The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru: The impact of the Wari occupation of the Lucre Basin 9780860544807, 9781407346489

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The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru The impact of the Wari occupation of the Lucre Basin

Gordon F. McEwan

BAR International Series 3 72 1987

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S372,1987: 'The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco,Peru'. © Gordon F McEwan,1987. The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544807 paperback ISBN 9781407346489 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544807 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES

vi

INTRODUCTION TO THE B.A.R. EDITION

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

X

I. INTRODUCTION

1

Notes on the Valley of Cuzco Notes on Chronology ••...•••. II.

SITE SURVEY IN THE LUCRE BASIN The Archaeological Context ••.•••..•.••••.•••••••••.•• Condorqaqa Hacienda Tongobamba Chokepukio Pata Pata Pikillacta Olleriayoq Site "A" ••.•••. Site "B" Rumiqolqa •.•.•••••••••••••••..• Site "C" Qolqe Haycuchina Waska Waskan •.•.• Piriay Pampa Cantera Rumiqolqa Qharanqayniyoq Muyu Cancha Rayallacta Combayoq Salitriyoq Minas ,.,, pata Kanarakay Urpicancha Escalerayoq Tamboraqay Amarupata Mullimulliyoq Mama Qolla Unka Punku Tukuywayku Morro de Arica Muyurinapata Collpana Moqo Other Sites •••••.••••••••••. Road Systems •••••••.••••••••

Canal Systems......................................... Summary ......................................••....•.

iii

4 5 7

9 9 9 9 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 21 22 22

I II.

S URVEY A ND E XCAVATIONS A T P IKILLACTA

O bjectives S trategy P revious S tudies S ite D escription T he E xcavations T ype A S tructures AT ype B S tructure T ype C S tructures T ype E S tructures U nique S tructures I nvestigated F eatures D ating t he P ikillacta S ite R esults o f t he A rchitectural S urvey P rinciples o f D esign a nd S equence o f C onstruction C onstruction M aterials P rocess o f C onstruction W all F eatures S ummary a nd C onclusions T he O ccupation o f P ikillacta A rchitectural D ata T he F unction o f P ikillacta I V.

2 3 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 8 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 7 3 9 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 9 4 9 5 0 5 1

T HE M IDDLE H ORIZON I N T HE L UCRE B ASIN

5 7

P re-Wari D evelopments i n t he L ucre B asin T he W an i O ccupation a nd " Greater P ikillacta" C omponents o f " Greater P ikillacta" A dministrative C omponent T he C eremonial C omponents T he R esidential C omponents T he D efensive C omponents T he R oad S ystem A S pecial F unction C omponent S ummary

5 7 5 9 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 3 6 4 6 4 6 5

V .

P IKILLACTA A ND T HE W ARI E MPIRE P ikillacta a s aP rovincial C apital P ikillacta a s aM odel P rovincial W an i I nstallation V iracocha P ampa A zängaro J incamocco S ummary

V I.

6 6 6 8 7 1 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6

S UMMARY, C ONCLUSIONS, A ND S UGGESTIONS F OR F UTURE R ESEARCH

7 7

T he M iddle H orizon i n t he L ucre B asin a nd t he V alley o f C uzco S uggestions f or F uture R esearch

7 7 7 9

i v

T he L ate I ntermediate P eriod i n t he L ucre B asin a nd V alley o f C uzco T he I nca E mpire W an i I nfluences o n t he I nca A PPENDIX I .

R adiocarbon D ates

7 9 8 3 8 6 8 9

A PPENDIX I I. S elected A spects o f S kulls F ound b y t he P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject 1 982, b y D r. T homas W . B auer D ept. o f P athology, T he J ohns H opkins H ospital a nd B rian S . B auer, D ept. o f A nthropology, T he U niversity o f C hicago

9 0

A PPENDIX I II. M iddle H orizon a nd L ate I ntermediate P eriod C eramic S tyles o f t he L ucre B asin 9 6 B IBLIOGRAPHY

1 27

V

L IST O F F IGURES

1 -1 2 -1 2 -2 2 -3 2 -4 2 -5 2 -6 2 -7 2 -8 2 -9 2 -10 2 -11 2 -12 2 -13 2 -14 2 -15 2 -16 2 -17 2 -18 2 -19 3 -1 3 -2 3 -3 3 -4 3 -5 3 -6 3 -7 3 -8 3 -9 3 -10 3 -11 3 -12 3 -13 3 -14 3 -15 3 -16 3 -17 3 -18 3 -19 3 -20 3 -21 3 -22 3 -23 3 -24 3 -25 3 -26 3 -27

M ap o f P eru A erial P hotograph o f C hokepukio P lan o f 0 11eriayoq P lan o f S ite A A erial P hotograph o f S ite B a nd 0 11eriayoq P lan o f P ortada d e R umiqolqa V iew o f t he R umiqolqa W all S quier's p lan o f t he C ut S tones a t S ite C V iews o f t he g reat w all a t R ayallacta G roundplan o f t he g reat w all a t R ayallacta C hullpa a t R ayallacta T omb a bove t he S ite o f C ombayoq A ir P hoto o f t erraced d epression a t C ombayoq I nca b uildings a t S alitriyoq A ir P hoto o f Ki r araqay V iews o f E scalarayoq T wo v iews o f T amboraqay T amboraqay g roundplan S ketch p lan o f M orro d e A rica O utline o f P ikillacta s uperimposed o ver p lan o f I nca I nner C uzco A erial P hotograph o f P ikillacta P lan o f S tructure 3 4-2B a nd e xamples o f t he t urquoise f igurines f rom P ikillacta H arth-Terre 's g roundplan o f P ikillacta S anders ' p lan o f P ikillacta A rchitectural e lements a nd s tructural t ypes S tructural t ypes a nd v ariations D ivision o f P ikillacta b y s ectors E arthworks a nd r oad f ragments i n C anchon # 4 P lan o f A venue # 8 a nd N orth a pproach t o P ikillacta E xcavation U nit 3 1 i n s tructure 5 -1 E xcavation U nit 1 8 i n s tructure 1 4-2C P olychrome b owl f ound i n U nit 1 8 C E xcavation U nit 1 1 i n s tructure 6 -3 P rofiles o f E xcavtion U nit 1 B -C P olychrome b owl f ound i n E xcavtion U nit 1 B E xcavation U nits 1 4 & 1 5 i n s tructure 1 24-4C E xcavtion U nits 1 6 & 1 6 A -E i n s tructure 1 2-2A , a nd p rofiles o f U nit 1 6 B -D D ecorated p ortion o f o ffering v essel f ound i n U nit 1 6 M iniature b one s poon f ound i n U nit 1 6 B -D U nits 1 7 a nd 1 7A D etail o f U nit 1 7A a nd w all p rofiles E xcavation U nits 6 & 7 i n S ector # 4 E xcavation U nits 8 , 9 , a nd 9 A E xcavation U nits 2 8 a nd 2 9 i n S ector # 4 E xcavation u nits 2 6 a nd 2 7 i n S ector # 4 P lan s howing v arious e xcavations i n S ector # 4

v i

1 34 1 35 1 36 1 37 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 42 1 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 52 1 53 1 54 1 55 1 56 1 57 1 58 1 59 1 60 1 61 1 62 1 63 1 64 1 65 1 66 1 67 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 71 1 72 1 73 1 74 1 75 1 76 1 77 1 78 1 79

3 -28 3 -29 3 -30 3 -31 3 -32 3 -33 3 -34 3 -35 3 -36 3 -37 3 -38 3 -39 3 -40 3 -41 3 -42 3 -43 3 -44 3 -45 3 -46 3 -47 5 -1 5 -2 5 -3 5 -4 5 -5 5 -6 6 -1

E xcavation U nits 2 1-25 i n S ector # 4 1 80 E xcavation U nit 1 0 a nd d etail o f p laster f loor 1 81 W all p rofiles e xcavation U nit 1 0 1 82 T he s kulls i n U nit 1 0 1 83 W an i c eramic v essel d epicting a s kull w ith f rontal s uture 1 84 E xcavation U nit 3 0 i n s tructure 2 4-4D & a rtifacts ..185 E xcavation U nit 1 3 1 86 U nits 1 9 & 2 0 1 87 B one w eaving t ools 1 88 M etal t opo p ins f rom P ikillacta 1 89 O bsidian p oint f rom U nit 1 9 P ikillacta 1 90 D etail o f f loor o f e xcavation U nit 1 9 1 91 P rofiles o f e xcavation U nit 1 9 1 92 R im o f W an i s tyle v essel f ound i n U nit 1 6 & 1 9 1 93 M iddle H orizon E poch 1 B s herds f rom U nit 1 9 1 94 H ypothetical r econstruction o f s tructural T ypes B & C 1 95 S ketch o f W an i r ectangular e nclosures ( Type B ) s hown o n a P acheco o ffering u rn 1 96 H orizontal w all s ections o f d ifferent s ized s tones .183 W all f eatures 1 97 R osette a nd r econstruction o f p robable m ethod o f u pper f loor c onstruction 1 98 P lan o f c ircum-Cuzco r egion 1 99 W an i s ites n ear C erro W iracochan 2 00 L imit o f t he W an i E mpire 2 01 M cCown 's p lan o f V iracocha P ampa 2 02 A nders' p lan o f A zängaro 2 03 S chreiber's p lan o f J incamocco 2 04 W an i a nd I nca c anchas 2 05

M ap # 1

T he C uzco V alley

M ap # 2

T he L ucre B asin

M ap # 3

T he S ite o f C hokepukio

M ap # 4

T he G roundplan o f P ikillacta

M ap # 5

T he S ite o f R ayallacata

v ii

I ntroduction T o T he B . A . R . E dition

T his s tudy w as o riginally s ubmitted a s a d octoral d issertation t o t he d epartment o f A nthropology a t T he U niversity o f T exas a t A ustin i n 1 984. T he f ield w ork o n w hich i t i s b ased w as c arried o ut b etween 1 978 a nd 1 983. Ia m p ublishing t he t ext w ithout m odification , e xcept f or t he c orrection o f o ccasional g rammatical a nd t ypographic e rrors f ound i n t he o riginal.

G .F .Mc.

v iii

T his w ork i s d edicated t o N ancy J ean M cEwan w ithout w hom i t w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible

i x

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he f ieldwork o n w hich t his s tudy i s b ased w as m ade p ossible b y a F ulbright G rant f or D octoral D issertation R esearch A broad, a nd b y g rant # BNS-81127929 f rom t he N ational S cience F oundation. M y w ork i n P eru w as c arried o ut t hroughout 1 982 u nder C redencial N o. 0 67-81 D CIRBM i ssued b y t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura. I w ish t o e xpress m y a ppreciation t o D r. C arlos G uzman L adron d e G uevara, D irector d el C entro d e I nvestigacibn y R estauraciem d e B ienes M onumentales, f or h is k ind a ssistance i n t his e ndeavor. Iw ould l ike t o e xpress m y d eep a ppreciation t o D r. R ichard P . S chaedel, c hairman o f m y d octoral c ommittee, f or h is i ntellectual g uidance a nd s upport d uring m y y ears a s ag raduate s tudent. H e d irected m y i nterest t o t he W an i C ulture a nd t he p roblems o f t he m iddle H orizon, a nd p rovided t he o pportunities f or m y f irst f ield t rips t o P eru . H e a lso p rovided t he i nspiration f or t he p lanning m odels d iscussed i n t his w ork . Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank t he o ther m embers o f m y d octoral c ommittee: D r.s J ames N eely a nd E . M ott D avis o f t he D epartment o f A nthropology, D r. T erence G rieder o f t he D epartment o f A rt H istory, a nd D r. L arry P atrick f ormerly o f t he D epartment o f G eography , o f t he U niversity o f T exas. Ia m i ndebted t o a g reat m any p eople f or t he s uccess o f t he P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject a nd t he p roduction o f t his d issertation. T o s tart a t t he b eginning, I w ould l ike t o t hank D r. P aul D empsey w ho h ad t he c ourage o f h is c onvictions a nd s acrificed s o m uch f or h is s tudents. H e i nspired m e t o g o o n a fter o ur m aritime d isaster, a l ong t ime a go. Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank D r.s B ruce D ickson, V aughn B ryant, a nd H arry S hafer o f T exas A &M U niversity w ho g ot m e s tarted i n a rchaeology a nd p rovided m e w ith m y f irst f ield e xperiences. D r. R amiro M atos M . o f S an M arcos U niversity h as b een a c onstant s ource o f h elp a nd a dvice i n L ima . Ia lso w ant t o e xpress m y a ppreciation f or h is s erving o n m y d octoral e xamination c ommittee d uring h is t enure a s v isiting p rofessor a t t he U niversity o f T exas a t A ustin . Ia m a lso g rateful t o D r. L uis L umbreras w ho h as g enerously s hared w ith m e t he d ata f rom h is o wn i nvestigations a t P ikillacta. I n C uzco v ery s pecial t hanks g o t o D r. L uis B arreda M . o f t he U niversidad S an A ntonio A bad d el C uzco . I t c an t ruly b e s aid t hat t he P ikillacta p roject w ould n ever h ave s ucceeded w ithout h is e nthusiastic s upport. H e g enerously p rovided u s w ith l aboratory s pace i n t he I nstituto A rqueologico A ndino M acchu P ijchu a nd a g reat d eal o f l ogistical s upport a nd t ransportation i n t he f ield. H e c ame t o o ur r escue o n c ountless o ccasions w hen t he t ruck b roke d own o r s ome o ther c atastrophe o ver t ook u s, a nd w ith u nfailing g ood h umor a nd i ngenuity h e a lways m anaged t o s olve t he p roblem . Is hall b e f orever i ndebted t o h im f or h is g enerousity, h ospitality, a nd f riendship. T hanks a lso g o t o t he s taff o f t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura-Region C uzco f or t heir h elp a nd c ooperation. Ie specially w ant

t o t hank A ntrop. A lfredo V alencia Z ., D irector C IRBM-Region C uzco; A ntrop. I talo O berti, J efe d el D epartamento d e I nvestigaci U; A ntrop. M iguel C ornejo, A rqueologo C atalogador d el C IRBM-RC; a nd A ntrop. R u gn O rellana, D irector d el O ficiana d el C atastro. I n C uzco I a m a lso v ery g rateful t o D r. J orge F lores a nd h is g racious w ife f or t heir k indness a nd h ospitality d uring o ur s tay, a nd a lso t o D r. M anuel C havez B allon, o f t he U niversity o f S an A ntonio A bad, f or h elpful s upport o f t he p roject. O ur f ield c rew w as m ade u p o f d iverse n ationalities l ending a n i nternational f lavor t o t he p roject. M y t hanks t o m y P eruvian f ield a ssistants L izandro L antaron a nd J ulio M aza f or t heir e xcellent w ork. T hanks a lso t o S r. L eonidas W ilson a nd t he m en o f t he v illage o f H uacarpay w ho f ormed t he b ulk o f o ur l abor f orce. T he S wiss c ontingent c onsisted o f J ean-Pierre P rotzen, o f t he D ept. o f A rchitecture a t U .C. B erkeley, h is w ife E lsbeth a nd s on M aurice, a ll o f w hom a ssisted i n t he s urvey o f t he L ucre B asin. I a m v ery g rateful f or t heir a ssistance a nd f riendship d uring o ur s tay i n C uzco. I e specially w ant t o a cknowledge t he f ine w ork o f M aurice P rotzen d uring t he e xcavations a t R ayallacta a nd P ikillacta. H is e fforts c ontributed s ubstantially t o t he s uccess o f t he p roject. T he S wiss c ontingent w as r ounded o ut b y E lizabeth B lulle w hose h elp i n t he s urvey a nd e xcavations a t R ayallacta a nd P ikillacta w as m uch a ppreciated. J eff K ing o f t he U niversity o f T exas a lso s erved a s a f ield a ssistant a nd h is e fforts a re g ratefully a cknowledged. H e i s a g ood m an t o h ave a round w hen t he g oing g ets t ough a nd w as a t remendous a sset t o t he p roject. D on e R eents o f t he U niversity o f T exas, R ichard B udet o f A ustin, T exas a nd M ark H ewitt o f O xford U niversity a lso v olunteered l abor f or t he p roject a nd a re g ratefully a cknowledged h ere. I n C uzco F rank a nd B everly M eddens, M argot B eyersdorf, M argaret M acLean, G ary U rton, J ulia M eyerson, a nd M aarten v an d er G uchte a ll p rovided m oral a nd i ntellectual s upport f or t he P ikillacta P roject a nd I a m g rateful f or t heir f riendship. V ery s pecial t hanks g o t o o ur f riend a nd b ar t ender L eo L ittle, p roprietor o f V ic's A merican B ar i n C uzco. H e p rovided u s w ith a h ome a way f rom h ome a nd w as l argely r esponsible f or m aintaining o ur m orale. J ohn R owe, P ay L yon, A ndrea N orris, M artha A nders, a nd K athy S chrieber a ll r ead d rafts o f v arious c hapters o f m y m anuscript. I t hank t hem f or t heir m any h elpful c omments a nd o bservations. I a lso w ant t o t hank K athy a nd M artha f or a llowing m e t o r eproduce t he g round p lans o f t heir s ites. I a m e specially g rateful t o A ndrea N orris f or h er m oral s upport a nd d etailed e ditorial a dvice o n c hapter I II. T he m aps o f P ikillacta a nd t he L ucre B asin w ere d rawn b y N ib oT orres P oblete a nd t he s herd d rawings w ere d one b y E rnesto Q uispe S asari.

f or m oral, c arried a t

F inally, I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o m y p arents f inancial, a nd l ogistical s upport, a nd t o m y w ife N ancy w ho l east h alf o f t he b urden o f t he P ikillacta P roject a nd w ho

x i

i s, m ore t han a nyone, r esponsible f or i ts s uccess. N ancy f ound h erself a t v arious t imes c ast i nto t he r oles o f a rchaeologist, c rew c hief, p hotogrpher, s urveyor, d octor, n urse, d iplomat, g od-parent, l ab t echnician , m echanic, e xplorer, m ountain c limber, a nd c hief c ook a nd b ottle w asher, a ll o f w hich s he p erformed w ith c ourage, g race, a nd g ood h umor f or w hich I a dmire h er v ery m uch . Io ften r eflect t hat s itting i n a m ud h ut i n t he S outhern A ndes e ating f ried g uinea p ig a nd d rinking c hicha w ith t he n atives w as p robably n ot t he l ife s he e nvisioned w hen s he g raduated f rom n ursing s chool. I a m v ery g rateful f or h er s upport a nd c ompanionship . Il iterally c ould n ot h ave d one i t w ithout h er.

J uly 1 5,

1 984

x ii

C HAPTER I

I NTRODUCTION

T he f orm o f p rehistoric c omplex s ocieties i n t he P eruvian A ndes w as, t o a l arge e xtent, s haped b y a t l east t wo l arge i mperial s tates. O ne o f t hese w as t he h istorically k nown I nca E mpire, e ncountered b y t he S panish a t t he t ime o f E uropean c ontact, t hat c ontrolled t he m ajor p art o f t he t erritory o f A ndean S outh A merica . T he o ther o f t hese e mpires w as t he l ess w ell k nown W an i E mpire t hat e xpanded f rom i ts c apital n ear m odern A yacucho i n t he C entral P eruvian A ndes a nd a pparently e ncompassed m ost o f w hat i s n ow m odern P eru, s ome 6 00 t o 8 00 y ears b efore t he I ncas. M any o f t he p rocesses w hich l ed t o t he f ormation a nd e xpansion o f t hese e mpires , a nd t he i nstitutions i nvolved i n t heir m aintenance, a re a s y et l ittle u nderstood. T his t hesis a ims t o c ontribute t o t he u nderstanding o f t he n ature o f t he W an i s tate t hrough i nvestigation o f t he P ikillacta a rchaeological s ite, a l arge i ntrusive W an i c enter l ocated i n a c learly p rovincial c ontext. T his i nvestigation p rovides n ew d ata o n p rovincial W ani c eramics, a rchitecture, a nd c ommunity a nd s ettlement p atterns. T his i nvestigation a lso p rovided t he o pportunity t o t est o ne o f t he m ajor h ypotheses r egarding t he e conomic s tructure o f t he W an i s tate, a nd t he p rocesses w hich l ed t o i ts f ormation a nd e xpansion. T hrough d efining t he W an i i mpact o n t he I nca h eartland i n t he M iddle H orizon, t his s tudy a lso s ets t he s tage f or f uture r esearch i nto t he p ossible i nfluence o f t he W an i m odel o n t he f ormation o f t he I nca s tate . B y t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest i n 1 532, t he v ast m ajority o f t he t erritory w hich t oday c omprises t he m odern s tates o f E cuador, P eru , a nd B olivia , t ogether w ith p ortions o f n orthern C hile a nd n orthwestern A rgentina , h ad b een u nited i nto a s ingle e ntity k nown t o h istory a s t he I nca E mpire. T he S panish c onquerors w ere a stonished n ot o nly a t t he s ize o f t he E mpire b ut a lso b y i ts s ophisticated p olitical a nd e conomic s tructure a nd i ts m onumental p ublic w orks . S oon a fter t he c onquest h ad b een c onsolidated, i nquiries b egan i nto t he o rigins o f t he I nca s tate. B y m ost o f t he I ncas' o wn d ynastic a ccounts, t he s tate h ad b een i n e xistence f or o nly a bout e ighty y ears ( Rowe 1 946:205 ; S chaedel 1 978:115). T his s eems s imply t oo s hort a t ime f or t he I nca t o h ave n ot o nly c onquered t he v ast t erritory o f t heir e mpire b ut t o h ave a lso i ndependently i nvented a ll o f t he p olitical a nd e conomic i nstitutions n ecessary t o c ontrol i t. A s a rchaeological s tudies h ave p rovided m ore i nformation o ver t he y ears, i t h as b ecome i ncreasingly e vident t hat t he I ncas w ere t he e nd p roduct o f a v ery l ong s equence o f s ocial e volution a nd t hat t he o rigin o f t he s tate a nd t he c oncept o f e mpire l ay s omewhat f urther i n t he p ast. H ow a nd w hen t he f irst A ndean s tate c ame a bout h as l ong b een t he s ubject o f s cholarly d ebate. D rawing o n t he h istorical e xample o f t he I nca s tate, I sbell ( 1978) h as a rgued t hat e nergy a veraging i nstitutions, b oth s patial a nd t emporal, w hich s erved a s a m eans o f c oordinating p roduction a nd d istribution f rom t he w ide v ariety o f c ontrastive e co-niches p resent i n t he A ndes, s erved a s a

1

m eans o f o vercoming r egional p roduction f luctuations c aused b y e nvironmental p erturbations. T hrough t ime t hese i nstitutions b ecame i ncreasingly e laborate a nd e fficient c oncomitant w ith t he s table g rowth a nd t erritorial e xpansion o f t he b enefiting p opulation. U ltimately t his r esulted i n a h ighly c entralized a uthority e merging i nto a s tate l evel p olitical o rganization . T he s tate t hus e merging w ould c ontinue t o a ttempt t o i ncrease t he e fficiency o f i ts e nergy a veraging i nstitutions, b oth s patial a nd t emporal. T his p rocess w ould b e r eflected i n t he a rchaeological r ecord b y e vidence f or a t erritorial e xpansion , p resumably f or g reater e fficiency o f s patial a veraging t hrough a cquisition o f a g reater n umber o f c ontrastive e con iches, a nd b y t he a ppearance o f i ntrusive p ublic t emporal a veraging f acilities i n t he f orm o f s torage a nd r edistribution c enters. I n r ecent y ears r esearch e fforts h ave b een f ocussed o n t he M iddle H orizon t ime p eriod ( A.D . 5 40-900) a nd m ore s pecifically o n t he r emains o f t he W an i c ulture. T hese r emains s eem t o f it t his e nergy a veraging m odel o f s tate f ormation a nd t o s uggest t hat t he W ani r epresent t he m ost l ikely o riginators o f t he P re-Columbian s tate a nd t he f irst p an-Peruvian e mpire. W an i s tyle a rtifacts a re f ound t hroughout m uch o f w hat i s n ow m odern P eru. S everal l arge r uined a rchitectural c omplexes h ave b een i dentified w ith t he W an i c ulture t hat h ave b een p roposed a s s tate s torage a nd r edistribution c enters i n a l arge s cale e nergy a veraging s ystem . M ost p rominent o f t hese a re t he V iracocha P ampa s ite n ear H uamachuco i n t he N orth H ighlands, t he P ikillacta s ite n ear C uzco i n t he S outhern H ighlands , a nd t he s ite o f A zangaro, n ear t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho, t he p resumed c apital o f t he e mpire l ocated i n t he C entral H ighlands ( fig. 1 -1). M ax U hle ( 1903) w as t he f irst t o n ote t he s imilarity b etween t he T iahuanaco s tyle, f ound i n B olivia, a nd o ne o f t he s tyles t hat h e f ound i n h is e xcavations a t P achacamac o n t he C entral P eruvian C oast. T hese f inds s uggested t o h im t he p ossibility o f a T iahuanaco H orizon p re-dating t he I nca E mpire. T his T iahuanaco H orizon w as f urther c onfirmed b y t he c eramic s tudies d one b y K roeber a nd S trong ( 1924), a nd O 'Neal a nd K roeber ( 1930). B ennett ( 1946) s ummarized t he s tate o f t he a rt i n h is a rticle i n t he H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians. T he t heory t hat t here m ust b e a P eruvian H ighland c enter o f d iffusion f or t he s tyle i n a ddition t o t he s ite o f T iahuanaco i n B olivia w as p ut f orward b y T ello ( 1939) a nd b y L arco ( 1948), b oth o f w hom b elieved t hat t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho w as t he P eruvian c enter. A r econnaissance o f t he s ite o f W an i b y R owe, C ollier, a nd W illey ( 1950) a nd e xcavations t here b y B ennett ( 1953) l ed t o t he g eneral r ecognition t hat t he s ite o f W an i w as i ndeed t he P eruvian c enter o f d iffusion . I n t he 1 960 's M enzel ( 1964, 1 968) p roduced t he d efinitive s tudy o f W an i c eramics, i solating a nd s eriating s everal • m ajor s tyles. H er w ork s uggested t he h ypothesis t hat t he s pread o f W an i i nfluence r esulted f rom a n e xpansion o f t he W an i c ulture b ased o n m ilitary c onquest d irected b y a h ighly c entralized a uthority. M ore r ecently ( Menzel 1 977) s he h as d iscussed t he r ole t hat r eligious i deology m ay h ave p layed i n t he s tructure a nd h istory o f t he W ani s tate. T he W an i c eramic s equence h as b een f urther r efined b y e xcavations c onducted a t t he s ite o f W an i b y L umbreras ( 1959, 1 975), B enevides ( 1965, 1 976), a nd I sbell a nd h is s tudents K nobloch ( 1976) a nd C ook ( 1979). A dditional s tudies o f W an i c eramics o utside o f t he

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s ite o f W an i i tself h ave b een d one b y P aulsen ( 1968), R avines 1 977), T hatcher ( 1974, 1 977), M eddens ( personal c ommunications a nd o thers.

( 1968, 1 982),

M ost s tudies u ndertaken i n t he p ast f ew d ecades h ave b een c oncerned w ith d eveloping t he m acrocosmic m odel o f t he W an i e xpansion s uggested b y M enzel's c eramic s tudies. I n e xamining s ettlement p atterns o f t he M iddle H orizon i n v arious p arts o f P eru, s everal s cholars ( Lumbreras 1 974; R owe 1 963; S chaedel 1 966a; W illey 1 953) h ave n oted c hanges w hich s eem t o r eflect a r eorganization o f e conomic a nd s ocial a ctivities w ith a n e mphasis o n c entralized c ontrol a nd c hanneling o f r esources a s w ell a s o ther a spects o f a dministration t hat w ould s eem t o s uggest t he i mposition o f a n i mperial o rganization. I sbell a nd S chreiber ( 1978) h ave g one a s tep f urther a nd h ave a ttempted t o m ore t angibly d efine t he e xistence o f t he W an i s tate o n t he b asis o f a s ite s ize h ierarchy m odel. T his m odel a ssumes t hat t he h ierarchy o f d ecision m aking t hat d efines a s tate w ill b e r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord b y a c orresponding h ierarchy o f s ite s izes ( Wright a nd J ohnson 1 975). I t i s t hus p resumed t hat t he g reater t he d ecision m aking a uthority i nvested i n a s ite, t he g reater t he s ize o f t he s ite. I sbell a nd S chreiber c oncluded t hat t he d istribution o f W an i s ites t ends t o c onform t o t his m odel a nd t hus s upports t he c oncept o f a s tate l evel W an i p olitical o rganization. I sbell ( 1978) h ad f urther a rgued t he t heoretical n ecessity o f t he d evelopment o f c ertain s tate i nstitutions b y t he W an i w hich h e s ees r eflected i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. H e h as a ttributed t he r ise o f W an i e conomic a nd p olitical p ower t o t he e nergy a veraging i nstitutions m entioned e arlier, w hich h e s ees r eflected i n t he l arge i ntrusive a rchitectural c omplexes s uch a s P ikillacta a nd V iracocha P ampa w hich h e s uggests s erved a s s tate s torage f acilities. T hese s everal a pproaches t o d efining a m acro-cosmic m odel o f t he W an i e xpansion h ave r esulted i n t he g eneral a cceptance o f t he c oncept o f a W an i E mpire o rganized i n a f ashion s imilar t o t he I nca E mpire i n t erms o f i ts e conomic s tructure. T he e xact l imits o f i ts b oundaries a nd t he d egree o f i ntegration o f t he t erritories t hat i t c onquered r emain m atters o f d ispute. M oseley ( 1978:526-531) i mplies t hat t he e vidence f or a W an i E mpire i s w eak a nd a rgues t hat c ultural i nteraction a nd e cological p ressures a re b etter e xplanations f or c hanges o bserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecord t han c onquest e mpires. C onrad, d espite t he s tudies o f t he m any s cholars d etailed a bove, c ontinues t o i mply t hat t he c enter o f M iddle H orizon d iffusion w as o nly a t T iahuanaco i n B olivia ( Demarest a nd C onrad 1 983:386). M ore r ecently, a ttention h as b een g iven t o t he i nvestigation o f t he p henomenon o f t he W an i e xpansion o n t he m icrocosmic l evel. T he o bjective h as b een t o o bserve h ow w ell t he a ctual a rchaeological r emains i n t he p rovinces c an b e s een t o s upport t he m acrocosmic m odel o f t he W an i I mperial S tate a nd t o g ain i nsight i nto t he e conomic a nd p olitical i nstitutions i nvolved i n t he i mperial a dministration a nd t heir i mpact o n t he c onquered t erritories. A nders ( 1982) h as i nvestigated t he s ite o f A zangaro i n t he C entral H ighlands, a nd t he T opics ( 1983) h ave i nvestigated t he V iracocha P ampa s ite i n t he N orth H ighlands. S chreiber ( 1978, 1 983) h as i nvestigated t he s ite

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o f J incamocco, a nd a dministrative c enter H ighlands, a nd h as a lso s tudied t he i mpact o f t he r ural v alley i n w hich t he s ite i s l ocated.

i n t he

t he S outhwestern W an i e xpansion o n

S imilarly, t he s tudy d escribed i n t his t hesis e xamines t he s ite o f P ikillacta i n t he S outhern H ighlands a nd i ts i mpact o n t he L ucre B asin i n w hich i t i s l ocated, a s w ell a s i ts r elationship t o t he W an i I mperial s tructure. Ac atalogue o f s ites b ased o n t he s urveys o f t he L ucre B asin i n 1 979 a nd1982 i s p resented i n C hapter I I. T his c hapter a lso d iscusses o ther a rchaeological f eatures o f t he b asin a nd p rovides a d ata b ase f or t he l ater d iscussions o f t he c ontext o f t he P ikillacta s ite w ithin t he b asin. I n C hapter I II t he P ikillacta s ite i s d iscussed i n d etail. T he a rchitecture a nd p rinciples o f c onstruction a re d escribed a s w ell a s t he r esults o f t he t est e xcavations c onducted t hroughout v arious p arts o f t he s ite. C hapter I V c overs t he i mpact o f t he W an i o ccupation o n t he e ntire L ucre B asin a nd t he " Greater P ikillacta" s ettlement p attern i s d escribed i n d etail. I n C hapter V t he r ole o f P ikillacta i n t he W an i E mpire i s e xamined. T he m odel o f P ikillacta a s a W an i p rovincial c apital i s t hen c ompared t o o ther m ajor W an i s ites t hought t o h ave h ad a s imilar f unction. C hapter V I b rings t ogether a s ummary o f t he M iddle H orizon i n t he L ucre B asin a nd a d iscussion o f t he p otential f or f uture r esearch b ased o n t he g roundwork l aid i n t his s tudy o f P ikillacta. T he p robable c ourse o f e vents i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod i s d iscussed a nd d irections f or f uture s tudy a re s uggested. F inally a b rief c omparison o f t he I nca a nd W an i E mpires i s m ade a nd p otential a venues o f i nquiry i nto t he W an i i nfluence o n t he I nca s tate a re d iscussed.

N OTES O N T HE V ALLEY O F C UZCO

T he V alley o f C uzco ( see M ap # 1) i s o ne o f t he m ost h istorically i mportant v alleys i n P eru s ince i t w as t he h ome o f t he c apital o f t he I nca E mpire , t he P re-Columbian P eruvian s ociety a bout w hich t he g reatest a mount o f h istorical i nformation e xists. I t i s a r elatively s mall v alley a s h ighland v alleys g o, a pproximately 3 0 k m l ong, a nd t he v alley b ottom i s o nly 2 -3 k m w ide t hroughout i ts l ength . T he e levation r ises f rom 3 ,050 m eters a bove s ea l evel a t t he s outhern e nd t o 3 ,340 m eters a bove s ea l evel a t t he n orthern e nd*. ( *Note: d ata d erived f rom L amina V alle d e C uzco, P royecto P ER 3 9, I nstituto N acional d e C ultura , 1 974) T he v alley i s q uite f ertile a nd i s d rained b y t he R io H uatanay w hich r ises i n t he h eights a bove t he c ity o f C uzco a nd, f lowing t hrough t he v alley, j oins t he R io V icanota j ust o utside t he s outhern e nd. D espite i ts h igh a ltitude, t he p roximity o f t he v alley t o t he e quator m akes f or a m ild c limate w ith w arm d ays a nd c old n ights. T wo n arrows, t he A ngostura a nd t he O ropesa, c onstrict t he v alley o f C uzco i nto t hree b asins. T he b asins t hus f ormed a re t he C uzco B asin i n t he n orthern e nd o f t he v alley, t he O ropesa B asin i n t he c entral p art, a nd t he L ucre B asin a t t he s outhern e nd. T he C uzco

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B asin i s t he l argest o f t he t hree a nd c ontains t he c ity o f C uzco a nd t he t owns o f S an S ebastian a nd S an J eronimo. T he c entral b asin, t he O ropesa, c ontains t he t own o f O ropesa a nd t he v illages o f S aylla, H uasau, a nd Q uispicanchis. T he s outhern b asin, t he L ucre, c ontains t he v illages o f H uacarpay a nd L ucre. T he L ucre B asin, w ith w hich t his s tudy i s p rimarily c oncerned, w as a ffected b y a l ava f low s ometime b efore t he l ast g laciation, w hich b locked t he n ormal s outhern o utlet o f t he v alley w here t he R umiqolqa g ate i s n ow l ocated ( Gregory 1 916:96). T he r esult w as t hat t he R io H uatanay w as f orced t o t urn s harply t o t he n orth a nd f low t hrough t he p ass a t H uambutio. A s a c onsequence a g roup o f l akes a nd m arshes w ere f ormed o n t he B asin f loor, f ed b y t he R io L ucre w hich n o l onger h ad a c lear c hannel t o j oin t he R io H uatanay. D uring t he r ainy s eason t he H uatanay o ften o ver f lows i ts b anks a nd c ontributes t o t he l akes a nd m arshes. T his c aused s evere f looding i n 1 982 w ith m uch p roperty l oss i n t he v illage o f H uacarpay. B ecause o f t he p resence o f t he l akes a nd m arshes, t he a mount o f l and s uitable f or a griculture a nd o ccupation s ites i s r ather r estricted, f orming a r ing a round t he b asin b etween t he l akes a nd t he m argins o f t he r oughly c ircular b asin. I t a ppears t hat i n a ncient t imes e very s quare f oot o f s uitable l and w as u tilized f or h abitation, a griculture, o r p asture a t o ne t ime o r a nother. T he d iameter o f t his s mall b asin i s o nly a bout f our k ilometers, y et i t s upported a s urprisingly d ense p re-historic p opulation s uggesting t hat t he l akes m ade i t a v ery d esirable l ocation. T he v ariety o f e co-niches w ithin t he b asin w ould h ave p rovided a n a bundance o f r esources i ncluding f ish a nd w ater f owl f rom t he l akes, t otora r eeds f or r oofing, m atting, a nd b edding f rom t he m arshes, v arious c rops f rom t he n umerous a gricultural t erraces a nd h igher f ields w hich p robably i ncluded m aize a nd p otatoes, a nd p asturage f or c amelids o n t he n on-agricultural l ands. T he l arge q uantities o f c amelid b ones i n t he e xcavations s uggests t hat m eat w as a n i mportant c omponent o f t he d iet a t l east i n t he M iddle H orizon a nd l ater p eriods. T he p resent s ystem o f l and r eclamation w hich u ses a s ystem o f d ikes t o h old b ack t he l ake w aters h as s ignificantly i ncreased t he c ultivable a creage a nd m ay h ave h ad p re-historic a ntecedents. T here i s s ome e vidence t hat t he l ake l evels w ere l owered i n t he p ast. I t i s a lso i nteresting t o s peculate t hat p erhaps s ome a gricultural t echnique s imilar t o t he c hinampas i n M exico m ight h ave b een u sed h ere s ince t his l ake i s o ne o f t he f ew i n P eru t hat h as c onditions s uitable f or s uch t echniques.

N OTES O N C HRONOLOGY

T his w ork e mploys t he s tandard s ystem o f H orizons a nd I ntermediate P eriods d evised b y J ohn R owe ( 1960, 1 962, a nd 1 965) a nd c ommonly u sed i n t he a rchaeological l iterature o n P eru. R owe's ( 1965) s cheme b ased o n r adio-carbon d ates d erived p rimarily f rom m aterial e xcavated o n t he S outh C oast o f P eru i s a s f ollows:

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L ATE H ORIZON

b egins 1 476 A D

L ATE I NTERMEDIATE P ERIOD

b egins 9 00 A D

M IDDLE H ORIZON

b egins 5 40 A D

E ARLY I NTERMEDIATE P ERIOD

b egins 3 70-420 B C

E ARLY H ORIZON

b egins 1 300-1500 B C

I NITIAL P ERIOD

b egins 2 050-2120 B C

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C HAPTER I I

S ITE S URVEY I N T HE L UCRE B ASIN

I n o rder t o e stablish t he a rchaeological c ontext o f t he P ikillacta s ite, t he e ntire L ucre B asin w as s urveyed f or a rchaeological r emains. T his s urvey w as b egun d uring t he 1 979 f ield s eason a nd w as f inished d uring t he 1 982 f ield s eason. T he s urvey o f t he L ucre B asin r ecorded t hirty-two m ajor s ites, s ome o f w hich h ave b een p reviously r eported i n o ne f orm o r a nother i n a v ariety o f p ublications ( Dwyer 1 971; G ibaja-Oviedo 1 973; H arth-Terre 1 959; K endall 1 976; P ortugal 1 968; R owe 1 44, 1 956, 1 963; S anders 1 973). T he o bjective w as t o i nventory a nd c atalogue t he L ucre B asin's m ajor a rchaeological r esources s o t hat a d ata b ase f or d iachronic s tudies c ould b e e stablished. T he r esults o f t his s tudy f orm t he b asis f or m ap # 2. I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat t hese t hirty-two s ites t hat w ere r ecorded d o n ot n ecessarily r epresent a c omplete i nventory o f t he c ultural r esources o f t he b asin f or r easons t hat I w ill d iscuss b elow . N evertheless I b elieve t hat t he s urvey h as r ecorded a s c omplete a n i nventory a s i s p resently p ossible. S everal a reas o f t he b asin, s uch a s t hat b etween M uyurinapata a nd M ama Q olla, a nd a lmost t he e ntire s urface o f C erro C ombayoq, a re s o c overed w ith a rchaeological r emains a nd a rtifacts t hat d istinction b etween s ites o ften b ecomes p urely a rbitrary. A s D wyer ( 1971:70) h as o bserved w ith r espect t o C erro C ombayoq " it i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat l ocal n ames s ubdivide t his c ontinuous z one i nto s ections w hich s eem t o h ave a rchaeological s ignificance." T he s ites r ecorded i n t he L ucre B asin s urvey a re o ften b ased o n t hese l ocal n ames a nd t he b oundaries s hown a re a pproximations e xcept i n c ases s uch a s P ikillacta a nd 0 11eriayoq w here t he b oundaries a re w ell d efined b y a rchitectural f eatures. A nother r eason t hat t he s ite c ount s hould n ot b e t aken a s a bsolute i s t hat t he r ate o f n atural e rosion o n t he m ountain s lopes s urrounding t he b asin i s t remendous. I n P ikillacta, f or e xample, e xcavations s howed t hat m any p arts o f t he s ite a re c overed b y a s terile c ap o f e arth a s m uch a s t wo m eters d eep a nd w hich a ppears t o b e t he d irect r esult o f e rosion p rocesses o n C erro H uchuy B alcon. G iven t his, i t i s e ntirely p ossible t hat i n s ome a reas o f t he b asin t here a re s ites c ompletely b uried w hich w ill n ot s how u p i n s urface s urvey. I t i s m y b elief h owever, t hat a ll o f t he m ajor s ites i n t he b asin d ating f rom t he M iddle H orizon o r l ater, t he t ime p eriod w ith w hich t his s tudy i s p rimarily c oncerned, w ere i n f act l ocated. A ny s ites t hat w ere m issed a re m ost l ikely e ither r elatively s mall a nd/or p ertaining t o a p eriod e arlier t han t he M iddle H orizon w hich w ould a ccount f or t heir b eing c ompletely o bscured.

