The Minoan Shipwreck at Pseira, Crete 9781931534291, 9781623034344, 1931534292

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Hadjidaki-Marder

INSTAP Academic Press www.instappress.com

INSTAP Academic Press

Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder was born near the Venetian harbor of Chania, on Crete, and explored the seabed from an early age. She was educated at the University of Manchester, UK, and earned her PhD at the University of California, Santa Barbara. She served for three decades in the Greek Archaeological Service as an archaeologist in Chania and with the Department of Maritime Antiquities where she also was director. Among her many excavations on land and at sea are the Hellenistic harbor of Phalasarna in western Crete, the Classical shipwreck of Alonnesos, and the Minoan shipwreck at Pseira.

The Minoan Shipwreck at Pseira, Crete

T

he first Minoan shipwreck found near Crete was discovered in 2003 off the islet of Pseira on the northeastern coast of Crete. It was excavated between 2004 and 2009 by the Greek Archaeological Service, directed by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder. The Minoan ship sank around 1725/1700 bc. The recovered cargo constitutes the largest known corpus of complete and almost complete clay vessels from a single Middle Minoan IIB deposit in several categories. The 140 artifacts recovered from the area of the wreck include 46 oval-mouthed and other amphorae, 41 spouted jugs used for transport, and 11 hole-mouthed jars. The activity of each season is described, followed by a catalog with extensive discussion of the pottery, a petrographic analysis, and catalogs of weights and stone tools. The picture that emerges is of a local transport boat, loaded with products from towns on the northern coast of East Crete, and it provides a rich set of information on a society that revolved around seafaring.

The Minoan Shipwreck at Pseira, Crete Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

The Minoan Shipwreck at Pseira, Crete

Frontispiece. Yiorgos Klontzas in 2003 with the first hole-mouthed jar (1, 03/22) found at the site of the Pseira shipwreck. Photo E. Hadjidaki-Marder.

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 65

The Minoan Shipwreck at Pseira, Crete

by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder with contributions by Philip P. Betancourt, Thomas M. Brogan, Joanne E. Cutler,† Heidi M.C. Dierckx, Eleni Nodarou, and Todd Whitelaw

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2021

Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, PA Printing and Binding HF Group – Acmebinding, Charlestown, MA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hadjidaki-Marder, Elpida, 1948- author. | Betancourt, Philip P., 1936- contributor. Title: The Minoan shipwreck at Pseira, Crete / by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder with contributions by Philip P. Betancourt [and five others]. Description: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania : INSTAP Academic Press, 2021. | Series: Prehistory monographs ; Volume 65 | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: «The first Minoan shipwreck found near Crete was discovered in 2003 off the islet of Pseira on the northeastern coast of Crete. It was excavated between 2004 and 2009 by the Greek Archaeological Service, directed by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder. The Minoan ship sank around 1725/1700 BC. The recovered cargo constitutes the largest known corpus of complete and almost complete clay vessels from a single Middle Minoan IIB deposit in several categories. The 140 artifacts recovered from the area of the wreck include 46 oval-mouthed and other amphorae, 41 spouted jugs used for transport, and 11 hole-mouthed jars. The activity of each season is described, followed by a catalog with extensive discussion of the pottery, a petrographic analysis, and catalogs of weights and stone tools. The picture that emerges is of a local transport boat, loaded with products from towns on the northern coast of East Crete, and it provides a rich set of information on a society that revolved around seafaring»-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020026126 (print) | LCCN 2020026127 (ebook) | ISBN 9781931534291 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781623034344 (adobe pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Minoans--Greece--Pseira Island. | Shipwrecks--Greece--Crete. | Excavations (Archaeology)--Greece--Pseira Island. | Underwater archaeology--Greece--Crete. | Pottery, Minoan. | Pseira Island (Greece)--Antiquities. Classification: LCC DF221.C8 H3125 2021 (print) | LCC DF221.C8 (ebook) | DDC 909/.096384--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026126 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026127

Copyright © 2021 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

To Malcolm H. Wiener

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations in the Text.......................................................................................... ix List of Figures................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... xi List of Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Preface.. . . . . . ..................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... xv Acknowledgments. . ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xvii List of Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi 1. Introduction, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 1 2. Discovery of the Shipwreck, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 13 3. Excavations, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 17 4. Pottery from the Shipwreck and along the Coast, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 31 5. Petrographic Analysis of the Pottery from the Shipwreck, Eleni Nodarou. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 55 6. Ceramic and Lead Weights from the Shipwreck and along the Coast, Joanne E. Cutler,† Thomas M. Brogan, and Todd Whitelaw. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 7. Ground Stone Implements from the Shipwreck, Heidi M.C. Dierckx.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 69 8. Conclusions, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 73 References................................................................................................................... 77

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Concordance of Excavation and Catalog Numbers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Index.......................................................................................................................... 91 Figures Plates

List of Illustrations in the Text

Illustration 1.1. Map of Crete, indicating locations of Bronze Age sites mentioned in this volume. . ..... xxii Illustration 1.2. Plan of the remains of the Minoan breakwater or quay, indicating depth in m.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Illustration 1.3. Plan of Minoan fortification walls, indicating depth in m.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......9 Illustration 3.1. Finds in 2003 and ROV transits in 2004 used to determine the location of the shipwreck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Illustration 3.2. Plan of the complete excavation, mapped mostly in 2008 and completed in 2009.. . . . . . . . 20 Illustration 3.3. Topographic plan of the 2005 excavation season. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 22 Illustration 3.4. Topographic plan of the 2006 excavation season. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 23 Illustration 3.5. Topographic plan of the southern trenches from the 2007 excavation season.. . . . . . . . ..... 25 Illustration 3.6. Topographic plan of the northern trenches from the 2007 excavation season. . . . . . . . . .... 27 Illustration 3.7. Topographic plan of the 2009 excavation season.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 29 Illustration 5.1. Concordance of petrographic fabrics and vessel shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Illustration 5.2. Small groups and petrographic loners in the Pseira shipwreck assemblage.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Illustration 6.1. Weights from the MM II shipwreck and underwater settlement, plotted by thickness and estimated complete weight.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

x

Illustration 6.2.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

Middle Minoan II clay discoid weights from the underwater excavations at Pseira: weight (preserved and estimated complete), thread thickness, and the calculated thread count per cm when used with threads requiring different tensions in a tabby weave.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Illustration 8.1. Estimated volume of transport containers from the Pseira shipwreck cargo............... 75

List of Figures

Figure 1. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids. Figure 2. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids, highlighting objects made of Mirabello Fabric. Figure 3. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids, highlighting objects believed to have been owned by crew. Figure 4. Hole-mouthed jars (1–4). Figure 5. Hole-mouthed jars (5–11) and jugs (12–15). Figure 6. Jugs (16–33). Figure 7.

Jugs (34–45).

Figure 8. Jugs (46–51) and amphorae (52, 53). Figure 9. Amphorae (54–61). Figure 10. Amphorae (62–67). Figure 11. Amphorae (68–75). Figure 12. Amphorae (76–84). Figure 13. Amphorae (85–93). Figure 14. Amphorae (94–97), basins (98–100), cups (101, 102, 104), and a brazier (103). Figure 15. Cups (105–112, 115–117), a chalice (118), tripods (119–124), jars (125, 126), and jugs (127–131).

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 16. Fragments of large closed vessels (132–135, 137–139, 141, 143–145) and a handle (146). Figure 17. Fragments of closed vessels (147–149, 153–157, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165) and jars (150, 151, 158, 161, 163). Figure 18. Fragments of closed vessels (166, 168–171), a basin (167), and amphorae of various later classes (173–175). Figure 19. Jugs (NL 1–NL 3), a basin (NL 4), and cups (NL 5–NL 30) not from the shipwreck. Figure 20. Cups (NL 31–NL 36) and amphorae (NL 37–NL 40) not from the shipwreck. Figure 21. Amphorae (NL 41–NL 46) not from the shipwreck. Figure 22. Jugs (NL 47–NL 57) and a juglet (NL 58) not from the shipwreck. Figure 23. Jugs (NL 59–NL 61, NL 63–NL 67), juglet (NL 62), jars (NL 68–NL 71), and tripods (NL 72, NL 73) not from the shipwreck. Figure 24. Large fragments from closed vessels (NL 74–NL 80) not from the shipwreck. Figure 25. Single lead weight (176) and clay weights (177–180). Some weights not from the shipwreck (NL 81–NL 89). Figure 26. Clay weights (NL 90–NL 100) not from the shipwreck. Figure 27. Stone tools (PSS 1–PSS 9).

List of Plates

Frontispiece. Yiorgos Klontzas in 2003 with the first hole-mouthed jar (1, 03/22) found at the site of the Pseira shipwreck. Plate 1A. A Minoan sunken building offshore near Stalos, West Crete. Plate 1B. A Minoan wall offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 1C. A Minoan building offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 1D. Part of a Minoan wall offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 1E. A Minoan wall more than 20 m in length, offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 2A. The ancient maritime settlement on Pseira Island, looking northwest. Plate 2B. The seafloor adjacent to Pseira Island, showing buildings and ceramics fallen from the land site. Plate 3A. The submerged rock-cut quay, showing the holes used for tying ships. Plate 3B.

View of the excavation in 2005, with Trench ΑΒΓΔ in the upper center.

Plate 4A. View of the excavation grid at the end of 2005, showing the rocky sea bottom with sandy pockets. Plate 4B. Excavation of vessel 168 (09/172) in 2009 using an airlift. Plate 5.

Hole-mouthed jars (1–3, 6, 8) and jugs (12–14, 20, 29, 31, 31a, 35, 36, 38).

Plate 6.

Amphorae (53, 54, 62, 69, 75, 80, 81) and a basin (98).

xiv

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 7.

Cups (102, 105, 110, 115, 116), brazier (103), tripod cooking tray and pots (119–121), other tripods (123, 124), jar (126), jugs (127, 128), basin (167), closed vessel (168), and later amphorae (173–175).

Plate 8.

Pottery not from the shipwreck: jugs (NL 2, NL 3), a basin (NL 4), cups (NL 5–NL 9, NL 11– NL 13, NL 15, NL 17, NL 23, NL 27, NL 28, NL 31–NL 33), and amphorae (NL 37, NL 39, NL 40).

Plate 9.

Pottery not from the shipwreck: amphorae (NL 44, NL 46), jugs and juglet (NL 48, NL 49, NL 55, NL 62, NL 63, NL 65, NL 66), bridge-spouted jar (NL 71), a tripod (NL 73), and a Byzantine amphora (NL 80).

Plate 10A. Fabric with granitic-dioritic fragments (sample PSA 11/11, 26), the variant for jars. Plate 10B. Fabric with granitic-dioritic fragments (sample PSA 11/29, 119), the variant for cooking vessels. Plate 10C. Fabric with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/16, 71). Plate 10D. Fabric with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/32, 120), possibly from Palaikastro. Plate 10E. Fabric with mica-schist (sample PSA 11/19, 103). Plate 10F. Fabric with micritic limestone (sample PSA 11/01, 7). Plate 11A. Loner with dark siltstone (sample PSA 11/26, 44). Plate 11B. Loner with weathered calcite (sample PSA 11/27, 43). Plate 11C. Loner with sedimentary rock fragments (sample PSA 11/28, 95). Plate 11D. Loner with serpentinite (sample PSA 11/02, 149). Plate 12A. Loner with argillaceous fragments (sample PSA 11/10, 30). Plate 12B. Loner with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/15, 81). Plate 12C. Loner with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/24, NL 80). Plate 12D. Loner with micritic limestone (sample PSA 11/23, 175). Plate 13. Single lead weight (176) and clay weights (177–180). Some weights not from the shipwreck (NL 81–NL 89). Plate 14.

Ceramic weights (NL 90–NL 100) not from the shipwreck.

Plate 15.

Stone tools (PSS 1–PSS 10).

Preface

This book aims to shed light on a small but bold maritime community on the island of Pseira in the Mirabello Bay, East Crete. The settlement on Pseira was built on a rocky promontory that offered a natural double bay for the protection of ships and was founded in the Final Neolithic period, well before 3000 b.c. The Pseirans were seafarers from earliest times, and many of the town’s ordinary needs (including all the pottery) were carried to the island by sea. Early Bronze Age goods from distant sources, such as obsidian from Melos and metals including gold (Betancourt 2003, 68), indicate that Pseira was participating in longdistance trade as early as the Early Minoan (EM) II period. The island was never isolated. A ship transporting cargo from the coastal region of the Mirabello Bay sank near Pseira in Middle Minoan (MM) IIB, around the second half of the 18th century b.c. This was a time when the Middle Bronze Age palaces had already been built at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia. The site is 5.5 nautical miles from the Minoan town of Gournia and 2 miles from the smaller settlement at Mochlos. The ship came to rest at a depth of 35–45 m, sufficient to deter all but professional divers; in 2003, when we found the wreck, it had been looted. Fortunately, remains of its large cargo were safely buried in pockets of sand on the rocky bottom. No wood from the hull survived. Nevertheless, the over 140 artifacts that were excavated provide evidence for the seafaring activities of the inhabitants of Pseira; their contacts with the rest of Crete, the Dodecanese, and perhaps western Anatolia; the goods that they traded; the harbors to which they sailed; and hints about the kind of ships that made the trade possible. The shipwreck is the first and largest MM IIB example to have been found and excavated. The results of the investigation are due to a mixture of skill and good luck and the generosity of the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP).

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PREFACE

Finding a Minoan shipwreck had been a goal of marine archaeologists for decades, especially for the community of Greek marine archaeologists. Maritime archaeology is particularly expensive because it relies on divers who can work only for a limited amount of time each day and whose lives depend on support personnel and diving equipment. A Greek department of underwater archaeology was founded in the 1970s. There were frequent public declarations that underwater archaeology was essential to the future of the discipline, but adequate funding was always uncertain, and by the year 2000, research projects had slowed to a trickle. The Minoan shipwreck thus would likely never have been found without support from INSTAP. In 2002, I received an invitation to apply for a grant from INSTAP. The application was successful, and it made possible a first month of exploration in September 2003. Promising results led to additional financial support from INSTAP that allowed an additional survey in June 2004 and excavations and surveys from 2005 to 2009. The project was conducted by an almost exclusively Greek team. The deep-water geophysical survey in 2003 was conducted in collaboration with George Anastasakis of the Department of Geology, University of Athens. He was accompanied by three assistants: Spiros Maroulakis, Giorgos Sgouros, and Christos Agelopoulos. We had occasional assistance from the diving archaeologist, Miranda-Despina Hinkley, and the marine biologist, Kostas Frangoulis. The 9 m boat used to house the geophysical equipment was the ΑΦΕΝΤΗΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ Ν.Α.Ν. 162. Also participating in that first year was a deep-diving team led by Yiorgos Klontzas. He and his associates, Kostas Kirsanof and Nikos Golfis, worked from a 20-m wooden sponge-diving boat, ΑΓΙΟΣ ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΣ Ν.Α.Ν. 92, equipped with a decompression chamber and other equipment. Klontzas and his team returned in all subsequent years, and his boat became the center from which the survey and eventually the excavation were conducted. The dedication of all the team members was remarkable. They dived at great depths and withstood uncertainties both about the weather and about continued official tolerance, all for a very modest compensation, the love of the sea, and the chance to participate in a project they would remember forever. Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder Phalasarna, Crete 2018

Acknowledgments

The underwater excavation of the Minoan shipwreck at Pseira was a Greek project under my direction during the time I served as deputy director of the Department of Maritime Antiquities in the Ministry of Culture. The project lasted for seven years (2003–2009), and it was funded almost exclusively by the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). Additional contributions came from Michael Marder of the University of Texas at Austin. The excavation and the publication of the present volume would not have been accomplished without the generous financial assistance of INSTAP and above all the support of Malcom H. Wiener, founder and chief benefactor of the institute to whom this book is dedicated. I am also most grateful to Philip Betancourt, executive director of INSTAP, and Thomas Brogan, director of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete; it was because of their initiative that the project took place and allowed my childhood dream of finding a Minoan shipwreck to come true. I have been diving in the Venetian port of Chania in western Crete since I was seven years old, collecting old silverware that seemed to me out of place in the local marine environment. I grew up to become a marine archaeologist and despite specializing in the historical period, I never stopped searching for Minoan harbors and ships. It finally happened in September 2003, when I saw a Minoan hole-mouthed jar lying half buried on a sandy seafloor at a depth of 41 m, in the straits between Pseira Island and the northeastern coast of Crete. The ensuing excavations were successful because of the highly skilled team of coral divers led by a fearless captain and owner of the diving boat, Yiorgos Klontzas. He served as chief diver and took responsibility for the safety of all diving team members. His associate divers, Kostas Kirsanof and Nikos Golfis, dived once or more each day and provided the airlift for the excavation, underwater voice

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

communication, and video. They converted to enthusiastic supporters of archaeology and worked day and night with us, seven days a week. Occasional assistance whenever needed because of strong winds or problems with the airlift was provided by the diving technicians, Kyriakos Kavalaris, Thrasyboulos Hiloudakis, and Vasilis Voyiatzis. The diving club owner and businessman, Nikos Koutoulakis, was an enthusiastic supporter from the beginning who recommended personnel and provided extra diving equipment when we ran short. The archaeological team in addition to myself consisted of Michael Bendon, Lisa Briggs, Ioanna Damanaki, Chrisi Frangiadaki, Evangelia Frangou, Sofia Frangoulopoulou, Yiorgos Garantonakis, Miranda-Despina Hinkley, Derek Irwin, Lilian Martin,† Mirto Michali, Ioanna Roussia, and Eleftheria Tsoupaki. Diving archaeologist Despina Koutsoumba participated in 2009 as an official representative of the Ministry of Culture, Department of Maritime Antiquities. The photographers had constant work, as far down as 48 m and on the surface as the finds came up, and their contribution is highly appreciated. They include Ioulios Glambedakis, Nike Marder, Vasilis Mentoyiannis, and Georgos Phillipaios.† Dimitri Markatos assisted with photography and served as legal counsel for the team; we found that we needed his services more than anticipated. The contribution of Nike Marder was particularly critical, as she took charge of ensuring that the artifacts underwater were photographed systematically in the position where they were found and then cataloged for later reference. She also took many of the photographs immediately after artifacts were brought to the surface and later after cleaning in the museum. Many additional photographs recording artifacts and used for photogrammetry were taken by Vasilis Mentoyiannis. Ioulios Glambedakis was responsible for photographs showing the dig in action. I thank Michel Braunstein for offering use of Plate 2B. Mapping and plotting during the excavations were executed by Dimitris Timologos and Michael Marder. The drawings of the pottery and final maps were produced by Douglas Faulmann, chief artist of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete. Eleanor Huffman helped with recording and checking artifacts. Conservation of the artifacts was carried out by Stefania Chlouveraki and Matina Tzari of the INSTAP Study Center, and Roula Maninou from the Department of Maritime Antiquities. Mary Betancourt† served as the registrar. Photographs of all the objects for final publication were taken by Chronis Papanikolopoulos, drawings were made by Lily Bonga, and pottery maps were produced by Florence Hsu. I thank all these professionals for their persistence and hard work. Several diving professionals assisted as volunteers: Christos Agouridis, Kostas Frangoulis, Angelos Maglis, Yiannis Rokas, Marion Soltermann, Yiannis Triantafilidis, Yiorgos Patroudakis, and Eleni Vlazaki. Lianna Kissinger-Virizlay helped with the pottery cataloging on the ship and in the Siteia Archaeological Museum (SM). Ioanna Hadjidaki volunteered and assisted the team in a variety of tasks, including handling logistics, providing supplies, cooking on the boat, monitoring the basket under the airlift, and helping with photography and the first desalination of the artifacts as they were being recovered from the seafloor. In 2005, she was assisted by Thanasis Kaloyiannis, and in 2006 by Eli Galbraith. In 2003, a geophysical survey was carried out by George Anastasakis, Department of Geology at the University of Athens, and his three assistants: Spiros Maroulakis, Yiorgos Sgouros, and Christos Agelopoulos. In 2004, Marinos Pittas, an engineer, and his assistant, Panagiotis Matsis, employed a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) assisted by Yiorgos Tzanakis† who provided a video of all ROV transects.

THE MINOAN SHIPWRECK AT PSEIRA, CRETE

I had the privilege of excavating this shipwreck because of expertise in underwater archaeology, but when the project began I had a great deal to learn about Minoan pottery. In addition to drawing on the knowledge of Philip Betancourt, I benefited greatly from discussions with Honor Frost,† Birgitta Hallager, Eric Hallager, Athanasia Kanta, Alexander MacGillivray, Jennifer Moody, Tom Palaima, Çemal Pulak, Yiannis Sakellarakis, Efi Sakellaraki, Elias Spondylis, Harry Tzalas, and Maria Vlazaki. Vili Apostolakou, director of the Department of Antiquities of Lasithi, was consistently supportive of the project throughout the years, and she encouraged the artifacts to be exhibited in the museum in Siteia. The Greek Archaeological Council was also supportive of the requests for permits, as were the Greek Ministers of Culture, Michalis Liapis, Antonis Samaras, Petros Tatoulis, Evangelos Venizelos, Yiorgos Voulgarakis, and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dora Bakoyianni. The harbor police from Hagios Nikolaos and Siteia assisted in numerous ways. Many residents of Mochlos provided help and support whenever it was needed. Finally, I am most grateful to my parents-in-law, Herbert and Norma Marder, for reading the manuscript and making suggestions. Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

xix

List of Abbreviations

cm d. dim. EM est. g GPS h. INSTAP kg km L. LM m max.

centimeter(s) diameter dimension Early Minoan estimated gram(s) global positioning system height Institute for Aegean Prehistory kilogram(s) kilometer(s) length Late Minoan meter(s) maximum

mm millimeter(s) MM Middle Minoan NL cataloged artifact from near the land pres. preserved PSA Pseira shipwreck petrographic analysis number PSS cataloged stone artifact from the Pseira shipwreck ROV remotely operated vehicle SM Siteia Archaeological Museum catalog number th. thickness w. width wt. weight

Lissos Sphakia

Gavdos

50 km

Libyan Sea

Phaistos

Hagia Triada

Monastiraki

Kokkinos Pyrgos Kommos

Plakias

Frangokastelo

Stavromenos Eleutherna

Pera Galini

Kapetaniana

Myrtos

Ierapetra

Lefki

Dia Amnissos Chersonissos Mirabello Bay Nirou Chani Sissi Petras Knossos Gouves Elounda Pseira Siteia Hagia Photia Island Malia Galatas Mochlos Priniatikos Pyrgos Palaikastro Mesara Plain Istron Pacheia Ammos Gournia Zakros Gortyn

Poros-Katsambas

Illustration 1.1. Map of Crete, indicating locations of Bronze Age sites mentioned in this volume. Drawing E. Hadjidaki-Marder.

N

0

Cape Krios

Chrisoskalitissa

Galatas

Kydonia (Chania) Stavros Tavronitis Stalos Cape Akrotiri

Nopigia Phalasarna Kissamos

Kaliviani

xxii 

1

Introduction by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

The Minoans were a seafaring people. This is indicated by historical and archaeological evidence from which scholars have assembled an impressive amount of information on their life and society during the one and a half millennia they flourished on the island of Crete. There are, nevertheless, hundreds of years for which much remains to be learned about this vibrant civilization. One such period encompasses 200 years of the Middle Minoan (MM) II period, also called the Protopalatial period (ca. 1900–1700 b.c.). It is an important period for historians for it is the time of the rise of kings and rulers and their palatial structures. These administrative centers (Ill. 1.1) were first built in East and Central Crete at Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908; Buell and McEnroe 2017), Malia (Hatzidakis 1931; Chapouthier, Demargne, and Dessenne 1962; van Effenterre 1980), Petras (Tsipopoulou 1999, 2002, 2016), Knossos (Evans 1921– 1935), and Phaistos (Halbherr 1906; Levi 1976; Di Vita, La Rosa, and Rizzo, eds., 1984). Smaller centers existed in West Crete at Kydonia (AndreadakiVlazaki 1996, 18; Andreadaki-Vlazaki, ed., 2009,

16) and Monastiraki (Kanta 1999; 2012, 177; Kanta, Godart, and Tzigounaki 2000). Despite their destruction at the end of MM IIB, enough evidence survives of their remarkable past. Most of the early palaces and towns seem to have been destroyed by an earthquake, or several large earthquakes, dating to ca. 1725–1700 b.c. (Thommeret et al. 1981, 144; Guidoboni, Comastri, and Traina 1994; La Rosa 1995; Stiros and Jones 1996; Monaco and Tortorici 2004). Only scattered architectural remains of the settlements of the Protopalatial period survive, but abundant crushed pottery and graves rich with artifacts have been recovered (Evans 1921–1935, II; Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1972; Platon 1974; Levi 1976; Poursat and Knappett 2005). Rapid rebuilding over the shattered ruins began soon after the earthquakes, leading to the Neopalatial, or Late Minoan, era (ca. 1700–1450 b.c.), a golden age during which Minoans asserted their authority over Crete and the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to the older palaces, elaborate new structures appeared at Zakros in East Crete (Hogarth 1900–1901; Platon 1971, 1974),

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Galatas in Central Crete (Rethemiotakis 1999a, 1999b, 2002), and Kydonia to the west (Tzedakis 1968; 1969; Hallager and Tzedakis 1982; Hallager 1985, 139–154; Hallager, Vlasakis, and Hallager 1992). Thucydides, who tended to be conservative in his assessments, referred to King Minos of Crete as the first ruler of the seas who created a great kingdom, rid the seas of pirates, and protected sea routes and trade (Thuc. I.4). This volume is devoted to a shipwreck found near Pseira Island in the Mirabello Bay, off the north coast of East Crete. It dates to the MM IIB period, the same time as the earthquakes that destroyed, among many other centers, Pseira and its neighboring maritime towns of Mochlos and Gournia. The shipwreck provides new information on a hidden part of Minoan history that was overshadowed by the glow of the Late Minoan period. It will contribute to a deeper understanding of early mariners, who did not trade in luxury goods for the palaces but rather who sailed from port to port along the coast, engaging in both local and overseas trade importing “raw materials from distant areas that required a difficult voyage lasting many days, such as Melos or the islet of Gyali” (Betancourt 1994–1996, 70). The discovery of the first Minoan palace in the late 19th century, the west facade of the grand palace at Knossos, attracted archaeological research to the palace regions. An international archaeological community concentrated on Central and East Crete for 100 years, locating not only palace remains and associated grand buildings but also coastal settlements where civilization and overseas trade had started centuries before. The civilization on West Crete may have been no less developed, but investigations have lagged behind those in the east, partly for lack of resources but also because of misunderstandings about the geomorphology, as is explained below. Nevertheless, explorations of caves along the coast on the Akrotiri peninsula at the northeastern end of Chania and at Kissamos on Crete’s far western end revealed habitation and the processing of obsidian from Melos during the Final Neolithic period (ca. 3500 b.c.), the same time as in East Crete (Andreadaki-Vlazaki 1996, 10). Furthermore, the detailed survey of the Sphakia region by Lucia Nixon and colleagues and the comprehensive survey and excavation of the island of Gavdos by Katerina Kopaka have revealed

Neolithic habitation (Nixon, Moody, and Rackham 1988; Rackham and Moody 1996, 206; Kopaka 2005, 98–100). More recently, Thomas Strasser and his team found evidence of Lower Paleolithic occupation near the Bay of Plakias on the south coast, a fact that implies “the early inhabitants of Crete reached the island using sea craft capable of open-sea navigation and multiple journeys—a finding that pushes the history of seafaring in the Mediterranean back by more than 100,000 years and has important implications for the dispersal of early humans” (Strasser et al. 2010, 145). Architectural remains, cups of Vasiliki Ware, and stone pounders that come from Prepalatial houses, as well as remains from an Early Minoan palace, were excavated on the Minoan seaside hill of Kastelli (ancient Kydonia; Andreadaki-Vlazaki, ed., 2009; Milidakis 2009, 79–83; Protopapadaki 2009). In 1986, as excavation began at Phalasarna, I found early walls, pottery, rock shelters, and obsidian blades (Hadjidaki 1988). On the same cape, where the Classical and Hellenistic acropolis was built, remains of long Minoan walls, perhaps used for defense, are still unexcavated. Although archaeological work is more concentrated on Central and East Crete, civilization developed uniformly throughout the island, and West Crete was indeed “part of a pan-Cretan system” (Hallager, Papadopoulou, and Tzachili 2011, 70). Additional evidence for this claim is presented below. Since 1900, ongoing excavations have yielded information on Minoan maritime societies, the monumental buildings, the processing of obsidian, the strong Cycladic contacts, and the early exchange of ideas with the Aegean and Anatolian towns. The excavation of 263 tombs at Hagia Photia dating to the Early Minoan (EM) I–IIA periods revealed Anatolian pottery similar to that found at Troy I and the Seyitomer region in inland Turkey (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 90). These finds indicate trade and artistic influence involving Crete and western Anatolia (Davaras 1971; Shank 2005). Elegant stone vases from Egypt, ceramic and metal imports from the Levant, and ship representations on seals reveal international Cretan connections prior to the appearance of the Early Minoan palaces (Watrous 2005, 114). Excavations at coastal settlements all over Crete that are discussed later, such as Kaliviani, Mochlos, Nopigia, Palaikastro, and Pseira, have produced

INTRODUCTION

evidence for trade contacts with the Syro-Palestine coast and Egypt during the MM II and III periods. Many lines of evidence contribute to understanding the maritime activities of the Minoans: goods they traded within Crete and across the sea; colorful frescoes depicting “rivers, sea routes, and bays with Minoan or Aegean towns on their shores” (Rethemiotakis 2008, 108); representations of ships engraved on seals; coastal settlements; harbor constructions such as breakwaters and quays; shipsheds; stone anchors; and remains of shipwrecks. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

Early Maritime Trade Much information about the Minoans’ early overseas trading network comes from their early contacts with the islands of Melos and Nisyros, where they obtained obsidian, and their trading posts on the islands of Aegina, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Kythera, Samos, and Samothrace. The strategic settlement at Miletos along the western Anatolian coast provided a base from which the Minoans could search for routes to sources of metals (Knappett and Nikolakopoulou 2005; Raymond 2005, 2007). Additional contacts were with Troy, Iasos, the Cilician region, and the island of Cyprus, although Early Minoan presence at these places was not as significant as at Miletos (Catling and Karageorghis 1960, 110–112; Niemeier 1999; 2005; Momigliano 2005, 219–220). The harbor at Byblos in Lebanon “was chosen as a favorite port of call at least from EM II–MM II (A?)” (Sørensen 2009, 22), and the harbor of Ugarit in Syria, an international port that Clairy Palyvou (2007, 44) notes as featuring “Trans Cultural Integrated Elements,” accommodated trade for the Minoans during MM IIB. Items sent through these harbors on their way from Crete to Babylon included Cretan weapons and Kamares Ware pottery (Malamat 1971, 38; Wiener 1990; 1991, 328). Tablets from the palace at Mari on the Euphrates River that survived the burning by King Hammurabi of Babylon in ca. 1760 b.c. mention Crete as “Kap-ta-ra” and record objects of Cretan origin in the palace, such as shoes, a leather box, a scepter, weapons covered with gold and lapis lazuli, gold and silver vessels,

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and a ship built by Cretans (Sørensen 2009, tables 1, 2). Shipments of tin, including one from Persia for the Caphtorite, were sent through Ugarit (Malamat 1971, 34). Fragments of Middle Minoan painted plaster and wall paintings were also excavated at the Canaanite palace at Tel Kabri in Israel (Kempinski and Niemeier 1990; 1991; Niemeier 1991; 1995; Morgan 2007, 122; Yasur-Landau and Cline 2008; Cline and Yasur-Landau 2013). Commodities the Minoans exchanged with Egypt and Syro-Palestinian coastal towns have been excavated in abundance (Betancourt 2011)— enough to support large museum exhibitions in Greece and abroad (Karetsou, Andreadaki-Vlazaki, and Papadakis, eds., 2000; Andreadaki-Vlazaki, Rethemiotakis, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki, eds., 2008). Imported Egyptian stone vases, hippopotamus ivory seals, carnelian, rock crystal, a hematite seal, a silver Syrian seal, gold, and figurines with Egyptian artistic influence were found at tholos tombs on the south coast of the Herakleion region in the Mesara Plain, at Hagia Triada near Phaistos, and at several seaside towns, including Palaikastro, Mochlos, Pseira, and Myrtos in East Crete, and Nopigia and Kaliviani to the west. The large number of imported artifacts concentrated around the southern coastal sites of the Mesara Plain suggests that overseas contacts were made directly from a harbor on the south side of Crete where a sea route probably existed (Warren 1969; Davaras 1986). Philip Betancourt (2007b, 212) agrees that these imported products dating from EM III to MM IA, as well as eastern products and ideas, entered Crete through the Mesara. Susan Ferrence (2007, 173) suggests that “an unexcavated Early Minoan port may exist in the southern Mesara, possibly near Hagia Triada or Kokkinos Pyrgos or elsewhere.” Indeed, there exists a candidate site for such a port on the south coast of the Mesara, at Kapetaniana, which could have been used to trade directly with Egypt and the Levant, as discussed below. Conversely, Kamares Ware cups with creative motifs in red, orange, and white were imported into Egypt and the Levant, along with colorful fabrics, jewelry, olive oil, aromatic oils, pharmaceutical herbs, metal, and stone vessels. As early as ca. 2670 b.c., when Pharaoh Djoser of Egypt (Tosorthros in Greek) was building his step pyramid at Saqqara, Cretan merchants were sailing across

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the Libyan Sea and trading products of high value (Kanta 1998, 31–34; Serpetsidaki 2000). The overwhelming evidence indicates the existence of an extensive Early Minoan trading network that reached northern Africa, Anatolia, and the Syro-Palestinian coast and that formed the foundations of expansion during the Middle Minoan period.

