The Land of the Hittites: An Account of Recent Explorations and Discoveries in Asia Minor, with Descriptions of the Hittite Monuments 9781463212865

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The Land of the Hittites

Gorgias Classic Archaeological Reprints

4

Gorgias Classic Archaeological Reprints is a series dedicated to making historic contributions to the field of archaeology, particularly in Ancient Western Asia, available to scholars. The titles in this series are generally selected from the early days of excavation in the Levant and Mesopotamia, although significant contributions of a more recent vintage may also be included.

The Land of the Hittites

An Account of Recent Explorations and Discoveries in Asia Minor, with Descriptions of the Hittite Monuments

John Garstang

1 gorgias press 2009

Gorgias Press LLC, 180 Centennial Ave., Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2009 by Gorgias Press LLC

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. 2009

1 ISBN 978-1-59333-617-2 ISSN 1935-4401

Printed in the United States of America

INTRODUCTORY B Y THE REV.

NOTE

PROFESSOR A. H.

D.D., D.LITT.,

SAYCE,

M.A.

THE history of ancient Oriental civilisation is slowly revealing itself to the excavator and archDeologist. Scientific excavations have been carried on in Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and Palestine; it is now the turn of Asia Minor, both north and south of the Taurus ; and there are indications that the revelation which Asia Minor and the neighbouring lands of Syria have in store for us will be even more startling than that which has come from E g y p t and Babylonia. There we already knew that great empires and wide-reaching cultures had once flourished; the earlier history of Asia Minor, on the other hand, was a blank. But the blank is beginning to be filled up, and we are learning that there too an empire once existed, which contended on equal terms with those of the Nile and the Euphrates, and possessed a culture that formed a link between the east and the west. What I once called the forgotten empire of the Hittites is at last emerging into the light of day, and before long much

viii

THE L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

t h a t is still m y s t e r i o u s in t h e a r t a n d religion of Greece a n d E u r o p e will be explained. This m u c h h a s a l r e a d y been a s c e r t a i n e d by t h e e x c a v a t i o n s m a d e b y t h e G e r m a n expedition u n d e r P r o f e s s o r W i n c k l e r a t B o g h a z - K e u i , n o r t h of t h e Halys, t h e site of t h e H i t t i t e capital. B u t t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r sites in Asia Minor a n d n o r t h e r n Syria w h e r e H i t t i t e c u l t u r e once flourished, a n d where, t h e r e f o r e , discoveries similar t o t h o s e w h i c h h a v e s t a r t l e d t h e scientific world a t B o g h a z - K e u i m a y be expected t o be made. Some of t h e s e sites w e r e e x a m i n e d by P r o f e s s o r G a r s t a n g in his p r e l i m i n a r y j o u r n e y s of e x p l o r a t i o n ; a t a n o t h e r h e h a s b e g u n t h e w o r k of e x c a v a t i o n a n d b r o u g h t t o l i g h t i m p o r t a n t r e m a i n s of a r t a n d a n t i q u i t y . Sakje-Geuzi lies a t a s h o r t distance f r o m Sinjerli, w h e r e G e r m a n e x c a v a t o r s h a v e discovered m o n u m e n t s w h i c h f o r m t h e chief a t t r a c t i o n of t h e H i t t i t e section in t h e Museum of Berlin. The m o u n d of Sakje-Geuzi r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y of u n n u m b e r e d centuries. The earlier s t r a t a a r e t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of a neolithic p e o p l e ; above t h e m come t h e r u i n s of H i t t i t e a n d Aramaean builders. The t e m p l e disi n t e r r e d by P r o f e s s o r G a r s t a n g shows us w h a t H i t t i t e a r t w a s like in t h e S y r i a of t h e t e n t h a n d f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e our era, a n d enables us to guess a t t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e cult t h a t w a s carried on in it. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s h e h a s given a n account of his w o r k a n d t h e conclusions t h a t m a y be d r a w n f r o m

INTRODUCTORY NOTE it.

ix

This, however, occupies but a small portion of

his book.

Its main purpose is to review our present

k n o w l e d g e of

Hittite history, art, and archaeology;

to describe the Hittite monuments n o w

k n o w n to

exist, and to trace the story of the Hittite as

it

has

been

revealed

to

us

by

empire

recent

dis-

coveries. Among

the

g r e a t political forces of the ancient

Oriental world w e n o w k n o w t h a t none exercised a more profound influence t h a n the Hittites of Asia Minor. dynasty

It was they who

overthrew

of B a b y l o n i a to w h i c h the

the

Amorite

Amraphel

of

Genesis belonged; to t h e m w a s due the f a l l of the E g y p t i a n empire in Asia, and it w a s t h e y w h o checked f o r centuries the desolating advance of the Assyrians. I n Palestine their influence w a s supreme, and it is w i t h good reason t h a t in the tenth chapter of Genesis H e t h is named second a m o n g the sons of Canaan. T h e y were the founders of the H e r a k l i d d y n a s t y in Lydia, and B a b y l o n i a n a r t as modified in Asia Minor w a s carried b y t h e m to the Greek seas.

Greek religion

and m y t h o l o g y owed much to t h e m ; even the A m a zons of Greek legend prove to have been the warriorpriestesses of the great Hittite goddess.

A b o v e all,

it w a s the Hittites w h o controlled the mines of A s i a Minor which supplied the ancient world w i t h silver, copper, lead, and perhaps also tin.

B e f o r e the age of

A b r a h a m traders carried the bronze of A s i a Minor to Assyria and Palestine, and thus transformed the whole culture of western Asia.

The story of the f o r g o t t e n

X

THE

LAND

OF THE

HITTITES

people is a f a s c i n a t i n g one, a n d t h e r e a d e r c a n n o t do b e t t e r t h a n s t u d y it u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of P r o f e s s o r G a r s t a n g , whose w o r k will be t h e s t a n d a r d a u t h o r i t y on t h e s u b j e c t f o r a long while t o come. A . H . SAYCE. N U B I A , December

1, 1909

A U T H O R S

P R E F A C E

SINCE P r o f e s s o r S a y c e and Dr. W r i g h t first called attention, more t h a n t h i r t y years ago, to the f o r g o t t e n empire and civilisation of the Hittites, no book has appeared to k e e p the E n g l i s h reader abreast of the f u r t h e r information which has since come to l i g h t upon t h a t subject. In the m e a n t i m e researches made b y British and G e r m a n explorers in n o r t h e r n S y r i a and A s i a Minor, and t h e studies of numerous scholars w h o h a v e applied themselves to this problem, h a v e advanced the position so f a r t h a t the H i t t i t e s are nebulous no longer, b u t stand revealed in the clear l i g h t of history, claiming

the

a t t e n t i o n of all those interested in the story of the Bible Lands, of A s i a Minor, and of early Greece. position and

character

The

of Asia Minor lend a wide

interest and c h a r m to its past no less t h a n its present. The present volume aims a t filling the gap w h i c h has a l r e a d y g r o w n too wide.

I t starts

ab initio w i t h a

rapid s u r v e y of the H i t t i t e lands, and an outline of their history.

The Hittite monuments are then.passed

in r e v i e w , each described separately and independently, in such a w a y as to be useful to a n y one visiting t h e m in situ or in the museums of Constantinople and Berlin, w h e r e there are departments devoted specially to this branch of archseology. The bibliography and numerous xi

xii

T H E L A N D OF T H E H I T T I T E S

cross-references in the footnotes will, it is hoped, m a k e the w o r k handy to the archaeologist as a book of reference.

The author's own theories are mostly con-

fined to the last chapter, and an effort has been made to distinguish b e t w e e n facts proved or generally accepted and matters of personal opinion. to reconstruct

the history of

The a t t e m p t

the f o u r t e e n t h

and

thirteenth centuries B.C. f r o m the archives recently discovered by Dr. W i n c k l e r at B o g h a z - K e u i i s put f o r w a r d tentatively, and would doubtless h a v e been better done by a philologist.

I t has been found impossible to t r e a t

the subject of Hittite a r t and religious symbolism in general within the limited scope of this volume and its title. Some other points are best noted at the outset.

One

aim of the book being to interest the English reader in a fascinating but neglected subject, the bibliographical references are given in English w h e r e v e r translations of foreign authors are available.

Unhappily some of

the masterpieces of modern scholarship, like Meyer's Geschichte English.

des Alterthums,

are not y e t rendered into

The geographical names employed, even a t

the risk of inconsistency, are those most familiar or in common use.

Thus H a m a t h instead of Hama, A l e p p o

f o r Haleb, Carchemish f o r Jerablus, T y a n a f o r Kilisse Hissar.

In regard to the term 1 Hittite,' also, the w o r d

is primarily used in reference to t h a t class of monuments g e n e r a l l y k n o w n as Hittite, and hence to the ancient people

whose handiwork these were.

The

word H a t t i is used in a more restricted sense, to imply

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

xiii

t h e c e n t r a l a n d a t one t i m e d o m i n a n t H i t t i t e s t a t e or s t a t e s w h o s e s e a t a n d c e n t r e of o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s a t Boghaz-Keui. B u t it should n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t actually the words Hittite and H a t t i are interchangeable. T h e r e a r e m a n y f r i e n d s w h o h a v e helped f o r w a r d t h e completion of t h e w o r k a t v a r i o u s stages. A m o n g t h e m a r e t h e w r i t e r ' s colleagues d u r i n g t w o of his j o u r n e y s of e x p l o r a t i o n in Asia Minor. T h e Rev. W . M. L i n t o n S m i t h h a s corrected several c h a p t e r s in proof, a n d h a s provided s e v e r a l p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e P h r y g i a n m o n u m e n t s . Mr. A r t h u r W i l k i n h a s k i n d l y supplied t h e p h o t o g r a p h s of Ephesus, Sardis, a n d t h e goddess on M o u n t Sipylus. The bulk of t h e illustrations, however, a r e t h e h a n d i w o r k of Mr. H o r s t Schliephack, a n d t h e y speak f o r themselves. A n y one w h o h a s a t t e m p t e d p h o t o g r a p h y u n d e r t h e conditions of t r a v e l in Asia Minor will realise t h e skill w i t h w h i c h t h e s e r e s u l t s h a v e been obtained. I n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o u r w o r k h a s received t h e c o n s t a n t help of Sir E d w i n P e a r s a n d Mr. G. H. F i t z m a u r i c e ; while H.E. t h e l a t e H a m d i Bey g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d our e x p e d i t i o n s by his goodwill as D i r e c t o r of t h e I m p e r i a l O t t o m a n Museum. I n t h i s connection w e c a n n o t o m i t t o m e n t i o n t h o s e p a t r o n s of science w h o s e g e n e r o s i t y p r o v i d e d t h e m e a n s of c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s e expeditions, n a m e l y , t h e R i g h t Hon. Sir J o h n T. B r u n n e r , B a r t . , M.P., t h e l a t e Dr. L u d w i g Mond, Mr. R a l p h B r o c k l e b a n k , Mr. M a r t y n K e n n a r d , a n d Mr. R o b e r t Mond. These g e n t l e m e n h a v e e a r n e d t h e g r a t i t u d e of all those i n t e r e s t e d in

xiv

THE L A N D OF THE H I T T I T E S

the advance of knowledge;

and the writer

trusts

sincerely that they will find within these pages something that will reward their interest in these undertakings.

Mr. Hogarth and Dr. Messerschmidt are also

to be thanked for the loan of several photographs, and for the facilities granted in the museums at Oxford and Berlin respectively under their control. The brunt of the proof-reading has again been borne by the Rev. W . Macgregor, and Mrs. R. Gurney has also helped again in the revision of a considerable portion of the manuscript previous to printing; in this connection the help and kindly criticism of colleagues at Liverpool is not forgotten.

Finally to Professor Sayce

the writer's warmest gratitude is due, both for his first lessons in Hittite lore, and for the constant stimulus of suggestion and correction given unstintingly from the funds of his knowledge.

The pleasant labour of

the best part of two years devoted to the preparation of this volume has been amply rewarded by many delightful days spent with him amid the Past in Oxford and Edinburgh and on the Nile. J. G. M E R O E , February

7, 1910.

C O N T E N T S I N T R O D U C T O R Y N O T E : B y the Rev. Professor A. H. SAYCE, LL.D., D.D., D.Litt.

.

.

AUTHOR'S P R E F A C E , I.

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY,

vii xi

.

.

.

1-50

.

51-73

Boundaries and physical features (pp. 2-4) ; eastern Taurus and Anti-Taurus (p. 5) ; northernmost Syria : the plains, the valleys of the Afrîn and Kara Su (pp. 6-13) ; Passes of the Amanus (pp. 14-15) ; Valley of the Orontes (p. 16). Plateau of Asia Minor, boundaries and features (pp. 1719); Ave regions (pp. 20-21); position of Cœsarea, the roads (pp. 22-25) ; the Halys River (pp. 26-28), its basin (pp. 29-31) ; position of Boghaz-Keui and Eyuk (pp. 32-33) ; northern roads and rivers (pp. 34-35) ; western regions, Angora, Phrygia, Konia (pp. 36-40); southeastern region, Kara Dagh, Ivrîz, Tyana (pp. 41-42) ; Taurus : the Bulghar Dagh (pp. 43, 44), the Cilician Gates (pp. 45-47) ; Cilicia (pp. 48-50). II.

SOME P A G E S O F H I S T O R Y ,

.

.

Outline of Hittite period : the empire, revival and final submergence (pp. 52-55) ; survival of customs (p. 56). The Phrygians, in Assyrian and Greek history (pp. 57-58), their civilisation and monuments (pp. 5961) ; the Urartians and Cimmerians (p. 62). Lydia (pp. 63-64) ; Greek colonies (pp. 65, 66). Persian rule (p. 67). Alexander and Hellenising influences (pp. 67, 68). Roman period : Seleucids, kings of Pontus, Cilicians ; organisation (pp. 69-70); monuments (p. 71). The Saracen (Arab) conquests (p. 72) ; the Sel juk Turks (p. 73).

xvi

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

CHAP'. III.

PAGE MONUMENTS

OF

T H E

HITTITES,

.

.

