in the Philippines. Edited by Lim Yoon Lin. (Singapore University Press), 1972. 140pp. S$5.00 (Out of print)

4

Trends in Indonesia II. Edited by Yong Mun Cheong. (Singapore University Press), 1972. 140pp. S$S.OO

5

Edited by M. Rajaretnam and Trend s in Thailand . (Singapore University Press) , 1973 . Lim So Jean . 14 2 pp. S$7 . 00

6

Edited by Yong Mun Cheong . Trends in Malaysia II. (Singapore University Press), 1974. 154pp. S$7 . 00

7

Edited by Seah Chee Meow . Trends in Singapore . Press) , 1975. 15lpp. S$10 . 00 University (Singapore

8

Edited by Somporn Sangchai and Trends in Thailand II. (Singapore University Press), 1976. Lim Joo- Jock. 184pp. S$12.50

Annual Reviews 350pp.

S$15 . 00

1

Southeast Asian Affairs 19?4. (Out of print)

19 7 4.

2

Southeast Asian Affairs 19?5. 1975 . 256pp. S$30.00

{FEP Internatio nal Ltd.),

3

Southeast Asian Affairs 19?6. 1976 , 486pp. S$30.00

(FEP Internatio nal Ltd.) ,

Ad Hoc Publicatio n 1

Leo Suryadina ta , Peranakan Chinese Politics in Java 184pp. S$12.00 191?-1942 , 1976 .

The above publicatio ns are available for sale at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies , Cluny Road, Singapore 10. Tel : 514211

THE AUTHOR Richard L. Skolnik, until recently a graduate student of the Woodrow Wilson School. Princeton University. U.S.A., spent the period July to August 1975 in Singapore as a Research Associate of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. He is now attached to the World Bank in Washington, D.C.