Ship Representations Ship engravings on seals representing seagoing vessels existed before the Protopalatial period—as early as ca. 2300 b.c. Inscribed on bones and soft stones, such seals have been found in the southern Mesara circular tombs near the coast and in the independent economic entity at Malia (Kenna 1960, 26 no. 10, 32 no. 6, 94, 98, pls. 3:49, 4:71; Betts 1971, figs. 1–4; Basch 1987, 99–106, figs. B3–B5, D2, D5). The depictions of long and narrow ships with masts, oars, two or three stays, and a three-pronged end indicate that Cretan mariners were comfortable navigating the open seas even at this early date. The construction of the first palaces in ca. 2000 b.c. is associated with the emergence of central palace authorities, who oversaw shipbuilding and possibly directed trade under a ruling elite. This new elite society seems to have organized religion, art, writing in hieroglyphic and Linear A script, and seagoing trade. Their evolution is reflected in images of increasing sophistication in MM I and II seals, with engravings on semiprecious stones of naturalistic motifs that include animals, human figures, transport vases, and ships. Seals have been found at Malia, Mochlos, Palaikastro, and Phaistos: “twenty one schematic representations of onemasted ships are extant on early Cretan seals” (Yule 1981, 166, pl. 28, motif 52:2–7; see also Casson 1971, figs. 32–34; Betts 1973; Basch 1987, 93– 106, figs. A 1–H 6; Wachsmann 1998, 99–104, fig. 6.29). A ship engraved on a seal from Pseira is discussed in Chapter 2. The seagoing vessels of 2000 b.c. are depicted slightly rounded, high at one end, with a mast and two or three stays, and oars—evolution that could correspond to an increase in overseas trade. Whether the high end is the bow or stern is still debated. Lucien Basch (1987, 114–115) notes it can be

sometimes interpreted as the stern, while Shelley Wachsmann (1998, 103) argues it is always the bow. A boat from Mochlos of the Protopalatial period is engraved on a rectangular steatite stone, and it has a crescent shape with a mast, rigging fore and aft, and six oars (Soles 2012, 188–191, fig. 21.7). The representation suggests a seagoing vessel, 10 m long. From the number of oars, although they should not be taken too literally, one can estimate that boats during this period had lengths ranging from 8 to 10 m. The famous Phaistos disk, which has 45 different seal impressions in hieroglyphic scripts stamped on both surfaces and which dates to ca. 1850 b.c., contains seven symbols of ships, each with a high prow and stern but no oars (Godart 1995, 76–78). The MM IIB Pseira seal also does not depict oars (see Hadjidaki-Marder, this vol., Ch. 2). Other seals engraved with representations of amphorae and liquid transport vessels evidence commercial activities, as they were also used to stamp containers (Yule 1981, pls. 2.39, 29.53.1– 15, 30.54.10, 56.2.8). The ship motif seals may have depicted ships that served additional religious, ceremonial, or military purposes (Betts 1973; Wachsmann 1998, 111). Whether or not this is the case, the important point is that ships figured so prominently in the Minoan world that artists developed schematic representations of them, which they inscribed on semiprecious stones. This indicates the high level of significance ships must have held in the Minoan culture. Ships were essential for the society to survive, as they provided access to the raw materials of tin and copper. Exceptionally important ship representations from the coastal settlement of Minoan Thera are depicted on the “miniature fresco” excavated from the West House at Akrotiri by Spyridon Marinatos in 1972 (S. Marinatos 1974, 170–235; N. Marinatos 1984; Morgan 1988). The scenes relate to Late Minoan (LM) IA, a period somewhat later than that of central interest in this volume but nevertheless relevant as the imagery depicts many aspects of maritime life, including a harbor town with a rocky shore, boats, and large rounded seagoing vessels with up to 21 paddles (Basch 1987, 93–107; Wachsmann 1998, 86–122; Betancourt 2007a, 121). The frescoes have been extensively discussed elsewhere so the information will not be repeated here. It is important to note, however, that “the fresco appears to form an illustration of the ‘Thalassocracy

INTRODUCTION

of Minos’, based on an unrivalled fleet, on which troops could be transported and disembarked at every point in the Aegean” (Niemeier 1990, 279). Ship model iconography also represents the “cultural and social significance of maritime activity” (Papadatos 2012, 157; see also Wedde 2000). Terracotta, stone, and alabaster models have been found at Minoan coastal settlements at Hagia Triada, Petras, Mochlos, and Palaikastro (Marinatos 1933, 184, fig. 1; Davaras 1984; Basch 1987, 83, 132, figs. 170, 171, 276; Papadatos 2012). Most date to the Early Minoan period and depict dugout boats. A ceramic model of an EM IA boat discovered at Petras is considered to be the earliest known ship model on Crete (Papadatos and Tomkins 2013, 372). Thirteen boat models excavated at Mochlos dating from the Protopalatial to the Neopalatial periods led Jeffrey Soles (2012, 187) to state that “much of daily life at Mochlos revolved around boats, which were the life blood of the community.”

Coastal Settlements During the six years we carried out underwater investigations near Pseira Island, we dived on a daily basis over sunken remains of the ancient town that lay on the route from our anchorage to the wreck site and where we stopped to decompress. The most notable observations included part of a Minoan quay with mooring holes and a stone anchor (see Hadjidaki-Marder, this vol., Ch. 3). This requires some discussion of the coastal settlements that were active during the Middle Minoan period to provide context and to emphasize that the close relationship the Minoans had with the sea extended simultaneously to all parts of the island. Minoan harbor towns and their ports were built near rivers on top of promontories projecting into the sea and, in most cases, were protected by nearby islands. This was the case on East Crete, at Gournia (Boyd 1904; Boyd Hawes et al. 1908; Soles 1979, 151–156), Hagia Photia (Davaras 1971; Davaras and Betancourt 2004), Mochlos (Seager 1912; Soles and Davaras 1992; 1996), Palaikastro (Bosanquet 1901– 1902a; MacGillivray et al. 1984, 131), Petras (Bosanquet 1901–1902b), and the coastal site on the Kephali hill at Sissi located east of the palace of Malia (Driessen et al. 2009). The harbor settlement at

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Priniatikos Pyrgos was a center for pottery production, exporting to Pseira among other places, and while it had no island nearby, it was flanked by a river and built on a headland (Hall 1914, 84– 85; Hayden et al. 2007). We do not know the original configuration of the site because substantial remains are now underwater, and they have not been explored. Pseira is a small island not far from the northern coast, and thus it is protected by Crete itself (Seager 1910; Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 1995, 1998a, 1999, 2002, 2003). In the region of Central Crete, early seaside centers have been excavated at Amnissos and Poros-Katsambas (Marinatos 1932, 1933, 1934; Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004). All Minoan seaside towns—which I have surveyed all over Crete—were situated near rivers that in some cases may have been navigable by small boats. The small seaside settlements along the south coast of Crete, at Myrtos and Trypiti, and at Kapetaniana in the Herakleion prefecture, had no island protection, but they were built on steep hills some distance from the coast and near rivers (Warren 1972; Vasilakis 1995, 2010b; Hadjidaki 2004). At Myrtos, the coast today has a long, sandy beach where walls can be seen from time to time under the water protruding from the sandy seafloor. The date of the buildings cannot be known without excavation, but the possibility of Minoan harbor remains should not be ruled out. Additional sunken prehistoric sites and isolated buildings that deserve investigation along the center and east coast of Crete include Dia Island, Gouves, Mochlos, Nirou Chani, Pacheia Ammos, Palaikastro, Pseira, and the island of Lefki. In West Crete, the discoveries are more recent: excavations have revealed harbor towns of the Middle Minoan era at Pera Galini, a site built on two small peninsulas (Banou and Tsivilika 2006), and at Kydonia, built on the rocky promontory of Kastelli affording a bay on either side (AndreadakiVlazaki 1996; Andreadaki-Vlazaki, ed., 2009). West of Kydonia, Middle Minoan remains of coastal settlements are present at Stalos (Hood 1965, 108; Photiou 1975); Nopigia, a fortified site built near a river (Andreadaki-Vlazaki 1994–1996); and Kaliviani (Skordou 2012). On the far west coast are the uplifted sites of Phalasarna (AndreadakiVlazaki 1996, 14) and Chrisoskalitissa (Hood 1967). Cape Krios, Frangokastelo (Hood 1967, 52– 54), Lissos (Andreadaki-Vlazaki 1996, 16), and the

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Sphakia coastal region are on the south coast. Nixon and colleagues located 17 sites in Sphakia with prehistoric pottery as well as obsidian and stone tools and concluded that “the presence of prehistoric sherds in nearly every part of Sphakia suggests extensive, not intensive, exploitation of the entire area during this period, rather than partial development along the coast as might have been inferred from earlier research” (Nixon, Moody, and Rackham 1988, 171). It should be noted that two of the above-mentioned coastal towns—Nopigia and Kaliviani—have been only partially excavated. They are somewhat protected by the two long promontories of Spatha and Grambousa and the deep rivers associated with them, so more coastal remains might continue underwater. These excavations confirm that the Minoans had a well-developed civilization on the western end of the island that was blooming during the same period as it was on East Crete. They also provide evidence of international contacts with Egypt, trade with the rest of Crete, and Minoan expansion to the island of Kythera. On most parts of Crete, Early and Middle Minoan settlements are concentrated along the coast, confirming that their culture revolved around trade and the sea.

Harbor Installations The broad extent of Minoan trade and the representations of seagoing vessels lead naturally to the idea that the early Minoans must have had harbor works on Crete, especially where the coast offered no natural protection. This point was first emphasized to me by Honor Frost, who brought to my attention possible Minoan rock-cut structures on East Crete that she found during the late 1970s. Her trained eye noticed Minoan features similar to Phoenician harbor works along the Levantine coast, and she believed that “the earliest harbourworks would not have been built, but cut out of (a) rocky outcrops, (b) the offshore reefs that run parallel with the land, or (c) islands” (Frost 1972, 97; see also 1973b; 1995; 2004). Many scholars have disputed this contention, stating that Minoan ships were mainly beached. Lionel Casson (1971, 361–362) writes, “Throughout the Greco-Roman antiquity, the craft

that tramped from coastal town to coastal town or between small islands often loaded and unloaded off beaches without benefit of harbor installations of any kind; there is every reason to think that Bronze Age cargo carriers did the same.” Similarly, Stella Chryssoulaki (2005, 83) notes, “Generally speaking . . . we do not have at present major testimonia that would indicate extensive constructions for anchoring and loading ships at Cretan Bronze Age harbor sites.” She identifies four types of natural protection: (a) estuaries; (b) peninsulas that allow ships to be dragged onto a beach, with Pseira as an example; (c) peninsulas that are now submerged, with Mochlos as an example; and (d) offshore islets that afforded protection. Clearly, the Minoans made use of natural protection, as we do today, and Mochlos is a good example: a narrow isthmus connects the Cretan mainland to an islet—creating a double harbor, one on either side—that could be used according to the prevailing winds (Seager 1909; Soles 2005, 437). Even in this case, it should be noted that the isthmus today is underwater, and it is entirely possible that further underwater investigation will uncover evidence for artificial construction near a submerged building that is easily visible today. Artificial harbor works are likely to have been more common than is recognized. Many authors acknowledge that Minoan harbor remains are hard to find because on Crete, as throughout the ancient world, there has been overbuilding, and the coastline has shifted (Flemming 1986; Pirazzoli, Laborel, and Stiros 1996; Blue 1997; Mourtzas, Kolaiti, and Anzidei 2016). On the one hand, the extent of the difficulty this creates has been underestimated. On the other hand, examples of Minoan installations that have been found are overlooked. It is a mixed blessing that Crete is seismically active, causing the coastline to shift by hundreds of meters in many places, because it has saved harbor works from being overbuilt. In almost all cases, preserved Minoan harbors are tens to hundreds of meters from the modern shore; this includes some sites where the prehistoric harbor works are now several meters underwater and other sites that are now buried inland. Examples exist both on the east and on the west sides of the island. Because in so many cases the coastline has been severely altered or harbor sites have been overbuilt, there is only one known example of a Minoan

INTRODUCTION

harbor still at the water’s edge. It is at Kapetaniana, on the southern coast of Crete, below the Mesara Plain, 40 km from the palace of Phaistos (Hadjidaki 2004; Knapp and Demesticha 2017, 15). To build the harbor there, the top of a small reef was flattened, and lines of boulders, each up to 1 m in length, were placed on top, creating a mole that survives to 40 m in length. In the only place where the coast was flat enough to bring boats ashore, the Minoans created an artificial construction for additional protection. Pottery concreted within the boulders and sherds collected from the immediate vicinity date the structure to the EM II–MM III periods, possibly continuing into the Late Minoan period. As far as we know, Kapetaniana is the earliest example of a man-made structure serving a Minoan harbor installation. It was an important port for a direct sea route to Egypt, and it is possible that independent local tradesmen imported raw materials for distribution to the rest of the island. Perhaps the Early Minoan stone vases and the seals that were discovered in 13 nearby coastal sites came from Egypt on Cretan ships, were unloaded at this port, and then were distributed to the nearby centers. The harbor at Kapetaniana has been preserved because of its isolation from the rest of the island and its difficulty of approach, so only the Minoans ever developed it. Kommos harbor may also have served as a port for South-Central Crete, as suggested by the remains of MM I–IIB pottery and a paved causeway leading to the sea. But it is near the early palace of Phaistos, with which it is most closely associated (Betancourt 1990a; Shaw and Shaw 1993; Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1995; Shaw 2006, 10–11; Van de Moortel 2007, 179). The islet that once made it a protected harbor site is now submerged at a depth of 4 m (Mourtzas, Kolaiti, and Anzidei 2016, 55–57). Otherwise, no structural features of Minoan port facilities have been excavated along the south-central coast, despite potential sites and underwater investigations that suggest additional possibilities. Except for Kapetaniana, other known Minoan ports have fallen into the sea, or they are located inland and away from the shore because of the extraordinary seismic activity on Crete. However, evidence that does remain shows that the method of port construction was the same. At Gournia, Kapetaniana, and Pseira, reefs or rocky promontories jutting into the sea were flattened, and large

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boulders were placed on top to be used as moles and quays. Artificial rock-cut holes were used as mooring stones for tying the boats while in port (Watrous 2012). The difficulty of finding Minoan harbor sites has been particularly pronounced on West Crete where archaeological research for coastal habitation during the Middle Minoan period is less complete than on the eastern part of the island. Jennifer Moody, who has surveyed the west for many years and who has located many new sites on land, describes six early palatial settlements from the region of Rethymnon and one from Chania but admits that “although fewer Protopalatial sites than Neopalatial are known from the Chania Region as a whole, this may not be an accurate reflection of activity” (Moody 2004, 253). Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki (1994–1996, 13) corroborates that this part of the island remains relatively unexplored. I now provide evidence that the Early to Middle Minoan, or even earlier, coastal towns along Crete’s northern shores, together with their harbor works, are now located at sea. In a.d. 365, far West Crete was uplifted by 6–9 m, and East Crete was tilted and submerged by 3–4 m as a result of an earthquake of magnitude 8.6 on the Richter scale (Pirazzoli et al. 1982; 1992, 371–376; Pirazzoli, Laborel, and Stiros 1996; Stiros and Papageorgiou 2001; Papadopoulos 2011; Mourtzas, Kolaiti, and Anzidei 2016). This uplift changed the coastline so that harbor installations of the historical period are now found as much as 200 m inland on West Crete, as at Phalasarna (Hadjidaki 1988; Frost and Hadjidaki 1990), Kissamos (Stiros and Papageorgiou 2001), and Lissos (Hadjidaki 2003, 358), while harbor installations of the same periods on East Crete are submerged, as at Chersonissos (Leatham and Hood 1958–1959; Brandon et al. 2005), Elounda (Hadjidaki 2003, 357; Theodoulou 2015, 152), Palaikastro (Sackett and Popham 1970; Simosi 1988), and elsewhere. Equally dramatic earthquakes must have occurred in the prehistoric period, but their precise dates are still debated, and the consequences for the shoreline are much less studied and not well established. One can gain some clues, however, from the few Minoan coastal remains on West Crete located and studied to date. Among them is Kydonia in Chania, where, as mentioned above, an important early center and a palace existed on top of a seaside hill projecting into

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the water and creating two harbors, one on either side of the hill. Small reefs running parallel to the shore could have been the base for Minoan port facilities. Ancient geographer Pseudo-Skylax (47) reported that Kydonia had one of two closed harbors on classical Crete—the other is Phalasarna— but Venetian overbuilding has been so extensive that no port facilities of this period have yet been found. The conclusion that early harbor works must have existed is strengthened by the finding of a unique seal excavated in 1984 from the palace that portrays a Minoan harbor and a fortified town built on top of a rocky hill (Hallager 1985). There is one example of a submerged Minoan site on West Crete that has been partly surveyed and plotted. This is more remarkable than finding submerged sites on East Crete because, as noted, the western portion of the island was raised by as much as 6–9 m in a.d. 365. The sunken site is at Stalos, 5 km west of Kydonia, along the northern shore, and is where an extensive EM II–MM II settlement lies at depths of 3–4 m underwater. Part of the town was built on a seaside hill called Psathi that still dominates the area and where EM II– MM II graves were excavated (Mytilinaiou 1997– 1998) containing pottery that was also exported to the Cretan colony on the island of Kythera (Broodbank and Kiriatzi 2007, 254). The main town lies underwater on a spit of land that extends out to sea from Psathi. During a routine swim in late 1985, I noticed many structure complexes constructed from river stones standing up to 1 m high underwater and extending east in intervals for at least 1 km along the coast toward the Kalamaki beach (Pl. 1A). Years later, I returned with a diving team, and in the few days available to us we managed to record seven structures. The walls were reminiscent of the Minoan walls at Gournia, although they were covered with marine growth and were partly buried in silt. Some walls likely belonged to houses, but three long structures seemed to be of a different nature and function. One is constructed from boulders, and its visible length is more than 36 m and 2 m in height. These remains suggest some sort of breakwater or quay, although it is difficult to interpret them without excavation (Ill. 1.2). Another two structures parallel to each other at the northwest end of the “breakwater” are built from smaller stones (Ill. 1.3). One wall is 25 m long, and the other survives to a length of 13 m. A curved wall seems

to connect the two, but without excavation we can only make suggestions (Hadjidaki 2003, 355). An apparently almost identical structure was found on the shore at Gournia, which Vance Watrous interprets as a fortification wall and a tower (Watrous 2012, 531–532, figs. 13, 14). Farther west of Stalos, along the shore by the mouth of the river Tavronitis, an even larger settlement extends for at least 150 m out to sea and features remains of dozens of buildings underwater at a depth of up to 4 m. Walls standing 1–2 m tall are covered in thick marine algae and protrude from a silty bottom (Pls. 1B–1D). One large structure, 2 m thick, is distinct because it is built from boulders that measure up to 1 m in length, as at Kapetaniana and Stalos, and it is more than 20 m long (Pl. 1E). Its northern end adjoins a large semicircular construction similar to a tower, examples of which are also found at Gournia. Fragments from coarse ware pottery of red and orange fabrics, stone tools, and lumps of hard orange clay suggest a date in the Early Minoan and Middle Minoan periods. These structures reinforce the view that many coastal urban settlements were fortified to protect themselves from sea invasions, as at Nopigia along the same stretch of coast. Seaside defenses have been found at many settlements on East Crete, such as Petras (Tsipopoulou 1988, 1999), Palaikastro (MacGillivray et al. 1984, 136– 37; 1991; Alušík 2005), Hagia Photia, and others (see Alušík 2007 for all the evidence). MM II watchtowers seem to have controlled a network of Minoan roads (Tzedakis et al. 1989; Chryssoulaki 1999). One wonders if it was foreign invaders the early Minoans feared as they built their defenses or if it was the rise of the palace rulers. The underwater sites at Stalos and Tavronitis are examples, incompletely documented, among other submerged Minoan remains possibly of the same period on a stretch of coastline spanning a distance of 150 km from Stavromenos to the far west end of the island. The geomorphology of the whole of Crete since prehistoric times is greatly confused by subductions, uplifts, and sea-level rise. In particular, West Crete, which remains underexplored and misinterpreted, must have included one or more dramatic subsidence events after the Middle Bronze Age. For coastal sites to have survived the uplift of a.d. 365 and still be several meters underwater with standing structures in situ, the earlier

INTRODUCTION

9

Illustration 1.2. Plan of the remains of the Minoan breakwater or quay, indicating depth in meters. Drawing A. Tagonidou.

Illustration 1.3. Plan of Minoan fortification walls, indicating depth in meters. Drawing A. Tagonidou.

subsidence must have sunk the coastal towns and their port facilities by at least 5 m. This hypothesis appears to oppose the findings of Paolo Pirazzoli et al. (1982, 35), who recorded a sea level elevated 4–6 m above the present level at Phalasarna and Chrisoskalitissa, which they dated to 2200 b.c. Yet, in contrast with estimates of uplift and subsidence from the earthquake of a.d. 365 that have been checked and rechecked (Mourtzas, Kolaiti, and Anzidei 2016), estimates of the sea level prior to 1700 b.c. rest on a total of three individual samples. Thus, in light of archaeological evidence for submerged Middle Minoan settlements

Stalos, Structure D

Stalos, Structure Z

on West Crete—incompatible with a sea level higher in 1700 b.c. than it is today—the matter deserves further investigation. Such a reevaluation of the location of the Early Bronze Age coastline might explain why some of the ancient cities have remained lost and why so few obvious Minoan harbor works and seaside towns have been found on West Crete. Archaeologists have been looking for them on land, based on the fact that it has been uplifted. However, Minoan towns and ports are still lying underwater, waiting to be discovered and studied, and this is where archaeological research should direct its attention.

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Shipsheds No Early to Middle Minoan shipsheds have yet been located. If the Minoans had rock-cut works for loading and unloading their cargoes, they must have also had ways to pull their ships and protect them during the winter when sailing was dangerous. Evidence for Minoan shipsheds comes only from the time of the LM III period, when the Mycenaeans had taken over the island and had blended into the Creto-Mycenaean world. Mycenaean accomplishments in naval engineering, however, must have been based on earlier maritime technology that had been developed throughout the Aegean centuries before. Late Minoan shipsheds excavated at Gournia, Poros-Katsambas, and Kommos evidence the size of ships at this time. At Gournia, right across from Pseira and only 5.5 nautical miles from it, atop a long promontory, Watrous (2012, 521–528) interpreted the two large galleries of the Shore House as shipsheds, although they are so close to the sea that they might have functioned as slipways (see also Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, 20; Blackman 2011, 8). The two galleries are similar to the shipsheds at Kommos but less well preserved because they are close to the sea. Each of the monumental rooms is 5 m wide, but they are preserved to a length of only 9 m. During the Minoan period, the sea was 2.5 m lower than it is today, and the promontory extended 60 m farther out to sea. This is indicated by a line of steps at the side of the promontory that ends 2.5 m underwater and by two large holes carved into the bedrock, now 0.5 m underwater (Watrous 2012, 523). A similar construction found at Pseira, as mentioned above, is discussed in Chapter 2. At Kommos, the harbor town of Hagia Triada and Phaistos, six long galleries with stone walls were excavated by Joseph and Maria Shaw (Shaw and Shaw 1999). Each gallery measured up to 39.6 m long and 5.44 m wide, suggesting each accommodated two ships, one behind the other, with each ship measuring 18–19 m long and 2.5 m wide. According to the excavators, these were shipsheds used from the LM IIIA:1–2 to the LM IIIB periods. A complex of shipsheds similar to those at Kommos was excavated in 2006 by Andonis Vasilakis at Poros-Katsambas, in the area of the Minoan harbor installations (Vasilakis 2010a). Six long stone structures, surviving up to a length of 25 m and

width of 6 m, are possibly the remains of shipsheds in use from the LM II–IIIA to the LM IIIB periods. The port served as a harbor for Knossos from the EM I period (Serpetsidaki 2012), and the remains suggest ships measured 12 m long and 2.5 m wide. The excavation of these shipsheds convinced David Blackman to change his views regarding the existence of Bronze Age harbor installations, which at first he doubted (Blackman 1982, 93; Blackman and Rankov 2013, 12). Remains of Minoan shipsheds or slipways were discovered underwater at Istron Bay in 2012 by Theotokis Theodoulou (2015). The walls are 80 cm thick, the surviving length of each wall is 10.5 m and 12 m, and they are 5.5 m apart. The estimated original lengths cannot be determined yet because they are buried on the unexcavated shore, but according to Theodoulou (2015, 154), they are reminiscent of the Gournia shipsheds, and they possibly date to the Late Minoan era.

Anchors Honor Frost called anchors the potsherds of marine archaeology (Frost 1973a). In a survey article from the 1970s, she notes four prehistoric anchors from Crete, found in land excavations at Knossos and Malia (Frost 1973a, 397). She remarked that “[f]ew anchors have as yet been found in Crete . . . in view of theories about a ‘Minoan Thalassocracy,’ more evidence is urgently needed” (Frost 1973a, 401). But progress has been slow. Three large threeholed stone anchors were found at Kommos, which suggests the presence of large ships at the harbor (Shaw 1995; 1998, 96; 2014). Six similar stone anchors, but bigger and heavier, were found on the rocky seafloor of Stavros Bay, near the Akrotiri peninsula in Chania (Hadjidaki 2004, 53). There is neither a large beach nor an artificial harbor nearby, so the presence of so many large anchors suggests that ships would, from time to time, take shelter in this spot, but the shelter did not always suffice. A stone anchor was located underwater at the harbor at Pseira, as is discussed below; another was found at Mochlos (Sophianou and Soles 2014). Two more have been found at the water’s edge at Pacheia Ammos, near the Early Minoan submerged site and port and now in the museum at Ierapetra. The latter

INTRODUCTION

two anchors each have one hole in the middle, and they may date to the Early Minoan period.

Shipwrecks The final source of evidence about Minoan seafaring comes from the discovery and excavation of shipwrecks. The shipwreck we found at Pseira dates to the MM IIB period, and with a cargo of at least 140 artifacts it is the first, largest, and oldest remnant of a Minoan seagoing vessel. Shipwrecks of later periods have been found and excavated. Although those boats may not have come from Crete, they carried Minoan transport containers that demonstrate the continuity of trade with the Minoans, who had pioneered seafaring trade many centuries before. A small shipwreck dating to the MM III–LM I periods was excavated by George Bass in 1975 at Sheytan Deresi on the Aegean coast of Turkey. The cargo consisted of 10 almost complete vessels, the forms of which indicated the influence of Minoan vases (Bass 1976; Margariti 1998, 43). However, pottery analysis performed in 2008 showed the vessels to be of local production (Catsambis 2008, 96). Another MM III–LM I shipwreck was discovered in 2012, off the coast of Laconia, near the Early Helladic sunken settlement of Pavlopetri, in the Peloponnese (also known as the wreck at Koulenti). The ship seems to have been looted during modern times, but archaeologists managed to recover part of its cargo. It is estimated to have been 7–8 m long, and it carried a cargo of liquid transport vessels originating from Crete. Among them were ovalmouthed amphorae and short-spouted jugs (Spondylis 2012, 6, figs. 1, 2). Remains of more artifacts could possibly be buried under the sandy pockets of the rocky seafloor, as proved to be the case with the Pseira wreck. A possible Minoan shipwreck discovered in 2016 off the Turkish coast at Marmaris in southwestern Turkey is currently being excavated by Abdurrahman Harun Özdaş. It seems to have been a small boat that was carrying, among other artifacts, some Minoan or “Minoanizing” vessels of the MM III– LM I periods (pers. obv.). Another shipwreck dating to the 16th–15th century b.c. was discovered and surveyed in 2019 off

11

the coast of Turkey in the bay of Antalya, carrying a large cargo of copper ingots (Öniz 2019). It will be very interesting to learn about the origin and destination of the ship and its cargo as excavation proceeds. All other prehistoric shipwrecks that have been found in Greece, Turkey, and Israel date to the LM IIIB−IIIC period, the time of the Creto-Mycenaean world. The stirrup jar that was developed for storing liquids ca. 1700 b.c. became a popular transport vessel and traveled around the Mediterranean and the Levant, as indicated by abundant evidence from excavations on land and at sea (Haskell 2005). The Point Iria shipwreck in the Gulf of Argolid, excavated by the Hellenic Institute of Maritime Archaeology, transported mainly Cypriot and Mycenaean pottery vessels that date to 1200 b.c. Part of the cargo included eight LM IIIB:2 transport stirrup jars from Central Crete (Vichos and Lolos 1997; Phelps, Lolos, and Vichos, eds., 1999). The LM IIIB/IIIC shipwreck off the island of Modi in the Saronic Gulf currently being excavated by Christos Agouridis does not seem to have carried any transport vessels from Crete, but four types of stone anchors similar to those found at Pseira and Chania give an interesting picture of Late Bronze Age anchors and anchorages (Agouridis 2011, 2012). The Hishuley Carmel shipwreck, found off the coast of Haifa in Israel and dating to ca. 1300 b.c., carried copper ingots from Cyprus (Galili, Gale, and Rosen 2011, 2013). The Cape Gelidonya shipwreck, dating to 1200 b.c. and excavated by Bass in 1960, carried, among Canaanite and Cypriot transport jars, four stirrup vessels from Crete that may have belonged to the crew (Bass 1961; 1967; Haskell et al. 2011, 135). The rich cargo of the Uluburun shipwreck (Bass 1986; Pulak 1988; 1997, 251) included 10 coarse ware stirrup jars probably produced on Crete. It is even possible that “the ship’s primary cargo could have been destined for Crete” (Pulak 2005, 297). The combination of historical, artistic, and archaeological evidence indicates that during the Protopalatial period, the Cretans were able to accommodate and maintain domestic and international trading networks. Yet, when we began searching in 2003, no Minoan shipwreck had been found off the island of Crete. We turn next to the discovery and excavation of the Minoan shipwreck at Pseira.

2

Discovery of the Shipwreck by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

Geophysical Survey in 2003 Upon receipt of a grant from the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP), our search for a Minoan shipwreck began in 2003. The first phase of the study was a deep underwater archaeological and geophysical survey. It began in the sea opposite the modern town of Siteia, around the islands of Dionisades and Paximadi, and concluded in the Gulf of Mirabello, the straits between Crete and Pseira Island, in September 2003. The search was limited to the far eastern part of Crete to allow access to the support services of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete. There were reasons to think that this region would present favorable chances of finding a Bronze Age shipwreck. Although the whole of Crete has been greatly disturbed by seismic activity since the prehistoric period, shipwrecks are less likely to be disturbed on the east than on the west. On the west, a major earthquake in a.d. 365 caused many meters of uplift, and it was accompanied by a tsunami that must have scoured the seafloor near the coast.

The same event also caused the east coast of Crete to subside, but estimates of the effects of the tsunami show its impact was less severe than on the west. We presumed that the seafloor in this region would have been little affected, at least in the deeper areas. Further, the sea around far East Crete is often deeper than 100 m, and wave action has little effect at this depth. Shipwrecks are thus more likely to be preserved and not so deeply buried as to be impossible to find. The geophysical investigations took place through collaboration between George Anastasakis and a team from the Department of Geology at the University of Athens who used a side-scan sonar that had an acoustic sensor of 200-m sweep width. This towfish scanned the seafloor as it ran up and down its computer-controlled track lines. We also recorded the size and depth of all objects located. A Sea Beam 3050 unit allowed us to obtain accurate seafloor profiles. More than 20 targets were located in the vicinity of the islands and waters of the Siteia region, at maximum depths of 120 m. The seafloor in most areas

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is sandy or muddy, with gouges left by nets of deepsea trawlers. The destruction of the seafloor from this type of fishing is immense, and it has contributed to the challenge of locating ancient shipwrecks. It would have been unlikely that all the targets located were shipwrecks. Three resembled airplanes, perhaps from the Second World War. In the limited time of three weeks available in 2003, it was impossible to investigate every target closely, and we dived only on those that appeared most promising. In a second phase of investigation, we thus used a team of coral divers led by Yiorgos Klontzas. We chose six probable targets that had given very strong signals. Five proved to be mounds of sunken stones or geological formations; one was a shipwreck buried in sand and nearly covered by ballast stones. It had a chain and an iron anchor, which we dated to the recent historical period, probably ca. the 18th century a.d. This shipwreck was found in the crossing between Pseira Island and the shore of northeastern Crete, at a depth of 47 m. We speculated that the ship might have sunk during a sea battle between the Ottomans and Venetians over the control of Crete but did not investigate it carefully as it was outside the period of interest. A ceramic fire pot used in warfare was recovered. It is made of reddish-brown clay, and it has two short vertical handles, a flat base, and an interior covered with reddish-brown glaze.

Pseira Island Most of the time and resources of the 2003 survey were devoted to geophysical exploration. Technology is constantly improving, so geophysical scans and remotely operated vehicles (ROV) may eventually overtake humans as the best way to locate archaeological sites for deep underwater research. In this instance, however, old-fashioned methods involving logic, intuition, and searching by eye proved more valuable. Indeed, as the geophysical survey progressed, we became increasingly concerned that using technology to search a wide area would simply continue to lead to the identification of targets of little interest. While the geophysical team was analyzing its results, we therefore decided to dive in a deep-water bay near Pseira Island in Mirabello Bay. This small island lies 2 miles from the nearest Minoan coastal

settlement at Mochlos on the north coast of Crete and 5.5 nautical miles from the Minoan town of Gournia, which has seaside installations and a palace. Along the steep, rocky shores of this bay, a settlement of the Minoan period, shown here in Plate 2A, was excavated by Richard Seager, Philip Betancourt, and Costis Davaras (Seager 1910; Betancourt 2004; Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2009; Floyd 1998). This settlement could have only communicated with the mainland by ship. It could not have been completely self-sufficient, and thus there must have been constant trade with the island of Crete. Surely at some point during the hundreds of years Pseira was inhabited, one of the ships supplying it must have sunk. The coastlines of Pseira and Crete are craggy in this region, and they provide little refuge. A peninsula on Pseira that overlooks two small bays could have been used as an anchorage according to the direction of the winds. Its southern side provides more protection from the prevailing northwest winds and creates a small but sheltered harbor. Minoan houses were built along this side of the peninsula, and a grand staircase led from the harbor to the main town. Nevertheless, it is possible to have strong winds and currents and rough seas. When all these factors were considered, we believed there could be no more logical place to look for a Minoan shipwreck than on a path connecting Pseira and Mochlos. Pseira Island was first inhabited in the Final Neolithic period, and by the Middle Bronze Age it had a substantial town. It is likely that the residents were seafarers as well as farmers because many of the items needed by the community were not produced on the island. The Pseirans must have sailed back and forth regularly around Mirabello Bay for provisions and to the nearby towns at Mochlos, Gournia, and Pacheia Ammos along the northern coast of Crete. They did not make pottery because the island has no clay, and water was probably scarce. Most of the pottery found in the Pseiran buildings was imported from nearby parts of Crete, especially the large town at Gournia (see Betancourt, this vol., Ch. 4). Only small amounts were brought in from farther away. One of the objects located during the 1998 land excavations at Pseira was a prismatic seal of serpentinite, one side of which depicts a ship with a single mast connected to the vessel through ropes at both ends but which depicts no oars (Nikolaidou 1998).