74-195

Preliminary : method of s t u d y (pp. 74-76), chronology (pp. 77-79), classification (pp. 80-82), disposition (pp. 84-91). A.—Monuments of the n o r t h of Syria : H a m a t h , Restan, Aleppo (pp. 93-97) ; Kurts-oghlu, Sinjerli, Kara-burshlu, Sakje-Geuzi (pp. 98-106) ; Aintab, Killiz, Marash (pp. 107-122); J e r a b l u s (Carchemish), TellAhmar, Samsat, R u m - K a l i (pp. 123-131).

SECTION

B.—Monuments in the T a u r u s a n d A n t i - T a u r u s : Malatia, Derendeh, P a l a n g a , Gurun (pp. 132-144) ; Arslan Tash, Albistan (pp. 132-146) ; K u r u - B e l (p. 147) ; Ekrek, Tashji, F r a k t i n (pp. 148-151).

SECTION

c.—Monuments of the Halys Basin : A s a r j i k , Suasa (pp. 152, 153) ; K a r a b u r n a , Bogche, Yamoola (pp. 154-157) ; Boghaz-Keui, Denek Maden (pp. 158-

SECTION

160).

D.—Monuments of the W e s t : Angora, GiaourKalesi, Y a r r e (Chesme Keupru), Doghanlu, Bey-Keui (pp. 161-167) ; Sipylus, K a r a - B e l (pp. 168-172) ; Kolitoghlu, Eflatoun-Bunar, Fassiler (pp. 173-176).

SECTION

— M o n u m e n t s of the South - East : K a r a Dagh, Kizil Dagh (pp. 177-182) ; Emir-Ghazi, Ardist a m a (pp. 183,184) ; Tyana, Bor, Nigdeh, Andaval (pp. 185-189) ; Bulghar-Madên (p. 190) ; Ivrîz (pp. 191-195).

SECTION E.

IV.

THE

N O R T H E R N

THE

ANCIENT

CAPITAL

CITY

AT

:

A

DESCRIPTION

BOGHAZ-KEUI

SCULPTURES CALLED IASILY K A Y A ,

AND .

OF THE .

Identity w i t h P t e r i a (p. 197) ; history, economy, and situation (pp. 198-200) ; the acropolis r a m p a r t s , gateways and defences (pp. 201-205), Nishan Tash and other m o n u m e n t s (p. 206) ; t h e Lower Palace (pp. 207, 208) ; chronological evidences (pp. 209-211).

196-241

CONTENTS

xvii

PART II.—The Rock-sculptures called Iasily K a y a : Situation, description of sanctuary and decorative scheme (pp. 211, 213); leading figures of gods (pp. 214216); a priest-figure (p. 217); procession of male figures (pp. 218-220); plan a n d schedule (p. 221); t h e leading goddesses, etc. (pp. 222, 223), procession of females (p. 224), t h e P r i e s t - k i n g (p. 225); ceremonial f e a s t a n d monsters (p. 226). The I n n e r Gallery : t h e moving figures (p. 227); Dirk-deity (p. 228). Generai survey (pp. 230-232) ; historical considerations (pp. 233234); t h e divine triad (pp. 235-241).

V.

WALLED TOWNS

AND PALACES,

.

.

PART I.—The Palace and Sculptures of E y u k (pp. 242269). Researches (pp. 242, 243) : t h e site (pp. 244-245) ; t h e Sphinx-gate (pp. 246-248) ; buildings and masonry (pp. 249-252). The S c u l p t u r e s : sphinxes, bull-god, priest and priestess, masons, musicians (pp. 253-262) ; t h e mother-goddess, lion corner-stone, groups (pp. 263-266) ; oblation scene, double eagle (pp. 267-270). PART II.—The Town a n d Sculptures of Sinjerli (pp. 270298). Excavations, s u m m a r y of results (pp. 270-273) ; reliefs f r o m city gate, eagle-headed deities, horseriders, winged monsters, male figures, bowman, hare a n d s t a g (pp. 274-276) ; citadel g a t e (pp. 277-278) ; reliefs—(i) charioteer and victim, (ii) warrior, (iii) lion, (iv) God of Chase, (v, vi) lion and monster (pp. 279283); (vii) m a n bearing kid, (viii) Ceremonial Feast, (ix, x) three male figures, (xi) archer, (xii-xiii) s t a g and kid, (xiv) winged lion r a m p a n t , (xv-xvi) figures w i t h double h a m m e r (pp. 284-288) ; (xvii) warrior a n d sphinx, (xviii) monster, (xix) figure of w o m a n (pp. 289291) ; (xxiv, xxv) bull and horse-rider, (xxvi-xxvii) bull and m a n w i t h clubs (pp. 292-294); (xxviii-xxix) pair of deer, (xxx) winged lion, (xxxi) warrior, (xxxii) hunter, (xxxiii) dog, (xxxiv) musician, (xxxv) male

b

242-314

xviii

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES figure, (xxxv, xxxvii) pair of g o a t s (pp.295-296) ; reconstruction of g a t e w a y , lion corner-stones, t w o peculiar busts, t h e sphinx-bases (pp. 297-298).

PABT HI.—The ^Mounds and Palace-portico of SakjeGeuzi (pp. 298-314). Local history a n d research, walled citadel (pp. 298-300) ; palace entrance, decorations, lion corner-stones (pp. 301-302) ; reliefs, eagle-headed deity, fertilising tree, sphinx, king-priest, a t t e n d a n t s (pp. 303-308) ; sphinx-base (pp. 309-311) ; historical results, stratification, pottery, foreign relations (pp. 312-314).

VI.

THE STORY OP T H E HITTITES,

.

.

The A u t h o r i t i e s (pp. 315-316). The H i t t i t e s , their coming and s e t t l e m e n t , early culture, earliest historical allusions (pp. 317-325.) The H a t t i rulers ; conquests of Subbi-luliuma, treaties w i t h Mitanni, t h e Amorites, and w i t h E g y p t (pp. 326-336). E m p i r e of Subbi-luliuma. reign of Mursil ; Mutallu and t h e b a t t l e of K a d e s h (pp. 337-343) ; H a t t u s i l , t h e E g y p t i a n t r e a t y and foreign politics; his successors (pp. 346-352). Survey of H i t t i t e civilisation u n d e r t h e H a t t i ; t h e position of women, religion, organisation, t h e army, roads a n d cities, sculptures, and architecture (pp. 353-367). The European migrations, disruption of t h e H i t t i t e empire, t h e Muski, t h e Assyrians, Carchemish (pp. 368-371). The great revival, t h e ' Cilician ' empire, disposition of t h e H i t t i t e kingdoms, w i t h map, t h e balance of power (pp. 372-377.) Changes in decorative a n d religious a r t ; Semitic influence in Syria (pp. 377-380). Oncoming of Assyria, coalitions of H i t t i t e states, battle of t h e Qarqar, fall of Tarsus (pp. 381-384). The Vannic kings, conquests in Syria, decisive battle w i t h A s s y r i a ; supremacy of Assyria in Syria ; fall of Carchemish, Marash and t h e Tabal (pp. 385-390). Epochs in H i t t i t e history (pp. 390-391).

315-391

CONTENTS

xix PAGE

A P P E N D I X A . — B I B L I O G R A P H Y OF H I T T I T E ARCHAEOLOGY, APPENDIX

B . — I N D E X TO H I T T I T E M O N U M E N T S , W I T H BIBLIOGRAPHY,

AUTHOR INDEX, CLASSICAL GENERAL

INDEX,

.

.

A

.

.

AND B I B L I C A L R E F E R E N C E S , .

.

.

.

392-394

395-401 402-403 404-416

LIST OF I L L U S T R A T I O N S PHOTOGRAPHS PLATE

To face

Bulghar - Madein : Approaching the Taurus Mountains, . . . . Frontispiece (i) A V a l l e y in the Taurus, II. (ii) Headwaters of the Halys near Sivas, III. Aleppo : V i e w of the city from the citadel, . IV. K a r a k u l : A K u r d family at home, . (i) Verandah of a house, . V. K a r t a l : [(ii) Group of Turkoman women, . VI. Bogche : A chief pass over the A m a n u s Mountain VII. B e i l a n : Summit of the pass, VLLL. Woodland on the south slopes of Taurus, i x . Csesarea: Cloister of a school, and citadel, . x . Injesu : Mosque and town, x i . Halys River, between Chok Geuz and Bir Geuz, XII. Yeni-Han, near S e k k i l i : Nomad encampment

i)i Chesme K e u p r u : Interior of the han, r< U 1 1i) Sekkili (near): Y u r u k encampment, J" (i) Nefez-Keui : W o m e n drawing water a t th XIV. , Spring, . . . . (.(ii) T y a n a : Turkish women and child, f (i) Y u z g a t : Dervish and vagabonds, XV. \(ii) K u l a k l y K e u i : Types of inhabitants, x v i . A n g o r a : Old houses on the outskirts, XVII. Nefez-Keui; Carpet-weaving, f (i) Nefez-Keui: Minaret of the village mosque XVIII. \(ii) Anatolian Horses : Noonday halt, x i x . Bor : Bridge over the Kizilja-Su, XX. Approaching the Cilician Gates, XXI. Entrance of the Cilician Gates, f (i) Going south through the Cilician Gates, XXII. \(ii) Tarsus: The gardens and the town, J Tarsus: (i) The walls of Dunuk Tash, XIII. -I

,,

(ii) Sacred stone at an A r a b shrine,

I

page

xxii

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES

PLATE

f (i) Bey-Keui: The Royal Road, x x i v . "j^jj^ jJimerli: A fallen Lion, . (i) Dimerli: The Lion tomb, .

{

xxvi. XXVII.

,

" xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxil. xxxm. X X V m

,| .J ."I

page

^

(

XLI. XLII.

XLIII.

XLV. XLVI.

XLVH. XLVLLI.

L. LI. MI.

TO face

(ii) Ayazin : Tomb with Lions, . . .1-60 (iii) Tyana : Phrygian inscription of Midas, .J View near Sardis: Valley of the Pactolus, . 64 Cilicia : Roman aqueducts over the Eastern plain, 68 „ , f (i) Roman Tomb, and . .1 K y r r b U S : { ( i i ) Ruined Bridge, 70 . . .} Baalbek : Sculpture and Temple Ruins, . . 72 Ephesus: The Library of Celsus, . . 74 Angora : Temple of Rome and Augustus, . 76 Nigdeh : Portal of the White-Midresseh, 1223 A.D., 78 Nigdeh : Tomb of the Seljuk period, . . 80 (i) Ephesus : Mediaeval fortress with Seljuk

xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxvin. xxxix.

XLIX.

. . .

Remains, . . . . .V (ii) Konia ; Zazadin Han, of Seljuk work, .J Rowanduz Kaleh; Mediaeval fortress, . . Csesarea: Old Turkish cemetery, . . Hamath : Inscription in Hittite hieroglyphs, . Aleppo: Fortress on the Acropolis, . . Sakje-Geuzi: Royal hunting scene, . . f (i) Killiz: Bronze figures, . . .") \(ii) Denek Maden; Ivory seal, . . .J Aintab : Inscription on sculptured corner-stone, Marash : Architectural Lion corner-stone inscribed, . . . . . Rowanduz : Camp scene in the Qurt Dagh, . (i) Priest offering to lightning-god"]

{

84 88 94 98 104 106

108 110 122

on bull, . . . . 1 138 (ii) Priestess offering to winged deity, J Palanga: Inscribed columnar statue, . . 142 Ekrek: Hittite inscription with Christian emblems, . . . . . . 148 Fraktin : The rock-sculptures, . . . 1 5 0 Bogche : Hittite inscription on round-topped stone, . . . . . . 154 Yamoola: Giant eagle standing upon lions, . 156 Angora : The acropolis, . . . . 162 Ayazin : Rock-hewn tombs and church, . 164 ,, Roof of the church with dome, . 166

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE

xxiii To face

Sipylus : Image of the Mother-goddess, . K a r a - B e l : The Hittite God of Arms, Tyana : Ruined Roman aqueducts, B o r : Hittite inscription and relief, Ivriz; Giant sculptures on the rock, Boghaz-Keui: Site of Pteria, ,, Gorge of the Beuyuk Kayanin Daresi, . . . . ,, The Lion Gate, LX. (i) The Portress called Yenije-' Kaleh, (ii) Remains of the Lower j Palace, . . .J LXII. Bird's-eye View of the Lower Palace, i(i) Camp a t the foot of Beuyuk^ Kaleh, . . .( LXIII. (ii) Iasily K a y a : Sculptures on the left, LXIV. ,, General view of Iasily Kaya, LXV. ,, Central sculptures at, LXVI. ,, Group of two monstrous figures, LXVII. ,, One of the female figures, LXVIII. ,, The King-Priest at Iasily Kaya, (i) The Small Gallery: view, (ii) Hittite portraits, three l figures, . . .J LXX. ,, The dirk-deity, . LXXI. ,, Hittite God embracing the priest. LXXII. Eyuk : Sculptures decorating frontage of palace, f (i) Shrine of the Mother-goddess, .") LXXIII. \(ii) Musicians with bagpipe and guitar, J LXXIV. Coast Route round the Gulf of Issus, . . LXXV. Sinjerli. :_ ( (i) Ceremonial Feast, . ' \(ii) Warrior with spear, . .J LXXVI. ,, Sculptures of gateway in situ, . f (i) Hittite God of the Skies, . LXXVII. \(ii) God of the Double Axe, . .} LXXVIII. Sakje-Geuzi: Entrance to Palace, LXXIX. Lion corner-stone (left), LXXX. Lion and adjoining sculptures (right), LIII. LIV. LV. LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX.

(

page

168 172 181 186 192 200 202 204 206

208 210 212 214 218 222 224 226 228 232 252 260 270 280

202 300 302 304

xxiv

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES To face page

PLATE

LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII.

Sakje-Geuzi:

) S c u l p t u r e s of l e f t flanking w a l l , ]

) C o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e series, S p h i n x - p e d e s t a l t o c e n t r a l column, H i t t i t e Allies :-f ^ Mongoloid, (ii) P r o t o - G r e e k

L x x x i v . S u r v i v i n g Types : J ^ LXXXV. LXXXVI. LXXXVII. LXXXVIII.

