The Lexical Structure of Spanish 9783110816532, 9789027932075

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JANUA LINGUARUM STUDIA M E M O R I A E NICOLAI VAN WIJK DEDICATA edenda curai C. H. VAN S C H O O N E V E L D Indiana University

Series Practica,

198

THE LEXICAL STRUCTURE OF SPANISH

by WILLIAM PATTERSON Texas Tech University and HECTOR

URRUTIBÉHEITY Rice University

1975 MOUTON T H E H A G U E • PARIS

© Copyright 1975 in The Netherlands. Mouton & Co. N.V.. Publishers. The Hague. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.

L I B R A R Y O F C O N G R E S S C A T A L O G C A R D N U M B E R : 73-77744

Printed in Hungary by Franklin Printing House, Budapest

TABLE OF

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

7

1. INTRODUCTION

9

2 . GENEALOGY

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Genealogical Classes Data Functional Sub-Classes Physical Sub-Classes Statistical Sub-Classes Chronological Sub-Classes

3 . CHRONOLOGY

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Chronological Classes Data Functional Sub-Classes Physical Sub-Classes Statistical Sub-Classes Genealogical Sub-Classes

4 . FUNCTION

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Functional Classes Data Physical Sub-Classes Statistical Sub-Classes Chronological Sub-Classes Genealogical Sub-Classes

5 . LENGTH

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Physical Classes Data Functional Sub-Classes Statistical Sub-Classes

11

11 21 22 25 29 32 36

36 38 39 46 54 63 71

71 72 73 80 86 93 100-

100 101 102 107

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.5 Chronological Sub-Classes 5.6 Genealogical Sub-Classes 6 . USAGE

6.1 Statistical Classes 6.2 Data 6.3 Functional Sub-Classes 6.4 Physical Sab-Classes 6.5 Chronological Sub-Classes 6.6 Genealogical Sub-Classes 7 . CONCLUSIONS

113 119 125

125 125 126 132 139 146 153

7.1 Genealogical Classes 7.2 Chronological Classes 7.3 Functional Classes 7.4 Physical Classes 7.5 Statistical Classes

153 154 156 158 159

BIBLIOGRAPHY

161

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express our appreciation to Professor Alphonse Juilland of Stanford University who helped us to formulate and develop this study. We are also indebted to Professors Aurelio M. Espinosa Jr. and Robert Politzer for their valuable suggestions during the course of this project.

1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to establish the lexical structure of Modern Spanish in terms of the relationships which obtain between certain fundamental properties of Spanish words. The properties of Spanish words considered relevant in this study are the following: (1) Functional, i.e., the structural properties underlying parts of speech classifications, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. (2) Physical, i.e., word length measured in number of syllables, such as monosyllabic, bisyllabic, etc. (3) Statistical, i.e., frequency classes, such as first five hundred, second five hundred, etc. (4) Genealogical, i.e., etymological properties which underlie such classifications as inherited, borrowed, or internally created words, by a change in function, composition, derivation, etc. (5) Chronological, i.e., historical characteristics which underlie classifications based on the period or century of first attestation, such as 12th century, 13th, etc. With each basic Spanish word characterized in terms of these five properties, the lexical structure of Spanish can be conceived as the network of relations which obtain between word classes determined in terms of etymology, chronology, function, length and frequency. The Spanish vocabulary is represented by its manifestations in modern Spanish texts rather than by the inventory listed in a modern dictionary. In other words, we aim to account for, and make predictions about certain fundamental properties of Modern Spanish texts rather than dictionaries. While a standard dictionary lists some 100,000 entries, the first 100 most frequently used words account for more than 30% of the lexical materials that constitute any Spanish text; the first 1000 account for more than 50%; the first 5000 for more than 90%. In other words, the occurrences of most entries registered in a Spanish dictionary account for only a minute part of representative Spanish texts. Therefore, instead of basing our conclusions on a study of all lexical items, which would give a distorted picture of lexical structure by placing on the same footing the many words likely to occur once every 1000 pages with the very few likely to occur ten times per page, it is preferable to consider only a few thousand words, taken from the top of a frequency hierarchy.

10

INTRODUCTION

Reliance upon the weighted information provided by a frequency dictionary provides a deeper insight and a more adequate picture of the lexical structure of a language. Since there are no less than four frequency dictionaries of Spanish,1 our first task was to choose the most adequate one for our purpose. We selected the Frequency Dictionary of Spanish Words by Alphonse Juilland and E. Chang-Rodriguez because the corpus underlying it was determined by more reliable sampling techniques and the results were weighted through exhaustive scanning combined with improved methods for determining word usage. Unlike previous studies in which words were ranked and classified in terms of their frequency, the Juilland-Chang-Rodriguez dictionary ranks the basic vocabulary according to three coefficients: usage, frequency and dispersion. In earlier investigations, usage was simply equated with frequency on the assumption that, provided the sampling is adequate, a one-to-one correspondence holds roughly between the number of occurrences of a word in the sample and its occurrences in the language as a whole. Subsequently, as weighting techniques were refined, it appeared that results obtained on the basis of the assumed frequency-usage correlation often failed to correspond to intuitive expectations based on the specialist's knowledge of the language. True, intuitive expectations have been wrong in more than one instance, but equally often, objective evidence could be marshalled to prove that this was not the case. Take a count yielding, for example, 24 occurrences for a word such as químico, and only 12 occurrences for a word such as consultar, which suggests that the word químico is twice as important as the word consultar. The linguist's doubts about this assumption may be reinforced by differences in the 'dispersion' of the word's occurrences in the five equal sub-samples of the lexical universe. Whereas the fewer occurrences of consultar are fairly evenly distributed, 4 2 2 1 3, the more numerous occurrences of químico cluster almost exclusively in two genres, 0 0 1 10 13. 'Usage' attempts to account for both frequency and dispersion by combining them in a formula which yields a somewhat different coefficient: due to its uneven dispersion, químico, with a frequency of 24, has a coefficient of usage of 10.09, while consultar with a frequency of 12, has a coefficient of 9.45.

1

L. Rodríguez Bou, Recuento de vocabulario español (Baltimore, 1952); Milton A. Buchanan, A Graded Spanish Word Book (Toronto, 1927); V. García Hoz, Vocabulario usual, vocabulario común y vocabulariofundamental (Madrid, 1953); and Alphonse Juilland and E. Chang-Rodriguez, Frequency Dictionary of Spanish Words (The Hague, 1964).

2

GENEALOGY

2.1 GENEALOGICAL CLASSES

We recognize three major genealogical classes of words: inherited from Latin; borrowed from other languages; and created in Spanish by various formative processes.1 In assigning words to genealogical classes, we have relied primarily on Joan Corominas' Diccionario critico etimologico de la lengua castellana,2 and on his Breve diccionario etimologico de la lengua castellana? 2.11 Inherited By 'inherited' we mean the words which used to constitute the vocabulary of the Vulgar Latin of Spain and which became the vocabulary of the earliest form of Spanish. Consisting essentially of Latin words, it also contains a number of elements borrowed by Vulgar Latin from the various substrata and adstrata of the peninsula. 2.111 Latin Spanish words inherited from Latin are of two types: (1) POPULAR, whose shape conforms to the phonological rules which characterize the development of Vulgar Latin into Spanish: marido < MARITUM, diez < DECEM, bueno < BONUM, otro < ALTERUM; (2) SEMI-POPULAR, whose phonological shape, adjusted under learned influence, does not completely conform to the rules of Spanish sound change: fruto < FRUCTUM, fiesta < FESTA, siglo < SAECULUM.

1

We have not added a separate class for words of unknown or uncertain origin, for, while their particular etyma may be in question, the genealogical class to which they belong is unquestioned: they are indisputably borrowings; therefore, such words have been assigned to a special sub-class of borrowed words. 2 (Berne, 1954-57); hereinafter referred to as Diccionario critico. 3 (Madrid, 1961); hereinafter referred to as Breve diccionario.

12

GENEALOGY

2.112 Celtic The Spanish vocabulary contains a few words of Celtic origin, known for the most part only in a Latinized form. The language brought into Spain by Celtic invaders was presumably that of Gaul, but "it is difficult to say whether a Celtic word was there before the Romans, was brought to Spain by Roman legionaries, or came in later with the Germanic invasions".4 There is no clear evidence of a direct contact between the Celtic of Spain and the later Peninsular languages, except for two words: tona (Galician, Portuguese), ton (Welsh), tonn (Irish); and arapende < ARAPENNIS. 5 But scholars agree that the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula retained a few Celtic words, either because they were deeply rooted or because there were no equivalents in Latin.® This is especially true of the names of plants, agricultural tools, clothing, food, and of words related to differences in climate, rural customs, and regional traditions. From the rather small contribution of Celtic to the Spanish vocabulary, we might mention carro < CARRUM, camino CAMMINUS, cambiar < CAMBIARE, camisa < CAMISIA, legua < LEUCA, pieza < PETTIA, pico < BECCUS, and mina < *MINA (which may have come into Spanish by way of French). 2.113 Basque, Iberian The Spanish vocabulary shows elements in common with Basque and, as far as we know, Iberian.7 Like Celtic words in French, the pre-Romance remnants are well represented in place names and in certain personal names. Most of these words have been given a pre-Romance Iberian ancestry because no adequate derivation could be found in Latin: e.g., Spanish vega (Portuguese veiga), attested in medieval texts as vaica or vaiga, seems to be a cognate of Basque ibaiko 'bank', derived from ibai 'river'.8 Pliny used ARRUGIA 'subterranean channel', which seems to be the origin of arroyo. Other words of presumed pre-Romance origin include gordo < GURDUS; caparazón (perhaps related to Catalan carabassa); cama < CAMA; manteca < MANTECCA (which may be of Indo-European origin and related to Slavic smetana); pestaña (common to Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Gascon, from PISTANNA, probably related to the Basque pizta). Basque is the only pre-Romance language of the Iberian Peninsula which has survived. The most common pre-Romance word is izquierdo, Basque ezkerr, Catalan esquerre, and Portuguese esquerdo. According to Elcock, "its meaning of 'left' was 4

J. B. Trend, The Language and History of Spain (London, 1953), 17, hereinafter cited as Language. W. J. Entwistle, The Spanish Language (London, 1965), 40; hereinafter cited as Spanish Language. c Erich Auerbach, Introduction to Romance Languages and Literature (New York, 1961), 23; hereinafter cited as Romance Languages. 7 Entwistle, Spanish Language, 33. 8 Trend, Language, 15. 5