7

T he d iagnostics u sed f or i dentifying t he s ites a nd t heir f eatures b y c ulture a nd p eriod w ere c eramic a nd a rchitectural r emains. A c eramic t ypology f or t he B asin w as b ased o n t he w ork o f B arreda ( 1982 a nd p ersonal c ommunication 1 982), D wyer ( 1971), L yon ( personal c ommunication 1 982 a nd 1 984), R owe ( 1944 a nd p ersonal c ommunication 1 984), a nd o n t he r esults o f o ur o wn e xcavations. T he c eramics a re i llustrated i n A ppendix I II. T he d iagnostics o f I nca a rchitecture w ere d erived f rom t he w ork o f G asparini a nd M argolies ( 1980), R owe ( 1944), a nd o ur o wn o bservations . S uch f eatures a s g round p lans, s tonework , a nd t he p resence o f t rapezoidal n iches w ere p rimary i ndicators. S imilarly, W an i a rchitecture,which i s w ell k nown f rom t he w ork o f A nders ( 1982 a nd p ersonal c ommunication 1 984), B rewster-Wray ( 1983), S chreiber ( 1978) S pickard ( 1983) t he T opics ( 1983), a nd o ur o wn o bservations a t P ikillacta , w as d iagnosed o n t he b asis o f g round p lans, s tonework, a nd w all f eatures. F or t he i ntervening L ate I ntermediate P eriod n o f ormal d iagnostics h ave y et b een e stablished m aking c ertain d iagnoses m ore d ifficult. I n o ur p ioneering e ffort, a rchitecture b elonging t o t his p eriod w as d iagnosed b y a v ariety o f m eans. I n t he c ase o f C hokepukio, f or e xample, t he a rchitectural r emains a re o bviously t ransitional b etween W an i a nd I nca s ince t hey c ontain e lements o f b oth s tyles. R adiocarbon d ates a lso c onfirm t heir c hronological p osition i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod ( see A ppendix I I). I n o ther c ases, s uch a s t he R ayallacta s tructures a nd t hose i n t he R umiqolqa q uarries, t he b uildings w ere d iagnosed o n t he b asis o f L ater I ntermediate c eramic a ssociations a nd s tructural f eatures w hich t ended t oward t he I nca s tyle b ut w hich c ould n ot b e c onsidered t o b e t ruly I nca . I t h ad b een m y o riginal i ntention t o r ecord e ach s ite b y p eriod o r c ultural a ffiliation, b ut s ince 9 0% o f t he s ites t urned o ut t o h ave m ore t han o ne c ultural c omponent, t his p roved t o b e i mpossible. S urface c ollections p roved n ot t o b e o f m uch u se i n c lassifying e ntire s ites b y c ulture. A t b est, o nly i ndividual s tructures a nd f eatures c ould b e s o c lassified. A lmost a ll a reas o f t he b asin h ave a t l east a t hin s catter o f I nca s herds w hich a re p resent d ue t o a v ariety o f a gencies a nd d o n ot n ecessarily r epresent a n I nca o ccupation o n a g iven s pot. A f amiliarity w ith t he t ourist c ircuit o f t he b asin m akes i t p ossible t o d iscern a r emarkable c orrelation b etween c oncentrations o f f ancy I nca p olychrome s herds a nd b us s tops o n t he t ourist r oute. T he a verage t ourist s eems t o p ick u p m any m ore o f t he b rightly c olored s herds t han h e c an c omfortably c arry a nd a fter l ugging t hem a bout f or w hile w ill t hen a bandon t hem o n t he n ext s top o f t he t our. I t i s p recisely b y t his m ethod t hat c oncentrations o f I nca p olychrome s herds h ave m igrated f rom C hokepukio t o S ector # 3 o f P ikillacta. O n a lmost a ll o f t he s ites i n t he b asin , I nca s herds a re t he m ost c ommon t ype s imply b ecause t hey a re t he m ost r ecent a nd t hus t he c losest t o t he s urface. O ur e xcavations s uggest t hat a t b est, s urface c ollections p rovide a v ery b iased i ndication o f a s ite's c ulture h istory a nd m ust b e u sed c onservatively. S herd c ollections c an c onfirm t he p resence o f a c ultural g roup, b ut t he a bsence o f a p articular s tyle i n t he s urface c ollection o f a g iven s ite i s n ot n ecessarily s ignificant. E ach o f t he s ites s urveyed w as r ecorded b y i ts n ame a s g iven b y a l ocal i nformant. S ince Q uechua i s e ssentially a n u nwritten

8

l anguage, t he s pelling o f m any w ords t ends t o b e f ree-form a nd c an v ary r adically c ausing m uch c onfusion. W herever p ossible I h ave a ttempted t o r ecord a s m any o f t he s pelling v ariations i n u se i n t he l iterature a s p ossible, a s w ell a s o ther n ames b y w hich t he s ite i s k nown. T he o fficial m aps o f t he b asin p ublished b y v arious a gencies o f t he P eruvian g overnment a lso s uffer f rom a c onfusion o f n ames. I n m any c ases t he s ame n ame w ill b e a pplied t o d ifferent f eatures o n e ach m ap. S ince I c ould f ind n o t wo s ources i n a greement o n t he t oponyms i n t he b asin I f inally r esolved t o u se t he n ames p resently i n u se b y t he p eople o f t he v illage o f H uacarpay o n t he t heory t hat m ost v isitors a sking d irections i n t he b asin w ill m ost l ikely s top i n H uacarpay t o d o s o.

T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL C ONTEXT P roceeding t hrough t he d irection t he s ites a re a s f ollows:

b asin

i n

a g eneral

c lock-wise

C ONDORQAQA T his s ite i s l ocated i n t he O ropesa n arrows o n t he s outh f ace o f C erro C ondor M ogo. T here i s a s heer c liff o f r ock h ere i nto w hich n umerous t ombs h ave b een b uilt b y s ealing n atural c racks i n t he c liff f ace w ith s mall s tone a nd m ud w alls. A ll o f t hese t ombs a ppear t o h ave b een l ooted a nd t heir c ultural a ffiliations a re d ifficult t o d etermine. T hey a ppear t o b e v ery s imilar t o I nca t ombs a t P isaq.

H ACIENDA T ONGOBAMBA T his s ite i s l ocated j ust t o t he w est o f a nd a djacent t o C hokepukio . T he h acienda, w hich d ates f rom t he c olonial p eriod ( mentioned i n d ocuments f rom 1 689, V illanueva 1 982:157), w as b uilt p artially o n t op o f a n I nca s tructure. I n o ne o f t he c ourtyards t wo l arge I nca s tyle s tone w alls h ave b een i ncorporated i nto t he m odern s tructure. I nca s tyle s urface c eramics a re a bundant i n a nd a round t he h acienda.

C HOKEPUKIO

1 982:157), C hoqepugio 1 973).

S pelled C huque P uquio i n e arly d ocuments ( Villanueva m odern v ariations i nclude C hoqepukyo ( Dwyer 1 971:40), a nd C hogepugyo ( Portugal 1 968), C hoqepujyo ( Gibaja O viedo

A v ery l arge s ite c overing a pproximately o ne s quare k ilometer. I t i s l ocated o n a l ow h ill o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he C uzco-Puno h ighway b etween t he H acienda T ongobamba a nd t he v illage o f

9

H uacarpay. S urface s herds a re v ery a bundant a nd a re p rimarily I nca o r L ate I ntermediate P eriod s tyles a lthough o ccasional s herds o f M iddle H orizon a nd e arlier s tyles a re s ometimes e ncountered. E xcavations s uggest t hat t his s ite h ad b een o ccupied f rom t he E arly H orizon o nward a lthough w hether t he o ccupation w as c ontinuous i s u ncertain. T he a rchitectural r emains a t t his s ite a re s econd o nly t o P ikillacta i n t erms o f m assive s cale b ut a re n ot a s e xtensive. T here a ppear t o h ave b een a t l east t wo d istinct b uilding p hases i n t he r emains o f t he s tanding a rchitecture; a L ate I ntermediate P hase a nd L ate H orizon P hase. T he L ate I ntermediate P eriod P hase i s c haracterized b y v ery l arge s tructures w ith v ery h igh w alls ( 10-12 m eters) w hich a re i n s ome r espects s imilar a nd m ay h ave b een i nspired b y t he l arge e nclosures a t P ikillacta. S everal o f t he b etter p reserved w alls c ontain n iches , a m ud s tucco c overing, a nd e xhibit s ectional c onstruction. A lso p robably a ssociated w ith t his c onstruction p hase a re a n umber o f c hullpas o r b urial t owers o f w hich t here a re t hree t ypes o n o r n ear t he s ite: r ectangular, c ircular, a nd U s haped. T he L ate H orizon c onstruction P hase i s c haracterized b y a n umber o f s maller b uildings c onstructed i n t ypical I nca s tyle w ith t rapezoidal n iches a nd d oorways. T he L ate H orizon o ccupation s eems t o h ave h ad a s lightly d ifferent f ocus i n t he t opography a nd t he s tructures a re c oncentrated m ore t o t he n orthern s ide o f t he s ite. A pparently t he l arge e arlier s tructures w ere n ot r eused b y t he I ncas. ( Fig. 2 -1 a nd M ap # 3)

P ATA P ATA A lso k nown a s K unay P 'ujro P atapatayoq ( Portugal 1 968). T his s ite i s l ocated j ust t o t he n orth o f a nd a djacent t o C hokepukio. I t c onsists o f a n e xtensive s eries o f l arge t erraces w hich t end t o c onform t o t he n atural c ontours o f a l arge q uebrada o n t he e astern f lank o f C erro C ondor M ogo. T here i s a g roup o f U s haped c hullpas o r b urial t owers l ocated n ear t he c enter o f t he l ower t erraces. T here a re a lso c hullpas o f b oth c ircular a nd r ectangular g round p lans l ocated a round t he r im o f t he q uebrada. S urface c eramics a re f airly c ommon a nd c onsist o f b oth L ate H orizon a nd L ate I ntermediate P eriod s tyles. G iven t he a pparently l ong h istory o f o ccupation a t C hoquepukio i t i s p robable t hat t hese t erraces w ere b uilt e arly o n , p ossibly i n M iddle H orizon t imes , a nd r eused c ontinuously. T hey d o n ot c onform t o t he I nca s tyle a s e xemplified b y t he s ites o f E scaleriyoq a nd A maru P ata, a nd t his I b elieve a rgues i n f avor o f t heir g reater a ntiquity. ( Map # 3)

1 0

P IKILLACTA V ariations o f t he s pelling i nclude: P ikillajta ( HarthT erre 1 959), P ikillaqta ( Gibaja O viedo 1 973:IV; L umbreras 1 973), P iqillaqta ( Portugal 1 968), P iquillacta ( Kendall 1 976:96), P ikillakta ( Sanders 1 973). A v ery l arge s ite c overing a pproximately t wo s quare k ilometers. P ikillacta i s l ocated o n a s eries o f l ow r idges o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he L ucre B asin b etween t he t own o f H uacarpay a nd t he R umiqoqa G ate a nd o n t he n orth s ide o f t he C uzco-Puno h ighway. T he s ite c onsists o f a g roup o f v ery l arge e nclosures l aid o ut i n a g rid p lan. T he c entral e nclosure o f t he g roup i s s ubdivided i nto h undreds o f s maller e nclosures m any o f w hich a re w ell p reserved w ith w alls s till s tanding t o h eights o f t en o r t welve m eters. O verall, t he s ite i s r emarkable f or i ts a pparent l ack o f e asy a ccess. T here i s a n otable s carcity o f d oors a nd w indows i n t he w alls a nd v ery f ew s treets p enetrating t he m ain a rchitectural b lock. S urface c eramics a re a lso v ery r are b eing m ostly c onfined t o S ector # 3 a nd t he s outhwest e nd o f S ector # 4. T he s urface s herds i nclude M iddle H orizon s tyles a nd s ome L ate I ntermediate a nd L ate H orizon s tyles. E xcavations a nd a rchitectural s tudies i ndicate t hat P ikillacta w as b uilt b y t he W an i c ulture d uring t he M iddle H orizon. A t l east o ne s mall s tructure m ay h ave b een r eused b y t he I nca i n L ate H orizon t imes f or c eremonial p urposes. ( Fig. 3 -2 a nd M ap # 4)

O LLERIAYOC V ariations o f t he s pelling a nd n ame i nclude: 0 11eriayoc P iquillacta ( Kendall 1 976:111) a nd 0 11irirayoq ( Portugal 1 968). A r elatively s mall c omplex o f s tone b uildings c overing a n a rea o f a pproximately 5 0 b y 9 0 m eters. T his a rchitectural c omplex s its o n a r idge w ithin o ne t he l arge r ectangular e nclosures o r c anchones o n t he s outheast s ide o f P ikillacta. T he s tructures a re i n t he I nca s tyle a nd h ave c ircular a nd s emi-rectangular g round p lans. T here a re t wo t ypes o f s emi-rectangular s tructures: s maller o nes w ith i nternal s ub-divisions, a nd l arger o nes w ithout i nternal s ubd ivisions. T he l arger t ype h ave t rapezoidal n iches i n t he w alls w hile t his f eature i s l acking i n t he s maller s tructures. T he s maller s tructures, b oth c ircular a nd s emi-rectangular, h ave f lights o f s tone s teps o r l adders b onded i nto t heir o utside w alls. A ccess i s p rovided b y v ery s mall d oorways w ith v ery l ow l intels w hich a re u sually f ound i n t he w all o pposite t he s tairway. K endall ( 1976:95) h as s uggested t hat t hese s tructures a re e arly I nca s torehouses o r g olgas. I nca s tyle p otsherds a re a bundant o n t he s urface. ( Figs.

1 1

2 -2 a nd 2 -4)

S ITE A T his i s a t emporary s ite P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject i n 1 982.

d esignation

u sed

b y

t he

T his s ite i s l ocated i n o ne o f t he l arge e nclosures o r c anchones o n t he s outheast s ide o f P ikillacta a nd a bove 0 11eriayoq. T he s ite c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 5 0 b y 7 0 m eters a nd c onsists o f a s eries o f d epressions i n t he e arth w hich m ay r epresent h ouse f oundations. T he m ajority o f t hese a re r ectangular a lthough o ne o r t wo a re t riangular i s s hape. A f ew p lain p ot s herds a nd w orked b asalt f lakes w ere e ncountered o n t he s urface b ut t hese w ere n ot s ufficient t o s uggest a c ultural a ffiliation f or t he s ite. ( Fig.

2 -3)

S ITE B T his i s a t emporary s ite P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject i n 1 982.

d esignation

u sed

b y

t he

T his s ite i s l ocated j ust b elow P ikillacta a nd l ies b etween P ikillacta a nd t he M odern C uzco-Puno h ighway. A ll o f t he s tructures h ave b een d estroyed a nd t he f oundations b adly d isturbed b y l ooting a nd a gricultural a ctivity s o t hat t he g round p lan i s o bscured. T he a real e xtent o f t his s ite i s a bout 1 00 s quare m eters a nd i t s hows u p c learly o n t he a ir p hoto o f P ikillacta . I nca s herds a re v ery a bundant o n t he s urface s uggesting t hat t his w as a n I nca p eriod s ite. ( Fig.

2 -4)

R UMIQOLQA V ariations: R umicolca ( Kendall 1 976:105), ( Kaufmann D oig 1 980 :691), R umiqolca ( Portugal 1 968).

R umiqollca

T his s ite c onsists o f a n e normous w all a l ittle o ver 1 60 m eters i n l ength , e ight m eter t hick, a nd a lmost n ine m eters h igh. T his w all c ompletely c loses o ff t he p ass b etween C erro C ombayoq a nd C erro H atun B alcon t hrough w hich t he C uzco-Puno h ighway r uns. T wo g ates p ierce t he w all p ermitting p assage o f t he I nca h ighway w hile t he m odern H ighway r uns a round t he n ortheast e nd o f t he w all. W ith t he e xception o f t he f acing o n t he g ates, t he c onstruction t echnique i s t he s ame a s t hat u sed a t P ikillacta a nd c onsists o f b roken f ield s tones l aid i n m ud m ortar. T he g reat w all i s a ctually c omposed o f s everal w alls b uilt p arallel a nd l eaning u pon e ach o ther i n o rder t o a chieve t he d esired t hickness. T he c onstruction o f t he t wo g ates p robably d ates t o I nca t imes a s t he e arlier h ighway c oming o ut o f P ikillacta p asses a round t he e nd o f t he w all b y r ising u p t he f lank o f C erro C ombayoq. T he t wo g ates a re f aced b y I nca s tyle s tone w ork w hich s erves t o s hore u p t he c uts m ade t hrough t he w all.

1 2

C ieza d e L eon ( 1959:261-262) c omments t hat t he n atives t old h im t hat t here h ad b een a a queduct a long t he t op o f t he w all a nd l ocal l egends r eported b y P ardo ( 1937:199) s uggest t hat t his a queduct s erved t o s upply P ikillacta w ith w ater. I ts c onstruction w as s upposedly t he r esult o f a c ontest b etween t wo I ncas f or t he h and o f t he l ocal r uler's d aughter. T he f irst t o d evise a m ethod o f b ringing w ater t o P ikillacta w as t o b e j udged t he w inner. W hile t his s tory s eems t o s uggest t hat R umiqolqa w as b uilt i n I nca t imes a nd t hat P ikillacta w as t hen i n u se, t he a rchaeological e vidence a rgues a gainst t his. I nvestigations a t P ikillacta i ndicate t hat i t w as a bandoned l ong b efore t he t ime o f t he I ncas. D uring t he 1 979 a nd 1 982 f ield w ork t he c anals o n C erro C ombayoq w hich a pproach R umiqolqa w ere t raced a nd n one o f t hem p rovide a d irect l ink t o t he w all. W hile i t i s n ot i mpossible t hat t here m ay h ave b een s ome s ort o f a n a queduct, i t c ould n ot h ave b rought w ater t o P ikillacta w hich l ies a t a h igher e levation t han t he n orthern t erminus o f t he w all. I f i ndeed w ater e ver f lowed a cross t he R umiqolqa w all, i t p robably s erved t o i rrigate t he f ields t hat l ie t o t he s outheast o f t he w all. T he s outhern e nd o f t he w all p resently h as a w ater c hannel b uilt i nto t he t op b ut t his i s t he r esult o f m odern r econstruction. S quier's ( 1877:421) g round p lan o f t he w all a lso s hows t wo d oors o r w indows o n t op o f t he n orth e nd o f t he w all t hat w ere e liminated i n t he r econstruction . T he o riginal p lan w as p robably m uch m ore s imilar t o t he g reat w all a t C ombayoq b elow R ayallacta o n t he s ide o f C erro C ombayoq, t hat t he p resent c onfiguration s uggests. ( Figs.

2 -6 a nd 2 -7)

S ITE C T his i s a t emporary s ite P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject i n 1 982.

d esignation

u sed

b y

t he

T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he n orth f lank o f C erro C ombayoq j ust t o t he s outh o f t he R umiqolqa w all a nd t he P re-Columbian r oad t hat r ises a bove i t. T he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een a n I nca q uarry s ite a nd t here a re s everal s tones c ut i n t he I nca s tyle s cattered a bout. T he m ost u nusual o f t hese i s a c ylindrical c ut s tone w ith a h ollow c ut i nto o ne e nd. ( fig.

2 -8)

Q OLQE H AYCUCHINA T his s ite i s l ocated a pproximately 1 .5 k m t o t he s outh o f P ikillacta o n t he s outheastern f lank o f C erro C ombayoq a nd o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he C uzco-Puno h ighway. I ts a real e xtent i s a pproximately 5 00 b y 6 00 m eters a lthough i ts e xact l imits a re d ifficult t o g auge . L ooting a nd a gricultural a ctivities h ave b adly d isturbed a nd a lmost c ompletely o bscured t he a rchitectural r emains. A ll t hat i s l eft a re o ccasional h ouse f oundations, a s ection o f a

1 3

w alled P re-Columbian h ighway c rossing t he s ite, a nd a n umber o f a gricultural t erraces o n t he s ide o f C erro C ombayoq. S urface c eramics a re a bundant a nd i nclude M iddle H orizon, L ate I ntermediate P eriod, a nd L ate H orizon S tyles.

W ASKA W ASKAN A v ariation o f t he s pelling i s H uascahuascan ( Protzen 1 983:3). T his s ite i s l ocated a djacent t o t he e ast s ide o f Q olqe H aycuchina a nd i s s eparated f rom i t b y t he C uzco-Puno h ighway. T he s ite c onsists o f a n o ccupation z one v ery s imilar t o Q olqe H aycuchina a nd f or a ll p ractical p urposes i s a n e xtension o f t hat s ite s ince t he d ivision o f t he t wo b y t he h ighway i s p robably a rbitrary. T he a real e xtent i s a pproximately 5 00 b y 5 00 m eters a nd t he s urface i s b adly d isturbed b y a gricultural a nd m ining a ctivities. P ot s herds a re n ot a s a bundant o n t he s urface a s a t Q olqe H aycuchina b ut M iddle H orizon, L ate I ntermediate P eriod, a nd L ate H orizon s tyles a re r epresented.

P INAY P AMPA A lso c alled P inay P ampa R aqchi ( Portugal 1 968). T his s ite i s l ocated j ust a bove t he m odern t own o f T ejas o n t he e ast s ide o f t he C uzco-Puno h ighway. I t c onsists o f s everal l arge s tone b uildings a nd e nclosures w ith I nca s tyle n iches. S urface s herds a re r are a nd o nly a f ew I nca s tyle s herds w ere f ound.

C ANTERA R UMIQOLQA A lso s pelled R umiqollqa ( Protzen 1 983). A l arge s tone q uarry l ocated a t t he s outhern t ip o f C erro H atun B alcon a nd a pproximately o ne k ilometer t o t he n ortheast o f t he m odern t own o f T ejas. T he q uarries c ontain n umerous r uined s tructures a nd a bandoned b locks i n v arious s tages o f b eing w orked. T he s ite w as e xtensively s tudied a nd m apped b y J ean P ierre P rotzen w ho s uggests t hat i n a ddition t o p roviding s tone f or m uch o f t he c onstruction i n a ncient a nd m odern C uzco, t he q uarry a lso p robably p rovided s tone f or t he c onstruction o f P ikillacta ( Protzen 1 983 :3). P ot s herds a re q uite c ommon o n t he s urface a nd L ate I ntermediate P eriod a nd L ate H orizon s tyles h ave b een o bserved.

1 4

Q HARANQAYNIYOQ T his s ite c onsist o f a n umber o f s tone b uildings o f v arious s izes w hich l ie o n a r idge j ust t o t he w est o f t he R umiqolqa q uarry. D ue t o t he e xtremely h eavy o vergrowth w e w ere u nable t o d etermine t he e xact n umber o f s tructures o r t he t otal a real e xtent o f t he s ite, b ut d id e ncounter a t l east e ight b uildings. T he l argest s tructure i s a v ery i mpressive r ectangular b uilding a pproximately 4 0 m eters l ong w hich h as a f airly t ypical I nca s tyle g round p lan. I t d iffers f rom I nca s tyle b uildings, h owever, i n o ther r espects. I t h as l arge r ectangular n iches a nd w indows a nd a lso r ectangular d oorways w ith d ouble l intels . L ate I ntermediate P eriod s tyle s herds a re c ommon o n t he s urface a nd t here a re a lso I nca s tyle s herds.

M UYU C ANCHA A lso s pelled M uyu K ancha ( Portugal 1 968). T his s ite i s l ocated j ust t o t he s outh o f t he R umiqolqa q uarry o n t he e dge o f t he R io V ilcanota f lood p lain . I t c onsists o f a l arge m an m ade d epression, p erfectly c ircular, w ith a d iameter o f a pproximately 5 0 m eters. T he c ircle i s c onstructed o f c ut s tone b locks a nd i s p erhaps a m eter d eep. I t i s i n s ome w ays r eminiscent o f t he c ircular d epressions a t M oray, n orth o f C uzco. T he a ge, f unction, a nd c ultural a ffiliation o f t his s ite r emain o bscure.

R AYALLACTA A lso s pelled R aya L laqta ( Portugal 1 968). T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he n atural t erraces o f t he s outhern f lank o f C erro C ombayoq, o verlooking t he H acienda R ayallacta. I t c onsists o f a v ery l arge o ccupation z one w hich c ontains a l arge n umber o f s tone b uildings s cattered o ver a n a rea o f a pproximately 3 00 b y 5 00 m eters. T he n umerous s tone b uildings a re b uilt i n a v ariety o f s tyles a nd i nclude a t l east 3 5 s tone c hullpas o r b urial t owers. T he s tanding a rchitecture a ppears t o r epresent o ccupations d ating f rom M iddle H orizon , L ate I ntermediate P eriod, a nd L ate H orizon t imes. I n b etween t he g roups o f s tanding a rchitecture a re n umerous r uined f oundations t oo o bscured b y r ubble a nd o vergrowth t o b e a ccurately m apped. A ll o f t he e vidence s uggests a v ery h eavy P re-Columbian o ccupation o f t his s ite. T he m ost i mpressive r uin i s t hat o f t he g reat w all s eparating R ayallacta f rom t he s ite o f C ombayoq. T his w all, 9 8 m eters l ong a nd 4 m eters w ide, i s a pparently t he c ompanion t o t he R umiqolqa w all l ocated o n t he o ther s ide o f C erro C ombayoq. T ogether t hey c ontrol t he t wo s outhern p asses w hich p rovide a ccess t o t he L ucre B asin. T he g round p lan a nd m ethod o f c onstruction o f t he R ayallacta w all a re v ery s imilar t o t hat o f R umiqolqa a lthough t he t he R ayallacta w all p resently c ontains s ome f eatures n ot f ound i n t he R umiqolqa w all.

1 5

T hese i nclude t wo s mall w indows n ear t he t op o f t he w all a nd w hat a ppears t o b e t he l intel o f a s mall d oorway n ear t he n orthern e nd o f t he w all. S quier's ( 1869:421) g round p lan o f t he R umiqolqa w all i ndicates t hat i t o riginally c ontained t wo s mall w indows a s w ell. T here i s a t rash m idden a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he w all w hich c ontains a l ot o f I nca p ot s herds. A ccess t o t he R ayallacta s ite i s p rovided b y a P reC olumbian r oad w hich c onnects i t w ith n eighboring Q olqe H aycuchina t o t he w est a nd p asses t hrough t he g reat w all t o c onnect t he s ite w ith t he C ombayoq s ite a nd o ther s ites o n C erro C ombayoq w hich l ie t o t he w est . P ot s herds a re e xtremely a bundant o n t he s urface o f R ayallacta. M iddle H orizon , L ate I ntermediate P eriod, a nd I nca s tyles a re a ll r epresented i n s urface c ollections a s w ell a s o ccasional p ost c onquest s herds. E xcavations i n o ne o f t he s tructures i ndicated t hat R ayallacta w as o ccupied f rom t he M iddle H orizon t hrough t he L ate H orizon a t l east. ( Figs.

2 -9,

2 -10 a nd 2 -11)

C OMBAYOQ T his s ite l ies o n t he w estern s ide o f t he g reat w all a t R ayallacta a nd c onsists o f a s mall n atural b asin f ormed b etween t he s outhern s lope o f C erro C ombayoq a nd t he n orthern e xtension o f C erro C uzco J ahuarina. T his b asin h as b een e xtensively t erraced o n a ll s ides a nd g ives t he i mpression o f a n a mphitheater i n t erms o f a coustics a nd v isibility. I t h as b een a rgued e lsewhere t hat i t m ay h ave s erved a c eremonial f unction ( McEwan 1 979). I n t he b ottom o f t he b asin a t t he b ase o f t he s lope o n t he C erro C ombayoq s ide t here i s av ery l arge r etaining w all m ore t han t wo m eters h igh a nd 1 00 m eters l ong. T he s lope a bove t his w all i s l ittered w ith s mall s tone c onstructions a nd t erraces w hich a re t oo s mall t o h ave s erved a s a gricultural t erraces a nd p robably r epresent s ome a ttempts a t e rosion c ontrol i n o rder t o s tabilize a n umber o f m assive b oulders w hich a re p recariously p erched o n t he h ill s lope. N ear t he t op o f t he s lope a re m assive s tone o utcrops i n w hich s everal t ombs h ave b een m ade . T hese t ombs a re f ormed b y w alling u p a n atural c revice o r h ollow i n t he r ock. A ccess i s p rovided b y r ectangular d oorways a nd t he i nteriors a re l ined w ith w hite p laster. T he b asin i s s erved b y t he r oad w hich p asses t hrough t he w all a t R ayallacta a nd r uns a cross t he u pper s lope o n t he C erro C uzco J ahuarina s ide o f t he b asin. T his r oad l eaves t he b asin o f C ombayoq a t i ts w estern e xtremity w here t here i s l ocated a s mall r ectangular e nclosure. A t t his p oint t he r oad d ivides i nto t wo b ranches, o ne o f w hich r uns s outhwest a nd i nto t he L ucre q uebrada , w hile t he o ther b ranch c ontinues o n t o t he n ortheast a nd c urving a round C erro C ombayoq e ventually u nites w ith t he C uzco-Puno h ighway i n f ront o f P ikillacta.

1 6

P ot s herds a re r elatively r are i n t he C ombayoq s ite; h owever, t he s urface c ollection d id t urn u p a f ew W an , L ate I ntermediate P eriod, a nd I nca s tyle s herds o n t he t erraces o n t he e astern s ide o f t he b asin a nd b elow t he R ayallacta w all. O n o ne o f t he u pper t erraces n ear t he w all a l ooted b urial w as e ncountered b ut i t w as n ot p ossible t o d etermine t he c ultural a ffiliation. ( figs.

2 -12 a nd 2 -13)

S ALITRIYOQ T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he s outh s ide o f t he w estern e xtension o f C erro C ombayoq a nd a pproximately h alf a k ilometer w est o f t he s ite o f C ombayoq. T he s ite c onsists o f f ive w ell p reserved I nca s tyle b uildings g rouped b elow a r ock o utcrop o n t op o f w hich t here i s a r ectangular c hullpa o r b urial t ower. T wo o f t he I nca s tyle b uildings a pparently h ad g abled r oofs a nd a re v ery s imilar t o s ome o f t he s tructures a t M acchu P icchu. I nca s tyle p ot s herds a re a bundant o n t he s urface. ( fig.

2 -14)

M INASPATA A lso k nown a s M inas M oqo ( Gibaja O viedo R aq'chi ( Dwyer 1 971:70 ; R owe 1 963:14).

1 973:

p lan 2 )

o r

T his s ite c onsists o f a v ery l arge o ccupation z one c overing t he w estern e xtension o f C erro C ombayoq w hich j uts o ut i nto t he m arsh s urrounding t he l agoons o f H uacarpay a nd L ucre. T he s urface i s l ittered w ith p ot s herds, w all f ragments, a nd f oundations, b ut t here i s l ittle o r n o s tanding a rchitecture. D wyer ( 1971:41) w ho e xcavated h ere i n 1 969 r eports t hat t he s urface c eramics i nclude a ll o f t he k nown C uzco s tyles. H is e xcavations r evealed t hat t his s ite a pparently w as o ccupied " from t he t ime o f t he e arliest p ottery i n t he v alley o f C uzco, t he M arcavalle s tyle, t hrough t he I nca p eriod." T he r oad m entioned e arlier c oming o ut o f t he s ites o f R ayallacta a nd C ombayog, c rosses t he s ite a nd c onnects i t w ith t he a djacent s ites o f K anarakay a nd U rpi C ancha a nd t he C uzco-Puno h ighway. O n t he e ast s ide o f t he r oad n ear t he n orth e dge o f t he s ite a re l ocated t wo r ectangular c hullpas o r b urial t owers.

K ANARAKAY A lso k nown a s M orada d e H uascar ( IGM P eru J 631 1 973), a lso s pelled K anaraqay ( Kaufmann D oig 1 980 :690), C anaraccay ( Kendall 1 976:104), C anarqay ( Gibaja O viedo 1 973:plan 2 ), Q anaraqay ( Portugal 1 968).

1 7

T his s ite l ies o n t he n orthern e dge o f t he M inaspata s ite o n t he s hores o f t he m arsh s urrounding t he l agoons o f H uacarpay a nd L ucre . I t c onsists o f t wo g roups o f f airly l arge I nca s tyle b uildings a rranged i n r ows. T he w estern g roup, w hich i s t he l arger, i s v ery w ell p reserved w hile t he b uildings i n t he e astern g roup a re a lmost a ll d estroyed t o t he f oundations. I nca s tyle p ot s herds a re a bundant o n t he s urface . ( Fig.

2 -15)

U RPIKANCHA A lso s pelled U rpicancha ( Dwyer 1 971:70). T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he n orthwestern f lank o f C erro C ombayoq j ust t o t he n orth o f K anarakay a nd M inaspata a long t he r oad t hat r uns a round C erro C ombayoq. T he s ite c onsists o f a g roup o f e nclosures, t wo o f w hich a re s emi-circular, a n i mpressive s et o f I nca s tyle a gricultural t erraces, a nd a f ew I nca s tyle b uildings. I nca p ot s herds a re c ommon o n t he s urface a round t he e nclosures.

E SCALARAYOQ T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he n orthwestern f lank o f C erro C ombayoq b etween U rpikancha a nd T amboraqay. I t c onsists o f a v ery l arge s et o f w ell p reserved I nca s tyle a gricultural t erraces. ( Fig.

2 -16)

T AMBORAQAY T his s ite i s l ocated o n a s mall p romontory j ust b elow t he p oint w here t he c ircum-Cerro C ombayoq r oad j oins t he C uzco-Puno h ighway. I t w as p erhaps a c ontrol p oint o r g uard s tation r egulating t raffic b etween t he h ighway a nd t he s ites a round t he e astern m argins o f t he l agoon o f H uacarpay. T he s ite c onsists o f a s ingle w ell p reserved I nca s tyle b uilding a pproximately 4 .5 b y 1 0 m eters i n s ize. T he b uilding h as t rapezoidal n iches a nd t hree w indows w hich f ace t he r oad t o t he e ast. T o t he w est t here i s a s emi-rectangular p latform a pproximately t wice a s l ong a s t he b uilding. T here a re a f ew I nca s tyle s herds o n t he s urface. ( Figs.

1 8

2 -17 a nd 2 -18)

A MARUPATA T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he s outheast s ide o f t he L ucre B asin, o n t he l ower s lopes o f C erro C uzco J ahuarina. I t c onsists o f a n e normous s et o f a gricultural t erraces l aid o ut i n z ig-zag p attern. T he t erraces a re s erved b y a c anal w hich b rought w ater f rom t he L ucre r iver. T he r oad r unning s outh f rom t he s ite o f C ombayoq p asses t hrough t he n orthern e dge o f t he s ite, t here a re n o p ot s herds o n t he s urface, b ut t he s tyle o f t he t errace r etaining w alls s uggests t hat t his i s a n I nca s ite.

M ULLIMULLIYOQ T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he e astern s ide o f t he m outh o f t he L ucre q uebrada , a nd t o t he w est o f A marupata a nd a bove t he m odern t own o f L ucre. I t c onsists o f a c oncentration o f s urface s herds i n I nca a nd L ate I ntermediate P eriod s tyles w hich c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 5 0 b y 1 00 m eters.

M AMA Q OLLA T his s ite i s l ocated o n a s mall h ill o n t he n orth s ide o f t he m odern t own o f L ucre. I ts s urface i s l ittered w ith p ot s herds o f m any d ifferent p eriods. O ur s urface c ollections c ontained s herds i n t he C hanapata, W an , Q otakalli, L ucre, K 'illke, a nd I nca s tyles. T here a re a lso t he f oundations o f a t l east t wo c hullpas o r b urial t owers n ear t he t op o f t he h ill a nd o ccasional w all f ragments a re e ncountered o n t he s lopes. I t i s b elieved b y t he m odern i nhabitants o f t he b asin t o h ave b een a s acred p lace o r h uaca i n P re-Columbian t imes, a nd t oday s erves a s o ne o f t he t hree A pus f or t he t own o f L ucre.

U NKA P UNKU T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he L ucre B asin j ust w est o f M ama Q olla. I t c onsists o f a n umber o f s tone e nclosures d ivided i nto t wo g roups b y a s treet. T he s tyle o f c onstruction i s r eminiscent o f t he e nclosures a t P ikillacta a nd t hese s tructures m ay h ave o riginally b een c onstructed d uring t he M iddle H orizon a nd r eused t hroughout l ater t imes. P ot s herds a re c ommon o n t he s urface a nd M iddle H orizon a nd L ate I ntermediate P eriod s tyles a re p resent a lthough I nca s tyles p redominate.

T UKUYWAYKU

j ust

t o

t he

T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he B asin w est o f U nka P unku a long t he r oad r unning b etween t he

1 9

t owns o f L ucre a nd H uacarpay. T he s ite c onsists o f a l arge a nd d eep t rash m idden w hich h as b een e xposed b y r oad c uts m ade i n r ecent t imes. T he e xposed p ortion i s a t l east 1 00 m eters l ong b ut t he t otal e xtent o f t he s ite i s u nknown. T he p ot s herds o n t he s urface a re m ostly I nca w ith a f ew L ate I ntermediate P eriod s pecimens.

M ORRO D E A RICA T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he B asin j ust t o t he w est o f T ukuywayku a long t he r oad c onnecting t he v illages o f L ucre a nd H uacarpay. I t l ies o n a l ow r idge p rojecting i nto t he B asin a nd c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 1 00 b y 2 00 m eters. N ear t he h ighest p oint o f t he r idge t here a re t he r emains o f a s ingle c ircular c hullpa o r b urial t ower. T he o nly o ther a rchitectural r emains a re t wo w all f ragments a t t he t ip o f t he r idge n ear t he r oad, w hich h ave b een e xposed b y e rosion . T he s urface i s l ittered w ith I nca a nd L ucre s tyle s herds. O ne o r t wo W an i s herds w ere a lso e ncountered. ( Fig.

2 -19)

M UYURINAPATA T his s ite i s l ocated o n a l ow r idge j ust i nside t he w est e ntrance t o t he b asin a nd o pposite o f t he s ite o f C hokepukio. I t a ppears t o h ave b een a M iddle H orizon o ccupation z one a s W an i p ot s herds a re c ommon o n t he s urface. T here a re a lso a f ew I nca s herds a nd o ccasional m odern s herds. N o a rchitecture o r f oundations a re v isible. T he s herds a re s cattered o ver a n a rea o f a pproximately 1 50 b y 2 00 m eters.

C OLLPANA M OQO T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he e ast s ide o f, a nd a pproximately m idway a long, t he c auseway w hich c rosses t he m arsh b etween t he v illages o f L ucre a nd H uacarpay. T here i s ah igh s pot i n t he m arsh h ere o n w hich a re l ocated I nca s tyle c ut s tones a nd I nca p ot s herds. T here w as a n I nca s tructure h ere a t o ne t ime b ut t he f oundations a re o bscured.

O THER S ITES

T here a re t wo m odern s ettlements i n t he L ucre v illages o f H uacarpay a nd L ucre, l ocated o n t he n orth a nd o f t he b asin r espectively. B oth h ave b een i n e xistence l ong t ime a nd a re m entioned i n c olonial d ocuments o f 1 689

2 0

B asin , t he s outh s ides f or a v ery ( Villanueva

1 982:152). L ucre i s a lso m entioned i n t he T asa d e l a V isita G eneral d e F rancisco d e T oledo w hich t ook p lace b etween 1 570 a nd 1 575 ( Cook 1 975:127). I t i s p ossible t hat a rchaeological s ites u nderlie b oth v illages b ut I b elieve t hat i t i s m ore p robable i n t he c ase o f L ucre.

I n L ucre i t i s p ossible t o o bserve o ccasional r euse o f I nca c ut s tones , a nd p ot s herds o ccur i n s ome s treets a nd a dobe w alls. G iven t he p roximity o f t he s ites o f M ama Q olla , U nka P unku, a nd M ullimulliyoq i t i s p ossible t hat a ll o f t hese, i ncluding L ucre, a re p art o f o ne v ery l arge o ccupation z one.

I n t he c ase o f H uacarpay, a P re-Columbian o ccupation s eems l ess l ikely. T his i s p rimarily b ecause H uacarpay i s s ubject t o s evere f looding i n w et y ears w hen b oth t he r iver a nd t he l ake r ise. T he o nly P re-Columbian s ite n ot b uilt a bove t he f lood p lain i s C ollpana M ogo. I t s eems t hat t he P re-Columbian i nhabitants o f t he B asin w ere v ery c onscious o f t he l imits o f t he f lood p lain, m aking H uacarpay a n u nlikely s ite.

R OAD S YSTEMS

A ll o f t he s ites i n t he L ucre B asin s eem t o b e s ystematically c onnected b y a r oad n etwork. T his n etwork c onsists o f a t riple l oop f ed b y h ighways a pproaching r oughly f rom e ach o f t he c ardinal d irections, a nd i s i n f unction s imilar t o m odern b eltways f ound a round N orth A merican c ities. T he c entral l oop c onnects t he s ites a round t he c ircumference o f t he i nterior o f t he b asin. T here a re t wo r aised c auseways i nvolved i n t his l oop w hich c ross t he m arsh f rom C hokepukio t o M uyurinapata a nd f rom C hokepukio g oing t owards P ikillacta p roper. S ince t hese c auseways d irectly c onnect m ajor W ani s ites i t s eems l ikely t hat t hey w ere o riginally b uilt b y t he W an . T here a re a lso t wo s maller l oops i n t his s ystem w hich a re l ocated o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral l oop. O ne o f t hese r uns a round C erro C ondor M oqo o n t he n orthwest s ide o f t he b asin. T he o ther l oop r uns a round C erro C ombayoq o n t he s outheast s ide o f t he b asin c onnecting s everal s ites j ust o utside t he b asin w ith t hose w ithin. T he C uzco-Puno h ighway c rosses t he b asin o n t he e ast-west a xis. T o t he s outh a h ighway c omes u p t he L ucre q uebrada. T o t he n orth a h ighway c omes i nto t he b asin f ollowing t he R io H uatanay t hrough t he p ass a t H uambutio, c onnecting t he b asin w ith t he U rubamba v alley. M any p arts o f t hese r oads a re w alled a nd i n s ome s teep a reas s teps h ave b een p rovided. C ertain s ections o f t he s ystem a ppear t o h ave b een r erouted o r a bandoned a t v arious t imes i n t he p ast. O ne s uch s ection i s t he w alled r oad w hich r ises a bove t he R umiqolqa g ate

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a nd t urns s outh t o Q olqe H aycuchina a nd R ayallacta. T his s ection a ppears t o h ave b een a bandoned w hen t he I ncas p ierced t he R umiqolqa w all a nd d rove t heir r oad s outheast a long t he e asier r oute o f t he v alley b ottom .