DISCOVERY OF THE SHIPWRECK

The ship is high and bifurcated at one end and beak shaped at the other. The seal dates to MM IIB, and the stone seems to have originated from the Protopalatial seal-cutters’ workshop at Malia (Nikolaidou 1998). These observations offered assurance that Pseira Island was visited frequently by trade vessels beginning in the Early Minoan period and that it had contacts with the early palace at Malia. There was thus an impetus to conduct a careful search in the nearby waters. The coast near Pseira has been investigated in the past. Frost recounted her participation in a British submarine exploration team to the island in 1955 and her impressions of the underwater situation (Frost 1963b, 103–104). Immediately to the south of the Minoan settlement (on land), there is a large amount of pottery in the sea extending to a depth of 20 m. In 1955, Sinclair Hood, Nicholas Platon, and John Leatham raised several whole vessels from the seafloor deposit, 10–15 m deep (Hood and Boardman 1955, 35; Leatham and Hood 1958–1959, 275–278). In 1976, Jacques Cousteau dived on the site with Lazaros Kolonas of the Greek Archaeological Service, raising additional vases from a maximum of 30 m deep (Cousteau and Cousteau, exec. prods., 1978). Leatham and Hood believed the pottery fell into the sea from the town, while Cousteau thought the vases near Pseira were from a shipwreck sunk by the tsunami caused by the eruption of Thera. One cannot rule out the possibility that some pottery in shallow waters came from sunken ships, but a tsunami is highly unlikely to be the reason for these particular deposits. The Thera eruption occurred in ca. 1625 b.c., 75 years after the 1700 b.c. earthquake that had already destroyed the towns and early palaces on Crete. A profusion of worked stone blocks in the underwater deposit showed that the vases came from houses in the town that collapsed into the sea (Betancourt 2004). The comparison with other extensive submerged settlements, as at Stalos and Tavronitis on West Crete (see Hadjidaki-Marder, this vol., Ch. 1), is striking. In the case of Pseira, instead of intact walls and harbor installations standing on the seafloor there are jumbled stones and masses of pottery. The peninsula must have broken and slid into the sea at various times, causing its subduction together with the toppled buildings at the deeper end

15

to 20 m depth along a 30° slope. This suggests that the coastal buildings collapsed into the sea during earthquakes (Pl. 2B). North of Pseira, toward the Sea of Crete, an underwater fissure reaches a depth of 270 m. Otherwise, the depth of the sea around Pseira, at the deeper ends, is 70–90 m. The Minoan settlement lies on the southeastern coast of the island, facing Crete, so we decided to focus on underwater regions that ships would logically have crossed carrying goods back and forth to the mainland. The seafloor is jagged and rocky near the island, which makes it difficult for side-scan sonar to operate effectively. Divers thus were sent down to inspect portions of the seafloor that had not been explored by earlier teams, beginning at a depth of 40 m and ending at a depth of 70 m. Almost immediately, just two days before the first season ended, a dense deposit of Minoan pottery was located in an area southeast of the sunken promontory, at a distance of roughly 100 m from the island (see Ill. 3.1). This location had not been investigated previously. The pottery we located was concentrated at the southeast end of the bay, at a depth of ca. 42 m. We were astonished to find these artifacts had been sitting on the seafloor almost unscratched for 3,800 years. After watching the fishing boats sailing up and down the narrow stretch between Pseira and Crete and seeing the destructive tracks that trawlers leave on the flatter part of the seafloor not far from this pottery concentration, we decided to raise the vessels, fearing that they might not have the good luck to survive until the next summer. Thus, we raised six vessels that were scattered along the seafloor at depths of 39–42 m. Two intact hole-mouthed jars lay gracefully on the rocky slope. One jar was lying on its side, with a small part buried in the sand (Frontispiece: 1, 03/22). Here and below, numbers in boldface refer to the catalog in Chapter 4, while labels of the form “03/22” are excavation numbers that appear in the plans in Chapter 3. The items noted in this chapter are found at the center of the right half of Illustration 3.2. During desalination, an elegant carinated cup was found inside the jar (114, 03/22α). Another jar of similar type and size was sitting upright, its lower body buried in the sand (2, 03/23). The remaining four vases were found upside down between pockets of sand under nearby rocks that possibly had prevented them from

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sliding deeper as the ship sank. Two jugs with low spouts (12, 03/12; 13, 03/15), a straight-sided cup (104, 03/11), and a carinated cup (113, 03/14) were also recovered. We found these objects just as the survey period ended; it was a remarkable piece of good fortune, as otherwise the project might have terminated after the first season. Instead, in our final two days, we acquired enough evidence to continue. The excitement of the divers was such that I could not dissuade them from picking up pottery scattered around the sunken peninsula near the island where our boat was anchored. They had not experienced anything like this before, and when they surfaced with pots in their hands, it was difficult to ask them to throw them back into the sea.

In this way, 10 more artifacts found their way to the surface; they did not belong to the wreck, but they must have fallen with the buildings from the settlement site into the sea. They are recorded in Chapter 4, Addendum, and they constitute many of the vessels without a detailed context. They consist of three large fragments of oval-mouthed amphorae (NL 37, NL 38, NL 46), fragments of jugs (NL 48), three complete or almost complete jugs (NL 49–NL 51), and two carinated cups (NL 25, NL 26). A long neck spout of a jug from the EM IIB period (NL 3) belongs to the distinctive type of Vasiliki Ware, one of the most elegant products that appeared in the Prepalatial period.

3

Excavations by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

Survey in 2004 We returned to Pseira in May and June 2004. In the previous season, our target area for investigation had been the entire coast of East Crete. We succeeded in narrowing the search to a cape near the island, where a Minoan town had flourished and a deep bay protected from the prevailing winds was adequate to have served as a harbor. Nevertheless, we still faced the problem of determining where to focus further work and the extent of the “shipwreck” area. Unlike many wrecks of later periods, our find was not marked by an unmistakable dense mound of artifacts in a specific location but by scattered vessels buried in various sand dunes between rocky shelves. A larger mound may have once existed because local fishermen told us they had accidentally caught some vessels in their nets, and others may have been looted. Thus, our task was to survey a region more than 2,500 square meters in area with sufficient accuracy that we could distinguish the end of the collapsed land site from the shipwreck area and determine

the location of the greatest density of shipwreck artifacts so we would know where to excavate. We found that side-scan sonar could not distinguish rocks from pottery, and therefore we adopted a new set of technologies. In a first phase of our investigation, we used a ROV (FALCON 1229), which was connected to the surface by a tether and which collected video images along seven transits (Ill. 3.1). Careful examination of the videos revealed several Minoan vessels at the seafloor. The ROV was available for only four days because of budgetary constraints, and so the bulk of the survey work was performed by divers. The human eye was the best instrument in the end for locating the underwater antiquities. This may have been because in 2004, when this work was being done, only standard-resolution video was available to us, and watching the video stream did not allow us to locate the artifacts as well as the divers despite the limited depth at which the divers could operate. The team of professional divers led by Klontzas continued to work in 2004. They are accustomed to diving in depths of 120 m using mixed gases

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rather than atmospheric air. Such dives last up to five hours, including decompression time. Following the four days in which we had use of the ROV, we spent another three weeks exploring the site with our divers and diving archaeologists. The three weeks allowed us to conduct a thorough visual inspection of the region and to provide an initial map with locations of artifacts. We used a simple system that enabled us, in later seasons, to find the location of each object again for more accurate mapping. The divers were equipped with a voice communication system and a balloon. When they reached an object, they read out an object label-number and placed the balloon directly overhead. A surface team on a small boat then marked the spot with a global positioning system (GPS). Accuracy was limited because of the drift of the balloon and limitations of GPS, but the resulting map enabled us to identify the perimeter of the wreck area and distinguish the wreck

from the land site. It was also accurate enough that we were able to locate objects for more precise mapping later and, in the final season, remove them for conservation and study. Upon returning from a long dive and during decompressing at one of the stops at a depth of 12 m, we noticed the corner of a worked boulder protruding from the toppled walls of the sunken town. It was concreted onto the rock and covered with marine algae, and a hole in it was barely visible. Suspecting that it might be a large stone anchor, we dived next day and cleaned it. To our surprise, the stone turned out to be part of the massive natural bedrock on which the Minoan town was built. The rock at this point was ground smooth on top, and its seaside ends were pierced with two man-made holes. The smooth part is ca. 50 cm long and 45 cm wide, while the two pierced holes, each with a

M in oa n w re ck

Modern wreck

Illustration 3.1. Finds in 2003 and ROV transits in 2004 used to determine the location of the shipwreck. The northern finds, shown surrounded by an oval at the top of the map, fell from the settlement on land. Artifacts from the shipwreck were found on a 40-m long trail leading to a dense (30-m wide) region of finds, 100 m from the shore. The largest number of shipwreck finds came from a small oval region that measured 13 x 7 m. The contour of Pseira has deliberately been altered to prevent further looting. Drawing M. Marder.

EXCAVATIONS

diameter of 7 cm, have visible rope marks indicating a long period of use (Pl. 3A). We realized that the flat piece was part of a rockcut quay with two mooring stones for tying ships. This was an exciting find because it was the first unambiguous evidence for artificial harbor works at Pseira from the Middle Minoan period or earlier, and it is one of the earliest harbor installations in the world. Similar features had been noticed on Phoenician rock cuttings by Frost in 1967 at Machroud Island, off the coast of Lebanon (Frost 1973b), and by Watrous (2012) at the Minoan harbor works at Gournia. Although the bedrock was covered with pottery, the original construction of the quay cannot be dated without excavation. The concreted artifacts on it seem to date to the MM IIB period as evidenced by 10 almost complete vessels recovered from it a year later (see “Excavation in 2005” below). It is likely that one of the destructive earthquakes—there were several—broke part of the quay and sunk it together with part of the town during MM IIB.

Finds in 2004 We located 13 vessels in the 2004 season. Some lay along a trail, ca. 40 m long, running northeast to southwest, but most were concentrated in an area 30 m wide, at the depth of ca. 40–45 m and ca. 100 m from the shore of Pseira Island (Ill. 3.1). We determined that this area was where objects from the shipwreck were concentrated and made plans to start excavation there the following summer. This area is separated from the land site deposits by a 30-m wide undersea ridge that has no pottery on it (Ill. 3.1). This ridge had prevented artifacts from the town from drifting to a more distant location, and it provided our first indication that the two deposits had different origins. It led us to conclude that the deposit close to Pseira Island represents material that collapsed into the sea from the land up to a depth of 12–20 m and corresponds to the finds described by previous maritime explorers (see Hadjidaki-Marder, this vol., Ch. 2). Past the ridge, the seafloor drops to 33 m, and the vases found beyond it are from the shipwreck. The seafloor where the shipwreck was found is rocky and steeply sloped to a depth of 69 m; below that it is

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flat and muddy. We recovered artifacts from as far down as 45 m. Originally, our hypothesis that the two deposits had different origins was mainly based on the physical separation between the shipwreck site and the vessels fallen from the land site. However, as excavation proceeded, it was the vessels from the shipwreck that provided the evidence because they constituted a large body of transport vessels that were similar to one another and of similar date yet larger than vessels of these types previously known. The pottery and the conclusions we have drawn from it are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The vessels from the shipwreck area recorded in 2004 are mapped in Illustration 3.2. They include a large basin, which may have belonged to the crew and which was found partly buried at the depth of 44.7 m (98, 04/11), and a partly buried hole-mouthed jar sitting upright in the sand at –35 m and that most likely contained solid food (3, 04/24). A total of seven almost complete vessels were also located. They include an additional hole-mouthed jar (4, 04/38) and two oval-mouthed amphorae (52, 04/25; 53, 04/39). Two smaller amphorae with globular bodies nearly identical in shape and fabric (92, 04/15α; 93, 04/15β) came from Trench ΔΓΜΦ (Ill. 3.3). Two more (62, 04/12; 63, 04/13) were on the surface, in the area later identified as Trench BNΚΓ (Ill. 3.4). Three jugs (14, 04/26; 15, 04/27; 29, 04/23) were also part of the main cargo and lay along a trail of artifacts we believe fell into the sea as the ship was sinking.

Survey and Excavation, 2005–2009 From 2005 until 2009, sustained annual funding from INSTAP made it possible to survey and excavate much of the Pseira shipwreck, locating and recovering more than 140 artifacts from the cargo. The vessels we found were somewhat widely dispersed and at least partly buried because transport vessels that were easily visible on the seafloor had been vulnerable to looting. Many of the artifacts were found upside down, and this led us to believe that the ship had capsized and had dispersed its contents over a large area. Each year, we were hopeful that we would discover some wood from the wreck, but this was never realized.

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Illustration 3.2. Plan of the complete excavation, mapped mostly in 2008 and completed in 2009. Vessel 08/131 (84) is plan to the other. For visibility, artifacts located farther outside the grid are depicted in situ, but they are expanded

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21

located centrally in the plan and is repeated at the inner part of both pages to show the relationship of one half of the in scale by a factor of 2.5. For details of the grid squares, see Illustrations 3.3–3.7. Drawing D. Faulmann and M. Marder.

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Excavation in 2005 At the beginning of the 2005 season, we selected a spot at a depth of 39.3 m, in what seemed to be a thick sand pocket along a steep slope. Six vessels had been located in the immediate vicinity in the

previous summer, and three more were now visible on the surface, promising a good place to start. After installing an airlift, we carried down a 2 x 2 m steel grid, numbered its corners Α, Β, Γ, and Δ, and began to excavate (Ill. 3.3; Pl. 3B). Technical difficulties with the airlift were solved by using a thick

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Illustration 3.3. Topographic plan of the 2005 excavation season. Some artifacts acquired final labels in previous or subsequent seasons. Drawing D. Timologos, D. Faulmann, and M. Marder.

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plastic pipe held by two heavy metal rods—one iron and one steel with a total weight of 250 kg— that were then anchored to the seafloor. While excavating, we soon found that the sand was rarely more than 20 cm deep, and we were dealing with a rocky shelf that had preserved some sand inside its depressions. Thus, the excavation of the first 2 x 2 m section was completed in a few days, revealing three artifacts and a few sherds dating to MM IIB. The recovered vessels include an intact oval-mouthed amphora (94, 05/2), the upper part of another amphora (65, 05/19), and the lower part of a closed vessel (134, 05/3). A complete Phoenician amphora dating to the early Byzantine period (174, 05/4) was visible on the surface of the trench from the beginning of this season, and it must have fallen over the wreck when the island was inhabited by monks. We did not raise it until

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the last day of the excavation with the thought that if any smugglers should visit at night when we were away, this was a piece we would not mind sacrificing, and it would be easy to identify if an attempt was made to sell it. Despite our constant fear, neither this nor any other piece was looted during the years of survey and excavation thanks to vigilance of the local fishermen and the harbor police of Hagios Nikolaos and Siteia, all of whom were proud of the finds and who supported us. We continued the excavation by establishing four additional 2 x 2 m trenches to the northwest, naming them ΖΑΔΕ, ΘΙΒΑ, ΗΘΑΖ, and ΔΓΜΦ (Pl. 4A). A total of 25 ceramic vases were uncovered from the gridded area, six of which came from just outside the perimeter and close to the rope lines. We found seven upper bodies of oval-mouthed amphorae, one intact amphora buried in the sand, two lower parts

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Illustration 3.4. Topographic plan of the 2006 excavation season. Some artifacts acquired final labels in previous or subsequent seasons. Drawing D. Timologos, D. Faulmann, and M. Marder.

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of an amphora and possibly a jug (still on the sea bottom) concreted onto the rocky shelf, and the upper part of a jug: 32, 05/31; 64, 05/10; 66, 05/20; 67, 05/21; 68, 05/33; 69, 05/40; 70, 05/42; 71, 05/43; 95, 05/5 (Pseira shipwreck petrographic analysis number [PSA] 11/28). Two of them (05/7, 05/9) remained on the rocky sea floor. One almost intact large jug (31, 05/30) with a hole in the middle, possibly from a stone fallen into it, was found buried lying on its side. Near the jug and under a rock lay buried in the sand an elegant chalice with a distinctive flaring rim and two handles with ridges reminiscent of a silver cup found at Gournia (118, 05/32). As described by Ellen Davis (1979) and Judith Weingarten (2016), the silver kantharos is the only precious metal vase yet discovered from MM II, and it was modeled on prototypes from Anatolia. Some ceramic vessels found on Crete are almost perfect replicas of the silver vase, while others, such as this chalice, have a similar form. Another parallel for this two-handled chalice, although several hundred years older, is a slender two-handled vase from Palamari, Skyros that imitates prototypes from Troy (Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1997). Two jugs were found with their spouts buried in the sand or upside down, but only their upper halves have survived (16, 05/29; 33, 05/44). A third jug, larger than any other previously found, was located just to the northeast, outside ΙΘ, later named trench α2α3IΘ; unfortunately, only three-quarters of it is intact (30, 05/6, PSA 11/10). Its surviving height is 33.5 cm, and its diameter is 30 cm. It is the largest vessel of its kind excavated from the wreck area. Petrographic analysis showed that it belongs to a group of loners of a reddish-brown fabric with argillaceous inclusions (see Ch. 5, Ill. 5.2). Its origin could be South Crete, but it could also be from Asia Minor. A hole-mouthed jar (8, 05/50) and a large part of a basin (99, 05/28) were also recovered, as were three fragments from large closed vessels (137, 05/47; 138, 05/48; 139, 05/49). A straight-sided cup (105, 05/22) and a large rounded cup (110, 05/41) were located upside down and were excavated. As objects were uncovered, their positions were recorded by triangulation using the edges of the metal frame as reference points and finding horizontal distances with a tape measure. Depths were recorded with a bathymeter. In addition, a series of photographs was periodically taken by diving in transits over the wreck site at a fixed depth. From

the photographs, we were able to construct photomosaics illustrating the progress of the excavation. Inaccuracies from the photographs concerning the locations of the objects were corrected using information from triangulation. Thus, the final drawings indicate both the location and the orientation of vessels as they were uncovered; they are accurate to within ca. 5 cm in the trenches and 20 cm outside. On the last day of the 2005 season, we decided to remove 21 intact vessels from the seafloor near the land site to prepare a safe anchorage for the next season. Our diving boat had to be anchored and secured in the bay close to the island so that it would be protected from the winds. The chains and ropes of the boat were hitting the sunken part of the city and the vases that were concreted onto the bedrock. Furthermore, the site had already attracted public interest, and as these vessels were in relatively shallow water they were easy targets for smugglers. Most of the pottery was easily removed from depths of 10–21 m, although two sherds—one belonging to a basin with spout (NL 4) and one belonging a tripod cooking pot (NL 73)—had to be hammered out from concretions. Some of the amphorae and jugs had been located in 2004, and they were marked by a number. Thus, it was easy to find them again and record their depth. We did not have the time or the personnel to map the precise positions of these artifacts, as the project was focused on finds from the wreck. The artifacts salvaged include one basalt pounder (PSS 9), five oval-mouthed amphorae (NL 39–NL 41, NL 43, NL 44), three conical cups (NL 6, NL 10, NL 12), one rounded cup with one handle (NL 23), four carinated cups (NL 28–NL 31), an EM IIB jug, probably Vasiliki Ware (NL 2), three jugs (NL 51, NL 55, NL 56), and one Byzantine bronze incense cup (uncataloged).

Excavation in 2006 Excavation in 2006 began by extending the grid to the east and south by adding four more trenches— grid squares BNΚΓ (where amphorae 62, 04/12 and 63, 04/13 had been located in 2004), ΓΚΛΜ, ΝΞΟΚ, and ΚΟΠΛ—each measuring 2 x 2 m (Ill. 3.4). Progress was fast because of thin sedimentation, ca. 20–40 cm of sand.

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Several new archaeologists, including volunteers, had joined to help. As in the previous year, the seafloor was rocky with a sharp slope downward, and the artifacts that survived were in sand pockets between rocks. However, this season held surprises, for we realized we had encountered artifacts from the ship’s cabin where the crew kept tools and pottery for daily use. A total of seven stone tools were recovered (see Dierckx, this vol., Ch. 7): a complete axe (PSS 1), two fishing weights (PSS 2, PSS 7), two pounders/grinders (PSS 3, PSS 4), a polisher (PSS 5), and a scraper (PSS 6). Fragments of a straightsided cup (106, 06/69), a juglet (129, 06/73), and the upper part of a jug (130, 06/84) may also have belonged to the crew. Furthermore, we found three almost complete short-spouted jugs buried upside down in the sand (35, 06/52; 36, 06/53; 38, 06/59) and two more jugs with only their upper parts intact (26, 06/87 [PSA 11/11]; 28, 06/86). A total of 43 artifacts was recovered from the four trenches including seven stone tools (Ill. 3.4), at depths of 39–41 m, bringing the total number of excavated objects from the wreck area by this point to more than 73. One of them (54, 06/81β) was found far outside the grid (Ill. 3.2), but nevertheless it is likely to have been in the ship, which left a scattered trail of vessels as it sank.

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Excavation in 2007 In 2007, excavation proceeded at both the southern and northern ends of the wreck site. At first, three additional 2 x 2 m trenches (ΦΜΤΥ, ΜΛΣΤ, and ΛΠΡΣ) were added as extensions at the southern end because we hoped to find more personal possessions of the sailors that might help identify the ship’s origin. The water at this end of the site is deeper, reaching down to 43 m, and the captain had forbidden us from diving beyond this limit on a daily basis. It was tiring enough to decompress at various depths for a half hour before surfacing. Once more, we were in the familiar environment, digging in sandy pockets of the rocky seafloor (Ill. 3.5; Pl. 4A). The stratigraphy of the trenches was also familiar: the sediment had a total thickness of 35–40 cm, consisting of thin sand for 10–15 cm and then 10–20 cm of denser gray sand mixed with shells, stones, and pottery. The three trenches produced a total of 23 finds, five of them lying just outside the rope grid but within the perimeter of the sunken ship, and seven of which must have been from vessels belonging to the crew. They consisted of part of a large basin with handles that was possibly for food preparation (100, 07/100), a straight-sided cup

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Illustration 3.5. Topographic plan of the southern trenches from the 2007 excavation season. Amphora 08/123 was hidden under a rock, and it was not exposed until 2008. Drawing D. Timologos, D. Faulmann, and M. Marder.

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(108, 07/104), a rather large semiglobular cup (112, 07/103), two almost complete tripod cooking pots (120, 05/1; 121, 07/122), a miniature tripod vessel that was possibly used for transporting fire or live coals (123, 07/101), and the upper half of a large hole-mouthed jar with three handles (126, 07/93). One artifact produced a surprise. A tripod cooking pot (120, 05/1) had been located in 2004 concreted onto a rock at a depth of 40.5 m. It looked different from the other ceramics because of its orange fabric with coarse inclusions. It was relocated with some difficulty in 2005 and recovered in 2007 from the eastern border of trench ΚΟΠΛ (Ill. 3.4). A later analysis of its clay indicated its origin as East Crete, from the seaside town of Palaikastro (PSA 11/32). Although this item could simply have been acquired during trips to the east, we think it more likely that a foreigner was on the ship, either as a crew member or as a passenger. In any event, the find indicates contact with the far eastern Cretan coastal towns at an earlier period than previously known. Pottery from Palaikastro is generally thought to have been distributed no earlier than the Neopalatial period (see Nodarou, this vol., Ch. 5). The rest of the finds were part of the cargo and include two almost complete oval-mouthed amphorae (75, 07/88; 96, 07/106), three upper bodies consisting of about half of each amphora (55, 07/111; 76, 07/97; 78, 07/102), and the upper parts of three beakspouted jugs (18, 07/89; 27, 07/92; 41, 07/99). Two Byzantine artifacts were also found near the surface layer in trench ΛΠΡΣ: a large body fragment of an amphora with rounded body and incised horizontal bands (07/94) and a horseshoe-shaped lead weight with one hole at each end (176, 07/110). While excavation was proceeding, another team was exploring the waters in the bay west of the wreck area. At the depth of ca. 40 m, we located a 1.4-m long Roman anchor stock. Given it was found at a distance from the Minoan wreck site and was not related to it, we left it on the seafloor. Once the excavation of the sand pockets of the main trenches was completed, we decided to add four more trenches (ΧΨα2α1, ΨΩα3α2, α1α2ΘΗ, and α2α3ΙΘ) at the northern end of the wreck site, closer to the rocky ridge that divides the shipwreck from the sunken remains of the Minoan town. These trenches remained outside the bay, just below the land site; the waters in this area are ca. 36–37 m

deep, and the distance from the nearest coast is ca. 100 m. We excavated all four trenches, down to the bedrock but found very few artifacts, and almost all of them were fragments (Ill. 3.6). Two were empty (the lower two in Ill. 3.6), except for a surface find of the upper body of a jug (30, 05/6) we had removed in 2005, while a mere six fragments and one fishing weight (177, 07/113) came from the upper trenches. The fragments include a jug (42, 07/115), an ovalmouthed amphora (79, 07/117), a tripod cooking tray (119, 07/116), and two jars (161, 07/118; 163, 07/121). A sherd from a miniature tripod vessel was also excavated just outside the fixed point X (124, 07/120). The paucity of finds was at first a surprise because the sand pockets in this area have the same capacity to catch pottery as the pockets at lower depths. However, it should be expected if this region marks the upper boundary of the wreck site. Thus, we confirmed our hypothesis that the ship probably sank in the middle of the region that we had been excavating since 2005, and most of its contents ended up at a depth of 36–44 m.

Survey in 2008 The underwater work at the shipwreck site in 2008 began according to schedule on 1 June 2008 and lasted for three weeks. The ministerial decision ΥΠΠΟ/ΓΔΑΠΚ/ΑΡΧ/Α2/52023/1676/27-6-08 authorizing excavation was finally signed on 27 June 2008, a few days after the end of the season, and the project could not be rescheduled at the last minute. During this time we were waiting for the final signature on the excavation permit. No excavation could begin before obtaining a signed permit from the minister of culture, but we did have an active permit for surveying, so we took the opportunity to carry out an extensive survey of the area surrounding the grid to a distance of 50 m. This gave us the opportunity to reexamine our measurements, correct any mistakes, and locate and map additional artifacts on the seafloor (Ill. 3.2). The decision to proceed in this way rather than wait for a final signature on the excavation permit turned out to be advantageous for many reasons. Throughout most of July and August, the winds were so strong that underwater work would have

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Illustration 3.6. Topographic plan of the northern trenches from the 2007 excavation season. Some artifacts acquired final labels in a previous season. Drawing D. Timologos, D. Faulmann, and M. Marder.

been impossible. Further, after drawing two separate maps of the area and studying and comparing them carefully, we reinforced our hypothesis that we had in fact been digging in the center of the dispersed cargo, and thus we were able to estimate the ship’s original size. In addition, the position of the vessels on the seafloor around the perimeter of the grid, many of which were lying upside down, indicated that the ship had indeed capsized. The 30-m wide area over which the artifacts were scattered was not hard to understand if objects began to fall off the ship as it foundered in bad weather. The underwater current in the area is often strong and can move nearly buoyant objects over a long distance.

During the survey, 15 artifacts were located on the seafloor outside the grid area, around a perimeter of 40 m. Although they were not in the center of the shipwreck with the greatest density of finds, they were too far from land to have fallen from the land site. The most likely explanation is that objects were scattered, and they drifted during their descent as the ship foundered. These finds include partially intact bodies of large vessels at a depth of 32.5 m. The first item located at the beginning of the season was a large fragment of an oval-mouthed amphora (80, 08/123 [PSA 11/17]). It had previously been hidden deep under a rock in trench ΜΛΣΤ, at the depth of 41 m, and it was exposed during

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the winter because all the sand had been removed from the adjacent trench. Additional oval-mouthed amphorae (81, 08/127, PSA 11/15; 82, 08/129; 83, 08/130; 84, 08/131, PSA 11/14; 85, 08/138), spouted jugs (20, 08/124; 21, 08/141; 43, 08/149, PSA 11/27; 44, 08/150, PSA 11/26), a cup (102, 08/151), and two discoid fishing weights (178, 08/135, 179, 08/136) were found exposed on the seafloor, some covered with a powder-like sand as a result of it settling and drifting following the excavation process of the previous years. A wide-mouthed jug (127, 08/132) had fallen on its side facing north, at the distance of ca. 10 m east of the grid, at the depth of 40.7 m. A jar with a rounded body, wide rim, and two horizontal handles under the rim was found partly buried in the sand, ca. 6.5 m northwest of the grid, at the depth of 33.7 m (NL 69, 08/147). These vessels were covered only with seaweed because no excavation had taken place nearby. By contrast, the vessels at the southern perimeter at the deeper end were embedded upside down in the natural rock of the seafloor, at depths of 44.2–44.8 m. These include the lower half of a closed vessel, possibly a jar (164, 08/145) and a rounded cup (111, 08/144). Other vessels, such as a large carinated cup (116, 08/148), were found resting in sandy pockets. In all, we mapped vessels that were part of the wreck, including six oval-mouthed amphorae, five jugs, three cups, two fishing weights, and two jars. Some artifacts were concreted onto the rocky seafloor, and they could not ultimately be recovered. In addition, we rescued six more artifacts from the region of the sunken town near the shore: two fishing weights (NL 96, NL 97), two cups (NL 9, NL 36), and a jug (NL 63). They are discussed in Chapter 4 (Addendum) and Chapter 6. Two surveyors separately mapped the finds using a combination of triangulation with distance and angle measurements and overhead photographs for finds in the vicinity of the grid. The results of this work are summarized in Illustration 3.2, which shows that artifacts are scattered across an area of ca. 40 x 50 m. The greatest density is contained within an area ca. 13 x 7 m, running diagonally from trench ZAΔΕ to Ρα9α8α7. This is consistent with our estimates for the size of the ship. One could argue for a trail of artifacts starting in the north corner of the map, where the ship began to capsize, and proceeding toward the south,

where the bulk of the cargo was found. A small density of artifacts appears at distances up to 15 m in every direction from the main cargo.

Excavation in 2009 Preparation for the continuation of the excavation began during the spring of 2009, but work itself started on 7 September and lasted for three weeks. The project originally had been scheduled for June, but once again it was delayed to ensure that the permit had been signed and to avoid the strong winds. The weather in June turned out to be unusually rough, and work would have been difficult. Although the season was short, and large waves often interfered with the work, we accomplished a great deal. We completed the excavation of five more trenches (Πα10α9Ρ, Ρα9α8α7, ΣΡα7α6, ΤΣα6α5, and ΥΤα5α4), and we recovered 30 more artifacts and fragments from the shipwreck site and its perimeter, some of which had been left on the seafloor and had been located earlier (Ill. 3.7). Some of these include four almost intact vessels (31a, 09/179; 53, 04/39; 66, 05/20; 86, 09/156) and others where large enough parts of the body have survived to enable reconstruction of the original vessel (22, 09/158; 23, 09/159; 24, 09/161; 25, 09/184; 45, 09/182; 46, 09/183; 47, 09/174; 48, 09/167; 49, 09/187; 50, 09/189). We found several additional oval-mouthed amphorae, either their upper bodies or nearly intact vessels (56, 09/155, PSA 11/18; 57, 09/162; 58, 09/170; 59, 08/128; 86, 09/156; 87, 09/169; 88, 09/175). We also found lower bodies from large jars (133, 09/153 + 09/191; 166, 09/165; 168, 09/172; Pl. 4B). A miniature brazier for holding live coals or fire was found to be of a non-Cretan fabric, originating possibly from the Dodecanese Islands (103, 09/181, PSA 11/19). It must have been owned by a sailor or a passenger, indicating the contacts the Pseiran inhabitants had with the other Aegean Islands. The body of a large closed vessel, possibly a jar or an amphora (NL 79, 08/125, PSA 11/20), originally found in 2008 and eventually removed in 2009, was located at the depth of 32.7 m, ca. 8 m northwest of the grid. After it was analyzed using ceramic petrography, it also turned out to be

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of a non-Cretan fabric, possibly originating from the Dodecanese Islands or the Asia Minor coast. It is likely that this vessel comes from the wreck because it was exposed on the seafloor in the perimeter of the northern trench ΧΨα2α1 after excavation had removed much sand from this area and from where domestic artifacts, possibly belonging to the crew, were excavated, such as tripod vessels (119, 07/116, PSA 11/29; 124, 07/120). Other finds include a discoid fishing weight (180, 09/171), three cups (NL 21, 09/207; 108, 07/104; 111, 08/144), the lower part of a jug (47, 09/174), the upper parts of oval-mouthed amphorae (89, 09/186; 90, 09/202; 91, 09/203), and various fragments (e.g., 165). Three more finds—an amphora and two

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fishing weights—came from the sunken city (NL 42, 09/B93; NL 98, 09/B92; NL 99, 09/B95). At this point, we decided to draw the underwater project to a close. We had determined the region with the greatest density of finds and excavated it completely. Additional finds continued to appear around the perimeter but at a diminishing rate that did not clearly justify the cost and difficulty of the effort. During the last days of the project we rescued as many artifacts as we could for preservation and final exhibition at the Siteia Archaeological Museum (SM). Because we did this under strong time constraints, the locations of six sherds recovered in these last few days were not possible to record in detail.

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Illustration 3.7. Topographic plan of the 2009 excavation season. Some artifacts acquired final labels in a previous season. Drawing D. Timologos, D. Faulmann, and M. Marder.