GENEALOGY

13

still conveyed by siniestro < SINISTER, but izquierdo is early attested, and suggestions that it might be a relatively recent borrowing from Basque are weakened by the widespread use of cognate forms in southern France and Portugal". 9 Barro (Aragonese bardo) shows the same -rr-~-rd- alternance. Similar in structure, and unexplained, is perro. Corominas discounts the Celtic or Iberian etymologies and suggests that perro may derive from the onomatopoetic prrr, brrr, which shepherds use to arouse the dog.10 The words pata and tirar are probably pre-Roman. Bloch and Wartburg consider that pata (French patte), unknown in Gaul, belongs to a preCeltic stratum. 11 It was adopted by the Franks, who carried it into Gaul. Tirar, common to all the Romance languages but Rumanian, may come from an IndoEuropean root *(s)tig.12 2.114 Germanic Even before the occupation of portions of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes, certain Germanic words had been introduced into Vulgar Latin. According to Spaulding, more than 300 Romance words are a result of the intimate contact on several frontiers between German tribes and Roman soldiers and colonizers. Among the legionaries, too, many were Germans. Words of Germanic origin were in use among Romans long before the fall of the Empire, and some, e.g., burgus, harpa, sapon > Spanish jabón, appear in late Latin writers.13 Although there is a dearth of documentary testimony concerning the Germanic element in Vulgar Latin, Romance evidence suggests that the following terms were adopted by Vulgar Latin prior to the conquest of Spain by the Goths in the fifth century : u banda < BAND WO, bianco < BLANK, banco < BANK, bruno < BRUN, espuma < SKUMS (English scum), gris (borrowed by Spanish from Provençal GRIS), guardar < WARDON, guarnecer < guarnir < WARNJAN, guerra < WERRA, guisa < WISA, marca < MARKA, robar < RAUBON (German rauben). Among the Germanic words which came to the Peninsula during the main Germanic invasions from the fifth century onwards are brote < *BRUTE, espía < *SPAIHA, esquina < *SKINA, guiar < WIDAN; 15 fresco < FRISK, franco < FRANK, ganar «= GAINON, whose meaning 'to earn' evolved under the influence of another guadañar ; ganso < GANS, ropa < RAUPA, rico < REIKS, sala < SAL, sacar < SAKAN. Some Germanic words came into Hispano-Romance through Catalan, French, or Provençal, e.g., orgullo, bosque. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

W. D. Elcock, The Romance Languages (London, 1960), 178. Joan Corominas, Breve diccionario, 449. Bloch and W. von Wartburg, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française (Paris, 1964), 469. Corominas, Breve diccionario, 554. Robert K. Spaulding, How Spanish Grew (Berkeley, 1943), 49. Elcock, Romance Languages, 207-10. Corominas, Breve diccionario, 302.

14

GENEALOGY

2.12 Borrowed The second major class consists of words borrowed from other languages. Note that non-Latin words were considered 'inherited' if borrowed by and present in Vulgar Latin before the formation of the Spanish language (see 2.11); on the other hand, Latin words were considered 'borrowed' if taken from Latin writings after the formation of the Spanish language. Corominas uses small italics and the expression tornado del latin to distinguish Latin borrowings from the Latin inherited words, which he prints in capital letters. 2.121 Latin Latin contributes the greatest number of borrowings to the Spanish lexicon. Usually adjusted to the rules which characterize Spanish historical phonology, Latin borrowings (icultismos or voces cultas) differ from the strictly popular or inherited words inasmuch as they do not undergo the phonological changes reflected by inherited words. In general, learned borrrowings changed little; e.g. público < PUBLICUS (10th century); virtud < VIRTUTIS (11th century); inclinar < INCLINARE (12th century); violencia < VIOLENTIA (13th century); original < ORIGINALIS (14th century); presencia < PRAESENTIA (15th century); provenir < PROVENIRE (16th century); museo < MUSEUM (17th century); uniforme < UNIFORMIS (18th century); frase < PHRASIS (19th century); medieval < MEDIUM AEVUM (20th century). During the Renaissance, a return to classical sources reintroduced many words which had fallen into desuetude. From then on, the Latin lexicon is constantly explored for words which may express new meanings. The Spanish vocabulary exhibits such a vast number of apparently 'learned' words which are, and always seem to have been, in popular use, that linguists have wondered whether a considerable portion of the learned layer is not in reality contemporaneous with the 'popular' vocabulary, representing the conservative influence of the more cultured classes from classical times, an influence which frequently overcame popular tendencies and imposed itself upon the popular language.16 Corominas, who distinguishes between truly LEARNED and SEMI-LEARNED words, between cultismos and semi-cultismos, seems to use the latter with two different meanings: INHERITED WORDS, whose phonological shape has been altered under learned influence (see 2.11); and BORROWINGS, whose shape has been adjusted to popular forms, e.g., regla < REGULA, milagro < MIRACULU, peligro < PERICULU, virgen < VIRGINE. Menéndez-Pidal distinguishes the voces cultas and semi-cultas from the popular forms, "pues tienen un desarrollo distinto de las voces 16

W. D . Elcock, Review of J. Corominas, Diccionario crítico etimológico de la lengua castellana, in Modern Language Review LII (1957), 290-91.

15

GENEALOGY

estrictamente populares".17 But the latter deserve more attention "por su complicado desarrollo, por ser en ellas donde se manifiestan en modo mas completo las leyes fundamentales de la vida del lenguaje y por formar el fondo mas rico del español y su herencia patrimonial". 18 2.122 Romance Languages French is the Romance language which has contributed most to the Spanish lexicon. Apart from Latin, the principal influence exerted on Spanish during the medieval period is that of French, both the langue d'oc and the langue d'oïl.19 Many words entered the language by way of the pilgrims on their way to Compostela, or by the minstrels who entertained them. The influence of the French monks made itself felt in the substitution of the Roman ritual for the Mozarabic, the introduction of the Carolingian handwriting, the restoration of Latin (with the presumable checking of the vernacular), and the translation and imitation of French literary works.20 Some early borrowings from French and from Provençal are : FRENCH

11th 12th 13th 14th 15th

century century century century century

pleito granja, renta joya, talle flecha, galán jardín, norte

PROVENÇAL

fraile, jamás jornada, laurel marqués embajada, patio

French continued its influence during the 16th and 17th centuries, but the periods of greatest French prestige were the 18th and 19th centuries. In spite of reactions to the galicismo,21 French words have continued to become a part of Spanish: marchar, trinchera, país (16th); emoción, jefe, taller, tren (17th); destacar, instalar, paisaje, realizar, revolucionario, romántico, ruta (18th); detalle, egoísmo, entrevista, evolución, hotel(19th); avión (20th). Other languages of the Iberian Peninsula had a small but nonetheless noticeable influence. Over the centuries, Portuguese and Spanish exchanged a number of words, two of which occur in our word list: traje and vera (which may be of pre-Romance or Celtic origin). Spanish owes to Catalan presa (10th); mercader (12th); bala, caja, falda, orgullo, linaje, papel, pólvora, zozobra (13th); farol, salvaje, vanguardia, viaje (14th); avanzar, bosque, correo, cuartel, festejar, forastero, guante, pantalla, plantel, prensa, retablo, semblante, sor, trozo (15th). 17

Menéndez-Pidal, Manual, 9. Menéndez-Pidal, Manual, 14. 19 Entwistle, Spanish Language, 206. 20 Spaulding, How Spanish Grew, 130-31. 21 Tomás de Iriarte, Los literatos en cuaresma (1773); and Rafael María Baralt, Diccionario de galicismos (1855). 18

16

GENEALOGY

Like French, but to a lesser degree, Spanish borrowed a number of words from Italian, especially during the Renaissance:22 aguantar, apoyar, asalto, balcón, batallón, bronce, campeón, capricho, caricia, coronel, charlar, equilibrio, escopeta, fachada, fanal, fracasar, grupo, guardia, ingeniero, lápiz, manejar, marcar, medalla, modelo, muralla, novela, piloto, relieve, retrato. Although the Italian influence declined after this period, a few Italianisms entered the language during the following centuries: esbelto, recinto (17th); café, folleto, pintoresco (18th); fascismo (20th). 2.123 Arabic Direct borrowings from Arabic were quite numerous; in fact, there are 36 Arabic loan words in the basic vocabulary, which includes terms related to administration, war, agriculture, clothing, plants, games, music, mathematics, and astronomy: barrio (10th); alcalde, alcazar, aldea (11th); arrabal, hazañar, ronda (12th); aceite, achacar, alcoba, alcohol, almacén, alquiler, arroz, asesino, auge, azar, azúcar, garra, hasta, jinete, marfil, rincón, taza (13th); alfiler, alforja, andaluz, gabán, guitarra (14th); almanaque, azotea, azulejo, cifra, limón, ola, tarea (15th). Arabic borrowings are mostly nouns, with one verb (achacar), one adjective (andaluz), and one preposition (hasta). 2.124 Greek Greek has provided Spanish with a number of learned forms associated with literature, sports, scholarship, and education: 23 monasterio (11th); cara (12th); astronomía, música, fantasma (13th); calma, monarca (14th)\ dramático, escolástico,prólogo, tema, trágico (15th); análisis, categoría, época, simpatía (17th); anécdota, crítica, farmacia, patriota, sistema (18th); autónomo, estético, panorama, teléfono (19th). 2.125 Other Languages Ignored on the Continent during the 16th and 17th centuries, English began to exert some influence, first through literature, then because of social prestige. Some English words reached Spanish directly, e.g., lord, suicidio (18th); cheque, club, organismo, turista (19th); comité, interviú, racial (20th), etc., but one word, tranvía, reached Spanish through the French tramway. One Hungarian borrowing, coche, appears in the 16th century; from Chinese comes te (18th); dique (16th) and escaparate (17th) come from Dutch; maíz (15th), chocolate and tabaco (16th), patata (17th), and butaca (19th) from the American Indian languages; amén (12th) from Hebrew; pistola (17th), regimiento (18th) and cultural 22 23

Menéndez-Pidal, Manual, 25. Rafael Lapesa, Historia de la language española (Madrid, 1955), esp. p. 44.

GENEALOGY

17

(20th) from modern German. Many of these words, which represent but a few of the loan words from the various languages, indicate that interborrowing is not restricted to the languages of Europe. 2.13 Created The third category consists of words created in Spanish by composition (or contamination), derivation, or change of function. 2.131 Composition and Contamination Composition juxtaposes two existing words to form a third, e.g., bienestar, mediodía, kilómetro, malograr, sobresalir, norteamericano, asimismo, cualquier, porque. Although Coraminas considers as compuestos Spanish words derived from words created by this process in Classical or in Vulgar Latin, we have assigned them to the 'inherited' class. Corominas also treats as compounds words like abajo and arriba, which are created by a process of agglutination (see 2.325). Included here are words created by CONTAMINATION, a process also called BLENDING. Both composition and contamination result from the combination of two different forms; however, the constituents of compounds are in sequence, e.g., mediodia < medio+día, whereas those of contaminations cannot be obtained by simple segmentation, e.g., desparramar < esparcir + derramar, usted < vuestra + merced, sombrío sol + umbrío. 2.132 Derivation The process of derivation24 is active throughout all periods of the language and affects only lexical words. We distinguish here prefixation, suffixation, prefixation-suffixation, back formation, agglutination, change of suffix, abbreviation, and expressive creation. 2.1321 Prefixation The prefixes used to create new Spanish words are nearly all of Latin origin. The following are the more productive : (1) a- forms mostly verbs, e.g., acercar, aparecer (12th); asemejar (13th); acomodar (16th). (2) in- im- ir- account for a few nouns: indiferencia, impotencia (13th); impaciencia (15th); impureza (17th); one verb, infiltrar (19th); and, with the exception oí desigual, all adjectives created by prefixation, e.g., inesperado (10th); inagotable (13th); incomparable (14th); incierto, inconveniente (15th); inútil(16th); inverosímil (17th); insignificante, irresponsable (18th); inconsciente (19th). 24

For a discussion of Spanish derivation, cf. M. Ramsey and R. Spaulding, A Textbook of Modern Spanish (New York, 1956), 613-60; hereinafter referred to as Textbook.