A m o r i t e

) Hittite, . N o m a d s passing i n t o Asia Minor, Csesarea : Types of Semitic settlers, Y e n i - H a n : G r o u p of n o m a d w o m e n , B a t t l e of K a d e s h : H i t t i t e c h a r i o t r y c h a r g i n g ,

306 310 318 320 322 334 340 344

PLANS B o g h a z - K e u i : P l a n of t h e Rock S a n c t u a r y called Iasily P A G E Kaya, . . . . . . . 221 E y u k ; P l a n of t h e Sphinx-Gate, . . . . 2 4 7 S i n j e r l i : S k e t c h P l a n of G a t e w a y , . . . . 278 MAPS H i t t i t e S t a t e s a f t e r t h e Revival of t h e T e n t h C e n t u r y B.C., . 375 S u b m e r g e n c e of t h e H i t t i t e S t a t e s ( E i g h t h C e n t u r y B.C.), . 385 M a p of H i t t i t e Sites in Asia Minor a n d N o r t h e r n Syria, To face 390

I A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY AT the outset of our undertaking w e are faced by a considerable perplexity, in t h a t the land w e are setting f o r t h to examine is practically undefined. W e are guided indeed by vague and scanty historical references towards the north of Syria and the east of Asia Minor, but f o r a wider and surer delimitation, h o w e v e r incomplete, w e must rely on the evidence afforded by the disposition of the Hittite monuments themselves. These cannot fix f o r us any certain boundaries, nor does the area t h r o u g h o u t which t h e y h a v e as y e t been found coincide w i t h a n y g r e a t natural landmarks such as are w o n t to f o r m the frontiers of nations. On the other hand, their curious disposition, and the v e r y disunity of the tract they indicate, a w a k e n our interest by a suggestion of unusual circumstances t h a t could weld together, in political unity, peoples whose conditions of life so differed. A n d though mostly in the heart of a peninsula washed b y the blue w a v e s of t w o g r e a t inland seas, no part of the long coast-line can be included, upon present evidence, in our territory. Maybe the cause is only that the conditions there are not favourable to the preservation or recovery of monuments ; but none the less it is to be noted t h a t no trace of Hittite h a n d i w o r k has y e t been found around the coast, w h e t h e r along the wooded shores of the Black A

2

T H E L A N D OF T H E H I T T I T E S

Sea in the north, on the fertile inlets of the west,1 or on the rocky passes of the Syrian seaboard; nor has any clear connection yet been shown between the Hittite confederated peoples and those sea-rovers who, from their harbours under the southern shelter of the Taurus, made piratical descents upon the Egyptian Delta in the thirteenth century B.C.2 Thus we see the Hittites as a purely inland people, not taking to the sea more kindly at any rate than do the Turkish peoples of to-day. The centre of their monuments is the mountainous region of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus systems, whence on the one hand they lead us down to the hot plains that lie between the right bank of the Euphrates and Mount Amanus (the Giaour Dagh), with a continuation to the south by the valley of the Orontes as far as its sources in the Lebanon; and on the other hand widen out to embrace not only the northern fringe of the Taurus Mountains, and the basin of the Halys River, but practically the whole broad tableland of Central Asia Minor, with one finger pointing down the Hermus valley past Sardis to the west. The inference to be derived from these preliminary considerations will receive confirmation as we proceed with our inquiry, when we shall find reason to believe that the peoples whose land we are trying to map out were of mountain origin. The problem of their settlement, however, remains obscure; we must await the results of further investigations to determine whether it was a combined movement of peoples, bringing with them the elements of their civilisation, 1 W e regard, however, the sculptures of Mount Sipylus (PI. LIII.) and of Kara-Bel (PI. LIV.) as witnesses to the possession of inland passes leading to the Lydian coast. 2 In particular the Lycians (Lukki), who appear among the H i t t i t e allies in the time of Rameses II., and later with the sea-peoples in the reign of Meren-ptah.

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

3

like the Turks in modern history, or whether for ages they endured the rigours of mountain life before they became strong enough to descend upon the hospitable plains below. The wilder mountains of Greater Armenia, east of the head-waters of the Euphrates, show no definite sign of Hittite settlement; 1 but they form a distinctive boundary to our region, being the culmination of the system of which the Taurus are a part. Here too is the centre of mountain-ranges which, like the rivers rising in their heights, descend in several directions. To the north the towering peak of Ararat, seventeen thousand feet in height, looks down upon the green upland valleys of the Caucasus. Towards the east, the range which skirts the Caspian Sea connects beyond with the systems of Central Asia. Towards the south, another chain holds up as it were the highlands of Asia, on the one hand, giving way on the other to the basins of the Euphrates and the Tigris, and touching eventually the eastern waters of the Persian Gulf. The Taurus system is another such chain trending westward, dividing Asia Minor from the rest of Asia, skirting the southern coast-line, then breaking and scattering as the level falls towards the west until it descends below the sea, where its hilltops, still projecting, form the ^Egean archipelago, until drawn together it rises to dry land on the soil of Greece. In the heart of these mountains, the two main sources of 1 There is no evidence to enable us to include the ' V a n n i c ' monuments. Cf. Sayce's Herodotus (London, 1883), App. iv. p. 424 and below, pp. 54, 385; we exclude also as capable of other interpretation isolated discoveries of moveable monuments, like those at Kedabeg (Messerschmidt, Corpus Inscrip. Hettiticarum, Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1900, Pt. v. No. 1.), at Babylon (op. cit., Nos. 3, 4, 5), and Nineveh (ibid., PI. x s x i x . Nos. 2-9), etc. The inscribed stone reported as found near Erzerum, now in the museum at Constantinople, No. 1193, is of doubtful provenance (op. cit., 1906, Pt. v. pp. 7, 8).

4

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

the river Euphrates flow in a westerly direction until they unite above Malatia ; 1 thence twisting and turning ever, in its search for a passage through the rocky ramparts that oppose it, the great river makes an easterly contour until n earing the plains. Before reaching Gerger, however, its direction is changed once more, turning westward in a long curve past Samsat towards Aintab, and southward to the latitude of Aleppo: from here its course becomes more tranquil and direct towards the Persian Gulf. The bend of the Euphrates below Malatia marks f o r the present the boundary of the Hittite country on the east. The whole mountainous region lying to the west of this landmark is divided by the gorges of the Pyramus, comprising the bleak easterly heights of the main Taurus range on the one hand, and the more broken but less barren regions of the Anti-Taurus which lie within. From the Taurus numerous torrents fall southward to join the bend of the Euphrates, while the northern slopes of the same range look down on the deep valley of the Tochma Su. This river, flowing eastward, is another main tributary of the Euphrates, which it joins not f a r from Malatia, and it forms our present boundary to the north in that direction.2 Its sources are found high up past Gurun in the main watershed, from which some rivers flow southward to the Cilician plain, others north-west to feed the Halys. The routes connecting the north of Syria with Asia Minor make use of these natural channels of approach. Thus the main road from Aintab northwards, after reaching the Pyramus near Marash, follows that river These Hittite sites are shown on the map, to face p. 390. Mr. Hogarth, writing in the Eecueil de Travaux, xvii., records that during his journeyings up through the valley he never saw nor heard of any pre-Hellenic monuments on the north side of the river. 1

2

M,ATE

H Ë A D - W A T Ë K S Ol' T H E H A L T S M AH SI VAS ( s ' « / . 26. \

II

VALLEYS OF T H E TAURUS

5

closely t o Albistan, w h e n c e t h e bed of a s t r e a m leads u p t o t h e divide t h a t gives w a y t o t h e valley of t h e T o c h m a Su beyond. D e r e n d e h is t h u s g a i n e d ; a n d u p t h i s n e w valley t h e r o a d passes b y Grurun n o r t h w a r d , a n d so over t h e w a t e r s h e d t o Sivas in t h e valley of t h e Halys. F r o m A l b i s t a n a n o t h e r r o u t e leads e a s t w a r d t o M a l a t i a ; a n d w e s t w a r d a p a t h passing b y Izgin rises over t h e m o u n t a i n s t o t h e interior. 1 A m o r e direct route, h o w e v e r , f r o m A i n t a b a n d M a r a s h leads b y t h e side of s t r e a m s t h a t feed t h e P y r a m u s n o r t h - w e s t w a r d u p t o S h a h r (the classical K o m a n a ) , on t h e sources of t h e Cilician S a r u s ; thence, by one of s e v e r a l passes, a m o n g which is t h e Kuru-Bel, t h e h e a d - w a t e r s of t h e Z a m a n t i Su a r e reached, so l e a d i n g d o w n t o Csesarea a t t h e f o o t of M o u n t Argeeus. T h e last-named r i v e r is t r i b u t a r y t o t h e Sarus, passing b y E k r e k , Tashji, a n d F r a k t i n on its course. I t m a y be j u d g e d t h a t a region so b r o k e n u p by m o u n t a i n - s t r e a m s is n o t a l t o g e t h e r b a r r e n or inclement. I t s v e r y altitude, a v e r a g i n g six t h o u s a n d f e e t above t h e sea, gives r e s p i t e f r o m t h e s u m m e r h e a t s t h a t m a k e life b u r d e n s o m e u p o n t h e S y r i a n plains. Green p a t c h e s nestle u n d e r t h e s h e l t e r of its heights, p r o t e c t e d t h e r e b y f r o m t h e severity of w i n t e r blizzards w h e n t h e m o u n t a i n - p a s s e s m a y be filled w i t h snow. A n d in its deeper valleys, t h o u g h t h e a c t u a l b a n k s a r e m o s t l y rocky, y e t t h e b r o a d slopes on e i t h e r side a r e g e n e r a l l y f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of cereals a n d o t h e r necessaries. T h e n u m e r o u s f a i r t o w n s t h a t have" s p r u n g u p in f a v o u r e d spots, m o s t l y u p o n H i t t i t e sites, w i t h t h e i r g a r d e n s a n d vineyards, f r u i t a n d olive 1 For these routes see Hogarth, Becueil de Travaux, xv. p. 29, and in Macan's Herodotus (1895), App. XIII. § 9 ; also Ramsay, Historical Geography, pp. 35, 46 ff.

6

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

plantations, their industries in weaving and embroideries, reveal to us something of its attractions and the possibilities of ancient settlement. Just as the roadways of this region converge upon Marash, so from this centre other lines of communication spread out into the regions of the south. On the one hand the valley of the Pyramus leads down to the Cilician plain; on the other the road to Aintab, which we now follow, brings us to the northernmost parts of Syria, historically the scene of the struggles of the Hittites with the Pharaohs and with Assyria. The whole tract before us as far southward as Aleppo is of twofold character: on the east are the great plains that lie away to the Euphrates, while on the west two mountain-ranges intervene between these and the sea, lying parallel with one another and with the coast. The plains are really an apex to the Syrian desert, themselves watered sparsely by winter streams flowing to the Euphrates, with some independent rivers which, failing to find an exit, resolve themselves into small salt lakes and swamps. There are no trees or other protection against the withering sun, and the surface is broken only here and there by low ridges and the mounds which mark the sites of ancient settlements.1 The people are mostly Kurds, mingled with the settled descendants of northern Bedouins, using a primitive Arab speech. Their life is arduous: their crops are parched before they can be reaped; but none the less out of generations of experience they find the means to live and feed their flocks. Except for local routes, the only roads which cross this desolate tract lead 1 For the modern condition and ancient importance of this region, see f u r t h e r : Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, p. 94 ; Peters, Nippur, i. p. 81 ; Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations (London, 1896), pp. 144 and ff. ; and The Passing of Empires (1900), p. 35, with an illustration.

f L A T E 111

F E A T U R E S OF NORTHERN SYRIA

7

f r o m Aleppo a n d f r o m A i n t a b t o t h e crossing of t h e E u p h r a t e s n o w f o u n d a t Birejik, n o t f a r f r o m t h e site of a n c i e n t C a r c h e m i s h a t J e r a b l u s . 1 Aleppo itself m u s t be classed as a city of t h e plain, t h o u g h its economy is different. H e r e is t h e n a t u r a l centre of commerce f o r t h e n o r t h of Syria a n d a g r e a t p a r t of W e s t e r n Asia. So, i n s t e a d of being a p e a s a n t village u p o n a nameless s t r e a m , Aleppo h a s g r o w n t o be one of t h e f a i r e s t cities of t h e E a s t . Local i n d u s t r i e s h a v e developed, a d d i n g to its resources. I t s stonebuilt houses a n d public places, its groves a n d f r u i t gardens, as well as t h e h e a r t y spirit of its people, a r e t h e t o k e n s of its p r o s p e r i t y . A n o t h e r t o w n of considerable i n t e r e s t a n d i m p o r t a n c e is Killiz, on t h e b o r d e r of t h e plain, m i d w a y b e t w e e n Aleppo a n d Aintab. I n a p p r o a c h i n g t h i s place t h e r o a d passes t h r o u g h miles of olive-groves, w h i c h f o r m l o n g lines of d a r k green u p o n t h e r e d l o a m y soil. F r o m Killiz as we t u r n w e s t w a r d t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e l a n d s c a p e is i m m e d i a t e l y c h a n g e d ; t h e plains a r e l e f t behind, a n d t h e m o u n t a i n c o u n t r y is e n t e r e d t h a t lies b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e sea. Of t h e t w o r a n g e s m e n t i o n e d previously, t h e Q u r t D a g h , w h i c h is first encountered, is less bold t h a n its w e s t e r n n e i g h b o u r , a n d also less continuous, giving w a y g r a d u a l l y t o w a r d s t h e south. I t is wild a n d v a r i e d enough, however, t o provide a series of m e m o r a b l e p a n o r a m a s of m o u n t a i n 1 Here also the Euphrates is still our eastern boundary ; for Tell- Ahmar, the scene of Mr. Hogarth's recent discoveries (p. 129), though on the f u r t h e r side, is on the water's edge ; and the few monuments found f u r t h e r east, like the seal from Urfa (Messerschm idt, op. cit., C. I. H. 1900, PL XLI. No. 3), and the palace sculptures of Tell-Halaf (Von Oppenheim, Der alte Orient, 1908, H e f t 1), which owe something to Hittite influence, are not definite enough to imply H i t t i t e occupation. That the river separated the land of Mitanni from the H a t t i is substantiated by t h e archives of Boghaz-Keui (Winckler, Mitteilungen der D. Orient.-Ges. 1907, No. 35). On the relation of Mitanni to Hittite see below, pp. 58, note 1, 324, note 2.