C ANAL S YSTEMS

T hree m ajor c anals r ise f rom t he R io L ucre. T wo o f t hese f low t o t he n ortheast a nd o ne t o t he n orthwest. T he s horter o f t he n ortheastern c anals s erves t he t erraces a t A marupata a nd s tops t here. T he l onger n ortheastern c anal r uns o n a round C erro C ombayoq t hrough S alitriyoq, M inaspata , t he t erraces a t U rpicancha a nd E scalarayoq, a nd p ossibly r an o n t o R umiqolqa w here i t m ay h ave p rovided t he w ater f or t he a queduct t hat C ieza d e L eon h eard a bout. T hese c anals a re w ell m ade , s tone l ined, a nd h ave a r ectangular c ross s ection. T heir r egularity a nd u niformity s uggests t hat t hey a re t he p roducts o f s tate s ponsored p ublic w orks p rograms. T he c anal r unning t o t he n orthwest c rosses b ehind M ama Q olla a nd r uns t hrough t he s ites o f U nka P unku, T ukuywayku, M orro d e A rica, a nd M uyurina p ata w here i t d isappears. T here a re f ragments f urther t o t he w est w hich s uggest t hat i t o riginally h ad a g reater l ength . O ther s hort c anals h ave b een o bserved i n C hokepukio a nd P ikillacta b ut t hese a re a rchitectural f eatures, p robably f or d rainage r ather t han w ater t ransport.

S UMMARY

I n t his c hapter t he a rchaeological c ontext o f t he L ucre B asin h as b een d iscussed. T hirty t wo s ites h ave b een d escribed, a s w ell a s t he r oad a nd c anal s ystems w ithin t he b asin. I n t he f ollowing c hapter o ne o f t he s ites, P ikillacta , w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail. T hen i n C hapter I V t he v arious s ites j ust d iscussed w ill p rovide t he b asis f or a d iscussion o f t he W an i i mpact o n t he b asin a nd t he f ormulation o f t he " Greater P ikillacta" s ite. T he " Greater P ikillacta" s ite m odel a nd i ts d istribution w ithin t he L ucre B asin p rovides t he c ontext f or u nderstanding t he r ole o f P ikillacta d uring t he M iddle H orizon W an i o ccupation .

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C HAPTER I II S URVEY A ND E XCAVATIONS A T P IKILLACTA

T he p re-eminent a rchaeological s ite i n t he L ucre B asin i s u nquestionably t he e normous r uin o f P ikillacta. T he n ame m eans " fleat own" i n Q uechua a nd p robably d ates f rom I nca t imes, t he o riginal n ame i s u nknown. L ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he B asin, t he s ite l ies o n a s eries o f l ow r idges t hat f orm t he w estern f lank o f C erro H uchuy B alcon ( see m ap # 2). T he m ost s tartling c haracteristics o f P ikillacta a re i ts s ize a nd f ormat. I n s ize , t he a rea c overed b y t he m ain a rchitectural b lock a nd t he a ttached g reat e nclosures c ompares f avorably w ith I nca i nner C uzco ( fig. 3 -1). T he s ite c ompletely d warfs m odern s ettlements i n t he a rea s uch a s L ucre, H uacarpay, a nd C aicay, a nd i s l arger e ven t han t he m odern c enter o f O ropesa ( see m ap # 2). E ven t he s izes o f t he i ndividual s tructures a re o n a g rand s cale, w ith s ome o f t hem m easuring f orty o r f ifty m eters o n a s ide. S ome o f t heir r uined w alls s till s tand t o h eights o f t welve m eters ! T he f ormat o f t he s ite i s n o l ess i mpressive: t he g rid p lan o f t he s ite f orms a n early p erfect r ectangle. V iewed f rom t he a ir ( see f ig. 3 -2) t he p recision o f t he i mposed g rid i s a stonishing, y et i t i s e ven m ore i mpressive w hen v iewed o n t he g round. F rom t he a ir, t he p recision a nd s ymmetry o f t he a rchitecture t ends t o f ool t he e ye i nto a ssuming t hat t he s ite l ies o n l evel t errain. F irst t ime v isitors a re o ften s urprised b y t he u ndulating t errain a nd t he s teepness o f t he s lope o f C erro H uchuy B alcon. I n f act, t he t op o f S ector # 1 o f P ikillacta i s n early 8 0 m eters h igher i n e levation t han S ector # 3. B eyond i ts o verwhelming s ize a nd s tartling l ayout, t he s ite o f P ikillacta h as n umerous o ther p eculiarities t hat h ave s timulated m uch c omment a nd s peculation o ver t he y ears. D espite i ts s ize a nd a pparent p rehistoric i mportance, t here a re f ew i f a ny o bvious i ndications t hat a nyone e ver l ived t here. A side f rom a rchitectural r emains, t here a re a lmost n o s urface a rtifacts. P ot s herds i n p articular a re c onspicuous b y t heir n ear t otal a bsence. T hose f ew s herds t hat c an b e f ound o n t he s urface t end t o b e c oncentrated i n t he l owest p art o f t he s ite, S ector # 3. M ost o f t hese a re e ither n ondescript p lain w are o r I nca p olychrome s herds b rought i n b y t ourists o r l ocal c hildren w ho p ick t hem u p a t t he n earby I nca s ites o f C hokepukio, 0 11eriayoq, a nd S ite B . A f ew s herds m ay a lso h ave b een c ontributed b y p eople o ccasionally t ransiting t he s ite i n I nca t imes. T his s ituation w ith r egard t o s herds s tands i n m arked c ontrast t o n early a ll o f t he o ther s ites i n t he B asin a nd f or t hat m atter, m ost c eramic p eriod s ites i n P eru. U sually o n a s ite o f t his n ature o ne w ould e ncounter t housands o f p ot s herds. W ithout t he e vidence o f s urface c eramics t o a ssist i n a ssigning c ultural p rovenience, t he s ite's a ssociation w ith t he W an i c ulture w as n ot r ecognized f or m any y ears a nd w as n ot g enerally a ccepted u ntil

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t he l ate 1 950 's a nd e arly 1 960's a fter R owe 's ( 1956:149) s uggestion t hat i t w as a W an i s ite b ecause o f i ts a rchitectural s imilarities w ith t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho, a nd S anders' ( 1973) e xcavations i n w hich h e f ound W an i s tyle c eramics. E ven w ith t he r ecognition o f i ts c ultural p rovenience, t he d ating o f P ikillacta's c onstruction r emained o nly s omewhere w ithin t he M iddle H orizon, a t ime s pan i ncluding s everal h undred y ears. T he a ctual d ate o f c onstruction r emained a lmost a s o bscure a s t he q uestion o f w hether o r n ot i t h ad b een o ccupied. A f urther c omplication t o t he o ccupation q uestion w as t he p roblem o f d etermining h ow t he o ccupants g ot a round w ithin t he c omplex , a nd h ow a nd f or w hat p urpose i t w as u sed. T here a re m ore t han 7 00 i ndividual s tructures w ithin t he m ain a rchitectural b lock y et v ery f ew c orridors p enetrate t his d ense m ass o f b uildings a nd t hese w ould p rovide a ccess t o o nly a s mall p ercentage o f t he s tructures. T o c omplicate t he m atter, t here a re v ery f ew d oorways o r w indows i n a ny o f t he w alls w hich w ould p ermit a ccess. T he m ajority o f t he d oorways e ncountered i n m apping t he s ite w ere i n t he i nterior o f s tructures o r e nclosures. O nly t wo d oorways w ere f ound i n t he m ain a rchitectural b lock w hich w ould p ermit e ntrance o r e xit f rom a n e nclosure o r a llow p assage b etween a djacent s tructures. O f t hese t wo, o ne w as s ealed i n a ntiquity w ith s tone s et i n m ud m ortar, a nd t he o ther w as l ocated i n a w all f ragment t hree m eters a bove t he s urface. T his a pparent a bsence o f d oorways i n t he h igh w alls o f P ikillacta h as l ed t o s peculations s uch a s t he t heories t hat i t s erved a s a n i nsane a sylum o r p rison, w ith t he a bsence o f e ntryways n ecessary f or t he c onfinement o f t he i nmates ( these a re r eported i n S anders 1 973:403). Y et a nother m ystery c oncerning P ikillacta w as i ts w ater s upply. I f i t h ad f unctioned a s a c ity, a v ery l arge a mount o f w ater w ould h ave b een r equired f or t he d aily n eeds o f t he p eople l iving t here. T his p roblem s eems t o h ave m ystified e ven t he I ncas w ho, a s P ardo r eports ( 1937:199), m ade u p a l egend a bout a c ontest t o b ring w ater t o P ikillacta, w ith a b eautiful m aiden a s t he p rize. T he r esults o f t his c ontest w ere s upposedly t he c onstruction o f a c anal a nd t he R umiqolqa a queduct t hat, i t i s s aid, b rought w ater f rom t he R io L ucre a cross t he B asin. T he p roblem w ith t his s tory i s t hat t he R umiqolqa w all, o n t op o f w hich t he a queduct w as s upposedly b uilt, l ies a t a l ower e levation t han P ikillacta , a nd i n o rder f or w ater t o r each P ikillacta i t w ould h ave t o f low u phill. T he p art o f t he s ite t hat h as e licited t he m ost i nterest a nd s peculation c onsists o f 5 01 s mall c onjoined s tructures l ocated o n t he n orthwest s ide. T hese r elatively s mall, u niform s tructures a re l aid i n o rderly r ows w ith a lleys r unning b etween e ach r ow . S een f rom t he a ir, t hey r esemble a g iant h oneycomb. I n a s m uch a s t he I nca w ere k nown t o b uild r ows o f s mall s torage b uildings c alled " qolqa" i t h as b een s peculated t hat t hese n umerous s mall s tructures a lso m ust b e s torage s ilos ( Harth-Terre 1 959). S ince s tate s torage a nd r edistribution s ystems s eem t o h ave b een a t l east a t heoretical r equirement o f I mperial a dministration i n P re-Columbian P eru, t he n otion o f P ikillacta a s a s tate s torage c enter h as b ecome e ver m ore d eeply e mbedded i n t he l iterature, d espite t he l ack o f a n

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a rchaeological t est f or t his f unction o r f or t he f unction o f t he s ite i n g eneral.

O BJECTIVES P rior t o t he 1 982 f ield s eason, t he s ubject o f t his t hesis, s ome p reliminary s tudies o f P ikillacta w ere c onducted i n 1 978 a nd 1 979 ( see M cEwan 1 979). I n t he c ourse o f t hese s tudies, f our t est c uts w ere m ade i n t he s o-called " qolgas" o f S ector # 4, t wo o f w hich p roduced r emains s uggesting a d omestic t ype o f o ccupation i n t hese s tructures. T he r esults o f t hese t ests t ogether w ith o bservation o f o ther p arts o f t he s ite a nd t he p reliminary s urvey o f t he L ucre B asin s uggested t hat t he c ommonly h eld a ssumptions r egarding P ikillacta a nd i ts f unction s hould b e r e-examined. T he 1 982 f ield s eason o f t he P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject w as d evoted t o i nvestigating t he P ikillacta s ite i n a n e ffort t o s hed n ew l ight o n m any o f t he p roblems a nd q uestions r aised b y t he u nusual f eatures o f t he s ite a nd t he r esults o f t he p reliminary s tudies. T he u ltimate a im o f t he p roject w as t o i ncrease o ur u nderstanding o f t he r ole o f t he P ikillacta s ite a nd t he W an i o ccupation i n t he c ulture h istory o f t he L ucre B asin. T owards t his e nd, t hree g eneral r esearch q uestions w ere f ormulated r egarding o ccupation o f t he s ite, s ite f unction, a nd a rchitectural d ata. T hese q uestions a ppear i n o utline f orm a s f ollows:

I .

Q uestions R egarding O ccupation A . H ad P ikillacta e ver b een o ccupied? B . I f s o -w hen w as i t b uilt, a nd C . W hat w as t he d uration o f t he o ccupation?

I I. A rchitectural Q uestions A . W hat p rinciples o f p lanning w ere u sed? B . W hat w as t he s equence a nd m ethod o f c onstruction? C . W hat w as t he c irculation p attern w ithin t he s ite? D . H ow w as w ater s upplied w ithin t he s ite? I II. Q uestions o f S ite F unction A . W hat w as t he o verall f unction o f t he s ite? B . W hat w as t he f unction o f t he v arious t ypes o f a rchitecture? C . W ere t he s mall c onjoined s tructures t he s ite a s torage c omplex?

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o n t he n orthwest s ide o f

S TRATEGY I n o rder t o a ddress t he r esearch q uestions, i t w as n ecessary t o s ample t he s ite s ystematically. D ue t o t he a bsence o f s urface a rtifacts, a s m entioned a bove, t he p ositioning o f t est c uts p roved p roblematical. T heoretically, a s ite c onstructed o n a g rid, s uch a s P ikillacta, w ould b e i deal f or a r andom s tatistical t esting p rogram . H owever, g iven t he s ize o f t he s ite, t he s ize o f t he i ndividual s tructures, t he l imited t ime a nd r esources a vailable, a nd t he v ariable c ondition o f t he r uins m ade s tatistically s ignificant r andom s ampling i mpossible. I nstead t he r uins w ere d ivided i nto s ampling s trata a ccording t o f ormal p roperties, a nd j udgement s ampling w as e mployed i n e ach s tratum . I t b ecame a pparent e arly i n t he p roject t hat n either o f t he e xisting p lans o f P ikillacta ( Harth-Terre 1 959; S anders 1 973) w as s ufficiently c omplete o r a ccurate t o b e u seful. T herefore t he f irst s tep w as t o r emap t he e ntire s ite. D uring t he c ourse o f t he m apping, s everal s tandard s tructural t ypes w ere i dentified w hich f ormed t he a rchitectural b asis, t hrough r epetition a nd v ariation o n a t heme, f or t he e laboration o f t he e ntire s ite ( figs. 3 -6 a nd 3 -7). E ach o f t hese s tructural t ypes f ormed a n a rchitectural s tratum t o b e s ampled, w ith o ne a dditional s tratum c onsisting o f u nusual o r u nique t ypes l umped t ogether. A t l east o ne s tructure o f e ach m ajor t ype, e xcept t ype D , w as t ested, a s w ell a s t wo s tructures i n t he u nique g roup. I n t his f ashion a r easonably r epresentative s ample o f t he v arious t ypes o f a rchitecture w as i nvestigated. P REVIOUS S TUDIES P ikillacta s eems t o h ave f irst g ained t he s erious a ttention o f P re-historians a s a r esult o f t he 1 927 d iscovery o f t wo r emarkable s ets o f c arved, g reen s tone f igurines. T hese f igurines a re c ommonly r eferred t o a s t he " turquesas", a lthough t ests d one i n t he 1 930 's t o i dentify t he s tone w ere i nconclusive a nd s uggest t hat t he s tone m ay b e s odalite ( Valcarcel 1 933:15). T he d iscovery a nd c haracteristics o f o ne s et w as d escribed i n a 1 933 a rticle b y L uis V alcarcel. T his s et w as d iscovered u nder a s tone p laced i nto t he p laster f loor o n t he n orthwest s ide o f s tructure 3 42 B i n S ector # 2 ( see f ig. 3 -3). I t c onsisted o f 4 0 s mall h uman f igurines m ade o f a t urquoise c olored s tone. L aid w ithin a c avity b eneath t he s tone, t hey s urrounded a b ronze b ar, a s trombus s hell, a nd s everal o ther m arine s hells " for t he u sual o ffering o f M ulli n ( Valcarcel 1 933:4). T he f igurines d epict h umans w earing e laborate c ostumes a nd h eaddresses, w ith n o t wo o f t he f igures a like. S r. L eonidas W ilson, c urrently t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura s ite g uard a t P ikillacta, w as a n e ye-witness t o t he d iscoveries a nd p rovided t his a ccount: O n t he d ay o f t he f ind h e w as s ent b y h is m other t o c arry a l unch t o P ikillacta f or h is " padre p olitico" S imon G arcia S anta C ruz w ho w as t he m ajordomo o f t he H acienda A nchibamba , o wned b y t he f amily o f S r. J usto R oman A paricio. I n 1 927 P ikillacta w as p art o f t he H acienda A nchibamba a lthough i ts o wnership w as a pparently d isputed b y t he n eighboring H acienda H uambutio. W ilson,

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t hen e ight y ears o ld, a rrived o n t he s cene a t P ikillacta j ust a s t he d iscovery w as m ade b y S r. R oman A paricio a nd e ight c ampesinos w orking f or h im , o ne o f w hom w as W ilson's " padre p olitico". H is d escription o f t he f ind i s e ssentially i n a ccord w ith t he a ccount g iven b y V alcarcel. H owever, h e g oes o n t o s ay t hat a S r. A stete, o wner o f t he H acienda H uambutio w hich a lso c laimed P ikillacta, u pon h earing o f t hge f ind, s ent i n h is o wn w ork c rew t o P ikillacta t hat n ight a fter R oman A paricio a nd h is m en h ad l eft. H e u ncovered a s econd s et o f f orty f igurines a bout f ive m eters s outhwest o f t he o riginal f ind, a nd i n n early i dentical c ontext. I n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavation , o ne o f t he f igurines w as l ost i n t he d irt s o t hat t he s econd s et e nded u p w ith o nly 3 9 p ieces. T he l ost p iece w as l ater f ound b y o ne S imon A redondo, a ccording t o W ilson, a nd h e s old i t f or t wenty s oles i n o rder t o b uy s ome c hicha o r n ative b eer. F ollowing t he d iscoveries t here w ere m any d enuncios a nd l egal a ctions b etween t he r ival h acendados. T he o riginal s et o f 4 0, t he s et d escribed b y V alcarcel, w as e ventually d onated t o t he a rchaeological m useum o f t he U niversity o f C uzco w here i t r esides t oday. T he s econd s et o f 3 9 f igurines w as s old a nd e ventually e nded u p i n E l M useo d e A merica i n M adrid, S pain. A lthough P ikillacta b ecame k nown f or t his " turquoise t reasure", v ery l ittle w as p ublished r egarding t he s ite i tself. I t w as n ot u ntil t he l ate 1 950's a nd e arly 1 960 's t hat a ny s erious a ttempt w as m ade t o i nterpret t he s ite a s aw hole. H arth-Terre ( 1959) w as t he f irst t o p ublish a d etailed e xamination o f t he s uperficial r emains o f t he s ite a nd t o p ublish i ts g round p lan, a lthough h e d id n ot e xcavate ( Fig. 3 -4). H e w orked o riginally u nder V alcarcel w ho p resided o ver t he c ommittee o f t he I V C entennial o f C uzco i n 1 934. A lthough h e d rew h is g round p lan a s e arly a s 1 934, h e d id n ot w rite h is i nterpretation u ntil 1 958 ( Harth-Terre 1 959:7). U nder V alcarcel, a g eneral c lean-up a nd r estoration o f t he r uins w as a ttempted w hich r esulted i n s ome r ather u nfortunate r econstructions i n S ector # 3 w hich a pparently h ad n o b asis i n t he a rchaeological e vidence. T hese r econstructions r esulted i n t he a lteration a nd o bscuring o f t he r uins a t t he j unction o f S ectors # 2 a nd # 3 b y a l arge s et o f t erraces. E ven m ore u nfortunate i s t he f act t hat t he n otes a nd t he e xcavated m aterials f rom t he r econstruction w ork h ave b een l ost. H arth-Terre e vidently d id n ot h ave a ccess t o t hese m aterials, w hich e ye-witnesses r eport c ontained W an i s tyle c eramics, a nd h e a pparently m ade h is g round p lan a fter t he r econstruction w as d one. H e c oncluded t hat t he s ite w as I nca i n o rigin a nd c ould b est b e i nterpreted a s a s tate s torehouse. H is c onclusion w as b ased o n t he d escriptions o f s torage i n t he e arly S panish C hronicles. H e a lso f elt t hat t he c lose a ssociation o f t he R umiqolqa g ate, t he n ame o f w hich h e t ranslated f rom t he Q uechua t o m ean " stone g ranary" r einforced t his c onclusion ( Harth-Terre 1 959:10).

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I n t he e arly 1 960 's, W illiam S anders c onducted a n e xamination o f t he a rchitectural s urface r emains a nd m ade a m ore d etailed p lan o f p arts o f t he c entral p ortion o f t he s ite ( Sectors # 2,#3, a nd # 4) ( see f ig. 3 -5). H e a lso e xcavated i n t wo a pparently u nique s tructures i n S ector # 2 ( structures 1 2-2B a nd 3 3-2B) b ut t urned u p v ery f ew a rtifacts. B ecause o f t he l ack o f a rtifactual m aterial, S anders c oncluded t hat t he s ite h ad p robably n ot b een o ccupied a fter i t w as c onstructed. H e s uggested t hat t he m ain p art o f t he s ite h ad p robably s erved a s a f rontier g arrison o r r efuge f or u se i n t ime o f e mergency, a nd t hat t he r ows o f s mall c onjoined s tructures o n t he n orthwest s ide o f t he s ite ( Sector # 4) h ad p robably s erved a s s torage s ilos f or t he g arrison c ommissary ( Sanders 1 973:404-408). H e a lso a ssigned t he s ite t o t he W an i c ulture r ather t han t he I nca, a s h ave m ost r ecent w riters o n t he s ubject ( Rowe 1 956 a nd 1 963; L anning 1 967; L umbreras 1 974; I sbell 1 978 ; S chreiber 1 978), b ecause o f t he s imilarity o f t he a rchitecture ( and t he f ew a rtifacts t hat w ere f ound) t o t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho. D espite S anders' c onclusion t hat t he s ite w as a m ilitary g arrison w ith o nly l imited c ommissary-type s torage , t he m ost p opular e xplanation o f t he s ite's f unction h as c ontinued t o b e t he s tate s torage f acility h ypothesis a s m odified b y R owe ( 1963:14) t o r eflect a W an i r ather t han I nca o rigin. I t i s p robably s afe t o s ay t hat m ost s cholars w ould a lso a ccept a n a dministrative f unction f or t he c entral p ortion o f t he s ite. T he s torage c enter h ypothesis h as i n f act b ecome s o w idely a ccepted t hat s everal o ther W an i s ites, n otably V iracocha P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands, a nd P ampa d e l as L lamas i n t he C asma V alley o f t he N orth C entral C oast, h ave b een a lmost a utomatically c lassified a s s torage c enters b ecause o f t heir p resumed W an i o rigins a nd s uperficial r esemblance t o t he a rchitecture a t P ikillacta ( Rowe 1 963:14 ; M enzel 1 964:70 ; L anning 1 967:135). A s m entioned p reviously, m ost s cholars w ould p robably a ccept a n a dministrative f unction f or t he s ite, i n a ddition t o i ts s erving a s a s tate s torage c enter, a nd i ndeed I sbell ( 1977,1978), L umbreras ( 1974:168), a nd S chreiber ( 1978) h ave a ll p resented a rguments i n t his v ein. I sbell i n p articular ( 1978) h as a rgued f or t he e xistence o f W an i s tate s torage f acilities a s a m eans f or t emporal e nergy a veraging, a n a rgument c entral t o h is t heory o f t he o rigin o f t he A ndean s tate. D uring t he c ourse o f t he 1 979 f ield w ork f or m y M asters t hesis, t ogether w ith D r. L uis B arreda o f t he U niversity o f C uzco, I e xcavated f our t est c uts i n t he s mall c onjoined r ooms i n S ector # 4, t he s oc alled " qolgas" ( see M cEwan 1 979). T he r esults o f t hese t ests s eemed i nconsistent w ith t he s torage c enter i nterpretation u sually g iven t o t hese s tructures a nd p rovided t he i mpetus f or f urther s tudies u ndertaken i n 1 982. T hese t est c uts w ill b e d escribed i n m ore d etail b elow . S ITE D ESCRIPTION T he s ite o f P ikillacta l ies o n t he n ortheast s ide o f t he L ucre B asin a nd r ests o n a s eries o f l ow r idges w hich f orm t he l ower s lopes o f C erro H uchuy B alcon. T he a verage e levation o f t he s ite i s

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a pproximately 3 ,250 m eters a bove s ea l evel. T he m ost p rominent p ortion o f t he s ite c onsists o f a v ery l arge, r ectangular e nclosure w hich c ontains m ost o f t he a rchitecture a nd m easures a pproximately 7 45 m eters n orthwest t o s outheast, a nd 6 30 m eters s outhwest t o n ortheast. O n t he n orth a nd s outheast s ides o f t he m ain a rchitectural b lock a re s everal l arge s emi-rectangular e nclosures w hich a ppear t o b e c orrals a nd a re c ommonly c alled t he c anchones. W ith t hese t aken i nto a ccount, t he s ite m easures a pproximately 1 ,680 b y 1 ,120 m eters, o r n early t wo s quare k ilometers o verall. T he m apping p roject a nd c areful s tudy o f t he r esulting g round p lan r evealed t hat P ikillacta i s c omposed o f t hree m ain a rchitectural e lements w hich a re u sed c onsistently i n c ombination i n o rder t o f orm f ive b asic s tructural t ypes ( see f ig. 3 -6). T hese t hree e lements a re : # I - t he r ectangular e nclosure, # II - t he p eripheral g allery, a nd - t he r ectangular b uilding. E lement # I, t he r ectangular e nclosure , c onsists o f f our w alls j oined a t t heir e nds t o f orm a l arge o pen r ectangle. T his i s a pparently t he m ost b asic W an i a rchitectural f orm a nd s eems t o o ccur a t a ll m ajor W an i s ites w here a rchitecture i s p resent. E lement # II, t he p eripheral g allery, c onsists o f l ong n arrow r ooms g alleryarranged a round t he i nside p eriphery o f a r ectangular e nclosure. T hese l ong n arrow r ooms a re o ften s ubdivided i nto s maller r ooms b y c rosswalls w hich a re a butted b ut n ot b onded t o t he g allery w alls. A s S pickard ( 1983:156) p oints o ut, t he t erm g allery i s n ot a n ecessarily a ccurate a rchitectural d escription o f t hese s tructures, s ince t he a rchitectural m eaning o f t he t erm " gallery" t ends t o c onnote a n o pen s tructure c onsisting o f a r oof s upported b y c olumns. N evertheless I h ave r etained t he u se o f t he t erm " gallery" t o r efer t o t hese l ong n arrow r ooms b ecause i t i s t he t erm m ost c ommonly u sed i n t he a rchaeological l iterature t o d escribe t hem a nd i t w ill, I b elieve, f acilitate c omparisons b etween s ite d escriptions i f t he d escriptive t erminology i s c onsistent. E lement # III , t he r ectangular b uilding, c onsists o f a f our-sided r ectangular s tructure w hich w as p robably r oofed w ith t hatch. A lthough s ome o f t hese b uildings a re q uite l arge, t hey a lmost a lways a re s maller t han r ectangular e nclosures a nd h ave a m ore p ronounced r ectangular p lan i n w hich t wo p arallel s ides a re l onger t han t he o ther t wo p arallel s ides. I n c ontrast, t he r ectangular e nclosures a re u sually c loser t o b eing s quare w ith a ll s ides o ften b eing n early e qual i n l ength , a lthough e xceptions t o t his g eneralization d o o ccur. T he r ectangular b uildings a re f ound i n s everal v ariations i n w hich t he i nterior o r e xterior c orners m ay b e r ounded, o r i n s ome b uildings b oth t he e xterior a nd t he i nterior c orners a re r ounded. T hese b uildings a re a lso s ometimes j oined t ogether i n s trings a s i n S ector # 4 w here t hey a re j oined e nd t o e nd a nd s hare w alls. T hese t hree e lements, i n v arious c ombinations, f orm t he f ive b asic s tructural t ypes i llustrated i n f igure 3 -7. T ype A s tructures c onsist o f a r ectangular e nclosure w ith p eripheral g alleries a rranged s ymmetrically s o t hat t here a re t wo o r m ore p arallel g alleries o n e ach s ide. T ype B s tructures c onsist o f a r ectangular e nclosure w ith o r w ith o ut p eripheral g alleries, b ut a lways c ontaining a r ectangular

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b uilding i nside t he e nclosure. T ype C s tructures c onsist o f a r ectangular e nclosure w ith p eripheral g alleries l aid o ut i n a n a symmetrical p attern; t hat i s, o ne o r m ore s ides m ay h ave m ultiple g alleries b ut a ll f our s ides n ever h ave t he s ame n umber o f g alleries e xcept w hen o nly a s ingle g allery i s p resent o n e ach o f t he f our s ides. T ype D s tructures c onsist s imply o f a n e mpty r ectangular e nclosure. T ype E s tructures c onsist o f a r ectangular b uilding u naccompanied b y t he o ther e lements. I n o rder t o f acilitate m apping, t he m ain a rchitectural b lock w as d ivided i nto f our s ectors w hich a ppear t o c orrespond t o o riginal d ivisions i mposed b y t he a ncient W an i a rchitects ( see f ig. 3 -8). S ector # 1 ( see m ap # 4), t he p art o f t he s ite h aving t he h ighest e levation , c onsists o f 8 1 r ectangular e nclosures a veraging 3 5-40 m eters o n a s ide. T he s tructures a re a rranged i n a r ectangular g rid h aving f ive r ows o f f ourteen e nclosures e ach a nd o ne r ow o f e leven. T his l ast r ow g ives t he i mpression o f n ever h aving b een c ompleted, b ut d ue t o p oor p reservation i n t his a rea i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine w hether o r n ot t his i s t he c ase. O f t he e leven s tructures i n t his r ow , s ix a re T ype A a nd a re a lternated w ith f ive o f T ype D . T he l owest r ow o f f ourteen i s c omposed o f s even T ype B s tructures a lternated w ith s even T ype C s tructures. T he T ype A a nd B s tructures i n t his s ector a re p laced a t o pposite e nds o f a lternating v ertical r ows o f t he g rid. A ll o f t he r emaining 6 3 s tructures a re T ype C . T he p reservation o f t he s ector a s a w hole i s v ery p oor, w ith m ost w alls d estroyed t o t he s urface l evel a nd o nly a f ew w all f ragments s tanding h igher t han t wo o r t hree m eters a bove t he g round. T here a re n o s treets o r o ther v isible m eans o f a ccess t o t his a rea . S ector # 2 ( see m ap # 4) i s t he m ost a rchitecturally c omplex p art o f t he m ain b lock a nd c ontains 1 24 s tructures. O f t hese, s ixteen a re T ype A , o ne i s T ype B , o ne i s T ype E , a nd t he r emaining 1 06 a re T ype C . T here a re a lso a s eries o f f our v ery l ong g alleries p aralleling t he s outhwestern s ide o f t his s ector j ust a bove t he j unction w ith S ector # 3. T hese a re s ubdivided i nto s ections b y c rosswalls a nd g ates. T here i s g reat v ariety o f s ize a nd d istribution o f s tructural t ypes w ithin t his s ector. P reservation o f t he n ortheastern h alf o f S ector # 2 i s v ery g ood, w ith m any s tructures h aving w alls s till s tanding t o h eights o f t en t o t welve m eters a bove t he p resent g round s urface. I n c ontrast, t he s tructures i n t he s outhwestern h alf o f S ector # 2 a re i n m any c ases d estroyed t o t he s urface l evel. T hree s treets p ierce t his s ector a nd a f ourth d ivides i t f rom S ector # 1. S ector # 3 ( see m ap # 4) c onsists o f av ery l arge o pen a rea , e leven s tructures, a nd a l arge s et o f r econstructed t erraces. T he s tructures a re a rranged a t e ither e nd o f t he l arge o pen a rea a nd c onsist o f t hree T ype B , s ix T ype C , a nd t wo T ype D . T here i s a lso o ne a nomaly; S tructure 1 0-3, w hich m ay n ot b e a n i ndependent s tructure b ut i s p erhaps p art o f s tructures 1-3 o r 9 -3. T he m odern r oad h as b een d riven t hrough s tructure 1 0-3 s o i t i s d ifficult t o d iscern t he o riginal a rrangement. T here m ay h ave b een a n o riginal e ntrance h ere, b ut i t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay w ith c ertainty.

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J ust o utside o f t he s outhwest w all o f S ector # 3 i s E xterior G roup # 1 w hich i s s eparated f rom S ector # 3 b y t he t erminus o f a venue # 8. T his g roup c onsists o f s even r ectangular s tructures s et o n a n a rtificial p latform . T hey a re t oo b adly d estroyed t o d etermine t heir t ype. T he r econstructed t erraces o n t he n ortheast s ide o f S ector # 3 s it o n t op o f s ome o riginal f oundation w alls w hich c ross t hem a t r ight a ngles. I s uspect t hat o riginally t here m ay h ave b een a s eries o f p arallel g alleries h ere w hich w ould b e m ore i n k eeping w ith t he p rinciples o f c onstruction e xhibited e verywhere e lse i n t he s ite. N o o riginal s treets p enetrate t his s ector. I t i s s eparated f rom S ector # 2 b y A venue # 9 w hich m ay h ave b een a n o riginal f eature b ut h as b een r econstructed. T he c ondition o f t he n on-reconstructed w alls i n S ector # 3 i s g enerally p oor w ith o nly t he p eripheral w all, a bout t welve m eters h igh , s tanding t o a ny g reat h eight. S ector # 4 ( see m ap # 4) c onsists o f 5 01 s mall c onjoined T ype E s tructures. T hese a re a rranged i n n eat r ows a nd a re d ivided i nto f ive d iscrete g roups, A t hrough E . E ach s tructure h as a d oorway a nd i s s erved b y a n a lley r unning i n f ront o f i t, a s ituation w hich i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t he o ther s ectors o f t he s ite. G roup A o f S ector # 4 c onsists o f 4 8 T ype E s tructures a nd h as a ssociated w ith i t a r ectangular a rchitectural b lock w hich h as b een t otally d estroyed. T here i s a r avine r unning t hrough i t w hich i s l abelled a n e rosion c ut o n t he g round p lanrectangular, b ut I b elieve t hat h is e rosion w as d ue t o h uman a ction. T he m ost s everely d isturbed o f t he s mall T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 a re l ocated a round t he i nside t erminus o f t his c ut. A t t he o utside t erminus a nd s tretching a way f or s ome d istance t owards t he q uebrada o f t he H uatanay, i s a n a ncient p ath t hat i s d epressed f ive t o t en c entimeters b elow t he s urrounding s urface. I t a ppears t hat a t s ome p oint i n t he p ast s omeone w as r obbing s tone f rom S ector # 4 a nd p erhaps d ragged i t a way o n s ledges w hich c aused t he d epressed p athway. G roup B , c onsisting o f 1 53 T ype E s tructures, c ontains n o a ssociated l arge r ectangular s tructure. H owever t his g roup m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith s tructure 1 23-4C i n G roup C . G roup C d iffers f rom t he o ther g roups i n t hat t he 1 22 T ype E s tructures a re d ivided i nto s ub-groups o f f our a nd f ive s tructures e ach , b y w alls a nd g ates b uilt i nto t he s treets b etween t he r ows. T hree l arge T ype Cr ectangular s tructures a re a lso f ound w ithin G roup C . S tructures 1 24-4C a nd 1 25-4C a re l ocated i n t he w estern c orner o f t he g roup a nd s tructure 1 23-4C i s l ocated i n t he e astern c orner o f t he g roup. G roup D c onsists o f 3 5 T ype E s tructures d ivided i nto t wo b locks a nd s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y a n a rchitectural b lock c ontaining s even r ectangular s tructures: o ne T ype B , o ne T ype C , f our T ype D , a nd o ne u nique s tructure. G roup E c onsists o f 1 49 T ype E s tructures a nd a lso c ontains a s ingle l arge T ype C r ectangular s tructure i n t he

3 1

s outhern c orner. T here a re a lso a f ew c ross-walls s treets o f t his g roup.

a nd

g ates

i n

t he

A pproximately h alf o f t he s pace o f S ector # 4 i s t aken u p b y s ix v ery l arge r ectangular e nclosures. F our o f t hese a re l ocated a t t he s outhwestern e nd o f t he s ector, o ne i s a t t he n ortheastern e nd, a nd o ne l ies b etween g roups D a nd E . T he o ne b etween g roups D a nd E m ay h ave s ome b uried s tructures w ithin i t b ut a t est c ut w ill b e r equired i n o rder t o p rove t his. O therwise a ll o f t hese l arge e nclosures a ppear t o b e e mpty e xcept f or e nclosure R 5-4 a t t he s outhwestern e nd o f t he s ector. I t c ontains , i n i ts s outhwestern e nd, t he r emains o f t hree r ectangular c hullpas o r b urial t owers. I b elieve t hat t hese c hullpas a re f rom a l ater p eriod, s ince t hey a re n ot t ypical o f t he W an i c ulture, a nd t hey p robably r epresent a r euse o f t he s ite i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod. T he p reservation o f t he a lthough i n g eneral i t i s q uite w ith p arts o f B a nd C a lso i n t hese g roups s till s tand t o s ix

w alls i n S ector # 4 v aries g reatly, g ood. T he b est p reserved i s G roup E , g ood c ondition. S ome o f t he w alls i n m eters i n h eight.

O n t he n orth a nd s outheast s ides o f t he m ain a rchitectural b lock a re t wo g roups o f v ery l arge e nclosures c ommonly c alled t he c anchones. T hese m ay h ave s erved a s c orrals a lthough t heir f unction i s n ot c ertain. T here a re f our c anchones o n t he n orth s ide. T hey a re s omewhat l ess c arefully m ade t han t he u sual c onstruction a t P ikillacta a nd d o n ot f orm p erfect r ectangles. T his g roup m easures a pproximately 4 00 b y 6 00 m eters. A v ery s trange f eature o f t hese s tructures i s t hat s ome s urviving f ragments o f t he w alls a re e ight t o t en m eters h igh. I t i s d ifficult t o i magine w hy a c orral w ould n eed s uch a h igh w all. A nother u nusual f eature i s a r ock f ormation n ear t he c enter o f t his g roup w hich c ontains s everal s mall n atural c aves. S everal l ooted b urials w ere o bserved i n t hese c aves b ut t heir c ultural a ffiliation c ould n ot b e d etermined. O n t he s outheast s ide o f t he m ain b lock t here a re e ight c anchones. T hese a lso c over a n a pproximate a rea o f 4 00 b y 6 00 m eters. T here m ay a lso b e t wo m ore c anchones b etween t hese a nd t he R umiqolqa w all. O f t he e ight, f ive a re e mpty; h owever, # 5 c ontains t he s ite o f 0 11eriayoq, # 7 c ontains S ite A , a nd # 4 c ontains s ome u nusual e arthworks a nd a f ragment o f aw alled h ighway a pproximately 1 60 m eters i n l ength ( fig. 3 -9). T here a re n o d efinite i ndications o f t he c ultural p rovenance o f t hese f eatures b ut t hey m ay b e c eremonial i n n ature f or t he s ame r easons a s g iven i n t he d iscussion o f a venue # 8 b elow . I n a ddition t o t he f ew a venues p enetrating t he a rchitectural b lock a nd t he s treets o r a lleys b etween t he r ows o f T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4, t here a re t wo m ain a venues w hich a pproach t he s ite e ssentially f rom t he n orthwest a nd f rom t he s outh . A venue # 8 t erminates s outhwest w all o f S ector # 3.

a t E xterior g roup # 1 j ust o utside t he I t i s a pproximately t en m eters w ide a nd

3 2

i s w alled o n b oth s ides w ith f ragments o f t hese w alls s till s tanding t o h eights o f t hree a nd f our m eters. T his a venue r uns a round t he p eriphery o f t he w estern c orner o f P ikillacta a nd h eads t o t he n orthwest, c rossing o ver t wo h igh , s teep h ills a nd s everal l arge r ock f ormations ( fig. 3 -10). A pproximately 5 00 m eters t o t he n orthwest o f P ikillacta a nd j ust a fter c rossing t he s econd h ill, t he a venue e nds a bruptly. T here i s a w all s ealing t he e nd a t t his p oint a nd t hree o ther w alls c ross t he a venue b efore i t r eaches t his p oint. T he w estern w all o f t he a venue c ontinues o n a lone p ast t he e nd w all f or a pproximately 3 40 m eters m ore a nd s tops a t t he t op o f a h igh b luff o verlooking t he H uatanay Q uebrada. D ue t o i ts p eculiarities, t his a venue c ould n ot h ave f unctioned a s a n a ccess t o t he s ite. I t g oes n owhere, a nd d oes s o o ver t he m ost d ifficult r oute a vailable. I n s ome p laces t he r ock o utcrops t hat i t c rosses c ompletely f ill t he a venue b etween t he w alls, f orcing o ne t o g o o ut a nd a round i n o rder t o p ass. T hese o ut c rops a re p art o f a n e normous g eological f eature a nd t he s tones w ere n ot p laced i n t he a venue a fter i t w as b uilt. I t s eems l ikely t hat t his a venue h ad s ome s ymbolic o r c eremonial f unction. T he r ock f ormations t o w hich i t r uns l ook s uspiciously l ike w hat w ould h ave b een a h uaca i n I nca t imes. A venue # 1, o n t he s outheast s ide o f P ikillacta , a ppears t o h ave b een f unctional, p roviding a ccess t o t he s ite. I t a lso i s w alled a nd v aries b etween f our a nd s ix m eters i n w idth. I t r uns t o t he s outh d irectly t owards t he R umigolqa g ate. I ts o nly f eatures a re f ifteen s tep-like t erraces w here i t p arallels t he s outheast s ide o f t he m ain a rchitectural b lock .