18

GENEALOGY

(3) des- is best represented among verbs: desentender (10th); descubrir (12th); desesperar, desaparecer (13th)-,deslizar (\4\k)\descansar, desempeñar (15th); desprender (17th); desarrollar (18th). Four nouns, desigualdad and desproporción (15th), desinterés (17th), and desayuno (18th); and one adjective, desigual (14th), have been created by prefixing des-. (4) re- is primarily a verbal prefix: reconocer (13th); recoger, revivir (15th); retirar (16th); reunir (18th); reanudar (19th). Three nouns are formed by prefixing re-: renacimiento (13th); reconstrucción (15th); and reacción (18th). 2.1322 Suffixation Derivation by the addition of suffixes has been one of the chief sources of new verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. (A) VERBS. The most productive verbal suffix is -ar, as in casar (11th); encontrar (12th); caminar, tocar (13th); fabricar (14th); abusar, trepar (15th); llenar, regresar (16th); asaltar, violentar (17th); viajar (18th); reflejar (19th). Other verbal suffixes are -ecer {establecer, favorecer)-, -izar {autorizar, finalizar)-, and -ear {campear, golpear). (B) NOUNS. The most productive nominal suffixes are: (1) -mentó, -miento, which form nouns expressing action, e.g., convencimiento (10th); juramento (11th); casamiento (12th); conocimiento, nacimiento (13th); descubrimiento ( 14th) ; sufrimiento (15th); rendimiento (16th); cumplimiento (17th). (2) -ción:25 apreciación (12th); desaparición (13th); duración (15th); civilización (16th); situación (17th); decoración (18th); integración (19th). {3)-dad .mocedad (13th)-, frialdad (14th);personalidad, superioridad ( 15th) ;publicidad (16th); casualidad (17th); electricidad (18th); responsabilidad (19th). (4) -eza: riqueza (12th); nobleza, tristeza (13th); belleza, pureza (15th); extrañeza (16th). (5) -ura: escritura (10th); ternura, verdura (13th); llanura (15th). (6) -ia: alegría (12th); cortesía, travesía (13th); colonia (16th); burguesía (17th). (7) -ismo: optimismo (15th); misticismo (16th); realismo (18th); liberalismo, romanticismo (19th). (C) ADJECTIVES. The most common adjectival suffixes are : (1) -al: fundamental, sentimental (13th); excepcional (14th); elemental, mundial (15th); individual (16th); estatal (17th); colosal (18th); colonial, tradicional (19th); nacional (20th). (2) -oso: precioso (10th); orgulloso (12th); peligroso, perezoso (13th); doloroso, sospechoso (14th) ; fabuloso, riguroso (15th); silencioso (17th); borroso (18th); tembloroso (19th). {3)-ico: melancólico (14th); metódico, monárquico (15th); pedagógico (16th); simbólico {llth);patriótico,simpático (18th)-,artístico,biológico (19th)-,soviético (20th) 25

The majority of the -ción and -dad words are borrowings from Latin ; however, a number of nouns have been formed in Spanish.

GENEALOGY

19

(4) -able, -ible: apreciable (12th); agradable (13th); razonable (14th); apacible, venerable (15th); respetable (16th); responsable (18th). (5) -ivo: representativo (13th); definitivo (14th); atractivo, negativo (15th); decisivo (17th);progresivo (18th). (D) ADVERBS. Except for despacito, new adverbs are formed by the addition of -mente: ciertamente (10th); solamente (11th); francamente (12th); especialmente, igualmente (13th); afortunadamente, simplemente (14th); finalmente, rápidamente (15th); perfectamente (16th); exactamente (17th); aproximadamente (18th); indudablemente (19th). 2.1323 Prefixation-Suffixation 'Parasynthetic' formations result from the addition of both a prefix and a suffix to a root or stem. One noun, desenvolvimiento (15th) and two adjectives, arrollador (16th) and inacabable (17th), are formed by this process, all other parasynthetics being verbs: abrazar, empeñar (12th); asegurar, engrandecer (13th); acostrumbrar (14th); desembarcar, ensombrecer (15th); concentrar, reforzar (16th); asustar, retrasar (17th); aproximar (18th); subrayar (19th). 2.1324 Back Formation Back or post formations are created by the suppression of a prefix or suffix. The most common are the post-verbals, which are nouns derived from verbs by substituting a nominal for a verbal ending: cuenta, sospecha (12th); baile, trabajo (13th); asombro, vuelo (14th); abrazo, regalo (15th); destino, lástima (16th); ataque, paseo (17th); saludo (18th); abone, danza, envío, transporte (19th). One verb is derived by desuffixation: acordar < acordado", another is the result of deprefixation: cobrar < recobrar. 2.1325 Agglutination The process of agglutination creates new words by 'freezing' a frequently used phrase whose constituents become inseparable and impermutable. A syntactic process which takes place in the chain, agglutination differs from composition, a morphological process which involves the combinations of elements in the system. Most agglutinated words are adverbs: adelante, arriba, delante (10th); entrambas (11th); acerca, adentro, después, detrás (12th); abajo, afuera, apenas, ayer, quizá (13th); ahora, anoche (14th); acaso, adonde (15th); enfrente (16th); todavía (17th). Two nouns, alarma and hidalgo (10th), and two prepositions, desde (12th) and hacia (13th), also result from agglutination. 2.1326 Change of Suffix Some new words are created by substituting one suffix for another, e.g., amo, loma (11th); huerta (12th); barco, maestra (13th); derecha (14th); curva (17th); clínica (19th).

20

GENEALOGY

2.1327 Abbreviation Abbreviated forms often replace frequently used long words, e.g., teniente < lugarteniente ; cine < cinematógrafo', piano < pianoforte; awío < automóvil. 2.1328 Expressive Creation Expressive creations include onomatopoetic words such as garganta and carcajada, and words which "sugieren directamente una idea por el valor psicológico de sus vocales o consonantes",26 e.g., oh, ay, ah, hola, tonto. 2.133 Change of Function New words are created by this process when an old word is used in a new syntactic environment with a new syntactic function. Among the various types of change of function, the following are the most common: (1) Adjectives used as nouns: enfermo, primero, viejo (10th); criado, obrero (11th); humano, loco, noble (12th); duro, santo, desierto (13th); claro, moral (14th); absurdo, rojo, único (15th); mínimo, seguro (16th); clásico, gris, serio (17th); izquierda, mejor (18th); intelectual, romántico (19th). (2) Verbs used as nouns: placer (12th); saber (13th); ser (16th). (3) Past participles used as adjectives: ayudado, cargado (10th); criado (11th); casado, venido (12th); hundido, vencido (13th); escrito, propuesto (14th); firmado, referido (15th); divertido, parecido (\6th)\cortado, satisfecho (17th); impuesto, realizado (18th); detallado, vivido (19th); obsesionado (20th). (4) Past participles used as nouns: llegada, salida (12th); dicho, estado (13th); escrito, pasado (14th); herido, soldado (15th); puesto, hecho (16th); resultado, sorpresa (17th); contenido, impuesto (18th). (5) Present participles used as nouns: presente (12th); habitante (13th); amante, corriente (15th); pendiente (16th); comerciante (17th); continente (18th); componente (19th). The difficulty in assigning words to genealogical classes concerns the use of the term derivado. Corominas uses it in the sense of 'related' as well as 'derived' in the grammatical sense; in fact, the grouping is surprising when the basis is semantic, e.g., futuro and presente are listed as derivados of the verb ser. Corominas also calls derivados forms derived in Vulgar Latin and later borrowed by Spanish, e.g., debilidad and administración are considered 'derived' from débil and administrar. After checking other etymological sources, we have considered such words as borrowings.27 26

Corominas, Diccionario crítico, 14. M . Alonso, Enciclopedia del idioma (Madrid, 1964); R. S. Boggs, el. al., Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish (Chapel Hill, 1936); W. D . Elcock, The Romance Languages (London, 1960); W. J. Entwistle, The Spanish Language (London, 1965); R . Lapesa, Historia de la lengua española (Madrid, 1955); R . E. Latham, Revised Medieval Word List (London, 1965); R . Menéndez-Pidal, Cantar del Mío Cid (Vocabulario) (Madrid, 1945); F. Monlau, Diccionario etimológico déla lengua castellana (Buenos Aires, 1955).

27

21

GENEALOGY

2.2 D A T A (See graphs 1-2)

We shall now determine the share of each genealogical class in the basic Spanish vocabulary, as well as their estimated share in representative Spanish texts. In Table 1, the first two figures, under the headings "Members" and "Percent", give the number of words and the percentage of the basic vocabulary which they represent; the next two figures, under "Usage" and "Percent", give the totalized coefficients and their estimated percentage of a representative text; the last column, headed "Ratio", gives the average occurrence obtained by dividing the total usage by the number of members. TABLE I Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

BORROWED

1176 2063

23.50 41.26

291,400.67 38,058.06

81.31 10.62

247.79 18.45

Latin Rom. Lang. Arabic Greek Others

1666 234 36 92 35

33.32 4.68 0.72 1.84 0.70

32,219.88 3,448.51 885.92 1,245.43 258.32

8.99 0.96 0.25 0.35 0.07

19.34 14.74 24.61 13.54 7.38

CREATED

1761

35.24

28,939.91

8.07

16.43

33 35 136 702 58 165 30 602

0.66 0.70 2.72 14.04 1.16 3.30 0.60 12.04

2,343.08 2,806.55 1,691.70 9,401.60 771.63 2,756.19 622.84 8,546.32

0.65 0.78 0.47 2.62 0.22 0.77 0.17 2.38

71.00 80.19 12.44 13.39 13.30 16.70 20.76 14.20

INHERITED

Composition Agglutination Prefixation Suffixation Pref. Suffix. Back Form. Others Change of Func.