8

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

scenery. N o r t h w a r d t h e h e a d - w a t e r s of t h e Af rin 1 R i v e r h a v e scoured deep gorges in its wooded h e i g h t s ; a n d t h e m a i n s t r e a m , flowing s o u t h w a r d in a wild a n d sparsely cultivated valley, h a s h e w n f o r itself a r o c k y bed t h r o u g h w h i c h it swirls u n t i l t h e hills a r e l e f t behind, w h e n t u r n i n g w e s t w a r d it flows on to join t h e O r o n t e s n e a r to Antioch. I n such a c o u n t r y i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s h a v e been placed on record. I t is in contact, nevertheless, on e i t h e r h a n d , w i t h places w h e r e some of t h e m o s t i n s t r u c t i v e H i t t i t e w o r k s h a v e been discovered; a n d we a r e t e m p t e d t h e r e f o r e to linger s o m e w h a t in t h i s u n f a m i l i a r region, seeking in t h e life a n d f e a t u r e s of its people f o r living w i t n e s s of t h e a n c i e n t civilisations in which it m u s t h a v e shared. The population is n a t u r a l l y scanty, a n d varies racially according to its disposition. On t h e b a s a l t p l a t e a u which f o r m s t h e e a s t e r n b o u n d a r y t o t h e valley, leading d o w n to Killiz a n d A i n t a b beyond, several villages of K u r d i s h families a r e f o u n d . H e r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e t o w n s is f r e q u e n t , a n d mingling is n o t u n c o m m o n accordingly w i t h o t h e r e l e m e n t s of t h e T u r k i s h people. The houses a r e o f t e n well c o n s t r u c t e d of m a s o n r y , f o r stone is p l e n t i f u l ; indeed, t h e w h o l e p l a t e a u is so t h i c k l y s t r e w n t h a t even t h e p a t h w a y s a r e difficult a n d n a r r o w , while b e f o r e t h e plough can be p u t t o t h e l a n d a space m u s t first be cleared a t considerable labour. Consequently t h e a m o u n t of cultivation is small, a n d even t h e sparse g r a i n t h a t g r o w s wild over t h o u s a n d s of acres r e m a i n s u n r e a p e d . I n addition to t h e settled villages, a n d t h e t u m b l e d r u i n s of m a n y deserted h a m l e t s , t h i s h i g h g r o u n d is f r e e l y sprinkled in t h e s u m m e r - t i m e w i t h t h e t e n t s of n o m a d s , 1

Pronounced

Afrcen.

PLATE IV

KARAKUL: A Kl.'Rìl l-'AMILY AT HOMI: ;Ui:-b;ind. wife, child et .w. chlci -- ¡fe ; two IcallK-r:-, left.

T H E VALLEY OF T H E AFRIN

9

either seeking refuge temporarily f r o m the eastern plains, in accordance w i t h a c o m m o n practice, or h a l t ing f o r a brief season on t h e i r endless j o u r n e y . The r o c k y edges t o this p l a t e a u on t h e w e s t e r n side a r e b r o k e n ever a n d again by r i f t s , down w h i c h a m o r e copious supply of w a t e r t u m b l e s f r o m above, o p e n i n g o u t i n t o little n o o k s u n d e r t h e shelter of t h e h e i g h t s b e f o r e j o i n i n g t h e m a i n valley of t h e r i v e r below. I n such places a village m a y be f o u n d a m i d a p a t c h of c o m p a r a t i v e l y l u x u r i o u s cultivation, well i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e vines a n d m u l b e r r i e s of R o w a n d u z . This p l e a s a n t spot lies a t t h e f o o t of t h e steep descent f r o m K a r a k u l u p o n t h e p l a t e a u , a n d is m a r k e d b y t h e r u i n s of a fine mediaeval castle c r o w n i n g a p r o m i n e n t cone-like hill. 1 The groves a n d g a r d e n s a r e w a t e r e d by a p r i m i t i v e s y s t e m of i r r i g a t i o n . T h e rich soil readily r e p a y s t h e l a b o u r b e s t o w e d u p o n it in h o w e v e r simple f a s h i o n . L o w e r down, in t h e m a i n valley a n d n e a r e r t h e river's bed, t h e aspect of t h e c o u n t r y is g e n e r a l l y savage a n d neglected. A s h o r t w i t h e r e d scrub speckles t h e s u r f a c e of t h e g r o u n d , w h i c h is r e f t in e v e r y direction b y t h e d r y gullies of w i n t e r t o r r e n t s . The m a i n r o u t e s , h e r e as elsewhere, k e e p consistently along t h e h i g h e r levels, crossing t h e r i f t s n e a r t h e i r beginnings, b e f o r e t h e y h a v e become t o o r o u g h a n d too steep t o scale. O t h e r t r a c k s a r e f o u n d n a t u r a l l y a l o n g t h e river's bed, w h i c h t h e y cross a n d recross, scaling t h e cliffs w h e r e t h e w a t e r h a s laid b a r e t h e rocks, a n d a t o t h e r t i m e s passing t h r o u g h m o r e open spaces cheered b y n a r r o w strips of corn-land a n d t h e rich bloom of a m y r i a d oleanders, w h e r e v e r t h e steep b a n k s recede a little w a y on one side or t h e o t h e r . These lower tracks, however, a r e n e v e r easy t o follow i even u n d e r f a v o u r a b l e con1

See Plates

IXIT,,

XLIII.

10

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

ditions, on a c c o u n t a l i k e of t h e n u m e r o u s scrambles over cliffs o f t e n s h a l y a n d precipitous, w h e r e a f a l s e step of horse or m a n m i g h t lead t o disaster, a n d also of t h e n u m e r o u s crossings of t h e river, o f t e n deceptive t o a n y one u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e fords. The l a t t e r obstacle becomes a g r a v e d a n g e r a f t e r m o u n t a i n s t o r m s which m a y h a v e passed a l m o s t unnoticed in t h e valley. E v e n in s u m m e r - t i m e thunder-clouds f r o m t i m e t o t i m e collect above t h e heights, a n d a m i d a g o r g e o u s display of l i g h t n i n g a n d r e v e r b e r a t i n g t h u n d e r a t o r r e n t i a l r a i n t r a n s f o r m s in a f e w m i n u t e s t h e r o c k y basin of t h e river. The dried-up gullies a r e n o w alive w i t h splashing s t r e a m s , a n d t h e s l u m b e r i n g rivulets become f o a m i n g t o r r e n t s , t h e s u d d e n u p r o a r of s c u r r y i n g s t r e a m s a n d n e w l y b o r n cascades s t r i k i n g t h e e a r w i t h curious s t r a n g e n e s s a n d foreboding. 1 I n a n h o u r o r t w o t h e s t r e a m s a r e once m o r e t r a n q u i l a n d t h e sun h a s r e a p p e a r e d ; b u t t h e r i v e r below h a s received n e a r l y all t h e w a t e r t h a t h a s fallen, a n d swirls on deep a n d dangerous. F o r d s t h a t h a v e little c h a n g e d t h e i r app e a r a n c e a r e n o w impassable, a n d n o n e b u t t h e s t r a n g e r will a t t e m p t t o cross t h e m . E v e n w i t h o u t such t e m p o r a r y dangers, t h e u n w a r y t r a v e l l e r in such a c o u n t r y , t r y i n g m a y b e to f o r c e a m a r c h w h e n u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e village t r a c k s a n d local l a n d m a r k s , will surely come t o g r i e f ; a n d t h o u g h w i t h i n a n h o u r or t w o of some village w h e r e loyal, if f r u g a l , h o s p i t a l i t y a w a i t s him, will find himself lost, w i t h little m e a n s of k n o w i n g h o w to direct his footsteps. F o r t h e village w h i c h he would gain lies h i d d e n o u t of sight in some sheltered nook, or behind a b e n d in t h e river, or beyond a rise of g r o u n d . Y e t even t h o u g h he reach t h e village by n i g h t , w h e t h e r a s a n 1

We noticed this effect especially a t Karadinek, August 1907.

SOME V I L L A G E CUSTOMS

11

armed p a r t y or as a benighted wanderer, his welcome is secure, and his life is sacred. No questions will be asked him, nor will any demand the reason of his coming. W a r m milk and home-made bread-cakes, and sometimes honey, will be offered him as r e f r e s h m e n t ; and a f t e r a few simple courtesies t h e best room will be put a t his disposal. I n the morning the ' swash-swish ' of the churn, an inflated goatskin, will tell him t h a t the housewife is busied with his b r e a k f a s t : soon the door is opened and he recognises in his attendant, who lays the round t r a y before him, none other t h a n his host, t h e headman of the village. His horse is fed and saddled, and the chief's son is his guide. I n the main valley, however, we have not found t h a t which we seek. Pushing on then up one of the sources of the river we reach K a r t a l , in a green dell begirt with wooded hills. Though off the beaten t r a c k this place is only one day's journey by mountain-path f r o m Aintab. Perhaps on this account the people here are freer. Their simplicity of life is the same, but their curiosity is g r e a t e r and their r e s t r a i n t is less. Here we are soon f r i e n d s ; and have opportunity t o study their manners and their features. Their houses are partly hollowed in t h e hillside as in m a n y parts of Asia Minor, alike for economy in construction, and f o r b e t t e r protection against rain and cold. The roofs are built of timber, and so covered with e a r t h t h a t it is difficult in descending from above to distinguish t h e m f r o m the surface of the ground with which t h e y are continuous. The chief industry of the villagers, in addition to the tending of their fields and flocks, is t h e making of b u t t e r and dairy produce, which is sent to t h e m a r k e t a t Aintab. They are said to be Turkomans, descendants of wanderers from the B a s t who settled

12

A C H A P T E R OF G E O G R A P H Y

here many generations back, and now an element of the Turkish people. B u t there is something in t h e i r faces reminiscent of H i t t i t e portraits, suggested generally in t h e women, and marked strongly in some of the men, though in others not a t all. This glimmer seems to be due to mixture in past times with a pre-existing population; for in the hills above there are settlements of woodmen whom even these villagers regard as a somewhat strange and different people. Here, a t last, we come face to face with t h a t remarkable type portrayed so clearly on E g y p t i a n sculptures, and suggested also in the H i t t i t e monuments themselves, characterised by t h e strong nose in line with the receding forehead, the round protrusion of the head behind, the heavy lips and beard, and t h e stolid look. The figure is short and thickset, betokening s t a m i n a and strength. Our photograph 1 was obtained a t K u c h u k Kizil-Hissar, n e a r e r to Aintab, but it is clear t h a t the home of this type is now the mountainous country, where it has persevered in seclusion and still survives. Our wanderings in this district have not then been fruitless. The traveller m a y be rewarded also by a picture of wonderful beauty to be seen a t sunset from the wooded heights near the sources of the Afrin R i v e r and the K a r a Su. Pen cannot describe the delicacy and harmony of the colours in the trees, with the effects of light and shade among t h e i r leaves and in t h e shadows of the foreground; nor could brush compose 1 PI. LXXXIV. (i), p. 320. This is clearly the old Amorite-Hittite type as represented on the Egyptian temple sculptures, temp. Barneses II., then apparently most prevailing in the Lebanon region. See Petrie, Racial Types, No. 147, and Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, p. 147 and fig.; cf. also W . Max Miiller, Asien und Europa, pp. 229, 233, and the Book of Joshua, x. 6, and xi. 3. The type is now more widely dispersed, as seen from this example and Pis. x v . (ii;, LXXXVI. below.

ri.ATK

K A K T A L I e « Ö » i ' OK H

SM)«AS

yrOMKN

(XiJti- IÜC .:y]i:i.;i ¡. .1! I n ! ..in: . rjvtl J.

V

SINJERLI AND SAKJE-GEUZI

13

t h e m a j e s t y and depth imparted by Nature to t h e distance of this scene. Ridge beyond ridge, of varied forms and softening colours, leads b a c k to where beneath t h e reddening glow the bold ranges of t h e Amanus chain are seen purple, even while the snowclad peaks of far-distant Taurus in the north still gleam in the last lingering rays of light. F r o m here t h e western edge of t h e Qurt D a g h r a n g e descends abruptly to a broad and marshy valley, shut in, on the o t h e r side, by the Giaour Dagh. The land is flat, and the streams, a f t e r descending f r o m t h e mountains, mostly stagnate in marshes overgrown with reeds and scrub. F r o m t h e middle t r a c t egress is almost wholly shut off, by ridges and outliers f r o m the hills. Such w a t e r as escapes either flows northward to join t h e P y r a m u s or southward to f o r m t h e K a r a Su. Though now pestilential with m a l a r i a and sparsely inhabited, this valley is naturally very f e r t i l e ; and numerous mounds which dot the surface are indicative of extensive ancient settlement. 1 Among these are t h e sites of S i n j e r l i and Sakje-Geuzi, which provide us with our most complete architectural monuments of the Hittites on this side of t h e Taurus. Here there seem to have been a series of petty states or principalities, 2 consisting of groups of towns clustering round the palace of the local king, fortified strongly with stone walls and towers. W e do not y e t know what m a y have been the precise relations of these elements of t h e population to one a n o t h e r ; but it is clear t h a t in the days of H i t t i t e supremacy they must have been amongst those tribes who shared in the con1 A local tradition says that 120,000 men were drawn from this region in the time of Alexander. 2 Von Luschan, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, i.; and Liverpool Annals of Archaeology, i. p. 99.