4

Pottery from the Shipwreck and along the Coast by Philip P. Betancourt

The ship that sank near Pseira Island makes an important contribution to our knowledge of the pottery used in the eastern part of the Gulf of Mirabello in the MM IIB period. The recovered cargo, published in a preliminary report in 2006 (Hadjidaki and Betancourt 2005–2006), constitutes the largest known corpus of complete and almost complete clay vessels from one MM IIB deposit in several categories. Of particular interest are the large amphorae, a class that was previously very poorly represented in the archaeological record, presumably because these large vases were never placed in tombs and because most of those used in settlements have only been found as sherds. They and the other vases provide many details of the range of variations that existed within particular vessel shapes at a single point in time. Of course, the shipwreck also contributes to our knowledge of the trade that occurred along the east–west trade route of northern Crete during the Middle Bronze Age. It seems to represent the normal and routine trade in goods that must have taken place along this sea route, forming a useful contrast with elite

cargo ships like the Cape Gelidonya wreck (Bass 2010, with bibliography) and the Uluburun wreck (Pulak 2010, with bibliography) that were more unusual transport vessels loaded with elite goods. The Minoan shipwreck at Koulenti, near the Laconian coast, was also carrying amphorae and jugs (Spondylis 2012). The proximity of the Cretan wreck to the island of Pseira suggests that the mishap occurred where it did either because that port was the ship’s destination or because it was one of its ports of call. It is unlikely to have been the source of the cargo because the ship has none of the known Pseiran exports like stone vases (Betancourt 1990b) or objects made from stone and shell (Floyd 1998, 215–216), and Pseira did not manufacture any of the pottery found on this ship. The pottery from the Minoan settlement and cemetery on Pseira Island is well known. The analysis is published in a slim monograph about the excavations in the first decade of the 20th century (Seager 1910) and in 10 volumes that present the material excavated by the modern project (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 1995, 1998, 1999,

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2002, 2003, 2009; Floyd 1998; McEnroe 2001; Betancourt, Davaras, and Hope Simpson, eds., 2004, 2005). Additional vessels are documented in the catalog of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Betancourt 1983). Because Pseira had no natural clay source and limited water and fuel, the Bronze Age community seems to have relied on nearby Crete and more distant sources for all of its pottery. Much of the Bronze Age corpus of ceramics used on Pseira must have come from Gournia and other nearby places with active pottery traditions. In addition to the pottery from the shipwreck, the team that investigated the ship that sank in MM IIB took advantage of the opportunity to also rescue loose pottery from closer to the island. The underwater presence of Minoan pottery near the island has been noted several times (Hood and Boardman 1955, 35; Leatham and Hood 1958– 1959, 275–278; Frost 1963b, 103–104; Cousteau 1978; Betancourt 2004, 74). The ceramics seem to have fallen into the sea as a result of earthquakes. They have been disturbed by thousands of years of fishing, and they were at risk of being looted. The collection of the ancient vessels and sherds was undertaken to preserve them. The material is published in the addendum at the end of this chapter. The ship that foundered near the island was apparently carrying goods stored in containers, not the pottery itself. This conclusion is supported by the limited number of vessel shapes in the bulk cargo (i.e., the load consisting of a large number of vessels in the same shape) and by the nature of these vases; many are large vessels designed as containers for transport, not household pots designed for serving, cooking, or small to medium storage capability. The bulk cargo consisted of amphorae and jugs designed to be closed with a plug inserted into the neck and hole-mouthed jars designed for fabric or leather covers tied over the mouths. The identification of cargo items as opposed to items regarded as possessions of the crew was based on the volume of single classes of objects, with the assumption that ordinary (i.e., nonluxury) trade goods are more likely to have been distributed in quantity rather than as single items. This assumption is subjective, but it is justified by the fact that it leads to the recognition of two rather clear-cut classes: one consists of only transport vessels and

the other includes only domestic vessels that would have been appropriate for use by the crew. The pottery from the shipwreck is divided into four groups: (1) Vases that were probably a part of the cargo (2) Vessels that were probably personal pos­sessions (3) Fragments of uncertain shape (4) Later vessels that had nothing to do with the shipwreck Except for the last group, the date of the pottery is MM IIB. The chronology is established by many East Cretan deposits containing vessels in similar styles. Particularly distinctive shapes for dating purposes include the carinated cup with horizontal grooves on the upper part (116), the semiglobular cup (112), and the jugs made of Mirabello Fabric with a low spout, a small neck, and a piriform body (12–28). Among the deposits from this period are several well-dated assemblages from architecture that was destroyed or abandoned in MM IIB. Useful deposits for understanding the chronology come from House A at Vasiliki (Seager 1906–1907), Quartier Mu at Malia (Poursat and Knappett 2005), the last phase of the cemetery at Pseira (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003), the dye workshop at Alatzomouri Pefka (Apostolakou, Brogan, and Betancourt 2012; Apostolakou et al. 2016; Apostolakou, Brogan, and Betancourt, eds., 2020; Betancourt et al. 2014), and the MM IIB assemblage from Monastiraki Katalimata (Nowicki 2008, 46–50). Almost all the vases are from Minoan Crete. Most of them are local vessels from workshops in the northern parts of East Crete, and only a few are from other parts of the island. The ship was obviously a local merchantman plying the east–west coastal shipping lane that has been proposed as a common trade route linking the settlements along this part of the island (Betancourt 1997). The clay containers for the cargo came mostly from two workshop traditions, one making closed vessels using fragments of granodiorite to temper the clay and the other using phyllite for the same purpose. The granodiorite tradition was especially typical of Gournia (called Mirabello Fabric; for the pottery from Gournia, see Boyd Hawes et al. 1908; Betancourt and Silverman 1991). The class of pottery

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

with granodiorite inclusions has been described many times (first recognized by George Myer: see Betancourt et al. 1979, 5, table 1; see also Day 1991, 92–94; 1997, 225; Myer, McIntosh, and Betancourt 1995, 144–145; Whitelaw et al. 1997, 268; Vaughan 2002, 153–154; Barnard 2003, 7; Day, Joyner, and Relaki 2003, 17–18; Day et al. 2005, 183–187; Nodarou and Moody 2014). Without using ceramic petrography, it has been identified by macroscopic means in a system devised for Kavousi and called Types 2 and 3 (Haggis and Mook 1993). The pottery is tempered with grains of an igneous rock that only occurs along the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in eastern Crete (Dierckx and Tsikouras 2007; Tsikouras, Dierckx, and Hatzipanagiotou 2008). Diorite is a granular igneous rock consisting principally of plagioclase feldspar, an amphibole mineral, and dark mica, while granodiorite has a small percentage of K-feldspar as well as plagioclase and more quartz than occurs in diorite (Hurlbut and Klein 1977, 458, 460). Both rocks have been identified in Minoan pottery. The dark mica was formerly called biotite (now no longer considered a distinct species; see Back and Mandarino 2008, 25). The last group, with only a few items, consists of later pieces that drifted onto the area of the wreck. Some of them are as late as the Byzantine period. These vases must have come to rest where the wreck was because they were carried by the same currents that caused the ship to land at this spot.

Vessels that Were Probably Part of the Cargo This assemblage of vases consists of substantial groups of similar pieces. All are closed shapes that would have functioned admirably as shipping containers. They include hole-mouthed jars, two classes of amphorae, and jugs. All these containers are sturdy forms that would not break easily during transport. The largest classes of jugs and amphorae were made of two different fabrics, one with granodiorite inclusions (Mirabello Fabric) and one with metamorphic phyllite inclusions, indicating that the products of two different East Cretan workshop traditions are represented in the cargo. A total of 97 vases cataloged here can be assigned to the cargo, including 11 hole-mouthed jars, 40

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transport jugs, and 46 amphorae. This number is not complete because part of the cargo was not recovered, and nonjoining fragments were found that represent additional examples, even though the lack of definitive surviving details prevents assignment to a specific group. Vessels left on the seafloor increase the total amphorae to more than 50. A shipload of 98+ vessels is not an enormous quantity, but if a comparison with the LM IIIB shipwreck from Point Iria gives any measure of typical cargo size for a small Aegean vessel, the group of 25 vases documented from that wreck (Lolos 1999, 43) suggests that the size of the cargo from near Pseira is not unusually small. Pottery alone, of course, cannot be a complete guide to cargo size because ships must have transported commodities in perishable containers as well as in ceramics. Indeed, as discussed in Chapter 8, the ship must have carried either ballast or additional cargo to be fully loaded and stable.

Vessels that Were Probably Personal Possessions The shipwreck has several vessels that do not seem to be shipping containers. They include a few cooking vessels, 17 cups, some jugs and juglets that could have held good wine and oil or something else, and a few other vases. These vessels indicate that the crew members were equipped to stop on their journey to cook a meal if they chose to do so. They had three deep cooking vessels that would be suitable for making soups (120–122) as well as a shallow tray supported by tripod legs that would have been used for heating other types of food such as flat bread (119). Shapes for transporting live coals include a brazier (103) and two miniature tripods (123, 124). Large open basins (98–100) are useful on ships because they are not damaged by salt water and because freshly caught fish can be kept alive in them for a short time so they will not die and spoil in the sun. The presence of clay weights on this shipwreck suggests that the crew probably did some fishing along the journey to provide some of their food. Nothing suggests affluence: this was not a wealthy ship.

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Distribution of the Vases The distribution of the vessels provides some insights into the original arrangement, but the wreck was obviously disturbed (Figs. 1–3). No signs of wood were present. Many of the vessels were broken, and their sherds were dispersed. Some of this disturbance can be attributed to events during the mishap that sent the vessels to the seafloor and to later natural forces, but not all the scattering of the remains can be explained this way. It is clear that fishing or other practices have also disturbed the wreck, and it is also possible that attempts were made to retrieve objects after the ship sank. A few of the vases were found at a distance from the wreck. A scatter of whole vessels northeast of the wreck, upstream from the underwater currents at this location, includes two large hole-mouthed jars (1, 2) as well as some jugs and other small vases. This scatter suggests that after the ship sank, it drifted underwater with the currents toward the southwest, and that vessels that were easily dislodged must have fallen from it while it drifted, leaving a trail of whole vases. The ship settled on the seafloor on a sloping part of the seabed, at ca. 33–44 m below sea level. Several vases were also found downhill at -45 m, toward the south, where they were scattered either when the vessel came to rest or later. The ship may have struck the bottom near grid square ΨΩα3α2 and lost some of its cargo before sliding down toward the south. The grinding action as the ship slid down the slope contributed to the breakage of the pottery. Most of the vases remained near where the ship finally landed, but the broken condition of some of them suggests some later damage. Some of the vases may have been moved by modern divers. Even with the disturbance, however, the findspots give some idea of the original placement of the cargo (Fig. 1). The jugs and amphorae made of Mirabello Fabric are highlighted in Figure 2. Because they are of a similar fabric, they may have been picked up as part of the same cargo, perhaps at Gournia. The amphorae are mostly near the center of the deposit, suggesting that many of these heavy containers were originally placed together near the center of the ship. No evidence survives for any difference in transportation placement for the two types of amphorae or two types of jugs, and the jugs seem to have been at least partly interspersed with the amphorae.

Vases that were probably owned by the crew (as opposed to the cargo that was being transported) are shown in Figure 3. The cooking vessels and other shapes are differentiated in the illustration. Many of the vessels are clustered in and near grid squares KOΠΛ and ΛΠPΣ. The concentration in one area suggests that they were stored together, perhaps in a small cabin. They are not numerous, indicating a small crew for this ship.

Catalog of the Pottery The catalog entries generally follow the system used for the other modern excavations at Pseira. All the sections are arranged by vessel shape, with open shapes before closed shapes and simple forms before more complex ones, a system that mostly follows Peter Warren (1972). Colors are expressed using the Munsell soil color charts (Kollmorgen Instruments Corporation 1992). Fabrics that have been sufficiently characterized petrographically to receive names are capitalized (e.g., Mirabello Fabric), in contrast with poorly described fabrics that are not capitalized (e.g., a phyllite fabric). A class of pottery with both a specific type of surface treatment and a known fabric is called a ware and is capitalized (e.g., Vasiliki Ware, which is a specific mottled pottery from EM IIB made of Mirabello Fabric). If the fabric is not known for a specific type of surface treatment, the class is called a style.

Hole-Mouthed Jars A group of 11 hole-mouthed jars comes from the wreck. Other examples are almost certainly present among the fragments whose shape is uncertain. Jars of this type have a constricted mouth, a tiny or nonexistent neck, a convex profile, and horizontal handles for lifting. No spouts are present. The largest jar has a height of 47.8 cm and a rim diameter of 23.2 cm, while the smallest one has a height of only 18 cm and a rim diameter of 13.6 cm. This is a considerable range in size. The jars could have held either solid or liquid commodities. A fabric or leather cover could have been placed over the mouth for closure, and it could have been tied on firmly with cord attached to the handles.

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

Examples of similar jars are known from several sites: Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pls. II:35, VIII:40); Pacheia Ammos (Seager 1916, pls. 7 left, 11, 16, nos. IV-b, XIV-c); Pseira (Seager 1910, 19, fig. 4 center; Banou 1995, 110, no. ADC 14); Malia (Poursat and Knappett 2005, pls. 10:175, 11); and Kato Zakros (Platon 1965, pl. 241:B). 1 (03/22; SM 11,970; Fig. 4; Pl. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, almost complete, surface mostly missing. H. 47.8, d. of rim 23.2, max. d. 45.2 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Inturned rim, low neck/rim, piriform body, two horizontal and two vertical handles with circular sections attached on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 40 m. Found fallen on its side facing south and stuck onto rock, ca. 12.5 m east of point Ξ. 2 (03/23; SM 11,971; Fig. 4; Pl. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, complete, surface mostly missing. H. 42.6, d. of rim 19.5 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Short raised rim, low neck, piriform shape with large base, two horizontal and two vertical handles with circular sections attached on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 39 m. Found standing upright facing north, partly buried, ca. 18.7 m east of Ξ–Ο. 3 (04/24; SM 12,604; Fig. 4; Pl. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 18, d. of rim 13.6, d. of base 14.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light yellowish brown, 10YR 6/4). Inturned rim, low neck/rim, rounded profile below neck, two horizontal handles with circular sections attached on shoulder. Comments: depth 35.0 m. Found ca. 36 m east of Ξ–Ο. 4 (04/38; SM 13,318; Fig. 4). Hole-mouthed jar, almost complete, missing part of rim and both horizontal handles, surface poorly preserved. H. 28.7, d. of rim 15.3, d. of base 13.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/8). Inturned rim, short neck/rim (1.6 cm high), rounded body below neck, two horizontal and two vertical handles with circular sections attached on upper shoulder. Incised band 0.5 cm wide on body, made in the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 40.1 m. Found 1 m south of point E. 5 (06/67; Fig. 5). Probably a hole-mouthed jar, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. ca. 40, d. of base 14.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4, to black, N3/). Tall jar with horizontal handles, possibly a hole-mouthed jar. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found with 06/72 and 06/76β in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. 6 (06/71; SM 13,345;Fig. 5; Pl. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, one-third complete, missing part of rim and lower body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 28, restored d. of body ca. 33–34 cm. A coarse fabric, not well visible (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Thickened inturned rim, short neck, rounded body, two horizontal handles

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with circular sections attached on shoulder. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. 7 (06/76; Fig. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Est. h. 38.5 cm. A coarse unusual fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6–8, on exterior surface and pinkish white, 5YR 8/2, on interior). Piriform shape, two horizontal handles with circular sections attached on body. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/01, loner, ophiolite related). 8 (05/50; SM 12,651; Fig. 5; Pl. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, rim and base with part of body, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 20.0 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 10R 4/8). Horizontal handle with circular section on side of vessel. Comments: depth 39.4 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ. 9 (07/107; Fig. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, rim and body sherd with handle, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim ca. 18–20 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Straight rim, horizontal handle with circular section attached on lower shoulder. Comments: depth 41.7 m. Found in grid square ΦΜΤΥ. 10 (09/166; Fig. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, rim and handle sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 6.9, d. of rim 20 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/8). Inturned rim, short neck, rounded body, horizontal handle with circular section attached below rim. Comments: depth 42 m. Found in grid square ΤΣα6α5, level 1. 11 (09/198; Fig. 5). Hole-mouthed jar, handle and body sherd, missing rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.5, d. of rim 16–20 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Thickened inturned rim, low neck, raised horizontal handle with circular section attached below rim. Comments: depth not recorded. Location not recorded.

Jugs Made of Mirabello Fabric A total of 17 jugs made of Mirabello Fabric have been cataloged from the site. Others were left on the seafloor, and the fragments without preserved rims could add an uncertain number of additional examples. They all have low spouts, vertical handles, and piriform bodies. The neck has a circular configuration, so the jugs could have been closed with cylindrical stoppers to protect against spilling during shipping. Parallels come from Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. VI:11–15, 25, 27, 29, 31). 12 (03/12; SM 11,965; Fig. 5; Pl. 5). Jug, complete except for tip of spout, missing handle, surface completely

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PHILIP P. BETANCOURT

missing. H. 19.2, d. of base 8.8 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/4). Low raised spout, piriform body. Comments: depth 40 m. Found ca. 21 m northeast of point O. 13 (03/15; SM 11,966; Fig. 5; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete, surface missing. H. 18.7, d. of base 8.8 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/4). Low raised spout, piriform body, handle with almost circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found ca. 15 m east of point O, under a rock, southeast of 1 (03/22). 14 (04/26; SM 12,606; Fig. 5; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete, missing most of handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 22, d. of base 7.9 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Piriform body, small raised spout, handle with circular section attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found ca. 15 m east of N–Ξ. 15 (04/27; SM 12,607; Fig. 5). Jug, almost complete, missing most of handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 19, d. of base 8.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, varies from black to light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/4). Piriform body, small raised spout, handle with circular section attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found ca. 15.5 m east of N–Ξ. 16 (05/29; SM 12,325; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 13 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6, to strong brown, 7.5YR 5/8). Small raised spout, handle with thick oval section attached on neck and shoulder. Comments: depth 39.5 m. Found in grid square ΘΙΒΑ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/08, Mirabello Fabric). 17 (06/70; SM 13,344; Fig. 6). Jug, rim and handle sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 7.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly yellow, 10YR 7/6, to brownish yellow, 10YR 6/6). Handle with circular section attached below rim on neck and shoulder. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/25, Mirabello Fabric). 18 (07/89; Fig. 6). Jug; upper part, including part of spout, handle, and body; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 17.5, d. of body 18 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Piriform body, small raised spout, handle with circular section attached at neck and on upper body. Comments: depth 41.5 m. Found in grid square MΛΣΤ. 19 (07/109; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part with most of spout and part of rim and shoulder, handle missing, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 8.1 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light brownish gray, 10YR 6/2, with a gray core, 5YR 5/1). Piriform body, small raised spout. Grooves on the interior and exterior from the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 41.6 m. Found in grid square ΦΜΤΥ. 20 (08/124; Fig. 6; Pl. 5). Jug, intact, surface poorly preserved. H. 20.3, d. of base 8.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric

(discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Piriform body, low raised spout, handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 38.1 m. Found ca. 6 m east of O–Π. 21 (08/141; Fig. 6). Jug, almost complete, missing spout, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20.3, d. of base 6.4 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Straight rim and neck, oval mouth, piriform body, handles with circular sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 44.1 m. Found ca. 16 m. southeast of point P. 22 (09/158; Fig. 6). Jug; spout, handle, neck, and upper shoulder sherd; missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Raised spout, elongated neck, part of vertical handle with circular section attached below rim. Comments: depth 42.2 m. Found in grid square ΣΡα7α6. 23 (09/159; Fig. 6). Jug; spout, handle, and upper shoulder; missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 13.3 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Slightly raised spout, short neck (4.2 cm), vertical handle with circular section attached below rim and on lower shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found in grid square Ρα9α8α7. 24 (09/161; Fig. 6). Jug; part of spout, part of handle and neck sherd; missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 7 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Handle with circular section attached below rim. Comments: depth 42.2 m. Found south of α7α8. 25 (09/184; Fig. 6). Jug, spout with handle sherd, missing part of spout and rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 8.4 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly strong brown, 7.5YR 5/6). Small slightly raised spout, short neck, handles with circular sections attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found south of α4α5. 26 (06/87; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part, missing lower part of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6, to black, 5YR 3/1). Comments: depth 40.8 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/11, Mirabello Fabric). 27 (07/92; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part, missing lower part of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Piriform body, small raised spout, plastic knob under spout, handle with circular section attached at rim and on lower shoulder, with the lower part of the handle thrust through the wall of the vessel. Comments: depth 38 m found west of point H. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/22, Mirabello Fabric). 28 (06/86; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part, missing lower part of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6,

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

to yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Comments: depth 39.6 m. Found in grid square ΖΑΔΕ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/12, Mirabello Fabric).

Jugs Made of Other Fabrics The second class of jug consists of vases made with various fabrics, most of which contain metamorphic phyllite fragments as the temper. Many of the differences in these fabrics can be distinguished only by ceramic petrography. Like the jugs manufactured in Mirabello Fabric, these jugs have the low spout that is typical of MM IIB. Like the other jugs in the cargo, their cylindrical necks could have been closed with stoppers made from tree limbs. A total of 20 examples were raised and cataloged (additional jugs can be recognized among the fragments). 29 (04/23; SM 12,603; Fig. 6; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 19.5, d. of body 16.8, d. of base 9.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Rounded profile, small raised spout. Comments: depth 40.0 m. Found off the grid. 30 (05/6; SM 13,321; Fig. 6). Jug; half complete; missing spout, rim, and base; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 33.5, max. dim. of body 30 cm. Fabric with argillaceous inclusions (discolored, from yellow, 10YR 7/6, to yellowish brown, 10YR 5/6). Low raised spout, piriform shape with low shoulder, one vertical handle with thick oval section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 38.0 m. Found in grid square α2α3ΙΘ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/10, loner with argillaceous fragments). 31 (05/30; SM 12,639; Fig. 6; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 24.5, d. of base 11.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/4). Piriform body, small raised spout (missing), handle with circular section attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 39.2 m. Found in grid square ZAΔΕ, level 2. 31a (09/179; Fig. 6; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete. H. 20.2, d. of base 9.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Handle with circular section attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42.2 m. MM II. Found on surface in grid square TΣα6α5. 32 (05/31; SM 12,640; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part, missing tip of spout and lower body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.6 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Piriform body, small raised spout, handle with circular section attached on neck below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 39.2. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ, level 2.

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33 (05/44; SM 12,645; Fig. 6). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. ca. 20 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Small raised spout, handle with circular section attached below rim on neck and on shoulder. Comments: depth 39.1 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ. 34 (05/51; SM 12,652; Fig. 7). Jug, sherd from neck and upper body, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 5.7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Comments: depth 39 m. Found in grid square HΘΑΖ. 35 (06/52; SM 13,326; Fig. 7; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete, missing tip of spout and part of body, surface poorly preserved. H. 34.2, d. of base 10, max. d. 20.7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from pink, 5YR 7/4, to yellowish red, 5YR 5/8). Piriform body, ridge at base of neck, small raised spout, handle with circular section attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 40.7 m. Found in grid square KΟΠΛ. 36 (06/53; SM 13,327; Fig. 7; Pl. 5). Jug, almost complete, missing part of rim and handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 26, d. of base 9, max. d. 17 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored fabric, from pink, 5YR 8/3, to yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Piriform shape, small raised spout (missing), handle with circular section attached (below rim?) at neck and shoulder. Comments: depth 40.7 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 37 (06/58; SM 13,334; Fig. 7). Jug, rim and handle sherd, surface poorly preserved. L. 9 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/8). Vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 40.2 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 38 (06/59; SM 13,330; Fig. 7; Pl. 5). Jug, three-quarters complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 31.7, d. of body 25.3, d. of base 14 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6, to yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Piriform body, small raised spout, handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 40.3 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 39 (06/62; SM 13,337; Fig. 7). Jug, handle and neck sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.3 cm. A fine phyllite fabric (discolored, from pink, 7.5YR 7/4, to black). Spout missing, handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 40 (06/63; SM 13,338; Fig. 7). Jug, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14.5, d. of base 8.6 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6). Piriform shape. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 41 (07/99; Fig. 7). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 15.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/3). Piriform body, small raised spout, handle with elliptical section attached at rim and below shoulder. Comments: depth 42.3 m. Found just west of grid square ΛΠΡΣ.

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42 (07/115; Fig. 7). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 15, d. of body ca. 27–30 cm. A coarse phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/6). Piriform body, small raised spout, wide strap handle with thick oval section attached opposite spout and on shoulder. Comments: depth 36.3 m. Found west of point X, outside the grid. 43 (08/149; Fig. 7). Jug, rim and upper body sherd, missing lower part of vessel and most of handle, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 15 cm. With weathered calcite (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Small raised spout, straight rim, globular upper body, handle with circular section attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 42.7 m. Found ca. 4 m west of point Υ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/27, loner with weathered calcite). 44 (08/150; Fig. 7). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 26.2 cm. A dark siltstone fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6). Raised spout, handle with circular section attached below rim and on lower shoulder, short neck, probably piriform body. Plastic decoration consisting of a small roll of clay around the top of the handle. Comments: depth 36.8 m. Found 6 m east of point Ω. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/26, loner with dark siltstone). 45 (09/182; Fig. 7). Jug; rim, handle, and body sherd; missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20.8, d. of body 24 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Short raised spout, short neck, handles with circular sections attached at rim and on lower shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found in grid square Ρα9α8α7, level 1. 46 (09/183; Fig. 8). Jug; spout, handle and upper shoulder sherd; missing rest of vessel, chips missing from spout; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 17.3 cm. A coarse phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly brownish yellow, 10YR 6/6). Raised spout, elongated neck, vertical handle with circular section attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found south of α4α5. 47 (09/174; Fig. 8). Jug; lower part; missing upper part of body, spout, and part of handle; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 21.3, d. of base 10.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 2.5YR 4/2). Piriform body, one vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 32.7 m. Found 10.55 m west of point X, outside the borders of the map.

Jugs Made of Uncertain Fabrics Several jugs are too discolored or covered with concretions for the fabric to be characterized visually. They were probably part of the cargo.

48 (09/167; Fig. 8). Jug, spout with handle sherd, missing rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. A semicoarse fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 7.5YR 7/4). Raised spout. W. of rim by handle 7.6 cm. Small raised spout, conical neck, handle with circular section attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Traces of dark slip on exterior. Comments: depth 43 m. Found in grid square ΥΤα5α4, level 1. 49 (09/187; Fig. 8). Jug; spout, handle, and upper body sherd; missing rest of vessel, missing chips from spout; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 18.5, d. of body 19, spout 12 x 6.2 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Tall raised spout, elongated neck (10.2 cm), rounded shoulder and body, vertical handles with oval sections attached below rim and on lower shoulder. Traces of dark slip on shoulder. Comments: depth 43 m. Found southwest of Υα4. 50 (09/189; Fig. 8). Jug; rim, handle, and upper body sherd; missing rest of vessel, missing spout, chips in rim; surface poorly preserved. Pres. L. of mouth 7.4, w. of mouth 6.6, max. dim. 20 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Outturned rim, elongated neck (ca. 5.6 cm), handle with circular section attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42 m. Found at south perimeter of α4α5. 51 (09/197; Fig. 8). Jug or amphora, rim and body sherds, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim 12 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Thin wall, outturned rim, shape uncertain. Comments: depth 43 m. Found in grid square ΥTα5α4.

Amphorae Made of Mirabello Fabric Ten amphorae with granodiorite fragments used as temper to make the clay less likely to break during firing and use are cataloged. Others must have been present as well. They have oval mouths and cylindrical necks, so they could have been stoppered like the other amphorae and jugs. Unlike the phyllite-tempered amphorae, whose handles have thick oval sections, these containers mostly have handles with circular sections. Parallels come from Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. VI:26) and Malia (Poursat and Knappett 2005, pls. 2, 3). 52 (04/25; SM 12,605; Fig. 8). Amphora, oval mouthed; almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 38, rim not measurable, d. of base 15.7 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Piriform body, flaring rim, handles with circular sections

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42.0 m. Found ca. 15 m east of Ν–Ξ. 53 (04/39; SM 13,319; Fig. 8; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, missing part of rim, surface poorly preserved with pits and holes in body. H. 38, d. of base 19 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Two vertical handles with circular sections attached just below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 36.8 m. Found 6 m east of point Ω. 54 (06/81β; Fig. 9; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, missing part of mouth and rim, surface poorly preserved. H. 41.5, d. of base 16, max. d. 31.2 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 7.5YR 7/4). Piriform body, flaring rim, handles with circular sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 35.4 m. Found 25 m east of point Ω. 55 (07/111; Fig. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed, rim and body sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.8, d. of neck 6.03 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Probably piriform shape, oval mouth, vertical handles with circular sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 41.6 m. Found in grid square ΦΜΤΥ. 56 (09/155; Fig. 9. Amphora, oval mouthed; mouth, handle, and part of upper body; missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. D. of mouth 13.9 x 11, d. of body 21, max. dim. 21.4 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Large oval mouth, short neck, rounded shoulder and body, large handles with circular sections attached at rim and on lower shoulder. Comments: depth 42.8 m. Found south of α7α8. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/18, Mirabello Fabric). 57 (09/162; Fig. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part; missing one handle, rim chipped; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.3, d. of rim 14 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light brown, 7.5YR 6/4). Handle with circular section attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 43 m. Found in grid square Ρα9α8α7. 58 (09/170; Fig. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed; rim, handle, and upper shoulder; missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.8 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Oval mouth, short neck, two vertical handles with circular sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 41.4 m. Found in grid square ΤΣα6α5, level 1. 59 (08/128; Fig. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed; body with handle sherd; missing mouth, rim, handles, and rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12.2, d. of upper body 24 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/8). Oval mouth, rounded shoulder, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 38 m. Found 6 m east of Ωα3.

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60 (09/193; Fig. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed; mouth, handle, and shoulder sherd; missing one handle and part of mouth; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.4, d. of body 20, opening in neck 7.7 x 7.7 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Oval mouth, handles with circular sections attached below rim and on lower shoulder. Comments: depth not recorded. Location not recorded. 61 (09/205; Fig. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed, handle and part of rim and shoulder, missing rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.6 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly strong brown, 7.5YR 5/6). Oval mouth, vertical handles with circular sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth not recorded. Location not recorded.

Amphorae Made in Other Fabrics Including Those with Phyllite Like the jugs, the amphorae can be divided between those tempered with granodiorite and those with added particles of other grains, including metamorphic phyllite. The 30 cataloged amphorae with phyllite inclusions are slightly taller than the amphorae made of Mirabello Fabric, with a maximum height of 45 cm. The mouth is always oval, but the neck is circular to accommodate a cylindrical piece of wood as a stopper. The bodies are piriform. Handles mostly have thick oval sections. Petrographic examination identifies more than one class within this group. The differences cannot be recognized without petrography. One amphora in this group has been recognized as a loner with metamorphic rock fragments (81, 08/127). 62 (04/12; SM 12,601; Fig. 10; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 34.0, d. of rim 8.3 x 13.0, d. of base 13.4 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Piriform shape, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 40.4 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ. 63 (04/13; SM 12,602; Fig. 10). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 23.5, d. of rim 9 x 12.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Piriform shape, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 40.4 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ.

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64 (05/10; SM 12,633; Fig. 10). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 19.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Piriform body, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 40.1 m. Found in grid square ΔΓΜΦ. 65 (05/19; SM 12,635; Fig. 10). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 23.5, d. of rim 7.7 x 12.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Piriform shape, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 39.9 m. Found in grid square ΑΒΓΔ, level 2. 66 (05/20; SM 13,324; Fig. 10). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 30.5, d. of body ca. 30 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 5YR 5/6, to black, 5YR 3/1). Piriform body, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found near grid square α2α3IΘ. 67 (05/21; SM 12,636; Fig. 10). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Piriform body, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 39 m. Found in grid square ΘΙΒΑ. 68 (05/33; SM 12,641; Fig. 11). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 19, d. of rim 7.5 x 13 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Piriform shape, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 38.8 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ. 69 (05/40; SM 12,642; Fig. 11; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, missing part of rim, surface poorly preserved. H. 30.7, d. of rim not measurable, d. of base 12.1 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Piriform shape, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and shoulder, vertical gash on outside of handle. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found a few centimeters outside grid square ΘΙΒΑ. 70 (05/42; SM 12,644; Fig. 11). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 17, d. of rim 9.5 x 17.1 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Probably piriform shape, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 39.0 m. Found west of HZ. 71 (05/43; Fig. 11). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.4, d. of rim 11.2 x 17.0 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Probably piriform shape, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 39.4 m. Found west of HZ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/16, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments).

72 (06/55α; SM 13,329; Fig. 11). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 16.4, d. of rim 7.8 x 14.6 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Piriform shape, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 40.1 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 73 (06/68; SM 13,342; Fig. 11). Amphora, oval mouthed, handle sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. L. 11 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Probably piriform shape, oval mouth, handles with circular sections attached at rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 40.7 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/06, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments). 74 (06/79α; SM 13,345; Fig. 11). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, missing part of rim and most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Rim not measurable, max. dim. of sherd 24.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly strong brown, 7.5YR 5/6). Piriform body, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square BNKΓ. 75 (07/88; Fig. 11; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 40.2, max. d. of body 33 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Piriform body, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 38 m. Found a few centimeters west of point H. 76 (07/97; Fig. 12). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 17.2, max. dim. 26.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Piriform body, thin rim, handles with circular sections attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42.4 m. Found under Ρ–Σ. 77 (07/98; Fig. 12). Closed vessel, neck sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.5, d. of rim ca. 9 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Probably an amphora. Comments: depth 42.4 m. Found under Ρ–Σ. 78 (07/102; Fig. 12). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 13.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Thickened rim, handles with oval sections attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 41 m. Found in grid square ΛΠΡΣ. 79 (07/117; Fig. 12). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. D. of body 24.9 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Piriform body, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 36.9 m. Found in grid square ΨΩα3α2. 80 (08/123; Fig. 12; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, complete profile, missing one side of vessel, surface

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

poorly preserved. H. 32.5, d. of base 14 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Straight rim, conical-shaped neck, piriform body, vertical handles with circular sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder, grooves on the interior from the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid ΜΛΣΤ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/17, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments). 81 (08/127; Fig. 12; Pl. 6). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20.4 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Straight rim, oval mouth, conical neck, rounded upper body, grooves on the interior from the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 31.8 m. Found ca. 10 m northwest of ΧΨΩ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/15, possibly not from wreck, loner with metamorphic rock fragments). 82 (08/129; Fig. 12). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim 9.2 x 13.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/6). Straight rim, oval mouth, conical neck, rounded upper body, vertical handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 35.4 m. Found ca. 4 m west of Χα1. 83 (08/130; Fig. 12). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim 14 x 9.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Straight rim, conical neck, rounded upper body, vertical handles with thick oval sections, attached at rim and on upper shoulder, grooves on interior from the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 37 m. Found ca. 4 m east of Ωα3. 84 (08/131; Fig. 12). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim 15.4 x 9.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish-brown, 5YR 5/4). Straight rim, oval mouth, conical neck, rounded upper body, vertical handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder, grooves on interior from the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 38.8 m. Found ca. 10 m east of ΟΞ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/14, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments). 85 (08/138; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 21.6 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Straight rim, oval mouth, conical neck, rounded upper body, vertical handles with circular sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 36.2 m. Found ca. 11.5 m east of point Ω and south of 08/130. 86 (08/156; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, complete profile, missing part of rim and body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 27, d. of base 11.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/8). Handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42.8 m. Found south of α7α8.

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87 (09/169; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, rim and handle sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Oval mouth, handle with thick oval section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 42.1 m. Found in grid square ΤΣα6α5, level 1. 88 (09/175; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.9, d. of rim 17.3 x 11 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached below rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 38.8 m. Found ca. 1 m west of ZE. 89 (09/186; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part and one side; missing base, most of body, and part of one handle. Pres. h. 22.3, d. of rim 8.3 x 10.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5 YR 5/4). Piriform body, oval mouth, two vertical handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 41.8 m. Found ca. 20 cm west of Υα4. 90 (09/202; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, rim chipped, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Handles with circular sections attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 39 m. Found 3 m west of Z–E, near 09/188. 91 (09/203; Fig. 13). Amphora, oval mouthed, rim, handle, and shoulder sherd; missing one handle and part of rim, missing rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.3, opening in neck 8.3 x 8.7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Oval mouth, wide neck (4.8 cm), pronounced area at base of neck, large handles with oval sections attached below rim and on lower shoulder. Comments: depth 39 m. Found 3 m west of Z–E, near 09/188.

Amphorae in Other Classes A few amphorae that differ from the two largest groups are present in the assemblage. They come from several workshop traditions. The type with a tall and slim body (94, 05/2) is from Malia (Poursat and Knappett 2005, pls. 4:59, 60, 42:53, 54) and Central Crete (for Knossos, see Evans 1921–1935, II, fig. 176:D, E; for Phaistos, see Levi 1976, pl. 188:a–d; for Kommos, see Betancourt 1990a, no. 610). 92 (04/15α; Fig. 13). Amphora with globular body, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 23.2, d. of base 7.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6, to yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Very

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small mouth, globular shape, handles with circular sections attached across the top of the rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 43.8 m. Found in grid square ΔΓΜΦ. 93 (04/15β; Fig. 13). Amphora with globular body, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 22.2, d. of rim 3–4, d. of base 7.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Globular shape, small oval mouth, two vertical handles with circular sections attached at rim and upper shoulder. Comments: depth 43.8 m. Found in grid square ΔΓΜΦ. 94 (05/2; SM 12,631; Fig. 14). Slim oval-mouthed amphora, almost complete. H. 35, d. of mouth 11.5 x 12.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Oval mouth, handle with almost circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 39.3 m. Found in grid square ABΓΔ. 95 (05/5; SM 13,320; Fig. 14). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 25.5 cm. Unusual fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 7.5YR 8/4). Body with rounded profile, oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 38.7 m. Found just a few centimeters east of trench ΘΙΒΑ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/28, loner with sedimentary rock fragments). 96 (07/106; Fig. 14). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, missing one handle and part of rim and neck, surface poorly preserved. H. 28.7, d. of body 18.5, d. of base 8.2 x 10 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/6). Oval mouth, tall neck, handles with circular sections attached just below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 41.8 m. Found in grid square ΦΜΤΥ. 97 (09/188; Fig. 14). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12, d. of rim 11.5 x 7.5 cm. A phyllite micaceous fabric (discolored, mostly red, 5YR 5/6). Oval mouth, handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 39.1 m. Found 3.4 m southwest of ZE. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/30, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments [mica-schist]).