These data indicate that inherited words make up slightly more than 23 % of the total membership, but they account for more than 81% of the total usage. On the other hand, borrowings and created words represent respectively 41% and 35% of the basic vocabulary, but make up respectively only 10% and 8 % of the total usage. Among borrowed words, Latin contributes more than 33 % of the basic word count, but only 9% of the occurrences. The ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a borrowed word, there will be almost 2 occurrences of a created word, and 15 to 16 occurrences of an inherited word. Within the class of borrowed words, Latin contributes more than 80% of the members. The membership percentages of the other major sub-classes are as follows: Romance Languages (11%), Greek (5%), Arabic (2%), Others (2%). Among the

22

GENEALOGY

borrowings from the Romance Languages, French is the largest contributor, with 55 % of the members. Within the class of created words, derivation by suffixation accounts for 40% of the members, and change of function for 34%. The membership percentages of the other subclasses are as follows : Back Formation (9 %), Prefixation (8 %), PrefixationSuffixation (3%), Composition (2%), Agglutination (2%), Others (2%). GENEALOGY CREATED

4

2

GENEALOGY: BY PARTS OF SPEECH conj. 1.11 art. 0.43 prep. 1.02v pron. 3.23s adv. 3.4(k

(G/PS)

int. 0.00

num. 1.22

adv. 5.32

MEMBERS

3

USAGE

4

2.3 FUNCTIONAL SUB-CLASSES (See graphs 3-8)

If the 5,000 inherited, borrowed, and created words are divided into 10 functional classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Tables 2, 3 and 4.

23

GENEALOGY

2.31 Inherited Words (See graphs 3 and 4) TABLE 2

Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Prep. Art. Conj. Num.

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

569 299 163 40 38 12 5 13 37

48.38 25.43 13.86 3.40 3.23 1.02 0.43 1.11 3.15

23,232.34 42,923.56 23,254.57 15,519.52 30,732.64 66,766.25 56,415.72 28,986.67 3,569.40

7.97 14.73 7.98 5.32 10.55 22.91 19.36 9.95 1.22

40.83 143.56 142.67 387.99 808.75 5,563.85 11,283.14 2,229.74 96.47

It is interesting to note that nouns account for more than 48 % of the membership of the inherited words, but only 8 % of their total occurrences, whereas verbs, with only 25% of the members, represent as much as 15% of the occurrences. Adjectives contribute almost 14 % of the members, but like nouns, only 8 % of the occurrences. Prepositions and articles respectively cover only 1 % and 1 /2 of 1 % of the total membership, but account for 23% and 19% of the total occurrences. Lexical words have a membership of more than 94 %, while function words furnish little more than 6%; but in terms of usage, function words make up 63% of the occurrences and lexical words only 37 %. These differences are justified by the average occurrence of each part of speech, the ratios indicating that for every occurrence of a noun, there are more than 3 verbal and 3 adjectival occurrences. For every occurrence of a preposition, there are 2 occurrences of an article. The average occurrence of function words is 27 times greater than that of lexical words. 2.32 Borrowed Words (See graphs 5 and 6) TABLE 3

Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Prep. Int.

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

1,225 398 432 6 1 1

59.38 19.29 20.94 0.29 0.05 0.05

21,280.94 8,222.68 7,572.29 401.26 577.34 3.55

55.92 21.60 19.90 1.05 1.52 0.01

17.37 20.66 17.53 66.88 577.34 3.55

Only one function word, the preposition hasta, is represented among the class of borrowings. Nouns are by far the most numerous class, both in terms of membership and of usage. Verbs and adjectives, which respectively cover 19% and 21% of the

24

GENEALOGY

membership, account for 21% and 20% of the total occurrences. Most verbs and adjectives are borrowed from Latin; only one verb, achacar, and one adjective, andaluz, come from Arabic; and although there are no verbs among the Greek borrowings, adjectives are represented by 28 members. The average occurrence of nouns, verbs, and adjectives is quite similar, and because of their small number of members, adverbs and prepositions have much higher average ratios. For every occurrence of an adjective, there are almost 4 occurrences of an adverb. 2.33 Created Words (See graphs 7 and 8) TABLE 4

Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Prep. Conj. Int.

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

736 257 604 135 14 2 6 7

41.79 14.59 34.30 7.67 0.80 0.11 0.34 0.40

10,267.94 4,965.92 5,913.09 4,735.43 1,130.20 590.43 1,276.02 60.88

35.48 17.16 20.43 16.36 3.91 2.04 4.41 0.21

13.95 19.32 9.79 35.08 80.73 295.22 212.67 8.70

Nouns are also the largest functional class among created words, as they account for 42 % of the members and for 35 % of the occurrences. Created verbs are less numerous than borrowed ones, but adjectives outnumber borrowed adjectives and contribute 34 % of the membership and more than 20 % of the total usage. More non-roots belong to this genealogical class, in comparison to the borrowed class, but they represent only 10% of the occurrences. Roots on the other hand, make up more than 98% of the membership and 90% of the occurrences. The average ratio of verbs to adjectives is almost 2 to 1, that is, for every occurrence of an adjective, there will be 2 occurrences of a verb. For every occurrence of a verb, there will be almost 2 adverbs, and for every occurrence of a pronoun, there will be almost 3 conjunctions. Within the 'composition' sub-class, nouns have the largest membership (36 %), but they account for only 3 % of the total usage. Conjunctions, on the other hand, with only 9 % of the members, make up 38 % of the occurrences. 83 % of the words formed by the process of agglutination are adverbs, and they cover 78 % of the occurrences. Verbs and adjectives respectively account for 54% and 33 % of the words created by prefixation, and verbs contribute 69% of the total occurrences. In the suffixation category, nouns contribute 44%, verbs 18%, adjectives 27%, and adverbs 12%; but the usage of verbs (32 %) almost equals that of nouns (38 %). Among the parasynthetic formations, verbs contribute more than 92 % of the members and 97 % of the occurrences. However, the situation is quite different among the back formations, in which

25

GENEALOGY

all others 0.01

all others 0.39

adv. 1.05\

MEMBERS

/ prep.

1.52

USAGE

5

6

BORROWED

7

8

CREATED

nouns constitute 98 % of both the members and the total usage. Within the 'change of function' sub-class, 36 % of the members are nouns and 60 % verbs, but the usage percentages are nearly the same: 42% for nouns and 41 % for verbs.

2.4 PHYSICAL SUB-CLASSES (See Graphs 9-14)

If the 5000 inherited, borrowed, and created words are divided into 8 physical classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Tables 5-7.

26

GENEALOGY

2.41 Inherited Words (See graphs 9 and 10) TABLE 5

1 2 3 4

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls.

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

88 731 313 44

7.48 62.16 26.62 3.75

198,315.95 82,798.21 9,634.99 651.52

68.06 28.41 3.31 0.22

2,253.59 113.27 30.78 14.09

Monosyllabic words make up only 7% of the inherited membership, but they account for more than 68 % of the total usage. Bisyllabics, which have the largest number of members (more than 62 %), represent only 28 % of the total usage. Trisyllabics outnumber monosyllabics by more than 3 to 1, but represent a mere 3% of the total usage. As far as membership is concerned, there are twice as many monosyllabics as quadrisyllabics, but in terms of usage, the former occur 170 times more frequently than the latter. The average length of inherited words is 2.27 syllables. The average ratio of monosyllabics to bisyllabics is 20 to 1, that is, for every occurrence of a bisyllabic word, there will be 20 occurrences of a monosyllabic word. For every occurrence of a trisyllabic word, there will be almost 4 occurrences of a bisyllabic word. 2.42 Borrowed Words (See graphs 11 and 12) TABLE 6

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

12 432 1037 490 85 7

0.58 20.94 50.27 23.75 4.12 0.34

152.01 10,390.98 19,892.31 6,622.08 880.09 120.59

0.40 27.30 52.27 17.40 2.31 0.32

12.66 24.05 19.18 13.51 10.35 17.23

Monosyllabics represent less than 1 % both in membership and in usage. Trisyllabics, on the other hand, are the most numerous physical class, accounting for more than half of both the members and the occurrences. Quadrisyllabics cover almost 24% of the members and 17% of the occurrences. The hexasyllabics are the smallest class, with only 7 members, e.g., contemporáneo, extraordinario, mediterráneo, particularidad (Latin); revolucionario (Frencharistocrático, eclesiástico (Greek). The average length of a borrowed word is 3.1 syllables. The average ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a monosyllabic, there will be 2 occurrences of a bisyllabic. The average occurrence of trisyllabics and hexasyllabics is quite similar, so that for every occurrence of a hexasyllabic, there will be an occurrence of a trisyllabic.

GENEALOGY

27

GENEALOGY: BY NUMBER OF SYLLABLES

9

(G/NS)

10 INHERITED

v

n BORROWED

The average lengths for the major sub-classes of borrowed words are as follows: Latin Romance Languages Greek Arabic Others

3.14 2.74 3.78 2.72 3.72

syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables

28

GENEALOGY

2.43 Created Words (See graphs 13 and 14) TABLE 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

12 228 683 597 195 38 6 3

0.67 12.94 38.77 33.90

173.11 9,229.38 10,923.02 6,273.14 1,975.23 313.01 40.44 12.58

0.60 31.89 37.74 21.68 6.83 1.08 0.14 0.04

14.43 40.48 15.99 10.51 10.13 8.24 6.74 4.19

11.06

2.15 0.34 0.17

Created words are best represented by trisyllabics and quadrisyllabics, which account respectively for 38% and 34% of the membership and 38% and 22% of the usage.. Bisyllabics and pentasyllabics have almost the same number of members (13% and 11%, respectively), but the former outnumber the latter almost 5 to 1 in total usage. The octosyllabics, represented by three members, hispanoamericano (both noun and adjective) and extraordinariamente (adverb), are the longest words in the language. The average length of created words is 3.51 syllables. As far as average ratios are concerned, for every occurrence of a monosyllabic, there will be 3 occurrences of a bisyllabic; for every occurrence of a quadrisyllabic or pentasyllabic there will be almost 4 occurrences of a bisyllabic. Most of the words created by composition are bi-, tri-, or quadrisyllabics; however, there are 2 compounds with 5 syllables (aeroplano, escalofrío), 1 with 7 syllables (,norteamericano), and 2 with 8 syllables (hispanoamericano, both noun and adjective). The largest number of words formed by prefixation is found among trisyllabics and quadrisyllabics, with pentasyllabics accounting for 20 words. 40% of the suffixation sub-class are represented by quadrisyllabics, and 30% by trisyllabics. Five -mente words have 7 syllables: afortunadamente, apasionadamente, aproximadamente, considerablemente, definitivamente; and 1 word, extraordinariamente, has 8 syllables. The average lengths for the sub-classes of created words are as follows: composition agglutination prefixation suffixation pref.-suffix. back formation change of function others

2.55 2.88 3.68 3.83 3.50 2.70 3.40 2.27

syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables

29

GENEALOGY

G/NS, 7 4 8 syl. 6 syl

2.15

0.51

|/1

syl.

7i8 0.67

5 syl. 6.83„ 5 syl

2 syl

11.06

12.94

3 syl

syl.

6 s y l , 1.08

0.18

1 yl

syl.