14

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

federacy. 1 It is also obvious t h a t no people could hope to defend themselves in this valley w h o did not hold the passes of the mountain-ranges on either side. The westerly chain of the Giaour Dagh, indeed, w a s readily defensible. E x c e p t f o r a f e w local tracks available only in the summer, there are but f e w passes over its unbroken mass, and these are well defined. This splendid range of mountains, better k n o w n as Mount Amanus, forms a main branch of the Taurus system, f r o m which it is divided only by the valley of the P y r a m u s . I t separates S y r i a f r o m Cilicia on the west, and touching the sea near A l e x a n d r e t t a follows the coast south-westward, until arrested by the broad valley of the Orontes. The a v e r a g e height of the chain is f r o m four to six thousand feet, while some of its peaks reach almost to the snow-line. 2 Of the several passes t h a t traverse it, t h a t which leads transversely f r o m Marash into Cilicia presents the easiest gradient, and is much used by caravans, t h o u g h impassable by carts. The central pass above Bogche, however, is better known, being the direct line of communication between Cilicia and the East. Bogche itself is reached f r o m Osmaniyeh on the eastern borders of the Cilician plain by a path which, while generally following the v a l l e y of the Bogche Su, traverses also some o u t l y i n g ridges. The village is thus found picturesquely situated in an open and fertile spot a m o n g the hills. The long ascent thence continues up to one of the main sources of the same stream until the watershed is crossed, whence the descent is steep and rugged to the valley. The track then heads directly by S a k j e Geuzi over the Qurt D a g h to Aintab, and so eastward to the crossing of the 1

Including the kingdoms of Unki, Samalla, and J a u d i : see the map,

p. 375.

2

C f . P l a t e LXXIV.

I-LATE VI

PASSES OF T H E AMANUS

15

E u p h r a t e s . T h o u g h direct a n d n o t v e r y difficult, t h i s r o u t e is n o t y e t m a d e passable b y carts, a n d p e r h a p s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e mail f r o m A d a n a a n d t h e W e s t t a k e s t h e coast route, on m u l e ppck, r o u n d t o Alexa n d r e t t a , 1 w h e n c e rises t h e m a i n r o a d t o t h e interior. The Beilan Pass, as it is called, above A l e x a n d r e t t a , is b y f a r t h e easiest, a n d t h e steep g r a d i e n t on e i t h e r side is so nicely engineered t h a t it is h a r d l y realised in passing w h e r e t h e w a t e r s h e d is crossed. L e a d i n g d o w n directly t o t h e f a i r s e a p o r t on t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h i s r o u t e f o r centuries h a s been a m a i n c h a n n e l of c o m m e r c e b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n d A s i a ; a n d u n t i l t h e r a i l w a y conn e c t i n g Aleppo w i t h B e y r o u t diverted a l a r g e p a r t of t h e traffic, c a r a v a n s consisting of h u n d r e d s of l a d e n camels in l o n g procession could be seen daily, b r i n g i n g o u t t h e m e r c h a n d i s e of t h e E a s t , a n d t a k i n g back t h e m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t s of t h e W e s t . The m o u n t a i n - c h a i n n o w t u r n s south-west, a n d t e r m i n a t e s a b r u p t l y in t h e r o c k y p o i n t called in Arabic Ras El Khanzir, ' The Pig's Head,' while its s o u t h e r n slopes descend steeply t o t h e e s t u a r y of t h e Orontes. Beyond, t h e m o u n t a i n o u s c h a r a c t e r of t h e coast is continued s o u t h in t h e J e b e l A n s a r i a (or B a r g y l u s Mountains), w h i c h hold on u n t i l b r o k e n by t h e b r o a d r i f t which divides t h e m f r o m t h e L e b a n o n . H u g g i n g t h e e a s t e r n side of t h i s r a n g e t h e O r o n t e s R i v e r comes northward, and turning sharply where the mountains b r e a k , it flows p a s t Antioch s o u t h - w e s t w a r d t o t h e sea. A t t h e b e n d it is joined by t h e A f r i n R i v e r 1 The coast r o u t e t o A l e x a n d r e t t a w a s in course of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n in 1907. F o r m e r l y t h e rocky p r o m o n t o r y k n o w n as l'ylce Syria, et Cilicicn p r e s e n t e d a f o r m i d a b l e obstacle, over w h i c h c a r t s could p a s s only w i t h g r e a t difficulty; w h i l e for t r a v e l l e r s OJI horseback t h e easiest p a s s a g e w a s by w a d i n g in t h e sea a t t h e foot of t h e cliffs. The Bogche r o u t e is t h a t c o n t e m p l a t e d for t h e n e w section of t h e r a i l w a y h e a d i n g for Baghdad.

16

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

a n d t h e K a r a Su in a b r o a d a n d s w a m p y hollow a l m o s t s h u t in by t h e m o u n t a i n - r a n g e s a n d t h e e a s t e r n plains. The sources of t h e Orontes a r e f o u n d in t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n of t h e A n t i - L e b a n o n , a n d h e r e t h e s o u t h e r n limit of t h e H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s is reached. 1 I n t h i s vicinity w a s K a d e s h , t h e f r o n t i e r f o r t r e s s of t h e H i t t i t e s t h a t figures so p r o m i n e n t l y in t h e battle-scenes of E g y p t . Here, too, is Homs, n o w a r e m a r k a b l e A r a b city, a t t h e j u n c t i o n of t h e m a i n r o u t e s f r o m D a m a s c u s t o Aleppo, a n d f r o m P a l m y r a t o Tripolis on t h e sea. F u r t h e r n o r t h is Restan, s t r o n g l y placed a t a b e n d of t h e river on a steep a n d n a t u r a l l y d e f e n d e d knoll. F u r t h e r a g a i n is H a m a t h , w h e r e t h e m a i n r o a d a n d t h e r i v e r s e p a r a t e , t h e l a t t e r t u r n i n g w e s t w a r d t o seek its green bed below t h e m o u n t a i n s , a n d t h e f o r m e r holding on directly t o w a r d s Aleppo across t h e plains. Here, a t H a m a t h , w e r e f o u n d t h e h i e r o g l y p h i c inscriptions which first gave rise t o s y s t e m a t i c H i t t i t e studies. Here, too, t y p e s of people a r e f o u n d s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e past, like living models of t h e a n c i e n t sculptures. 2 This district, in t h e h e a d - w a t e r s of t h e Orontes, w a s n o t only t h e H i t t i t e f r o n t i e r , b u t w a s such as t h e H i t t i t e s in t h e period of t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t seem t o h a v e delighted in. H e r e t h e i r walled t o w n s a n d citadels s p r a n g up, in t h e m i d s t of a land well w a t e r e d a n d r e a s o n a b l y fertile, u n d e r t h e s h a d o w of m o u n t a i n s 1 A silvered copper seal, cylindrical in shape, is recorded as f r o m H a i f a (C.I.H. 1900, PI. xli. 2), b u t no a r g u m e n t can be based t h e r e o n . O t h e r s m a l l objects f r o m t h i s region a r e a seal a n d archaic bronze f i g u r e f r o m L a t a k i a (C.I.II. loc. cit. No. 6, a n d P e i s e r , Die Bronze-figur von Schernen, aus Sitzungsber. der A Itertumsges. Prussia, H e f t 22, p. 428), a n d a similar archaic bronze f r o m H o m s , said to h a v e been f o u n d in t h e O r o n t e s (Peiser, op. cit.). 2 See P l a t e lxxxiv. (ii), r e p r o d u c e d f r o m a s k e t c h by Mr. H o r s t Schlieph a c k . The s u b j e c t w a s a n A r a b - s p e a k i n g c a r r i a g e driver, r e s i d e n t in H a m a t h , w h o said t h a t his b i r t h p l a c e w a s U r f a . Cf. t h e t y p e s P i s . lxxv.,

J.XX VII,

M.Al B VII

THE P L A T E A U OF A S I A MINOR

17

which cut them off from the sea and from their enemy of the South; while behind the road was open to call up in necessity the assistance of the northern branches of their people.

From the Taurus we descended firstly to the north of Syria, because in the development of Hittite studies this region first attracted attention through the references to it in Egyptian and Assyrian history. But modern research has added to our knowledge of the Hittite lands a wider and different territory on the other side. There the descent to the interior of Asia Minor from the mountains is not so marked, for even around the foot of snow-capped Argseus, the most advanced pinnacle of the system, the plateau is still four thousand feet above the sea. The level falls gradually towards the west, but rarely much below three thousand f e e t ; while on the other hand the numerous minor ranges that break the surface of the interior attain a considerably greater height. This tableland is almost enclosed by ridges of mountains: on the north and south these descend directly to the coast; on the west they are more broken and less bold, but they constitute none the less a great obstacle between the plateau and the green valleys of the iEgean coast.1 On the east, as we have already seen, are the Anti-Taurus ranges, backed by the Armenian hills beyond. The upland area thus enclosed is from two to three hundred miles across according to the direction taken, for its form is irregular. Only to the south is the boundary sharply defined, where the range of Taurus forms a mighty wall, which in the middle 1

Ramsay, Journ. Boy. Asiatic Soc., xv. p. 100.

B

18

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

t u r n s a l m o s t a r i g h t angle in direction, r u n n i n g n o r t h e a s t w a r d a n d n o r t h - w e s t . The w h o l e p l a t e a u m a y be r e g a r d e d as i r r e g u l a r l y five-sided. T h e i n t e r i o r v a r i e s g r e a t l y in its f e a t u r e s , t h e chief a g e n t being t h e peculiarities of its river systems. S h u t in as it is, m a n y r i v e r s f a i l t o find a n o u t l e t t o t h e s e a : t h i s is especially t h e case in t h e plain w h i c h lies a t t h e f o o t of t h e w e s t e r n r a n g e s of t h e T a u r u s , w h e r e t h e w a t e r s s t a g n a t e , f o r m i n g salt l a k e s or m a r s h e s . This plain is green a r o u n d Konia, b u t its extensions t o t h e n o r t h a n d e a s t a r e practically desert, being p a r c h e d a n d b a r r e n in t h e s u m m e r m o n t h s . On its n o r t h - e a s t , in t h e c e n t r e of t h e peninsula, its b o u n d a r y is t h e l a r g e s t salt l a k e of t h e i n t e r i o r , w h i c h is f e d likewise b y several m i n o r i n l a n d s t r e a m s . T h e r e a r e some rivers, h o w e v e r , which find a n o u t l e t even t h r o u g h t h e T a u r u s ranges, b u t such a r e m o r e c o m m o n t o w a r d s t h e west a n d n o r t h - w e s t . The districts w h i c h t h e s e w a t e r a r e consequently a m o n g t h e m o s t a t t r a c t i v e of Asia Minor, w i t h a r e a s of n a t u r a l w o o d l a n d a n d g r e e n p a s t u r e s , as well as f e r t i l e soil f o r cultivation. But the greatest river and most important l a n d m a r k of t h e i n t e r i o r is t h e Halys, which describes a b r o a d circuit t h r o u g h t h e h e a r t of t h e p l a t e a u , enclosing towards the north-east a tract about a hundred and fifty miles across which m o s t l y lies in t h e basin of t h e river, well w a t e r e d by its m a n y t r i b u t a r i e s . This region is one of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t in o u r subject. T h o u g h n o t extensively cultivated, f o r t h e stable p o p u l a t i o n even h e r e is r e l a t i v e l y small, it is n o n e t h e less h i g h l y fertile. I t s hills a n d slopes a r e m o s t l y g r e e n w i t h p a s t u r e s , a n d in t h e flat valleys a r e long reaches suitable f o r t h e plough. A n o t h e r f a v o u r e d district lies s o u t h w a r d f r o m t h e Halys, passing by M o u n t Argaeus,

PLATE

W O O D L A N D ON T H E S O U T H « ¡ O M R S O l ! T A U K U S

t Sec pp. 1 9 , 4 7 . )

VII:

WOODLAND AND CLIMATE

19

skirting the eastern edges of the plain, and watered by streamlets from the Anti-Taurus. Here in the vicinity of Tyana are wide acres of corn-land, gardens are plentiful, and even trees abound. Woodland is rare in the interior, but highland trees grow in profusion on the mountain-sides. The middle heights of the Taurus are covered with virgin forest, especially on the southern aspect, where every variety of European tree is found; and the pine-woods of Phrygia in the west have been a feature of the country throughout its history. 1 The slopes overlooking the Black Sea, however, catch the chief share of the northern rains, and here consequently forest-land is plentiful, 2 and nearly continuous along the coast. The interior is almost rainless in the summer-time,3 and relies chiefly for its water supply on the winter storms, and later melting of the mountain snows. Owing to its high elevation above the sea the cold season is severe and persistent: the bleak winds from southern Russia sweep across its plains and open spaces, driving the population of the exposed areas for shelter into houses either sunk below the surface of the ground or hollowed in the banks of streams. The compensation for this inclement season is ample in the summer weather, when the warm sun shining down from blue skies is tempered by refreshing breezes which the altitude produces—features of climate that distinguish this tableland from the southern coasts, and from the plains of Syria. Such in brief are the striking features of this portion 1 Cf. Livy, Bk. xxxviii. 18, etc., for the contrast between Phrygia and the plains. 2 This feature also is historic. Cf. Strabo x n . viii. 8. 3 For the general geographical conditions affecting life on the plateau, cf. Hogarth, The Nearer East (London, 1902), pp. 246 if.

20

A C H A P T E R OF G E O G R A P H Y

of the Hittites' land. On these breezy highlands the ancient people found all the elements of c o n t e n t m e n t : hunter, woodman, shepherd, and peasant found each his home, in which Nature provided him with all t h e ordinary requirements of his life. Nor was the developm e n t of his civilisation to be arrested by his settlement : the resources of his country were inexhaustible; mines of useful and precious minerals are not uncommon ; 1 and the means of providing other commodities was a t hand, f o r the walls of the plateau were not without openings to foster some relations with t h e coast and so with other lands. B u t , on the whole, the uplands which he had occupied were economically self-contained; and f o r the stimulus to his civilisation we look naturally to t h e E a s t , and especially to t h e old-established culture on the Euphrates, t h e communications with which, by the n a t u r e of his settlement, were open and in his power. 2 I n the foregoing general view of Central Asia Minor we have seen t h a t t h e interior tableland m a y be divided conveniently for description into five main regions, not for the most p a r t separated f r o m one another by any definite boundary, but each characterised by some special feature. These are, in t h e south, the plains t h a t lie northward and eastward f r o m I c o n i u m ; in the west, t h e pine-clad hills and verdant pastures of Phrygia, where several g r e a t rivers rise t h a t descend in different directions; in t h e north, the upland but not highland country around 1 For mineral and other resources consult inter alia, Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor (London, 1842), vol. i. chs. xvi., xx., xxiii.; likewise Van Lennep, Travels in . . . Asia Minor (London, 1870). 2 It is of interest in this connection to notice that one of the earliest historical references to the Hittites occurs in the Babylonian chronicles (King, Chronicles of the Early Babylonian Kings, London, 1907, pp. 72 and 148).