T HE E XCAVATIONS A t otal o f t wenty-two t est c uts w ere m ade d uring t he 1 982 f ield s eason. A s m entioned a bove t hese w ere d esigned t o s ample s tructural t ypes a nd t o s hed l ight o n f eatures o f s pecial i nterest a s t hey w ere e ncountered. T he e xcavation u nits w ere n umbered s equentially f rom t en t o t hirty-two. U nits n umbered z ero t o n ine i nclude a ll o f t he k nown p revious s cientific e xcavations: T hose o f S anders ( 1973), B arreda ( personal c ommunication 1 982), L umbreras ( personal c ommunication 1 982), a nd t hese d one b y B arreda a nd t he a uthor i n 1 979. T YPE A S TRUCTURES: T wo T ype A s tructures w ere s ampled: s tructure 5 -1 l ocated i n t he t op r ow o f S ector # 1, a nd s tructure 1 4-2C l ocated i n t he c entral p art o f S ector # 2. T he t est c ut i n s tructure 5 -1 w as d esignated U nit 3 1 a nd t he c ut i n s tructure 1 4-2C w as d esignated U nit 1 8. T he U nit 3 1 e xcavation w as d esigned p rimarily t o p rovide a rchitectural d ata, s ince t he t ype o f t his s tructure w as u ncertain d ue t o p oor p reservation a nd a h eavy o verburden o bscuring t he g round p lan . T he t est c ut r an p erpendicular t o t he n orthwest w all a nd w as d esigned t o i ntersect a ll o f t he p otential i nterior w alls o n t hat s ide o f t he s tructure ( fig. 3 1). T he t est c ut f ormed a t rench 1 x 1 4 m eters a nd w as o ne m eter d eep. I t w as s ubdivided i nto s ections A , B , C , a nd D b y t he w alls

3 3

t hat i t c rossed. T he o nly a rtifacts e ncountered w ere i n s ection D a nd c onsisted o f 4 3 s mall, b uff c olored, p lain b ody s herds. A s late k nife w as a lso f ound o n t he s urface. U nit 1 8 c onsisted o f t rench d ug p arallel t o t he n orthern e nds o f a ll t hree g alleries o n t he n orthwest s ide o f t he s tructure ( fig. 3 1 2). T he c ut f ormed a t rench 2 x 1 2 m eters a nd w as d ivided i nto s ection A , B , a nd C b y t he g allery w alls. S ection A w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .6 m eters a nd p roduced o nly a f ew s mall b one f ragments a nd a s mall a sh l ens. O ne o ther i nteresting f eature w as t he p resence o f a n umber o f p rehistoric f ingerprints v isible i n t he m ud b etween t he s tones i n t he n orthern c orner. T he f loor a ppeared t o h ave b een m ade o f p acked e arth o ver s and. S ection B w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .2 m eters b elow t he s urface a nd p roduced o nly a f ew b one f ragments a nd o ne w orked b one. A l arge f ragment o f a f loor w as a lso f ound, c onsisting o f a n a pparent m ix o f p laster, g ravel, a nd c lay, r esting o n ab ed o f s and a nd g ravel. T his f loor w as v ery r ough a nd u neven. S ection C w as e xcavated t o d epth o f 3 .3 m eters b elow t he s urface a nd c ontained a l arge p ile o f f ine d ark g rey a sh r ising i nto t he n orth c orner o f t he u nit, a nd a l arge f ire h earth a long t he l ength o f t he n ortheast w all. 2 32 s herds w ere r ecovered f rom t he f ire h earth a s w ell a s a l arge n umber o f b ones a nd b urned b one f ragments. M any o f t hese b ones a ppeared t o b e c amelid b ones. M ost o f t he s herd w ere p lain u tilitarian w are, m any w ith s oot m arks, b ut f ifteen w ere d iagnostic a nd t he m ajority o f t hese w ere p ieces o f a l arge p olychrome b owl ( fig. 3 -13). A d oorway c onnecting s ections B a nd C w as a lso d iscovered a nd c leared d uring t he e xcavation. T he l imited d ata r ecovered i n t hese e xcavations t ends t o s uggest t hat T ype A s tructures m ay h ave b een r esidences. S ection C i s c learly a f ood p reparation a rea. T he p aucity o f a rtifacts i n s ections A a nd B w as p erhaps d ue t o t heir u se a s s leeping q uarters. F urther e xcavations i n t his t ype o f s tructure a re n eeded t o c larify t he n ature o f t heir u se.

AT YPE B S TRUCTURE ; O ne T ype B s tructure w as t ested; s tructure 6 -3 i n t he w est c orner o f S ector # 3. T he t est c ut i n i t w as d esignated U nit 1 ( figs . 3 -14 & 3 -15). T his u nit w as l ocated n ear t he w estern c orner o f t he e nclosure s o t hat i t w ould i ntersect t he c orner o f t he T ype E s tructure ( sections B & C ) a nd t he s pace b etween i t a nd t he b ack w all o f t he e nclosure ( section A ). S ection A w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .8 m eters b elow t he s urface a nd p roduced 2 69 s herds o f w hich o nly n ine w ere d ecorated a nd t he r est w ere u tilitarian b ody s herds. T here w ere n umerous s mall p ockets o f a sh m ixed i n t he f ill a s w ell a s m any b ones a nd b urned b one f ragments.

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S ection B -C w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .8 m eters b elow t he s urface. T here w ere 3 40 s herds i n t his u nit o f w hich o nly 1 1 w ere d ecorated, t he r est b eing u tilitarian w are. M ost o f t he d ecorated s herds b elonged t o a s ingle l arge p olychrome b owl ( fig. 3 -16). T here w ere n umerous s mall p ockets o f a sh a nd c arbon e ncountered, a s i n s ection A , a nd s ome f airly l arge c oncentrations a s w ell; o ne o f t hese a ppeared t o b e a f ire h earth . N umerous b ones a nd b one f ragments, s ome b urned, w ere a lso f ound i n t he f ill. O therwise t he f ill c onsisted o f l oosely c ompacted s oil, g ravel, a nd g rey s and. N o c ompact f loors w ere f ound a lthough w e e xcavated t o t he b ase o f t he w alls o f t he s tructure. A t t he b ottom o f t he e xcavation i n s ection B -C s everal v ery l arge s tones, r esting o n t op o f t he l evel e ven w ith t he b ase o f t he w alls, w ere e ncountered. T hese m ust h ave b een o riginal f eatures i nside t he T ype E s tructure b ut t heir f unction w as n ot a pparent. T he d ata r ecovered i n U nit 1 1 i ndicate t hat t he T ype E s tructure a nd t he s pace b etween i t a nd t he w all o f t he e nclosure w ere f illed w ith d omestic t rash, s uggesting t hat t hese s tructures m ay h ave b een r esidences. T he t rash c onsisting o f a sh , b urned b one f ragments a nd f ragments o f s oot m arked p ottery s uggest a t l east f ood p reparation w as t aking p lace i n t his s tructure. T he a bsence o f ac ompact f loor i nside t he T ype E s tructure i s p uzzling. I t i s d ifficult t o r econcile t he a pparent h eavy u se o f t he s tructure a s i ndicated b y t he a ccumulation o f c ultural m aterial w ith t he f ailure o f t he f loors t o h ave c ompacted s imply f rom p eople w alking o n t hem . I n c ontrast, a ll o f t he o ther s tructures s ampled i n t he s ite h ad a t l east p acked e arth f loors a nd s everal h ad w ell m ade p laster f loors.

T HE T YPE C S TRUCTURES: T hree T ype C s tructures w ere s ampled: s tructures 1 24-4C , 1 2-2A, a nd 1 8-2C. S tructure 1 24-4C i s l ocated i n t he w estern c orner o f S ector # 4 a nd w as s ampled b y t wo t est c uts d esignated U nits 1 4 a nd 1 5. U nit 1 4 w as l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he m edian c rosswall i n t he s outhwestern g allery o f s tructure 1 24-4C a nd m easured 2 x 3 .2 m eters ( fig. 3 -17). I t w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 1 .8 m eters b elow t he p resent s urface a nd p roduced o nly a f ew b ones a nd 7 9 p ot s herds, t hree o f w hich w ere d ecorated. T hree s eparate f loors m ade o f p acked e arth w ere e ncountered a t d epths o f 1 .08, 1 .34, a nd 1 .80 m eters b elow t he s urface. E ach o f t hese f loors c ontained a s eparate f ire h earth. O n t he u pper t wo f loors t hese h earths w ere l ocated i n t he s outhern c orner o f t he u nit, w hile o n t he l owest f loor t he h earth w as l ocated i n t he e astern c orner. O ne a dditional f eature w as a n a pparent c amelid b one o ffering w hich h ad b een p artially b urned a nd b uried i n t he u ppermost f ire h earth. T he f loor i n t his u nit s eems t o h ave b een p eriodically r emade b y t he p acking o f 2 0-40 c ms o f f resh e arth . U nit 1 5 w as l ocated i n t he n orth c orner o f s tructure 1 24-4C i n t he e nd o f t he n orthwest g allery. I t m easured 2 .3 m eters w ide a nd v aried b etween 1 .5 a nd 3 .5 m eters i n l ength d ue t o t he d iagonal w all i n t he c orner o f t he s tructure ( fig. 3 -17). U nit 1 5 w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .3 m eters b elow t he s urface b ut o nly f ive s herds a nd a f ew

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b ones w ere f ound. O f t hese, o nly t hree w ere d ecorated s herds. t hem f rom t he u pper l evels w as a L ucre s tyle s herd.

O ne o f

S tructure 1 2-2A i s l ocated s lightly t o t he n ortheast o f t he c enter o f S ector # 2. F our t est c uts, d esignated U nits 1 6, 1 6A , 1 6 B D , a nd 1 6E , w ere l ocated i n t he s outhern c orner o f t he s tructure w here t he e nds o f t hree g alleries c ome t ogether ( fig. 3 -18). U nit 1 6 w as l ocated i n t he s outhern e nd o f t he s outheastern o utside g allery o f s tructure o f 1 2-2A. I t m easured 2 x 2 m eters a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 3 .69 m eters, l evel w ith t he b ottom o f t he w all f oundation. N o a rtifacts w ere e ncountered i n t he f ill b ut a h ard f loor m ade o f p laster m ixed w ith c lay w as f ound a t a d epth o f 2 .10 m eters b elow t he s urface. T his f loor w as a pproximately 8 0 c ms t hick, a nd c emented i nto i t w ere a bout 7 0 s herds a ll b elonging t o a s ingle l arge p olychrome v essel b earing a t ypical W an i s tyle m otif ( fig. 3 1 9). T his v essel a pparently r epresented a c eramic o ffering m ade a t t he t ime o f t he c onstruction o f t he g allery f loor. U nit 1 6A w as l ocated i n t he s outh e nd o f t he i nside g allery o n t he s outheast s ide o f t he s tructure, w hich r uns p arallel t o t he g allery i n w hich u nit 1 6 w as l ocated. T his u nit m easured 2x 2m eters a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .5 m eters b elow t he s urface. N o a rtifacts w ere f ound b ut a h ard f loor o f m ixed p laster a nd c lay w as e ncountered a t t he 2 .5 m eter l evel b elow t he s urface. U nit 1 6 B -D w as l ocated i n t he s outhern e nd o f t he g allery o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he s tructure. I t m easured 2 x 4 .5 m eters a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 1 .9 m eters b elow t he p resent s urface. T his u nit c ontained a s tratified d eposit a pproximately 1 .4 m eters d eep w hich a ppeared t o h ave b een a t rash m idden. M ore t han a t housand s herds w ere f ound, m any o f w hich w ere l arge f ragments o f g ood q uality p olychrome v essels. O ther a rtifacts i ncluded o bsidian f lakes , p ieces o f m etal i ncluding t wo m iniature t opo p ins ( all p robably b ronze), a nd a v ery f ine m iniature c arved b one s poon w ith a b ird e ffigy h andle ( figs. 3 -20 & 3 -37). U nderneath t he m idden , a f ine w hite p laster f loor w as e ncountered. T his f loor w as a t l east 1 5 c m t hick b ut t he t hickness w as v ariable s ince t he f loor w as v ery u neven a nd h ad m any d epressions a nd p rominences. T he e xcavation o f t he m idden a lso e xposed t wo d oorways s et o pposite e ach o ther i n t he n ortheast a nd s outhwest w alls o f t he g allery. T he d oorway i n t he n orthwest w all w as o pen t o t he c entral c ourtyard o f t he s tructure.. T he d oorway i n t he s outhwest w all, h owever, h ad b een s ealed i n a ntiquity w ith s tones s et i n m ud m ortar. T his s ealed d oorway w as o ne o f o nly t wo k nown d oorways, i n t he e ntire s ite o f P ikillacta, t hat w ould h ave p ermitted p assage b etween t wo a djacent s tructures. U nit 1 6E w as l ocated i n t he c ourtyard j ust o utside t he d oorway i n t he n orthwestern s ide o f t he g allery m entioned a bove. T his u nit m easured 2 x 2 .5 m eters a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f t wo m eters b elow t he s urface; t he d oorway i nto t he g allery w as a lso c leared.

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A bout 1 50 s herds, w hich s eemed t o h ave s pilled o ut o f t he t rash m idden i n a ncient t imes, w ere f ound i n t his u nit. T he p laster f loor w as a gain e ncountered a t t he b ottom o f t he e xcavation a nd w as t raced t hrough t he d oorway i nto t he g allery. T his f ind s uggests t hat t he e ntire c ourtyard, a n a rea o f o ver 9 00 s quare m eters, m ay h ave b een p lastered. S tructure 1 8-2C i s l ocated i n t he c enter o f t he n orthwestern h alf o f S ector # 2. T wo t est c uts d esignated U nits 1 7 a nd 1 7A w ere m ade i n t he c ourtyard o f t his s tructure i n o rder t o e xpose a s ubterranean c anal r unning d iagonally a cross t he c ourtyard ( fig. 3 -21). U nit 1 7 w as a t rench 1 .5 x 6 .5 m eters a nd v aried f rom 5 0 t o 9 0 c ms i n d epth b elow t he s urface. T he c anal e xposed b y t his t rench h ad b een c arefully m ade w ith a r ectangular c ross s ection a nd a l ining o f f lat s tones a long t he b ottom a nd s ides. A c ap o f s tones w as l aid a cross t he t op a nd s ealed w ith c lay ( fig.s 3 -21 & 3 -22). U nit 1 7A w as a 2 x 2 m eter c ut i n t he e astern c orner o f t he c ourtyard a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .8 m eters b elow t he s urface. I n t his c ut t he t op o f t he c anal w as e xposed a nd a lso t he r emains o f a w hite p laster f loor w hich w as l ocated . 55 m eters a bove i t. T his s uggests t hat t he c anal p robably o riginally r an a bout h alf a m eter b elow t he f loor o f t he s tructure. A f ully p lastered c ourtyard i s a gain s uggested b y t he f ragments e ncountered, a nd a p laster s tucco f or t he w alls a lso s eems t o b e i ndicated ( fig. 3 -22). I n c omparison w ith U nit 1 6E , t he p laster f loor f ound i n U nit 1 7A i s m uch t hinner a nd m ore f inely m ade . T his m ay i ndicate t hat t he c ourtyard w as r oofed, p rotecting t he f loor f rom t he e lements a nd a llowing t he u se o f a t hinner l ayer o f p laster. G iven t he r elatively s mall s ize o f s tructure 1 8-2C i n w hich U nits 1 7 a nd 1 7A w ere l ocated, r oofing i t w ould n ot h ave b een t erribly d ifficult. N o c eramic a rtifacts w ere e ncountered i n e ither U nit 1 7 o r T he o nly a rtifacts w ere s everal l arge p ieces o f w orked s late, w ith h oles d rilled i n t hem .

1 7A. s ome

T he e xcavations i n T ype C s tructures s uggest t hat t hese s tructures m ay h ave b een l ived i n. A rchitectural v ariations m ay r eflect d ifferences i n t he s ocial s tatus o f t he o ccupants. S tructures 1 2-2A a nd 1 8-2C h ave f ine w hite p laster f loors, a nd t he a rtifacts f ound i n 1 2-2A h ave a h igh p ercentage o f f ine p ieces, p ossibly i ndicating t hat h igher s tatus i ndividuals o ccupied t hese t wo s tructures.

T HE T YPE E S TRUCTURES: D uring m y v isit t o C uzco i n 1 978, D r. L uis B arreda o f t he U niversity o f C uzco h ad m entioned t o m e t hat h e d iscounted t he s torage f acility t heory a s a n e xplanation f or t he f unction o f t he 5 01 s mall c onjoined T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4. H is c onclusion w as b ased o n t he r esults o f h is e xcavations i n s everal o f t hese s o-called " qolgas" i n w hich h e h ad f ound w hat h e b elieved t o b e d omestic t rash. W e d ecided t o d o s ome f urther t ests, a nd i n 1 979 f our a dditional

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s tructures w ere t ested ( fig.s 3 -23 & 3-24). T wo o f t hese t est u nits p roduced l ittle o r n o c ultural m aterial; b ut i n t he o ther t wo w e e ncountered w hat a ppeared t o b e d omestic t rash. T hese t est c uts w ere a pproximately 9 0 c m d eep a nd t he f ill f rom t hem c ontained b oth u tilitarian a nd f ancy W an i s tyle p otsherds , s everal p ieces o f o bsidian i ncluding a p rojectile p oint, a n umber o f b one t ools, n umerous b ones a nd b urned b ones, a nd a f ire h earth. T hese r esults s eemed t o c onfirm B arreda's h ypothesis s uggesting a d omestic t ype o ccupation f or t hese s tructures r ather t han s torage. I n 1 982 I r eturned w ith t he i ntention t o t est s ystematically t he s torage h ypothesis f or t hese T ype E s tructures. I n a n e ffort t o o btain a r epresentative s ample o f t he s tructures, I m ade t est c uts i n v arious s tructures i n g roups A , B , C , a nd E . T hese w ere : U nits 2 8 a nd 2 9 i n g roup A ( fig. 3 -25), U nits 2 6 a nd 2 7 i n g roup B ( fig . 3 -26), U nits 2 1-24 i n g roup C ( fig. 3 -28), a nd U nits 9 A a nd 1 2 i n g roup E . T hese u nits, t aken t ogether w ith t he f our e xcavated i n 1 979 ( units 6 ,7,8, a nd 9 , a ll i n g roup E ), t he t wo u nits e xcavated b y B arreda i n 1 963 ( units 4 & 5), a nd t he s ingle u nit e xcavated b y L umbreras ( Unit 1 ) i n 1 972 ( personal c ommunication 1 982) g ive a t otal s ample o f s ixteen* o f t he T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 ( fig. 3 -27). [ *Note: e xcavation u nits 9 a nd 9 A w ere l ocated i n t he s ame s tructure t hus g iving a t otal o f 1 7 u nits i n 1 6 s tructures.] O f t he s ixteen s tructures s ampled, s ix c ontained f ire h earths ( Units 9 , 2 2, 2 3, 2 6, 2 7, a nd 2 8). T he h earths w ere a ll f ound o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he d oor o pening a nd, w ith t he e xception o f t he h earth i n U nit 2 8 w hich w as f ound t owards t he c enter o f t he s tructure, a ll w ere l ocated a gainst t he w all. T he h earths w ere m ade b y d igging a s hallow h ole i n t he f loor i n w hich t he f ire w as b uilt. T here w ere n o f ormal b oundaries s uch a s a r ing o f s tones o r o ther d elimiting f eatures. T he c ontents o f t he h earths t ypically c onsisted o f a f ine p owdery a sh , v ery s mall a mounts o f c harcoal, b urned b ones a nd b one f ragments, a nd s oot m arked p otsherds. T he s carcity o f s olid c arbon o r c harcoal m ade i t d ifficult t o o btain s amples o f s ufficient s ize f or r adiocarbon d ating. T his w as p robably d ue t o t he n ature o f t he m aterial u sed a s f uel. I f c amelid d ung w ere u sed a s f uel, f or e xample, t he r esidue w ould c onsist m ostly o f p owdery a sh. T welve o f t he s ampled s tructures ( all u nits e xcept 7 , 1 2, 2 1, a nd 2 9) c ontained a rtifacts c onsisting o f p ot s herds, b urned b ones, b ones, b one t ools, a nd o bsidian f lakes. I n f our o f t he s tructures n o a rtifacts w ere u ncovered i n t he t est c uts. T he q uantity o f c ultural m aterial f ound v aried c onsiderably f rom o ne s tructure t o t he n ext, w ith s ome c ontaining a lmost a m eter o f f ill a nd o thers o nly a f ew c entimeters. T he h eaviest c oncentration o f m aterial w as e ncountered i n U nits 8 a nd 9 , j ust i nside t he d oorways. T hese c oncentrations s eemed h ighly l ocalized w ithin t he s tructure s ince i n U nit 9 a , e xcavated a s a n e xtension o f U nit 9 , n othing w as f ound. O ne o ther e xcavation, U nit 2 5, w as m ade i n t he s treet i n f ront o f U nit 2 4 i n g roup C . I t w as s ituated t o e xpose a c rosswall a nd g ate w hich s erved t o d ivide t he s tructures i n g roup C i nto s maller g roups o f f our a nd f ive s tructures e ach ( fig. 3 -28).

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T he r esult o f t hese t est e xcavations w as, w ith o nly a f ew e xceptions, t he u ncovering o f w hat a ppeared t o b e t he r emains o f a d omestic o ccupation. A t l east s ix o f t he T ype E s tructures c ontained f ire h earths, a nd a sh f ound i n t he f ill f rom t he o ther s tructures s uggests t hat t hey t oo m ay h ave h ad h earths. O ne f ire h earth i n U nit 2 8 c ontained p arts o f a h uman b ody - a r adius a nd u lna , s everal r ibs a nd s everal t eeth . O ne o ther u nusual f eature o f t he T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 i s t hat o ne o f t hem , # 136-4B , i s a lmost c ompletely f illed b y a s ingle l arge b oulder. I t i s c urious t hat t his s tone w as n ot r emoved, a f eat t hat w as s urely w ithin t he t echnical c apability o f t he W an i e ngineers. I t m ay b e t hat t he s tone w as a h uaca o r s acred s tone a nd w as t hus r etained i n p lace. T he I ncas w ere k nown t o b uild a round c ertain s tones ( there i s a n e xcellent e xample o f t his a t t he n earby I nca s ite o f K anaraqay) a nd t his e xample a t P ikillacta m ay i ndicate t hat i t w as a l ong s tanding p ractice. A s imilar s ituation e xists i n s tructure 2 44 D w hich w ill b e d iscussed b elow .

U NIQUE S TRUCTURES: T hree r elatively u nique s tructures w ere t ested: s tructures 2 5-2E , 2 4-4D , a nd a s tructure i n e nclosure R 5-4 w hich p roved t o b e a c hullpa o r b urial t ower. S tructure 2 5-2E i s l ocated o n t he s outhwestern e dge o f S ector # 2, j ust a bove t he r econstructed t erraces i n S ector # 3. I t i s a r ather l arge T ype E s tructure, m easuring 1 7 x 2 9 m eters i nternally. T here i s a g allery a ttached t o t he s outhwest w all w hich m easures a pproximately 3 x 2 8 m eters. T his g allery h as b een r econstructed a nd i ts a uthenticity i s u nknown. T he f eatures t hat m ake s tructure 2 5-2E p articularly i nteresting a re t he p resence o f t wo l arge n iches i n t he s outhwest w all. O ne o f t hese n iches i s t rapezoidal i n t he h orizontal p lane ( fig. 3 -29) a nd t he o ther h as b een r econstructed i n a r ectangular f orm b ut m ay h ave o riginally b een t rapezoidal a lso. T here i s o nly o ne o ther s tructure a t P ikillacta c ontaining l arge n iches, s tructure 1 2-2B , e xcavated b y B arreda a nd S anders i n 1 963 ( Sanders 1 973:409). A nother u nusual f eature o f s tructure 2 5-2E i s t he p resence o f t wo i nternally r ounded c orners ; t he w est a nd s outh c orners. E xcavation U nit 1 0 w as l ocated i n t he w estern c orner o f s tructure 1 2-2B a nd m easured 3 x 4 .5 m eters ( fig.s 3 -29 a nd 3 -30). T his u nit w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 1 .4 m eters b elow t he s urface, a t w hich l evel a f ine w hite p laster f loor w as f ound. T his f loor a veraged 1 0-15 c m i n t hickness a nd w as l aid o n a t hin c ap o f b rown c lay ( 1.5 c m) w hich c overed a p repared f oundation o f c rushed s tone a nd s and, a pproximately o ne m eter t hick. T he i nterior w alls o f t his s tructure w ere c overed w ith a t hick ( 10 c m) s tucco o f m ud a nd o ver t his a t hin ( 1 c m) c ap o f p laster w as l aid. I n t he s outhern h alf o f t his u nit t here w as a l arge ( 2 x 1 .2 m eters) i rregular h ole i n t he p laster f loor. T ucked u p u nder t he f loor a round t he n ortheast a nd s outheast m argins o f t his h ole w ere f ound t en h uman s kulls ( fig. 3 -31).

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S r. L eonidas W ilson, t he P ikillacta s ite g uard, t old m e t hat s even o f t hese h ad b een e xposed i n t he 1 930 's b y s ome p ot h unters. A ccording t o W ilson, h e h ad r eported t he f ind t o t he P atronato D epartmental d e A rqueologia d el C uzco, a nd t hey h ad o rdered t hat t he s kulls b e r einterred a nd t he l ooters' p it b ackfilled. W e f ound i n o ur e xcavations s everal m odern s herds a nd s ome b ones, a pparently t he r emains o f t he l ooters m eal, w hich s eemed t o c onfirm W ilson's a ccount. I n a ddition t o t he s even s kulls m entioned b y W ilson, w e f ound t hree m ore. T hese t hree w ere b uried f urther u nder f loor t han t he o ther s even. W hereas t he f irst s even f ound w ere b uried i n t he r ed s oil u sed t o b ack-fill t he l ooters' p it, t hese t hree w ere i n t he g rey s and a nd g ravel f oundation l ayer u nder t he f loor. T his s uggests t hat t hese t hree m ay h ave b een f ound i n t he o riginal c ontext. T he o nly o ther a rtifact f ound i n t his u nit w as a m etal s pike ( probably o f b ronze). D escribed i n d etail i n t he a ppendix, t he s kulls c onsisted o f f our m ales a nd s ix f emales o f a w ide v ariety o f a ges. O ne h ad a f rontal s uture c rossing i ts f orehead, a c ondition s ometimes d epicted i n W ani c eramics ( fig. 3 -32). A nother s howed e vidence o f t hree s eparate t rephinations. N o m andibles o r o ther b ones w ere f ound w ith t he s kulls, w hich s uggests t hat t he f lesh h ad a lready b een r emoved a t t he t ime o f t heir b urial. T he s econd u nique s tructure i nvestigated, s tructure 2 4-4D , i s l ocated n ear t he c enter o f g roup D i n S ector # 4. I t c onsists o f a r elatively s mall e nclosure ( 8 x 1 0 m eters) c ontaining t wo c onjoined T ype E s tructures. T he c orners o f t he s outheast w all a re r ounded, a s a re t hose o f t he T ype E s tructures. T he e xcavation i n 2 4-4D w as d esignated U nit 3 0 a nd i ncluded t he w hole o f t he i nterior o f t he T ype Es tructure o n t he s outhwest s ide ( fig. 3 -33). T his u nit m easured 3 .5 x 4 m eters a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 3 .2 m eters b elow t he s urface. T his u nit p roved t o b e e ntirely f illed w ith a v ery l arge s tone w hich w as p art o f t he n atural r ock o utcrop u nderlying t he s tructure. T he r ock s loped u pward f rom t he s outhwestern s ide, r eaching i ts m aximum e levation o n t he n ortheast s ide o f t he s tructure. O nly a f ew s herds w ere f ound i n t he f ill, i ncluding h alf o f a m iniature c eramic b ottle ( fig. 3 -33). O ne o ther a rtifact f ound w as a s hell b ead w hich l ooked l ike a m iniature s trombus s hell. A t t he d eepest p oint o f t he e xcavation, t he w estern c orner, a l arge c harcoal d eposit w as f ound. T he t hird u nique s tructure e xcavated, l ocated i n e nclosure R 5-4 j ust a bove a venue # 8, w as d esignated U nit 1 3. T his s tructure p roved t o b e a r ectangular c hullpa o r b urial t ower. I t w as s ampled b y m eans o f a 1x 2m eter c ut, 5 0 c m d eep, w hich p roduced a bout 2 5 p ot s herds a nd a f ew h uman b ones ( fig. 3 -34). T wo o f t he s herds w ere d ecorated i n t he W an i s tyle, b ut t he r est w ere p lain a nd a ll s eemed t o b elong t o s ingle b ottle s haped v essel. T he r esults o f t he e xcavations i n s tructures 2 5-2E a nd 2 4-4D s uggest t hat t hey m ay h ave b een c eremonial i n f unction. I n 2 5-2E t he c ache o f s kulls b uried u nder t he f loor i s p robably a c eremonial o ffering a nd t he l arge n iches i n t he s outhwest w all m ay a lso i ndicate ac eremonial f unction. T his s tructure c ertainly h ad t he m ost c arefully

4 0

f inished i nterior, i n t erms o f t hat w ere s ampled a t P ikillacta .

f loor

a nd

w all

p reparation,

o f

a ny

S tructure 2 4-4D c an p robably b e b est u nderstood a s a h uaca s imilar t o s acred s tones f ound i n s ome I nca b uildings. I n a s m uch a s t he s tone c ompletely f ills t he r oom , i t i s h ard t o i magine a ny o ther f unction f or t his s tructure. T he m iniature c eramic b ottle a nd t he s hell b ead m ay b e p arts o f o fferings p resented t o t he s tone. T he c hullpa i n e nclosure R 5-4 i s a lmost c ertainly i ntrusive a nd m ost l ikely d ates t o t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod. C hullpas h ave n ot b een r eported a s a c ultural t rait o f t he W an , b ut a re k nown i n t he S outhern H ighlands f rom I nca t imes a nd e arlier. T hey a re q uite c ommon a t L ate I ntermediate P eriod s ites i n t he L ucre B asin ( eg. R ayallacta a nd C hokepukio). T he p resence o f t he t wo W an i s herds i nside t he c hullpa i s m ost l ikely a ccidental s ince i t w as c onstructed i n o ne o f t he f ew a reas o f P ikillacta w here W an i s herds o ccur o n t he s urface, a nd t he c hullpa h ad b een b adly d isturbed i n t he p ast w hen i t w as d estroyed t o i ts f oundations.

I NVESTIGATED F EATURES: I n c anchon # 1 o n t he s outheast s ide o f P ikillacta, a n e rosion c hannel i n a s heep t rail r evealed a h igh c oncentration o f c eramics n ear t he s urface. A 3 x 3 m eter t est c ut w as p laced t here a nd d esignated U nit 1 9 ( fig.3-35). T his u nit p roduced a v ery h igh v olume o f a rtifacts: 3 ,600 p ot s herds, t housands o f b ones, s everal f ine c arved b one w eaving t ools ( fig. 3 -36), m any p ieces o f m etal, i ncluding s everal t opo p ins ( fig. 3 -37), p olished s tone b eads, a nd m any p ieces o f o bsidian , i ncluding a v ery f ine l arge p oint a nd s everal l arge b lades ( fig. 3 -38). T he f ill c ontained m any s mall p ockets o f a sh a nd, i n g eneral, t he e xcavated r emains g ave t he i mpression t hat w e h ad c ut i nto a t rash m idden. U nit 1 9 w as l ocated o n a v ery s teep s lope a nd t he e xcavation r evealed t hat i t m ay h ave o riginally b een t erraced. A t t he b ottom o f t he u nit, a bout t wo m eters b elow t he s urface, w e f ound a p repared l iving f loor w hich r ested o n a l evel p latform . T his f loor c ontained m any f eatures s uggesting t hat i t h ad b een a f ood p reparation a rea o r k itchen ( fig.s 3 -39, & 3 -40). I n t he n orth c orner w as a l arge f ire h earth w hich w as p artially c ut b ack i nto t he t errace w all. T here m ay h ave b een s ome s ort o f o ven s tructure h ere a t o ne t ime. I n t he e ast c orner o f t he u nit w ere t wo g rinding s tones s et i n a f oundation o f s mall s tones a nd g lobs o f p laster. O ne o f t hese g rinding s tones w as r ectangular a nd l ooked a s i f i t h ad o riginally b een a d ressed b lock w hich i s v ery u nusual s ince n o c ut s tones h ave b een f ound i n t he r uins o f P ikillacta. I n t he f loor w ere t hree s pecially p repared p its. T wo o f t hese w ere p laster-lined a nd t hird w as m ade t o h old a v ery l arge c eramic v essel. T he v essel w as s till i n p lace i n t he t hird p it, w ith o nly t he t op b roken a round t he s houlders. T he p ieces h ad f allen i nside t he v essel a fter t he b reak a nd w e w ere a ble t o r ecover t hem s o t hat t he v essel c ould b e r econstructed.

4 1

T o t he n orthwest, t he f loor c ontinued u nder t he s ide w all o f a venue # 1. T his i ndicated t hat t he l iving f loor p robably p redates t he c onstruction o f P ikillacta . O ne o ther v ery i nteresting f ind w as a f ragment o f t he r im o f a p olychrome W an i v essel ( fig. 3 -41) w hich p roved t o b e p art o f o ne o f t he r ims r ecovered i n U nit 1 6. T his s uggests t hat t he t rash i n s tructure 1 2-2A w as a llowed t o a ccumulate a nd w as p eriodically d isposed o f i n t he a rea a round U nit 1 9. I n a n e ffort t o c onfirm t hat C anchon # 1 r epresented t he m ain t rash d ump f or t he P ikillacta s ite, a s econd t est c ut, d esignated U nit 2 0, w as m ade o n t he e xtreme s outhwestern e dge o f C anchon # 1, j ust a bove a venue # 1. U nit 2 0 m easured 2 x 2 m eters a nd w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 2 .7 m eters b elow t he s urface. T his u nit p roduced 7 ,840 p otsherds, a l arge q uantity o f b one, m any p ieces o f m etal i ncluding s everal t opo p ins, a nd m any f ragments o f o bsidian. T he f ill a lso c ontained n umerous p ockets o f a sh a nd g lobs o f p laster. I n c onclusion , t he d ata f rom U nits 1 9 a nd 2 0 s uggests t hat t here m ay h ave b een a w ork c amp i n C anchon # 1 d uring t he c onstruction o f P ikillacta. T he k itchen i n U nit 1 9 p robably s erved t o f eed t he w orkers a nd w as t hen a bandoned a fter c onstruction o f t he s ite w as c ompleted. T his w hole a rea w as t hen u sed a s t he m ain t rash d ump f or t he s ite. T he g radual a ccumulation o f t rash a nd t he e rosion o f t he h illslope e ventually o bscured t he l iving f loor f ound i n U nit 1 9. W hy s o m any f ine o bjects s uch a s t he o bsidian b lades, s tone b eads , a nd m etal t opo p ins f ound t heir w ay i nto t he t rash m idden i s am ystery. O ne o ther f eature w as i nvestigated b y e xcavation. I n a venue # 7 t here a re m any h umps o n t he s urface w hich a re a ligned w ith t he w alls a pproaching p erpendicularly o n e ither s ide i n S ectors # 1 a nd # 2, s uggesting t hat t hese w alls c rossed t he a venue. W e e xcavated o ne t hese h umps, l ocated b etween s tructures 5 -2C a nd 7 3-1. T his e xcavation w as d esignated U nit 3 2 a nd r evealed t hat t here w as a g ate i n t he w all c rossing t he a venue. T his g ate w as v ery s imilar t o t hose i n t he s treets o f g roup C , S ector # 4.

D ATING T HE P IKILLACTA S ITE A s p reviously n oted, m ost s cholars n ow a ccept a M iddle H orizon d ate f or t he P ikillacta s ite. M enzel ( 1968:93) h as s uggested t hat P ikillacta m ay d ate t o l ate E poch I B o r e arly E poch 2 A o f t he M iddle H orizon, o n t he b asis o f s ome o f t he s herds f ound i n S anders' e xcavation i n s tructure 1 2-2B ( Menzel 1 968:70 a nd n ote 7 7). T his w ould p lace P ikillacta i n t ime a t a round A D 6 50 i n R owe a nd M enzel's c hronology ( Rowe a nd M enzel 1 967:iv). D uring t he 1 982 e xcavations n ew e vidence f or d ating t he o ccupation o f t he s ite w as u ncovered i n t he f orm o f c eramics a nd a lso r adiocarbon s amples . S herds e xcavated f rom t he l owest l evels o f U nit 1 9 h ave b een i dentified b y L umbreras ( personal c ommunication 1 982) a s b elonging t o t he O cros s tyle d ating f rom M iddle H orizon E poch 1 B ( fig. 3 -42). Ac arbon s ample f rom t he s ame l evel o f U nit 1 9 p roduced a d ate

4 2

o f A D 6 00 + o r - 6 0 ( Tx 4 750) [ *Note : a ll r adiocarbon d ates r eported h ere a re u ncorrected]. A s econd c arbon s ample, f ound r esting o n t he p laster f loor o f s tructure 1 2-2A i n U nit 1 6 B -D , p roduced a d ate o f A D 5 20 + o r - 9 0 ( Tx 4 751). B oth o f t hese d ates a re r easonably c onsistent w ith t he e stimates o f M enzel a nd L umbreras. T he s ample f rom U nit 1 6 B -D w as s maller t han t he s ample f rom U nit 1 9 a nd t his m ay a ccount f or t he l arger p lus-minus f actor a nd t he e arlier d ate. I n S ector # 4, t hree a dditional r adiocarbon s amples w ere o btained, t wo w ere t aken i n 1 979 a nd o ne i n 1 982. T he t wo s amples t aken i n 1 979 w ere o btained f rom b raided v ines t hat h ad b een p laced i n t he w alls o f t he T ype E s tructures a t t he t ime o f t heir c onstruction. T hese y ielded d ates o f A D 8 10 + o r - 6 0 ( Tx 4 247) , a nd A D 8 50 + o r - 6 0 ( Tx 3 996). S ince b oth o f t hese s amples w ere t aken f rom t he s ame p iece o f v ine b raid a s omewhat m ore p recise d ate c an b e o btained b y c orrecting t hem u sing t he d endrochronological c alibration t able o f D amon , e t. a l. ( 1974:353) a nd t hen u sing t he a veraging p rocedure s uggested b y L ong a nd R ippeteau ( 1974:206). T his y ields a c orrected a verage d ate o f A D 8 30 + o r - 4 2. T he s ample t aken i n 1 982 w as o btained f rom t he c harcoal d eposit i n t he b ottom o f U nit 3 0 a nd y ielded a d ate o f A D 5 20 + o r - 3 70 ( Tx 4 747). T he v ery l arge d eviation i s d ue t o t he s mall s ize o f t his s ample a nd r enders t his d ate o f l ittle u se. T hese r adiocarbon d ates s uggest t hat P ikillacta w as c onstructed a t t he e nd o f M iddle H orizon E poch 1 B a nd t hat t he s tructures i n S ector # 4 m ay h ave b een a l ater a ddition . A rchitecturally t his i s p ossible s ince t he T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 a re t he o nly l arge g roup o f s tructures n ot p hysically b onded t o t he m ain a rchitectural b lock.

R ESULTS O F T HE A RCHITECTURAL S URVEY

D uring t he c ourse o f t he m apping p roject a nd e xcavation, a s ystematic i nvestigation o f t he a rchitecture o f P ikillacta w as c onducted o n a s tructure b y s tructure b asis, o btaining a g reat d eal o f a rchitectural d ata. S ummarized b elow a re t he r esults o f i nvestigations o f t he p rinciples o f d esign a nd s equence o f c onstruction, c onstruction m aterials, p rocess o f c onstruction, a nd w all f eatures.

P RINCIPLES O F D ESIGN A ND S EQUENCE O F C ONSTRUCTION : T he P ikillacta s ite i s b ased o n t he t hree f undamental a rchitectural e lements: t he r ectangular e nclosure, t he p eripheral g allery, a nd t he r ectangular b uilding. T hese a re u sed i n c onjunction w ith t he p rinciple o f c ommon w alls i n w hich s tructures a re c onceived f rom t he i nterior p erspective r ather t han f rom t he e xterior p erspective. W hereas o ur s ociety d efines a s pace o r s tructure b y t he l imits o f i ts e xterior w alls, a t P ikillacta t he s tructure o r s pace w as d efined b y t he l imits o f i ts i nterior w alls. T hus i n t he v ast

4 3

m ajority o f s tructures i n P ikillacta, t here s imply i s n o e xterior p erspective a s t here a re n o e xterior w alls. S pace i s d efined f rom w ithin b y t he v arious a rrangements o f t he t hree b asic a rchitectural e lements. T hese t hree e lements a lmost i nvariably p roduce a rrangements w hich c an b e d efined w ithin t he f ive b asic s tructural t ypes : A , B , C , D , a nd E . A lthough t here a re a f ew u nique s tructures, t hey a re a lso c omposed o f, o r a re v ariations o n t he t heme o f, t he t hree b asic e lements. I n m any r espects t he s tructures a t P ikillacta a re a nalogous t o t he r ooms i n a l arge h ouse o r m ore p recisely, t he r ooms o f a l arge p alace, a nd i n t his s ense t he e ntire c omplex m ay b e v iewed a s a s ingle e normous b uilding. T he s tructural s urvey m ade i n c onjunction w ith t he m apping p roject, i ndicated t hat a ll o f t he s hared w alls, t he w alls s erving a s b oundaries b etween s tructures, t he w alls s erving a s b oundaries b etween s tructures a nd a venues , a nd t he w alls s erving a s t he p erimeter o f t he s ite, w ere b uilt f irst. T his p rovided t he b asic s tructural s hell s ince a ll o f t hese w alls w ere b onded t ogether. A ll o f t he m ajor a reas o f t he s ite w ere t hus l aid o ut i n t he p reliminary s tage o f c onstruction, a nd m ust h ave b een c onceived a s o ne m aster p lan. T his p lan m ust h ave b een e xtraordinarily d etailed s ince t he l ocation o f a ll m ajor r ooms m ust h ave b een k nown i n a dvance i n o rder t o c onstruct s uch f eatures a s s ubterranean c anals t hat w ould h ave t o h ave b een b uilt i n a dvance. A fter t he b asic s hell h ad b een p ut u p, o r a t l east l aid o ut, t he i nteriors o f e ach s tructure w ere t hen p ut t ogether. T he c onstruction o f t he i nteriors a llowed f or a l imited a mount o f f lexibility s ince t he i nterior w alls w ere g enerally u nbonded. I t w as t herefore t heoretically p ossible t o m odify t he i nterior d esign o f a s tructure b y m oving a w all w ithout t he r isk o f d isrupting n eighboring s tructures. I n h er s tudy o f W an i a rchitecture, S chreiber ( 1978:148) h as i dentified a f our-step s equence o f c onstruction: ( 1) p re-construction l ayout, ( 2) f oundations, ( 3) w all c onstruction, ( 4 f inishing o f i nteriors. P ikillacta c onforms t o t his s equence a nd d ata f rom o ther m ajor W ani s ites s uch a s V iracocha P ampa ( Topic & T opic 1 983:20-21), a nd W ani i tself ( Spickard 1 983:148) s uggest t hat t hey a lso f ollow S chreiber's s equence, c onfirming i ts v alidity f or W an i a rchitecture i n g eneral.

C ONSTRUCTION M ATERIALS: T he m aterial u sed i n c onstruction o f P ikillacta a re a ll f ound r elatively c lose t o t he s ite. I n h is s tudy o f t he n earby R umiqolqa q uarries, P rotzen ( 1983: 3 ) h as r emarked t hat t hese q uarries p robably p rovided t he s tone f or P ikillacta. T he a ctual s tone u sed i s r ed s andstone a nd l ava. T he s andstone p redominates, g iving t he r uins a d istinctive r eddish c ast w hich i s a ugmented b y t he r ed c olor o f t he s oil u sed t o m ake t he m ud m ortar. S everal v ery l arge b orrow p its a re s till v isible o n t he n ortheast a nd n orthwest s ides o f t he s ite, j ust o utside o f S ectors # 1 a nd # 4 a nd t hese s urely p rovided a g reat p art o f t he m ud u sed i n c onstruction. T he y eso o r g ypsum p laster i s a bundant o n n earby C erro H atun B alcon a nd i s s till m ined t here t oday.