Vessels Probably Owned by the Crew Vessels that are present in small numbers may have been owned by the crew. Of course, it is not possible to know for certain if any of these pieces were being shipped as single items. Almost all of them are small containers that would have been useful in food preparation and consumption. Several cups are present. The class includes three vessels used for cooking as well as some open vases with interior burning marks that could have been used for saving and transporting embers. The

implication is that the crew would have stopped along their journey and prepared a meal. Basins Three basins are in the assemblage. They are all about the same size, with rims near 40 cm in diameter. They could have served a variety of purposes, including storage, food preparation, and keeping fish alive for a while after they were caught to prevent the spoilage that begins almost immediately in hot weather after they die. 98 (04/11; SM 12,600; Fig. 14; Pl. 6). Basin, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 19, d. of rim 37 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Conical form with straight sides, thickened rim, two horizontal handles with circular sections attached below rim. Comments: depth 44.7 m. Found downhill, 9 m southeast of the wreck. 99 (05/28; SM 12,638; Fig. 14). Basin, rim sherd with spout, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20.5, d. of rim ca. 42 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, partly strong brown, 7.5YR 6/6). Thickened rim, open spout at rim, two horizontal handles with circular sections attached below rim. Comments: depth 38.7 cm. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ, level 1. 100 (07/100; Fig. 14). Basin, rim sherd with handle, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.4, d. of rim 42 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Straight rim, horizontal handles with circular sections attached below rim. Comments: depth 41.4 m. Found at the southwest corner of grid square ΛΠΡΣ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/13, Mirabello Fabric).

Conical Cups Two conical cups were found in the wreck. The shape is the most common cup class in Minoan Crete. Examples come from nearly all the MM IIB– LM I excavations in East Crete and Central Crete (Wiener 1984; Gillis 1990). 101 (06/61; SM 13,336; Fig. 14). Conical cup, threequarters complete, missing part of side and rim, surface poorly preserved. H. 4.1, d. of rim 7.1, d. of base 3.3 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Conical shape, straight rim and sides. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 102 (08/151; Fig. 14; Pl. 7). Conical cup, intact, surface poorly preserved. H. 3.9, d. of rim 8.7, d. of base 3.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Straight rim, conical shape. Comments: depth 42.5 m. Found 9 m southeast of point α8.

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

Brazier One brazier was present on the site. The shape consists of an open conical bowl with a flared rim and a single frying pan handle. The example from the wreck has three small feet. The brazier would have been used to hold coals or a small fire, and it would have been useful in carrying burning embers from one location to another. A wall painting from Akrotiri on Thera showing a metal brazier held by a figure often identified as a young priestess suggests that it could also have been used for offerings (Doumas 1992, 57, fig. 25). Clay parallels come from Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. II:28). 103 (09/181; Fig. 14; Pl. 7). Brazier, complete profile, missing more than half of vessel, surface poorly preserved. H. 6.8, d. of rim 14, d. of base 6 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4, to red, 2.5YR 4/6). Flared rim, frying pan handle (oval section) attached on upper body, three small legs (0.9 cm oval sections) attached at base. Comments: depth 43 m. Found in grid square ΥTα5α4. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/19, fabric with metamorphic rocks [mica-schist]).

Straight-Sided Cups One-handled cups with a conical shape and straight sides are common in MM IIB. Six examples come from the shipwreck. Many of the sites in this part of Crete have parallels for the shape: Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pls. II:17, VI:3), Malia (Poursat and Knappett 2005, pl. 29:858–970), and Pacheia Ammos (Seager 1916, pl. 2:XIII–b, VI–a). 104 (03/11; SM 11,980; Fig. 14). Straight-sided cup, complete profile, surface poorly preserved. H. 6.8, d. of rim 9.8, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Conical shape, one handle with circular section attached at rim and on body. Traces of dark paint on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 39 m. Found 15 m east of point Ξ. 105 (05/22; SM 12,637; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Straight-sided cup, almost complete, missing handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 7.05, d. of rim 8.6 x 10.3, d. of base 4.3 cm. A fine phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Conical shape, straight rim and sides, handle missing. Comments: depth 39 m. Found in grid square ΘIBΑ, level 2. 106 (06/69+78; SM 13,343; Fig. 15). Straight-sided cup; complete profile; missing part of rim, body, and handle; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 5.5, d. of base 4.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, from light brown, 7.5YR 6/4, to strong brown, 7.5YR 5/8). Conical shape,

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straight rim and sides. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 107 (07/91; Fig. 15). Straight-sided cup, two-thirds complete, missing most of handle and rim, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 8, d. of base 6.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/3). Slightly flaring rim. Comments: depth 37.2 m. Found 1 m west of point H. 108 (07/104; Fig. 15). Straight-sided cup, complete profile, missing handle and half of vessel, surface poorly preserved. H. 7, d. of rim ca. 10, d. of base 5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light brown, 7.5YR 6/4). Straight rim, handle with circular section attached at rim and just above base. Comments: depth 41.5 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 109 (09/160; Fig. 15). Straight-sided cup, base with handle sherd, missing rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 6.1, d. of base 6.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly pale brown, 10YR 6/3). Straight walls, strap handle with oval section attached on lower wall. Comments: depth 42 m. Found immediately south of α7α8.

Rounded Cups Two rounded cups come from the shipwreck. The shape consists of a hemispherical cup with a convex profile, a straight and vertical rim, and a single vertical handle. The shape is more popular in earlier periods than in MM IIB. Parallels come from Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. II:44). 110 (05/41; SM 12,64; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Rounded cup, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 9.9, d. of rim 10.8, d. of base 5.7 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, partly reddish brown, 5YR 4/4). Straight rim, rounded carination, pronounced base, thin strap handle attached at rim and carination. Comments: depth 39.2 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ, level 2. 111 (08/144; Fig. 15). Rounded cup, almost complete, missing handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 5.5, d. of rim 7.5, d. of base 4.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 5YR 7/3). Inturned rim, raised(?) handle with round section attached on rim and below rounded carination. Comments: depth 44.3 m. Found downhill, 5 m south of point α6.

Semiglobular Cup One semiglobular cup is in the assemblage. The semiglobular cup is common in MM IIB. It has a slightly everted rim, a convex profile, and one vertical handle. Examples come from many sites: Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. II:16), Malia

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PHILIP P. BETANCOURT

(Poursat and Knappett 2005, pl. 28:826–831), and Palaikastro (Knappett and Cunningham 2012, 134, 136, figs. 4.14:135–138, 4.16:152).

Comments: depth 41.3 m. Found with 18 in grid square MΛΣΤ.

112 (07/103; Fig. 15). Semiglobular cup; rim sherd; missing most of handle; rim, and body; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 4.5, d. of rim 9.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light brown, 7.5YR 6/4). Slightly outturned rim, handle with circular section attached just below rim and on lower shoulder. Comments: depth 40.7 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ.

Chalice One two-handled cup (also sometimes called a chalice) is in the assemblage. Unlike most examples of the shape from this period (Weingarten 2016), it has a circular rim instead of an undulating one.

Carinated Cups Five carinated cups come from the shipwreck. The carinated shape was used in Crete from MM IB until MM IIB. It is a cup with a concave upper section and a convex lower part divided by a horizontally placed carination. It usually has a thin ribbon handle. The class with horizontal grooves on the upper section (116, 08/148) is particularly typical of MM IIB (Seager 1906–1907, 123–126). Parallels come from Gournia (Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. II:10, 11). 113 (03/14). Carinated cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 5.5, d. of rim 8.0 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Comments: depth 42 m. Found 20 m east of point O. 114 (03/22α; SM). Carinated cup, surface poorly preserved. H. ca. 6 cm. Found during conservation of 1 (03/22) (SM). Comments: depth 40 m. Found 15 m east of point Ξ. 115 (07/90; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Carinated cup, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 6.3 (without handle), 7.5 (with handle), d. of rim 8.5, d. of base 4.8 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Thin ribbon handle with oval section attached at rim and carination, no grooves on upper section, carination low on body. Dark paint on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 37.2 m. Found 1 m west of point H. 116 (08/148; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing part of handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 7.2, d. of rim 10.8 x 9.1, d. of base 4.1 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly pale brown, 10YR 6/3). Ovoid rim, concave upper body with a series of thin incised grooves, body rounded below carination, strap handle with elliptical section attached below rim and above carination. Traces of black slip on exterior. Comments: depth 41.7 m. Found 5 m west of point Φ. 117 (07/89β; Fig. 15). Carinated cup, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 4.5, d. of rim 7.0, d. of base 4.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Slightly outturned rim, slightly concave body with rounded lower body, vertical handle with a circular section attached at rim and on lower body.

118 (05/32; SM 13,453; Fig. 15). Two-handled cup or chalice, complete except for the handles, surface poorly preserved. H. 16 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Piriform body, tall inverted conical neck and rim, opposed handles with ridges and oval sections attached just below rim and on body. Comments: depth 39.3 m. Found in grid square ΖΑΔΕ.

Tripod Cooking Tray Several cooking shapes come from the shipwreck. One of them is a cooking tray, a vessel with a flat base, a low vertical side, and three legs. Such vessels are common in Crete, and they are regularly burned from placement over an open fire. They often have an open spout at the rim for pouring out the contents and horizontal handles for lifting. 119 (07/116; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Tripod cooking tray, complete profile consisting of legs with body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14, max. pres. w. of sherd 13 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly reddish gray, 5YR 5/3). Small outturned wall (4.4 cm), one horizontal handle with circular section attached to wall above tripod leg (with thin oval section) that slants outward. Comments: depth 37 m. Found in grid square ΨΩα3α2. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/29, Mirabello Fabric).

Tripod Cooking Pots Three cooking pots are present. They are all of different sizes: the largest has a rim diameter of 19 cm, the second largest has a rim diameter of 14 cm, and the smallest has a rim diameter of ca. 9–11 cm. Tripod vessels are common cooking vessels in Crete. They have been discussed in several studies (Betancourt 1980, 3–5; Martlew 1988; for their use in cooking, see Tzedakis and Martlew, eds., 1999, 108, 116; Morrison 2017). The three examples here are rather small for the class, suggesting that the crew was small, probably not more than four to six people. Parallels come from Gournia (Boyd Hawes et

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

al. 1908, pl. II:64, 72) and Pseira (Banou 1995, 114, no. ADC 52). 120 (05/1; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Tripod cooking pot; mostly complete; missing parts of legs, handles, and rim; surface poorly preserved. H. 19, d. of body 16.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/8). Slightly flaring rim, rounded profile, legs with thin oval sections, vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and on body. Comments: most of vessel found at depth 40.5 m, a few centimeters east of grid square ΚΟΠΛ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/32, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments, possibly from Palaikastro). 121 (07/122; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Small tripod cooking pot, almost complete, missing one leg and most of rim, surface poorly preserved. H. 14.5, d. of rim 10, d. of base 7.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Short legs with oval sections, vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and center of body. Comments: depth 41 m. Found in grid square ΛΠΡΣ, near line Π–Ρ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/03, phyllite fabric). 122 (09/194; Fig. 15). Tripod bowl; base and body sherd; missing rim and rest of vessel, including two of the three legs; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.2, d. of base 15 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Bowl with three very short legs, slightly rounded profile, thick base and walls, one lug (4 x 2.6 cm.). Comments: depth 43 m. Found south of α7α8.

Miscellaneous Vessels Miniature Tripod Vessels Two miniature tripod bowls come from the wreck. Many miniature tripod vessels of this type come from Pseira, particularly from the surface of a ritual area near the cemetery. This is a common shape in the pottery of East Crete, especially in the region of the Gulf of Mirabello, and it is found in houses as well as elsewhere. It consists of a small open bowl set on three tiny feet, with a small circular vertical handle. The shape is often burned on the interior, indicating that it was used for incense or for saving burning embers and transporting them from one place to another. Parallels come from Pseira (Banou 1995, 113, no. ADA 44). 123 (07/101; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Miniature tripod vessel, complete, small vertical handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 4, d. of rim 10 cm. A phyllite fabric

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(discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Miniature conical bowl, three small lug feet. Comments: depth 41.3 m. Found in grid square ΛΠΡΣ. 124 (07/120; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Miniature tripod vessel, large fragment, surface poorly preserved. H. 8, d. of rim 18, d. of base 6.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Conical bowl with flaring rim, three small curled legs, handle missing. Comments: depth 37 m. Found north of point Χ, just outside the grid.

Jar with Rolled R im A medium-sized jar with a rolled rim is present among the vessels. This is a general storage container with many possible uses. 125 (06/82β; Fig. 15). Jar with rolled rim, rim sherd, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim 14.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 10YR 5/4). Outturned rim, vertical handle attached just below rim and on body. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ.

Jar with Everted R im One jar with an outturned (everted) rim comes from the assemblage. It is a storage vessel suitable for a large range of commodities. 126 (07/93; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Hole-mouthed jar, threequarters complete, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 24, d. of body 27.6 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Thickened rim, short neck, rounded body, two horizontal handles with circular sections attached on upper body. Comments: depth 41.3 m. Found in grid square ΛΠΡΣ.

Wide-Mouthed Jug One example of a wide-mouthed jug comes from the shipwreck. Although the jug with a wide mouth and an open spout is not as common as the class with a narrower neck and upper part, examples occur from MM II (for Pseira, see Betancourt, Dierckx, and Reese 2003, fig. 23:1.71; for Malia, see Poursat and Knappett 2005, 65). The shape is not suitable for transport because of the difficulty of closing the mouth, but it is useful in a domestic context because it is easier to clean than the class with a more closed upper part. 127 (08/132; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Wide-mouthed jug, most of profile, missing part of upper shoulder and spout, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 18, d. of rim ca. 20, d.

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of base 8.1 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Handle with circular section attached below rim and on body. Comments: depth 40.7 m. Found southeast of 84 (08/131), 25 m east of point Ξ.

Jugs M ade of Fine Fabrics Small jugs in fine fabrics are common in all periods of Minoan history. Four examples come from the shipwreck. 128 (06/54; SM 13,328; Fig. 15; Pl. 7). Juglet, lower part, missing rim and most of handle, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 5, d. of base 4.5, max. d. of body 7 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly between light red and light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/4–6/6). Rounded carination, squat shape. Comments: depth 39.7 m. Found in grid square ΑΒΓΔ. 129 (06/73; Fig. 15). Juglet, one-third complete, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 6.2, d. of rim 2 cm. A coarse phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Piriform shape. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square NΞΟΚ. 130 (06/84; Fig. 15). Jug, upper part, missing tip of spout and lower body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. ca. 13 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, from reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6, to black, N3/). Small raised spout, piriform shape. Comments: depth 40.3 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 131 (09/204; Fig. 15). Jug; part of spout, neck, and upper shoulder; missing rest of vessel, chips missing from spout; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 8 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Raised spout, long neck, handles with circular sections attached below rim. Comments: Not on map.

Fragments 132 (04/34; SM 12,608; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12, d. of base 12.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Probably a piriform shape. Comments: depth 42 m. 133 (09/153+191; Fig. 16). Jar or jug, base sherd and nonjoining rim sherd, missing rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim 10, d. of base 11 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Thick wall. Comments: depth 42 m. Found in grid square ΥΤα5α4. 134 (05/3; SM 12,632; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14.8, d. of base ca. 10 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 10R 4/6). Piriform shape. Comments: depth 39.3 m. Found in grid square ΑΒΓΔ.

135 (05/8; SM 13,322; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20.8, d. of base 16 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly very pale brown, 10YR 7/4, with a reddish yellow core, 5YR 6/6). Probably piriform shape. Comments: depth 41.5 m. Found in grid square ΔΓΜΦ. 136 (05/18; SM 12,634). Closed vessel, section of side, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. of sherd 26.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Closed vessel. Comments: depth 39.8 m. Found in grid square ΑΒΓΔ, level 2. 137 (05/47; SM 12,648; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 11.0 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Comments: depth 38.7 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ. 138 (05/48; SM 12,649; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 7.9, d. of base 17.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, partly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Comments: depth 38.7 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ, level 2. 139 (05/49; SM 12,650; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 13.3, d. of base 20.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly dark reddish brown, 2.5YR 3/4). Comments: depth 38.7 m. Found in grid square ΗΘΑΖ, level 2. 140 (06/15α). Closed vessel, base and lower part of body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14, d. of base 14.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Comments: depth not recorded. Location not recorded. 141 (06/55β; SM 13,329β; Fig. 16). Straight-sided jar, rim sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 19.4, d. of rim ca. 24 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Straight rim, one lug preserved below rim. Comments: depth 40.1 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 142 (06/55δ; SM 13,329δ). Jar; rim sherd; missing half of vessel, much of rim, and base; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 19.3, d. of rim 21 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Straight rim, straight walls, small lug handle with oval section attached below rim. Traces of dark slip on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 40.1 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 143 (06/56; SM 13,332; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, base sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 7.2, d. of base 22.4 cm. A granitic-dioritic fabric (discolored, from pink, 7.5YR 8/4, to strong brown, 7.5YR 5/6). Shape not preserved. Comments: depth 40 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/07, Mirabello Fabric). 144 (06/57; SM 13,333; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12.7, d. of base 12 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6, with the exterior surface mostly reddish

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

yellow, 5YR 6/8). Probably piriform shape. Comments: depth 40.3 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. 145 (06/60; SM 13,335; Fig. 16). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.5, d. of base 8.4 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, from light brown, 7.5YR 6/4, to black). Probably piriform shape. Comments: depth 40.3 m. Found in grid square ΓΚΛΜ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/04, Mirabello Fabric). 146 (06/66; SM 13,340; Fig. 16). Jar, handle sherd, surface poorly preserved. Max. L. 11.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4, to black, N3/). Horizontal handle with circular section. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΚΟΠΛ. 147 (06/72; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 16.2, d. of base 17.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, with the surface mostly pink, 7.5YR 7/4, with a slightly redder core). Probably a piriform shape. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/09, Mirabello Fabric). 148 (06/82γ; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9.1 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly dark gray, 7.5YR N4). Conical lower part of vessel, probably piriform shape. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ. 149 (06/74; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14.7, d. of base 12.5 cm. A fabric with serpentinite (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Piriform shape. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/02, loner with serpentinite). 150 (06/75; Fig. 17). Jar, neck sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 6, d. of rim 11 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Vessel with outturned rim. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/05, Mirabello Fabric). 151 (06/77; Fig. 17). Jar, handle sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 9.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 7.5YR 7/4). Horizontal handle with circular section. Comments: depth 38.9 m. Found in grid square ΝΞΟΚ. 152 (06/78β). Jar, handle sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 7 cm. A coarse fabric with rounded to subrounded inclusions (discolored, mostly light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Two handles attached on shoulder and on body, flat base. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ. 153 (06/79β; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, body sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 22 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly dark reddish brown, 5YR 3/2). Closed shape. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ.

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154 (06/80; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, body sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 9.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly dark reddish brown, 5YR 3/2). Closed shape. Comments: depth 39.5 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ. 155 (06/82α; Fig. 17). Vessel, body sherd. Max. dim. 7.4 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 10R 5/4). Closed vessel. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Byzantine? Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ. 156 (06/83; Fig. 17). Vessel, base sherd, most of vessel missing, surface poorly preserved. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 5YR 7/4). Ring base. Comments: depth 40.5 m. Found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ. 157 (07/95; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, body sherd, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 25.7 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 6/6). Convex profile. Comments: depth 41.3 m. Found in grid square ΛΠΡΣ. 158 (07/105; Fig. 17). Jar, rim sherd, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim ca. 36 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6). Thickened rim, molding at base of rim. Comments: depth 42 m. Found in grid square ΛΠΡΣ. 159 (07/108; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, body sherd, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. 22.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 5YR 7/6). Comments: depth 41.8 m. Found in grid square ΦΜΤΥ. 160 (07/112; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/4). Conical lower part of vessel. Comments: depth 40.7 m. Found in grid square ΦΜΤΥ. 161 (07/118; Fig. 17). Jar, rim sherd, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim ca. 29 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR between 6/6 and 6/8). Thickened rim, straight profile for body. Comments: depth 36.8 m. Found in grid square ΧΨα2α1. 162 (07/119; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, body sherd, surface poorly preserved. Max. dim. of sherd 16.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Comments: depth 36.7 m. Found in grid square ΧΨα2α1. 163 (07/121; Fig. 17). Spouted jar, rim sherd with spout, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.3, d. of rim ca. 28, pres. w. of spout 3.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Thickened outturned rim, slightly upturned tube spout attached below rim, handle with circular section. Comments: depth 37.3 m. Found a few centimeters north of ΧΨ. 164 (08/145; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, base and body sherd, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 15, d. of base 7.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Comments: depth 44.3 m. Found 5 m south of point α6.

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165 (09/152; Fig. 17). Closed vessel, base sherd, rest of vessel missing, surface poorly preserved. D. of base 16–20 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly strong brown, 7.5YR 4/6). Comments: depth 42 m. Found in grid square ΥΤα5α4. 166 (09/165; Fig. 18). Cylindrical vessel, base sherd, missing rim and body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14.8, d. of body 22.4 cm. A semicoarse fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4, with a dark core). Straight-sided cylindrical vessel. Comments: depth 43 m. Found in grid square ΥΤα5α4, level 1. 167 (09/168; Fig. 18; Pl. 7). Basin; rim, handle, and body sherd; missing base and rest of vessel; surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20, d. of rim 42 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly strong brown, 7.5YR 4/6). Flat and pronounced rim, straight wall, vertical handle with oval section attached at rim and on body, incised crossed lines inside vessel. Comments: depth 42.4 m. Found in grid square Ρα9α8α7, level 1. 168 (09/172; Fig. 18; Pl. 7). Closed vessel, lower part, missing upper part of vessel. Pres. h. 22.9, d. of base 13.9 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Conical lower part of vessel with much wider body. Comments: depth 41.2 m. Found in grid square ΠΡα10α9, level 1. 169 (09/180; Fig. 18). Closed vessel, base sherd, missing rest of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 7.5, d. of base 13 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Thick walls and base. Comments: depth 42 m. Found a few centimeters west of Υα4. 170 (09/192; Fig. 18). Closed vessel, lower part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 9, d. of base 9.5 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Pronounced base. Comments: depth 42.7 m. Found 4 m west of Φ–Υ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/21, loner with weathered calcite). 171 (09/206; Fig. 18). Closed vessel, base and body sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 20.8, d. of base 11 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Cylindrical lower part of vessel. Comments: depth 44.2 m. Found 18 m southeast of point P, near 21 (08/141). 172 (09/209). Closed vessel, base with body sherd, missing most of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 6, d. of base 5.7 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Conical lower part of body. Comments: Not on map.

Amphorae of Various Later Classes The currents and the topography of the seafloor often cause items from different periods to come to rest in the same general region. This circumstance

has been documented from the site of other shipwrecks as well as from the one at Pseira (Agouridis 1999, 30). In the case of the Pseiran shipwreck, several isolated amphorae that were lost at sea at various times drifted onto the area of the MM IIB wreck. 173 (05/46; SM 12,647; Fig. 18; Pl. 7). Hellenistic amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 16.2 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 4/4). Thickened rim, oval mouth, tall neck, handles with thick oval sections attached below rim on neck and on shoulder. Comments: depth 38.1 m. Hellenistic. Found on the surface in grid square ΗΘΑΖ. 174 (05/4; Fig. 18; Pl. 7). Phoenician amphora, almost complete, missing lower part, surface poorly preserved. H. 37.5, d. of rim 10.5, d. of base 11 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light brown, 7.5YR 6/4). Straight rim, short neck, two handles with circular sections attached on shoulder, grooves on body. Comments: depth 39.7 m. Found on the surface in grid square ΑΒΓΔ. 175 (05/17; SM 13,323; Fig. 18; Pl. 7). Byzantine amphora, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 18, d. of rim 6.6, pres. d. of body 27.5 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored and variegated, partly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6–7/6). Globular body, thickened rim, strap handles with oval sections attached below rim on neck and on lower shoulder, horizontal grooves at bottom of neck and upper shoulder. Comments: depth 43.8 m. Grooved ware. Byzantine. Found on the surface in grid square ΔΓΜΦ. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/23, loner with micritic limestone).

Addendum Pottery Found on the Seafloor near Pseira Island In addition to the excavation of the shipwreck, the underwater team collected a number of vessels from near Pseira Island. It was important to retrieve these ancient artifacts because they have been disturbed over the centuries by fishing and their location in shallow waters put them in danger of being looted. A deposit of whole vases on the seafloor near Pseira is well known. It consisted of stone blocks from destroyed buildings, clay sherds, and whole vessels that were underwater near the tip of the peninsula

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

where the Minoan settlement is located. Most of the material probably eroded into the sea as a result of earthquakes, but it is likely that an occasional piece was also lost into the water by other means. The underwater deposit was investigated by divers in 1954, under the direction of Leatham and Hood (Hood and Boardman 1955, 35, fig. 8; Leatham and Hood 1958–1959, 275–278; Frost 1963b, 103–104; Betancourt 2004, 74), and in 1976 by Cousteau (1978). The seafloor slopes from the land, as a series of terraces, at about 30° in this location. Before the pottery was raised during the two projects and deposited in the museum in Hagios Nikolaos, the seafloor was littered with pottery and stone blocks. The new project recovered additional pieces. They are recorded here for the information they provide about the pottery from Pseira, but they have no clear chronological context. Where no information on location is given, the pieces were gathered from near the island. Early Minoan IIB Jugs NL 1 (04/B36; SM 12,610; Fig. 19). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 17.8 cm. A fine Mirabello Fabric (discolored, partly gray and yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Piriform shape, elevated spout, handle with almost circular section attached on neck and shoulder. Traces of mottled slip. Comments: depth 25 m. Vasiliki Ware. EM IIB. NL 2 (05/B53; SM 12,624; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Jug with raised spout, almost complete. H. 19, d. of base ca. 6.5– 6.6 cm. Mirabello Fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 4/3). Raised spout, globular body, handle with circular section attached below rim and on body. Comments: depth 16 m. Probably Vasiliki Ware, but the surface is missing. EM IIB. NL 3 (03/B6; SM 11,976; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Jug, upper part, missing lower part of vessel. Pres. h. 18.4 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/8). High raised spout, clay pellets on sides of spout. Traces of mottled slip. Comments: Found near the island. Vasiliki Ware. EM IIB.

Basin and Cup or Bowl(?) NL 4 (05/B59; SM 12,630; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Basin, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 10.3, d. of rim 37.5–39, d. of base 24.3 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 2.5YR 6/4). Open conical shape, open rim spout (6.7 cm wide), flattened outturned rim, two horizontal handles with circular section attached on body. Comments: depth 10.5 m. MM.

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NL 5 (07/B61; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Cup (or bowl?), almost complete, missing part of rim, surface poorly preserved. H. 8.5, d. of rim 16.4, d. of base 6.7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Straight rim and profile, conical form, pronounced base. Comments: depth 25 m. MM II.

Conical Cups NL 6 (05/B26; SM 12,619; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Conical cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 5, d. of rim 8.2, d. of base 3.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Straight rim, conical shape. Comments: depth 20 m. MM II–LM I. NL 7 (07/B75; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Conical cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 4.7, d. of rim 9, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Comments: depth 8 m. MM II–LM I. NL 8 (07/B81; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Conical cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 4, d. of rim 8, d. of base 4.3 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light red, 2.5YR 6/6, to black). Conical cup, straight rim, pronounced base. Comments: depth 5 m. MM II–LM I. NL 9 (08/B87; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Conical cup, intact, surface poorly preserved. H. 3.9, d. of rim 8.1, d. of base 3.1 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Straight rim, slightly rounded body. Comments: depth 9 m. MM II–LM I. NL 10 (06/B16; Fig. 19). Conical cup, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 3.9, d. of rim 8.0, d. of base 3.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Straight rim, slightly rounded body. Comments: depth 21 m. MM II–LM I. NL 11 (08/B90; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Conical cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 3.8, d. of rim 8.2, d. of base 3.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Slightly inturned rim, conical shape, slightly pronounced base. Comments: depth 9 m. MM II–LM I.

Straight-Sided Cups NL 12 (05/B28; SM 12,620; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Straightsided cup, half complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 7.5, d. of rim 9.8, d. of base 4.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Straight rim, conical shape, handle with circular 0section attached at rim and on body. Comments: depth 20 m. MM II–LM I. NL 13 (06/B36; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Straight-sided cup, twothirds preserved, missing handle and part of rim and body. Pres. h. 6.5, d. of base 4.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Conical shape, lower stump of handle preserved. Comments: depth 25 m. MM IIB. NL 14 (06/B37; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup; complete profile; missing half of upper portion of vessel and part

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of handle, chips in rim. H. 6.1, d. of rim 8.5, d. of base 4.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly from reddish brown, 5YR 5/4, to red, 2.5YR 5/6). Thin outturned rim, thin ribbon handle with oval section joined at middle of body and areas now missing. Dark paint on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 25 m. A handle from another vessel found with this cup was analyzed by petrography (PSA 11/31, fabric with metamorphic rock fragments [mica-schist]). MM IIB. NL 15 (07/B62; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Straight-sided cup, almost complete. H. 5.9, d. of rim 10.6, d. of base 5.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Straight rim and profile, conical shape, vertical handle with thin elliptical profile. No decoration preserved. Comments: depth 25 m. MM II–LM I. NL 16 (07/B64; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup, almost complete, part of handle and rim missing, surface poorly preserved. H. 3.8, d. of rim 7.2, d. of base 4 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Thinned rim, raised handle with oval section joined at rim and on lower body. Comments: depth 16 m. MM II–LM I. NL 17 (07/B65; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Straight-sided cup, half complete, missing one side, surface poorly preserved. H. 5.5, d. of rim 9.3, d. of base 5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored). Comments: depth 16 m. MM II–LM I. NL 18 (07/B74; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup; lower part; missing handle, rim, and upper part of body. Pres. h. 5.6, d. of base 3.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 2.5YR 4/2, to black). Conical shape. Comments: depth 18 m. MM II–LM I. NL 19 (07/B82α; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup, almost complete, missing part of rim. H. 7.3, d. of rim 10.8, d. of base 5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Conical shape, vertical handle (circular section) attached at rim and on lower body. Comments: depth 5 m. MM II–LM I. NL 20 (07/B82β; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup, lower part, missing handle and upper part of vessel. Pres. h. 4, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly dark red, 2.5YR 3/2). Conical shape, vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and on lower body. Comments: depth 5 m. MM II–LM I. NL 21 (09/207; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup; complete profile; missing handle, much of rim and part of body, hole in base. H. 6.6, d. of rim 10, d. of base 4.5 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Thin, slightly outturned rim, straight wall, slightly pronounced base. Comments: depth 32.8 m. MM II–LM I. NL 22 (06/B44; Fig. 19). Straight-sided cup, lower part, missing upper part. Pres. h. 3.5, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 4/3). Comments: depth 11.5 m. MM II–LM I.

Rounded Cups NL 23 (05/B24; SM 12,617; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Rounded cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 6.5,

d. of rim 7.4, d. of base 3.6 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/4). Slightly everted rim, pronounced base, handle with thin oval section attached at rim and on body. Comments: depth 20 m. MM IIB? NL 24 (07/B71; Fig. 19). Rounded cup, almost complete, missing chips from rim. H. 3.7, d. of rim 8.2, d. of base 4.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light brown, 7.5YR 6/4). Straight rim, traces of dark slip. Comments: depth 14 m. MM IIB?

Carinated Cups NL 25 (03/B20; SM 11,979; Fig. 19). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing handle. H. 7, d. of rim 9.3, d. of base 3.7 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Conical upper part with horizontal grooves and conical lower part. Black slip on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 18.0 m. MM IIB. NL 26 (03/B21; SM 11,981[?]; Fig. 19). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing part of handle. H. 5.4, d. of rim 8, d. of base 3.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5 YR 6/6). Conical upper part without grooves, conical lower part. Black slip on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 18 m. MM IIB. NL 27 (04/B33; SM 12,598; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Carinated cup, two-thirds complete. Pres. h. 7.3, d. of rim not preserved (ca. 5.9–10), d. of base 4.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6). Grooves on upper section. Comments: depth not recorded. MM IIB. NL 28 (05/B11; SM 12,611; Fig. 19; Pl. 8). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 7.7, d. of rim 10.3, d. of base 5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 10R 4/8). Smooth upper section, thin ribbon handle attached at rim and body. Comments: depth 18 m. Interior color of fabric not visible. MM IIB. NL 29 (05/B12; SM 12,612; Fig. 19). Carinated cup, half complete, missing handle and part of base, surface poorly preserved. H. 4.8, d. of rim 5.9, d. of base 3.8 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Smooth upper section. Comments: depth 21 m. MM IIB. NL 30 (05/B15; SM 12,614; Fig. 19). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing handle, surface poorly preserved. H. 4.2, d. of rim 7.5, d. of base 3.8 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 10R 4/8). Smooth upper section. Comments: depth 18 m. MM IIB. NL 31 (05/B23; SM 12,616; Fig. 20; Pl. 8). Carinated cup, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 5.5, d. of rim 8, d. of base 4.2 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Smooth upper section, thin ribbon handle. Traces of black slip under handle. Comments: depth 20 m. MM IIB. NL 32 (06/B34α; Fig. 20; Pl. 8). Carinated cup, twothirds complete, missing part of rim and one side. H. 7.8 (with handle), 6.6 (without handle), d. of rim 11, d. of base 6 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

brown, 5YR 5/4). Horizontal grooves above carination, thin ribbon handle attached at rim and carination. Covered with dark slip interior and exterior, including bottom of base. Comments: depth 15 m. MM IIB. NL 33 (07/B63β; Fig. 20; Pl. 8). Carinated cup; complete profile; missing more than half of vessel; missing chips in rim, surface. H. 5.4, d. of rim 8, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Thin outturned rim, pronounced carination, faint grooves in upper section. Dark paint (slip) on interior and exterior. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 34 (07/B69β; Fig. 20). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing upper part of handle. H. 4, d. of rim 6, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Slightly rounded carination, vertical thin ribbon handle attached at rim and carination, horizontal grooves on upper section. Traces of dark slip. Comments: depth 11 m. MM IIB. NL 35 (07/B80; Fig. 20). Carinated cup, almost complete, part of rim missing, surface poorly preserved. H. 5, d. of rim 7.8, d. of base 3.7 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 5/4, to black). Smooth upper section. Traces of dark slip. Comments: depth 15 m. MM IIB. NL 36 (08/B89; Fig. 20). Carinated cup, almost complete, missing part of rim. H. 4.5, d. of rim 6.9, d. of base 4.3 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Rounded carination, with smooth upper section, handle with circular section attached at rim and carination. Comments: depth 9 m. MM IIB.