0.60

*

38.77

3 syl.

MEMBERS

37.74

USAGE «

13

CREATED

(G/D)

GENEALOGY: BY DECILE [STATISTICAL]

10th 4.34 9th5.02

3rd 2

MEMBERS

n d

C.98

2.21

V

^

— P U others

1.73

USAGE

16

INHERITED

2.5 STATISTICAL SUB-CLASSES (See graphs 15-20)

If the 5000 inherited, borrowed, and created words are divided into 10 statistical classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Tables 8-10.

30

GENEALOGY

2.51 Inherited Words (See graphs 15 and 16) TABLE 8

1-10th 2-10th 3-10th 4-10th 5-10th 6-10th 7-10th 8-10th 9-10th 10-10th

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

318 160 124 117 96 108 78 65 58 51

27.04 13.61 10.54 9.95 8.16 9.18 6.63 5.53 5.02 4.34

277,066.91 6,441.50 2,849.48 1,838.65 1,065.00 894.77 506.05 330.60 237.17 170.54

95.08 2.21 0.98 0.63 0.37 0.31 0.17 0.11 0.08 0.06

871.28 40.26 22.98 15.72 11.09 8.29 6.49 5.09 4.01 3.34

Inherited words are well-represented in the first statistical class. Inherited words in this class outnumber those in the second class only 2 to 1 but in total usage the ratio is 47 to 1, the first class accounting for an overwhelming 95%. The remaining 9 statistical classes contribute 73 % of the total membership, but a slight 5 % of the total usage. The average ratio of the first statistical class to the second is 20 to 1 ; for every occurrence of a member of the second class, there will be 20 occurrences of a member of the first class. For every occurrence of a word of the third class, there will be 2 occurrences of a word of the second class. 2.52 Borrowed Words (See graphs 17 and 18) TABLE 9

1—10th 2-10th 3-10th 4-10th 5-10th 6-10th 7-10th 8-10th 9-10th 10-10th

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

118 225 220 231 208 206 216 226 208 205

5.72 10.91 10.66 11.20 10.08 9.99 10.47 10.95 10.08 9.94

12,152.35 9,169.51 5,087.60 3,573.40 2,309.27 1,727.74 1,383.95 1,145.29 832.98 675.97

31.93 24.09 13.36 9.39 6.07 4.54 3.64 3.01 2.19 1.78

102.99 40.75 23.12 15.47 11.10 8.39 6.41 5.07 4.00 3.30

The first statistical class is the least numerous in membership, only 6% but it accounts for almost 32% of the total usage. The membership of the other 9 classes ranges from 9.9% (10th class) to 11.2% (4th class), but the total usage ranges from a mere 1.8% for the 10th class to 24% for the second class. The first 5 classes cover almost 50 % of the membership, but represent nearly 85 % of the total usage.

31

GENEALOGY

The average ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a word in the third statistical class, there would be nearly 2 occurrences of a second-class word, and more than 4 occurrences of a first-class word. The Arabic borrowing hasta has the highest frequency rank (56) among the borrowed words. 2.53 Created Words (See graphs 19 and 20) TABLE 10 Members 1-10th 2-10th 3-10th 4-10th 5-10th 6-10th 7-10th 8-10th 9-10th lO-lOth

64 115 156 152 196 186 206 209 233 244

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

3.63 6.53 8.86 8.63 11.13 10.56 11.70 11.87 13.23 13.86

10,489.58 4,603.07 3,625.07 2,354.53 2,175.71 1,554.08 1,332.71 1,056.53 942.46 806.17

36.25 15.91 12.53 8.13 7.52 5.37 4.60 3.65 3.26 2.78

163.90 40.03 23.24 15.49 11.10 8.35 6.47 5.05 4.04 3.30

The first statistical class also has the smallest numbers of members among the created words (slightly more than 3 %), but the highest percentage of usage (36 %). Members of the second statistical class outnumber those of the first class 2 to 1, but the ratio is reversed as far as usage, the first class accounting for 36% of the occurrences, the second for only 16%. The first five classes include 39% of the membership, but cover 80% of the total usage. The average ratios show that for every occurrence of a word of the second class, there are 4 occurrences of a word of the first class. The average ratio of the first five statistical classes to the second five classes is to 5 to 1, that is, for every occurrence of a member of the second five classes, there will be 5 occurrences of a member of the first five classes.

MEMBERS

USAGE

17

18

BORROWED

32

GENEALOGY

19

20

CREATED 2.6 CHRONOLOGICAL SUB-CLASSES (See graphs 21-26)

If the 5000 inherited, borrowed, and created words are divided into 12 chronological classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Tables 11-13. 2.61 Inherited Words (See graphs 21 and 22) TABLE 11

OOCent

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

1176

100.00

291,400.67

100.00

247.797

The inherited words in this study belong to genealogical class '1' and to chronological class '00' (indicating words present in the language when Vulgar Latin became Old Spanish). Therefore, the membership of these classes is the same. 2.62 Borrowed Words (See graphs 23 and 24) TABLE 12 Members lOCent 11 Cent 12Cent 13 Cent 14Cent 15Cent 16Cent 17Cent 18 Cent 19 Cent 20Cent

26 13 78 430 112 729 252 219 116 81 7

Percent 1.26 0.63 3.78 20.84 5.43 35.34 12.22 10.62 5.61 3.93 0.34

Usage

Percent

Ratio

659.93 323.24 2,460.70 9,878.75 2,368.87 13,398.36 3,530.41 3,192.70 1,303.94 893.47 47.69

1.73 0.85 6.46 25.96 6.22 35.20 9.28 8.39 3.43 2.35 0.13

25.38 24.86 31.55 29.74 21.15 18.38 14.01 14.58 11.24 11.03 6.81

33

GENEALOGY

The majority of the borrowed words are attested in the 13th and 15th centuries, which respectively account for 21 % and 35 % of the total membership, and 26% and 35% of the total usage. Words attested in the 15th century outnumber those attested in the 16th almost 3 to 1 in membership and almost 4 to 1 in occurrences. The average ratio for the 12th century is higher because of a small membership with a relatively high usage. For every occurrence of a word attested in the 17th century, there will be 2 occurrences of one attested in the 12th century.

GENEALOGY: BY CENTURY OF ORIGIN

2i

(G/CO)

22

INHERITED

BORROWED

34

GENEALOGY

2.63 Created Words (See graphs 25 and 26) TABLE 13

lOCent 11 Cent 12Cent 13 Cent 14Cent 15Cent 16Cent 17Cent 18 Cent 19Cent 20Cent

Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

66 25 142 353 109 435 223 184 124 92 8

3.75 1.42 8.07 20.05 6.19 24.70 12.66 10.45 7.04 5.22 0.45

707.71 668.62 6,354.75 6,475.67 1,724.64 4,957.41 2,517.80 2,478.26 2,158.65 779.33 117.07

2.45 2.31 21.96 22.38 5.96 17.13 8.70 8.56 7.46 2.69 0.40

10.72 26.74 44.75 18.34 15.82 11.40 11.29 13.47 17.41 8.47 14.63

Like borrowed words, the created forms are most numerous in the 13th and 15th centuries, representing respectively 20% and 25% of the total membership. As far as usage, the 13th has the highest percentage (22%), with the 12th century in second place with nearly 22%. The membership ratio of 13th century words to 12th century words is 2\ to 1, but the usage ratio is 1 to 1, each century accounting for 22% of the occurrences. Words attested in the 10th through the 14th centuries contribute 38 % of the total membership, but more than 52 % of the total occurrences. The average ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a 15th-century word, there will be more than 3 occurrences of a 12th-century word. The average occurrence of a word attested from the 10th through the 14th centuries is 22.92, that of a word G/CO2

26

CREATED

35

GENEALOGY

MEMBERS

28

27

attested from the 15th through the 20th centuries 12.82, indicating that for every occurrence of a 15th-20th century word, there will be almost 2 occurrences of a 10th-14th century word.

3

CHRONOLOGY

3.1 CHRONOLOGICAL CLASSES

We recognize twelve chronological classes. The first class includes all inherited words, i.e., those present in the language when Vulgar Latin became Old Spanish. Inherited through an uninterrupted tradition of spoken Latin, such words are not datable. Some of them were not originally Latin, but Basque, Celtic, Iberian, or Germanic words which Latin had already borrowed at the time of the Roman conquest. The other classes consist of words which have enriched the Spanish vocabulary after the formation of the language, either by borrowing from another language or by an internal process of word formation. These words are divided into eleven categories, relative to the century in which they are attested for the first time in the written language. Critics disagree as to the dividing line between the "lingua romana rústica" and what could be called Castilian. It goes without saying that the so-called "lingua romana" passed imperceptibly into Castilian, Aragonese, Leonese, and other HispanoRomance dialects, through a process which extended over a long period of time, perhaps as many as four centuries. In this study, we followed Menéndez-Pidal, who, in his Orígenes del español (1929), considers the 9th century as the period when notarial documents drawn up in the region of Castile began to exhibit phonological, morphological, syntactical, and lexical features which are typically Castilian, a view supported by Ford 1 among others. As for the chronological classification of borrowed or internally created words, it is performed mechanically, relative to the century of first attestation. We have preferred this automatic division to a more historically-motivated one, e.g., Old Spanish, Middle Spanish, Modern Spanish, for two reasons: (1) Authorities do not seem to agree on the 'periodization' of the history of Spanish, and even when they agree on the number of periods, they generally disagree on the chronological dividing line between them; (2) By operating with periods, it becomes more difficult to compare the rate of enrichment of the Spanish vocabulary with that of other Romance languages. Indeed, the periods in the history of the Spanish language do not correspond with those recognized in the history of French, Italian, Portuguese, or Rumanian, as 1