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R oofs w ere m ost l ikely m ade o f t hatch a nd w ere p robably s teeply p itched f or t he h igh r ainfall o f t he h ighlands ( fig. 3 -43). T he i llustration o f W an i b uildings o n t he p ots f rom t he P acheco o ffering s uggest v ery s teeply p itched r oofs ( fig. 3 -44). I n c ontrast, S anders ( 1973:389-390) h as a rgued f or f lat r oofs c onstructed o f a l ayer o f e arth a nd g ravel o ver a n etwork o f w ooden b eams a nd p oles, a nd c apped w ith a t hick l ayer o f g ypsum p laster. T opic a nd T opic ( 1983:18) o n t he o ther h and, h ave s uggested t hat c omparable W an i s tructures a t V iracocha P ampa w ere r oofed w ith c laystone u sed a s s hingle. I b elieve t hat b oth o f t hese m ethods w ere u nlikely d ue t o t heir i mpracticability i n a h igh r ainfall e nvironment a nd a lso b ecause t hatched r oofs w ould b e s impler t o c onstruct a nd m uch c heaper i n t erms o f l abor e xpended i n p rocuring a nd p reparing m aterials a nd i n m anufacture o f t he r oofs.

P ROCESS O F C ONSTRUCTION : T he a ctual p rocess o f c onstruction i nvolved t he d igging o f f oundation t renches a s m uch a s 1 .5 m eters d eep. T he b ases o f t he w alls w ere l aid i n t hese t renches a nd t he w alls w ere t hen b uilt i n b oth v ertical a nd h orizontal s ections. C uriously, t he v ertical s ections a re n ot b onded a t t heir e dges, a lthough t hey a re b onded i nternally s ince t he s tones a re n ot l aid i n c ourses b ut r ather a t r andom w ith s mall s tones u sed t o f ill t he c hinks b etween l arger s tones. T his f ailure t o b ond t he s ections h as r esulted i n t he d ifferential w all c ollapse w hich a ccounts f or t he p resent s awtooth a ppearance o f t he w alls. I t i s v ery p uzzling t hat t he a rchitects, a fter t aking c are t o b ond a ll o f t he w all i ntersections i n t he b asic s hell, w ould l eave t he v ertical s ections u nbonded. T he h orizontal s ection a re a lso u nusual i n t hat t he s izes o f t he s tones u sed i n t he s ections a re f airly u niform. H owever, t he s ize o f t he s tones d iffers f rom s ection t o s ection, w ith s ome s ections c onsisting o f l arge s tones a nd o thers o f s mall s tones. T he s tones a re g enerally n ot l aid i n r egular c ourses b ut s eemingly a t r andom , w ith t he e xception o f t he m argins o f a s ection w here r elatively s traight c ourses w ill o ccur. O ne w all i n p articular ( fig. 3 -45) i s r emarkable b ecause a s ection o f l arge s tones i s l aid o ver a s ection c ontaining r ather s mall o nes. W all t hickness w as v ariable a nd d ifficult t o g auge a ccurately d ue t o e rosion o f t he o riginal s urfaces. T he b oundary w alls o f e nclosures, t hat i s t he s hared w alls t hat f orm t he f our w alls o f t he e nclosure, a veraged 9 0 c m t hick. T he i nterior w alls, t hose f orming g alleries a nd c rosswalls, a veraged 7 0 c m t hick. T he w alls f orming t he b oundary o f t he m ain a rchitectural b lock a veraged 1 .5 m eters t hick. B ecause o f t he p oor c ondition o f t he w all s urfaces i t w as n ot p ossible t o a ccurately g auge w hether t he w alls t apered t oward t he t op. I t s eems u nlikely t hat t hey w ould t aper s ignificantly d ue t ot h e f act t hat a lmost a ll w alls i n P ikillacta a re s hared, w ith e ach f ace b elonging t o a s eparate s tructure.

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A fter t he w alls h ad b een e rected, t he f inal s tep w as t he a pplication o f t hick s tucco o f m ud a nd p laster. S urviving f ragments d iscovered i n s itu i n e xcavation u nit 1 0 i ndicate a t hick ( 10 c m) c ap o f c lay o r m ud c overed i n t urn b y a t hin f rosting o f p laster a pproximately o ne c entimeter t hick.

W ALL F EATURES: A s t he w alls w ere c onstructed, v arious f eatures w ere i ncorporated i nto t hem . T hese f eatures i ncluded r ows o f s tone c orbels, s etbacks , r ows o f s mall n iches, l arge n iches , w indows , r osettes, a nd v ine c ores. T he r ows o f c orbels, r ows o f s mall n iches, a nd s etbacks, i n m ost c ases a ppear t o b e p art o f a s upport s ystem f or m ultiple s torey s tructures. T he b est e vidence f or t his i s t he s tairway d iscovered i n S anders' e xcavation o f s tructure 1 2-2B ( Sanders 1 973:388) w hich t erminates a t t he l evel o f t he r ows o f c orbels t hat w ould h ave s upported t he s econd f loor. T he r ows o f c orbels c onsist s imply o f s tones s et i nto t he w all i n ar ow i n s uch f ashion t hat t hey p roject 1 5-30 c m h orizontally f rom t he w all. T he s pacing b etween i ndividual s tones v aries g reatly, w ith s ome s et s o c lose t o e ach o ther a s t o a lmost f orm a s helf, w hereas i n o ther c ases t hey a re s et w idely a part. I t h as b een g enerally a ssumed t hat t he f unction o f t he c orbels w as t o s upport t he u pper f loors o f b uildings ( Sanders 1 973:388; S chreiber 1 978:138). P resumably a f ramework o f w ood s panned t he g ap b etween w alls a nd w as s upported b y t he c orbels; t he f loor w as t hen l aid o n t his f ramework ( fig. 3 -47). T his m ust h ave b een t he c ase i n m any o f t he s tructures s ince c orbels a re g enerally f ound i nside t he g alleries a nd t he d istances t o b e s panned f or f looring w ere r arely m uch m ore t han t wo m eters w ide. T here a re h owever, s everal c ases w here t he f loor s upport a rgument d oes n ot m ake s ense. I n s tructure 1 2-2A t he r ow o f c orbels i n t he o utside s outheastern g allery z ig zags a t t hree m eter i ntervals w ith a n a pproximate s hift i n h eight o f 5 0 c m a t e ach i nterval ( fig. 3 -46). I n s tructure 2 -2A t he r ow o f c orbels i n t he s outhwest s tanding w all h as a p ronounced c urve t hat c annot b e a ttributed t o w all s ubsidence. A nother c urious f act i s t hat s everal s tructures h ave v ertical r ows o f c orbels i n a ddition t o h orizontal r ows. F urther, t he s ite p erimeter w all n ear t he m odern e ntrance t o S ector # 3 h as a r ow o f c orbels j ust b elow t he t op o f t he w all. T his i s a t a l evel a pproximately t welve m eters a bove t he p resent g round s urface a nd s eems m uch t oo h igh f or a s econd s tory. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he c orbels h ad, i n f act, s everal d ifferent f unctions. S ome c learly w ere i ntended a s f loor s upports f or t wo a nd t hree s tory s tructures, w hile o thers m ay s imply h ave b een d ecorative. O ne a dditional p ossible f unction i s t hat t hey h elped s upport t he m ud a nd p laster s tucco o n t he w alls. S urviving f ragments o f t he s tucco i ndicate t hat i t w as a t l east 1 0 c m t hick a nd b y t he t ime t hat a w all 4 0 m eters l ong a nd 1 0 t o 1 2 m eters h igh h ad b een c overed, l iterally t ons o f s tucco w ould h ave h ad t o b e s upported.

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S etbacks a re f ormed b y n arrowing t he w idth o f a w all s o t hat a s helf o r l edge 1 0 t o 1 5 c m w ide i s f ormed. S etbacks a re c ommonly f ound i n w alls o pposite a nother w all c ontaining a r ow o f c orbels. T heir f unction i s p resumably i dentical t o t hat o f t he c orbels i n s upporting a w ooden f ramework o n w hich a f loor i s l aid. A s n oted, s etbacks o ccur o pposite c orbels, b ut n ever i n t he s ame w all f ace a s c orbels ( fig. 3 -47). T he r ows o f n iches c onsist o f s eries o f s mall i rregular r ectangular n iches w hich a verage 2 0 x 2 5 c m i n s ize. A s w ith t he c orbels, t he s pacing a nd p lacement o f t he n iches v aries c onsiderably. N iches a re f requently f ound i n c onjunction w ith s etbacks o r r ows o f c orbels. T hey a re s ometimes s et f lush w ith t he c orbels o r s etbacks , o r c an b e l ocated f rom t en c entimeters t o am eter a bove o r b elow t hem . I f t he s etbacks a nd c orbels a re i n f act f loor s upports, t hen t he n iches w ould s eem r edundant a s a n a dditional f loor s upport s ystem . S anders ( 1973:402) r eports t hat L umbreras t old h im t hat h e b elieves t hat c ertain o f t he s mall n iches a t t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho m ay h ave s erved t o s upport t ennoned s tone h eads, y et S anders n otes t hat n o s tone s culpture h as b een f ound a t P ikillacta. S pickard ( 1983:157) s uggests t hat t he n iches , o r " square h oles" a s s he c alls t hem , s erved t o s upport s caffolding d uring c onstruction a nd w ere l ater p lastered o ver w hen t he w all w as f inished. O ne o ther p ossible f unction o f s mall n iches i n c ertain c ases m ay h ave b een f or a d oor f astening s ystem s imilar t o t hat u sed b y t he I ncas. S anders' e xcavation U nit A i n s tructure 3 3-2B u ncovered n iches s o p ositioned t hat I o bserved i n 1 982. T he T opics ( 1983:14) a lso r eport n iches u sed f or t his f unction a t V iracocha P ampa , a l arge W an i s ite s omewhat s imilar t o P ikillacta , l ocated i n t he N orth H ighlands. I t s eems l ikely t hat, l ike t he c orbels, t he n iches s erved a v ariety o f f unctions, a ll o f w hich a re n ot r eadily a pparent t o t he m odern o bserver. O ne v ery c urious a spect o f t he w hole p roblem o f m ultiple s tory s tructures i s t he f act t hat i n n one o f m y e xcavations w as a ny m aterial f ound t hat s uggested t he r emains o f c ollapsed f loors. S anders ( 1973:389-390) r eports t hat i n h is e xcavation U nit A , a n umber o f t hick g ypsum s labs w ere f ound. T hese w ere s moothed o n o ne s ide a nd r ough o n t he o ther, w ith c hunks o f e arth c linging t o s ome t hem . T hese m ay b e r emains o f c ollapsed u pper f loors w hich w ere p robably c onstructed b y s panning t he s pace b etween a s et o f c orbels o n f acing w alls, o r b etween a s et o f c orbels a nd a s etback ( fig. 3 -47). H ere a w ooden f ramework w ould b e c overed w ith a l ayer o f m ud o r c lay a nd c apped w ith a t hick l ayer o f g ypsum p laster. F loors c onstructed i n t his f ashion a re r eported b y S pickard ( 1983:142) f rom t he M oraduchayuq s ector o f t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho. L arge n iches a re c ontrasted w ith t he n iches i n t he p revious d iscussion o n t he b asis o f s ize. O nly f ive l arge n iches w ere e ncountered i n P ikillacta, a lthough t here m ay h ave b een o thers t hat a re n ow d estroyed o r o bscured b y w all r ubble. T hree o f t hese n iches a re l ocated i n s tructure 1 2-2B , w hich i s t he s ame b uilding n ear t he c enter o f t he s ite i n w hich S anders' U nit I w as l ocated. T hese t hree n iches e ach m easure a pproximately 9 0 c m w ide b y 4 0 c m d eep, b ut d ue t o t he f act t hat t he w all i s d estroyed i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t heir o riginal h eight. T he o ther t wo l arge n iches a re l ocated i n

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s tructure 2 5-2E , t he s ame s tructure i n w hich U nit 1 0 w as e xcavated. O ne o f t hese n iches i s t rapezoidal i n t he h orizontal p lane a nd i s a pproximately 1 .4 m eters w ide a t i ts b ack a nd n arrows t o o ne m eter w ide a t i ts f ront. T he o ther n iche h as b een r econstructed i n a r ectangular f orm a nd i s 1 .4 m eters w ide. B oth a re a pproximately 8 0 c m d eep. I b elieve t hat b oth n iches w ere o riginally t rapezoidal i n t he h orizontal p lane a nd t hat t he r ectangular o ne i s p robably a n e rror i n r econstruction. T opic a nd T opic ( 1983:14-15) r eport v ery s imilar t rapezoidal n iches o ccurring i n w hat t hey c all " oblong s tructures" a t V iracocha P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands. T hese o blong s tructures a re v ery s imilar i n f orm t o s tructure 2 5-2E a t P ikillacta . T his s imilarity s uggests t hat t here p robably w ere o riginally m any m ore n iches i n s tructure 2 5-2E w hich a re n ow d estroyed. T he o blong s tructures a t V iracocha P ampa a re e stimated b y t he T opics t o h ave h ad a s m any a s 3 4 n iches. T he f unction o f t hese n iches w as p robably c eremonial. W indows a re r elatively s mall a nd n arrow a nd q uite i rregular i n s hape, r arely e xceeding 2 0 x 4 0 c m . T hey a re c onstructed i n s imilar f ashion t o t he s mall n iches a nd d iffer m ainly i n b eing s lightly l arger a nd c ompletely p iercing t he w all. I t i s c urious t hat a ll o f t he w indows e ncountered a t P ikillacta o ccur i n o nly n ine s tructures l ocated i n t he s outhern c orner o f S ector # 2. I t m ay b e t hat w indows i n o ther s tructures a re e ither b uried o r w ere i n s ections o f w alls n ow d estroyed. T he s tructures c ontaining s urviving w indows a re d esigned w ith o nly l imited u se o f g alleries s o t hat n early a ll o f t he w indows o pen t o t he l ight r ather t han t o t he i nterior o f t he a djacent s tructure s haring t he w all. A lmost e verywhere e lse i n t he s ite, s hared w alls a re p arallelled o n b oth s ides b y o ne o r m ore g alleries w hich w ould m ake w indows u seless f or a dmitting l ight R osettes a re p eculiar w all f eatures, a pparently u nique t o P ikillacta, w hose f unction r emains u nknown. T hey c onsist o f a c ircular p attern i n a w all s urface f ormed b y f airly l arge s tones, w ith t he i nterior o f t he c ircle f illed w ith s mall s tones ( fig. 3 -47). R osettes a re f airly c ommon i n t he w alls a t P ikillacta b ut o nly o ne w as d iscovered i ntact. I t h ad b een p reserved b y t he o ver b urden a nd w as o nly d iscovered b y e xcavation i n U nit 1 4. L ocal i nformants t old m e t hat a ll o f t he o ther e xamples o f r osettes w ere d estroyed b ecause t he p eople o f t he L ucre B asin b elieve t hat r osettes m ark t he l ocation o f w all t ombs a nd s o h ave b roken h oles i n t he w alls w herever t hey f ind a r osette. W all t ombs a re c ommon a t C hokepukio, w hich n o d oubt i nspired t he n otion t hat w all t ombs a lso e xisted a t P ikillacta, m arked b y r osettes. H owever w e f ound n o e vidence o f w all t ombs i n t he b roken w alls t hat w e e xamined a t P ikillacta a nd o ur i nformant c laimed t hat n o o ne h ad e ver f ound a t omb i n aw all a t P ikillacta . T he w alls o f t he s mall c onjoined T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 c ontain a c ore o f b raided v ines o f t he p ispita p lant w hich s till g rows a bundantly o n t he s ite. T he b raid w as r elatively f lat, m easuring a bout 8 x 2 c m i n c ross s ection a nd w as u nquestionably a

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d eliberate i nclusion i n t he w all a t t he t ime o f c onstruction. T here a ppeared t o b e o nly o ne o f t hese c ores p er s tructure s o i t s eems u nlikely t hat t hey h ad a ny s tructural s ignificance i n t erms o f c ontributing t o w all s trength. T he f unction o f t hese c ores r emains o bscure.

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS A t t he o utset o f t he i nvestigation a t P ikillacta, t hree b asic c ategories o f r esearch o bjectives w ere f ormulated. T hese w ere d esigned t o d eal w ith q uestions r egarding ( I) o ccupation o f t he s ite, ( II) i ts a rchitectural f eatures, a nd ( III) s ite f unction. T hese o bjectives c an n ow b e a ddressed i n l ight o f t he d ata r ecovered d uring t he e xcavations a nd a rchitectural s urvey.

I . T HE O CCUPATION O F P IKILLACTA: W ith r espect t o t he q uestion o f w hether o r n ot P ikillacta h ad b een o ccupied, t he a nswer i s c learly a ffirmative. T he e xcavation d ata s uggest a f airly i ntensive o ccupation o f s ubstantial d uration. A pproximately 1 8,000 p ot s herds w ere r ecovered a s w ell a s 2 5,000 b ones a nd b one f ragments, p lus a v ariety o f o ther a rtifacts i ncluding o bjects o f w orked b one, o bsidian, s hell, a nd m etal. M uch o f t his m aterial c ame f rom v ery d ense d eposits ( 600-700 s herds p er c ubic m eter) i n t he t rash m idden d iscovered o n t he s outheast s ide o f t he s ite, i n C anchon # 1. T his m idden i s o f c onsiderable a real e xtent a nd i s i n s ome p arts a lmost t hree m eters d eep. A s econd m idden w as a lso d iscovered i nside s tructure 1 2-2A a nd p roved t o b e 1 .4 m eters d eep. N early a ll o f t he o ther s tructures t ested c ontained v arying a mounts o f c ultural d ebris, w ith d eposits b eing q uite d eep i n s ome c ases. T here w as a g reat d eal o f a sh m ixed t hroughout t he f ill i n a lmost a ll o f t he s tructures t ested a nd a n umber o f w ell-defined f ire h earths w ere a lso e ncountered. I n n early a ll o f t he e xcavations, c ultural m aterial w as n ot e ncountered a t l ess t han h alf a m eter b elow t he s urface w hich n o d oubt a ccounts f or t he l ack o f s urface a rtifacts. T he s terile c ap o f e arth c overing t he o ccupation l ayers i s a lmost c ertainly a p roduct o f t he h eavy e rosion o f t he s lopes o f C erro H uchuy B alcon c ombined w ith t he g reat a mounts o f m ud a nd s tone c ontributed b y t he c ollapsing w alls. P ikillacta i s u nquestionably a W an i c onstruction p roject. I n a ddition t o t he a rchitecture b eing i n t ypical W an i s tyle, a s d efined b y S chreiber ( 1978), a ll b ut a v ery f ew o f t he d iagnostic p otsherds a re a lso W an i s tyle ( the f ew e xceptions b elong t he l ocal M iddle H orizon Q otakalli a nd L ucre s tyles). B eing a W arf s ite, P ikillacta s hould d ate f rom t he M iddle H orizon t ime p eriod b etween A D 5 40 a nd A D 9 00 ( Rowe 1 965:197). M enzel ( 1968:93) h as s uggested a M iddle H orizon E poch 2 A o r l ate E poch 1 B d ate f or t he o ccupation o f P ikillacta, b ased o n h er s tudies o f W arf c eramics. C eramic a nd r adiocarbon s amples f rom S ector # 2 a nd t he m idden i n C anchon # 1 t end t o s upport M enzel's s uggested d ating. A dditional r adiocarbon s amples a nd a rchitectural d ata f rom S ector # 4 s uggest t hat t his p art o f t he s ite m ay h ave b een a l ater a ddition, p erhaps d ating f rom a round A D 8 00-850 .

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T he d uration o f t he o ccupation o f P ikillacta i s d ifficult t o j udge o n t he a vailable d ata. T he q uantity o f m aterial i n t he t rash m idden i s c onsiderable. S ince i t i s n ot y et p ossible t o c alculate t he p opulation d ensity o f t he o ccupation w ith a ny a ccuracy, i t i s d ifficult t o s ay w hether t his m idden r epresents a l arge p opulation o ver a r elatively s hort s pan o r a s maller p opulation o ver a l onger s pan o f t ime. T here i s a lso t he p robability t hat t here a re o ther m iddens a s y et u ndiscovered t hat a re a lso a ssociated w ith t he o ccupation o f t he s ite. T he n umber o f t ime-sensitive d iagnostic c eramic a rtifacts r ecovered f rom t he s ite i s v ery s mall, y et t hese d o i nclude s pecimens o f l ate M iddle H orizon 1 B s tyles ( Luis L umbreras, p ersonal c ommunication 1 982) , M iddle H orizon 2 A ( William I sbell, p ersonal c ommunication 1 984), a nd 2 B s tyles ( John R owe a nd W illiam I sbell, p ersonal c ommunications 1 984). T his c eramic d ata t aken t ogether w ith t he r adiocarbon d ates f rom v arious p arts o f t he s ite, s eems t o s uggest a n o ccupation o f p erhaps t wo h undred y ears.

I I. A RCHITECTURAL D ATA: A s h as b een s hown, P ikillacta i s a v ery c omplex s tructure b ased o n t he r ecombination o f t hree b asic a nd s imple a rchitectural e lements i nto f ive s tandardized s tructural t ypes. T he k ey t o i ts c onstruction i s t he m ovement f rom s imple t o c omplex. I n c onstructing P ikillacta, t he b asic f ramework o f s hared b onded w alls w as f irst l aid o ut. T his p rovided t he s tructural s hell i nto w hich t he m ore c omplex a nd e laborate i nteriors o f t he i ndividual s tructures w ere b uilt ( but n ot b onded t o s hared w alls). I n t his r igidly p lanned s ite, t he o nly f lexibility w as i n t he a ctual c ombination o f t he e lements i n t he i nteriors o f t he s tructures. E ssentially, t he m aster p lan d ictated t he s ize a nd l ocation o f e ach s tructure, b ut n ot n ecessarily t he t ype o f s tructure, s ince a ll t ypes a re f ound i n a ll s ectors o f t he s ite a nd i n aw ide v ariety o f p osition. T he p rinciples o f d esign a nd c onstruction a pplied a t P ikillacta a re r emarkably a dapted f or a p re-literate c omplex s ociety a nd o ffer s ome p ossible i nsights i nto t he f unctions o f a p re-literate b ureaucracy. I n r educing t he c omplex P ikillacta p lan t o i ts s implest f orms, t he d esigners o f t he s ite w ere a ble t o t ransmit t he p lan w ith m inimum r isk o f i ts b eing g arbled. A s S pickard ( 1983:141) h as s uggested, i t w as p robably i mportant t o t he W an , f rom a p olitical p oint o f v iew , t hat t hey b e a ble t o " insure t hat t he i nstallation c ould b e e rected r elatively q uickly a nd a ppear t o b e i nvincible a nd b ureaucratically e fficient." T he c onstruction c rew m ust h ave c onsisted o f a f ew t rained a rchitects s upervising l arge c rews o f u nskilled l abor d rafted f rom t he l ocal p easantry. I n t he c ase o f P ikillacta t his w ould e ntail t he a dditional d ifficulty o f u sing a l ocal, c ulturally-different l abor f orce, t hat w as c ompletely u nfamiliar w ith t he t ype o f s tructure b eing e rected a nd w ho w ould t hus b e u nable t o v isualize t he d esired e nd p roduct. B y b reaking d own t he p lan i nto t hree b asic e lements, w ork c rews c ould b e r apidly t rained t o c onstruct a ny o f t he f ive b asic s tructural t ypes. S upervision r equirements w ould b e m any f ewer t han i f n umerous u nique s tructures w ere t o b e e rected. F urther s implifying t he t ask w ould b e t he u se o f t ypical l ocal m aterial: m ud, s andstone, a nd g ypsum p laster, w hich a re

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a ll r eadily a vailable a nd w ould h ave b een f amiliar t o t he w ork f orce. T hus a f ew h ighly t rained a rchitects, t ogether w ith a c adre o f s killed e ngineers, c ould m anipulate a v ery l arge b ody o f u nskilled l abor ( which p robably h ad t he a dditional c omplication o f s erving o n a r otational b asis) t o p roduce a s pectacular c omplex l ike P ikillacta. M any u nanswered q uestions r emain r egarding t he a rchitectural m ysteries o f t he s ite. T he e xcavations p rovided c lues t o b oth t he p roblems o f t raffic c irculation a nd w ater s upply. T he d iscovery o f b uried d oorways s uggests t hat m any o f t he d eeply b uried s tructures m ay a lso h ave t hem . T his d oes n ot s hed a ny l ight, h owever, o n h ow a p erson c ould a ctually f ind h is w ay t hrough t he s ite w hen i t w as o ccupied. E ven i f a ll o f t he s tructures i nterconnected w ith d oorways, t hey s till p resent t he p roblem o f a ll l ooking v ery m uch a like . W ith t heir w alls t en t o t welve m eters h igh , i t w ould b e i mpossible t o s ee o ut o f a ny g iven s tructure. H ow f or e xample, c ould o ne n avigate f rom a s tructure i n t he m iddle o f S ector # 1 t o o ne i n t he m iddle o f S ector # 2? T he s ubterranean c anal d iscovered i n U nit 1 7 s hows a t l east t hat c omplex a rrangements w ere m ade f or t ransport o f w ater. W hether t his c anal s erved f or w ater s upply o r d rainage i s u nknown, b ut i t i s c ertain t hat b oth f unctions w ere r equired i n t he s ite. S pickard's t abulation o f t he f eatures o f W an i a dministrative a rchitecture s uggests t hat s ubterranean c anal s ystems a re a c ommon f eature o f m any W an i s ites ( Spickard 1 983:146).

I II. T HE F UNCTION O F P IKILLACTA: B ecause P ikillacta h as b een t raditionally c onsidered t o b e a s torage c enter, e vidence f or t his f unction w as s ought d uring t he a rchitectural s urvey a nd t est e xcavations. A ll o f t he s tructural t ypes w ithin t he s ite, e xcept T ype D , w ere s ystematically s ampled w ith p articular a ttention d evoted t o S ector # 4, t he a rea l ong c onsidered t o c ontain a rchitecture s pecifically d esigned f or s torage. I n t his e ffort, t wo b asic q uestions w ere c onsidered: ( 1) d o t he r uins r esemble k nown P re-Columbian s tate s torage f acilities, a nd ( 2) d oes t he e xcavated m aterial f rom t he t est c uts s uggest a f unction a s a s tate s torage f acility? S ince t he o nly d ocumented s tate s torage f acilities i n P reC olumbian P eru a re t hose o f t he I nca , o ne m ust n ecessarily u se t hem a s am odel f or c omparison. M orris ( 1967), i n h is s tudy o f I nca s torage, d escribes t he v arious t ypes o f s torage f acilities e rected a nd m aintained b y t he I nca s tate. T hese i nclude b oth c ircular a nd r ectangular s hapes i n a v ariety o f s izes. O f t hese, t he f acilities u sed f or s torage a t t he p rovincial l evel o f a dministration w ould s eem t o c orrespond m ost c losely t o t he s ituation h ypothesized f or P ikillacta. T hese f acilities i nclude a t ype o f s tructure w hich M orris ( 1967:184) c alls H uanuco V iejo c ircular g ol c ias, a nd w hich a ppear t o b e t he m ost p hysically s imilar t o t he s mall c onjoined T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 o f P ikillacta. T his I nca t ype i s s ometimes a rranged i n r ows a long s treets a s a re t he s tructures a t P ikillacta, b ut d iffer i n t hat t he w alls a re n ot s hared a nd s paces a re l eft b etween i ndividual

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s tructures. T he g round p lans a re i n s ome c ases o val o r e llipsoid ( Morris 1 967:184). F urther, t he I nca g olgas a re u sually i solated f rom t he r est o f t he s ite a nd p laced a t a h igher l evel ( Morris 1 967:58), w hereas t he T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 o f P ikillacta a re i ncorporated i nto t he m ain a rchitectural b lock a nd a re o n t he s ame l evel o r l ower t han t he r est o f t he s ite. M orris ( 1967:9) r eached t he c onclusion t hat t he T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 o f P ikillacta d o n ot r esemble a ny o f t he I nca s torehouses, e ither f rom C uzco o r e lsewhere. T he o ther s tructures a t P ikillacta, t he l arge r ectangular s tructural T ypes A , B , C , a nd D , a lso d o n ot r esemble a ny o f t he s torage f acilities d escribed b y M orris. A lthough H arth-Terre ( 1959:14) a ssigns t he l arge r ectangular e nclosures a s torage a nd p rocessing f unction, S chreiber's ( 1978) s tudy o f W an i a rchitecture s uggests t hat t hese t ypes o f e nclosures s erve a s h abitations o r c raft p roductions a reas. T he e xcavation d ata f rom s tructural T ypes A , B , a nd C a t P ikillacta t end t o c onfirm t his s uggestion, a t l east i nsofar a s t he h abitation f unction . I n t erms o f t he n ature o f t he e xcavated m aterial a nd i ts d egree o f r eflection o f t he f unction o f t he s mall c onjoined T ype E s tructures i n P ikillacta , t he e vidence i s d ifficult t o i nterpret. M orris ( 1967:86) p oints o ut t hat t he c omparative e xcavation d ata f rom I nca g olgas m ay o nly r eflect e vents f rom t he e arly p arts o f t he S panish c onquest. T he r eason f or t his i s t hat t he s tored g oods w ere o ften l ooted o r d estroyed b y f ire b y o ne o r a nother o f t he w arring f actions. A s a r esult w e d o n ot h ave a g ood p icture o f w hat t he f ill f rom a q olqa s hould l ook l ike. I n g eneral, M orris r eports f inding a c onsiderable a mount o f p ottery a nd n otes t hat d ecorated p ieces w ere r elatively r are i n g olgas ( 1967:208). H e a lso r eports a c ertain a mount o f m acroscopic b otanical m aterial t hat h ad b een p reserved d ue t o b urning. T he m aterial f rom t he e xcavations i n t he T ype E s tructures a t P ikillacta i s s omewhat s imilar, w ith r espect t o t here b eing a q uantity o f p lain c eramic f ragments w ith d ecorated p ieces r elatively r are. T he a mount o f c eramic m aterial e ncountered, h owever, d oes n ot s uggest a l arge n umber o f v essels i n a ny g iven s tructure s uch a s o ne m ight e xpect i f c eramic s torage v essels w ere b eing u sed i nside t he s tructures. T his o f i tself, h owever, i s n ot a p articularly g ood i ndicator s ince t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he c ircumstances o f a bandonment w ere n ecessarily s imilar t o t hose o f t he I nca g olgas. N o m acroscopic b otanical r emains w ere e ncountered n or w as t here a ny e vidence o f r oofing m aterial, c harred o r o therwise. T he g reatest d ifference i n t he e xcavated m aterial f rom P ikillacta, h owever, w as t he q uantity o f b one a nd b urned b one r ecovered. M any o f t hese b ones a ppear t o b e t he r emains o f m eals a nd i t i s d ifficult t o e xplain t heir p resence a s t he r esult o f a gencies o ther t han a d omestic o ccupation o f t hese s tructures. T he c eramic m aterial P ikillacta i s p rimarily s uggesting u se i n c ooking.

r ecovered f rom t he T ype E s tructures a t u tilitarian a nd o ften h as s oot m arks A lmost a ll o f t hese s herds w ere s mall a nd

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t hin, a nd t hose t hat w ere c ooking a nd s erving v essels.

d iagnostic

s uggested

r elatively

s mall

T he f ire h earths f ound i n s ome o f t he t ype E s tructures a t P ikillacta, a s w ell a s t he a sh i n t he f ill, s eem p articularly i nconsistent w ith a s torage f unction. A lthough M orris ( 1967:86) r eports f inding a sh l enses i n s ome o f t he I nca g ol c ias w hich w as a r esult o f t heir h aving b een b urned, t he a sh e ncountered i n P ikillacta e xcavations d oes n ot a ppear t o r eflect t he s ame p henomenon. I n t he P ikillacta e xcavations, t he a sh w as f ound i n w ell d efined f ire h earths i n s ix o f t he T ype E s tructures. T hese h earths h ad f loors o f r ed b urned e arth a nd a lso c ontained b urned b ones a nd s oot b lackened p ot s herds. T hey h ave e very a ppearance o f c ooking f ires. T he a bsence o f a ny m acroscopic p lant r emains a lso s eems t o a rgue a gainst t he s torage t heory. O ne w ould e xpect t hat s ome e vidence o f t he s tored m aterial m ight h ave s urvived, a lthough i t c an b e a rgued t hat t his w ould d epend o n t he c ircumstances o f a bandonment a nd t he d egree t o w hich t hese s tructures w ere c leaned. S ince t hese s tructures l ack a p repared f loor s urface i t w ould n ot b e u nreasonable t o e xpect a t l east s ome b uild u p o f d ebris. F inally, t he q uestion m ust b e r aised t hat i f P ikillacta, a s e videnced b y t he s tructures i n S ector # 4, w as a W an i s tate s torage f acility, t hen w here a re t he o thers i n t he W an i E mpire? B ased o n o ur k nowledge o f t he I nca s tate s torage s ystem , a s eries o f s imilar i f n ot i dentical s ites, s trategically l ocated t hroughout t he e mpire, w ould b e e xpected i f s uch a s ystem h ad e xisted i n W an i t imes. Y et t he o nly s tructure k nown t hat s hows a ny a rchitectural s imilarity t o P ikillacta's S ector # 4, a nd w hich c an a lso b e c learly i dentified a s a w an i i mperial i nstallation i s t he s ite o f A zangaro ( Ingaragay) a t H uanta n ear A yacucho. H owever, M artha A nders, w ho c onducted a n e xcavation p rogram o n t his s ite a s p art o f h er r esearch f or h er d octoral d issertation, f ound n o e vidence t hat w ould s uggest s tate s torage a s a f unction f or t his s ite ( Anders, p ersonal c ommunication 1 984). T hose s ites s uch a s V iracocha P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands a nd P ampa d e l as L lamas i n t he C asma V alley, w hich h ave b een m entioned a s s torage s ites s imilar t o P ikillacta, i n f act c ontain n o a rchitectural s imilarities t o S ector # 4 o f P ikillacta a t a ll. R ather t han s torage, t he e xcavation e vidence f rom S ector # 4 a t P ikillacta s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he c onjoined T ype E s tructures w ere u sed f or l iving q uarters. T he p recise a rrangement o f t he s tructures, t ogether w ith t he r igidly c ontrolled a ccess, s uggests t hat s ome h ighly o rganized g roup r esided i n t his a rea. T he m ost l ikely o ccupants w ould b e a m ilitary g arrison, t he c ommon s oldiers l iving i n t he c onjoined s tructures a nd t heir o fficers a nd c ommanders i n t he a ssociated l arger T ype C s tructures. A nother p ossible g roup o f o ccupants o f S ector # 4 m ight h ave b een c orvee l abor d etachments, w ith t heir s ecular a nd r eligious l eaders, t hat c ontributed p eriodic l abor s ervice. T his m ight b e r eflected i n t he s uperimposed l iving f loors e ncountered i n U nit 1 4 i n s tructure 1 24-2C. T he n ature a nd i dentity o f t he o ccupants o f S ector # 4 r emains a m atter f or s peculation s ince t he e xcavation d ata d id n ot p rovide a n u nambiguous i ndication o f t heir i dentity. N evertheless t he d ata d oes

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s trongly s uggest t hat t he s tructures i n t his s ector w ere l ived i n a nd n ot u sed f or s torage o n a m assive s cale. T he p ossibility, o f c ourse c annot b e r uled o ut t hat t hese s tructures w ere b uilt f or s torage b ased u pon t heir f ormal f eatures, b ut I w ould s uggest t hat s torage f acilities s hould b e s ought e lsewhere i n t he P ikillacta c ore o r p erhaps a t o ther W an i s ites o n i ts p eriphery. T he t wo b asic f unctions f or P ikillacta p roper i ndicated b y t he e xcavations a re r esidential a nd c eremonial. S tructural t ypes A , B , a nd C a ll s eem t o h ave f unctioned a s r esidences. E vidence o f d omestic a ctivities s uch a s f ood p reparation w as f ound i n a ll o f t hese t ypes. A lthough, s trictly s peaking, d omestic o ccupation d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow f rom t he p resence o f f ire h earths, i t s eems m ore l ikely t han t he a lternative e xplanation o f s torage. T he q uality o f t he w all f inishings a nd f loor p reparation v aries f rom s tructure t o s tructure, p erhaps i ndicating d ifferences i n s ocial s tatus o f t he o ccupants ( ie. s ervice o ccupations a nd f unctionaries v s. n obility o r e lite). T he s mall c onjoined T ype E s tructures i n S ector # 4 w ere a lso a pparently o ccupied a nd p erhaps h oused a m ilitary g arrison o r s ome l arge g roup o f s ervice p ersonnel. I ndications o f a c eremonial f unction w ere f ound i n t wo T ype E s tructures. S tructure 2 5-2E i n S ector # 2 c ontained a t l east t wo l arge w all n iches a nd a n a pparent o ffering o f t en h uman s kulls b eneath t he p laster f loor i n t he w estern c orner. O fferings o f h uman s kulls h ave b een r eported f rom t he s ite o f W an i i n A yacucho ( Brewster-Wray 1 983:126) a nd s eem t o b e a s tandard f orm o f W an i c eremonial b ehavior. T opic a nd T opic ( 1983:16) r eport t hat a v ery s imilar s tructure a t V iracocha P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands a lso c ontained l arge w all n iches a nd a s econdary b urial w hich h ad a pparently b een p laced i nside t he w all. S tructure 2 4-4D i n S ector # 4 w as f ound t o b e a lmost c ompletely f illed b y a v ery l arge s tone w hich m ay h ave b een a h uaca o r s acred s tone. S everal a rtifacts i ncluding a s hell b ead a nd a m iniature b ottle f ound i n t he f ill d uring e xcavation m ay r epresent o fferings. B oth o f t hese T ype E s tructures h ave i nternally r ounded c orners a s d oes t he c omparable s tructure r eported b y t he T opics a t V iracocha P ampa, a nd i t t hus s eems p ossible t hat i nternally r ounded c orners m ay b e a d iagnostic o f c ertain t ypes o f c eremonial s tructures. B arreda ( personal c ommunication 1 982) f eels c ertain t hat S ander's U nit I ( structure 1 2-2B o n M ap # 4 ) , w hich h e h elped t o e xcavate, w as a lso a c eremonial s tructure. A lthough t his s tructure h as s quared c orners, i t i s o ne o f o nly t wo s tructures a t P Ikillacta w hich c ontain l arge n iches. H e r eports t hat h e f ound I nca o fferings m ade i n L ate H orizon t imes w hich h e b elieves s uggest t hat t he I nca r ecognized t his p articular s tructure a s ac eremonial s tructure. T he t wo b asic s ite f unctions i ndicated b y t he e xcavations a nd s urvey n o d oubt s upported a t hird f unction, a dministration, w hich m ust h ave b een t he r eason f or t he e xistence o f P ikillacta i n t he f irst p lace. U nfortunately a dministration i n p re-literate s ocieties l eaves f ew t angible m anifestations, o r a t l east w e s till d o n ot k now w hat e vidence t o l ook f or, a nd s o i t i s n ot r eflected i n t he e xcavation p er s e. N evertheless, i t c an b e i nferred t hat s ince w e h ave e vidence o f e lite r esidence a nd c eremonial a ctivities, t hese e lites m ust b e p erforming s ome f unction, a nd t hat f unction m ust b e a dministration o f

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a s ection o f t he W an i s tate. A s m entioned e arlier, m ost M iddle H orizon s cholars w ould c oncur i n t his i nference f or P ikillacta, ( Isbell ( 1977, 1 978), S pickard ( 1983), a nd I ( McEwan 1 979) h ave a ll m ade l ike i nterpretations. B ecause t he a ctual d aily m echanics o f W an i a dministration a re u nknown, i t i s v ery d ifficult t o a ssign t his p articular f unction t o a ny g iven s tructure. N evertheless, s ome a ssumptions c an b e m ade o n t he b asis o f t he g round p lan . S ector # 1 p robably r epresents a l arge g roup o f r esidences o f m ore l ess e qual s tatus. T his i nterpretation i s s uggested b y t he h omogeneity c f a ll s tructures i n t erms o f i ndividual s ize p lacement w ithin t he g rid. S ector # 2, i n c ontrast, i s d ominated b y t wo h uge s tructures : # 30-2B a nd 3 3-2B . E arlier i nvestigators ( Sanders 1 973, H arth Terre 1 959) h ave c onsidered t hese s tructures t o b e p lazas a nd t hus f ocal p oints i n t he E uropean s ense o f a c entral p laza . T hey a re, i n f act, t wo v ery l arge s tructures o f T ype A a nd T ype B r espectively, a nd t heir c ourtyards a re c ertainly l arge e nough t o p ermit t he t ype o f a ctivities t hat o ne w ould e xpect i n a p laza, s uch a s g atherings o f p eople f or c eremonial o r s tate o ccasions. S tructure 3 9-2B i s l ocated n ear t he e xact c enter o f t he s ite a nd i s s erved b y A venue 3 w hich c onnects i t b y w ay o f A venue 7 w ith t he m ain e ntrance t o t he s ite. T he n umerous c heckpoints t hrough w hich o ne m ust p ass i n p enetrating t o t his s tructure i n t he h eart o f P ikillacta, i ndicate t hat a ccess w as s trictly c ontrolled. T his s tructures a nd i ts n umerous s mall s atellites m ost p robably r epresents t he c enter o f a dministrative p ower w ithin t he s ite. T he s econd l arge s tructure, 3 3-2B , c ontains w ithin i t t wo T ype E s tructures w ith i nternally r ounded c orners. I f t he p revious i nferences a bout t he c eremonial n ature o f t his s ort o f T ype E s tructure a re c orrect t hen t his s tructure m ay r epresent t he m ain c eremonial f ocus o f t he c omplex. W ithin t hese t wo s tructures i n S ector # 2, t hen, w ould h ave r esided t he h ighest r anking p olitical a nd r eligious o fficers a nd t he c enter o f a dministration. T he s eparation o f t hese t wo f unctions a nd p hysical p rimacy o f t he p olitical o ver t he r eligious m ight r eflect t he s ecularization p rocess t hat S chaedel ( 1966a) s uggests o ccurred c oncomitant w ith t he a ppearance o f M iddle H orizon u rban f orms. T he r emainder o f S ector # 2 w as l ikely g iven o ver t o r esidences o f e lites a nd b ureaucratic s taff w ith p erhaps c ome a dditional s tructures d evoted t o r eligious p urposes ( eg. s tructure 2 5-2E). S ector # 3 c ontains r elatively f ew s tructures a nd t hese a re o f t he r esidential t ypes. T he l arge o pen a rea m ay h ave s erved a ny n umber o f f unctions b ut n o p articular o ne i s s uggested. S ector # 4 s eems t o h ave b een a h igh d ensity r esidential a rea f or s ome h ighly c ontrolled g roup. T he m ost p robable g roup w ould b e a m ilitary g arrison o r a c orvee l abor d etachment. S tructure 2 4-2D ,

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w ithin s ector # 4, s eems t o h ave b een a n i solated r eligious s hrine w hich m ay h ave b een r elated t o t he a ctivities o f t he g roup r esiding i n t his s ector, p erhaps a s p atron. I n s ummation, P ikillacta r epresents a v ery s ophisticated c omplex p roduct o f a h ighly o rganized s ociety. I t w as p robably b uilt t o h ouse a p olitical a nd r eligious e lite w ho a dministered t he S outhern H ighland p art o f t he W an i E mpire, a nd t o c oncentrate i n o ne p lace t he e conomic a nd p olitical f unctions w ith a r esident l ocal p opulation i n o rder t o c entralize t his p rovincial a dministration.