L A N D M A R K S OF T H E INTERIOR

21

Angora, in which also is t h e divide between some tributaries of the Sangarius and of the H a l y s ; in t h e north-east, the broad t r a c t enclosed by the convex curve of the Halys River, to which we shall presently r e t u r n ; and, in the south-east, the t r a c t of which T y a n a is t h e centre, with which we shall include t h e eastern portion of the plain of K o n i a and t h e range of Taurus t h a t bounds it on t h e south. Of these regions, the two l a t t e r m a y be regarded as an eastern or inner group as opposed to the three former lying to their west, from which they are physically separated, more clearly, a t a n y rate, t h a n the components of either group from one another, by t h e broad expanse of desert, the g r e a t central lake, and especially by t h e middle course of t h e Halys. This distinction between eastern and western will be found to have a real significance as our story develops : it is clear from t h e outset, however, t h a t the f o r m e r group would first receive and longest retain contact with E a s t e r n civilisation, whether by the n a t u r a l approaches over t h e watershed between the E u p h r a t e s and the Halys, or by t h e several crossings of the Anti-Taurus which converge upon Csesarea, or by w h a t is now t h e chief channel of communication through the Taurus Mountains by way of Cilicia. This distinction will be found f u r t h e r emphasised by the comparative plenty of Hittite monuments on t h e one side, and their paucity in t h e west. On the southern plains, indeed, skirting the main r a n g e of Taurus, westward progress was less r e s t r a i n e d ; 1 but t h a t t h e Halys in the north presented a real barrier 2 is borne out by t h e f a c t t h a t when t h e Witness the group of monuments in the Kara Dagh, p. 90. A barrier, that is, to general migration in ancient times. As a political boundary its importance is clear from the fact that it divided the Median and Lydian empires (Herodotus, i. 72). 1

2

22

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

Lydian Croesus crossed the Halys in the sixth century B.C. he found a strange and presumably non-Aryan people surviving upon the eastern side, who were indeed, according to Herodotus,1 called Syrians by the Greeks, and by that historian spoken of as SyroCappadocians. W i t h our two eastern divisions we must include the plain and district westward of Csesarea, a tract which on the north lies partly in the basin of the Halys, and on the south is practically continuous with the plains of Tyana, from which it is separated only by a low ridge of hills. Towards the west are the remarkable troglodyte villages,2 where, probably from remote antiquity, the inhabitants have hewn out their dwellings in the soft surface rock and conical mounds which are the peculiar feature of the locality. There is little evidence as yet, however, to make this region of importance in our subject, and it is only recently that Oaesarea has yielded trace of Hittite handiwork. 3 None the less the continuation of exploration will certainly bring to light new monuments, for the district lies in the heart of the Hittite country; and Old Csesarea (Mazaca) was the residence of Cappadocian kings. The position of Caesarea is geographically of great importance, and from Roman times at any rate has marked the focus of the trade and traffic, and consequently of the road-systems, of the interior. The soil locally is of great fertility, owing to its volcanic nature. Vines and fruit-trees grow and thrive luxuriantly. The middle heights of slumbering 1 Loc. cit., Strabo (XII. iii. 9) speaks of ' t h e " Leuco-Syrians" whom w e call Cappadoeians.' See also p. 92; and Ramsay, Historical Geography, pp. 32, 33. 2 Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, vol. ii. ch. xliii. 3 Liverpool Annals of Archceology, i. (1908), p. 6, Pis. VIII., i x .

l'LATE IX

POSITION OF CAESAREA

23

Argaeus a r e covered t h i c k l y w i t h pine-woods. T h e snow-capped p e a k of t h i s m o u n t a i n t o w e r s in t h e heavens, t h e conspicuous f e a t u r e of t h e horizon a n d t h e l a n d m a r k f o r t w o days' j o u r n e y on e v e r y side. I t s f o r m is conical: t o t h e w e s t a n d south, w h e r e it rises directly f r o m t h e plain, its base is w a s h e d b y g r e a t lakes a n d m a r s h e s of v a r i a b l e e x t e n t . T o w a r d s t h e e a s t i t is connected u p by b r o k e n ridges w i t h t h e A n t i - T a u r u s system. On its n o r t h e r n slope is A s a r j i k , overlooking Csesarea, w h i c h lies a t t h e f o o t of t h e m o u n t a i n on t h a t side. T h e site of t h e a n c i e n t city (Mazaca) is p r o b a b l y t h a t m a r k e d by t h e r u i n s of Graeco-Roman times, to be f o u n d in t h e v i n e y a r d s on a low s p u r of t h e m o u n t a i n a b o u t a mile s o u t h of t h e m o d e r n town. 1 H e r e is a spot t h a t will one d a y r e w a r d excavation b y a v o l u m e of unsuspected h i s t o r y . In t h e m o d e r n t o w n , a p a r t f r o m its b a z a a r s a n d i n d u s t r i e s a n d its splendid mediaeval remains, 2 one of t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g sights is t h e e v e r - c h a n g i n g s t r e a m of h u m a n faces t o be seen in its streets, f o r its traffic a n d position b r i n g t o it daily c a r a v a n s f r o m every side. I n its r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e a r e considerable Greek a n d A r m e n i a n e l e m e n t s ; b u t t h e r e m a y be noticed as specially of interest t o o u r s u b j e c t t h e J e w i s h families, 3 in w h i c h t h e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e s of f a c e a n d s t a t u r e recall a g a i n t h e t y p e previously noticed a t K a r t a l in N o r t h e r n Syria. Main roads r a d i a t e f r o m Csesarea in all d i r e c t i o n s : t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h - e a s t t o Sivas b y t h e valley of t h e H a l y s ; t o t h e n o r t h b y Yuzgat, crossing t h e river, which is five h o u r s d i s t a n t f r o m Oaesarea, b y a r e m a r k a b l e bridge of m a n y spans 1 It is noteworthy t h a t Strabo ( x n . ii. 7), describes Mazaca (then the capital of the Cilician province) as being in a ruinous state without walls, while its land remained unfertile and uncultivated. 2

See PI.

ix.

3

S e e P L LXXXVI.

24

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

(hence called Chok-Geuz Keupru); to the north-west by way of a lower bridge (called in contrast Bir-Geuz, or One-span Bridge), heading thence directly for Angora by the bridge at Cheshme Keupru ; to the west across the plains to Konia by Sultan Han, skirting the southern border of the salt lake (Tuz Geul); to the south by Injesu and Tyana, and so to the Cilician Gates, or by a western branch to Eregli. An alternative route from Csesarea to the Cilician Gates, shorter but impassable by carts, leads through defiles of wild beauty through the outlying ridges of the Anti-Taurus. South-east there are several well-established mountain tracks, like those to Fraktin and Ekrek, but there is one of special interest and antiquity, to which we have already alluded, heading directly for Marash by way of the high pass of Kuru - Bel,1 and passing hence by Komana. Of the other routes enumerated there is one which was already of importance on general grounds before a recent discovery gave to it a special historical interest. This is the main road north and south, passing through Yuzgat, which in antiquity connected BoghazKeui with the east by way of Tyana and the Cilician Gates. This is clearly a southerly stage of the Royal Road of the Persian period, but whether it is the main route is not determinable from the description of Herodotus.2 I t has, however, now been traced for several miles between Injesu and a ford of the river^near Bogche,8 by the ruts scored deeply and over a broad track on the surface rock, exactly like the section previously traced through Phrygia by Sir William Ramsay.4 I t is significant that 1 Professor Ramsay ( H i s t o r i c a l Geography, p. 35) already argued the necessary antiquity o£ such a route before the H i t t i t e monument on the mountain pass was brought to light. 2 See below, pp. 45, 366, note 2; and cf. Macan's Herodotus, App. x m . 3 Liv. Annals of Arch., 4 Cf. PI. x x i v . (i). §§ 7, 8, 9. i. (1908), p. 11.

PIATE X

ROADS OF THE INTERIOR

25

this route did not touch Csesarea, to reach which a considerable detour must be made around the foot of Argseus, so much so that even now an optional route is in use from Injesu to Chok-Greuz Keupru. The old route was, if anything, even more direct, f o r from Injesu, near which it is traceable, it headed f o r the river in due line for Boghaz-Keui. The Hittite inscription overlooking the river at Bogche, the continuous signs of the road approaching Injesu from this direction, the Phrygian inscription found on the site of Tyana, 1 and the Hittite inscriptions from the same vicinity, 2 are evidences of the antiquity of this road analogous in every way to those which have been accepted as identifying it in the Phrygian country, from Bey-Keui to Doghanlu. Incidentally we find light in this discovery on the historical antiquity of the Cilician Gates as the main channel of communication with the east. Later in these pages 3 we shall find reason to believe that the western part of the great Royal Road, which led the Persian posts in crossing Asia Minor to make the wide detour by way of Pteria (even though the city was in ruins),4 had been made and established by the Hittites in the thirteenth century B.C., when the stone walls of their capital crowned the hilltops of Boghaz-Keui. Possibly the earliest communication with the East was by way of the valley of the Tochma Su,5 or by Marash; but the development of this southern branch of the main chariot-way cannot well be later than the tenth century B.C., when the second kingdom of the Hittites grew prominent with Tyana (or maybe Csesarea) as its centre. See below, PI. x x v . (Hi); and Liverpool Annals of Arch., i. pp. 10,13. A t Andaval, C.I.H. (1900), PI. x x x i . ; and at Bor, ibid. (1906), PI. x x x i i i . See below, p. 91. 3 See p. 233. 4 See pp. 33, 38. 5 See p. 143. 1

2

26

A C H A P T E R OF G E O G R A P H Y

In passing now to a closer examination of the g e o g r a p h y of those portions of the tableland w i t h which we shall be most concerned in later chapters, w e cannot begin more appropriately than by a description of the Halys River itself, as one of the definite landm a r k s of the interior, and as including in its circuit some of the most instructive Hittite works. This splendid river, k n o w n in the Turkish language as the Kizil Irmak, has a total length of five hundred miles, without counting its minor windings. Its sources must be sought in the map beyond Sivas, f a r up the northern slope of the lower Armenian hills, 1 where at one point but a f e w miles divide it f r o m several tributaries of the Euphrates. F o r nearly t w o hundred miles it holds on in a south-westerly direction t h r o u g h hilly country, fed by numerous short streams on either hand, w h i c h scour f o r themselves deep channels in their s w i f t descent. Its w a t e r s are deeply stained red-brown in colour by the rich sediment which it carries. Its banks are rugged, and like most main rivers of western Asia it flows deep below the general level of the basin w h i c h it drains. The bridge opposite Csesarea (Chok-Geuz) is only gained by a steep climb on either side. B e t w e e n this and the other bridge some fifteen miles l o w e r down, the river flows characteristically through a steep-sided valley, with only n a r r o w strips of verdure along its banks. These strips are precious, and, though liable to be washed out by flood,2 are cultivated w i t h g r e a t care by individual peasants, w h o are rewarded w i t h fruits and even flowers, as well as the vegetables which are their chief concern. 3 Sometimes these strips, which 2 Cf. Strabo, XII. xi. 8. See PI. ii. (ii). W e noticed in passing an aged pair working together in their small garden of vegetables. It was summer-time, and their sleeping-place was a bower of branches and twigs covered entirely with pink roses. 1

3

PLATE XI

T H E C O U R S E OF T H E H A L Y S

27

are never more than a few feet in width, give way entirely where the rocks protruding from the bank present an obstacle around which the deep waters swirl. Ever and again, however, the steep banks recede, leaving a green oasis wherein a village lies among its crops. Yamoola is such a place, where the right bank lies back as the lower bridge is approached. But for the most part the edges of the plateau in which the river's bed is sunk are so rugged and so strewn with stone that they remain uncultivated. Here and there villages are found even in the river's banks; in some cases the entire houses are excavated therein, so that their windows look out on the water through walls of solid stone, as at Chok-Geuz Keupru ; in other cases the excavation is more partial, leaving most of the frontage and part of the roof to be built—the one with mud, the other with timber and mud, as may be seen by following the left bank below the lower bridge. The traveller will also be rewarded here in summertime with wildflowers in varieties of colour surpassing imagination, possible only in a highly fertile and neglected soil. Patches of pink, blue, orange, white and yellow meet the eye in quick succession. Roses grow in profusion, while here and there are whole fields of purple iris, shining and changing hue as they bend in the sunlight to the winds that play upon them. The volume of the river has now become so great that fords are few and generally difficult. That near Bogche 1 is no longer passable in the winter and springtime. The village itself lies back from the river-brink about fifteen miles below the Bir-Geuz bridge. Kara1 To be distinguished from the Bogche, which gives its name to the pass over the Giaour Dagh (p. 14).

28

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

burna lies near the opposite bank, another day's journey lower down. Hereabouts the hilly ground which lies eastward of the great lake Tuz Greul arrests the southerly progress of the river, which, thrown back, turns in a great sweep north-westwards for nearly a hundred miles, then northwards to latitude of Angora, so dividing the heart of the peninsula. The chief bridge in the latter portion of its course is now at Cheshme Keupru, where amongst other main communications the road from Caesarea to Angora recrosses the river. Hereabouts it would seem there was a bridge and fort or guardhouse in Persian times, 1 where the royal road from the Phrygian country and the west passed over towards BoghazKeui. Above this bridge the immediate banks are green and on the left side open ; but below the waters pass at once into a rocky defile, changes which are typical of the varying nature of the river's bed. Opposite Angora (which is distant about thirty miles at the nearest point) Nature opposes further obstacles to the northerly progress of the river in the broken ranges of the northern coast, so that it now turns completely upon its original direction, and henceforth flows north-easterly with one main detour. As it winds around the foot of the Kush Dagh it descends from the plateau, and in a widening valley with fertile banks finds its way into the Black Sea, northwards from Samsun, at the point of a promontory which it has itself deposited. The great circuit of the Halys encloses a tract of country a hundred and fifty miles across, watered chiefly by tributaries of the same river. Of these the 1 Herodotus, i. 75, and v. 52; Ramsay, Historical but see below, p. 38, note 1.