J. D. M. Ford, Old Spanish Readings (1911), 1; hereinafter cited as OS Readings.

CHRONOLOGY

37

each may be divided into a greater or smaller number of periods; moreover, even when the parallel periods are recognized, they may not be coextensive, Old Spanish covering a longer or shorter period of time than Old French or Old Italian, for instance. Thus, the more arbitrary division into centuries has the negative advantage of by-passing the controversial question of the periodization of the history of Spanish; and the positive virtue of providing a sound basis for comparative studies of the rate of enrichment of the various Romance languages. In assigning borrowed and internally created words to chronological classes, we have relied on the dates of first attestation provided by Corominas. Whenever Corominas does not indicate the date, we have resorted to other authorities, especially Martín Alonso's Enciclopedia del idioma (1958) and, in a few cases, Boggs' Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish (1936). One of the fortunate innovations of the Corominas Diccionario is the dating of most of the entries. However, there are two major categories of words which were left undated by Corominas : (1) certain derived forms, especially adjectives in -isimo and adverbs in -mente ; (2) words created by a change in function. In some cases, we succeeded in finding the dates of first appearance in Martín Alonso, e.g., indudablemente (19th century), perfectamente (16th century), simplemente (14th century); altísimo (14th century). In a number of words involving a change in function, some attestations again were listed in Alonso: (1) nouns: despedida (16th century), alrededor (16th century, also attested in the Covarrubias Dictionary of 1611), alto (16th century), oficial (16th century), partida (16th century), puñal, vuelta (15th century), contenido (18th century), componente (19th century); (2) adjectives: abundante (15th century), apartado (13th century), convencido (14th century), dispuesto (18th century), logrado (16th century), nacido (16th century), preso (13th century), temido (16th century), titulado (17th century); (3) adverbs: bueno, junto, salvo (16th century), tanto (18th century). In several instances we also consulted Bloch and Wartburg's Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française (1964), and assigned words to the same century in which their French counterparts were attested, e.g., liberalismo, intelectualismo (19th century); and the Greek borrowing protagonista (19th century). Chronological information for other borrowings also came from Alonso, e.g„ ateneo (19th centurz), platónico (17th century), lord (18th century), viceversa (18th century). The adjsctive holandés (15th century) was listed in Latham's Revised Medievel Word List, and the adjective corriente was attested in the Milagros of the 13th century of the author Berceo, according to Boggs. Whenever unable to find the first attested data for derived forms, we assigned them to the same century as the base form, e.g., actuación < actuar (13th century), nacional < nación (15th century), lealmente < leal (12th centurx). Words classified under 'change of function', whose original form was inherited, and for which no attested date could be found, were assigned to the 10th century, which we regarded as the firts century following the formatidn of the Spanish language. Except in a few rare cases, it is not possible to assign an exact date for the creation or for the use of a word. To what extent, then, can a first attestation be assumed

38

CHRONOLOGY

to represent the 'birth certificate' of a word ? The alternative assumption is, of course, that words attested for the first time in a given century may have been borrowed or created at an earlier date, the scarcity of literary documents accounting for the lack of an earlier attestation. Since the abundance or scarcity of new borrowings or creations attested in a given century cannot always be easily justified in terms of events which have marked that particular century in the history of Spanish culture, there are reasons to suspect that many of the terms first attested in a particular century were already present in the language at an earlier date, their attestation being due to a growth in the literary output, rather than to a growth in the vocabulary of this century. Nevertheless, we have utilized the first attestations, since these dates, writes Corominas, "nos permiten sólo asegurar que en esta fecha ya estaba en circulación, porque tenemos prueba escrita de su empleo".2 Of course, in the case of inherited words, the attested date can only represent the first appearance in the literature, not in the language. The date of the appearance of a word is one of the main aspects of its history. This important fact is strongly emphasized by Menéndez-Pidal in his chapter on the 'ideal dictionary', in which he takes the view that the date when a word appears in the language is just as important as its etymology.3 In the case of the Romance languages, it would be extremely useful to have chronological dictionaries where the entries would be arranged not only alphabetically, but also according to the date of heir first appearance. 3.2 DATA (See graphs 27-28, p. 00)

If the 5000 words are divided into 12 chronological classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Table 14. TABLE 14 Members OOCent lOCent 11 Cent 12Cent 13 Cent 14Cent 15 Cent 16Cent 17Cent 18 Cent 19Cent 20Cent 2 3

1176 92 38 220 783

221

1164 475 403 240 173 15

Percent 23.50 1.88 0.74 4.40 15.66 4.42 23.28 9.50 8.06 4.80 3.46 0.30

Usage 291,400.67 1,367.64 981.05 8,815.45 16,354.42 4,093.51 18,355.77 6,048.21 5,670.96 3,462.59 1,672.80 164.76

Corominas, Diccionario crítico, 13. R. Menéndez-Pidal, Estudios lingüísticos (1961), 118.

Percent 81.31 0.39 0.27 2.46 4.56 1.14 5.12 1.69 1.58 0.97 0.47 0.05

Ratio 247.79 14.87 26.10 40.07 20.89 18.52 15.77 12.73 14.07 14.43 9.67 10.98

39

CHRONOLOGY

Although inherited words (OOCent) account for only 23 % of the total membership, they represent more than 81 % of the total usage. The greatest number of borrowed and created words are attested in the 13th and 15th centuries, which respectively cover 16% and 23% of the total membership, but together account for only about 10% of the total usage. Of course, the small number of attested words in the 10th and 11th centuries is due to the scarcity of literary documents in early Spanish. The average ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a 13th-century word, there would be more than 12 occurrences of an inherited word. For every occurrence of a 19th-century word, there would be 2 occurrences of a 14th-century word.

3.3 FUNCTIONAL SUB-CLASSES (See graphs 29-52)

If the 12 chronological classes are divided into 10 functional classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Table 15. TABLE 15 Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

OOCent (Inherited) (See graphs 29-30) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Prep. Art. Conj. Num.

569 299 163 39 38 12 5 13 37

48.45 25.44 13.85 3.32 3.23 1.02 0.43 1.11 3.15

23,232.34 42,923.56 23,254.57 15,515.07 30,732.64 66,766.25 56,415.72 29,986.67 3,569.40

7.97 14.73 7.98 5.32 10.55 22.91 19.36 9.95 1.22

40.83 143.55 142.66 397.82 808.75 5,563.85 11,283.14 2,229.74 96.47

44.68 8.51 30.85 14.89 1.06

564.14 128.11 509.65 174.56 6.44

40.79 9.26 36.85 12.62 0.47

13.43 16.01 17.57 12.46 6.44

68.42 13.16 13.16 5.26

591.69 216.58 120.73 62.86

59.65 21.84 12.17 6.34

22.76 43.31 24.14 31.43

49.09 24.09

2,783.64 2,368.98

31.58 26.87

25.77 44.69

lOCent (See graphs 31-32) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron.

41 8 28 14 1

11 Cent (See graphs 33-34) Noun Verb Adj. Adv.

26 5 5 2

12Cent (See graphs 35-36) Noun Verb

108 53

CHRONOLOGY

TABLE 15 (icont.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

12Cent (See graphs 35-36 Adj. Adv. Pron. Prep. Conj. Int.

39 14 1 1 3 1

17.73 6.36 0.45 0.45 1.36 0.45

738.18 1,595.49 443.83 436.59 445.19 3.55

8.37 18.10 5.03 4.95 5.05 0.04

18.92 113.96 443.83 436.59 148.39 3.55

56.19 18.14 21.71 2.94 0.38 0.26 0.13 0.25

8,920.44 2,918.59 2,681.32 701.33 186.16 731.18 198.66 16.74

54.54 17.85 16.40 4.29 1.14 4.47 1.21 0.10

20.27 20.55 15.77 30.49 62.05 365.59 198.66 8.37

42.08 15.84 32.58 8.14 0.90 0.45

1,638.33 847.95 1,024.11 539.92 29.89 13.31

40.02 20.71 25.02 13.19 0.73 0.33

17.61 24.22 14.22 29.99 14.94 13.31

47.42 18.13 30.67 3.52 0.09 0.09 0.09

8,423.55 3,760.62 4,832.11 689.33 23.88 615.39 10.89

45.89 20.49 26.32 3.76 0.13 3.35 0.06

15.26 17.82 13.53 16.81 23.88 615.39 10.89

48.42 17.26 30.53 2.74 0.63 0.21 0.21

3,018.64 1,328.38 1,397.58 238.74 43.28 16.78 4.81

49.91 21.96 23.11 3.95 0.72 0.28 0.08

13.12 16.20 9.63 18.36 14.42 16.78 4,81

54.59 17.12 26.05 1.74 0.50

2,954.98 1,069.74 1,062.64 206.88 376.72

52.11 18.86 18.74 3.65 6.64

13.43 15.50 10.12 29.55 188.36

13Cent (See graphs 37-38) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Prep. Conj. Int.

440 142 170 23 3 2 1 2

14Cent (See graphs 39-40) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Int.

93 35 72 18 2 1

15 Cent (See graphs 41-42) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Conj. Int.

552 211 357 41 1 1 1

16Cent (See graphs 43^14) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron. Conj. Int.

230 82 145 13 3 1 1

17Cent (See graphs 45-46) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron.

220 69 105 7 2

41

CHRONOLOGY TABLE 15 (cont.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

18 Cent (See graphs 47-48) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Pron.

138 28 65 8 1

57.50 11.67 27.08 3.33 0.42

1,598.18 402.69 620.91 820.81 20.00

46.16 11.63 17.93 23.71 0.58

11.58 14.38 9.55 102.60 20.00

60.69 12.14 24.86 1.16 1.16

1,004.19 138.61 403.65 111.22 15.13

60.03 8.29 24.13 6.65 0.90

9.56 6.60 9.38 55.61 7.56

46.67 6.67 46.67

55.83 8.35 100.58

33.89 5.07 61.05

7.97 8.35 14.36

19Cent (See graphs 49-50) Noun Verb Adj. Adv. Int.

105 21 43 2 2

20Cent (See graphs 51-52) Noun Verb Adj.

7 1 7

3.31 Inherited Stock (See section 2.31 for data interpretation; and graphs 29 and 30). 3.32 10th-14th Centuries (See graphs 31-40) Among 10th-century words, nouns are the most numerous functional class in both membership and occurrences. Adjectives make up only 31 % of the members, but their usage (37%) approaches that of nouns (41 %). Only 38 words are attested in the 11th century, but 68 % of them are nouns, which outnumber both verbs and adjectives 5 to 1 and cover 60% of the total usage. The relationship of nouns to verbs in the 12th century is more than 2 to 1, although the usage percentages indicate that verbs (27 %) occur almost as frequently as nouns (31 %). One pronoun (todo) and one preposition (desde) constitute 10% of the occurrences of 12th-century words. Nouns attested in the 13th century outnumber verbs 3 to 1 and adjectives almost 3 to 1 and contribute 54% of the total usage. However, the average ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a noun, there will also be an occurrence of a verb. Adjectives cover a greater portion (32%) of the membership in the 14th century than in previous centuries, and account for 25 % of the occurrences. As far as average ratio, for every 3 occurrences of a noun, there will be 4 occurrences of a verb.

42

CHRONOLOGY

3.33 15th-20th Centuries (See graphs 41-52) More than 28% of the nouns and 34% of the adjectives which appear after the formation of Spanish are attested in the 15th century; in fact, 15th-century adjectives outnumber inherited adjectives more than 2 to 1. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives respectively cover 47%, 18%, and 31 % of the members, and 46%, 20%, and 26% of the occurrences. Verbs account for only 17 % of the members in the 16th century, but they comprise 22% of the total occurrences. Nouns contribute 48% of the members and almost 50% of the total usage. CENTURY OF ORIGIN: BY PARTS OF SPEECH art. 0.43 conj. 1,11 prep. 1.02 I / „ u m 3 15 pron. 3.23 J J U - h — i n t . adv. 3.32

if

l'-

(CO/PS) num. 1.22

0.00

MEMBERS

USAGE

30

29

BEFORE 10

th

CENTURY

31

32

10th CENTURY

CHRONOLOGY CO/PS2 adv. 5.26

adv. 6.34

a LI others 0,00

all others O.f

USAGE

MEMBERS 33

34

11 t h C E N T U R Y conj. 1.36 prep. 0.451 int. 0.45 pron. 0.4 adv. 6.36

conj. & int. 5.09 prep. 4.95 pron. 5.03

USAGE

MEMBERS 35

36

12 t h

CENTURY conj. &int. 1.31 prep. 4.47 i , "4.29 Tn ' - ' « i A - r T - ^ adv.

adv. 2.94 all others 1.03

w

USAGE 38

MEMBERS 37

13th C E N T U R Y

art. V . rum.r

m

CHRONOLOGY CO/PS, oil others C.00

pron. lint 1,06 all others 0.00

USAGE!