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C HAPTER I V

T HE M IDDLE H ORIZON I N T HE L UCRE B ASIN

D uring t he M iddle H orizon t he L ucre B asin w as i nvaded b y t he W an i c ulture. T he W an i e rected t he P ikillacta s ite a nd o ccupied s everal o ther l arge s ites w ithin t he b asin, s etting u p a v ery l arge, w ell i ntegrated, a nd h ighly s tructured s ettlement s ystem . T he s ituation w ithin t he L ucre B asin i n t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod, j ust p rior t o t he W an i i nvasion , h as n ot b een s tudied a nd i s n ot a s w ell u nderstood. I t i s t hus d ifficult t o e stablish w hat t he p re-Wari s ettlement p attern w as, a nd h ence w hat d egree o f s ocio-political c omplexity h ad b een a chieved p rior t o t he i nfusion o f W an i i nfluence. I t i s p robably s afe t o a ssume t hat w hatever t he p re-existing p attern m ay h ave b een, i t w as l ess c omplex a nd o n a s maller s cale t han w hat t he W an i a chieved; c ertainly n o p ermanent b uilding r emains o n t he s cale o f P ikillacta p re-existed. I n t his c hapter t he d istinctive s ettlement s ystem i mposed o n t he b asin b y t he W an i E mpire w ill b e e xamined.

P RE-WARI D EVELOPMENTS I N T HE L UCRE B ASIN T he E arly H orizon c ulture i n t he C uzco V alley i s r epresented b y t he C hanapata c eramic s tyle f irst i dentified b y J ohn R owe i n 1 944 ( Rowe 1 945:10-23). S ubsequently D wyer ( 1971a : 3 2-36; 1 971b:12 & 4 1) e ncountered C hanapata s tyle c eramics i n t he L ucre B asin i n h is e xcavations a t M inaspata, a nd I a lso e ncountered t hem i n m y e xcavations a t C hoquepukio a nd i n m y s urface c ollections f rom M ama Q olla. I t a ppears f rom t he e xcavations t hat m ost C hanapata s ites w ithin t he b asin a re q uite d eeply b uried a nd a re t hus v ery d ifficult t o f ind. I n n o c ase w as s ufficient d ata r ecovered t o p rovide r eal e vidence o f c ommunity o r s ettlement p atterns, o r s ocial o rganization. T he s cant e vidence a vailable a llows t he s peculation t hat a t l east t he s ites o f C hokepukio a nd M inaspata w ere o ccupied a nd t hat M ama Q olla s erved a s t he l ocal c eremonial f ocus ( map # 2). T he s ucceeding E arly I ntermediate P eriod i s e ven m ore p roblematical. J ohn R owe ( personal c ommunication 1 984) b elieves t hat ad erived C hanapata s tyle c ontinues i n u se i nto t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod. H owever, h e a lso b elieves t hat t here m ust b e a nother s tyle, a s y et u ndiscovered, t hat f alls c hronologically b etween d erived C hanapata a nd t he W an i s tyles. C havez B allon h as i dentified a s tyle, a t B atan U rqo n ear H uaro, t hat h e c alls W aru a nd h e b elieves t hat i t f alls b etween C hanapata a nd W an i ( Rowe 1 956:142). I d id n ot f ind a ny s tyle s tratigraphically p ositioned b etween d erived C hanapata a nd W ani i n m y e xcavations i n t he L ucre B asin, b ut I a gree w ith R owe t hat s uch a s tyle p robably d oes e xist a nd h as y et t o b e f ound. S uch a s tyle w ould b e t he c ounterpart o f t he Q otakalli s tyle t hat w as e volving i n t he o ther e nd o f t he C uzco v alley i n t his p eriod.

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T he l ocal M iddle H orizon c eramic s tyles i n t he L ucre B asin a re t he L ucre a nd Q otakalli s tyles. L ucre i s a c eramic s tyle e ncountered b y C havez B allon i n a ssociation w ith W an i s tyles i n h is e xcavations a t B atan U rqo n ear H uaro, a bout 1 7 k m t o t he s outh o f t he L ucre B asin ( Rowe 1 956:142). T his s tyle i s n amed f or t he L ucre B asin w here i t i s e xtremely c ommon ( Chavez B allon p ersonal c ommunication 1 978). L ucre c eramics s how a v ery s trong W an i i nfluence a nd c an b e d ivided i nto t wo b asic v ariants: L ucre A a nd L ucre B ( see i llustrations i n a ppendix I II). T he L ucre B s tyle s eems t o b e m uch m ore c losely r elated t o t he W an i s tyles a nd i s t herefor p robably t he l ocal i mitation W an i s tyle a nd c ontemporary w ith t he W an i o ccupation o f t he b asin. T he L ucre A s tyle s eems m ore s imilar t o t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod K 'illke s tyle d escribed b y R owe ( 1944:60-62) a nd D wyer ( 1971b), a nd t he I nca A s tyle d escribed b y R owe ( personal c ommunication 1 982). I f ound a f ew L ucre B s tyle s herds i n m y e xcavation u nits 1 1 a nd 1 5 a t P ikillacta b ut t hey w ere n ot i n d irect a ssociation w ith p ure W an i s tyle s herds. N evertheless t heir p resence i n t he s tructures o f P ikillacta b eneath t he o verburden c learly s uggest c ontemporaneity. T he Q otakalli s tyle ( see i llustrations i n a ppendix I II) w as d efined b y P at L yon a t t he t ype s ite o f Q otakalli i n t he C uzco B asin ( Lyon p ersonal c ommunication 1 984). L uis B arreda r eports t hat h e f ound Q otakalli c eramics i n h is e xcavations a t P ikillacta i n 1 964 ( Barreda 1 982:13-20), a nd I a lso f ound Q otakalli s herds i n m y e xcavations u nits 9 , 1 9, a nd 2 0 a t P ikillacta i n c lear a ssociation w ith W an i s tyle c eramics. A dditional Q otakalli s herds w ere f ound i n o ur s urface c ollections f rom C hokepukio, R ayallacta , a nd M ama Q olla. T he Q otakalli s tyle d oes n ot s how t he h eavy W an i i nfluence s o e vident i n t he L ucre c eramics a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i t h ad a lready e volved f rom t he e arlier C hanapata s tyles b efore t he W an i i nvasion. B oth D wyer ( 1971b:136) a nd L yon ( personal c ommunication 1 982) b elieve t hat t he Q otakalli i s t he a ncestor o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod K 'illke s tyle w hich D wyer r eports d oes s how s ome W an i i nfluence ( 1971b:135). I t s eems l ikely t hen, t hat t he Q otakalli s tyle e xisted a t t he t ime o f t he W an i i nvasion a nd t hat t he i mpact o n i t o f t he W an i i nfluence e ventually p roduced t he K 'illke s tyle i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod. H owever, d ue t o i ts r elatively l ow f requency o f o ccurrence i n t he L ucre B asin r elative t o t he L ucre s tyles, i ts c onsiderable d ifferences i n m orphology a nd p aste c omposition, a nd t he d istribution o f K 'illke s ites r eported b y D wyer ( 1971b) ( presumably t he d istribution o f Q otakalli s ites w ould b e s imilar i f t hese t wo s tyles a re r elated a s p ostulated) I f eel t hat Q otakalli i s b asically a f oreign s tyle f rom o utside o f t he L ucre B asin. I t p robably r epresents t he c ultural g roup o ccupying t he o ther e nd o f t he C uzco V alley d uring t he M iddle H orizon. T he p resence o f t his s tyle a t W an i s ites i n t he L ucre B asin m ay r epresent s ome k ind o f s pecial r elationship w ith t he W an . P erhaps t he Q otakalli w ere c o-opted a s a llies. T o s ummarize, i t a ppears l ikely t hat w hen t he W an i i nvaded t he V alley o f C uzco t hey e ncountered a t l east t wo d istinct e thnic g roups. O ne o f t hese, r epresented b y t he Q otakalli s tyle, o ccupied t he C uzco B asin i n t he n orthern e nd o f t he v alley. T he i nfluence o f t he W an i o n t he Q otakalli s tyle e ventually p roduced t he K 'illke s tyle i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod ( see i llustrations i n a ppendix I II).

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I n t he L ucre B asin a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he V alley o f C uzco, t here w as a n e thnic g roup p roducing c eramics d escended f rom t he C hanapata s tyles b ut w hich h as n ot y et b een i dentified a rchaeologically. T he i nfluence o f t he W an i s tyles o n t his a s y et u nidentified s tyle e ventually p roduced t he L ucre B i mitation W an i s tyle d uring t he M iddle H orizon a nd t he L ucre A s tyle i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod.

T HE W ART O CCUPATION A ND " GREATER P IKILLACTA"

D uring t he c ourse o f t he s urvey o f t he L ucre B asin i n 1 979 i t b ecame a pparent t hat P ikillacta w as n ot a n i solated W an i s ite. R ather i t w as o ne o f s everal l arge W an i o ccupation z ones w ithin, a nd o n t he p eriphery o f, t he L ucre B asin ( see m ap 2 ). A t l east t wo o f t hese o ccupation z ones, R a c ichi ( Minaspata) a nd M uyurinapata, h ad b een p reviously o bserved b y J ohn R owe ( 1963:14 a nd p ersonal c ommunication 1 982) b ut s everal o thers w ere a lso l ocated b oth w ithin t he b asin p roper a nd j ust o utside t he s outhern m argin. G iven t he s mall s ize o f t he b asin a nd t he c lose p roximity o f s everal l arge W an i s ites, i t o ccurred t o m e t hat t hese s ites m ust h ave b een r elated i n a s ystematic f ashion a nd s hould t herefor b e c onsidered t ogether t o f orm " Greater P ikillacta." A m odel o f t his " Greater P ikillacta" s ite w as d eveloped o n t he b asis o f t he 1 979 s urvey ( see M cEwan 1 979), a nd t he 1 982 s urvey d ata a llowed t his m odel t o b e r efined a nd a djusted t o t ake i nto a ccount a dditional e vidence o f W an i o ccupations. T he f oundations f or t his m odel h ave b asically b een l aid b y t he w ork o f W illey o n a rchitectural f orms i n t he V iru V alley o f t he N orth C oast, a nd b y t he w ork o f S chaedel c oncerning c ommunity p atterns o n t he N orth C oast, f or b oth o f w hom M iddle H orizon a rchitectural e lements a nd s ettlement p atterning a ppear a s i ntrusive. W illey ( 1953), i n h is V iru V alley r eport, h as i dentified t he c haracteristic i nnovative M iddle H orizon a rchitectural f orms a s t he s emi-isolated l arge h ouse , t he r ectangular e nclosure c ompound, a nd t he g reat r ectangular e nclosure c ompound. T he s emi-isolated l arge h ouses a re g enerally r ectangular s tone s tructures d ivided i nto s everal r ooms a nd a re o ften f ound i n t he v icinity o f v illages f or w hich t hey m ay h ave s erved a s a n ucleus o r f ocus. T he r ectangular e nclosure c ompounds a re u sually l arge s tone s tructures w ith s ymmetrical i nterior a rrangements o f s mall r ooms, c ourtyards a nd c orridors. T he g reat r ectangular e nclosure c ompounds a re v ery l arge s tructures m ade o f a dobe o r t apia a nd a re g enerally l acking i n s mall i nterior s ubdivisions. A ll o f t hese s tructures a ppear t o b e e ither p rototypes o r v ariations o n t he t heme o f t he l arge r ectangular e nclosure c ompounds o f t he h ighland W an i s ites t hat S chreiber ( 1978) a nd o thers h ave d escribed ( see B rewster-Wray 1 983; I sbell 1 977, 1 978; M cCown 1 945; S anders 1 973; S pickard 1 983). S chreiber ( 1978:216) b elieves t hat W illey's V iru e nclosure c ompounds m ay h ave f unctioned a s p alaces, s torage f acilities, o r g arrisons, a nd n otes t hat c orridors o f s tandard W an i s tyle w idth a re o ften c haracteristic o f t hese s tructures. S he a lso r eports t hat t hese s tructures a re c losely a ssociated w ith t he

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P re-Columbian h ighway i n t he r egion w hich m ay b e a r emnant o f t he o riginal W an i h ighway s ystem t hat l inked t hem t ogether. F ord ( 1954 :168) a lso r eports M iddle H orizon h ighways, w hich h e a ttributes t o t he W an , l inking t he V iru V alley w ith s everal o ther N orth C oastal v alleys. S chaedel ( 1966 a &b) h as i dentified t he i ntroduction o f a n u rban s ettlement p attern i n t he f orm o f t he " town" a s t he p redominant s ocial c hange t hat c an b e a ttributed t o a h ighland p resence o n t he N orth C oast d uring t he M iddle H orizon. H e d efines t he " town" a s a l arge s egmented s ettlement, e xtending f or m ore t han o ne k ilometer i n o ne d imension, a nd c onsisting o f f ormally d istinct c omponents o f t he c ommunity, a nd w hich a re s ystematically i nterrelated b y f eatures s uch a s r oad a nd w all s ystems. H e s uggests a dapting W illey's s tructural f orms r epresented b y s everal d isparate " sites" i n t he G udarra q uebrada i n V iru , j oining t hem b y s ystemic f eatures, a nd t hereby e xtending t he t otal s ite c ircumscription. T he f avored l ocation f or t hese " towns" w as o n h illsides s loping b ack f rom v alley m argins p roximal t o m ajor i rrigation c anal i ntakes. S chaedel f urther a rgues t hat t his " town" p attern w as i ntroduced o n t he c oast b y t he W an , n oting t hat i t c ontrasts w ith p revious s ettlement c enters b y n ucleating a round s trategic f eatures r ather t han c eremonial o nes. L umbreras ( 1974:166) h as a lso n oted a n umber o f c oastal s ites w hich h e a ttributes t o t he W arf, p rimarily o n t he b asis o f a rchitectural f orm . H e a lso s uggests t hat m any o f t hese s ites s hould b e c onsidered p arts o f l arger u rban c omplexes. H e c ites a s a n e xample t he P ampa d e l as L lamas s ite a nd t he E l P urgatorio s ite i n t he C asma V alley w hich a re l inked b y a s traight r oad a nd p robably r epresent c eremonial a nd r esidential c omponents o f a s ingle u rban c omplex. H e s ees C han-Chan, t he h uge s ite i n t he M oche V alley c onsisting o f n umerous l arge r ectangular e nclosures, a s h aving b een d erived f rom f orms i ntroduced i n t he M iddle H orizon. A nother s ite t hat h e c onsiders t o b e a l arge W arf u rban c enter i s t he C ajamarquilla s ite w hich a pparently w as b uilt a nd a bandoned d uring t he M iddle H orizon .

L umbreras f urther r eports ( 1974:168-171) w hat h e c onsiders t o b e a n umber o f m ulti-function W an i s ites i n t he h ighlands . S an P edro d e C acha i n t he h ighlands s outh o f C uzco i s, h e f eels, a l arge h abitation a nd c eremonial c enter. H e c onsiders P ikillacta t o c ontain b oth r esidential a nd s torage s ectors. I n t he N orth H ighlands h e r eports t hat t he s ite o f V iracocha P ampa m ay h ave b een a n u rban c enter a nd p rovincial c apital a nd t hat t he n earby c enter o f M arca H uamachuco m ay a lso h ave b een i mportant d uring t he M iddle H orizon. I n t he C entral H ighlands t he s ite o f H onco P ampa i s r eported t o b e a c ity w ith a h abitation s ector c ontaining s treets a nd p lazas l ike t hose i n o ther W arf " towns," a nd a c eremonial s ector c ontaining r eligious s tructures. A fter c hecking W illey's c ompounds i n t he m ulti-functional s ite c ontext i ndicated b y S chaedel a nd L umbreras, I d erived w hat I h ave c alled t he W arf a dministrative s ettlement p attern ( McEwan 1 979) t hat I b elieve w as a pplied b y t he W arf i n t he L ucre B asin t o f orm t he

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" Greater P ikillacta' s ite. I mplicit i n t he c oncept o f t his a dministrative p attern i s t he h ypothesis t hat W an i w as a t erritorial s tate t hat s elected s trategic l ocations a s p rovincial n odes a nd i mposed o n t hese c ertain o rdering p rinciples ( Isbell & S chreiber 1 978). T his p attern , w hen v iewed f rom t he r egions o utside o f A yacucho, i s n ot o ne o f g rowth b y a ccretion, w hich s hould b e a nticipated i n a s ituation o f a utogenous d evelopment i nside t he r egion, b ut r epresents r ather a w ell o rganized p reconceived p lan o r t emplate, i mposed o n t he l andscape a s a n i ntegrated s ettlement f ulfilling f unctions o f s tate o rganization a nd a dministration. T he k ey o rganizational e lement o f t his s ettlement p lan h as b een o utlined i n S chaedel's c oncept o f t he M iddle H orizon " town" t hat i s c omposed o f f unctionally a nd f ormally d istinct e lements. T he s ettlement i s d ivided i nto c omponents, p erhaps a nalogous t o m odern z oning, e ach h aving a d istinct g eneral f unction. T hese f unctions i nclude c eremonial o r r eligious, r esidential ( elite a nd n on-elite), a dministrative, d efensive, a nd p resumably e conomic f unctions. W ithin e ach c omponent t here s hould e xist a rchitectural f orms p eculiar t o i ts g eneral f unction, s ome o f w hich w ould a ccount f or W illey's M iddle H orizon a rchitectural f orms i n t he V iru V alley. T he c omponents o f t he " town ," s ince t hey e ncompass i nternal s ystems a s n oted b y S chaedel, a nd o ccupy a c ontiguous l arge a rea f ormally b ounded a t i ts e xtreme p erimeters, m ust b e c onnected a nd i nterrelated b y a c ommunication s ystem i n t he f orm o f a r oad-path n etwork a nd p robably o ther s ystems a s w ell, s uch a s d rainage a nd w ater s upply. A f inal o rganizational a spect o f t he p lan i s t hat o f e xternal b oundaries, a nd c ircumscription o f c ertain o f t he c omponents b y w alls o r a c ombination o f w alls a nd n atural f eatures s uch a s a rtificially m odified n atural e mbankments, t erraced s lopes, a nd p artially b locked r avines. T his c ircumscription s erves t o c hannel a nd p otentially r estrict a ccess a nd t raffic f low a nd t o l imit t he m aximum d esired p erimeter o f t he c omponent. T he n et e ffect o f t his s ettlement p lan i s t hat o f a s trategically c hosen, p urposfully d esigned e ntity, w ell a dapted a nd o riented, a s S chaedel ( 1966a) s uggests, t o a s ociety i n w hich a dministrative a nd e conomic p rocesses t ook p recedence o ver r itual c oncerns.

C OMPONENTS O F " GREATER P IKILLACTA" T he r esults o f t he s urface s urveys a nd e xcavations i n b oth 1 979 a nd 1 982 p ermit t he i dentification o f t he l ocation o f t he m ajor c omponents o f " Greater P ikillacta" a nd a s uggestion o f t heir g eneral f unction. O verall, W an i s ites s eem t o h ave b een p laced w ithin t he L ucre B asin t aking i nto a ccount s trategic l ocations f or s ecurity, l ocations o f a lready e xisting n on-Wan i p opulations , a nd c eremonially i mportant s ites. T here a lso s eems t o b e a p reference f or u plands a nd h illsides w hich m ay r eflect d efensive c oncerns. T hus w e f ind W ani s ites a t e ach o f t he f ive e ntrances t o t he b asin, e vidence o f W ani p resence a t t he t wo k nown m ajor p re-Wari o ccupations, a nd e vidence o f W an i p resence a t t he r eligious s hrine o f M ama Q olla. T he r uins o f P ikillacta p roper a ppear t o o ccupy t he o nly v irgin p arcel o f l and t hat w as l arge e nough t o c ontain i t w ithin t he b asin a nd y et b e c onvenient t o t he q uarries a t R umiqolqa, t he h ighway, a nd t he l ake.

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A DMINISTRATIVE C OMPONENT : T he l arge f ormal a rchitectural c omplex l ocated o n t he l ower s lopes o f C erro H uchuy B alcon w hich h as b een t raditionally c onsidered t o b e t he s ite o f P ikillacta w as u ndoubtedly t he n erve c enter o f t he W an i o ccupation. A s s uggested i n C hapter I II, t his c omplex m ost l ikely r epresents t he r esidence o f b oth p olitical a nd r eligious e lites a nd t he c enter o f p olitical a dministration. A lthough s ome r eligious s tructures a re p resent w ithin t he c omplex, t he p reponderance o f s tructures a re a pparently s ecular i n n ature a nd t he o verall p urpose o f t his c omplex c an b e c onsidered t o b e t he c enter o f c ivil a dministration. W ithin t his c omplex i s a lso a s ector t hat m ay h ave b een d evoted t o q uarters f or a m ilitary g arrison o r r esidence f or r otating g roups o f c orv4e l abor. T he p ersonnel r esiding i n t his s ector p robably s erved a s g uards a nd p olice, o r s ervants f or t he g overning e lite.

T HE C EREMONIAL C OMPONENTS: T he m ajor p re-Wari s hrine i n t he L ucre B asin w as p robably t he s mall h ill o f M ama Q olla o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he b asin w hich i s e ven t oday c onsidered t o b e a h uaca b y t he l ocal i nhabitants. T he W an i i nvaders m ost l ikely c o-opted t his s hrine a s a m atter o f p olicy. S chaedel ( 1951:110-112 a nd p ersonal c ommunication 1 978) h as o bserved t hat t he W an i a pparently a pplied t his p olicy t o t he h uacas o f t he M oche o n t he N orth C oast, n oting t hat a t P anamarca t here w as c lear e vidence t hat t he h uaca h ad b een t aken o ver a nd m odified b y t he W ani t o s erve t heir o wn p urposes. O ther p robable r eligious s hrines a re l ocated i n t he c anchones o n t he s outheast s ide o f P ikillacta p roper a nd t o t he n orthwest i n t he a rea s erved b y a venue # 8. T hese c onsist o f e arth w orks a nd l arge n atural r ock f ormations w hich a ppear s imilar t o w hat w ould b e i n l ater t imes h uacas o f t he I ncas. I n e arlier w ork ( McEwan 1 979) I h ave a rgued t hat t he s ite o f C ombayoq ( referred t o a s p art o f R ayallacta i n M cEwan 1 979) m ay h ave b een t he l argest o pen a ir c eremonial c omponent b ecause o f i ts s imilarity t o t he I nca e arthworks a t M oray n orth o f C uzco, a nd t he p resence o f u nusual s tone c onstructions a nd t ombs o n t he h illside a bove i t. W hile I w ould s till n ot r ule o ut t his p ossibility, m y 1 982 s urvey d id n ot s ubstantially c larify t he s ituation s ince I w as n ot p ermitted t o e xcavate a t t his s ite. S ome a dditional W an i s herds w ere f ound d uring s urface s urvey o f t he t erraced d epression o f C ombayoq b ut t hese d o n ot b y t hemselves o ffer p roof o f t he i dentity o f t he b uilders. T he s tone w ork i s n ot t ypically I nca i n t he t erraced d epression, a nd t he s cale o f t he e arthworks a nd o ther m odifications c arried o ut s uggests t hat a s tate l evel o rganization w as r esponsible f or m arshalling t he n ecessary l abor a nd o ther r esources f or t he p roject. T he W an i t herefore s eem t he m ost l ikely c andidates f or c onstructors o f t his p roject.

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R ESIDENTIAL C OMPONENTS:

A s m entioned a bove , t he h ighest r anking r eligious a nd s ecular e lites p robably r esided a t P ikillacta p roper. T he r emaining n on-ceremonial s ites o f t he W an i o ccupation o f t he b asin c ontained t he r esidences o f t he l esser b ureaucrats, m ilitary g arrisons, a rtisans, a nd w orkers, m ost o f w hich w ere p robably n atives o f t he b asin. T hose s ites i n s trategic l ocations p robably s erved d ual f unctions a s r es idences f or t roops a nd s trategic d efensive i nstallations. T he b asic r esidential c lusters, b ecause o f t heir n ons trategic l ocations i n t erms o f d efense, a re M inaspata, Q olqe H aycuchina, a nd W aska W askan. T he l atter t wo s ites c onsist o f l arge a reas c ontaining n umerous s mall h ouse f oundations b ut n o l arge f ormal a rchitecture. T he p resence i n t he s urface c ollections o f w aste f lakes f rom b oth t urquoise c olored s tones a nd o bsidian, a s w ell a s b roken m arine s hells s uggests t hat t hese s ites m ay h ave s erved f or c raft p roduction i n a ddition t o r esidence. T he p resence o f b oth W an i a nd l ocal M iddle H orizon s tyle s herds o n t he s urface o f t hese s ites m ay i ndicate t hat t he W an i w ere f ully i ntegrated i nto c ertain n ative r esidential c lusters, p robably f or s ecurity r easons. O ther s ites c ontaining r esidential c lusters i nclude U nca P uncu, T ukuywayku, a nd M orro d e A rica, a ll o n t he s outhwestern s ide o f t he b asin. T he q uantity o f l ocal M iddle H orizon s tyle s herds o n t hese s ites i s q uite l arge a nd W an i s herds a re r are. T his m ay i ndicate t hat t hese r elatively n on-strategic s ites c ontained r esidential c lusters f or t he n ative n on-Wan i p opulation. T he n ature o f t he s urface c ollections, a s d iscussed i n C hapter I I, h owever, p ermits o nly r ather s peculative c onclusions r egarding t hese s ites.

T HE D EFENSIVE C OMPONENTS:

S trategic l ocations p opulation a t R ayallacta.

w erekilometerso

a s ubstantial

n ative

T he s outhwestern e ntrance t o t he b asin, t he q uebrada o f t he R io L ucre, w as c ontrolled b y t he s ite o f M ullimulliyoq. A f ew k illometers u p t he q uebrada t here i s a nother s ite s tratigically p laced o n a h illtop o ver l ooking t he h ighway, w hich a ppears t o h ave b een a g uard p ost. B oth o f t hese s ites c ontain l ocal i mitation W an i p ottery o n t he s urface a nd m ust c ertainly a lso h ave h ad a W an i g arrison. T hrough t his s ystem o f w alls a nd g arrisons, a ll a ccess t o t he b asin a nd P ikillacta p roper c ould b e e ffectively c ontrolled a nd s ecurity m aintained.

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T HE R OAD S YSTEM :

T he r oad s ystem t hat w as p robably c onstructed d uring t he M iddle H orizon f orms a t riple l oop c onnecting a ll o f t he s ites i n t he L ucre B asin a nd t he s ites o n i ts p eriphery t o e ach o ther a nd t o t he m ain h ighways w hich e nter a pproximately f rom t he f our c ardinal d irections ( map 2 ). T he l arge c entral l oop r uns a round t he i nside p erimeter o f t he b asin , m ainly u p o ff o f t he s wampy b ottom l and, a nd c onnects t ogether a ll o f t he s ites i nside o f t he b asin. T here a re t wo r aised c auseways i nvolved i n t his l oop w hich c ross t he m arsh f rom C hokepukio t o M uyurinapata, a nd f rom C hokepukio g oing t oward P ikillacta p roper. S ince t hese c auseways d irectly c onnect m ajor W ani s ites i t s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat t hey w ere o riginally b uilt b y t he W an . T he t wo s maller l oops i n t he r oad s ystem r un a round C erro C ondor M oqo o n t he n orthwest s ide o f t he b asin a nd C erro C ombayoq o n t he s outheast s ide, c onnecting s everal s ites j ust o utside o f t he b asin w ith t hose o n t he i nside. M any o f t he s urviving f ragments o f t he o riginal r oad s ystem a re w alled, p articularly t he a pproach a venue t o P ikillacta p roper a nd t he r oad w hich c onnects P ikillacta w ith R ayallacta. I n s everal p laces o n C erro C ombayoq r avines w ere f illed i nto f orm e mbankments f or t he r oad a nd b oth t here a nd i n t he r oad w hich r uns u p t he L ucre q uebrada s teps w ere c ut i nto t he s teeper p arts o f t he h illside.

A S PECIAL F UNCTION C OMPONENT:

T he R umiqolqa q uarries, w hich s eemed t o h ave p rovided t he s tone f or P ikillacta's c onstruction, s hould a lso b e c onsidered t o b e a p art o f t he " Greater P ikillacta" s ystem . T hese q uarries l ie a bout t hree k ilometers s outheast o f P ikillacta, a t t he s outhern t ip o f C erro H atun B alcon. T here a re n umerous s tructures b uilt w ithin t he q uarries, s ome o f w hich a re s imilar t o t he T ype E s tructures f ound a t P ikillacta. T he W an i w ould c ertainly h ave m aintained c ontrol o f t his c onsiderable m aterial r esource a nd w ould h ave c onsidered i t t o b e a p art o f t he P ikillacta d omain.

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S UMMARY T he " Greater P ikillacta" s ite, a s o utlined a bove, a ppears t o f ulfill S chaedel's c riteria f or t he M iddle H orizon t own. T he a rchaeological s ites o f t he L ucre B asin a nd i ts n eighboring c erros w ere l inked t ogether b y t he W an i t o f orm a v ery l arge, s egmented s ettlement, e xtending f or m ore t han o ne k ilometer i n o ne d imension a nd c onsisting o f d istinct c omponents o f t he c ommunity e mbracing t he f unctions o f a dministration, c eremony, r esidence, c raft p roduction, a nd d efense. A ll o f t hese c omponents a re s ystematically i nterrelated b y aw ell d eveloped r oad s ystem . T he " Greater P ikillacta" c omplex t hus f ormed r epresents a m assive i nvestment o f l abor, r esources, a nd p ersonnel, f ar e xceeding t he s cope o f W an i a ctivities a t o ther S outhern H ighland s ites. T he m assive b lock o f p ure W an i a rchitecture a t P ikillacta i s t he l argest W an i s tructure i n t he S outhern H ighlands a nd p robably t he l argest i n a ll o f h ighland P eru w ith t he e xception o nly o f W an i i tself i n A yacucho. A ll o f t his s uggests t hat P ikillacta w as t he m ajor W ani c enter i n t he S outhern H ighlands a nd p robably r epresents a r egional c apital o f t he W an i E mpire. I n t he f ollowing c hapter P ikillacta's p lace a nd f unction w ithin t he W an i E mpire a s aw hole w ill b e e xplored.

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C HAPTER V P IKILLACTA A ND T HE W ARI E MPIRE

I n t he p ast f ew d ecades t here h as b een c onsiderable r esearch f ocussed o n t he p roblem o f e xplaining t he s pread o f t he M iddle H orizon c eramic s tyles t hroughout a ncient P eru. T hese s tyles a re b elieved t o h ave o riginated i n t he C entral H ighlands a nd a re a ttributed t o t he W an i c ulture t hat w as c entered a t t he s ite o f W an i i n t he A yacucho V alley. D ata f rom d iverse a reas o f P eru h as g enerally t ended t o c onfirm t he h ypothesis t hat t he s pread o f W an i i nfluence a nd c eramic s tyles w as d ue t o t he m ilitary/religious e xpansion o f a n i mperial s tate. T his h ypothesis, s uggested i n t he w ork o f T ello ( 1939), L arco ( 1948), R owe, C ollier, a nd W illey ( 1950), a nd B ennett ( 1953), h as b een m ost f ormally d eveloped b y M enzel ( 1964 , 1 968). I n t he 1 960's M enzel ( 1964, 1 968) u ndertook s tudies o f c eramic c ollections f rom t he s ite o f W an i a nd o ther M iddle H orizon s ites. S he i dentified a nd s eriated t he m ajor c eramic s tyles i nvolved i n t he W ani e xpansion. F rom t hese s tudies s he w as a ble t o d erive a g eneralized c hronology o f e vents i n t he h istory o f t he W an i E mpire. T he p ortion o f t he M iddle H orizon d uring w hich t he W an i c eramic s tyles w ere m anufactured a nd s pread t hroughout P eru i s d ivided i nto E pochs 1 a nd 2 . E ach o f t hese e pochs i s f urther s ubdivided i nto p arts A a nd B . D uring E poch l A a n ew s tyle o f c eremonial p ottery a ppeared i n t he A yacucho r egion w hich s eems t o i mply t he i ntroduction o f a n ew r eligion. T he i conographic s imilarity w ith t he s ite o f T iahuanaco i n B olivia s uggests t hat i t m ay h ave b een t he s ource o f t he n ew i nfluence. M enzel ( 1964:67) h ypothesizes t hat t he i ntroduction o f t he n ew s tyle r epresented a r eligious p henomenon r ather t han a m ilitary c onquest b ecause n o i mported a rtifacts h ave b een f ound. D uring E poch 1 B W an i b ecame t he c enter o f a n e xpansion m ovement. T hree s tyles o f p ottery a re a ssociated w ith t his m ovement o f w hich t wo a re c onsidered c eremonial a nd o ne s ecular. T he s ecular s tyle i s t he m ost c ommonly f ound s tyle i n a reas i nfluenced b y t he e xpansion a nd t his s uggests t o M enzel t hat t he e xpansion w as m ilitary i n c haracter r ather t han p urely r eligious. I t w as d uring t his e xpansion t hat t he P ikillacta s ite w as e stablished i n t he L ucre B asin. I n E poch 2 o f t he M iddle H orizon t he E mpire u nderwent s ome s ort o f s evere c risis a nd t hen e xpanded t o i ts g reatest e xtent. M enzel ( 1964:70) s uggests t hat d uring E poch 2 A s ome t ype o f c risis, p ossibly a r evolt o r e pidemic, i s r eflected i n t he c hange i n s ettlement d istribution a nd b urial p atterns i n t he A yacucho V alley a nd t he S outh C oast. T his c risis w as a pparently r esolved b y E poch 2 B a nd t he E mpire e xpanded v ery r apidly a nd r eached i ts m aximum e xtent. A t t he e nd o f E poch 2 B t he E mpire a pparently c ollapsed a nd W an i i tself w as a bandoned b ut i n a reas o utside o f A yacucho i t c ontinued t o i nfluence r egional d evelopments. M enzel's c onclusions w ere b ased o n d ata f rom t he A yacucho V alley a nd S outh C oast b ut l acked s ettlement p attern d ata f rom o ther p arts o f P eru .

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I n e xamining s ettlement p atterns o f t he M iddle H orizon i n v arious o ther p arts o f P eru , s everal s cholars ( Lumbreras 1 974, R owe 1 964, S chaedel 1 966, W illey 1 953) h ave n oted c hanges w hich s eem t o r eflect a d rastic r eorganization o f e conomic a nd s ocial a ctivities. T here s eems t o h ave b een a n e mphasis o n c entralized c ontrol a nd t he c hanneling o f r esources a s w ell a s o ther a spects o f a dministration t hat w ould s eem t o s uggest a n i mperial o rganization h ad b een i mposed. T hus d ata i ndependent o f c eramic e vidence s eemed t o m atch M enzel's h ypothesis. I sbell a nd S chreiber ( 1978) h ave f urther a ttempted t o d efine t he e xistence o f t he W an i E mpire u sing a s ite s ize h ierarchy m odel. T his m odel a ssumes t hat t he h ierarchy o f d ecision m aking t hat d efines a s tate, w hich a ccording t o W right a nd J ohnson ( 1975) m ust c onsist o f a t l east t hree l evels o f d ecision m aking a bove t he l evel o f m inimal s ettlement, w ill b e r epresented i n t he a rchaeological r ecord b y a c orresponding h ierarchy o f s ite s izes. I t i s p resumed t hat t he g reater t he d ecision m aking a uthority i nvested i n a s ite, t he g reater t he s ize o f t he s ite. I sbell a nd S chreiber h ave c oncluded t hat t he d istribution o f W an i s ites t ends t o c onform t o t his m odel, a lthough n ot c onclusively d ue t o g aps i n t he a rchaeological d ata r ecovered t hus f ar, a nd t he m odel t herefore s eems t o s upport t he c oncept o f a s tate l evel W arf p olitical o rganization. I n t heir m odel, P ikillacta i s s een a s a s ite o f t he s econd o rder o f m agnitude a nd t hey s uggest t hat i t m ay h ave b een a nalogous i n f unction t o a n I nca p rovincial c apital ( Isbell a nd S chreiber 1 978:376). A gain d rawing o n t he h istorical e xample o f t he I nca s tate, I sbell ( 1978) h as a rgued t hat e nergy a veraging i nstitutions, b oth s patial a nd t emporal, s erved a s am eans o f c oordinating p roduction a nd d istribution f rom t he w ide v ariety o f c ontrastive e co-niches p resent i n t he A ndes. T hese i nstitutions s erved a s a m eans o f o vercoming r egional p roduction f luctuations d ue t o e nvironmental p erturbations. T hrough t ime t hese i nstitutions b ecame i ncreasingly e laborate a nd e fficient c oncomitant w ith t he s table g rowth a nd t erritorial e xpansion o f t he b enefiting p opulation. U ltimately t his r esulted i n a h ighly c entralized a uthority e merging i nto a s tate l evel p olitical o rganization. T he s tate t hus e merging w ould c ontinue t o a ttempt t o i ncrease t he e fficiency o f b oth s patial a nd t emporal e nergy a veraging i nstitutions. T his p rocess w ould b e r eflected i n t he a rchaeological r ecord b y e vidence f or a t erritorial e xpansion f or t he p urpose o f i ncreased e fficiency i n s patial a veraging t hrough a cquisition o f a g reater n umber o f c ontrastive e co-niches, a nd b y t he a ppearance o f i ntrusive p ublic t emporal a veraging f acilities i n t he f orm o f s torage a nd r edistribution c enters. I sbell s ees t hese c enters r eflected a rchaeologically i n t he l arge i ntrusive a rchitectural c omplexes o f P ikillacta a nd V iracocha P ampa. S chreiber ( 1978) h as a ttempted t o d efine t he s tructure o f t he W an i E mpire, a gain d rawing o n t he e xample o f t he I nca. S he p resents a m odel o f i mperial e xpansion i n w hich " a g eneralized s tate-level a dministrative h ierarchy i s s uperimposed o ver d iverse r egions w ith d iverse p re-existing l evels o f l ocal a dministration. T his i mplies a n eed f or n ewly c reated a dministrative c enters i n a reas l acking a s ufficient l evel o f o rganization ( 1978:192). S he f urther s tates t hat

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a dditional c onsiderations i nclude t he n eed f or i ncreased c ontrol i n m ore d istant r egions a nd a reas o f t raditional a nimosity, a nd t he p ossibility t hat i mposed c ontrol s hould a lways b e e qual t o o r g reater t han p re-existing l ocal l evels. T he i mplications c an b e d rawn f rom S chreiber's m odel t hat P ikillacta w as e stablished o ut o f a n eed f or a h igh l evel a dministrative c enter i n t his r ather d istant r egion o f t he e mpire, a nd a n eed f or a s trong p resence o n o r n ear t he f rontier w ith t he T iahuanaco p olity w hich c onceivably e ngendered a " traditional a nimosity" i n t his a rea o f c ontact b etween t wo p otentially c ompeting s tates. T hese a pproaches t o d efining a m acroscopic m odel o f t he W ani I mperial e xpansion h ave r esulted i n t he g eneral a cceptance o f t he c oncept o f a W an i E mpire o rganized i n a f ashion s imilar t o t he I nca E mpire i n t erms o f i ts e conomic a nd p olitical s tructure. M enzel h as p roposed i ts g eneral h istory; I sbell h as p roposed i ts e conomic m otivations f or e xpansion ( although n ot, i t s hould b e n oted, t he i deological m otive - c f. C onrad 1 981); a nd i ts s tructure. A f ramework h as t hus b een p rovided i n w hich t he d ata f rom t he i nvestigations o f P ikillacta c an n ow b e c onsidered.

P IKILLACTA A S AP ROVINCIAL C APITAL I n t he c ontext o f t he a bove d iscussion, t he f unction o f t he " Greater P ikillacta" c omplex w ithin t he W an i s tate s tructure w ould s eem t o b e t hat o f a p rovincial o r r egional c apital. I ts s ize a nd c omplexity, c ombining w ithin i ts b oundaries a ll o f t he r equisite s tructures f or s tate l evel p olitical a nd e conomic c ontrol, a ttests t o i ts m ajor p osition i n t he i mperial h ierarchy. F inally, i ts g eographic p osition p rovides e ven f urther e vidence f or t his i nterpretation. I n h er d iscussion o f t he e vidence f or a W an i h ighway s ystem , S chreiber ( 1978:102) h as n oted t hat n early a ll k nown m ajor W an i s ites a re a ssociated w ith I nca h ighways t hus s uggesting t hat a l arge p art o f t he h ighway s ystem u sually a ttributed t o t he I nca E mpire p robably d ates t o W an i t imes. T his o bservation i s p articularly p ertinent t o t he " Greater P ikillacta" c omplex w hich i ntercepts t he m ain t runk r oad r unning b etween t he c ircum T iticaca a rea a nd t he C entral P eruvian h ighlands. T his h ighway w ould h ave s erved a s t he c ommunication l ink b etween P ikillacta a nd t he c apital o f t he E mpire a t W an i i n A yacucho, a nd b etween P ikillacta a nd t he e xtreme s outhern f rontier o f t he e mpire, p robably s omewhere a round t he a rea o f m odern S icuani. T wo o ther h ighways e nter t he b asin f rom t he n ortheast a nd s outhwest. T he h ighway e ntering o n t he n ortheast s ide o f t he B asin c omes t hrough t he p ass a t H uambutio a nd c onnects t he L ucre B asin w ith t he V ilcanota d rainage. T he h ighway e ntering f rom t he s outhwest c omes d own t he q uebrada o f t he L ucre r iver. T his h ighway m ay h ave p rovided a c onnection w ith t he W an i s ite r eported a t P aruro b y B arreda ( personal c ommunication 1 982).