Geography,

p. 29;

PLATE XII

T H E BASIN OF T H E H A L Y S

29

Delije I r m a k is chief, and it is perhaps more directly concerned w i t h the fertility of the country t h a n its parent river. I t rises in the watershed of the A k D a g h Mountains, under the southern slopes of which the Halys itself flows down the long reach between Sivas and the bridges near Csesarea. Thence in its course it makes a similar circuit within t h a t of the Halys, which it only joins in the middle of the north-westerly reach. This river is more gentle in its flow, and its banks are mostly flat alluvial tracts of great f e r t i l i t y ; indeed, the land would support a population m a n y times more numerous than its settled inhabitants. L o n g green pastures and arable spots remain unneeded and neglected. It is small wonder t h a t the wandering Turkoman and other nomad peoples have found out this favoured region so suitable to their habits and the feeding of their flocks. Their tents in little groups are found quite frequently in places off the beaten tracks ; indeed their encampments remaining through several years sometimes m a r k the foundation of villages and settled life. The tent of the nomad is generally made of lengths of rough hand-made cloth, w o v e n f r o m homespun goats' wool. These are sewn together to give a considerable expanse of cover, which is spread over vertical poles and brought down to earth on the windw a r d side. In such a tent the owner and his f a m i l y share a common shelter w i t h their flocks and a n y other animals t h e y m a y possess. 1 In some cases the development of the house f r o m tent m a y be watched g r o w i n g proportionately w i t h the duration of their stay. F o r the ashes and rubbish are regularly t h r o w n out around 1 Cf. Pis. XII., XIII. (ii). W e are alluding to the poorer classes. There is a considerable degree of refinement and simple luxury among the more prosperous Turkomans. See, for example, Davis, Life in Asiatic Turkey, pp. 223-4.

30

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

t h e back of t h e t e n t f o r m e r e convenience. This r e f u s e g r a d u a l l y accumulates, a n d m a y be increased by e a r t h cleared g r a d u a l l y f r o m within, a n d b y stones collected f r o m t h e l a n d in use a r o u n d , so t h a t in a y e a r or t w o a w a l l or m o u n d t h r e e or f o u r f e e t h i g h a l r e a d y encloses t h e t e n t on t h r e e sides. T h e w o r n - o u t cloth cover is n o w replaced by a roof of r a f t e r s a n d t w i g s covered w i t h e a r t h , a n d p e r h a p s w i t h o u t realising i t t h e n o m a d h a s settled a n d built a house. The solution is n o t a l w a y s so simple or p u r e l y economical. I n some cases walls of reed a r e built, over w h i c h t h e cover will be s t r e t c h e d as b e f o r e a n d held d o w n all a r o u n d w i t h pegs. I n due course, w i t h a prolonged stay, t h e w o r n o u t cloth will be replaced b y t h a t c h , a n d r o u g h s t o n e walls s u p p l a n t t h e decaying r e e d s ; a n d so, as h e loses t h e h a b i t of w a n d e r i n g , t h e n o m a d loses also t h e necessaries of his j o u r n e y s . The Delije I r m a k is replenished in its t u r n b y n u m e r o u s smaller s t r e a m s ; on one of t h e s e is Y u z g a t , w h i c h h a d its origin in a s e t t l e m e n t of T u r k o m a n s , a n d h a s n o w g r o w n t o be one of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o w n s of t h e district. I t is p l e a s a n t l y s i t u a t e d in t h e cup-like hollow of a g r e e n hillside, a n d w i t h its wello r d e r e d streets, its stone-built b a z a a r s a n d public buildings, h a s a n a p p e a r a n c e of considerable a t t r a c tion. H e r e horses a r e t o be p r o c u r e d of u s e f u l k i n d a n d a t r e a s o n a b l e prices, a n d a g r e a t horse f a i r is held a n n u a l l y in t h e s u m m e r m o n t h s . The m a s o n e d s t o n e used in its construction w a s l a r g e l y b r o u g h t f r o m t h e r u i n s of a n c i e n t Tavium, which is f o u n d a t Nefez-Keui, a s h o r t j o u r n e y t o t h e west. T h e l a t t e r is one of t h e m o s t typical a n d i n s t r u c t i v e villages of t h e i n t e r i o r . I t is placed n e a r t h e sources of a n o t h e r t r i b u t a r y of t h e same river, well u p t h e s o u t h e r n slopes of a considerable s e c o n d a r y w a t e r s h e d . I n typical f a s h i o n

l'I A T E

NKAR S E K K K ! !

XU!

YUKl.'K K X C A M f M Í - . S T CA-«/-

1

V I L L A G E ON A H I S T O R I C S I T E

31

the backs of the houses are partly excavated in the hillside, so t h a t the mud-covered roofs are continuous w i t h the ground behind, while the f r o n t s of the houses and the village streets are banked up in terraces. Nearly all the houses have some f o r m of verandah sheltering their entrances; and numerous Greek inscriptions m a y be found built into the walls of m a n y buildings. The ancient acropolis m a y be recognised by a f e w sculptured f r a g m e n t s in a steep knoll some minutes westward, and on the w a y the modern cemetery is passed in which also several stones bearing Greek inscriptions or sculptures have been re-used and in some cases re-inscribed. The m a i n industry of the villagers here, as e v e r y w h e r e in A s i a Minor, is naturally agriculture. The fields in the dales below, though somewhat marshy in places, are v e r y green w i t h luxurious pastures and some quantity of t r e e s ; while nearer the village gardens of vegetables are plentiful w i t h orchards of fruit-trees and a considerable expanse of vineyards. Other national industries are carried on in the houses unnoticed, such as the handw e a v i n g of small carpets, 1 done chiefly b y the women. The w a t e r supply of the village is found in several springs, which h a v e been built up and prepared f o r the w a t e r i n g of cattle and flocks, as w e l l as f o r domestic purposes. The scene of women w a s h i n g their g a r m e n t s or their children at the trough, or drawing w a t e r a t the source is here, as t h r o u g h o u t the East, one of the most characteristic of daily life. The prevailing type of face among the inhabitants of this place is Turkoman, but a certain clean-cut Greek or proto-Greek type of face m a y be found suggested in some f e w of the men, recalling distantly a special type of Hittite warriors as portrayed in E g y p t i a n 1

PL

XVII.

32

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

sculpture. S o m e of t h e w o m e n a r e noticeably beautiful. 1 N o r t h w a r d s f r o m Nefez-Keui t h e r o u t e c o n t i n u e s t o rise t o t h e crest of t h i s s e c o n d a r y w a t e r s h e d , w h i c h reaches a h e i g h t of over seven t h o u s a n d feet. F r o m t h e e a s t e r n edge s e v e r a l s t r e a m s f a l l a w a y t o join t h e Ghekerek. As soon as t h e n o r t h e r n slopes a r e reached, a r e m a r k a b l e c h a n g e of l a n d s c a p e p r e s e n t s itself; b a r e p a t c h e s a r e replaced b y c o n t i n u o u s p a s t u r e s , a n d t h e s t r e a m w h i c h descends t o w a r d s B o g h a z - K e u i passes t h r o u g h m e a d o w s a n d wooded glades of peculiar b e a u t y . As t h e r i v e r 2 g a t h e r s s t r e n g t h it w o r k s its w a y i n t o a deep c o n t i n u o u s vale of i n c r e a s i n g splendour, t h e slopes of w h i c h a r e t h i c k l y covered w i t h t r e e s a n d s h r u b b e r y of considerable v a r i e t y , except w h e r e h e r e a n d t h e r e a b a r e p a t c h of rock or r e d - b r o w n soil a d d s to t h e c o n t r a s t of colours. A t t h e m o u t h of t h i s valley, on t h e r i g h t a t t h e f o o t of t h e hill, t h e little village of B o g h a z - K e u i is disclosed, w i t h its w h i t e m i n a r e t a n d houses a n d l a r g e k o n a k , on a low o u t c r o p of rock, m a d e p l e a s a n t by a f e w t r e e s a n d splashing s t r e a m s . T h e ridge is l e f t behind, a n d t h e landscape i m m e d i a t e l y opens o u t i n t o wide p a s t u r e s bounded by d a r k g r e e n uplands, a n d b r o k e n f r e e l y by w h i t e limestone rocks. The n a m e of t h i s place, t h e ' Village of t h e Gorge,' h a s a r i s e n possibly on a c c o u n t of its g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n , or m o r e p r o b a b l y in r e f e r e n c e t o t h e deep r a v i n e of a n o t h e r r i v e r 3 which b o u n d s t h e e a s t e r n edge of t h e historic hill, on which a r e t h e palaces a n d acropolis of a n c i e n t P t e r i a , t h a t m a r k s t h e onet i m e capital a n d c e n t r e of t h e land. I t is difficult f o r us n o w t o realise, w i t h t h e c h a n g e d political a n d 1

Cf. Pis. xiv., XVIII. 3 The Beuyuk Kay an in Daresi.

2

The Yazir Daresi. See PI. LIX.

P I A T E XIV

TT ANA: TURKISH WOMEN AHB CHI LU

PEOPLES OF ASIA MINOR

33

economic conditions, w h a t special feature there was peculiar to this site, unless that were its climate and defensible position, that should have marked it out for such a destiny. Its ancient city is n o w a deserted ruin, without meaning to modern life. Its roadways have no longer any significance, and even in the faces of its people there can be seen no reflection of its former population. It would seem that the Lydian conqueror of the sixth century B.C. had thoroughly and effectively destroyed it. 1 Another Hittite site, marked by a low mound n o w covered by the village of Eyuk, lies some t w e n t y miles farther to the north. The route thither winds around somewhat barren uplands, among which a f e w arable spots have been chosen as the sites of villages. In some of these, particularly in the remoter places upon the hills, an ancient type survives in striking and rugged contrast to the familiar though varying Turkish features. 2 Our photograph, taken at K u l a k l y (a hamlet on the w a y from Boghaz-Keui to Eyuk), discloses the same prominent facial details and sturdy figures as w e have previously seen in the wood1 H e r o d o t u s , i. 76, says t h a t Croesus e n s l a v e d t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , a n d took also t h e a d j a c e n t places, expelling t h e population. 2 W e do n o t a t t e m p t t o d i s t i n g u i s h a n y b u t t h e types t h a t recall t h e various H i t t i t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in c o n t e m p o r a r y sculptures, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h i c h d e c o r a t e t h e walls of E g y p t i a n temples. S u c h r e s e m b l a n c e m a y be accidental, b u t it is of i n t e r e s t . I n t h e deeper inquiry, t h e r e is a w o n d e r f u l field of m a t e r i a l for a t r a i n e d e t h n o g r a p h i s t . P r o b a b l y n o ' n a t i o n ' on e a r t h to-day is composed of so m a n y a n d v a r y i n g e l e m e n t s as is t h a t of t h e T u r k s . A w a l k t h r o u g h a n y m a r k e t t o w n , w h e r e t h e people a r e b r o u g h t together, or even a g l a n c e o u t of t h e c a r r i a g e w i n d o w a t t h e people on t h e p l a t f o r m of a b u s y r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , will b r i n g f o r t h visions of T a r t a r s a n d Mongols, Greeks a n d J e w s , even occasionally H i n d o o s a n d Arabs, as well as t h e d o m i n a n t T u r k o m a n , Circassian a n d A r m e n i a n types, all of w h i c h u n d e r N a t u r e ' s g e n t l e a n d w o n d e r f u l influence seem to blend q u i t e fittingly t o g e t h e r . T h e r e is n o t h i n g , moreover, t h a t a s t o n i s h e s t h e r e a s o n ; for t h i s c o u n t r y w a s n o t only t h e battlefield of nations, b u t t h e n a t u r a l p a t h w a y b e t w e e n t w o c o n t i n e n t s . Cf. Pis. x v . , LXXXV.-LXXXVII.

C

34

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

l a n d s above K a r t a l in t h e n o r t h of Syria. I t is a t y p e p r e s e r v e d t o some e x t e n t in t h e J e w i s h f a m i l i e s f o u n d in some of t h e t o w n s of Asia Minor, as w e h a v e seen t o be t h e case a t Csesarea. 1 I t is s t r i k i n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e A m o r i t e e l e m e n t a m o n g t h e H i t t i t e allies on t h e E g y p t i a n b a t t l e scenes. The m a i n r o a d w a y s of t h i s region, as indeed t h r o u g h o u t t h e t a b l e l a n d in general, a r e curiously i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e river systems. Local t r a c k s f o l l o w n a t u r a l l y t h e valleys of s t r e a m s so f a r as these serve f o r t h e r e q u i r e d direction, b u t in g e n e r a l t h e h i g h r o a d s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t l y devised. Of t h e s e t h e t w o w h i c h cross a t Y u z g a t a r e t h e c h i e f : t h e one leads f r o m Csesarea northwards either to Chorum, the administrative headq u a r t e r s of t h i s district, 2 or to A m a s i a s o m e w h a t eastw a r d , a n d so on t o S a m s u n on t h e coast of t h e Black S e a ; while t h e o t h e r connects Sivas w i t h A n g o r a a n d t h e w e s t . T h e l a t t e r r o u t e a s it a p p r o a c h e s t h e H a l y s passes by D e n e k Maden, w h e r e a r e considerable m i n e s of lead a n d silver, t h e ore of w h i c h contains also a n t i m o n y a n d gold. T h e descent t o t h e H a l y s bed lies t h r o u g h a well - t i m b e r e d c o u n t r y , a n d t h e r i v e r is crossed by this r o u t e a t C h e s h m e K e u p r u . T h e r e a r e also o t h e r r o u t e s of considerable i m p o r t a n c e , one of which h a s been m e n t i o n e d as connecting Csesarea w i t h A n g o r a directly, crossing t h e H a l y s t w i c e ; w h i l e a n o t h e r f r o m A n g o r a e a s t w a r d , m u c h used in s u m m e r t i m e , passes over t h e r i v e r considerably n o r t h of Cheshme K e u p r u , h e a d i n g f o r S u n g u r l u , w h e n c e t h e 1 Cf. I ' l s . i.xxxiv., I , X X X V I . (i). On the subject o f surviving types, cf. Wilson (Sir Charles) in the Quart. Statement Pal. Expl. Fd., J a n . 1884. 2 And thence in ancient times to Sinope. Ramsay, Hist. Geog., p. 28 ; see also Curtius, Griech. Gesch., ed. 5, i. 408, and Herodotus, i. 76, in reference to which cf. P e r r o t a n d Chipiez, History of Art in Sardinia . . . Syria and Asia Minor (Engl. ed. 1890), ii. p. 103.