MEMBERS

40

39 th

14 adv. 3.52

CENTURY conj. 3.35

all others 0.16

all others 0.1

USAGE

MEMBERS 41

42

15th CENTURY aim 195

adv. 2.74 all others 1.05

MEMBERS

all others 1.08

USAGE

43

16th CENTURY

CHRONOLOGY CO/PS4 all others

0.00

all others

46

45 XI* C E N T U R Y oU o t h e r s D.OO

48

4? 1801 C E N T U R Y alt

others

all

0.00

others

0.00

int. 0.90

MEMBERS

49 19 th C E N T U R Y

0.00

46

CHRONOLOGY CO/PS. alt others 0.00

all others 0.00

MEMBERS

USAGE

51

52

20* CENTURY

The relationship of 17th-century nouns to adjectives is more than 2 to 1 in membership and almost 3 to 1 in usage. Two pronouns cover nearly 7 % of the occurrences. Nouns attested in the 18th century outnumber verbs 5 to 1 and adjectives 2 to 1 in membership, and account for 46 % of the total usage. Adverbs, with only 3 % of the members, contribute more than twice as many occurrences as verbs. Nineteenth-century nouns represent 60% of both members and occurrences. Adjectives constitute one-fourth of the members and occurrences, and occur 3 times more frequently than verbs. Twentieth-century attestations number only 15 : 7 nouns, 7 adjectives, and 1 verb (reaccionar). Only 9 function words are attested in the 15th-20th century period, but two of them (porque and usted) are among the 100 most frequently used words.

3.4 PHYSICAL SUB-CLASSES (See graphs 53-76)

If the 12 chronological classes are divided into 8 physical classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Table 16. TABLE 16 Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

68.06 28.41 3.31 0.22

2,279.44 113.26 30.78 14.09

OOCent (See graphs 53 and 54) 1 2 3 4

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls.

87 731 313 44

7.40 62.21 26.64 3.75

198,311.50 82,798.21 9,634.99 651.52

CHRONOLOGY

TABLE 16 (con/.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

lOCent (See graphs 55 and 56) 1 Syl. 2 Syls. 3 Syls. 4 Syls. 5 Syls.

1 22 41 25 5

1.06 23.40 43.62 26.60 5.32

4.45 482.37 655.95 205.92 34.21

0.32 34.88 47.43 14.89 2.47

4.45 21.92 15.99 8.23 6.84

32.43 43.24 18.92 2.70 2.70

380.96 353.98 215.72

38.83 36.08 21.99

31.74 22.12 30.81

8.61

0.88

8.61

21.78

2.22

21.78

1.82

30.91 48.18 16.36 2.27 0.45

72.78 5,178.56 2,821.67 647.74 91.44 3.26

0.83 58.74 32.01 7.35 1.04 0.04

18.19 76.15 26.62 17.99 18.28 3.26

0.38 20.95 47.13 24.78 5.62 1.15

15.18 4,882.48 7,763.26 3,015.25 575.36 102.89

0.09 29.85 47.47 18.44 3.52 0.63

5.06 29.77 21.03 15.54 13.07 11.43

0.90 17.19 46.61 26.70 5.88 0.90

33.07 720.30 2,280.34 869.49 149.74 17.51 33.06

0.81 17.60 55.71 21.24 3.66 0.43 0.56

16.53 18.95 22.13 14.73 11.51 4.37 11.53

0.17 14.78 45.19 30.50 7.90 1.20 0.17 0.09

27.90 3,865.93 9,762.59 3,659.81 887.34 139.62 9.50 3.08

0.15 21.06 53.19 19.94 4.83 0.76 0.05 0.02

13.95 22.47 18.56 10.30 9.64 9.97 4.75 3.08

11 Cent (See graphs 57 and 58) 2 3 4 5 6

Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

12 16 7 1 1

12Cent (See graphs 59 and 60) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

4 68 106 36 5 1

13 Cent (See graphs 61 and 62) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

3 164 369 194 44 9

14Cent (See graphs 63 and 64) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

2 38 103 59 13 4 2

1.81

15 Cent (See graphs 65 and 66) 1 Syl. 2 Syls. 3 Syls. 4 Syls. 5 Syls. 6 Syls. 7 Syls. 8 Syls.

2 172 526 355 92 14 2 1

48

CHRONOLOGY

TABLE 16 (cont.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

16Cent (See graphs 67 and 68) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

2 76 217 144 32 1 1 2

0.42 16.00 45.68 30.32 6.74 0.21 0.21 0.42

51.01 1,444.17 2,831.09 1,337.44 368.28 3.36 3.36 9.50

0.84 23.88 46.81 22.11 6.09 0.06 0.06 0.16

25.50 19.00 13.04 9.28 11.50 3.36 3.36 4.75

0.74 13.90 44.42 29.78 10.17 0.99

37.26 1,261.27 2,337.06 1,609.18 382.63 43.56

0.66 22.24 41.21 28.38 6.75 0.77

12.42 22.52 13.05 13.41 9.33 10.89

1.67 12.92 39.58 34.58 10.00 0.83 0.42

55.43 997.20 1,406.95 765.85 212.80 19.84 4.52

1.60 28.80 40.63 22.12 6.15 0.57 0.13

13.85 32.16 14.81 9.22 8.86 9.92 4.52

2.31 10.40 34.68 35.26 12.14 5.20

32.49 383.94 496.50 539.81 138.28 81.78

1.94 22.95 29.68 32.27 8.27 4.89

8.12 21.33 8.27 8.84 6.58 9.08

20.00 46.67 20.00 13.33

23.18 105.94 29.01 6.63

14.07 64.30 17.61 4.02

7.72 15.13 9.67 3.31

7Cent (See graphs 69 and 70) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Syl. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

3 56 179 120 41 4

18 Cent (See graphs 71 and 72) 1 Syl. 2 Syls. 3 Syls. 4 Syls. 5 Syls. 6 Syls. 7 Syls.

4 31 95 83 24 2 1

19Cent (See graphs 73 and 74) 1 Syl. 2 Syls. 3 Syls. 4 Syls. 5 Syls. 6 Syls.

4 18 60 61 21 9

JCent (See graphs 75 and 76) 2 3 4 5

Syls. Syls. Syls. Syls.

3 7 3 2

CHRONOLOGY CENTURY OF ORIGIN: BY

NUMBER OF SYLLABLES

(CO/NS) 4 thru 8 syl. 0.22

3 syl. 3.31

4. syl 3.75

USAGE 54

53

BEFORE 10th CENTURY 6 thru 8 syl. 0.00 5 syl. 2.47 ,1 syl. 0.32

6 thru 8 syl. 0.00 5 syl. 5.32, 1 syl. 1.06

members 55

USAGE 56

10th CENTURY all others 0.00

6 syl. 2.70 5 syl. 2.70

all others 0.00

MEMBERS

5 syl. 0.88

,6 syl. 2.22

USAGE

57

58

11th CENTURY

CHRONOLOGY

CO/NS 2 a l l others 0.04

6 syl. 0.45 7 i 0 syl. 0.00 5 syl. 2.27 | 1 syl. 1.B2

5 syl. 1.04 ,1 syl. 0.83

MEMBERS 59

USAGE

th

12

CENTURY

60

6 syl. 0.63 3.52 | 1 syl. 0.09

MEMBERS

USAGE

61

CENTURY 7 syl. 0.90 6 syl. 0.00 6 syl. 1.81 I i syl. 0.90

62

6 thru 8 syl. 0.99 5 syl. 3.66 1 syl. 0.81

USAGE

MEMBERS

64

63

14th CENTURY

51

CHRONOLOGY

CO/NS;

65

66

15

th

CENTURY

16"1 C E N T U R Y a l l others 0.00

a l l others

MEMBERS

USAGE 70

69

17th C E N T U R Y

0.00

CHRONOLOGY

CO/NS4 e syl. 0.00 7 syl 0.42 6 syl. 0.83 1 1 s y l 1.67

7 & 8 syl. 0.13 6 s y L 0.57

,1 syl. t.60

USAGE

MEMBERS 71

72

18 t h CENTURY 7iB

7 4 8 syl. 0.00

syl. 0.00

6 syl. 5.20

6 syl. 1.89

1' syl. 2.31

1 syl. 1.94

USAGE

MEMBERS

74

73

19 all others

th

CENTURY all others

0.00

0.00

5 syl. 4.02

5 syl.13.33 2

2 syl. 14.07,

syl. 20.00 4 syl. 17.61

4 syl. 20.C

MEMBERS

USAGE

75

76

20 t h CENTURY

CHRONOLOGY

53

3.41 Inherited Stock See section 2.41 for data interpretation; and graphs 53 and 54. 3.42 10th to 14th Centuries (See graphs 55-64) Only one monosyllabic {cuan) is attested in the 10th century. Trisyllabics are the most numerous class, with 44% of the members and 47% of the occurrences. Bisyllabics and quadrisyllabics respectively make up 23 % and 27 % of the membership, but in usage, bisyllabics outnumber quadrisyllabics more than 2 to 1. Only one pentasyllabic (caballería) and one hexasyllabic (•verdaderamente) appear in the 11th century. Trisyllabics have the largest membership (43%), but bisyllabic usage has a slight edge over that of trisyllabics: 39% to 36%. Trisyllabics are the most sizeable class in the 12th century, with 48 % of themembers, but the bisyllabics cover almost 59% of the total occurrences. Four monosyllabics (bien, fray, mal, mas) and one hexasyllabic (poderosamente) occur in this century. The average ratios indicate that for every occurrence of a trisyllabic, there will be almost 3 occurrences of a bisyllabic. Only 3 monosyllabics (ay, sien, tal) appear in the 13th century. Bisyllabics, which include 21 % of the members, are outnumbered by both trisyllabics and quadrisyllabics, which respectively comprise 47% and 25% of the total membership. In total occurrences, the ratio of trisyllabics to bisyllabics is 5 to 3. In the 14th century, trisyllabics represent 47 % of the members and 56 % of the occurrences, and occur three times more frequently than bisyllabics. Two heptasyllabics (afortunadamente, definitivamente) are attested in the 14th century. The average lengths for each century are as follows: 10th11th12th13th14th-

3.18 3.00 2.88 3.18 3.28

syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables 3.43 15th to 20th Centuries (See graphs 65-76)

Trisyllabics continue to be the most numerous class in the 15th century, accounting for 45 % of the members and 53 % of the occurrences. The membership ratio of trisyllabics to bisyllabics is more than 3 to 1. Quadrisyllabics include 30% of the membership and 20 % of the usage. Average ratio figures show that for every occurrence of a quadrisyllabic, there will be 2 occurrences of a bisyllabic. Two heptasyllabics (apasionadamente, considerablemente) and one octosyllabic (extraordinariamente) are attested in the 15th century.