A mphorae NL 37 (03/B1; SM 11,967; Fig. 20; Pl. 8). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, missing lower part of vessel, surface mostly missing. Pres. h. 35.7, d. of mouth 9.5 x 16.0 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Ellip­tical rim, piriform shape. Handles with thick oval sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder, vertical slash on outside of handles. Comments: this type of vessel is a common storage and shipping container in Middle Minoan Crete. Depth not recorded. MM II. NL 38 (03/B13; SM 11,972; Fig. 20). Amphora, oval mouthed, upper part, missing lower part of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 10.6, d. of mouth 9.5 x 13.1 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Handle with thick oval section attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth not recorded. Probably MM II. NL 39 (05/B52; SM 12,623; Fig. 20; Pl. 8). Amphora, upper part, missing rest of vessel. Pres. h. 23.3, d. of mouth 4.5 x 7.6 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Almost cylindrical shape, handle with almost circular section joined at rim and on shoulder, very slim. Comments: depth 10.7 m. MM II–III.

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NL 40 (06/B54; SM 12,625; Fig. 20; Pl. 8). Amphora, oval mouthed, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 46, d. of rim 9.5 x 14 cm. A reddish-brown fabric, 5YR 4/4. Oval mouth, piriform body, handles with thick oval sections attached between rim and shoulder, surface missing. Comments: depth 10 m. MM II. NL 41 (05/B56; SM 12,627; Fig. 21). Amphora, complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 49.5, d. of mouth 7.5 x 13.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Oval mouth, slim, tall piriform body, handles with thick oval sections attached between rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 10 m. MM II. NL 42 (09/B93; Fig. 21). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete; missing chips from base, body, and part of rim. H. 22.1, d. of rim 9.6 x 11–12, d. of base 9.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Piriform body, two vertical handles (circular sections) attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 13 m. MM II.

Slim A mphorae Slim amphorae like those found at Pseira are most common in Central Crete (for Knossos, see Evans 1921–1935, II, fig. 176:D, E; for Phaistos, see Levi 1976, pl. 188:a–d; for Kommos, see Betancourt 1990a, no. 610). NL 43 (05/B57; SM 12,628; Fig. 21). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 34.6, d. of rim 10.3 x 11.2, d. of base 11.7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly, red, 10R 4/6). Handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 10 m. MM II–IIIA. NL 44 (05/B58; SM 12,629; Fig. 21; Pl. 9). Amphora, oval mouthed, almost complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 35.9, d. of rim not measureable, d. of base 10.4 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Slim, tall piriform body, handle with almost circular attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 10.5 m. MM II–IIIA. NL 45 (09/B94; Fig. 21). Amphora, mostly complete, missing handles and part of rim. Pres. h. 36, d. of base 10 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Handles with circular sections attached on rim and shoulder. Comments: depth 12 m. MM II–IIIA. NL 46 (03/B4; SM 11,968; Fig. 21; Pl. 9). Slim ovalmouthed amphora, complete. H. 38, d. of mouth 13.1 x 13.5, d. of base 10.7 cm. Elliptical rim, tall, slim shape; handles with almost circular sections attached at rim and on upper shoulder. Comments: depth 17 m. MM II–IIIA.

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PHILIP P. BETANCOURT

Jugs NL 47 (03/B5; SM 11,964; Fig. 22). Jug, lower part, missing handle and upper part of vessel. Pres. h. 22.3, d. of base 10.2 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Piriform body. Comments: depth not recorded. MM II. NL 48 (03/B7+B8; SM 11,963; Fig. 22; Pl. 9). Jug with wide mouth, almost complete. H. 20.2, d. of base 11.2 cm. Mirabello Fabric(?) (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Handle with almost circular section attached at rim and on upper shoulder; low, almost horizontal, spout. Comments: depth not recorded. MM II. NL 49 (03/B9; SM 11,962; Fig. 22; Pl. 9). Jug, complete. H. 27, d. of base 10.5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Low spout, piriform body. Handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth not recorded. MM II. NL 50 (03/B10; SM 11,978; Fig. 22). Juglet, complete. H. 11.2, d. of base 5.2 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Low, small spout, piriform body. Handle with almost circular section attached on top of rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth not recorded. MM II. NL 51 (04/B30; SM 12,595; Fig. 22). Jug, almost complete, missing spout and part of body, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 24.5, d. of base 9.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, red, 2.5YR 5/8). Rounded upper shape, handle with circular section attached below rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 10 m. MM II. NL 52 (04/B32; SM 12,597; Fig. 22). Jug, upper part, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 14 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly gray to yellowish brown, 10YR 5/4). Probably piriform shape, low raised spout, handle with circular section attached below rim on neck and on shoulder. Comments: depth not recorded. MM II. NL 53 (09/178; Fig. 22). Jug; half complete, complete profile; missing handle and much of body; surface eroded and pitted. H. 23.2, d. of rim with spout 24, d. of base 13 cm. A coarse fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Low wide open spout, globular body. Comments: depth 35.2 m. MM II. Found west of ZE. NL 54 (05/B13; SM 12,613; Fig. 22). Jug, lower part, missing handle and rim, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 7.8, rim not measurable, d. of base 4.8 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Flat base, globular shape. Comments: depth 18 m. MM II. NL 55 (05/B50; SM 12,621; Fig. 22; Pl. 9). Trefoilmouthed jug, complete. H. 23.2, d. of base 7 cm. Fabric not visible. Piriform shape, handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 10 m. MM II. NL 56 (05/B51; SM 12,622; Fig. 22). Trefoil-mouthed jug, complete. H. 26.2, d. of base 11.7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Trefoil mouth, low spout, piriform shape, handle with almost circular

section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 11 m. MM II. NL 57 (06/B40; Fig. 22). Jug(?), base sherd. Pres. h. 6.8, d. of base 7.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Comments: depth 17 m. MM II. NL 58 (06/B41; Fig. 22). Juglet, three-quarters complete, missing section of side and spout. Pres. h. 7, d. of base 5.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Rounded body, slightly pronounced base. Comments: depth 12 m. MM II. NL 59 (06/B42; Fig. 23). Jug, upper part, missing spout and lower part of body. Max. pres. h. 10.8, d. of rim 5 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly dark reddish brown, 2.5YR 3/4). Piriform body, small raised spout, vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Comments: depth 7 m. MM II. NL 60 (07/B60; Fig. 23). Wide-mouthed jug, threequarters complete, surface poorly preserved. H. 19.2, d. of rim 11, d. of base 7 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Slightly outturned rim, three short legs with thick oval sections, handle with thick circular section attached at rim and upper body, pronounced base. Comments: depth 25 m. MM II. NL 61 (07/B67; Fig. 23). Jug, almost complete, missing part of side and handle, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 8.8, d. of base 5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Piriform shape, small low spout, one vertical handle. Comments: depth 16 m. MM II. NL 62 (07/B78; Fig. 23; Pl. 9). Juglet, almost complete, missing section of side, surface poorly preserved. H. 6.6, d. of base 4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 4/6). Trefoil mouth, one vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and on shoulder. Traces of dark slip. Comments: depth 16 m. MM II. NL 63 (08/B88; Fig. 23; Pl. 9). Jug, almost complete, handle missing. H. 13.2, d. of base 6.8 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4, to black). Rounded body, small raised spout, handle attached at rim and on body. Comments: depth 9 m. MM II. NL 64 (09/154; Fig. 23). Jug, almost complete, missing rim and spout. D. of mouth 13.9 x 11.6, d. of body 21, max. dim. 21.4 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly strong brown, 7.5YR 5/6). Elongated piriform shape, vertical handle with thick oval sections attached at neck and at center of body, very pronounced base. Comments: depth 48 m. MM II. NL 65 (04/B35; SM 12,609; Fig. 23; Pl. 9). Jug, upper part, missing lower part of vessel, surface poorly preserved. Pres. h. 12 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly red, 2.5YR 5/8). Flat spout, flaring rim, handle with thin oval section, rivet in clay at top of handle, ridge at base of neck. Comments: depth 25 m. MM II. NL 66 (04/B31; SM 12,596; Fig. 23; Pl. 9). Carinated wide-mouthed jug, almost complete, missing spout,

POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

surface poorly preserved. H. 11.1, d. of base 5.9 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly dark reddish brown, 5YR 3/4). Carinated shoulder, conical lower body, vertical handle with circular section attached at rim and below carination. Traces of black slip. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 67 (06/B43; Fig. 23). Jug without spout, almost complete, missing handle. H. 9.3, d. of rim 4.5, d. of base 5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from reddish brown, 5YR 4/4, to yellowish red, 5YR 5/6, to reddish gray, 5YR 5/2). Small jug, piriform shape, no spout. Comments: depth 10.7 m. MM II–LM I.

53

Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Leg with thick oval section. Comments: depth 12 m. MM I–III.

Closed Vessels

NL 70 (07/B63γ; Fig. 23). Bridge-spouted jar, spout sherd, missing most of vessel. Max. dim. 6 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light brown, 7.5YR 6/4). Inturned rim, bridged spout. Traces of dark slip on exterior. Comments: depth 16 m. MM II–LM I. NL 71 (09/B91; Fig. 23; Pl. 9). Bridge-spouted jug, missing base. Pres. h. 8.1, d. of rim 9.5 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly pink, 7.5YR 7/4). Flat, outturned rim, handle with oval section attached at rim and neck. Comments: depth not recorded. Location not recorded. MM II–LM I.

NL 74 (06/B34β; Fig. 24). Closed vessel, lower part. Pres. h. 8.9, d. of base 8.6 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Comments: depth not recorded. MM I–III. NL 75 (06/B48; Fig. 24). Closed vessel, lower part with base, missing most of the vessel. Pres. h. 18.5, d. of base 11.8 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, from red, 2.5YR 5/6, to reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Slightly pronounced base, conical lower part of vessel. Comments: depth 20.3 m. MM I–III. NL 76 (07/B63δ; Fig. 24). Closed vessel, base sherd, missing most of vessel. D. of base 8, max. dim. 7.6 cm. A coarse phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 2.5YR 5/2). Conical lower part of vessel. Comments: depth 16 m. MM I–III. NL 77 (08/125; Fig. 24). Amphora, lower part, missing upper part of vessel. Pres. h. 31.3, d. of base 12.5 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 2.5YR 4/2). Piriform body. Comments: depth 32.7 m. Found northwest of ΧΨΩ. MM I–III. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/20, fabric with metamorphic rocks [mica-schist]). NL 78 (08/133; Fig. 24). Closed vessel, body section. D. of body ca. 27 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 5/4). Piriform body, horizontal handles with circular sections attached on shoulder. Comments: depth 34.1 m. MM I–III. Found northeast of 83 (08/130). NL 79 (08/125; Fig. 24). Closed vessel (pithos?), lower part, missing upper part of vessel and sherds from the base. Pres. h. 25.8, d. of base 16–18 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly weak red, 2.5YR 4/2). Conical lower part of body, pronounced molding at base. Comments: depth 32.1 m. Found northwest of ΧΨΩ. MM I–III.

Tripod Cooking Pots

L ater Vase

NL 72 (05/B25; SM 12,618; Fig. 23). Tripod cooking pot, leg sherd, surface poorly preserved. L. 11 cm. Mirabello Fabric (discolored, mostly reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Thick oval section. Comments: depth 12 m. MM I–III. NL 73 (05/B55; SM 12,626; Fig. 23, Pl. 9). Tripod cooking pot; lower part; missing rest of vessel, rim not preserved. Pres. h. 24.2, L. of leg 10, d. of base 17 cm.

NL 80 (06/85; Fig. 24; Pl. 9). Byzantine amphora; almost complete; missing rim, one handle, and part of one side. H. 45, d. of base 16.5, max. d. 31.2 cm. A coarse fabric with rounded to subrounded inclusions (discolored, mostly light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Two vertical handles attached on shoulder and on body, flat base. Comments: depth 27 m. Analyzed by ceramic petrography (PSA 11/24, loner with metamorphic rock fragments).

Jars NL 68 (06/B82β; Fig. 23). Jar, rim sherd, missing rest of vessel. Max. dim. 12.0 cm. A fine fabric (discolored, mostly light reddish brown, 5YR 6/4, to black, 5YR 3/1). Comments: depth not recorded. MM II. NL 69 (08/147; Fig. 23). Jar, rim sherd with handle, surface poorly preserved. D. of rim ca. 30 cm. A phyllite fabric (discolored, mostly yellowish red, 5YR 4/6). Wide ledge rim with incised groove, rounded upper body, horizontal handle with circular section attached on upper shoulder, grooves on interior from the manufacturing process. Comments: depth 33.7 m. Date uncertain.

Bridge-Spouted Vessels

5

Petrographic Analysis of the Pottery from the Shipwreck by Eleni Nodarou

The analysis of the pottery from the Neopalatial settlement of Pseira, studied in 1995, represents one of the first attempts to examine a single ceramic assemblage for provenance through ceramic petrography (Myer, McIntosh, and Betancourt 1995). Prior to that time, most of the pioneering petrographic studies had addressed specific wares or classes of pottery (e.g., Betancourt et al. 1979; Betancourt 1984). The 1995 study identified what have since become some of the most important East Cretan ceramic fabrics, namely those containing granitic-dioritic rocks that were connected with Mirabello Bay and a single sample connected with the metamorphic rocks of the Phyllite-Quartzite series. In subsequent studies, these fabrics have proved to be quite common in East Crete. In 2002, a report on the pottery from the Pseira cemetery demonstrated greater variability for the phyllite fabrics during the period of the use of the cemetery (Final Neolithic to MM I–II) and the regular presence of granitic-dioritic fabrics, and it revealed

a single sample of siltstone fabric with clay pellets that could have derived from Central Crete (Vaughan 2002, 157). The petrographic analysis of selected pottery samples from the Pseira shipwreck had a two-fold aim: (a) to investigate the fabrics present in the assemblage and compare them with the fabrics from the settlement, and, if possible, (b) to make inferences about the provenance of the ship’s cargo and determine whether it contained East Cretan products or material from more distant sources. The analysis comprised 32 samples of different pottery shapes and macroscopic fabrics. Most of the vessels are jugs, amphorae, and jars considered to be the ship’s cargo, but there are also a few cooking pots and cups thought to have belonged to the crew. The analysis established three main fabric classes on the basis of mineralogical composition; most are of East Cretan origin (see Ill. 5.1 for a concordance of shapes and petrographic fabrics).

56

ELENI NODAROU Petrographic Sample Number

Catalog Number

Excavation Number

Description

PSA 11/4

145

06/60

Closed vessel

PSA 11/5

150

06/75

Jar

PSA 11/7

143

06/56

Closed vessel

PSA 11/8

16

05/29

Jug

PSA 11/9

147

06/72

Closed vessel

PSA 11/11

26

06/87

Jug

PSA 11/12

28

06/86

Jug

PSA 11/13

100

07/100

Basin rim

PSA 11/18

56

09/155

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/22

27

07/92

Jug

PSA 11/25

17

06/70

Jug

PSA 11/29

119

07/116

Tripod cooking tray

PSA 11/3

121

07/122

Small tripod cooking pot

PSA 11/6

73

06/68

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/14

84

08/131

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/16

71

05/43

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/17

80

08/123

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/19

103

09/181

Brazier

PSA 11/20

NL 77

08/125

Amphora

PSA 11/30

97

09/188

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/31

NL 14

05/1

Handle

F02 Metamorphic Rock Fragments (Palaikastro?)

PSA 11/32

120

05/1

Tripod cooking pot

Loner, ophiolite related

PSA 11/1

7

06/76

Hole-mouthed jar

Loner with dark siltstone

PSA 11/26

44

08/150

Jug

PSA 11/21

170

09/192

Closed vessel

PSA 11/27

43

08/149

Jug

Loner with sedimentary rock fragments

PSA 11/28

95

05/5

Oval-mouthed amphora

Loner with serpentinite

PSA 11/2

149

06/74

Closed vessel

Loner with argillaceous fragments

PSA 11/10

30

05/6

Jug

PSA 11/15

81

08/127

Oval-mouthed amphora

PSA 11/24

NL 80

06/85

Amphora

PSA 11/23

175

05/17

Amphora

Petrographic Fabric Group

F01 Granitic-Dioritic Rock Fragments

F02 Metamorphic Rock Fragments

F02 Metamorphic Rock Fragments (mica-schist)

Loner with weathered calcite

Loner with metamorphic rock fragments Loner with micritic limestone

Illustration 5.1. Concordance of petrographic fabrics and vessel shapes.

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK

57

Fabric Group 1: Granitic-Dioritic Rock Fragments

Fabric Group 2: Metamorphic Rock Fragments

Fabric Group 1 is the largest and most homogeneous group in the assemblage (Pl. 10A), and it consists of samples PSA 11/4 (145), PSA 11/5 (150), PSA 11/7 (143), PSA 11/8 (16), PSA 11/9 (147), PSA 11/11 (26), PSA 11/12 (28), PSA 11/13 (100), PSA 11/18 (56), PSA 11/22 (27), PSA 11/25 (17), PSA 11/29 (119). It is characterized by a relatively fine clay matrix ranging in color from brown to dark brown, almost black. The absence of optical activity indicates rather high firing temperatures. The nonplastic inclusions consist of angular fragments of granitic and dioritic rocks, plagioclase feldspar, very little quartz, and a few clay pellets. The vessels represented are mainly jugs and other closed vessels with one basin and one cooking tray. Although similar in mineralogy, sample PSA 11/29 (119, the cooking tray) is differentiated from the rest of the group based on its texture: it has no clay pellets, and the granodiorite fragments are smaller and more densely packed in the clay matrix (Pl. 10B). This group’s rock and mineral suite is characteristic of the granitic-dioritic outcrops of the western Mirabello region. The pottery fabric connected to these materials can be easily identified macroscopically because of the black-and-white (“salt and pepper”) appearance of the two main nonplastic components. This seems to be the predominant fabric encountered in the Neopalatial settlement and the Protopalatial cemetery on Pseira Island (Myer, McIntosh, and Betancourt 1995; Vaughan 2002). Being devoid of raw materials suitable for pottery manufacture, the small island had to rely on pottery from the coast, and Gournia and Priniatikos Pyrgos were the closest production centers exporting vessels across East Crete (for references on the presence of granitic-dioritic pottery on East Crete, see Betancourt 2008, 30–31; Nodarou and Moody 2014). There are two main variants of the graniticdioritic fabric, representing two functionally different categories of vessels: one for transport and storage jars and one for cooking vessels. In the shipwreck assemblage, most of the vessels are transport containers from the cargo, and consequently the jar fabric is dominant. The cooking variant is represented by a few tripod cooking vessels.

Metamorphic fabrics exhibit considerable variation within and between the sites of northeastern Crete, reflecting the geological variation of the Phyllite-Quartzite series with low-grade metamorphic rocks. This variation has already been demonstrated in the Protopalatial assemblage from the Pseira cemetery (Vaughan 2002), and this seems to be the case for the metamorphic fabrics from the shipwreck. More specifically, there is a main group that is rather homogeneous, representing fabrics of common and broadly local origin, and several metamorphic loners (i.e., samples of metamorphic composition that were not incorporated in the main group because of compositional or textural differences indicative of more distant and occasionally off-island provenance). Samples PSA 11/3 (121), PSA 11/6 (73), PSA 11/14 (84), PSA 11/16 (71), and PSA 11/17 (80) represent a coarse to semicoarse group characterized by a fine brown and optically inactive matrix (Pl. 10C). In some cases, the margins are slightly darker than the core due to the application of a fine slip. The nonplastic inclusions consist of fine-grained phyllite fragments in a brown to dark brown color; there are also a few fragments of quartzite and quartz and very little chert. This composition is compatible with the low-grade metamorphic rocks of the Phyllite-Quartzite series outcropping on the north coast of Crete. The presence of some micritic limestone and rare microfossils indicates a calcareous component in the clay mix, most likely due to its inherent occurrence in the alluvial deposits of the north coast. The fine brown phyllites occur regularly in the fabrics of Mochlos (Nodarou 2010, 5–6), and the broader area of the Mochlos coast might be a possible origin for these vessels. The shapes represented are amphorae and one small tripod cooking pot. The rest of the metamorphic samples exhibit particular characteristics that differentiate them from the main group. Sample PSA 11/32 (120) is characterized by a dark brown firing matrix that is optically inactive, but the nonplastic inclusions are coarser and more densely packed in the clay matrix (Pl. 10D). They consist mainly of large phyllite fragments that are not as fine as those seen in the

58

ELENI NODAROU

other samples; rather, they are composed of biotite and small quartz fragments. This composition and texture is characteristic of the fabrics in Palaikastro. Pottery from Palaikastro is often encountered as imports at sites on the north coast, such as Mochlos (Nodarou 2010, 7) and Petras (Nodarou, forthcoming). The shape represented here is a tripod cooking pot. Samples PSA 11/19 (103), PSA 11/20 (NL 77), PSA 11/30 (97), and PSA 11/31 (NL 14) belong compositionally to the same category of metamorphic rocks, but they are different from the rest of the material: the dominant nonplastic component is muscovite-mica schist with small amounts of quartzite, quartz, and very rare phyllite. The presence of the micaceous schist in a mica-rich matrix gives the vessel a characteristic sheen on the surface. The shapes represented are a brazier, two amphorae, and a handle. These vessels are not Cretan products; the brazier and the handle are thought to have belonged to the crew.

connection with the Troodos series. Therefore, in a shipwreck that contains materials of different origins, a possibility always exists that some vessels are not local, especially when they do not fit into any of the existing fabric groups and no parallels can be found for the fabrics. A few pottery fragments (mainly amphorae) that date to the Byzantine period also come from the wreck. This was not a surprise because there is an important Byzantine settlement on the island with three phases of occupation—in the 6th, 7th, and 12th centuries a.d.—and an extensive program of pottery analysis of Early Byzantine pottery from Pseira has demonstrated the presence of an array of local and imported fabrics (Poulou-Papadimitriou and Nodarou 2007, 2014). Two samples were analyzed by thin section petrography, PSA 11/23 (175) and PSA 11/24 (NL 80): they are both petrographic loners when compared to the rest of the shipwreck fabrics and to the analyzed material from the Byzantine settlement, and they are most likely imports from sources beyond Crete.

Small Groups and Loners In addition to the two main fabric classes noted above, one connected to the granitic-dioritic outcrops of the Mirabello area and the other connected to the Phyllite-Quartzite series of the north coast, a third class of samples from the shipwreck are compositional loners (i.e., they cannot be grouped with any of the above fabrics). A short description of their individual compositional and textural characteristics is provided in Illustration 5.2 (see also Pls. 10E–12D). Although they do not constitute a homogeneous group, most of the loners are compositionally associated with an environment of ophiolites; however, it has not been possible to assign provenance to specific regions with ophiolitic outcrops because of the lack of comparative material for pottery fabrics and the inherent complexity of the Ophiolite series. Specifically, the south and south-central part of Crete—covering a large area from Myrtos to the Pediada and the Mesara Plain—is characterized by the Ophiolite series and the Flysch mélange, which is composed of volcanic, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks (Vidakis 1993; Bonneau and Vidakis 2002). Moreover, ophiolitic fabrics occur along the coast of Asia Minor and in Cyprus, the latter in

Discussion The stylistic study of the assemblage from the Pseira shipwreck has demonstrated that most of the vessels are medium-sized containers (jugs, jars, and amphorae) suitable for the transportation of dry and liquid products that are thought to have been part of the cargo; a few vessels from the periphery of the excavation area are thought to have belonged to the crew. The main question in every wreck study relates to the sea route of the ship and the commodities traded. The petrographic analysis of the ceramic vessels associated with the wreck offers a unique opportunity to examine the origin of the pottery, considering that a ship is loaded with transport vessels containing commodities (oil, wine, grain) to be unloaded at the destination port. The typological and stylistic study of the pottery assemblage from the Pseira shipwreck has demonstrated that it is compatible with the Minoan repertoire of the MM IIB period. The petrographic study agrees with a Cretan origin for the vessels and is compatible with the published information for the pottery

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK

Plate, Catalog, and Excavation Numbers

Pl. 10F:7 (06/76)

Pl. 11A:44 (08/150)

Petrographic Sample Number

PSA 11/01

PSA 11/26

59

Shape

Matrix

Nonplastics

Geological Association

Holemouthed jar

Very fine; highly calcareous; golden brown; some areas have a greenish tinge due to high firing temperature; optically inactive; secondary calcite

Large fragments of micritic limestone and basalt; very few to rare quartziteschist, serpentinite, and radiolarian chert

Ophiolite series/ Flysch mélange

Jug

Very fine; highly calcareous; golden brown; certain areas have a greenish tinge due to high firing temperature; optically inactive; secondary calcite; microfossils

Large fragments of dark siltstone; rare quartz; very rare quartzite

Ophiolite series/ Flysch mélange

Very few fragments of weathered calcite; rare basalt and chert; very rare biotite-schist and quartz

Ophiolite series/ Flysch mélange

Pl. 11B:43, 170 (08/149, 09/192)

PSA 11/27, PSA 11/21

Jugs

Fine brown to dark brown with mottling; optically inactive; secondary calcite

Pl. 11C:95 (05/5)

PSA 11/28

Ovalmouthed amphora

Very fine; brown with mottled areas due to high firing; optically inactive; secondary calcite

Altered(?) sedimentary rocks; some over-fired with a dark halo

Ophiolite series/ Flysch mélange

Closed vessel

Fine; reddish brown; optically inactive; rare microfossils

Angular fragments of serpentinite, ranging from yellow to dark green; very few small fragments of quartz and chert

Ophiolite series/ Flysch mélange

Micritic limestone; angular to subrounded dark brown argillaceous fragments containing small fragments of quartz; small quartz fragments distributed in clay matrix

—

Pl.11D:149 (06/74)

PSA 11/02

Pl. 12A:30 (05/6)

PSA 11/10

Jug

Fine; calcareous with patches of dark red brown and dark brown; optically inactive; open porosity

Pl. 12B:81 (08/127)

PSA 11/15

Ovalmouthed amphora

Fine; dark red brown; micaceous; optically inactive

Metamorphic rock fragments (phyllite, quartzite, quartzite-schist)

—

Pl. 12C:NL 80 (06/85)

PSA 11/24

Amphora

Fine; dark brown; micaceous; optically inactive

Metamorphic rock fragments (phyllite, quartzite, quartzite-schist)

—

Amphora

Fine; golden brown; highly calcareous; optically inactive; fossils; clay pellets; brown; subrounded

Small-sized micritic limestone, quartz, and rare serpentinite

Ophiolite series/ Flysch mélange

Pl. 12D:175 (05/17)

PSA 11/23

Illustration 5.2. Small groups and petrographic loners in the Pseira shipwreck assemblage.

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ELENI NODAROU

from the excavated areas of the Minoan town on the island. The analysis of the ceramic material from the settlement (Myer, McIntosh, and Betancourt 1995) and the cemetery (Vaughan 2002) demonstrates that Pseira was not a pottery producer, owing to the lack of suitable clays and tempering materials, and it has a rather small range of fabrics, the predominant one being associated with the Mirabello region. The present study confirms the compatibility of the wreck material with the fabrics found on the island. Although not of local manufacture, most of the vessels representing the cargo (i.e., amphorae, jars, and jugs) are made from the graniticdioritic fabric produced in the southern part of Mirabello Bay (the area around Gournia and Istron). It is a rather homogeneous group representing the most common recipe used for transport containers. A small number of cooking vessels were also found and were possibly used by the crew. One comes from the Mirabello region and is manufactured with the recipe used for cooking wares. The presence of granitic-dioritic pottery on Pseira since the Early Bronze Age indicates that, far from representing an unusual import, it is the primary component of Pseira assemblages in all periods of the Bronze Age. This, in turn, indicates the regularity of contact with producers on the northern isthmus of Ierapetra and the coast of Mirabello Bay. The other major fabric group in the wreck assemblage is not as homogeneous as that of the granitic-dioritic rocks. It contains low-grade metamorphic rocks (namely phyllite and less quartzite), but the recipes vary, and the vessels appear to come from different sources. The composition of the main metamorphic group is compatible with the Phyllite-Quartzite series outcropping on the north coast of East Crete, and parallels for this fabric exist in the assemblage of Mochlos. An origin from the broader area of Mochlos is highly probable because pottery is not produced on Pseira, and Mochlos is easily accessible. Although a singleton, there is also one sample (120, PSA 11/32) that might originate from Palaikastro. Imports from Palaikastro are fairly common in East Cretan sites during the Neopalatial and Postpalatial periods (Nodarou 2007), but there is no published evidence from Protopalatial assemblages. Its presence in the MM IIB assemblage from Pseira opens

the possibility of Palaikastro pottery being widely distributed in East Crete even earlier than documented. As a final comment on the metamorphic fabrics at Pseira, one should also note their scarcity: in all petrographic studies relating to Pseira (the settlement, the cemetery, and the shipwreck), metamorphic fabrics are rather rare, and this picture contrasts sharply with that from other sites on the north coast, such as Mochlos and Petras, where phyllitic fabrics constitute the predominant component of the assemblages. Because it is not an issue of geographical accessibility, it seems that residents of Pseira maintained closer relations with the area around Gournia and Istron, where the granitic-dioritic pottery originated, than with Mochlos and the eastern part of the island, where metamorphic fabrics predominate. The rest of the fabrics identified in the assemblage seem to be of non-Cretan origin. A small group of four highly micaceous vessels are foreign. Two are for domestic use and are thought to have belonged to the crew, and two are transport containers that may or may not have been on the ship. Most of the compositional loners are connected to the Ophiolite series and the Flysch mélange. Outcrops of these series exist in South-Central and southeastern Crete, but until now, no parallels for these fabrics were known. Ophiolitic outcrops also exist in the Dodecanese and along the coast of Asia Minor, and an origin in one of these areas is perhaps more likely. This is especially the case for the Byzantine samples, although the fabrics of the two samples from the shipwreck find no parallels in the analyzed material from the settlement, the connection with the coast of Asia Minor and known trade routes in the eastern Mediterranean has already been established (Poulou-Papadimitriou and Nodarou 2014). The results of the petrographic analysis of the pottery from the Pseira wreck do not associate the MM IIB ship with distant places and off-island trade routes. It appears that the cargo contained mainly vessels (and products) from northeastern Crete: most are from the Mirabello region and northern isthmus of Ierapetra where the graniticdioritic containers were produced, while some are from areas east of Pseira, in the region of Mochlos where the metamorphic fabrics originated. The broadly local cargo suggests that the ship was wrecked in the straits of Pseira while sailing

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE POTTERY FROM THE SHIPWRECK

between the ports where these vessels were brought on board. The analysis of the pottery from the Early Byzantine settlement of Pseira (late 7th–8th century a.d.) provides an interesting comparison. The presence of an array of imported amphorae has been associated with the island as a safe anchorage for the Byzantine fleet trading commodities in the wider Aegean and supplying the imperial army (Poulou-Papadimitriou and Nodarou 2007, 2014). Another scenario is that of the local trade: the presence of containers from the Mirabello region and the broad area of Mochlos might be associated with trade across North Crete and the neighboring islands, with Pseira being a stepping stone in this short- to medium-range trade network. Another indication for this possibly localized trade network is the absence of fabrics from the south coast of Crete: the few petrographic loners related to the Ophiolite series and the Flysch mélange seem to be off-island imports rather than products of the south Cretan coast. However, south coast products are easily transported to the north via the isthmus of Ierapetra and are regularly found in north Cretan sites such as Chrysokamino and Petras (Nodarou 2007). Their absence both in the settlement and in the shipwreck might indicate a different network (probably localized on the north coast) that did not incorporate the products of the south coast.

61

Comparative evidence for Pseira is provided by the Late Protopalatial to Early Neopalatial shipwreck of Sheytan Deresi in southwestern Turkey, ca. 49 km east of Bodrum (Bass 2005, also for earlier bibliography). Like the Pseira wreck, the hull of this ship was missing, and the pottery is broadly local. Although the ceramic assemblage was initially considered to be Minoan in origin, the stylistic study demonstrated few exact parallels from Crete (Margariti 1998); subsequent petrographic analysis, carried out by Yuval Goren and discussed in Alexis Catsambis (2008), confirmed the homogeneity of the pottery fabrics and left open the possibility of broadly local manufacture. It is now generally thought that the Sheytan Deresi ship participated in regional trade, and the wreck is attributed to sudden violent winds that hit the vessel (Catsambis 2008, 96). Despite the possible foreign origin of some of the some of the vessels identified as perhaps belonging to the crew, the broadly local character of the pottery does not support interpretations of longdistance trade; instead, the Pseira shipwreck, laden with transport containers from across the Mirabello region, opens a new window into the nature of regional trade along the north coast of East Crete during MM II.