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F rom a s trategic p oint o f v iew , t he L ucre B asin n ot o nly i ntercepts t he h ighways a nd p rovides a h ighly d efensible l ocation f or t he s ecurity o f P ikillacta, b ut a lso h as t he a dvantage o f b eing l ocated n ear t he j unction o f t he H uatanay a nd V ilcanota r ivers. T his p osition p ermits t he c ontrol o f t he C uzco V alley a nd t he u pper a nd l ower p ortions o f t he V ilcanota V alley. T hese v alleys c ontain s ome o f t he m ost p roductive a gricultural l and i n t he s outhern s ierra. F urther t o t he S outh a long t he V ilcanota i s p rime g razing l and f or l lamas a nd a lpacas. T hese r esources m ust h ave p rovided t he p rimary m otive f or t he W an i c onquest o f t his r egion. M ore l ocal c onsiderations a ffecting t he s iting o f t he P ikillacta c omplex p robably i ncluded t he v aried r esources o f t he L ucre B asin w hich i ncluded n ot o nly a v ariety o f a gricultgral n iches b ut a lso l acustrine r esources i ncluding f ish , w aterfowl, a nd p robably m ost i mportant, t otora r eeds i n g reat a bundance. U ltimately e sthetic c onsiderations m ay a lso h ave i nfluenced t he d ecision t o l ocate P ikillacta i n t he B asin. T he e nvironment o f t he L ucre B asin w as e vidently m uch p rized b y t he I nca w ho i n l ater t imes b uilt v illas t here ( Brundage 1 967:26-27). I n s um , f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f a dministration, t he L ucre B asin i s a m ost l ogical p lace t o l ocate P ikillacta . I t w as c entrally l ocated f or t he c ontrol o f t he m ajor v alleys o f t he r egion a s w ell a s t he h ighway s ystem , a nd h ad t he a dded a dvantage o f p roviding a v ery d efensible p osition. T hus t he i nterpretation o f P ikillacta's f unction a s a r egional o r p rovincial c apital s eems r easonable. I f t his i nterpretation i s a ccepted, t hen t he q uestion o f t he h interland a nd s atellite c enters c ontrolled b y P ikillacta m ust b e c onsidered ( fig. 5 1 ). A lthough a rchaeological s urvey o f t he s outhern h ighlands i s f ar f rom c omplete, w hat l ittle d ata i s a vailable s uggest t hat a h ierarchical o rganization m ay h ave e xisted i n t he W an i o ccupation o f t he r egion. E ach m ajor b asin w ithin t he v alleys o f t he V ilcanota a nd H uatanay p robably c ontained a t l east o ne W an i s ite, w ith l arger b asins p erhaps c ontaining m ore t han o ne s ite. T hese s ites w ould h ave b een s trategically l ocated w ithin t he t opography f or p urposes o f a dministration a nd c ontrol o f b oth t he n ative p opulation a nd r esources. P erhaps t he b est c andidate f or o ne o f t hese s ites i n t he l evels b elow P ikillacta i s t he c omplex a t B atan U rgo. T his s ite l ies a pproximately 1 7 k ilometers t o t he s outheast o f P ikillacta a long t he m ain t runk r oad. A t t his p oint t here i s a m ajor c onstriction o f t he v alley o f t he V ilcanota r iver c aused b y t he p resence o f C erro W iracochan w hich b locks t he v alley e xcept f or t wo n arrow p asses o n e ither s ide. T he h ighway p asses t hrough t he s outhern p ass a nd i t i s h ere t hat t he W an i s ites a re l ocated ( fig.5-2). T he s ite o f B atan U rqo i s l ocated o n a s pur o verlooking t he m odern t own o f H uaro. A t t his s ite C havez B allon e xcavated t ombs c onstructed o f s tone s labs s imilar t o t ombs a t W arf i n A yacucho. H e f ound W an i a nd L ucre c eramics i n a ssociation w ith t hese t ombs ( Rowe 1 956:142). L umbreras ( 1974 :168) a lso r eports l arge a mounts o f W an i c eramics f rom t his s ite.

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A f ew k ilometers t o t he s outheast a long t he h ighway a re t he r emains o f a g reat w all, s imilar t o t he R umiqolqa w all, w hich i ntersects t he h ighway j ust a bove t he l agoon a t U rcos. O n t he s lope a bove t he w all t o t he s outh i s a n a ssociated s ite w ith m any W ani s herds o n t he s urface b ut n o a rchitecture. O n t he n orth s ide o f t he p ass, o n t he s outheast f lank o f C erro W iracochan, i s y et a nother s ite c onsisting o f s everal v ery l arge r ectangular e nclosures w hich m ay b e r emains o f aW an i i nstallation. T his g roup o f s ites i s i n a s ense a s maller v ersion o f t he P ikillacta s ettlement s ystem . T he e lite r esidence a nd a dministrative c omponent, a nd e lite c emetery w as p robably l ocated a t B atan U rgo. T he l ower s tatus r esidence a nd d efensive c omponent w as p robably l ocated a t t he g reat w all a nd o n t he s lope a bove i t. T he c onstructions o n t he l ower s outhern s lopes o f C erro W iracochan m ay r epresent t he c eremonial c omponent. F urther t o t he s outh i n t he V ilcanota d rainage t here i s a nother W an i s ite a t S an P edro d e C acha n ear S icuani. N o W an i a rchitecture i s p reserved t here, b ut t here a re a l arge n umber o f W an i s herds o n t he s urface. L umbreras ( 1974:168) r eports a nother W an i s ite n ear S icuani c alled Y anamancha w hich a pparently c onsists o nly o f s urface c eramics. T o t he n orth o f P ikillacta, i n t he O ropesa B asin o f t he C uzco V alley, a W an i s ite w as d iscovered i n 1 981 b y a w ork c rew l aying p ipe ( Arq. R uben O rellana: p ersonal c ommunication 1 982). I a lso b elieve t hat s ome o f t he s tructures a bove t he I nca s ite o f T ipon, o n t he e astern r im o f t he b asin, m ay p ertain t o t he W an i o ccupation. I n t he C uzco B asin i tself, n o W an i s ites h ave a s y et b een d iscovered. G iven t he h eavy o ccupation o f t his e nd o f t he C uzco V alley d uring L ate H orizon a nd p ost-Conquest t imes, i t i s p ossible t hat a W an i s ite u nderlies o ne o f t he I nca o r m ore r ecent s ites. A f ew W an i s herds h ave b een u nearthed i n C uzco i tself ( Patricia L yon, p ersonal c ommunication 1 986). T o t he n orth o f C uzco, o n t he P ampa d e A nta, a re a t l east t wo W an i s ites : F iero W asi, a nd a nother s ite r eported b y A rq. I talo O berti o f t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura. T o t he w est o f C uzco, g oing t owards A bancay, i s t he s ite o f C ura W asi w here D r. N unez d el P rado r ecorded s everal W an i g rave l ots. S ome o f t he m otifs o n t he C ura W asi m aterial a re v ery s imilar t o t he m ore c ommon m otifs f ound a t P ikillacta . F inally, D r. L uis B arreda o f t he U niversity o f C uzco, r eports a W an i s ite n ear P aruro. T his s ite l ies a bout 3 0 k m t o t he s outhwest o f P ikillacta. N one o f t hese W an i s ites a ppear t o h ave l arge f ormal a rchitectural b locks i n t he s tyle o f P ikillacta. T his i s p robably a r eflection o f t he f act t hat t hey w ere l ower o rders i n t he s ite h ierarchy a nd d id n ot m erit t he i ntensive l abor i nvestment n ecessary t o b uild t he l arge a dministrative s tructures. T hey d o i ndicate, h owever, t he l arge e xtent o f t he t erritories s urrounding P ikillacta t hat w ere c ontrolled b y t he W an . M any m ore s ites u ndoubtedly w ait t o b e d iscovered i n t he c ircum-Pikillacta r egion.

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P IKILLACTA A S AM ODEL P ROVINCIAL W ARI I NSTALLATION I n e arlier w ork o n t he P ikillacta s ite, a n umber o f p rinciples a nd s ystemic f eatures o f W an i s ite p lanning w ere i dentified ( see M cEwan 1 979 a nd 1 980). T he 1 982 f ield w ork a t P ikillacta p rovided a dditional d ata w hich a llowed t hese o bservations t o b e f urther r efined. T he f eatures a nd p rinciples c an b e d ivided i nto t hose p ertaining t o t he m acro s ystem o f t he s tate a s a w hole a nd t hose p ertaining t o t he m icro s ystem o f t he s ites t hemselves. F eatures o f t he m acro o rganization o f t he s tate i nclude:

s ystem

r eflecting

t he

p hysical

1 . T he i mposition o n t he l andscape, a s a u nit, o f a dministrative s ites c onsisting o f s everal d iscrete f unctional c omponents.

2 . T he i mposition o f t hese u nits a t s trategic p ositions r elative t o t he s tate h ighway n etwork a nd a djacent t o i mportant h uman a nd n atural r esource a reas.

F eatures o f t he t hemselves i nclude:

m icro

s ystem o f

t he

o rganization

o f

t he

s ites

1 . L inkage o f t he d iscrete f unctional c omponents o f t he s ite t ogether i nto a u nified w hole o r " Greater S ite" b y i ntrasite w all a nd r oad s ystems w hich b oth f acilitate a nd c ontrol a ccess a nd c ommunication. 2 . T he s egmentaiton o f t he m ajor c eremonial c omponent w ith r espect t o t he a dministrative c enter o f t he s ite.

3 . W ithin t he " Greater" s ite t here i s a t l east o ne u nit c onsisting o f f ormal s tate a rchitecture c omposed o f c ertain s pecific r ecurring s tructural t ypes. T his u nit w as p resumably t he s eat o f a dministration.

T he u niversality o f t he f eatures o f t he m acro s ystem c an b e r eadily o bserved i n s everal o ther m ajor h ighland W an i s ites i n a ddition t o P ikillacta. T he s ite o f V iracocha P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands i s p robably t he s ite m ost f requently c ompared w ith P ikillacta. B oth M cCown ( 1945) a nd T hatcher ( 1974) h ave c ommented o n

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t his s ite's p roximity t o t he m ajor h ighway s ystem o f t he r egion. E lsewhere ( McEwan 1 979) I h ave a lso m ade t his p oint a nd d iscussed t he s ite's s trategic l ocation r elative t o t he M oche d rainage. A s imilar c ase c an b e m ade f or t he s ites o f A zangaro ( Anders 1 982), W arf W ilka ( McEwan 1 979), a nd J incamocco ( Schreiber 1 978) i n t he C entral H ighlands. A ll o f t hese s ites a re l ocated a t m ajor n odes i n t he n orth-south a xis r unning r oughly f rom t he C uzco a rea i n t he s outh t hrough C ajamarca i n t he n orth ( fig. 5 -3). T he c lusters o f f unctional c omponents m aking u p t he a dministrative s ites a re a l ittle m ore d ifficult t o d ocument b ecause m any o f t hese s ites h ave o nly b een o bserved i n t erms o f t heir m ost o bvious c omponents a nd i nvestigators h ave n ot c onsidered t he f act t hat t hey m ay h ave b een l ooking a t o nly s ingle c omponent o f a l arger e ntity. N evertheless a c ase c an b e m ade f or a m ulti-component s ite a t V iracocha P ampa, w here V iracocha P ampa p roper i s t he a dministrative s egment a nd C erro A maru a nd M arca H uamachuco f orm o ther c omponents ( McEwan 1 979), o n t he b asis o f t he r eports o f M cCown ( 1945), T hatcher ( 1977), a nd t he T opics ( 1983). I sbell's ( personal c ommunication 1 984) i nterpretation o f t he s ite o f W an i i tself a lso s eems t o b ear o ut t his m odel o f m ulti-component o rganization i n w hich t he c omponents a re n ot n ecessarily s ituated o n c ontiguous t errain. H e s pecifically c ites t he o ccupation o n n eighboring r idges t o W arf a nd t he p ossible r elationship b etween t he W an i a nd Q onchopata s ites a s s eparate s ecular a nd c eremonial f oci w hich a re s eparated b y ad istance o f e ight k ilometers. T he f eatures o f t he m icro s ystem o f t he s ite i tself a re a lso r eflected i n o ther p rovincial W an i s ites. T he i nternal s ystemic f eatures o f t he w all a nd r oad s ystems c an b e i dentified a t V iracocha P ampa, a nd t o a l imited e xtent a t W an i W ilka ( McEwan 1 979), a s c an t he p eripheral l ocations o f t he c eremonial c omponents r elative t o t he m ain f ocus o f t he s ite. T he r elationship o f t he W an i a nd Q onchopata s ites m entioned a bove m ay a lso b e r eflective o f t his p henomenon. B y f ar t he m ost r eadily a pparent f eature h owever, i s t he a dministrative a rchitectural b lock c omposed o f t he s pecific r ecurring s tructural t ypes. A rchitectural b locks i n t he d istinctive W arf s tyle h ave b een s tudied a t V iracocha P ampa ( McCown 1 945; T opic & T opic 1 983), A zangaro ( Anders 1 982), a nd J incamocco ( Schreiber 1 978). A t W an i i n A yacucho t he p rototypes o f t he a dministrative a rchitectural b lock h ave b een s tudied b y B rewster-Wray ( 1983). A lthough t hese s tructures a re i n b locks s omewhat l ess r igidly p lanned t han t hose o f t he p rovincial s tyle, b y M iddle H orizon 1 B t hey w ere a pparently s erving t he s ame f unction, i e. h ousing t he a dministrative e lite ( Brewster-Wray 1 983:134). S pickard, t racing t he d evelopment o f t hese a rchitectural b locks o ut o f e arlier f orms a t t he s ite o f W arf, i mplies t hat t hey w ere a n ecessary p re-condition f or t he i mperial e xpansion ( Spickard 1 983). S ince t he a dministrative a rchitectural b lock i s t he m ost r eadily i dentifiable d iagnostic o f W an i p rovincial a dministrative c enters i n t he P eruvian l andscape, a s omewhat m ore d etailed c omparative d escription i s w arranted.

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V IRACOCHA P AMPA V iracocha P ampa, t he s ite m ost f requently c ompared t o P ikillacta, i s l ocated i n t he N orth H ighlands n ear H uamachuco. T he a rchitectural b lock i s l aid o ut i n t he f orm o f a n early p erfect s quare, a nd m easures a pproximately 5 60 x 5 80 m eters ( Topic & T opic 1 983 :7). L ike P ikillacta, t he V iracocha P ampa a rchitectural b lock h as a c entral f ocus c onsisting o f a l arge s tructure o r p laza. T he m ajority o f t he s tructures w ithin t he b lock a re c lustered a round t his c entral f ocus ( fig. 5 -4). T here i s a lso a g reat d eal o f e mpty s pace w ithin t he a rchitectural b lock w hich s uggests t hat c onstruction o f t he s ite m ay n ever h ave b een f inished. O n t he b asis o f t heir i nvestigations o f t he a rchitecture, t he T opics c oncluded t hat t his w as i ndeed t he c ase a nd t hat m any o f t he s tructures w ere o nly p artially c ompleted ( 1983:25). T he g round p lans o f t he s ite m ade b y M cCown ( 1945:fig. 1 3) a nd t he T opics ( 1983:fig. 1 ) i ndicated t hat t he a rchitectural b lock o f V iracocha P ampa i s m ade u p o f t he s ame b asic s tructural t ypes a s P ikillacta. T here a ppear t o b e a t l east f ifteen T ype B s tructures, e leven T ype C s tructures, t wenty-eight T ype D s tructures, a nd s even T ype E s tructures t hat a re n ot i ncorporated i nto t he T ype B s tructures. N o T ype A s tructures a ppear o n t he g round p lans a nd i t i s , o f c ourse, i mpossible t o d etermine i f a ny w ere p lanned f or t he u nfinished a reas. T he p reponderance o f T ype D s tructures m ay b e s imply d ue t o t he u nfinished n ature o f t he s ite. T he r elatively h igh p roportion o f T ype B s tructures i s i nteresting. W hereas a t P ikillacta T ype C s tructures p redominate, t he l argest g roup o f c omplex s tructures a t V iracocha P ampa a re o f T ype B . T he T opic's ( 1983:14-15) e xcavation i n o ne o f t he T ype E s tructures w ith i nternally r ounded c orners, w hich w as i ncorporated i nto a T ype B s tructure, p roduced d ata r ather s imilar t o t he r esults i n t he e xcavation i n s tructure 2 5-2E a t P ikillacta. I n b oth c ases t he s tructures a re r elatively l arge T ype E s tructures w ith i nternally r ounded c orners. B oth c ontained w all n iches w hich a re t rapezoidal i n h orizontal c ross-section, a nd b oth c ontained e vidence o f s econdary h uman b urials. A t P ikillacta t his c onsisted o f a c ache o f h uman s kulls l ocated u nder t he f loor i n o ne c orner. A t V iracocha P ampa t he s econdary b urial c onsisted o f p arts o f s everal b odies f ound i n a c avity i n t he c orner o f t he s tructure ( Topic & T opic 1 983:16). T hese r esults w ould s uggest a s imilar f unction f or t heses s tructures a t b oth s ites, w hich w as p robably c eremonial. A lthough t he V iracocha P ampa a rchitectural b lock i s c onsiderably s maller, a nd h as a l ower d ensity o f s tructures, i t i s s till t he m ost d irectly c omparable s ite t o P ikillacta. I ts c ontext w ithin t he m acro s ystem o f t he e mpire a nd t he r eplication o f t he " Greater S ite" m icro s ystem i n t erms o f s egmentation a nd i ntrasite l inkage a re a lso c omparable t o " Greater P ikillacta." I t i s p robable, t hen, t hat t he o verall f unctions o f t hese t wo s ites w ere v ery s imilar a nd t hat t he b oth s erved a s p rovincial c apitals i n t he W an i E mpire.

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A ZANGARO A zangaro i s a l arge W an i a dministrative a rchitectural b lock l ocated i n H uanta i n t he A yacucho B asin o f t he C entral H ighlands. T his s ite h as b een s tudied i n d etail b y M artha A nders w ho c oncluded t hat i t r epresents a s tate i nstallation f or t he p urposes o f a dministration ( Anders 1 982:15-16). T he m acro a nd m icro s ystemic f eatures a re a gain p resent a t t his s ite a nd i t c an b e i nterpreted a s t he " Greater A zangaro" s ite i n t his s ense. D iscrete f unctional u nits a ppear t o b e p resent b oth w ithin a nd j ust o utside a nd a djacent t o t he m ain a rchitectural b lock. T hese u nits s eem t o b e i n g reater p roximity t han i s t he c ase a t P ikillacta a nd V iracocha P ampa, b ut t his m ay b e a r eflection o f u nique l ocal c ircumstances a nd/or t he f act t hat t his s ite i s o f a d ifferent o rder o f m agnitude t han t he o thers. W all a nd c anal s ystems a lso p rovide l inkage f or t hese v arious c omponents. T he a rchitectural b lock a t A zangaro ( fig. 5 -5) m easures 1 75 x 4 47 m eters a nd i s d ivided i nto t hree m ajor s ector: N orth, C entral, a nd S outh ( Anders 1 982:6). E ach o f t hese s ectors c ontains a d ifferent a rchitectural a rrangement. T he N orth S ector c onsists o f t wo T ype B s tructures, e leven T ype C s tructures, a nd f ive T ype D s tructures. A s a t V iracocha P ampa, t here d o n ot a ppear t o b e a ny T ype A s tructures a t A zangaro. T he C entral S ector c onsists o f 3 40 T ype E s tructures. T hese a re a rranged i n t wenty r ows a nd a re o f t wo b asic s izes. T here a re n ineteen r ows o f s ixteen s tructures, e ach m easuring a pproximately 2 .5 x 9 .5 m eters, a nd o ne r ow o f t hirty-six s tructures, e ach m easuring 2 ..5 x 3 .75 m eters ( Anders: p ersonal c ommunication 1 984). T his s ector r epresents t he o nly k nown a nalog t o S ector f our a t P ikillacta. A lthough t he s imilarities b etween t he s ectors o f t he t wo s ites a re s triking, t here a re s ignificant d ifferences a s w ell. W hereas t he r ows o f T ype E s tructures i n S ector f our a t P ikillacta h ave b oth i nternally a nd e xternally r ounded c orners, t hose a t A zangaro h ave o nly i nternally r ounded c orners. T he s izes o f t he s tructures a t t he t wo s ites a lso c ontrast. A ll o f t he s tructures a t P ikillacta a re a pproximately t he s ame s ize a nd m easure a pproximately 4 .5 x 5 .5 m eters. T hese d ifferences h owever, d o n ot p reclude t heir h aving a s imilar f unction. T he S outh S ector o f A zangaro c onsists o f a t ype o f a rchitecture t hat d eparts r adically f rom t he r igid p lanning o f t he r est o f t he b lock ( Anders 1 982:6). A nders ( personal c ommunication 1 984) s uggests t hat t his a rea r epresents l ocal d omestic a rchitecture a o pposed t o s tate a rchitecture. T his a rea c an p erhaps s hed l ight o n w hat t he o ccupations m ay h ave l ooked l ike i n t he n on-elite r esidential s ectors o f " Greater P ikillacta:" T he s ites o f O olqe H aycuchina a nd M inas P ata f or e xample. T his m ay e xplain w hy t here i s W an i o ccupation r efuse o n t hese s ites b ut n o d istinctive a rchitectural f orms.

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T he o verall f unction o f t he A zangaro c omplex w as a pparently a dministrative, b ut i t w as p robably o f a l ower o rder i n t he a dministrative h ierarchy o f t he E mpire t han e ither P ikillacta o r V iracocha P ampa. N evertheless t he t ypical a dministrative s tate a rchitecture i s p resent a s w ell a s o ther f eatures o f W an i s tate p lanning.

J INCAMOCCO J incamocco, a W an i s tate a rchitectural b lock l ocated i n t he D epartment o f A yacucho i n t he C entral H ighlands , h as b een i nvestigated b y K atharina S chreiber ( 1978, 1 983). I t i s o f a l ower o rder o f m agnitude i n t he a dministrative h ierarchy t han t he o ther s ites p reviously d iscussed, a nd p robably o nly h ad r esponsibility f or t he a dministration o f a s ingle v alley. A lthough i n t his s ense i t i s p robably n ot d irectly c omparable t o P ikillacta, i t h as t he a dvantage o f b eing p erhaps t he m ost t horoughly s tudied W an i a dministrative s ite i n t erms o f b oth t he a dministrative c enter a nd t he t erritory a dministered, a nd c learly p artakes o f m any o f t he p rinciples a pplied a t l arger c enters l ike P ikillacta . T he a dministrative a rchitectural b lock a t J incamocco m easures a pproximately 1 30 x 2 50 m eters b ut o nly a n a rea o f 1 30 x 1 50 m eters i s w ell p reserved ( Schreiber 1 978:7). W all t renching d one b y S chreiber r eveals t hat t he s tandard s tructural t ypes d efined a t P ikillacta a re a lso p resent a t J incamocco ( fig. 5 -6). I n t he a rea r epresented o n h er g round p lan t here a re t wo T ype B s tructures, a nd p erhaps e leven T ype C s tructures. O ther s tructures a re p resent b ut a re n ot s ufficiently w ell p reserved t o d etermine t heir t ype. S chreiber's e xcavations i ndicated t hat a w ide v ariety o f a ctivities w ere c arried o ut i n t hese s tructures a nd t hat t he o verall f unction o f t he a rchitectural b lock w as a s a g eneralized a dministrative c enter ( Schreiber 1 983:3). I n h er s tudy o f t he C arahuarazo V alley i n w hich t he J incamocco s ite i s l ocated, S chreiber ( 1983:3) n otes t he p resence o f t hree s atellite W an i s ites, e ach l ocated a t s trategic p oints. S he a lso n otes t hat t he w hole v alley w as l inked t ogether a nd t o t he c enter o f t he E mpire b y a m ajor r oad c onstructed d uring t he W an i o ccupation. T hus i t a ppears t hat f eatures o f b oth t he m acro ( state) a nd m icro ( site) o rganizational p rinciples o f W an i a dministration a re p resent. T he v arious f eatures o f m acro-planning a nd m icro-planning a nd t heir c onsistent o ccurrence a t m ajor W an i i nstallations f orcefully s uggests t hat t he W an i s tate e mployed t he c oncept o f c entralized p lanning. T he r emarkable u niformity o f s tructural t ypes i n s tate a rchitecture f ound o ver a w ide a nd d iverse a rea s uggests t hat a s pecific s tate f unction m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith e ach s tructural t ype a s w ell a s e ach d iscrete f unctional u nit o f t he o verall s ite p lan. S uch c entralized p lanning i s t he h allmark o f a h ighly d eveloped c entralized g overnment. T he p hysical m anifestations o f t his g overnment, t he W an i p rovincial a dministrative s ites , a re t hus a k ey e lement i n s upport o f t he c ase f or a c entralized W an i E mpire.

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S UMMARY I n t his c hapter c urrent t hinking o n t he s tructure a nd h istory o f t he W an i E mpire h as b een r eviewed i n o rder t o p lace t he " Greater P ik illacta" s ite i n p erspective i n t he c ontext o f t he E mpire. P ikillacta a ppears t o b e t he p roduct o f a s pecific s et o f s ite p lanning p rinciples g enerated a t t he s tate l evel a nd w ith a ntecedents a t t he c apital, W an i i tself. A dministrative s ites t hroughout t he h ighlands s eem t o b e p atterned o n t hese p rinciples, w ith a daptations a nd a djustments m ade f or l ocal c onditions. P ikillacta a ppears t o h ave f unctioned a s a s econd e chelon r egional o r p rovincial c apital a nd t o h ave p resided o ver a p otentially l arge h interland, b ased o n t he d istribution a nd s cale o f W an i s ites i n t he S outhern H ighlands. T he s ite o f V iracocha P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands, t he o nly h ighland W an i s ite o n a s cale c omparable t o P ikillacta, a ppears t o h ave h ad a s imilar f unction . L ocated o n t he p rimary N orth-South a xis, P ikillacta a nd V iracocha P ampa, t ogether w ith t he c apital a t W an i s eem t o h ave b een t he t hree p rincipal h ighland n odes o f t he W an i E mpire. T hese s ites, t hen, r eflect t he s tructure o f a h ighly o rganized a nd v ery c entralized i mperial s tate. M ore r esearch i s b adly n eeded i n o rder t o m ore f irmly e stablish t he s tructure o f t he p rovincial o rganizations. V ery f ew W an i s ites b elow t he l evel o f r egional a dministrative c enters h ave b een s tudied i n a ny d etail. T his i s p artly d ue t o t heir b eing o verlooked b ecause o f t he a bsence o f a n a dministrative a rchitectural b lock i n t ypical W an i s tyle. U ntil n ow i t h as b een t hese b locks o f a rchitecture t hat h ave d rawn i nvestigators a ttention a nd l ittle o r n o a ttention h as b een p aid t o t he a rchaeological e nvironment i n w hich t hey e xist. M any m ore d iachronic s tudies o f h ighland v alley s ettlement p atterns, s uch a s S chreiber's ( 1983) i nvestigation o f t he J incamocco s ite a nd t he s urrounding C arahuarazo V alley i n t he C entral H ighlands, a re n eeded. T he p atterns e merging f rom t he w ork t hat h as b een d one s uggest t hat t he i mpact o f t he W an i E mpire o n t he P eruvian c ultural e nvironment w as p rofound. A m assive r eordering o f s ociety w ith a f ocus t oward s ecular i nterests h as b een n oted b y S chaedel ( 1966a). S chreiber ( 1983) a lso s ees e vidence o f m assive r eorganizations i n h er w ork i n t he C arahuarazo V alley. T he W an i s eemed t o h ave c oncentrated o n c entralizing c ontrol o f a ll o f t heir t erritory a nd i n t he p rocess r aised t he l evel o f l ocal o rganization t hroughout t he E mpire t o a c ertain l evel o f u niformity. T his p rocess h ad a p rofound e ffect o n t he s ubsequent c ulture h istory o f P eru a nd s et t he s tage f or t he e mergence o f f uture s tate l evel o rganizations.

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C HAPTER V I

S UMMARY, C ONCLUSIONS, A ND S UGGESTIONS F OR F UTURE R ESEARCH

T HE M IDDLE H ORIZON I N T HE L UCRE B ASIN A ND V ALLEY O F C UZCO T hrough t he p resentation o f n ew d ata d erived f rom r ecent i nvestigations i n t he L ucre B asin a n a ttempt h as b een m ade i n t his t hesis t o: a .) p rovide a c atalogue o f a rchaeological r esources i n t he L ucre B asin; b .) d escribe t he n ature o f t he W an i o ccupation o f t he P ikillacta s ite a nd t he L ucre B asin a ddressing s pecific i ssues o f o ccupation, c onstruction, a nd f unction o f t he h uge a rchitectural b lock ; c .) d emonstrate t hat P ikillacta r epresents a p articular t ype o f p re-planned a dministrative c enter w hich c onforms t o a s pecific s et o f o rganizational p rinciples; a nd d .) d escribe P ikillacta's p lace i n t he a dministrative h ierarchy o f t he E mpire. T his a nalysis o f t he M iddle H orizon i n t he s outhern e nd o f t he C uzco V alley s ets t he s tage f or f uture r esearch i nto t he i mpact o f t he W an i E mpire o n s ubsequent c ulture h istory a nd t he u ltimate r ise o f t he I nca s tate. I n t he c ourse o f t he s ite s urvey o f t he L ucre B asin, t hirty-two d iscrete a rchaeological s ites w ere i dentified a nd t he r oad a nd c anal s ystems o f t he b asin w ere t raced. D ue t o t he v ery i ntensive o ccupation d uring c ertain e pochs, p articularly t he M iddle a nd L ate H orizons, m any a reas o f t he b asin s eem t o m erge t ogether i nto g reat c ontinuous o ccupation z ones a nd s orting o ut t he d iscrete c omponents b ecomes v ery d ifficult. T he v ast m ajority o f t he s ites d etectable b y s urface s urvey p ertain t o t he M iddle H orizon a nd l ater p eriods . E xcavations a t t wo o f t hese s ites, C hokepukio a nd M inaspata, i ndicate t hat e arlier s ites u nderlie t he v isible o ccupations a nd a re q uite d eeply b uried. D ue t o t hese f actors t he n umber o f s ites r eported a nd c ataloged r epresents a m inimum n umber r ather t han a c omplete t ally. T he g reatest n umber o f s ites w ere o ccupied d uring t he M iddle a nd L ate H orizons. D uring t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod t he n umber o f s ites i n u se d eclined a s t he g reat c omplex o f P ikillacta s tood a bandoned. D uring t he M iddle H orizon t he L ucre B asin w as i nvaded b y t he W an i E mpire. T he b asin w as c ompletely o ccupied a nd r eorganized i nto a v ery l arge W an i a dministrative c enter. T he p attern o f t his s ettlement c onsisted o f a n umber o f f unctionally d iscrete s egments p ertaining t o a dministration, r esidence, d efense, a nd r eligion, w hich w ere a ll l inked b y a s ystem o f r oads. D efensive w alls w ere s trategically p laced a t t he m ain e ntrances t o t he b asin p roviding a d efense p erimeter, a nd t hus t he w hole b asin w as t urned i nto a s ingle l arge c omplex , t he " Greater P ikillacta" s ite. T his " Greater" s ite w as a dministered f rom t he v ery l arge s tate a rchitectural b lock l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he b asin w hich h as t raditionally b een t he s ite o f P ikillacta. D ata r ecovered i n e xcavations i n t his a rchitectural b lock s uggest a n o ccupation o f s ubstantial d uration. T hese d ata a lso i ndicate t hat t he b lock w as c onstructed i n a s ingle e ffort a nd t hat

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t he a rchitecture w as c omprised o f t he c onsistent r ecombination o f t hree b asic a rchitectural e lements i nto o nly f ive b asic s tructural t ypes. T he a rchitectural b lock a ppears t o h ave f unctioned a s a n e lite r esidence a nd a dministrative c enter. T he f eatures a nd p rinciples r evealed i n t he p lanning o f " Greater P ikillacta" s eem t o r epresent a s tandard f ormat f or W an i p rovincial a dministrative c enters. T his f ormat w as d eveloped a nd i mposed f rom t he i mperial c apital a t W an i i n A yacucho. T hese f eatures a nd p rinciples s eem t o r epresent b oth a m acro-system o f s tate l evel p lanning a nd a m icro-system o f i ndividual s ite p lanning. A t t he m acro ( state) l evel t he p rinciples i nclude : 1 . T he i mposition o n t he l andscape, a s a u nit, o f a dministrative s ites c onsisting o f s everal d iscrete f unctional c omponents.

2 . T he i mposition o f t hese u nits a t s trategic p ositions r elative t o t he s tate h ighway n etwork a nd a djacent t o i mportant h uman a nd n atural r esource a reas.

A t t he m icro s ystem i nclude:

( site)

l evel

o f

o rganization,

f eatures

o f

t he

1 . L inkage o f t he d iscrete f unctional c omponents o f t he s ite t ogether i nto a u nified w hole o r " Greater" s ite b y i ntrasite w all a nd r oad s ystems w hich b oth f acilitate a nd c ontrol a ccess a nd c ommunication.

2 . T he s egmentation o f t he m ajor c eremonial c omponent w ith r espect t o t he a dministrative c enter o f t he s ite.

3 . W ithin t he " Greater" s ite t here e xists a t l east o ne c omponent c onsisting o f a f ormal s tate a rchitectural b lock c omposed o f c ertain s pecific r e-occurring s tructural t ypes.

T he u se o f t hese f eatures a nd p rinciples h as b een o bserved i n s everal o ther h ighland W an i a dministrative s ites i n t he N orth a nd C entral H ighlands. I ndications o f t heir l ocal d evelopment a t t he c apital o f W an i i n A yacucho h ave a lso b een d iscussed. T he w idespread

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a pplication o f t hese p rinciples i n h ighland W an i s ites c an b e s aid t o r eflect t he s tructure o f a h ighly o rganized a nd c entralized i mperial s tate. P ikillacta's f unction w ithin t his i mperial s tate a ppears t o h ave b een t hat o f a r egional o r p rovincial c apital. I sbell a nd S chreiber ( 1978:376) p lace i t i n t he i mperial h ierarchy a s a s econd o rder s ite, o ne l evel b elow t he c apital o f W an i i tself. T he d ata d iscussed i n t his t hesis t ends t o c onfirm t his p osition. A lthough t he b oundaries o f t he W an i p rovinces r emain u nknown, t he n umber a nd p osition o f t he l ower o rder a nd p resumably s atellite c enters i n t he c ircum-Pikillacta a rea t ends t o c onfirm P ikillacta's p rimacy. T here i s n o o ther W ani s ite o f t his m agnitude i n t he S outh H ighlands . T he f undamental r eorganization r esulting f rom t he W an i i nvasion a nd o ccupation o f t he S outhern H ighlands, a nd p articularly t he L ucre B asin u ndoubtedly s et t he s tage f or t he e ventual e mergence o f t he I nca s tate. I t w as d uring t he M iddle H orizon o ccupation t hat t he p eoples o f t he C uzco V alley w ere i ntroduced t o t he c oncept o f e mpire a nd s tate l evel p olitical o rganization. At otally n ew t ype o f s ettlement w as c onstructed i n t he L ucre B asin a nd n ew a rchitectural f orms a nd n ew c eramic s tyles w ere i ntroduced a s w ell a s n ew i deology. E choes o f t he i mpact o f t hese n ew i nfluences c an b e s een c arrying t hrough t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod a nd i nto t he l ate H orizon c ulture o f t he I ncas.

S UGGESTIONS F OR F UTURE R ESEARCH T he w ork a t P ikillacta a nd t he s tudy o f t he M iddle H orizon i n asin h as p rovided a b ase f or a n umber o f i mportant l ines o f t he L ucre B r esearch. O ne o f t he m ost f ruitful a nd p otentially u seful w ould b e a n i ntensive s tudy o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod c ultures i n t he V alley o f C uzco. I t w as d uring t his p eriod t hat t he l ocal c ultures d igested w hat e ver i nfluences t hat t he W an i h ad o n t hem a nd s et i n m otion t he c hain o f e vents l eading t o t he r ise o f t he I nca E mpire.

T HE

L ATE

I NTERMEDIATE

P ERIOD

I N

T HE

L UCRE

B ASIN

A ND

V ALLEY

O F

C UZCO

O ne o f t he b asic p roblems i n s tudying t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod i s t hat t he q uestion o f h ow a nd w hen i t b egan i n t he C uzco V alley i s u ncertain. I n s trictly c hronological t erms, t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod b egins i n 9 00 A D a ccording t o R owe's ( 1965) m aster s equence f rom t he S outh C oast o f P eru. H owever f or t he p urpose o f t his d iscussion t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod r efers t o t he p eriod b etween t he c essation o f d irect W an i I mperial c ontrol o f t he C uzco V alley a nd t he b eginning o f I nca I mperial c ontrol. T he i nvestigations a t P ikillacta u nfortunately s hed l ittle l ight o n t his p roblem . I t h as b een t he c onsensus a mong M iddle H orizon s cholars t hat t he W an i E mpire c ollapsed r ather a bruptly a t t he e nd o f M iddle H orizon E poch 2 B , a s s uggested b y M enzel ( 1964). W hat i s u nknown i s w hat e ffect t his

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c ollapse h ad o n t he p rovinces. W hether P ikillacta a nd o ther p rovincial c enters c ontinued f or a p eriod w ith r elative a utonomy a fter t he c ollapse o f t he c apital o r w ere a bandoned d ue t o a r ecall o f p ersonnel t o t he i mperial c enter i n o rder t o m eet t he f inal c risis i s n ot c lear. I n e ither c ase, t he e nd r esult w as t hat P ikillacta w as a bandoned a nd n ever r e-occupied. T his f act p robably r eflects a n umber o f f actors s uch a s a s maller p opulation i n t he b asin f or w hom s uch a l arge c enter w as u nnecessary, p erhaps a r eluctance o r t aboo a gainst l iving i n t he s tructures o f t he h ated c onquerors, o r p erhaps t he s tructures w ere s o g eared t o a n a lien c ultural p attern t hat t hey w ere u seless f or t he p urposes o f t he n ative p opulation. I n a ny c ase, t he b eginning o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod c an b e s aid t o o ccur i n t he v alley o f C uzco w ith t he W an i a bandonment o f t he " Greater P ikillacta" a dministrative c enter i n t he L ucre B asin. T he l ast d ate o f c onstruction o n t he P ikillacta a rchitectural b lock a ppears t o h ave b een a round 8 00-850 A D . T he a bandonment o f t he s ite w ould h ave t aken p lace s ometime a fter t his d ate, p erhaps a s l ate a s 1 ,000 A D . T he n eighboring s ite o f C hokepukio, w hich I b elieve w as t he L ate I ntermediate c enter o f M uina, h as b een d ated b y t wo r adiocarbon s amples t aken f rom t he w alls o f t he l arge t rapezoidal s tructures. T hese s amples y ielded d ates o f 8 60 + 6 0 A D ( Tx4748) a nd 1 255 + 5 9 ( B .M . 9 24 r eported i n K endall 1 976:97). O n t he b asis o f t hese d ates, t he b eginning o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod m ay h ave b een a s e arly a s 9 00 A D . I n a ny c ase i t h ardly s eems l ikely t hat t he W an i w ould h ave t olerated t he c onstruction o f a r ival c enter a djacent t o P ikillacta d uring t heir t enure i n t he b asin, s o t he l ater c onstruction o f C hoquepukio p robably m arks t he e nd o f W an i p ower a t P ikillacta. W ith t he d isappearance o f t he W an , a p ower v acuum u ndoubtedly o ccurred i n t he V alley o f C uzco a nd s urrounding a rea. A t l east t wo, a nd a lmost c ertainly m ore, e thnic g roups f ound t hemselves i n a p ower s truggle t o i nherit t he p osition o f d ominant p ower. T he e choes o f t his s truggle, m odified b y I nca p ropagandists, a re h eard i n t he a ccounts o f t he e arliest r eigns o f t he I ncas r ecorded i n t he S panish C hronicles. I n t he L ucre B asin t he C hokepukio s ite w as s eemingly b uilt i n c onscious i mitation o f P ikillacta y et r etaining m uch o f t he l ocal n on W arf a rchitectural t radition. T he w alls o f C hokepukio, b uilt t o g reat h eights ( 10-12 m eters), e xhibit t he s ame h orizontal a nd v ertical s ectioning a s d o t hose a t P ikillacta. I nterior w alls a re a butted, n ot b onded, a nd l ong n arrow p assages r eminiscent o f t he W an i g alleries a re p resent. L ike P ikillacta t hese s tructures w ere a lso c oated w ith a t hick m ud s tucco a nd p robably p lastered w ith w hite y eso. T he p reference f or t rapezoidal g round p lans h owever i s a l ocal f eature t hat c arries i nto s ome I nca a rchitecture. T he w all n iches i n C hokepukio a re d istinctly i n t he l ocal s tyle, g enerally l arge a nd r ectangular t ending t oward t rapezoidal i n s hape. T he s tructures t hen, a re a b lend o f b oth W arf a nd l ocal e lements b ut w ere e rected t oward t he s ame e nd a s P ikillacta: t o p rovide a s uitably i mpressive s eat o f p ower. T he L ucre c eramics a re a lso a c onscious i mitation o f W ani s tyles. L ocal i nterpretations o f c ommon W an i m otifs a re d one i n p olychrome, w ith r ed b eing t he p articularly p rominent c olor. L ucre