54

CHRONOLOGY

Sixteenth-century trisyllabics cover 46 % of the membership and 47 % of the usage. They outnumber bisyllabics almost 3 to 1 in membership and 2 to 1 in occurrences. In membership, the ratio of quadrisyllabics to bisyllabics is about 2 to 1, but in usage, the ratio is almost 1 to 1. One heptasyllabic (norteamericano) and 2 octosyllabics {hispanoamericano, both noun and adjective) appear in the 16th century. Trisyllabics make up 44% of the members and 41 % of the occurrences in the 17th century, and occur twice as frequently as bisyllabics. Quadrisyllabics have more members (30 %) than bisyllabics (13 %), but the usage percentages (22 % for bisyllabics and 28 % for quadrisyllabics) are closer together. In the 18th century, quadrisyllabics, accounting for 35% of the members, almost equal the 40% membership of the trisyllabics; but in total usage, the trisyllabics occur twice as frequently as the quadrisyllabics. In membership, the ratio of quadrisyllabics to bisyllabics is almost 3 to 1, but in total occurrences, bisyllabics (29%) comprise more members than quadrisyllabics (22 %). Trisyllabics and quadrisyllabics both contribute 35% of the members in the 19th century, but quadrisyllabics include 3% more of the occurrences. Bisyllabics cover only 10% of the members, but they constitute 23% of the occurrences. In the 20th century, of the 15 words attested, 7 trisyllabics represent 46% of the members and 64% of the occurrences. The average lengths for each century are as follows: 15th16th17th18th19th20th-

3.36 3.30 3.38 3.43 3.60 3.27

syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables syllables

3.5 STATISTICAL SUB-CLASSES (See graphs 77-100)

If the 12 chronological classes are divided into 10 statistical classes, the total membership, usage, percentages, and average ratios of each class are represented in Table 17. TABLE 17 Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

95.08 2.21 0.98 0.63

871.28 40.26 22.98 15.71

OOCent (See graphs 77 and 78) 1—10th 2-10th 3-10th 4-10th

318

160 124 117

27.06 13.62 10.55 9.96

277,066.91 6,441.50 2,849.48 1,838.65

55

CHRONOLOGY TABLE 17 (cont.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

OOCent (See graphs 77 and 78) 5-10th 6-1Oth 7-1Oth 8-1Oth 9-1Oth lO-lOth

96 108 78 65 58 51

8.17 9.19 6.64 5.54 4.94 4.34

1,065.00 894.77 506.05 330.60 232.72 170.54

0.37 0.31 0.17 0.11 0.08 0.06

11.09 8.28 6.49 5.09 4.01 3.34

3.19 7.45 11.70 8.51 13.83 7.45 9.57 10.64 10.64 17.02

302.28 300.92 251.39 122.83 142.40 61.07 56.57 52.14 41.18 52.12

21.86 21.76 18.18 8.88 10.30 4.42 4.09 3.77 2.98 3.77

100.76 42.99 22.85 15.35 10.95 8.72 6.29 5.21 4.12 3.26

13.51 13.51 10.81 13.51 2.70 16.22 5.41 5.41 13.51 5.41

483.65 204.66 98.94 78.55 11.00 51.31 14.35 10.44 21.37 6.78

49.30 20.86 10.09 8.01 1.12 5.23 1.46 1.06 2.18 0.69

96.73 40.93 24.73 15.71 11.00 8.55 7.17 5.22 4.27 3.39

12.73 10.91 12.73 9.55 11.36 8.64 6.82 9.09 9.55 8.64

5,981.20 976.09 724.93 349.35 276.44 166.32 95.09 100.96 83.29 61.78

67.85 11.07 8.22 3.96 3.14 1.89 1.08 1.15 0.94 0.70

213.61 40.67 25.89 16.67 11.06 8.75 6.34 5.05 3.97 3.25

7.15 12.52

5,805.08 4,140.19

35.50 25.32

103.66 42.24

lOCent (See graphs 79 and 80) 1-1 Oth 2-1Oth 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-10th 6-1Oth 7-10th 8-10th 9-1 Oth 10-1Oth

3 7 11 8 13 7 9 10 10 16

11 Cent (See graphs 81 and 82) l-10th 2-1Oth 3-10th 4-1Oth 5-10th 6-1Oth 7-1Oth 8-10th 9-1Oth lO-lOth

5 5 4 5 1 6 2 2 5 2

12Cent (See graphs 83 and 84) l-10th 2-1Oth 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1Oth 7-1Oth 8-1Oth 9-1Oth 10-1Oth

28 24 28 21 25 19 15 20 21 19

13Cent (See graphs 85 and 86) 1-1Oth 2-1Oth

56 98

CHRONOLOGY T A B L E 17 (cont.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

13Cent (See graphs 85 and 86) 3-10th 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1 Oth 7-10th 8-1Oth 9-1Oth 10-1Oth

93 98 70 69 77 79 79 64

11.88 12.52 8.94 8.81 9.83 10.09 10.09 8.17

2,127.27 1,494.64 775.95 576.43 500.15 401.48 320.90 212.33

13.01 9.14 4.74 3.52 3.06 2.45 1.96 1.30

22.87 15.25 11.08 8.35 6.49 5.08 4.06 3.31

5.43 10.41 12.22 9.95 10.41 11.31 10.86 10.41 9.50 9.50

1,277.99 960.64 635.29 337.27 247.98 208.44 156.26 116.69 82.76 70.19

31.22 23.47 15.52 8.24 6.06 5.09 3.82 2.85 2.02 1.71

106.49 41.76 23.52 15.33 10.78 8.33 6.51 5.07 3.94 3.34

3.61 8.76 9.62 10.74 11.60 9.11 11.25 12.63 11.25 11.43

4,912.17 3,995.70 2,582.88 1,944.34 1,492.42 890.71 837.34 737.57 525.90 436.74

26.76 21.77 14.07 10.59 8.13 4.85 4.56 4.02 2.37 2.38

116.95 39.17 23.06 15.55 11.05 8.40 6.39 5.01 4.01 3.28

3.16 6.95 6.95 9.05 9.68 10.74 12.84 13.05 12.84 14.74

1,215.25 1,315.66 727.33 663.39 515.07 424.57 392.82 314.46 247.47 232.19

20.09 21.75 12.03 10.97 8.52 7.02 6.49 5.20 4.09 3.84

81.01 39.86 22.04 15.42 11.19 8.32 6.44 5.07 4.05 3.31

14Cent (See graphs 87 and 88) 1-1Oth 2-1Oth 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1Oth 7-1Oth 8-1Oth 9-1Oth 10-1Oth

12 23 27 22 23 25 24 23 21 21

15Cent (See graphs 89 and 90) 1 - 1 Oth 2-1Oth 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1Oth 7-1 Oth 8-1Oth 9-1Oth 10-1Oth

42 102 112 125 135 106 131 147 131 133

16Cent (See graphs 91 and 92) 1 - 1 Oth 2-1Oth 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1 Oth 7-1Oth 8-1Oth 9-1Oth 10-1Oth

15 33 33 43 46 51 61 62 61 70

57

CHRONOLOGY T A B L E 17 (coni.) Members

Percent

Usage

Percent

Ratio

17Cent (See graphs 93 a n d 94) l-10th 2-10th 3-10th 4-10th 5-1Oth 6-1Oth 7-1 Oth 8-10th 9-10th 10-1Oth

12 27 29 32 53 46 48 45 47 64

2.98 6.70 7.20 7.94 13.15 11.41 11.91 11.17 11.66 15.88

1,493.68 1,090.50 666.17 500.57 597.77 378.73 313.89 229.88 188.37 211.40

26.34 19.23 11.75 8.83 10.54 6.68 5.54 4.05 3.32 3.73

124.47 40.38 22.97 15.64 11.27 8.23 6.53 5.10 4.00 3.30

2.08 5.83 12.08 7.08 10.83 14.17 13.33 10.42 14.17 10.00

857.70 549.31 679.21 257.14 290.82 281.25 204.61 126.34 136.16 80.05

24.77 15.86 19.62 7.43 8.40 8.12 5.91 3.65 3.93 2.31

171.54 39.23 23.42 15.12 11.18 8.27 6.39 5.05 4.00 3.33

1.73 3.47 5.78 6.36 6.36 15.61 11.56 12.72 18.50 17.92

248.05 223.81 219.26 162.30 122.71 226.96 127.30 111.86 128.36 102.19

14.83 13.38 13.11 9.70 7.34 13.57 7.61 6.69 7.67 6.11

82.68 37.30 21.92 14.75 11.15 8.40 6.36 5.08 4.01 3.29

6.67 6.67 6.67 6.67 13.33 20.00 6.67 33.33

64.88 15.10 17.55 12.42 16.03 18.28 4.13 16.37

39.38 9.16 10.65 7.54 9.73 11.09 2.51 9.94

64.88 15.10 17.55 12.42 8.01 6.09 4.13 3.27

18 Cent (See graphs 95 and 96) 1-1Oth 2-10th 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-10th 6-1Oth 7-1Oth 8-1Oth 9-1Oth 10-10th

5 14 29 17 26 34 32 25 34 24

19Cent (See graphs 97 and 98) 1-1Oth 2-1Oth 3-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1Oth 7-1Oth 8-10th 9-1Oth 10-1Oth

3 6 10 11 11 27 20 22 32 31

20Cent (See graphs 99 and 100) 1—10th 2-1Oth 4-1Oth 5-1Oth 6-1Oth 7-1 Oth 9-1Oth 10-10th

1 1 1 1 2 3 1 5

CHRONOLOGY

CENTURY OF ORIGIN: BY DECILE [STATISTICAL]

(CO/D) 0.63

¿nd'^ilaU others 1.111

10th4.34 $th

434

8 t f > 5,53.

USAGE

MEMBERS

78

77

BEFORE 10

th

CENTURY

1 s t 3.13

sth

8 l h 3.77 7 t h 4.09

6th

W

10* 3.77

2.98

-

MEMBERS

USASE

90

79

10 th C E N T U R Y 8 t h 1 06 9 t h 7 t h 1 46 I L 1 0 t h 0.69 1 6 5.23 L-1-1— 5 t h 1.12 th

USAGE 82

11 th C E N T U R Y

CHRONOLOGY CO/D,

MEMBERS

USAGE

83

84 12