6

Ceramic and Lead Weights from the Shipwreck and along the Coast by Joanne E. Cutler,† Thomas M. Brogan, and Todd Whitelaw

Twenty-four ceramic weights and a single lead weight were recovered during the underwater excavations at Pseira (Figs. 25, 26; Pls. 13, 14). These weights come from two very different contexts. The first is the deep water of the shipwreck site (ca. 33–45 m deep); the second is the shallower water near the Minoan settlement on the island that probably contains material from the settlement. Here, at a depth of 13 m, divers identified remains of a sunken quay that probably formed part of the Minoan harbor not far from where they recovered the second group of weights, at a depth of 5–30 m. Four of the ceramic weights and the lead weight (176) were recovered from the shipwreck, which dates to MM IIB. The four terracotta weights are discoid in shape (177–180 [07/113, 08/135, 08/136, 09/171]) with either one (177, 180 [07/113, 09/171]) or two (178, 179 [08/135, 08/136]) suspension holes. The upper edge of three weights (177–179 [07/113, 08/135, 08/136]) is flat; the upper edge of another one (180, 09/171) is marked by a shallow groove. When found on Cretan Bronze Age sites, these objects are typically identified as

loomweights, but at least some may have served as fishing weights (Giner 2010, 76–78). Context remains the best guide, and in this case, the context of a shipwreck suggests that these tools may have served as weights for fishing nets or lines with hooks. Several recent studies of fishing equipment from the Mediterranean illustrate the range of materials (e.g., terracotta, stone, lead) and shapes of fishing weights (cylindrical, disk-shaped, spherical, spindle-shaped, conical) used from the Bronze Age to Roman era (Galili, Rosen, and Sharvit 2002; Bernal Casasola 2010, 96–103). While varied, the technology of terracotta, stone, and lead weights does not change much over the millennia (Marzano 2013, 28–32). In this light, the terracotta weights from Pseira would have been suitable for either the casting or trawling versions of the net or to sink a baited hook on a casting line (Bernal Casasola 2010; Giner 2010). The lead weight (176, 07/110) is long, thin, and pierced with a hole at each end, although along perpendicular axes (Fig. 25; Pl. 13). It may

64

JOANNE E. CUTLER,† THOMAS M. BROGAN, AND TODD WHITELAW

belong to a rare class of perforated hook and line sinkers produced by casting and described as off-center lead weights in the typology of Mediterranean fishing weights (Kuniholm 1982, 301–309; Galili, Rosen, and Sharvit 2002; Bernal Casasola 2010, 110–111). They were used for trawling, where the shape helped prevent tangled lines. While fishing technology in the ancient Mediterranean proved remarkably resistant to change, an MM II date for this object is unlikely. The only known Mediterranean weights of this type were recovered from the Yassi Ada shipwreck, which dates to late antiquity (Kuniholm 1982, 301–309; Bernal Casasola 2010, 111) A similar chronology for the Pseira weight is suggested by the significant Early Byzantine remains on Pseira Island and Mochlos (Betancourt 2005, 296–304.) The remaining 20 discoid terracotta weights were found underwater near the Minoan settlement. Seventeen are round, with either one (NL 81, NL 83– NL 85, NL 88, NL 89, NL 92, NL 93, NL 95, NL 96 [06/B35, 06/B39, 06/B45, 06/B46, 07/B70, 07/B72, 07/B77, 07/B79, 07/B84, 08/B85]) or two (NL 82, NL 86, NL 87, NL 94, NL 97, NL 99, NL 100 [06/B38, 06/B47, 07/B66, 07/B83, 08/B86, 09/B95, 09/B96]) suspension holes. Three weights are elliptical, and all are pierced with a single suspension hole (NL 90, NL 91, NL 98 [07/B73, 07/B76, 09/B92). Eight of the weights have a flattened top without an impressed groove (NL 82, NL 83, NL 88, NL 92–NL 94, NL 96, NL 97 [06/B38, 06/B39, 07/B70, 07/B77, 07/B79, 08/B85, 07/B83, 08/B86]), two have a flattened top and a groove (NL 86, NL 87 [06/B47, 07/B66]), four have a groove without a flattened top (NL 85, NL 90, NL 91, NL 98 [06/B46, 07/B73, 07/B76, 09/B92), and six have neither feature (NL 81, NL 84, NL 89, NL 95, NL 99, NL 100 [06/B35, 06/B45, 07/B72, 07/ B84, 09/B95], 09/B96). Although found in the water, these 20 weights are not related to the shipwreck. At least three suggestions can be posited to explain the unusual findspot. First, the weights may have been in MM II houses that later became submerged either because of tectonic activity that caused portions of the coastline of Crete to sink below sea level (Soles, McCoy, and Suka 2017) or because of eustatic changes that caused rising sea levels around the island (Theodorakopoulou et al. 2009). Second, the weights may represent MM II material thrown into the sea during later rebuilding of the town in LM

I. In both scenarios, the weights probably represent suspension weights for the warp of a vertical loom that was used on Crete throughout the Bronze Age (Barber 1991; Burke 2010; Cutler 2011). Third, the weights were found close to a sunken quay, so it is also possible that they were being used as weights for fishing with casting lines, like those used today in Cretan harbors, or awaiting use as net weights. Because all the clay weights from the shipwreck and the underwater region near the settlement conform in fabric, shape, size, weight, and characteristics to Minoan discoid loomweights (one or two suspension holes, often flattened tops, and impressed grooves), we thought it would be useful to examine their features for use on the warp-weighted loom. The four ceramic weights from the shipwreck site have complete or estimated weights ranging from 107 to 173 g and measure 1.8–2.6 cm thick. The 20 weights from underwater near the settlement, hereafter referred to as “underwater,” have complete or estimated original weights ranging from 72 to 203 g and measure 1.5–2.7 cm thick. As shown in Illustration 6.1, these ranges are consistent with the larger sample of terracotta loomweights recovered during the 1984–1992 investigations at the adjacent settlement on Pseira in terms of height (settlement: n=36, mean = 7.2 cm; underwater: n=17, mean = 7.1 cm), diameter (settlement: n=38, mean = 6.5 cm; underwater: n=15, mean = 7.1 cm), and weight (settlement: n=25, mean = 118.3 g; underwater: n=12, mean = 114.0 g). The larger sample includes a few rare shapes, but most are discoid weights and represent all of the underwater sample. From the settlement, 45% are elliptical discoid, whereas only three of the 24 underwater weights (12.5%) are elliptical. For both samples, weights with the relevant parts preserved usually have one suspension hole (settlement 71%, underwater 62.5%); for those with their top preserved, most have a flattened top (settlement 68%, underwater 56.5%), while a smaller subset have an impressed groove (settlement 16.5%, underwater 30.4%). Together, these similarities strongly suggest that all of the terracotta weights documented here were originally manufactured as loomweights. Those from the shipwreck, or even some of those recovered closer to the island, if in situ rather than dumped or eroded from the settlement, might have been repurposed as net or line weights. It has been documented that, at least in the Neopalatial period, some loomweights appear to have been

CERAMIC AND LEAD WEIGHTS FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

moved between communities in the southern Aegean, perhaps taken with them by mobile weavers as models for producing new full sets at their destinations (Cutler 2012). With this in mind, those from the shipwreck could have been in transit for future use elsewhere as loomweights, although it is perhaps more likely that they were used as weights onboard. Pursuing the comparison with the weights recovered from the adjacent settlement, most of those with a secure context are from Neopalatial deposits, but some of the unstratified examples could have been from earlier phases, potentially contemporary with those discussed here. Compared directly in terms of the key functional characteristics of weight and thickness, which determine how the loomweights could have been used on the warpweighted loom, the current sample is consistent with that from the settlement (Ill. 6.1). A slight bimodal distribution can be seen in both dimensions, suggesting a tendency toward two focal production strategies, using light and narrow weights or heavier and thicker weights. The weights documented here illustrate a similar bimodality, though less clearly because of the much smaller sample. But with these

65

examples dating to MM II, this hints at a long-term multiple strategy for cloth production at Pseira. Using the methodology developed by the Center for Textile Research in Copenhagen (Andersson Strand and Nosch, eds., 2015), we estimated the most suitable thread types and some characteristics of the fabrics probably produced by these loomweights using a warp-weighted loom (cf. Brogan and Cutler 2017). The calculations in Illustration 6.2 are for the most basic tabby or plain weave, in which the horizontal weft passes alternately over one warp thread and under the next, with the next weft threads reversing this order, produced using two rows of loomweights. From disparate contexts, there is no suggestion that any of these weights would have been used together on the same loom, so they simply give us an overview of the sorts of thread with which they could have been used and the density of the weave of the fabrics they could have been used to produce. The weights from the shipwreck would all have been suitable for use with very thin thread, needing only ca. 5–10 g tension, while the heavier weights might also have been used with thin

4

Thickness (cm)

3

2

Shipwreck Underwater Settlement

1

0

0

100

Weight (g)

200

300

Illustration 6.1. Weights from the MM II shipwreck and underwater settlement, plotted by thickness and estimated complete weight. Loomweights (primarily Neopalatial) from the 1984–1992 excavation and cleaning of settlement contexts on Pseira Island are plotted on the left axis for comparison. The slight bimodal tendency in both datasets suggests two production strategies.

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JOANNE E. CUTLER,† THOMAS M. BROGAN, AND TODD WHITELAW

Catalog Excavation Number Number

Preservation (%)

Preserved Weight (g)

Estimated Complete Weight (g)

Thread Thickness (cm)

Thread Count (per cm) with Various Tensions (in g) Very Thin 5g

Very Thin 7.5 g

Very Thin 10 g

Thin 15 g

Thin 20 g

Shipwreck 179

08/136

100

109

109

1.8

24

17

12

—

—

180

09/171

95

107

113

2.1

22

14

10

—

—

178

08/135

100

148

148

2.3

26

17

13

9

—

177

07/113

95

173

182

2.6

—

18

14

9

—

Underwater Part of the Minoan Settlement NL 86

06/B47

100

72

72

2.4

12

8

—

—

—

NL 91

07/B76

100

86

86

3

11

7

—

—

—

NL 87

07/B66

100

90

90

1.5

24

16

—

—

—

NL 89

07/B72

100

99

99

1.5

27

17

13

—

—

NL 98

09/B92

100

101

101

2

20

13

10

—

—

NL 81

06/B35

100

103

103

1.9

22

15

11

—

—

NL 99

09/B95

95

102

107

1.7

22

15

12

—

—

NL 85

06/B46

100

109

109

2

22

15

11

—

—

NL 90

07/B73

100

110

110

2.6

17

12

8

—

—

NL 84

06/B45

75

87

116

1.8

26

17

13

—

—

NL 97

08/B86

95

118

124

2

25

17

12

—

—

NL 82

06/B38

100

138

138

1.9

29

19

15

—

—

NL 100

09/B96

85

142

167

1.7

—

26

20

13

—

NL 95

07/B84

85

150

176

2.9

—

16

12

8

—

NL 83

06/B39

80

143

179

3

—

16

12

8

—

NL 93

07/B79

>70

135

180

2

—

24

18

12

—

NL 88

07/B70

75

138

184

2.6

—

19

14

9

—

NL 96

08/B85

>70

151

201

2.7

—

20

15

10

7

NL 94

07/B83

100

203

203

2.8

—

19

14

10

7

NL 92

07/B77

>50

142

258

2.7

—

—

19

13

10

Illustration 6.2. Middle Minoan II clay discoid weights from the underwater excavations at Pseira: weight (preserved and estimated complete), thread thickness, and the calculated thread count per cm when used with threads requiring different tensions in a tabby weave. Weights are sorted by estimated complete weight, indicating a tendency toward two production strategies.

CERAMIC AND LEAD WEIGHTS FROM THE SHIPWRECK AND ALONG THE COAST

thread requiring 15 g tension (for a visual approximation of thread types ranging from very thin to very thick, see Andersson Strand, Nosch, and Cutler 2015, fig. 6.1.2). For the weights excavated closer to the settlement, in Illustration 6.2, which is ranked by increasing estimated complete weight, NL 86 (06/ B47) and NL 91 (07/B76) are thick for such small weights and would not have allowed as densely woven a cloth as could have been achieved with the other weights. The remaining weights divide into two groups around 150 g and 2.5 cm, consistent with the two major clusters of loomweights from the settlement. The lighter and thinner weights would be optimal for use with very thin thread with 5–10 g tension to produce a dense weave, while the heavier and thicker weights would work best with very thin to thin threads with 7.5–15 g tension to produce a slightly less dense weave. The densest weaves are likely to have been fairly balanced in terms of the density of warp and weft threads, whereas those with fewer warp threads may have been a more open weave or may have had a higher number of weft threads so those would have been weft dominant. For the Protopalatial period on Crete, most recovered loomweights are from larger institutional contexts, from the palaces at Knossos and Phaistos and from Quartier Mu at Malia, although more domestic contexts are probably represented from collections from the Royal Road South at Knossos and the workshop houses in Quartier Mu at Malia. While there are some collections of loomweights within the thickness and weight ranges documented for this sample, the weights recovered from the palace at Phaistos and Quartier Mu include many thicker and heavier examples and would have been used with thicker thread, probably to produce heavier cloth with more open or weft-dominant weaves (Cutler 2011, 150–153, 173– 175, 181–187). The weights documented here all lie within the finer and denser end of this overall spectrum of textile production, often, although not exclusively, represented in domestic contexts. A similar pattern of production was observed in the contemporary MM II discoid weights from the dye-working installation at Alatzomouri Pefka near Pacheia Ammos (Cutler and Brogan 2020). The analysis of that material also indicates that more than one variety of textile could have been produced

67

with this type of thread: a relatively dense, balanced textile or a more open or weft-dominant textile.

Catalog of the Clay and Lead Weights Shipwreck 176 (07/110; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Lead weight, complete. Pres. L. 8.2; pres. w. 1.5; th. 0.9 cm; wt. 92 g. Elliptical shape, with a single hole (d. 0.5 cm) at one end. Comments: depth 41 m; from grid square ΛΠΡΣ. Byzantine. 177 (07/113; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, 95% complete. Pres. w. 8.4; h. 8.0; th. 2.6 cm; pres. wt. 173 g. A coarse phyllite fabric (weak red, 2.5YR 4/2). Round shape, with a flattened top and single hole near the upper edge (d. 1.6 cm). Comments: depth 36.7 m; from grid square ΨΩα3α2. MM IIB. 178 (08/135; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 7.8; h. 7.4; th. 2.3 cm; wt. 148 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Round shape, with a flattened top and two holes near upper edge (d. 1.1 cm) near the upper edge. Comments: depth 42.7 m; from the perimeter southeast of 127. MM IIB. 179 (08/136; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 7.3; h. 7.1; th. 1.8 cm; wt. 109 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Round shape, with a flattened top and two holes (d. 0.6 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 42.7 m; from the perimeter southeast of 08/13. MM IIB. 180 (09/171; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, 95% complete. W. 6.4; h. 7.0; th. 2.1 cm; pres. wt. 107 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 6/4). Round shape, with a grooved top and a single hole (d. 0.6 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 41.2 m; from grid square Πα10α9Ρ, level 1. MM IIB.

Underwater Part of the Minoan Settlement NL 81 (06/B35; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 6.6; h. 6.6; th. 1.9 cm; wt. 103 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Round shape, with a single hole (d. 0.9 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 20 m. MM IIB NL 82 (06/B38; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 7.4; h. 7.1; th. 1.9 cm; wt. 138 g. Fabric is not visible. Round shape, with a flattened top and two holes (d. 0.6 cm). Comments: depth 17 m. MM IIB.

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JOANNE E. CUTLER,† THOMAS M. BROGAN, AND TODD WHITELAW

NL 83 (06/B39; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, ca. 80% complete. Pres. w. 7.2; pres. h. 7.1; th. 3.0 cm; pres. wt. 143 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (mostly red, 2.5YR 5/6). Round shape, with a flattened top and a single hole (d. 1.6 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 24 m. MM IIB. NL 84 (06/B45; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, ca. 70–75% complete. Pres. w. 7.3; pres. h. 6.4; th. 1.8 cm; pres. wt. 87 g. A medium-coarse fabric (yellowish red, 5YR 5/6). Round shape, with a single hole (d. 1.1 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 85 (06/B46; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 6.8; h. 6.9; th. 2.0 cm; wt. 109 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (dark brown, 7.5YR 4/4). Round shape, with a grooved top and a single hole (d. 0.8 cm) near the upper edge. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 86 (06/B47; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 5.4; h. 5.3; th. 2.4 cm; wt. 72 g. A mediumcoarse Mirabello Fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Round shape, with a flattened and slightly grooved top and two holes (d. 0.7 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 87 (07/B66; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 7.3; h. 6.9; th. 1.5 cm; wt. 90 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (red, 2.5YR 4/6). Round shape, with a flattened and grooved top and two holes (d. 0.8 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 88 (07/B70; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, edges chipped, more than 70% complete. Pres. w. 7.5; pres. h. 7.2; th. 2.6 cm; pres. wt. 138 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (red, 2.5YR 4/8). Round shape, with a flattened top and a single hole (d. 1.7 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 11 m. MM IIB. NL 89 (07/B72; Fig. 25; Pl. 13). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 7.9; h. 7.8; th. 1.5 cm; wt. 99 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/6). Round shape, with a single hole (d. 1.6 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 12 m. MM IIB. NL 90 (07/B73; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 5.6; h. 6.6; th. 2.6 cm; pres. wt. 110 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Elliptical shape, with a grooved top and a single hole (d. 0.7 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 35 m. MM IIB. NL 91 (07/B76; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 5.0; h. 5.8; th. 3.0 cm; wt. 86 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (red, 2.5YR 5/6). Elliptical shape, with a slightly grooved top and a single hole (d. 0.8 cm) near the upper edge. Comments: depth 7 m. MM IIB. NL 92 (07/B77; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, more than 50% preserved. Pres. w. 7.1; pres. h. 6.9; th.

2.7 cm; pres. wt. 142 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (red, 25YR 5/4). Round shape, with a flattened top and a single hole (d. 1.7 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 7 m. MM IIB. NL 93 (07/B79; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, edges chipped, more than 70% complete. Pres. w. 7.9; pres. h. 7.2; th. 2.0 cm; pres. wt. 135 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (red, 2.5YR 5/6). Round shape, with a flattened top and a single hole (d. 2.0 cm) near the upper edge. Comments: depth 30.5 m. MM IIB. NL 94 (07/B83; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 8.5; h. 8.1; th. 2.8 cm; pres. wt. 203 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 5/4). Round shape, with a flattened top and two holes (d. 0.8 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 5 m. MM IIB. NL 95 (07/B84; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, ca. 85% complete. Pres. w. 7.0; h. 7.6; th. 2.9 cm; pres. wt. 150 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 5/3). Round shape, with a single hole (d. 1.3 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 5 m. MM IIB. NL 96 (08/B85; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, edges chipped, more than 70% complete. Pres. w. 6.9; pres. h. 8.2; th. 2.7 cm; pres. wt. 151 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Round shape, with a flattened top and a single hole (d. 1.8 cm) near the upper edge. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 97 (08/B86; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, ca. 95% complete. W. 7.4; h. 7.3; th. 2.0 cm; pres. wt. 118 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Round shape, with a flattened top and two holes (d. 0.6 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 16 m. MM IIB. NL 98 (09/B92; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, complete. W. 6.7; h. 7.4; th. 2.0 cm; wt. 101 g. A mediumcoarse phyllite fabric (red, 2.5YR 4/6). Elliptical shape, with a grooved top and a single hole (d. 0.6 cm) near the upper edge. Comments: depth 13 m. MM IIB. NL 99 (09/B95; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, ca. 95% complete. W. 7.0; h. 7.1; th. 1.7 cm; pres. wt. 102 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 5YR 4/4). Round shape, with two holes (d. 0.9 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth not recorded. MM IIB. NL 100 (09/B96; Fig. 26; Pl. 14). Discoid loomweight, ca. 80% complete. W. 8.5; pres. h. 8.3; th. 1.7 cm; pres. wt. 142 g. A medium-coarse phyllite fabric (reddish brown, 2.5YR 4/4). Round shape, with two holes (d. 0.8 cm) near upper edge. Comments: depth 13 m. MM IIB.

7

Ground Stone Implements from the Shipwreck by Heidi M.C. Dierckx

One anchor, three fishing weights, an axe, a scraper, two pounders, and two abraders were located in the shipwreck and in the area of the shipwreck off the Pseira coast. Of these, seven tools came from the shipwreck itself and include two weights (PSS 2, PSS 7), an axe (PSS 1), a scraper (PSS 6), and three hand tools (PSS 3–5), of which two are only possible because of the lack of wear marks. The weights and the axe are the most interesting, in that these implements would be fitting as being associated with a shipwreck. The weights can be identified as fishing or net weights. An additional weight (PSS 8) was found in the vicinity of the wreck and came from near the town of Pseira. That, too, can be considered a fishing or net weight. The heavier example (PSS 8) might be a smaller subsidiary weight to hold down the hawser of the anchor (Wachsmann 2008, 286–287), but it is more likely a main weight that would have been tied to the end of a net (Galili, Rosen, and Sharvit 2002, 183). While small weights consisting of natural waterworn pebbles and cobbles with natural or drilled holes are relatively common on Minoan sites (Kommos: Blitzer 1995,

467–468, pl. 8.42; Mochlos: Carter 2004, 81, pl. 25; Pseira: Dierckx 1992, 155–157, 207–208, figs. 34, 35; Betancourt and Dierckx 1995, 82, 126–127, figs. 44, 54, pls. 20E, 30A–C; 1998; Myrtos: Warren 1972, 238, figs. 105, 218–220), the three weights from the shipwreck area are rough, triangular in shape, and flattish in section. Of significance is that one almost identical example was a surface find from the town of Pseira (Dierckx 1992, 155, fig. 34:PS 125). One might wonder what an axe might be doing on a ship. Perhaps it was used to cut the hawser. Shelly Wachsmann (2008, 293) suggests that one reason for many anchors being found on the seafloor is as a result of a deliberate cutting of the rope attached to the anchor to avoid destruction of the ship in bad weather or of being stuck in the sand of the seafloor. A sharp quartzite axe might well be useful. Anchors litter the floor of the Mediterranean Sea and have been defined in detail by Honor Frost (1963a; see Wachsmann 2008 for full bibliographical references to Frost). The anchor off the coast of Pseira, still lying on the seafloor, is

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triangular-rounded in shape with three pierced, probably drilled, holes. A central rope hole is present at the top narrow portion, and two smaller tooth-holes are positioned at the bottom wider end. This is known as a composite anchor, where the larger top hole would have had a thick rope through it that attached to the ship, while the two smaller holes would have been used for wooden stakes to hold the anchor to the seafloor (Frost 1963a, 7, 13–15; 1963b, 50–51; Shaw 1995, 285, fig. 7; Wachsmann 2008, 255–293, 255). On the southern shore of Crete, two similar three-holed anchors were found at the Minoan harbor of Kommos; they date to the LM IIIA period, as do datable examples from the Levant and Cyprus (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006, 1198, pls. 4.24, 4.25). The eastern Mediterranean origin of the anchors is strengthened by the fact that they were associated with Levantine and Cypriot pottery (Shaw 1995). Of the two examples from Kommos (Shaw 1995), the Pseira anchor resembles the one that also has three round pierced holes (no. S2233); the other Kommos example (no. S2234) has a large square rope hole and two round tooth holes. It also appears that the Pseira anchor is not as well shaped as those from Kommos, which have a convex or straight bottom edge and are not as rounded. Both anchors are also larger than the Pseira example and weigh ca. 74 kg. Three-holed composite anchors are known from the eastern Mediterranean, specifically Cyprus and Ugarit, which are likely also the geological sources of the stone from which the Kommos examples were made (Shaw 1995). Other examples of composite anchors abandoned near the shoreline include four large stone anchors of the LM III period found at a depth of 30 m in the Bay of Stavros near Chania. Each has a large pierced hole on top with a 15 cm diameter, two smaller holes at the bottom (d. 10 cm) for the wooden arms, and weighs 130 kg (Hadjidaki 2004, 53–54). Other than the two Kommos and the four Stavros examples from Chania, other anchors found at Minoan sites are of a different type. They are triangularly shaped with a rounded top and one central round or square hole at the top. Three were found at Malia and date to the Middle Minoan period (Shaw 1995, 282), and one is from Mochlos (Sophianou and Soles 2014) and dates to LM I–IIIB. These are considered weight anchors. Another limestone weight anchor was also found on the surface at Pseira (Dierckx and Betancourt

2009, 105, fig. 42:AF 505). It is rectangular in shape and has one drilled hole off center (it measures 52 x 25 x 15 cm and weighs ca. 35–40 kg). Based on the parallels with the Kommos and Stavros anchors, it thus appears that the Pseira anchor found on the seafloor may be eastern Mediterranean in origin, although certainty can only be achieved if analysis is carried out to identify the possible stone source. Considering the shipwreck dates to MM II, based on the pottery (see Betancourt, this vol., Ch. 4), it is likely that this anchor probably does not belong to the actual shipwreck but was left behind at a later date by another ship.

Catalog of Stone Tools Shipwreck PSS 1 (06/78α; Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Axe, complete. L. 10.2; w. 7.5; th. 2.8 cm; wt. 256 g. Quartzite (gray, 5Y 5/1). Cobble, trapezoidal. Worked to shape; possibly pecked on large end; no clear wear marks visible; weathered surface. Comments: depth 39.7 m; found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ, level 2. MM IIB. PSS 2 (06/80α; Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Weight, complete. L. 7.2; w. 3.7; th. 2.3 cm; wt. 65 g. Calcareous sandstone (gray, N5/). Pebble, ovoid. Drilled hole (d. 0.7–1.3 cm) in upper part; weathered surface. Comments: depth 39.7 m; found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ, level 2. MM IIB. PSS 3 (Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Possible pounder, complete. L. 11.3; w. 8.5; th. 5.8 cm; 835 g. Quartzite (gray, 5Y 5/1). Cobble, ovoid. No visible wear. Comments: depth 40.2 m; found in grid square KOΠΛ. MM IIB. PSS 4 (Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Abrader-grinder/whetstone, intact. Pres. L. 11.9; pres. w. 8.8; pres. th. 3.3 cm; pres. wt. 538 g. Quartzite (gray, 5R 5/1). Cobble, ovoid and flat. Abraded flat on one face; broken on one end. Comments: depth 40.2 m; found in grid square KOΠΛ. MM IIB. PSS 5 (Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Possible abrader-polisher, complete. L. 6.9; w. 7.0; th. 3.0 cm; wt. 201 g. Quartzite (gray, 10YR 5/1). Cobble, round and flat. No wear marks visible; weathered surface. Comments: depth 40.2 m; found in grid square KOΠΛ. MM IIB. PSS 6 (Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Scraper, complete. L. 7.6; w. 4.1; th. 1.4 cm; wt. 60 g. Crystalline limestone (gray, N5/). Severed flake off a cobble. Flaked on preserved edge. Comments: depth 39.7 m; found in grid square ΒΝΚΓ, level 2. MM IIB. PSS 7 (09/196; Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Weight, complete. L. 16.5; w. 9.2; th. 2.3 cm; wt. 388 g. Calcareous sandstone,

GROUND STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM THE SHIPWRECK

very fine grained (gray, N5/). Cobble, oblong and pointed. Drilled hole (d. 1–1.5 cm) in upper part; weathered surface. Comments: depth 39.7 m; found in grid square BNKΓ, level 2. MM IIB.

Near the Town of Pseira PSS 8 (07/B68; Fig. 27; Pl. 15). Weight, complete. L. 11.5; w. 16; th. 3.2; max. dim. 19 cm; wt. 579 g. Crystalline limestone (very pale brown, 10YR 7/3). Cobble,

71

oblong and pointed. Pecked hole in upper part; weathered surface. Comments: depth 21 m; from sunken town. Minoan. PSS 9 (05/B7; Fig. 27; Pl. 15. Pounder, complete. L. 7.9; w. 7.4; th. 6.8 cm; wt. 682 g. Basalt (very dark gray, N3/). Cobble, subspherical. Pecked and battered on one area. Comments: depth 9 m; from sunken town. Minoan. PSS 10 (Pl. 15). Anchor, complete. L. ca. 48; w. ca. 33 cm; wt. 35–40 kg. Boulder, triangular-rounded. Three round pierced holes, one at center top portion and two smaller holes at bottom. Comments: still lies on the seafloor. LM I.

8

Conclusions by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

During the seven years of this underwater project, we succeeded in locating and recovering the cargo of a ship from the MM IIB, or Protopalatial, period that transported goods across the Cretan Sea. The deepest point we excavated was at 42.2 m, but we surveyed to 45 m deep and found isolated vessels as deep as 48 m. These depths are challenging for archaeologists, but thanks to the care of our support crew in all seven seasons we had no mishaps. We did not find wood that we could use for clues to the construction of the ship. This is not uncommon for prehistoric ships of this age. No wood was found at Dokos, Cape Iria, or Sheytan Deresi. Based on the cargo, we believe the origin of the ship was local, but this remains a surmise. The location of the finds, the homogeneity of the pottery, and the study and analysis of the clay leave no doubt that the excavated vessels came from a ship that sank some time in MM IIB, ca. 1725– 1700 b.c. Although this date coincides with that of a catastrophic earthquake or an attack that destroyed the town on Pseira, it is unlikely that an earthquake would be the reason the ship was lost.

First, earthquakes are extremely rare. Second, the tsunamis that can accompany undersea upheavals are relatively gentle waves until they come very close to land, so if a tsunami caught a ship by the coast it would be more likely to dash it onto the land than to deposit it with cargo essentially intact at the bottom of the sea. And although the abundant pottery and architectural remains at the base of the land site are most likely the result of subsidence due to earthquakes, this may not be the reason for the destruction and abandonment of Pseira in MM IIB. Evidence points to war: inhabitants relocated for a brief time to the refuge site of Monastiraki, high on a dangerous cliff overlooking the nearby plain. The MM IIB town was emptied of valuable items when it was destroyed. When the town on Pseira was resettled in LM I, it was on a different ground with increased Knossian influence. All these facts point to a Knossian conquest of East Crete rather than an earthquake as the reason that Pseira was destroyed and abandoned. Throughout the excavation, we recorded the orientation of vessels we found on the seafloor and

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noticed that many were lying upside down or were facing to the southwest. However, one should be careful not to draw too many conclusions from this information. Some 3,800 years have elapsed since the ship sank, and even small annual shifts could have resulted in complete changes of orientation. In addition, the ship does not seem to have capsized instantly, taking all its cargo to the seafloor packed together in the hold. Many vessels fell off the ship as it sank and were scattered along a 40-m long trail, running northeast to southwest; the greatest density of finds were in this location (Ill. 3.1). If these vessels were filled with liquid, they would have been nearly buoyant and would have tumbled during descent, leaving no trace of their original orientation in the ship. It is likely that the winds and currents today off Pseira Island provide guidance on the hazards of antiquity. The Pseira harbor is completely sheltered from north winds, but any south wind of more than two or three on the Beaufort scale can be dangerous because of gusts. The surface currents are usually northeast to southwest, hugging the island. We cannot determine whether the ship was leaving or entering the harbor, but the trail of artifacts is consistent with cargo falling from a ship as it capsized and drifted with the prevailing current. We found more than 140 artifacts from the wreck area, most of which were homogeneous in type and fabric and all of which date to the same period. A total of 46 oval-mouthed amphorae and other amphorae, 41 spouted jugs, and 11 hole-mouthed jars constitute what remains of a transport cargo. The 17 cups, several jugs and juglets, 3 cooking tripods, 7 stone tools, and 5 fishing weights are most likely to have belonged to the ship’s crew of three or four people. They were mainly found within a few meters of one another, in the middle of the wreck, probably in a section of the ship reserved for the crew. Amphorae and jugs are most commonly used to store liquid; this leads us to suggest a main cargo of wine. Amphorae can also carry solids, however; without further scientific analysis the contents of these vases will remain uncertain. The holemouthed jars are storage vessels and were designed to have their openings covered with skin or fabric. They are likely to have transported solid food for the inhabitants of Pseira and other coastal towns to which the ship sailed.

The two main fabric groups found by the petrographic analysis, a granitic-dioritic rock and a phyllite metamorphic rock, suggest that amphorae, jugs, and jars were manufactured at the nearby towns of Gournia and Priniatikos Pyrgos. Some others came from the broader area of Mochlos. One tripod cooking pot has a characteristic clay from Palaikastro. It is possible that this pot is the sign of trade relations with Palaikastro, but it is the only sample originating from there. It is more likely that it belonged to one of the crew, thus indicating communication between the Minoan towns in a peaceful environment where people from different parts of the island could work and associate together. This peaceful communication may not have been restricted to the island of Crete. Evidence for contacts with societies from the wider Aegean Sea area comes from four more artifacts: a large amphora, the upper part of an oval-mouthed amphora, a handle from a second tripod cooking pot, and a brazier come from the Dodecanese Islands or the Levant, and this suggests the possibility that the ship had a truly “international” crew. The amphorae, jugs, and hole-mouthed jars have a combined volume of 726 liters as shown in Illustration 8.1; when filled with liquid they would weigh at least 726 kg. This is a small cargo but also a very conservative estimate. It is based on only those vessels in the catalog that were preserved well enough to be classified. Fragments of an additional 36 vessels were less well preserved and harder to identify, but about half seem to be from transport vessels of 10 liters or more. In addition, it is almost certain we have not recovered all transport vessels from the ship, and thus the original cargo was at least a metric ton. The distribution of finds on the map of the excavations shows that the greatest density is in an area ca. 13 m long and 7 m wide (Ill. 3.1). The ship was almost certainly smaller than this, and we tentatively place its length at ca. 10 m and the beam at ca. 3.5–4 m. Such a boat could easily accommodate cargo of a few tons, as well as crew and ballast, because adding a ton to a ship when its cross-sectional area is 20 m2 increases the draft by only 5 cm. By way of comparison, the Cape Gelidonya ship, which Bass (1967, 163) estimates to have been 9–10 m in length, took on a metal cargo of

CONCLUSIONS

75

Vessel Type

Number of Complete Vessels

Estimated Volume (liters)

Hole-mouthed jars

11

243

Jugs made of Mirabello Fabric

16

24

Jugs made of other fabrics

24

49

Amphorae made of Mirabello Fabric

10

131

Amphorae made of other fabrics including those with phyllite

30

243

Amphorae in other classes

6

36

Total

97

726

Illustration 8.1. Estimated volume of transport containers from the Pseira shipwreck cargo. Estimates were obtained by digitizing the cross sections of the vessels in the pottery catalog.

approximately one ton in addition to pottery just prior to the final leg of its final voyage. The cargo of the Pseira shipwreck is therefore small in comparison with the capacity, potentially rendering the ship unstable. There are three possible explanations for this. First, the ship was carrying a considerable quantity of ballast, having already off-loaded most of its cargo. However, we found almost no ballast stones, so we believe this is unlikely. Second, the ship was carrying a large quantity of perishable cargo, such as grain or hides, which has not survived. This is certainly possible. Third, a large portion of the cargo, which once must have formed a visible mound, was looted before our project began. It is difficult, for example, to believe that the ship was carrying only two large hole-mouthed jars with a capacity around 40 liters. It is very likely that the ship was sailing to or from Pseira, transporting what the inhabitants needed most: pottery and food. Pseira Island had little arable land and offered no raw materials for the production of their daily utensils. Thus, pottery had to be brought by ship across the sea from the nearest coastal towns of northern Crete. The islanders manufactured and exported stone vessels and other objects made from shells. No stone vases were recovered from the wreck. Hundreds of shells were found, which is to be expected, but we did not notice any artificial marks on them. This makes it more likely the ship was arriving than leaving. A MM IIB prismatic seal with the representation of a ship, excavated from the Plateia Building at Pseira in 1998 (Nikolaidou 1998), also attests to

the early seafaring trade with the inhabitants of this bare island. The seal originated from a workshop at Malia and depicts a ship with a mast, rigging, and a high prow or stern. Whether engraved for religious or ritual purposes, it reinforces our view of a society dependent upon local sea trade. Most of the ship’s cargo, except for items most likely belonging to the crew, was broadly local. At the same time, petrographic loners identified in the analyzed pottery samples are not native to Crete. These could have originally come with other ships and entered the local trading network. One should be cautious, however, about concluding too firmly based on the pottery of a ship which precise ports it has visited. The off-island samples could have been the last remnants of an off-island cargo that was traded on a previous leg of the trip. What we can state with confidence is that in its last moments the ship was loaded almost exclusively with products local to Gournia, Mochlos, and Pseira. Transport ships need protection from the winds and a place for loading and unloading imports. Protection from the prevailing north–west winds at Pseira was offered naturally by means of a long headland jutting into the sea, protecting the town and its shipping. Indeed, this bay is still the best protected bay in the Mirabello region, and it is not surprising that this location was chosen by the Late Neolithic and Early Minoan inhabitants as a settlement, despite the lack of natural resources. Protection from the winds is only one requirement for sea commerce. There also must be facilities allowing safe and rapid unloading and

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loading of cargo. In contrast to previous suggestions, we think it unlikely this was done by beaching ships. What is today a small beach located by the side of the main staircase leading from the port to the town was most likely then a stream emptying into the sea. Although the inlet is protected, the land both above and below the water line is steeply sloped, and it is unlikely that there was a navigable stream or a beach suitable for loading and unloading cargo. A harbor installation was needed, and so the early Minoans constructed one. We found a quay hewn out of the bedrock and two artificial holes carved into it bearing rope marks, indicating that the Pseirans tied their boats to the rocky shore. This is additional evidence for the existence of artificially constructed harbor works 3,800 years ago, around the same time as the Canaanite rock cuttings at Machroud Island off the coast of Lebanon (Frost 1973b). Indeed, detailed examination of known Minoan harbor sites provides no evidence to support the view that Minoan ships were beached. The rocky coast of Crete did not offer easy access to seagoing vessels. The Minoans were inventive and resourceful enough to build ships and spread their knowledge and culture across the Mediterranean for 1,000 years. It is clear they could also build harbors. Throughout the duration of our project, we faced a degree of skepticism about what we had found. A common question was whether what we were investigating was actually pottery fallen from the seashore (Wachsmann 2011, 17 n. 14). This idea has persisted: “it is hard to determine whether the pottery came from a wreck, was simply thrown overboard, or washed into the sea from the nearby coast” (Marchant 2012, 427). These possibilities are highly unlikely. If we suppose that the artifacts had fallen from the land site, we would expect the density of finds to increase steadily as we moved toward the land. But this was not the case, although the sloping seafloor offered as many possibilities to catch artifacts on the way back to land as it did in the location where the wreck was found. In addition, artifacts fallen from the land site would present a greater variety of vessel types and time periods than those found at the wreck. What we found was not a rich merchant ship carrying luxury goods for administrative lords or their palaces, as was the case for the shipwrecks from hundreds of years later found at Cape Gelidonya or Uluburun (Bass 1967, 1986; Pulak 1988). Pseira was

most likely part of Gournia’s territory, for according to recent evidence, Gournia constructed its first palace in MM II (Buell and McEnroe 2017). The essential point is that the Minoans had established a complex economy, including sea trade for agricultural products and harbor facilities to serve the ships. This was true even for the coastal community of Pseira, which was probably more representative of ordinary coastal life than the Late Minoan palaces on which so much attention has focused. In view of the evidence for a “pan-Cretan system” (Hallager, Papadopoulou, and Tzachili 2011, 70) predating unified political control, circumstances for Pseira should apply to coastal life around the island of Crete at the time of the shipwreck. As noted in Chapter 1, the alteration of the Cretan coastline over the past three millennia means that many important Minoan sites are now found underwater. This is true on East Crete and, somewhat surprisingly, on West Crete as well. As archaeological investigation extends to the underwater domain it will continue to shed light on the prehistoric period where written records are scanty, and it will inform us about seismic activity, Minoan navigation, harbors, maritime trade, and cultural expansion. Our excavation of the Pseira shipwreck constitutes the first systematic underwater excavation of a Minoan shipwreck, but it should not be the last. The cargo we recovered came from an ordinary transport ship loaded with local products from the nearby coastal towns in the Mirabello region, which it distributed at Pseira and other towns along the northern shores of Crete as part of daily life. From this point of view, it is a rich source of information because it provides evidence of early seafaring, docking facilities, and about life on a ship. There has long been evidence of trade by sea with Egypt and the Near East since the Early Minoan period. This long-distance trade was mainly conducted from harbors along South Crete (Betancourt 2011), such as Kommos and possibly Kapetaniana (Hadjidaki 2004), and from this starting point it could then diffuse to Minoan communities through local transport networks (Tartaron 2013, 44−45, 186−196), by land and by sea. Now we have specific and detailed evidence of local sea trade, of ships that plied the coasts providing foodstuffs and goods for everyday use to coastal communities, which was an integral part of the civilization that marked the earliest blossoming of European culture.