8 0

v essel s hapes a re n ot w ell e nough k nown t o b e g enerally c ategorized a s i mitations o f W an i p ieces, h owever a t l east t he k ero f orm w ith f laring r im w as k nown a nd i s a p robable i mitation . T he s ite s urvey o f t he L ucre B asin s uggests t hat d uring t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod a ll o f t he s trategic s ites a t t he b asin e ntrances w ere o ccupied a nd t he g reat w alls a t R umiqolqa a nd C ombayoq w ere u ndoubtedly m anned b y L ucre g arrisons. T he h abitation s ites a t R ayallacta a nd M inaspata a lso s eem t o h ave b een h eavily o ccupied a s w ell a s t he c eremonial s ite o f M ama Q olla a nd t he s ites f lanking i t: U nka P unku a nd T ukuywayku. L ucre i nfluence s eems t o h ave e xtended b eyond t he i mmediate a rea o f t he L ucre B asin. T here s eems t o h ave b een a l arge L ucre o ccupation i n a nd a round t he q uarries a t R umiqolqa . F urther t o t he s outh R owe ( 1956:142) r eports t hat C havez B allon f ound L ucre c eramics a t B atan U rqo a nd I h ave c ollected s ome n ear C erro W iracochan a bove U rcos. B rundage, i n h is s ynthesis o f t he v arious a ccounts o f t he S panish c hronicles r egarding t he e vents o f t he e arliest I nca r eigns, m entions t hat t here w as a n a lliance o r e arly s tate c omprised o f M uina, A ndahuaylillas, H uaro, a nd U rcos ( Brundage:1967:24-25). M uina ( ie. t he L ucre) w as a lso a pparently a llied w ith t he P inagua t o t he i mmediate n orth o f t he L ucre B asin ( Brundage 1 967:24). T he L ucre s eem t o h ave b een a m ajor b eneficiary o f t he W an i c ollapse. T hey i nherited t he s trategic L ucre B asin a nd p robably g ained a c ertain a mount o f r eflected p restige b y v irtue o f h olding t he o ld s eat o f l ocal W ani p ower. T his s eems i ndicated i n t heir c eramics a nd a rchitecture w hich i mitated t he o ld W an i s tyles. T he p olitical a rrangements w ith A ndahuaylillas, H uaro a nd U rcos m ay a lso h ave b een a h old o ver o f t he o ld i mperial r egional o rganization. I n t he O ropesa B asin j ust t o t he n orth o f t he L ucre B asin i n t he V alley o f C uzco, t here w ere a pparently t wo r elated e thnic g roups d uring t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod. T hese w ere t he P inagua a nd t he A yamarca ( Rostworowski 1 972). A ccording t o W aldemar E spinosa ( 1976:157) t he t erritory o f t he P inagua r eached f rom t he L ucre B asin t o A ngostura a long t he n ortheastern s ide o f t he v alley. T he P inagua h ad t heir c enter o r p rincipal t own , a lso c alled P inagua , a t t he s ite o f m odern O ropesa a nd w ere l inked i n a lliance w ith M uina ( Chokepukio) ( Brundage 1 967:24-25). S uch a n a rrangement w ould h ave h ad g reat a dvantages f or t he L ucre a t M uina s ince P inagua w as s o s ituated a s t o c ontrol t he h ighway r unning b ehind C erro C ondor M ogo, t he n orthern a pproach t o M uina ( see m ap 2 ). T he e xtent o f P inagua h oldings i s p robably e xaggerated s omewhat i n t he d ocuments c ited b y E spinosa s ince t he A yamarca w ere a lso o ccupying t he O ropesa B asin. A ccording t o B rundage ( 1967:19-24) t he A yamarcas a nd P inaguas s eem t o h ave b een r ather l oosely o rganized a nd s erved a s a b uffer b etween t he m ore a ggressive a nd h ighly o rganized g roups i n t he C uzco a nd L ucre B asin. T he C uzco B asin w as d ominated d uring t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod b y a n e thnic g roup t hat c orresponds t o t he a rchaeologically k nown c eramic s tyle c alled K 'illke, d escribed b y R owe ( 1945:60) a nd D wyer ( 1971). T he t erritory o f t he K 'illke, b ased o n t he s ite d istribution r eported b y D wyer ( 1971:27-46), a pparently e ncompassed

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t he C uzco B asin , p art o f t he P ampa d e A nta, a nd t he U rubamba V alley f rom 0 11antaytambo t o P ucara P antillijlla n ear P isaq. B oth D wyer ( 1971:136) a nd L yon ( personal c ommunication 1 982) s uggest t hat t he K 'illke s tyle i s d escended f rom t he M iddle H orizon Q otakalli s tyle. D wyer ( 1971:135-137) s tates t hat K 'illke p ottery m ost l ikely d erived f rom a c ombination o f e lements o f t he M iddle H orizon W an i s tyle, t he u se o f r ed s lip i s a n e xample, a nd " an a rchaizing m ovement t oward t he u tilization o f g eometric d esigns l ike t hose f ound i n C uzco p ottery p rior t o W an i i nfluence." T he W ani s tylistic i nfluence i s n ot n early a s g reat a s t hat s een i n L ucre c eramics. K 'illke a rchitecture i s n ot w ell k nown b ut t he e xample c ited b y D wyer ( 1971:45) s hows n o a pparent W an i i nfluence. T he s carcity o f W an i a rtifacts a nd s ites i n K 'illke t erritory w hile t here a re Q otakalli ( proto-K ti llke) s herds o n t he W an i s ites i n t he L ucre B asin m ay s uggest t hat t he Q otakalli h ad s ome s ort o f a rrangement w ith t he W an i w hereby t hey w ere l ess h eavily d ominated a nd t hat t he W ani i nfluence w as m ore a r esult o f i mitation r ather t han i mposition. W ith t he c ollapse o f t he W an i E mpire t he r egional p olitical s tructure s eems t o h ave d evolved o ne o r t wo l evels b elow t he i mperial l evel b ut n ot t o h ave d issipated c ompletely. T he g roups d iscussed a bove a mounted t o m ini-states o r s uper-chiefdoms a nd e ach w as a pparently b ent o n e stablishing h egemony o ver t he o thers. T he p rincipal W an i l egacy s eems t o h ave b een t he r aising o f t he l evel o f o rganizational c omplexity o f t he p olities t hat i t c onquered t o a r elative e quality. W ith t he c ollapse o f t he c entral a uthority, m any o f t hese p olities w ere i n a p osition t o t ry o ut t he l essons o f e mpire t hat t hey h ad a bsorbed t hrough t he W an i o ccupation. T hroughout t he A ndes t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod w as p robably c haracterized b y t his w idespread c ontending f or p ower. I n m any c ases i t w as p robably a m atter o f p icking u p t he p ieces a nd s tringing t hem b ack t ogether, s o t o s peak , t o f orm a n ew e mpire. T his i s a pparently w hat t he I nca w ere a ble t o d o u sing t heir o wn i deology a nd t he i nherited l essons o f s tate c raft, a nd m ost i mportantly t he i nherited i nfra-structure, e specially t he b asic h ighway s ystem . T he a ccounts i n t he S panish C hronicles d ealing w ith t he e vents o f t he r eigns o f t he e arly I ncas a re u ndoubtedly r eflecting t he I nca v ersion o f w hat t ranspired b etween t he K 'illke a nd t he L ucre p eoples i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod. I n h is s ynthesis o f t he a ccounts i n t he C hronicles, B rundage ( 1967:25-26) r ecords t he b ack a nd f orth b attles b etween M uina ( the L ucre) a nd C uzco ( the K 'illke). U ltimately t he p eople o f C uzco ( K'illke) c aptured t he L ucre B asin i n t he r eign o f V iracocha I nca. T his e vent i s r eflected i n t he f act t hat t he s eat o f t he I nca E mpire w hich e merged d uring t he f ollowing r eign o f P achacutec w as l ocated i n C uzco r ather t han i n t he L ucre B asin w here t he g reat c enters o f t he M iddle H orizon a nd L ate I ntermediate P eriod h ad b een e rected. P achacutec h ad M uina d estroyed; i ts w alls b reached a nd t hrown d own. E vidence o f t his c an b e s een i n t he r uins o f C hokepukio w here s everal o f t he v ery l arge t rapezoidal a nd r ectangular s tructures h ave b een r azed a nd i n t hose s tructures t hat r emain s tanding, t he i nterior w alls h ave a ll b een k nocked d own. A fter t he c onquest o f M uina a nd t he d estruction o f t he L ucre s tronghold b y P achacutec, i t i s

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n o l onger p olities.

p ossible t o s peak o f t he L ucre a nd K 'illke a s s eparate T hey h ave b ecome t he b asic c onstituents o f t he I nca E mpire.

T he s equence o f e vents o utlined a bove i s t o a c ertain d egree h ypothetical. M ore f ield w ork i s b adly n eeded t o c larify t he e xact c ircumstances o f t he r ise o f t he I nca. I t m ay b e p ossible, u sing e thnohistorical m aterials a nd o ther p ieces o f i nformation, t o a rchaeologically i dentify m any o f t he c ontending e thnic g roups i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod V alley o f C uzco. O nly t he K 'illke c eramic s tyle h as b een p ublished i n d etail ( Dwyer 1 971; R owe 1 945) a nd m any m ore s uch s tudies a re u rgently n eeded.

T HE I NCA E MPIRE

I n o rder t o b etter u nderstand t o w hat d egree t he I nca E mpire m ay r elfect t he i nfluence o f t he W an i E mpire, i t i s u seful t o c ompare t he s tructures a nd h istories, s o f ar a s t hey a re k nown, o f t hese t wo s tates. T he o rigin a nd s tructure o f t he I nca S tate h as b een c overed i n d etail i n t he w orks o f B rundage ( 1963, 1 967), M urra ( 1955), S chaedel ( 1978), R owe ( 1946) a nd m any o thers. F rom t hese s tudies i t a ppears t hat t he I ncas o riginated a s a c hiefdom i n t he C uzco a rea t hat g radually e merged i nto a f irst a mong e quals r elationship w ith i ts n eighboring c hiefdoms o r s mall s tates. S ometime a round 1 440 a m ilitary t riumph o ver i ts n eighbors, a s o utlined i n t he d iscussion o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod, t riggered a p redatory e xpansion l ed b y t he I nca P achacutec. A t s ome p oint a fter a s eries o f e xtensive c onquests, P achacutec a pparently r ealized t he n eed f or, a nd a ccomplished, a n e conomic r eorganization w hich t ransformed t he p redatory c hiefdom i nto a s tate. T he I nca s tate m odel i s t hat o f a h ighly c entralized s tratified s tate a dministering a b asically r edistributive e conomy t hrough t he u se o f a m onopoly o f f orce a nd c odified l aw . I n t he o rganizational s cheme o f t he e mpire, k nown a s T awatinsuyu, C uzco, t he c apital, w as s een a s t he c enter o f t he s tructure. T he t erritory o f t he e mpire w as d ivided i nto f our q uarters o r s uyus w hich g eograph ically c onverged i n C uzco. T he s uyu w as d ivided i nto p rovinces a nd w ithin t he p rovince t he p opulation w as d ivided d ecimally, b ased o n h eads o f f amilies, i nto g roups o f d escending s ize o rder - i e. t housands, h undreds, a nd t ens. A lthough t his o rganizational s cheme w as c onsidered t he i deal, i t s eems t o h ave v aried i n p ractice f rom a rea t o a rea d epending o n t he d ensity o f p opulation a nd t he d egree t o w hich l ocal p re-existing s ocial o rganization w as i nterfered w ith. I n s ome c ases e thnic u nits c ould b e i ncorporated w holesale i nto t he e mpire a nd r equired l ittle o r n o s tructural c hange, a s i n t he c ase o f t he p olities a round t he T iticaca B asin ( Murra 1 972) w hich w ere b asically o n a p ar w ith t he I nca i n t erms o f s ocio-cultural d evelopment. I n o ther a reas, s uch a s t he S outh C oast, i t w as n ecessary f or t he I nca t o r eorganize a nd a ttempt

8 3

t o c entralize p olities t hat w ere a t a l ower l evel o f s ocio-cultural d evelopment ( Menzel 1 957). I n a t l east o ne c ase, t hat o f t he K ingdom o f C himor, t he I ncas e ncountered a p olity t hat w as p ossibly m ore h ighly d eveloped t han t hey t hemselves. T heir r eaction w as t o " balkanize" t he C himu s tate i nto i ts m ore m anageable c onstituent c hiefdoms ( Schaedel 1 978). I nca a dministrative c enters s eem t o h ave b een l ocated a t s trategic n odes i n t he p rovinces w ith r espect t o c entralized a dministration a nd c ommunication w ith t he c apital. W here s uitable p re-existing s ettlements w ere a vailable, t hey w ere m odified t o s erve a s a dministrative c enters. W here t hey w ere n ot a vailable, t he I ncas b uilt t hem f rom s cratch a s s eems t o b e t he c ase a t H uanuco P ampa ( Morris 1 977). T he p ositions i n t he c entralized a dministrative h ierarchy w ere f illed b y m embers o f t he v arious s ocial s trata a ccording t o r ank. T he t op s tratum w as o ccupied b y e thnic I ncas w ho f illed t he p ositions o f t he s overeign, t he h ead o f t he s tate r eligion, a nd t he h ead o f t he a rmy a nd o ther p osts o f p aramount i mportance. T he n ext l ower s tratum c onsisted o f I ncas b y p rivilege, b asically p eoples f rom t he c ircumC uzco r egion w ho w ere u sed t o f ill p ositions w hen t here w ere n ot e nough I ncas t o g o a round. B elow t hese w ere t he p rovincial n obility w ho h eld a dministrative p osts i n t he p rovincial h ierarchy. T hey w ere o ften t he o riginal n ative r ulers o f t he g roups t hat t hey a dministered. A nother l evel b elow t his c onsisted o f t he y anacona a nd m itayoc. T he s tatus o f t he f ormer i s n ot e ntirely c lear b ut t hey s eem t o h ave s erved a s r etainers t o t he I nca n obility. T he m itayoc w ere p eople s erving a s s easonal l abor o n s tate w orks p rojects. T he l owest l evel w as o ccupied b y t he H atun R una w ho w ere t he c ommon h eads o f h ouseholds. T hey m ade u p t he b ulk o f t he p opulation a nd p rovided t he a gricultural l abor t hat f ueled t he e conomy. T he b ulk o f t he e conomy w as p robably s tructured i n c onformance w ith t he p rinciples o f v erticality a nd t he e conomic a rchipelago a s s uggested b y M urra ( 1972). T he a dministration o f t he e conomy w as i n k eeping w ith i ts s tructure, t hat i s, b asically s et a long r edistributive l ines w ith p rovincial l ands b eing d ivided b etween t he c hurch, s tate, a nd l ocal p eople. O ften c hurch a nd s tate l ands w ere n ewly o pened i n o rder t o p revent d isruption o f t raditional l ocal t enure p atterns. T he p roduction o f c hurch a nd s tate l ands i n t he p rovinces w ent p rimarily f or t he s upport o f t he l ocal b ureaucracy a nd s tate p rojects, a nd a lso s erved a s a s urplus b uffer a gainst e nvironmental p erturbations r esulting i n l ean p roduction y ears , I n t he c enter o f t he e mpire, t he l ands i n t he c ircum-Cuzco a rea w ere d ivided i nto e states b elonging t o t he I nca n obility a nd w ere p robably w orked b y y anacona. T he p roduct o f t hese l ands s erved t o s upport t he g rowing c entral b ureaucracy w ithout p lacing u ndue s tress o n t he p rovinces. T he s ystem a s a w hole w as i ntegrated b y a r eticulated h ighway s ystem w hich d irectly c onnected t he c apital w ith t he n odes o f p rovincial a dministration.

8 4

T his h ighway s ystem p rovided a m eans o f r elatively r apid c ommunication b y m eans o f a s ystem o f r elay r unners o r c hasqui. T his a llowed f or t he e fficient d issemination o f d ecisions f rom t he c entral a uthority a nd p rovided a m eans f or r apidly m oving i n t roops t o p rovide s anctions i f n ecessary.

T he W an i s tate i s l ess w ell k nown, y et t he d ata t hat d oes e xist s uggests a m odel t hat i n m any r espects p arallels t he I nca m odel. T he i dentification o f W arf a s a s tate l evel s ocio-political o rganization h as b een d iscussed i n d etail i n e arlier c hapters. T he p arallels i n t he e arly d evelopment o f b oth t he I nca a nd W an i s tates a re v ery i nteresting a nd i t i s t empting t o s ee t he t ransformation f rom p redatory c hiefdom t o c onquest s tate a s o ccurring d uring t he M iddle H orizon E poch 2 A c risis p ostulated b y M enzel. T he e xceptionally h igh d egree o f p lanning e xhibited i n t he a rchitecture a nd s ettlement p atterns o f t he p rovincial W an i c enters s uggest a s tratified s ociety a nd h ighly c entralized s tate. A s egmented s ettlement p lan s eems t o o ccur c onsistently a t p rovincial s ites s uch a s P ikillacta, V iracocha P ampa, A zangaro, a nd J incamocco. T he v arious s egments h ave b een i dentified w ith e lite s ecular r esidence, r eligious a ctivities, l ower c lass r esidence a nd m ilitary f unctions. P utting m any o f t he p ieces o f e vidence t ogether, I sbell ( 1978) h as s uggested t hat t he m odel o f t he W arf s tate i s o ne o f p redatory e xpansion p recipitated b y t he d evelopment o f s patial a nd t emporal e nergy a veraging i nstitutions w hich g ave t he W an i a s elective a dvantage i n t erms o f e fficiency. T he b asic a lignment o f k ey f eatures a t t he m ajor a dministrative s ites s eems t o b ear t his o ut ( eg. S chaedel's h illside t owns o n t he n orth C oast a nd t he " Greater P ikillacta" s ite). T he p rovincial a dministrative c enters s upervised p roduction a nd r edistribution o f b asic e conomic g oods a nd p robably f unneled o ff t he s tate's p ercentage t hat w ould h ave b een s tored i n t he s tate s torage f acilities p ostulated b y I sbell a nd o thers. T his s tored s urplus w ould h ave c onstituted t he s tate's w ealth a llowing i t t o a verage a gainst e nvironmental p erturbations. I t a lso a llowed i t t o i nvest i n s tate p rojects a nd i n m aintenance o f t he a rmy a nd t he r oad s ystem w hich p rovided t he p rojection o f p ower n ecessary t o k eep t he s ystem g oing. I t i s i nteresting t o s peculate t hat a m ajor d ifference b etween t he W an i a nd I nca s tate m odels m ay h ave b een t he f act t hat t he W ani f ailed t o d evelop a s ystem t o p rovide f or t he m aintenance o f t he g rowing b ureaucracy w ithout o verstraining t he r esource b ase. A s t he c enter a t W arf g rew t o a n e normous s ize, m ore a nd m ore r esources h ad t o b e b rought i n f rom f urther a nd f urther a way w hich w ould h ave b een i ncreasingly e xpensive. A s C ohen ( 1978) p oints o ut, o ne m ajor d ifference b etween a s tate a nd a c hiefdom i s t hat t he s tate p revents t he i nherent t endency f or t he c onstituent p arts t o f ission. A c hiefdom c annot d o t his a nd w ill b reak u p i nto s maller c hiefdoms i f i t b ecomes t oo l arge t o h andle s tress. T he W arf w ere a ble , n o d oubt, t o p revent f issioning a t f irst

8 5

b y f orce o f a rms a nd t he p ossession o f t he r oad s ystem t o r apidly m ove t he a rmy. T heir e fforts a t c ommunity r eorganization , e specially o n t he N orth C oast w ere p robably a lso g eared t oward f ission p revention b y r adically r eworking t he p olitical s tructure i n a ddition t o i ncreasing e conomic e fficiency. I t i s t empting t o s peculate t hat h e W an i m ay e ven h ave b rought c aptive n obles f rom t he p rovinces t o t heir c apital f or c ultural a nd i deological i ndoctrination, a s d id t he I nca, i n y et a nother e ffort t o p revent f ission. M enzel s uggests t hat i n M iddle H orizon E poch 2 B t he s ite o f P achacamac o n t he C entral C oast a nd a n i mportant c enter o f p ower o n t he N orth C oast b ecame s erious r ivals t o t he p ower o f t he i mperial c enter ( Menzel 1 977:31). T he l oss o f t hese t wo i mportant c oastal c enters t hrough f ission c ould h ave p recipitated a n e conomic c risis a t t he i mperial c enter c ausing i ts c ollapse. O ver c entralization a nd a b urdensome b ureaucracy m ay h ave b een t he f undamental w eakness o f t he W an i s tate. D espite t heir p rovision o f a d iscrete e conomic b ase f or t he i mperial c enter a t C uzco, t he I ncas s eem t o h ave b een u nable t o a void a s imilar f ate. C onrad ( 1981) s uggests t hat f or i deological r easons h aving t o d o w ith t he v ast w ealth a ccumulated b y t he p anacas o f t he d ead I nca E mperors, t he I nca E mpire w as b eginning t o s uffer e conomic i nstability. H ad t he S panish n ot i ntervened t he I nca E mpire m ight w ell h ave c ollapsed a t t he c enter a s w ell.

W ARI I NFLUENCES O N T HE I NCA

T urning n ow t o t he i ssue o f t o w hat d egree t he I nca w ere i n f act t he i nheritors o f t he W an , b oth g eneral a nd s pecific i nfluences m ust b e c onsidered. I t i s n ot m y i ntention h ere t o t ry t o c onstruct a d efinitive c ase, b ut r ather t o i ndicate a reas t hat m erit f urther i nvestigation. Iw ould l ike t o d eclare e mphatically t hat i t i s n ot m y c ontention t hat t he I nca S tate w as s imply t he W an i E mpire r evived. R ather, t he p oint i s t hat t he W an i E mpire s et t he s tandard a nd l aid t he g round w ork f or w hat t ranspired i n t he L ater I ntermediate P eriod a nd L ate H orizon. S cholars h ave l ong m arvelled a t t he r ise o f t he I nca s tate a nd t he I nca h ave b een h ailed a s a s ort o f A ndean s uperman. W hile t hey h ad a n u ndeniable g enius f or a dministration , t hey d id n ot e volve i n a c ultural v acuum . T he I nca S tate l asted f or a l ittle m ore t han n inety y ears a nd w as f ull-blown e mpire f or o nly a l ittle m ore t han f ifty y ears ( Rowe 1 965:196 d ates t he b eginning o f t he L ate H orizon a t 1 476). Z uidema ( 1973) p oints o ut t hat t his w as s imply t oo s hort a p eriod f or t he I ncas t o h ave i ndependently i nvented a nd d eveloped a ll o f t he t echniques a nd i nstitutions o f t heir e mpire, l et a lone t o h ave b uilt t he p hysical i nfrastructure. A s A nders ( 1982:1-2) s uggests, t he I ncas u ndoubtedly h ad a ccess t o a l arge b ody o f k nowledge o f s tatecraft w hich a llowed t hem t o q uickly c onsolidate t heir c ontrol. I n t he c omparative d iscussion a bove , a n umber o f p otential i nstitutional a nd s tructural s imilarities h ave b een i ndicated w hich w ould b ear c loser i nvestigation. S chreiber's d iscussion o f t he

8 6

h ighway s ystem i s a n e xcellent e xample. A lthough s tructures s uch a s h ighways a re v ery d ifficult t o d ate, i f i t c an b e s hown t hat a ll o f t he i mportant W an i c enters l ie a long t he h ighway s ystem , i t i s a r elatively s afe c onclusion t o s ay t hat t he h ighways m ust d ate f rom a t l east t he M iddle H orizon. O ther i nstitutions a nd t echniques s uch a s t he u se o f m itayoc a nd t he p ractice o f h olding n oble h ostages a t t he c apital f or e xample, a re m ore d ifficult t o d ocument b ut a re p otentially c onfirmable t hrough a rchaeological s tudies. S uch s tudies a s S chreiber's i nvestigation o f t he C arahuarazo v alley a re e xtremely u seful i n t hat t hey i ndicate t hat i n s ome a reas t he g round h ad a lready b een p repared i n t erms o f b uilding u p t he l evel o f s ocio-political c omplexity t o l evels a llowing e fficient i ntegration i nto a n i mperial s tructure. T hese a reas c ould b e q uickly a nd e asily g rafted o nto t he I nca E mpire. T he W an i l egacy t hroughout P eru , t hen, w as a b ody o f k nowledge o f s tate c raft a nd a g eneral l evel o f p olitical c omplexity, i n t he n umerous p olities s cattered t hroughout t he A ndes, t hat p ermitted t he r apid c onstruction o f a n i mperial s tate b y w homever w as s trong e nough t o s eize t he i nitiative. I n t erms o f s pecific i nfluences, i t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat a ny I nca e ver e ncountered a W an , t he t ime s pan b etween t he f all o f W ani a nd t he f ormation o f t he I nca E mpire b eing t oo g reat. Z uidema ( 1973) d oes a rgue t hat i t i s p ossible t hat t he I nca a ccount o f t he C hanca W ar, t he r esult o f w hich a pparently t riggered t he I nca e xpansion l ed b y I nca P achacutec, m ay h ave r eflected t he f inal e xpulsion o f t he W ani i nvaders f rom t he V alley o f C uzco. A vailable a rchaeological e vidence h owever, d oes n ot s upport t he s urvival o f t he W an i E mpire a s l ate a s t he t ime o f I nca P achacutec. P ikillacta c annot h ave f ailed t o h ave h ad a n e normous p sychological i mpact o n t he p eoples o f t he C uzco V alley. I t w as t he l argest s tructure e ver b uilt i n t he v alley u ntil t he c onstruction o f I mperial C uzco a nd f or t his r eason a lone i t w ould p robably h ave b een r emembered. A fter t he f all o f M uina ( Chokepukio), t he L ucre B asin w as h eavily o ccupied b y t he I ncas a nd m any l arge s ites w ere c onstructed. A t l east o ne s ite, 0 11eriayoq, w as b uilt w ithin t he b oundaries o f P ikillacta i tself. D r . L uis B arreda d iscovered s everal I nca o fferings i n s tructure 1 2-2B a t P ikillacta d uring h is e xcavations i n t he e arly 1 960 's. T hese s eem t o i ndicate t he s ite w as r egarded a s a h uaca o r s acred s ite ( personal c ommunication 1 982). G asparini a nd M argolies ( 1980:7) h ave n oted t hat t he I ncas m ay h ave d erived t he i deas o f t he g rid p lan a nd r ectangular s olutions i n c ity p lanning f rom o bservations o f P ikillacta. T he s udden a ppearance o f t he c ancha f orm d uring I nca P achacutec's r econstruction o f C uzco t hat t hey h ave n oted ( 1980:44) I w ould s uggest w as d irectly d erived f rom P ikillacta. T he s imilarities o f f orm a nd f unction o f t he T ype A a nd C s tructural t ypes a t P ikillacta t o t he c anchas o f C uzco a re t oo s triking t o b e m ere c oincidence. T he o nly s ignificant d ifference b etween t hem i s t hat t he I ncas h ave c ut t he e nds o ff o f t he l ong p eripheral g alleries t hus t ransforming t hem i nto s mall h ouses ( fig. 6 1 ). P achacutec w as c hoosing a rchitecture o f p restige f or h is n ew c apital. A f ormer c enter o f p restige a nd p rovincial c apital f or t he W an i E mpire, P ikillacta, w as c lose a t h and a nd a n o bvious m odel. F urthermore, P ikillacta p rovided a m odel o f a rchitecture t hat a ll o f

8 7

t he c ircum-Cuzco p eoples w ould h ave a ssociated w ith t he p restige o f e mpire, a s w ould m any o f t he p eoples i n t he p rovinces w ho h ad b en e xposed t o o ther W an i c enters. O ther p otential e xamples o f d irect W an i i nfluence t hat m erit i nvestigation i nclude c eramics, t extiles a nd w eaving t echnology, a nd m etal w ork. A s m entioned e arlier, t he p olychrome c eramic t radition i n t he C uzco V alley i s p robably a d irect r esult o f W an i i nfluence. T his d issertation h as, i t i s h oped, s hed s ignificant n ew l ight o n t he M iddle H orizon i n t he V alley o f C uzco a nd o n t he W an i E mpire a s a w hole. T he n ew d ata p resented h ere a lso d emonstrates a p otential f or n ew u nderstanding o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod i n t he v alley a nd t he e vents l eading u p t o t he f ormation o f t he I nca E mpire. A dditional s tudies p lanned f or t he f uture w ill s urely i ncrease o ur u nderstanding o f t his v ery i mportant e poch o f A ndean p rehistory a nd o f t he p rocesses l eading t o t he f ormation o f e mpires a nd s tate l evel o rganizations.

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A PPENDIX I R ADIOCARBON D ATES

P IKILLACTA

1 979

T x 3 996

100+60

1 979

T x 4 247

140+60

1 982

T x 4 747

1 430+370

1 982

T x 4 750

1 350+60

1 982

T x 4 751

1 430+90

T X 4 748

1 090+60

C HOKEKPUKIO 1 982

8 9

A PPENDIX I I S ELECTED A SPECTS O F S KULLS F OUND B Y T HE P IKILLACTA A RCHAEOLOGICAL P ROJECT 1 982

b y D r. T homas W . B auer D epartment o f P athology T he J ohns H opkins H ospital a nd B rian S . B auer D epartment o f A nthropology T he U niversity o f C hicago

D uring t he 1 982 f ield s eason o f T he P ikillacta A rchaeological P roject, d irected b y G ordon M cEwan, a c ache o f t en s kulls w as r ecovered u nderneath t he p laster f loor o f s tructure 2 5-2E i n t he P ikillacta a rchitectural c omplex. T he p resence o f s even o f t hese s kulls h ad b een k nown s ince t he 1 930's w hen t he w estern c orner o f t he s tructure w as d isturbed b y l ooters, a nd t he c ache o f s kulls e xposed. A t t hat t ime t he s ite g uard r eplaced t he s kulls i n t he l ooters' p it a nd b ackfilled i t ( McEwan p ersonal c ommunication, 1 983). D uring t he 1 982 e xcavations, M cEwan r ecovered a t otal o f t en s kulls, t hree o f w hich a ppeared t o b e i n t heir o riginal p osition b eneath t he p laster f loor o n t he e dge o f t he l ooters' p it. I n a ddition, o ne b ronze s pike w as a lso r ecovered. T here m ay w ell h ave b een o ther g rave g oods w hich w ere t aken b y t he h uaqueros. T he s kulls w ere i n a g enerally g ood s tate o f p reservation , a lthough a ll h ad e xperienced e xtensive p ost-mortem t ooth l oss. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat n o m andibles o r i solated t eeth w ere r ecovered i n t he c ache a rea . S ex e stimates h ave b een m ade f or t he s kulls u sing s tandard c ranial c haracteristics. A ge e stimates h ave b een b ased o n t ooth e ruption a nd s uture c losure ( Todd a nd L yone, A JPA, 1 924). B ecause o f t he l imited i nstruments a vailable, o nly t he f acial m easurements w ere t aken f or n ine o f t he s kulls. T he m easurements f or S kull # 8 a re m ore c omplete s ince i t w as b rought i nto t he l aboratory f or r adiographic s tudy.

I .

D escription o f S kulls:

9 0

S kull # 1 - F emale, y oung a dult ( third m olar a nd l ightly w orn, a ll s utures a re o pen). S light d eformation. A n I nca b one i s p resent.

p resent c ranial

S kull # 2 - F emale, y oung a dult ( third m olars e rupting, a ll s utures a re o pen). A n I nca b one i s p resent.

S kull # 3 - F emale, y oung a dult ( third m olars a re p resent, a ll s utures a re o pen). A lveolar a bsorption o f t he l eft m axilla h as r esulted i n t he l oss o f t he s econd a nd t hird m olars. T he r ight s ide i s s lightly a ffected, w ith n o t ooth l oss. A n I nca b one i s p resent.

S kull # 4 - M ale, o lder a dult ( copronal, s agittal a nd l ambodial s utures a re c losing). B oth t he l eft a nd r ight m axilla d isplay e xtensive a lveolar a bsorption a nd t ooth l oss. S light c ranial d eformation.

S kull # 5 - F emale, y oung a dult ( third m olars p resent w ith n o v isible w ear, a ll s utures a re o pen). A m etopic s uture i s p resent. T he d eciduous c anines h ave r emained i nto y oung a dulthood c ausing a c rowding a nd r otating o f t he m axillas p ermanent c anines a nd p remolars.

S kull # 6 - M ale, a dult ( third m olars n ot p resent, c oronal s uture i s b eginning t o c lose). S light c ranial d eformation.

S kull # 7 - F emale, a ll s utures o pen).

y oung a dult

( third m olars p resent,

S kull # 8 -F emale ( ?), o lder a dult ( coronal, a nd l amboidal s utures a re c losing). B oth t he l eft m axillae d isplay e xtensive a lveolar a bsorption l oss. C ontains t hree p ossible t rephine h oles ( see

s aggital, a nd r ight a nd t ooth b elow).

S kull # 9 -M ale, y oung a dult ( third m olars p resent a nd l ightly w orn , a ll s utures o pen).

S kull # 10 - M ale, o lder a dult ( coronal, s agittal a nd l ambodial s utures a re c losing). B oth t he l eft a nd r ight m axillae d isplay e xtensive a lveolar a bsorption a nd t ooth l oss. T he s kull c ontains a n I nca b one, t he c enter o f w hich d emonstrates a d epressed a rea m easuring a pproximately 2 .5 c ms i n d iameter a nd o .3 c m i n d epth b elow t he s urrounding c ranial s urface. I t i s p ossible t hat t his d epressed a rea w as a rtificially i nduced.

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I II.

A dditional O bservations o f S kull # 8:

T here a re t hree a bnormal o penings i n t he s kull, e ach p robably t he r esult o f t rephination. T he f irst i s l ocated i n t he p osterior l ateral a spect o f t he r ight p arietal b one, a long t he s uperior t emporal l ine. T he o pening i tself i s r ound a nd m easures 1 3-14 m m i n d iameter. T he e dges o f t he o pening a re s mooth. A s hallow p lateau o f l ess t han 1 m m s eparates t his o pening f rom a r im o f r eactive b one, e levated l ess t han 1 m m a bove t he s urrounding c ortical b one. W e s peculate t hat t he r im o f r eactive b one p robably d emarcates t he m aximum o riginal t rephination d iameter o r 1 3--14 m m , w ith a n a rea o f p ost-trephination d iameter o r 1 3-14 m m , w ith a n a rea o f p ost-trephination h ealing. T here i s n o g rowth e vidence o f s econdary f racture o r c hronic i nfection . T he s econd o f t hese h oles i s l ocated a long t he r ight c oronal s uture , a pproximately 3 2 m m a bove t he p terion. T he o pening i tself i s r ound, m easuring o nly 2 -3 m m i n d iameter, b ut i s i s s urrounded b y a n i rregularly s haped a rea o f c oarse, t rabeculated b one m easuring a pproximately 2 2 x 3 0 m m . T he t able i n t his r egion i s t hin a nd t here i s m inimal e levation o f t he a djacent u ninvolved c ortical b one . T he e tiology o f t his o pening i s u nclear. W hile i t m ay r epresent n early c omplete h ealing o f a n o ld, l arge t rephine h ole, i t c ould a lso r epresent a r egion o f m ore r ecent, i ncomplete t rephination, o r l ess l ikely, c hronic i nfection. P erhaps t he b est e xplanation i s t hat t he o pening i tself i s t he o riginal t renine h ole a nd t he s urrounding t hinner b one i s a n a rea t hat w as e ither d irectly s craped d uring t rephination o r i nfluenced b y l ocalized, p ost-trephination i nfection o r h emorrhage w ith p eriosteal r esponse.

9 4

T he t hird f enestration i s l ocated i n t he l eft p osterior a spect o f t he o ccipital b one, t angential t o t he l amboidal s uture. T he o pening i tself i s i rregular i n s hape, m easuring a pproximately 1 5-20 m m . A t hin r im o f c ortical b one s eparates t he h ole i tself f rom a s urrounding r idge o f e levated, r eactive b one. T his h ole a lso p robably r epresents t he s ite o f p revious t rephination . A nterior-posterior a nd l ateral r adiographs o f t he s pecimen d emonstrate t he p resence o f e ach o f t he t hree p resumed t rephine h oles, a s w ell a s o ther b ony d ensities. T he s ella t urcica , m axillary a nd f rontal s inuses, a s w ell a s t he m astoid a ir c ells a ppear t o b e e ssentially n ormal.

I V.

D iscussion

T he c ache o f s kulls r ecovered i n s tructure 2 5-2E o f t he W ani s ite o f P ikillacta m ost l ikely r epresents a r eburial o f s keletal r emains. T his c onclusion i s b ased o n t he f act t hat t he s kulls' m andibles w ere n ot p resent, n or w ere t he t eeth t hat w ere l ost p ostm ortem . T he c ache c ontains b oth s exes a nd a w ide a ge d istribution. S ix o f t he s kulls a ppear t o h ave b een f rom f emales, w hile f our w ere f rom m ales. A ges r ange f rom a y oung a dult w hose t hird m olars w ere e rupting ( 17 y rs+). W hy t hese t en i ndividual c rania w ere c hosen f or r eburial i n t his p ossible o ffering c ontext i s n ot k nown. S kull # 8 i s o f s pecial i nterest s ince i t a ppears t o c ontain t hree p artially h ealed t rephine w ounds. T his s pecimen r epresents o ne o f t he f ew t rephined s kulls f rom t he C entral H ighlands o f P eru t o b e r ecovered f rom a k nown c ultural c ontext.

9 5

A PPENDIX I II M IDDLE H ORIZON A ND L ATE I NTERMEDIATE P ERIOD C ERAMIC S TYLES O F T HE L UCRE B ASIN

9 6

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9 7

CERAMI C

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c eramics

9 8

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Wan i Ceramics

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1 05

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Wan i Ceramics 1 06

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Wan i Ceramics

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1 07

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E arly S tate

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d el

R owe , J ohn H . 1 944 A n I ntroduction t o t he A rchaeology o f C uzco. P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology, 2 7 ( 2). Y ale U niversity P ress, N ew H aven. 1 946

I nca C ulture a t t he T ime o f t he S panish C onquest. H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians , e dited b y S teward. B ureau o f A merican E thnology B ulletin 1 43: 3 30.

1 956

A rchaeological E xplorations i n S outhern A merican A ntiquity 2 2(2):135-151

1 960

C ultural U nity a nd D iversification i n A rchaeology. I n M en a nd C ultures, e dited b y A . U niversity o f P ennsylvania.

1 962

S tages a nd P eriods i n A rchaeological I nterpretation. S outhwestern J ournal o f A nthropology, 1 8(1): 4 0-54.

1 963

U rban S ettlements i n

1 965

A n I nterpretation o f R adiocarbon M easurements o n A rchaeological S amples f rom P eru. P roceedings o f t he S ixth I nternational C onference, R adiocarbon a nd T ritium D ating, H eld a t W ashington S tate U niversity, P ullman W ashington , J une 7 -11, 1 965, p p. 1 87-198.

A ncient P eru.

P eru ,

N awpa P acha

I n J .H. 1 83-

1 954-1955.

P eruvian W allace,

1 :

1 -27.

R owe, J ohn H ., D onald C ollier, a nd G ordon R . W illey 1 950 R econnaissance n otes o n t he s ite o f H uari, n ear A yacucho, P eru A merican A ntiquity 1 6:120-137. 1 965, p p.

1 87-198 .

R owe , J ohn H ., D onald C ollier, a nd G ordon R . W illey 1 950 R econnaissance n otes o n t he s ite o f H uari, P eru. A merican A ntiquity 1 6: 1 20-137.

n ear A yacucho,

S anders, W illiam T . 1 973 T he S ignificance o f P ikillacta i n A ndean C ulture H istory O ccasional P apers i n A nthropology, P ennsylvania S tate U niversity 8 :380-428. S chaedel, R ichard P . 1 951 M ochica M urals a t P a i iamarca. 1 45-154. 1 966a

A rchaeology v ol 4 , n o.

I ncipient U rbanization a nd S ecularization T iahuanacoid P eru. A merican A ntiquity 3 1(3) p art 1 , 3 38-344.

i n p p.

1 966b U rban G rowth a nd E kistics o n t he P eruvian C oast. X XXVI C ongreso I nternacional d e A mericanistas v ol. 1 , p p. 5 315 39.

1 31

1 978

F ormation o f t he I nca S tate, I n I II C ongreso P eruano d el H ombre l a C ultura A ndina T omo I , e dited b y R amiro M atos M endieta, P p. 12-156, U niversidad N acional M ayor d e S an M arcos: L ima.

S chreiber, K atharina J . 1 978 P lanned A rchitecture o f M iddle H orizon P eru : f or S ocial a nd P olitical O rganization. d octoral d issertation, S tate U niversity o f B inghamton. 1 983

I mplications U npublished N ew Y ork a t

H uari P rovincial A dministration : A P erspective f rom t he C arahuarazo V alley. P aper p resented a t t he 4 8th a nnual m eeting o f t he S ociety o f A merican A rchaeology, A pril 2 83 0 . P ittsburgh, P A. S ymposium : T he e xpansionist S tate i n t he A ndes.

S pickard, L ynda E . 1 983 T he D evelopment o f H uari A dministrative A rchitecture. I n I nvestigations o f t he A ndean P ast P apers f rom t he f irst A nnual N ortheast C onference o n A ndean A rchaeology a nd E thnohistory. e dited b y D aniel H . S andweiss. L atin A merican S tudies P rogram : C ornell U niversity. S quier, E phriam G . 1 877 P eru : I ncidents o f T ravel t he I ncas. H arper & B ros.

a nd E xploration N ew Y ork .

i n t he L and

o f

T ello, J ulio C . 1 939 O rigen y D esarollo d e l as C ivilizaciones P rehist6ricas A ndinas. 2 7th I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists. 1 : 5 89-723. T hatcher, J ohn P . 1 974 E arly I ntermediate P eriod a nd M iddle H orizon 1 B C eramic a ssemblages o f H uamachuco, N orth H ighlands, P eru. N awpa P acha 1 0/12:109-128 1 977

A M iddle H orizon 1 B C ache f rom H uamachuco, H ighlands, P eru . N awpa P acha 1 5:101-110.

N orth

T opic, J ohn R . a nd T heresa L ange T opic 1 983 H uamachuco A rchaeological P roject: P reliminary R eport o n t he S econd S eason, J une-August 1 982. T rent U niversity, P eterborough , O ntario. U hle, M ax 1 903

P achacamac, R eport o f t he W illiam P epper, P eruvian E xpedition o f 1 896. P hiladelphia P ennsylvania.

V alcarcel, L uis E . 1 933 E sculturas d e P ikillacta. 1 9-48 , L ima.

1 32

MD LL D U niversity o f

R evista d el M useo N acional,

2 :

V illanueva U rteaga , H oracio 1 982 C uzco 1 689 I nformes d e l os P Arrocos a l O bispo M ollinedo: E conomia 1 S ociedad e n e l S ur A ndino p redogo y t ransscripc An p or e l d r. H oracio V illanueva U rteaga . C entro d e E studios R urales A ndinos " Bartolom4 d e l as C asas", C uzco. W illey, G ordon R . 1 953 P re-Historic S ettlement P atterns i n t he V ir i i V alley, P eru . B ureau o f A merican E thnology B ulletin. 1 55, W ashington, D .C . W right, H enry T . a nd G regory J ohnson 1 975 P opulation E xchange a nd E arly S tate F ormation i n S outhwestern I ran . A merican A nthropologist 7 7 ( 2) 2 672 89. Z uidema, R . T om 1 973 T he O rigin o f t he I nca E mpire. I n L es G rands E mpires R ecueils d e l a S ociAt J ean B odin P J7-- T 7Histoire C omparative D es I nstitutions. E ditions d e l a L ibrairie E ncyclopedique, B ruxelles.

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