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Concordance

Excavation and Catalog Numbers

03/11, 104 03/12, 12 03/14, 113 03/15, 13 03/22, 1 03/22α, 114 03/23, 2 03/B1, NL 37 03/B4, NL 46 03/B5, NL 47 03/B6, NL 3 03/B7+B8, NL 48 03/B9, NL 49 03/B10, NL 50 03/B13, NL 38 03/B20, NL 25 03/B21, NL 26 04/11, 98 04/12, 62 04/13, 63 04/15α, 92 04/15β, 93 04/23, 29

04/24, 3 04/25, 52 04/26, 14 04/27, 15 04/34, 132 04/38, 4 04/39, 53 04/B30, NL 51 04/B31, NL 66 04/B32, NL 52 04/B33, NL 27 04/B35, NL 65 04/B36, NL 1 04/B57, NL 43 05/1, 120 05/2, 94 05/3, 134 05/4, 174 05/5, 95 05/6, 30 05/8, 135 05/10, 64 05/17, 175

05/18, 136 05/19, 65 05/20, 66 05/21, 67 05/22, 105 05/28, 99 05/29, 16 05/30, 31 05/31, 32 05/32, 118 05/33, 68 05/40, 69 05/41, 110 05/42, 70 05/43, 71 05/44, 33 05/46, 173 05/47, 137 05/48, 138 05/49, 139 05/50, 8 05/51, 34 05/B11, NL 28

05/B12, NL 29 05/B13, NL 54 05/B15, NL 30 05/B23, NL 31 05/B24, NL 23 05/B25, NL 72 05/B26, NL 6 05/B28, NL 12 05/B50, NL 55 05/B51, NL 56 05/B52, NL 39 05/B53, NL 2 05/B54, NL 40 05/B55, NL 73 05/B56, NL 41 05/B58, NL 44 05/B59, NL 4 05/B7, PSS 9 06/15α, 140 06/52, 35 06/53, 36 06/54, 128 06/55α, 72

90

06/55β, 141 06/55δ, 142 06/56, 143 06/57, 144 06/58, 37 06/59, 38 06/60, 145 06/61, 101 06/62, 39 06/63, 40 06/66, 146 06/67, 5 06/68, 73 06/69+78, 106 06/70, 17 06/71, 6 06/72, 147 06/73, 129 06/74, 149 06/75, 150 06/76, 7 06/77, 151 06/78α, PSS 1 06/78β, 152 06/79α, 74 06/79β, 153 06/80, 154 06/80α, PSS 2 06/81β, 54 06/82α, 155 06/82β, 125 06/82γ, 148 06/83, 156 06/84, 130 06/85, NL 80 06/86, 28 06/87, 26 06/B16, NL 10 06/B34α, NL 32 06/B34β, NL 74 06/B35, NL 81 06/B36, NL 13 06/B37, NL 14 06/B38, NL 82 06/B39, NL 83 06/B40, NL 57 06/B41, NL 58 06/B42, NL 59 06/B43, NL 67

THE MINOAN SHIPWRECK AT PSEIRA, CRETE

06/B44, NL 22 06/B45, NL 84 06/B46, NL 85 06/B47, NL 86 06/B48, NL 75 06/B82β, NL 68 07/88, 75 07/89, 18 07/89β, 117 07/90, 115 07/91, 107 07/92, 27 07/93, 126 07/95, 157 07/97, 76 07/98, 77 07/99, 41 07/100, 100 07/101, 123 07/102, 78 07/103, 112 07/104, 108 07/105, 158 07/106, 96 07/107, 9 07/108, 159 07/109, 19 07/110, 176 07/111, 55 07/112, 160 07/113, 177 07/115, 42 07/116, 119 07/117, 79 07/118, 161 07/119, 162 07/120, 124 07/121, 163 07/122, 121 07/B60, NL 60 07/B61, NL 5 07/B62, NL 15 07/B63β, NL 33 07/B63δ, NL 76 07/B63γ, NL 70 07/B64, NL 16 07/B65, NL 17 07/B66, NL 87 07/B67, NL 61

07/B68, PSS 8 07/B69β, NL 34 07/B70, NL 88 07/B71, NL 24 07/B72, NL 89 07/B73, NL 90 07/B74, NL 18 07/B75, NL 7 07/B76, NL 91 07/B77, NL 92 07/B78, NL 62 07/B79, NL 93 07/B80, NL 35 07/B81, NL 8 07/B82α, NL 19 07/B82β, NL 20 07/B83, NL 94 07/B84, NL 95 08/123, 80 08/124, 20 08/125, NL 77 08/127, 81 08/128, 59 08/129, 82 08/130, 83 08/131, 84 08/132, 127 08/133, NL 78 08/135, 178 08/136, 179 08/138, 85 08/141, 21 08/144, 111 08/145, 164 08/147, NL 69 08/148, 116 08/149, 43 08/150, 44 08/151, 102 08/156, 86 08/B85, NL 96 08/B86, NL 97 08/B87, NL 9 08/B88, NL 63 08/B89, NL 36 08/B90, NL 11 09/152, 165 09/153+191, 133 09/154, NL 64

09/155, 56 09/158, 22 09/159, 23 09/160, 109 09/161, 24 09/162, 57 09/165, 166 09/166, 10 09/167, 48 09/168, 167 09/169, 87 09/170, 58 09/171, 180 09/172, 168 09/174, 47 09/175, 88 09/178, NL 53 09/179, 31a 09/180, 169 09/181, 103 09/182, 45 09/183, 46 09/184, 25 09/186, 89 09/187, 49 09/188, 97 09/189, 50 09/192, 170 09/193, 60 09/194, 122 09/196, PSS 7 09/197, 51 09/198, 11 09/200, NL 79 09/202, 90 09/203, 91 09/204, 131 09/205, 61 09/206, 171 09/207, NL 21 09/209, 172 09/B91, NL 71 09/B92, NL 98 09/B93, NL 42 09/B94, NL 45 09/B95, NL 99 09/B96, NL 100

Index

Aegina, 3 Agelopoulos, Christos, xvi, xviii Agouridis, Christos, xviii airplane wrecks under the sea, 14 Akrotiri peninsula. See Chania Alatzomouri Pefka, 32, 67 Amnisos, 5 amphorae, 4, 16, 19, 23–24, 26–29, 31–34, 38–43, 48, 51, 55–60, 74–75 Anastasakis, George, xvi, xviii, 13 Anatolia, 2–4, 24, 29, 58, 60 anchors. See stone artifacts Antalya shipwreck, 11 Babylon, 3 Bakoyianni, Dora, xix ballast, 75 basalt pounder, 24, 71 basins, 19, 24–25, 33, 42, 49, 56 Bendon, Michael, xviii Betancourt, Mary, xviii Betancourt, Philip P., xvii, xix Bonga, Lily, xviii Braunstein, Michael, xviii

brazier, 33, 43, 56 breakwater or quay. See quay bridge-spouted vessels, 53 Briggs, Lisa, xviii Brogan, Thomas, xvii Byblos, 3 Byzantine artifacts incense cup, 24 lead weight, 26 pottery, 33, 53, 58, 61 Byzantine period, 23, 26 calcareous sandstone, 70–71 Canaanite jars, 11 Cape Gelidonya shipwreck, 11, 31, 74–76 Cape Iria shipwreck, 73 Cape Krios, 5 cargo of the ship catalog, 34–42 main summary, 33 size, 74–75 carinated cups, 15–16, 28, 32, 44, 50–51 carnelian agate, 3

92

THE MINOAN SHIPWRECK AT PSEIRA, CRETE

chalice, 24, 44 Chania, xvii, 2, 7–8, 10–11, 70 Chania, master impression, 8 Chersonissos, 7 Chlouveraki, Stefania, xviii Chrisoskalitissa, 5, 9 Chrysokamino, 61 Cilicia, 3 clay weights. See weights coastal settlements, main discussion, 5–6 conical cups, 24, 42, 49 cooking pots. See tripod cooking pots cup or bowl, 49 Cyprus, 3, 11, 58, 70 Damanaki, Ioannis, xviii date of the wreck, xv, 2, 32 Dionisiades islands, 13 discoid weights. See fishing weights discovery of the wreck, main discussion, 15–16 Djoser, 3 Dodecanese islands, 3, 38–39, 60, 74 Dokos shipwreck, 73 dye workshop at Alatzomouri Pefka, 32 early maritime trade, main discussion, 3–4 earthquake deposit near settlement, main discussion, 48–49 east–west coastal trade route, 31, 60–61 Egypt, 2–3, 6–7 Elounda, 7 Euphrates River, 3 excavation details, main discussion, 17–26 Faulmann, Douglas, xviii Final Neolithic, 14 fire pot, 14 Flysch deposits, 58–61 fortification walls, 9 founding of Pseira, 14 Frangiadaki, Chrisi, xviii Frangokastelo, 5 Frangou, Evangelia, xviii Frangoulis, Kostas, xvi, xviii Frangoulopoulou, Sifia, xviii Frost, Honor, xix, 6 Gambraith, Eli, xviii Garantonakis, Yiorgos, xviii Gavdos, 2 geophysical underwater survey, main discussions, 13–14, 18–20

Glambedakis, Ioulios, xviii Golfis, Nikos, xvi, xvii Gournia, 1–2, 5, 7–8, 10, 14, 24, 32, 34–40, 44, 57, 60, 74, 76 Gouves, 5 grain, 58 Grambousa, 6 granitic-dioritic fragments, 32–34–39, 57–61, 74 main discussion, 57 ground stone artifacts. See stone artifacts Gyali island, 2 Hadjidaki, Ioanna, xviii Hagia Photia, 5, 8 Hagia Triada, 3, 5, 10 Hagios Nikolaos, 23 Haifa, 11 Hallager, Birgitta, xix Hallager, Eric, xix Hammurabi, 3 harbor installations, main discussions, 6–8, 76 hematite seal, 3 hieroglyphic script, 4 Hiloidakis, Thrasyboulos, xviii Hinkley, Miranda-Despina, xvi, xviii hippopotamus ivory seals, 3 Hishuly Carmel shipwreck, 11 hole-mouthed jars, 15, 19, 24, 26, 32–35, 56–57, 59, 74 House A at Vasiliki, 32 Hsu, Florence, xviii Huffman, Eleanor, xviii Iasos, 4 INSTAP (Institute for Aegean Prehistory), xv–xviii, 13, 19 Irwin, Derek, xviii Israel, 3, 11 Istron Bay, 10, 60 jars, 26, 28, 33, 45–46, 53, 55–60 juglets, 25, 33, 74 jugs, 16, 19, 24–26, 28–29, 32–38, 45–46, 49, 52–53, 55– 60, 74–75 Kalamaki, 8 Kaliviani, 2–3, 5–6 Kaloyiannis, Thanasis, xviii Kamares Ware, 3 Kapetaniana, 3, 5, 7 Kastelli, 1–2, 5 Kato Zakros. See Zakros Katsambas, 5

INDEX

Kavalaris, Kyriakos, xviii Kirsanof, Kostas, xvi, xvii Kissamos, 2 Kissinger-Virizlay, Lianna, xviii Klontzas, Yiorgos, xvi, xvii, 14, 17 Knossos, 1–2, 10, 41–42, 51, 67, 73 Kokkinos Pyrgos, 3 Kommos, 7, 10, 41–42, 51, 69–70, 76 Koulenti. See Pavlopetri Koutoulakis, Nikos, xviii Koutsoumba, Despina, xviii Kydonia. See Kastelli Kythera, 3, 6, 8 lapis lazuli, 3 Late Neolithic, 75 lead weight. See Byzantine lead weight Lefki, 5 Levant, 2–3, 6, 11, 70, 74 Liapis, Michalis, xix Linear A script, 4 Lissos, 5 Maglis, Angelos, xviii Malia, 1, 4–5, 10, 15, 32, 35, 41–43, 45–46, 67, 75 Maninou, Roula, xviii Marder, Herbert and Nora, xix Marder, Michael, xvii–viii Marder, Nike, xviii Mari, 3 Markatos, Dimitri, xviii Marmaris shipwreck, 11 Maroulakis, Spiros, xvi, xviii Martin, Lilian, xviii Matsis, Panagiotis, xviii Melos, 2–3 Mentoyiannis, Vasilis, xviii metamorphic fabrics, 37–41, 57–58, 74 metamorphic rock fragments, main discussion, 57–58 micaceous schist, 58 Michali, Mirto, xviii Miletos, 3 miniature brazier, 28, 33 miniature tripod vessel, 26, 33, 45 Minoan road network, 8 Mirabello Fabric. See granitic-dioritic fragments Mochlos, 2–6, 10, 14, 57–58, 60–61, 69, 74 Modi Island shipwreck, 11 Monastiraki, 1 Monastiraki Katalimata, 32, 73 mooring station, 19, 76 Mycenaean pottery, 11 Myrtos, 3, 5, 69

Nisyros, 3 Nopigia, 2, 5, 6, 8 obsidian, 2–3, 6 olive oil, 3, 58 ophiolites, 58–61 oval-mouthed amphorae. See amphorae Pacheia Ammos, 5, 10–11, 14, 35, 43, 67 palace at Gournia, 76 Palaikastro, 2, 4–5, 26, 44, 58, 60, 74 Paleolithic remains, 2 Papanikolopoulou, Chronis, xviii Patroudakis, Yiorgos, xviii Pavlopetri shipwreck, 11, 31 Paximadi, 13 Pera Galini, 5 Petras, 1, 5, 8, 58, 60–61 Phaistos, 1, 3–4. 7, 10, 41–42, 51, 67 Phalasarna, 5, 7–9 pharmaceutical herbs, 3 Phillipaios, Georgos, xviii Phoenician harbor works, 6 Phoenician pottery, 23 phyllite fabric. See metamorphic rock fragments Phyllite-Quartzite series, 57–58, 60 pierced bedrock, 18–19 Pittas, Marinos, xviii Plakias, 2 Point Iria shipwreck, 11, 33 Poros, 5 Poros-Katsambas, 10 previous underwater research at Pseira, 15 Priniatikos Pyrgos, 5, 57, 74 Psathi, 8 Pseiran exports, 31 Pseiran petrographic groups, main discussion, 55 Pseudo-Skylax, 8 Quartier Mu at Malia, 32 quay, 5, 8–9, 18–19, 76 remotely operated vehicle (ROV), xviii, 14 Rethymnon, 7 rock crystal, 3 Rokas, Yiannis, xviii Roman anchor stock, 26 rounded cups, 24, 28, 43, 50 Roussia, Ioanna, xviii

93

94

THE MINOAN SHIPWRECK AT PSEIRA, CRETE

Sakellarakis, Yannis, xix Samaras, Antonis, xix Samos, 3 Samothrace, 3 Saqqara, 3 Saronic Gulf, 11 scepter from Crete, 3 sea level changes. See tilting of Crete seal with ship, 14–15, 75 semiglobular cups, 26, 32, 43–44 Sgouros, Yiorgos, xvi, xviii shell objects, 31 Sheytan Deresi shipwreck, 11, 61, 73 ship representations, main discussion, 4–5 shipbuilding, 4 shipsheds, main discussion, 10 shipwrecks aside from Pseira, main discussion, 11 shoes from Crete, 3 shore house at Gournia, 10 side-scan sonar. See geophysical underwater survey silver Syrian seal, 3 Sissi, 5 Siteia, 13, 23 Siteia Archaeological Museum, xviii, xix, 29 slipways, 10 Soltermann, Marion, xviii Spatha, 6 Sphakia, 2, 6 Stalos, 5, 8, 14 start of excavation, 22 Stavromenos, 8 Stavros Bay, 10, 70 stirrup jar, 11 stone artifacts abraders, 69–70 anchors, 5, 10–11, 14, 18, 69–71 axe, 25, 69–70 pendant, 2 polisher, 25 pounders/grinders, 25, 69–71 scraper, 69–70 tools, 6, 26, 74, main discussion, 69–71 vases, 31 straight-sided cups, 16, 24–25, 43, 49–50, 56 Syro-Palestine coast, 3–4

Tatoulis, Petros, xix Tavronitis, 8, 15 Tel Kabri, 3 tilting of Crete, 7–10 Timologos, Dimitris, xviii tin, 3 trawler destruction, 13–14 Triandafilidis, Yannis, xviii tripod cooking pots, 24, 26, 29, 33, 44–45, 53, 55–61, 74 tripod cooking tray, 26, 33, 44, 55–56, 74 Troodos series, 58 Troy, 2–3, 24 Trypiti, 5 Tsoupaki, Eleftheria, xviii tsunami of A.D. 365, 13 Tzanakis, Yiorgos, xviii Tzari, Matina, xviii Ugarit, 3, 70 Uluburun shipwreck, 11, 31, 76 University of Athens, xviii, 13 University of Pennsylvania Museum, 32 Vasiliki House A, 32 Vasiliki Ware, 2, 16, 24, 34, 39 Venizelos, Avangelos, xix vessels owned by the crew, main summary, 33–34 Vlazaki, Eleni, xviii Voulgarakis, Yiorgos, xix Voyiatzis, Vasilis, xviii warp-weighted loom, 64–65, 67 weapons from Crete, 3 weight, lead, 63–64 weights, clay, 25, 26, 28–29, 33, 63–71, 74 Wiener, Malcolm H., xvii wine, 58 Yassi Ada shipwreck, 64 Zakros, 1–2, 35

Figures

FIGURE 1

Amphorae (Mirabello) Amphorae (Phyllite) Cooking Vessels Crew Possessions Jars Jugs (Mirabello) Jugs (Phyllite) Other

N

0

2m

Figure 1. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids. Drawing F. Hsu.

FIGURE 2

Amphorae (Mirabello) Amphorae (Phyllite) Cooking Vessels Crew Possessions Jars Jugs (Mirabello) Jugs (Phyllite) Other

N

0

2m

Figure 2. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids, highlighting objects made of Mirabello Fabric. Drawing F. Hsu.

FIGURE 3

Amphorae (Mirabello) Amphorae (Phyllite) Cooking Vessels Crew Possessions Jars Jugs (Mirabello) Jugs (Phyllite) Other

N

0

2m

Figure 3. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids, highlighting objects believed to have been owned by crew. Drawing F. Hsu.

FIGURE 4

1 03/22

3 04/24

2 03/23

Figure 4. Hole-mouthed jars (1–4). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

4 04/38

FIGURE 5

5 06/67

6 06/71

7 06/76

8 05/50

9 07/107

12 03/12

10 09/166

13 03/15

11 09/198

14 04/26

Figure 5. Hole-mouthed jars (5–11) and jugs (12–15). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

15 04/27

FIGURE 6

16 05/29

17 06/70

20 08/124

21 08/141

24 09/161

27 07/92

31 05/30

18 07/89

22 09/158

19 07/109

23 09/159

26 06/87

25 09/184

28 06/86

31a 09/179

Figure 6. Jugs (16–33). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

29 04/23

30 05/6

32 05/31

33 05/44

FIGURE 7

34 05/51

35 06/52

38 06/59

37 06/58

40 06/63

39 06/62

41 07/99

43 08/149

36 06/53

42 07/115

44 08/150

Figure 7. Jugs (34–45). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

45 09/182

FIGURE 8

46 09/183

47 09/174

48 09/167

49 09/187

51 09/197

50 09/189

52 04/25

Figure 8. Jugs (46–51) and amphorae (52, 53). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

53 04/39

FIGURE 9

55 07/111

54 06/81

56 09/155

59 08/128

57 09/162

60 09/193

Figure 9. Amphorae (54–61). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

58 09/170

61 09/205

FIGURE 10

62 04/12

63 04/13

64 05/10

65 05/19

66 05/20

67 05/21

Figure 10. Amphorae (62–67). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 11

68 05/33

71 05/43

73 06/68

69 05/40

70 05/42

72 06/55α

74 06/79α

Figure 11. Amphorae (68–75). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

75 07/88

FIGURE 12

76 07/97

79 07/117

82 08/129

77 07/98

80 08/123

83 08/130

Figure 12. Amphorae (76–84). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

78 07/102

81 08/127

84 08/131

FIGURE 13

85 08/138

86 08/156

88 09/175

89 09/186

90 09/202

92 04/15α

93 04/15β

91 09/203

Figure 13. Amphorae (85–93). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

87 09/169

FIGURE 14

94 05/2

96 07/106

95 05/5

98 04/11

97 09/188

99 05/28

101 06/61

100 07/100

102 08/151

103 09/181

104 03/11

Figure 14. Amphorae (94–97), basins (98–100), cups (101, 102, 104), and a brazier (103). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 15

106 06/69

105 05/22

116 08/148

117 07/89β

109 09/160

112 07/103

111 08/144

110 05/41

108 07/104

107 07/91

118 05/32

115 07/90

119 07/116

122 09/194

120 05/1

123 07/101

127 08/132

121 07/122

124 07/120

128 06/54

125 06/82β

129 06/73

126 07/93

130 06/84

131 09/204

Figure 15. Cups (105–112, 115–117), a chalice (118), tripods (119–124), jars (125, 126), and jugs (127–131). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 16

132 04/34

135 05/8

133 09/153

144 06/57

138 05/48

137 05/47

139 05/49

141 06/55β

145 06/60

134 05/3

143 06/56

146 06/66

Figure 16. Fragments of large closed vessels (132–135, 137–139, 141, 143–145) and a handle (146). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 17

147 06/72

148 06/82γ

151 06/77

150 06/75

155 06/82α

163 07/121

154 06/80

153 06/79β

158 07/105

157 07/95

156 06/83

159 07/108

149 06/74

161 07/118

160 07/112

164 08/145

162 07/119

165 09/152

Figure 17. Fragments of closed vessels (147–149, 153–157, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165) and jars (150, 151, 158, 161, 163). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 18

166 09/165

168 09/172

171 09/206

174 05/4

167 09/168

170 09/192

169 09/180

173 05/46

175 05/17

Figure 18. Fragments of closed vessels (166, 168–171), a basin (167), and amphorae of various later classes (173–175). Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 19

NL 1 04/B36

NL 2 05/B53

NL 3 03/B6

NL 5 07/B61

NL 6 05/B26

NL 7 07/B75

NL 11 08/B90

NL 12 05/B28

NL 17 07/B65

NL 22 06/B44

NL 26 03/B21

NL 13 06/B36

NL 18 07/B74

NL 4 05/B59

NL 8 07/B81

NL 14 06/B37

NL 19 07/B82α

NL 23 05/B24

NL 27 04/B33

NL 9 08/B87

NL 15 07/B62

NL 28 05/B11

NL 16 07/B64

NL 20 07/B82β

NL 24 07/B71

NL 10 06/B16

NL 21 09/207

NL 25 03/B20

NL 29 05/B12

NL 30 05/B15

Figure 19. Jugs (NL 1–NL 3), a basin (NL 4), and cups (NL 5–NL 30) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 20

NL 31 05/B23

NL 32 06/B34α

NL 37 03/B1

NL 39 05/B52

NL 33 07/B63β

NL 34 07/B69β

NL 35 07/B80

NL 36 08/B89

NL 38 03/B13

NL 40 05/B54

Figure 20. Cups (NL 31–NL 36) and amphorae (NL 37–NL 40) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 21

NL 41 05/B56

NL 44 05/B58

NL 42 09/B93

NL 45 09/B94

NL 43 05/B57

NL 46 03/B4

Figure 21. Amphorae (NL 41–NL 46) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 22

NL 47 03/B5

NL 50 03/B10

NL 54 05/B13

NL 49 03/B9

NL 48 03/B7+B8

NL 51 04/B30

NL 55 05/B50

NL 53 09/178

NL 52 04/B32

NL 56 05/B51

NL 57 06/B40

NL 58 06/B41

Figure 22. Jugs (NL 47–NL 49, NL 51–NL 57) and juglet (NL 50, NL 58) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 23

NL 59 06/B42

NL 63 08/B88

NL 60 07/B60

NL 64 09/154

NL 67 06/B43

NL 70 07/B63γ

NL 61 07/B67

NL 65 04/B35

NL 68 06/B82β

NL 71 09/B91

NL 62 07/B78

NL 66 04/B31

NL 69 08/147

NL 72 05/B25

NL 73 05/B55

Figure 23. Jugs (NL 59–NL 61, NL 63–NL 67), a juglet (NL 62), jars (NL 68–NL 71), and tripods (NL 72, NL 73) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 24

NL 74 06/B34β

NL 77 08/125

NL 75 06/B48

NL 78 08/133

NL 76 07/B63δ

NL 79 09/200

NL 80 06/85

Figure 24. Large fragments from closed vessels (NL 74–NL 80) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:6. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 25

176 07/110

177 07/113

178 08/135

179 08/136

NL 81 06/B35

NL 84 06/B45

NL 87 07/B66

180 09/171

NL 82 06/B38

NL 85 06/B46

NL 88 07/B70

NL 83 06/B39

NL 86 06/B47

NL 89 07/B72

Figure 25. Single lead weight (176) and clay weights (177–180). Some weights not from the shipwreck (NL 81–NL 89). Scale 1:3. Drawing L. Bonga.

FIGURE 26

NL 90 07/B73

NL 92 07/B77

NL 95 07/B84

NL 98 09/B92

NL 91 07/B76

NL 93 07/B79

NL 96 08/B85

NL 99 09/B95

Figure 26. Clay weights (NL 90–NL 100) not from the shipwreck. Scale 1:3. Drawing L. Bonga.

NL 94 07/B83

NL 97 08/B86

NL 100 09/B96

FIGURE 27

PSS 1

PSS 4

PSS 3

PSS 5

PSS 6 PSS 9

PSS 2

PSS 7

Figure 27. Stone tools. Scale 1:3. Drawing H. Dierckx.

PSS 8

Plates

PLATE 1

Plate 1A. A Minoan sunken building offshore near Stalos, West Crete. Photo E. Hadjidaki.

Plate 1B. A Minoan wall offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Photo E. Evgenitakis.

Plate 1C. A Minoan building offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Photo E. Evgenitakis.

Plate 1D. Part of a Minoan wall offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Photo E. Evgenitakis.

Plate 1E. A Minoan wall more than 20 m in length, offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Photo E. Evgenitakis.

PLATE 2

Plate 2A. The ancient maritime settlement on Pseira Island, looking northwest. Photo N. Marder.

Plate 2B. The seafloor adjacent to Pseira Island, showing buildings and ceramics fallen from the land site. Photo M. Braunstein.

PLATE 3

Plate 3A. The submerged rock-cut quay, showing the holes used for tying ships. Photo N. Marder.

Plate 3B. View of the excavation in 2005, with Trench ΑΒΓΔ in the upper center. Photo V. Mentoyiannis.

PLATE 4

Plate 4A. View of the excavation grid at the end of 2005, showing the rocky sea bottom with sandy pockets. Photo V. Mentoyiannis.

Plate 4B. Excavation of vessel 168 (09/172) in 2009 using an airlift. Photo I. Glambedakis.

PLATE 5

2 03/23

1 03/22

3 04/24

12 03/12

8 05/50 6 06/71

29 04/23 13 03/15

31 05/30

14 04/26

31a 09/179

20 08/124

35 06/52

36 06/53

38 06/59

Plate 5. Hole-mouthed jars (1–3, 6, 8) and jugs (12–14, 20, 29, 31, 31a, 35, 36, 38). Scale 1:6. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 6

53 04/39

54 06/81

62 04/12

69 05/40

75 07/88

80 08/123

81 08/127

98 04/11

Plate 6. Amphorae (53, 54, 62, 69, 75, 80, 81) and a basin (98). Scale 1:6. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 7

102 08/151

103 09/181

105 05/22

110 05/41

115 07/90

116 08/148

123 07/101

119 07/116

127 08/132

173 05/46

120 05/1

121 07/122

128 06/54

124 07/120

167 09/168

174 05/04

126 07/93

168 09/172

175 05/17

Plate 7. Cups (102, 105, 110, 115, 116), brazier (103), tripod cooking tray and pots (119–121), other tripods (123, 124), jar (126), jugs (127, 128), closed vessels (167, 168), and later amphorae (173–175). Scale 1:6. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 8

NL 2 05/B53

NL 5 07/B61

NL 9 08/B87

NL 15 07/B62

NL 3 03/B6

NL 6 05/B26

NL 11 08/B90

NL 7 07/B75

NL 12 05/B28

NL 17 07/B65

NL 8 07/B81

NL 4 05/B59

NL 13 06/B36

NL 23 05/B24

NL 27 04/B33

NL 28 05/B11

NL 31 05/B23

NL 32 06/B34α

NL 33 07/B63β NL 37 03/B1

NL 39 05/B52

NL 40 05/B54

Plate 8. Pottery not from the shipwreck: jugs (NL 2, NL 3), a basin (NL 4), cups (NL 5–NL 9, NL 11–NL 13, NL 15, NL 17, NL 23, NL 27, NL 28, NL 31–NL 33), and amphorae (NL 37, NL 39, NL 40). Scale 1:6. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 9

NL 44 05/B58

NL 55 05/B50

NL 71 09/B91

NL 46 03/B4

NL 62 07/B78

NL 49 03/B9

NL 48 03/B7+B8

NL 63 08/B88

NL 73 05/B55

NL 65 04/B35

NL 66 04/B31

NL 80 06/85

Plate 9. Pottery not from the shipwreck: amphorae (NL 44, NL 46), jugs and juglets (NL 48, NL 49, NL 55, NL 62, NL 63, NL 65, NL 66), bridge-spouted jar (NL 71), a tripod (NL 73), and a Byzantine amphora (NL 80). Scale 1:6. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 10

Plate 10A. Fabric with granitic-dioritic fragments (sample PSA 11/11, 26), the variant for jars.

Plate 10B. Fabric with granitic-dioritic fragments (sample PSA 11/29, 119), the variant for cooking vessels.

Plate 10C. Fabric with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/16, 71).

Plate 10D. Fabric with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/32, 120), possibly from Palaikastro.

Plate 10E. Fabric with mica-schist (sample PSA 11/19, 103).

Plate 10F. Fabric with micritic limestone (sample PSA 11/01, 7).

PLATE 11

Plate 11A. Loner with dark siltstone (sample PSA 11/26, 44).

Plate 11B. Loner with weathered calcite (sample PSA 11/27, 43).

Plate 11C. Loner with sedimentary rock fragments (sample PSA 11/28, 95).

Plate 11D. Loner with serpentinite (sample PSA 11/02, 149).

PLATE 12

Plate 12A. Loner with argillaceous fragments (sample PSA 11/10, 30).

Plate 12B. Loner with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/15, 81).

Plate 12C. Loner with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/24, NL 80).

Plate 12D. Loner with micritic limestone (sample PSA 11/23, 175).

PLATE 13

176 07/110

177 07/113

178 08/135

179 08/136

180 09/171

NL 81 06/B35

NL 82 06/B38

NL 83 06/B39

NL 84 06/B45

NL 85 06/B46

NL 86 06/B47

NL 87 07/B66

NL 88 07/B70

NL 89 07/B72

Plate 13. Single lead weight (176) and clay weights (177–180). Some weights not from shipwreck (NL 81–NL 89). Scale 1:3. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 14

NL 91 07/B76

NL 92 07/B77

NL 90 07/B73

NL 93 07/B79

NL 94 07/B83

NL 96 08/B85

NL 97 08/B86

NL 99 09/B95

NL 95 07/B84

NL 98 09/B92

NL 100 09/B96

Plate 14. Ceramic weights not from shipwreck. Scale 1:3. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos.

PLATE 15

PSS 1

PSS 2

PSS 3

PSS 7

PSS 8

PSS 10

PSS 4

PSS 6

PSS 5

PSS 9

Plate 15. Stone tools (PSS 1–PSS 10). Scale 1:3, except for PSS 10 with scale 1:6. Photos C. Papanikolopoulos, except PSS 10, which was taken by N. Marder.