PLATE XV

KULAK i. Y EBUí: TVl'h> OF I MlAJflTAN'I ,

NORTHERN ROADS A N D RIVERS

35

w a y is open t o C h o r u m by w a y of E y u k , or t o Y u z g a t , passing in this case by Boghaz-Keui. T h e r e a r e some f e w r i v e r s of t h i s region which do n o t e n t e r t h e basin of t h e Halys. The chief of t h e s e is t h e Chekerek, w h i c h rises likewise in t h e A k D a g h Mountains, a n d p u r s u e s a circuitous course n o r t h wards, in a v o i d i n g t h e slopes of m i n o r ranges, u n t i l it joins t h e r i v e r I r i s a t Amasia. The l a s t - n a m e d river, called in T u r k i s h t h e Yeshil I r m a k , w i t h its m a i n b r a n c h t h e Lycus, belongs e n t i r e l y to t h e coastal system, a n d so does n o t e n t e r i n t o o u r account of t h e i n t e r i o r p l a t e a u . A n o t h e r s t r e a m j u s t e a s t w a r d of t h e Iris is t h e T h e r m o d o n , m a d e f a m o u s in Greek l i t e r a t u r e 1 by its association w i t h t h e Amazons. This is one of a series of similar r i v e r s w h i c h flow a l m o s t directly n o r t h w a r d s t o t h e Black Sea f r o m t h e l o w e r A r m e n i a n hills. T h e r e a r e o t h e r s h o r t rivers of like k i n d w e s t w a r d of t h e Halys, some of which help to f e e d t h a t river, while o t h e r s flow directly t o t h e sea. These do n o t need to be m e n t i o n e d by t h e i r n a m e s , as t h e y all f a l l a w a y f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n slopes of t h e b r o k e n a n d i r r e g u l a r chain of m o u n t a i n s t h a t f o r m s t h e n o r t h e r n b o u n d a r y to t h e tableland. The m o s t w e s t e r l y m a i n r i v e r flowing t o t h e Black Sea is t h e S a n g a r i u s or S a k a r i a , which rises in t h e i n t e r i o r , a n d avoids t h e n o r t h e r n r a n g e s b y a long w e s t e r l y detour. N u m e r o u s e a r l y t r i b u t a r i e s of t h i s g r e a t r i v e r rise indeed in t h e slopes of t h o s e n o r t h e r n m o u n t a i n s , while o t h e r s f a l l f r o m t h e w e s t e r n side of t h e divide, w h i c h on t h e east overlooks t h e Halys. These m e a n d e r s o u t h w a r d a n d w e s t w a r d , seeking f o r a n opening t h r o u g h t h e u p l a n d region of which A n g o r a is t h e economic centre. T h e c o u n t r y w h i c h t h e y w a t e r 1

E.g. Herodotus, ix. 27; and Strabo, XI. ch. v. 4.

36

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

resembles in g e n e r a l characteristics m a n y p o r t i o n s in t h e basin of t h e H a l y s ; a n d t h o u g h l a r g e t r a c t s equally r e m a i n b a r r e n a n d neglected t h r o u g h lack of p o p u l a t i o n , it is on t h e whole b e t t e r cultivated, a n d hence m o r e productive. A n g o r a itself is s t r i k i n g l y placed u p o n a hill, crowned by a n old f o r t r e s s w h i c h overlooks a r a v i n e w i t h precipitous sides. 1 H e r e a r e extensive g a r d e n s a n d cultivation in sheltered spots, a n d in t h e i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o u r h o o d a r e n u m e r o u s o r c h a r d s a n d vineyards. The place is f a m o u s f o r its f r u i t s , especially p e a r s a n d apples, a n d f o r its h o n e y . T h e A n g o r a g o a t is historic, a n d t h e r e is still a considerable t r a d e in t h e m o h a i r which this a n i m a l produces, a n d t o some e x t e n t in special woven f a b r i c s . I t is t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h e a d q u a r t e r s of a l a r g e province, t h e seat, t h a t is t o say, of a W a l i ; a n d is a n i m p o r t a n t t r a d e c e n t r e f o r t h e i n t e r i o r . Several m a i n r o a d s conv e r g e u p o n it, n o t a b l y t h e h i g h r o a d connecting Cons t a n t i n o p l e w i t h t h e E a s t , by w a y of Y u z g a t a n d Sivas, w h i c h crosses t h e H a l y s a t C h e s h m e K e u p r u . A r o u t e n o l o n g e r of first i m p o r t a n c e , b u t d a t i n g p r o b a b l y f r o m P h r y g i a n t i m e s 2 a t least, connects A n g o r a w i t h GiaourKalesi, some t h i r t y miles south-west, a n d a n o t h e r place in this vicinity w i t h w h i c h we a r e concerned is Y a r r e , placed j u s t above a bridge across t h e S a n g a r i u s called Karanje Keupru. I n t h e t i m e of H e r o d o t u s t h e c o u n t r y a r o u n d A n g o r a w a s obviously r e g a r d e d a s a p a r t of P h r y g i a , t h e e a s t e r n b o u n d a r y of which w a s t h e Halys, dividing i t f r o m Cappadocia, 3 y e t we h a v e p r e f e r r e d t o look u p o n this a s a n o r t h e r n region a p a r t , a n d t o assign 1 See PI. L. Ramsay, Historical Geography, p. 31, and Jour. Roy. As. Soc., pp. 100-112 ; also Crowfoot, Jour. Hell. Stud., xix., i. p. 50. 3 Herodotus, i. 72. But cf. also Homer, Iliad, iii. 187, and xvi. 719. 2

xv.

P Í A T E XVI

T H E U P L A N D S OF P H R Y G I A

37

to the Phrygian country its later and more familiar boundaries. As such Phrygia f o r m s the geographical centre of the western portion of the peninsula. Here is the main watershed, in which are found the headwaters of three river systems. On the one side are the sources of the Hermus and the Mseander flowing down to the i E g e a n in the west; on another rises the Cayster (the Akkar-tchai), and several smaller rivers which follow a southerly or south-easterly course, emptying into inland l a k e s ; while f r o m the northern slopes, a s we have previously noticed, other waters feed the Sangarius, and a r e rolled with the flood of that river into the Black Sea eastward from the Bosphorus. These uplands are among the most attractive p a r t s of Asia Minor; the bracing air is filled with the delicious scent of pine-woods, the verdant pastures are well watered by numerous clear streams, and the meadows ripen under a glowing sun, the rays of which are tempered by the altitude. Here, too, are numerous monuments of the Phrygian kingdom ; while north-east f r o m these, a t Doghanlu Daresi, on one of many minor tributaries of the Sangarius, and south-west a t BeyKeui, a t one of the sources of the same river, near the summit of the watershed, there have been found traces of Hittite handiwork. Through the heart of this region, too, there passed the royal road of Persian times, 1 visible as a series of parallel scars in the surface rock. This was the main highway linking West with B a s t , and that it developed largely during Hittite times also is seen by the disposition of Hittite monuments along its track. Near the coast, it passed near where the sculptures of Sipylus and Kara-Bel looked down on the approaches to S m y r n a and to Ephesus. 1

Ramsay, Historical

Geography,

pp. 29, 30.

See PI. x x i v . (i).

38

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

F r o m S a r d i s its p r e c i s e r o u t e e a s t w a r d is n o t d e t e r m i n e d , b u t it m u s t h a v e e n t e r e d t h e P h r y g i a n c o u n t r y n e a r B e y - K e u i , w h e n c e i t is t r a c e a b l e p a s t B a k s h i s h a n d t h e m o n u m e n t of t h e P h r y g i a n Midas, n e a r w h i c h is also t h e H i t t i t e s c u l p t u r e a t D o g h a n l u D a r e s i . Still leading n o r t h - w e s t w a r d past Giaour-Kalesi, it would s e e m t o h a v e crossed t h e S a n g a r i u s n e a r t o Y a r r e , a n d t h e H a l y s e i t h e r a t or j u s t n o r t h w a r d s f r o m C h e s h m e K e u p r u , 1 h e a d i n g in all t h i s o t h e r w i s e u n e x p l a i n e d d e t o u r f o r B o g h a z - K e u i , t h e chief c e n t r e of t h e H i t t i t e s in t h e n o r t h . T h i s r o a d h a d a l r e a d y l o s t its m a i n object i v e e v e n in P e r s i a n times, f o r P t e r i a s e e m s n e v e r t o h a v e r e c o v e r e d f r o m its o v e r t h r o w b y Croesus, b u t it c o n t i n u e d t o be used, p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e i t w a s r e a d y m a d e ; a n d its t r a c e s r e m a i n , l i k e t h e i s o l a t e d m o n u m e n t s of t h e H i t t i t e s in t h e w e s t , s t r i k i n g w i t n e s s e s t o a v a s t s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t a n d e c o n o m i c o r g a n i s a t i o n u n l i k e a n y t h i n g i n l a t e r times. F o r o u r i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e i t is sufficient t o n o t i c e t h a t all t h e c l e a r l y H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s w e s t w a r d of t h e H a l y s a r e f o u n d a l o n g t h i s single line of road, a f a c t w h i c h is a s signific a n t a s it is r e m a r k a b l e . W e do n o t i n c l u d e in t h e f o r e g o i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h e r e g i o n of w h i c h I c o n i u m ( K o n i a ) is t h e c e n t r e , w h i c h fills t h e s o u t h e r n c o r n e r of t h e t a b l e l a n d . S e v e r a l m a i n r o a d s r a d i a t e n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h i s place, w h i c h is t h e chief t o w n of t h e p r o v i n c e ; t h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , o n l y t w o or t h r e e w i t h w h i c h w e a r e e v e n ind i r e c t l y concerned. Of t h e s e o n e leads n o r t h - w e s t w a r d , 1 Herodotus, i. 75, quotes a general doubt (in which, however, he does not share) that the Halys w a s not yet bridged in the time of Croesus. There are, however, suitable fords northward from Cheshme Keupru still freely used for the summer routes leading from Angora across the river eastward ; and that the bridge w a s in use in Persian times seems to be

clear (ibid., v. 52).

PI.ATE

NEFEZ-KEUI :

XV)I

C A K P E T - W E A VING (.SVrA

j!.)

T H E P L A I N S OF ICONIUM

39

passing Ilgin a t a distance of a b o u t fifty miles, a n d so i n t o P h r y g i a , w h i c h it a p p r o a c h e s u p t h e valley of t h e inland Cayster. T h e second is t h a t w h i c h leads e a s t w a r d across t h e p l a i n s b y S u l t a n H a n a n d A k s e r a i f o r Csesarea; a n d a third, b e n d i n g s o u t h w a r d t o avoid t h e d e s e r t plains, c o m m u n i c a t e s b y E r e g l i w i t h t h e Cilician Gates a n d w i t h T y a n a (Kilisse Hissar). In a n c i e n t t i m e s t h e r e m u s t h a v e been a m o r e direct r o a d connecting I c o n i u m w i t h T y a n a , passing by A r d i s t a m a , t h e site of w h i c h is still m a r k e d in w h a t is n o w desert by t h e n a m e of Arissama, w i t h t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g m o u n d s of Emir-Ghazi. 1 A r o u n d a n d n o r t h w a r d f r o m I c o n i u m t h e r e a r e extensive g r a s s plains, t h e n a t u r a l g r a z i n g g r o u n d of horses w h i c h a r e sent in g r e a t droves a n n u a l l y t o t h e f a i r s a n d m a r k e t s of t h e c o u n t r y , even as f a r as Baghdad. T h e breeds a r e n o t r e m a r k a b l e f o r quality, a n d cannot compare with those rare and beautiful animals r e a r e d in t h e plains t h a t b o r d e r t h e middle course of the Euphrates ; but they are for the most part a hardy species s t a n d i n g little h i g h e r t h a n a E u r o p e a n pony, u s e f u l f o r t r a n s p o r t , a n d t r a i n e d f o r t h e saddle t o t h e f a s t w a l k i n g p a c e in w h i c h long j o u r n e y s a r e a l w a y s made. 2 The r i v e r s of this r e g i o n a r e s h o r t a n d local, e n d i n g f o r t h e m o s t p a r t u p o n t h e plains in s a l t l a k e s a n d m a r s h e s , which, a f t e r t h e snows h a v e ceased t o melt, become a l m o s t dry, leaving t h e g r o u n d covered 1 Vide Ramsay, Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire (Aberdeen, 1906), pp. 177-180. 2 The H i t t i t e horses were called by the Egyptians abari, strong or vigorous ( A n a s t a s i Pap., iv., PI. XVII., 11. 8-9), but we may suspect that the reference here and elsewhere is to the breeds of Syria (vide Annals of Thothmes hi.) ; Maspero (Struggle of the Nations, p. 215, note 4, and p. 352, note 4) seems divided in his view, referring the passage in one place to Cappadocia and in the other to Syria. Cf. also his Passing of Empires (1900), p. 205. There was a special breed in Cilicia, it would appear, in Persian times, from the reference in Herodotus, iii. 90.

40

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

with white incrustation. Some of these lakes are of such volume as to be permanent; the largest of the kind, as has already been mentioned, is Tuz Geul; its waters are more dense even than those of the Dead Sea, and as they recede with the approach of summer they leave behind thick deposits of salt, collected regularly by the natives, who come many days' journey for the purpose. There is another great lake a long day's journey westward from Iconium; its situation, however, is quite different from the foregoing, as it is well up in the western mountains, nearly four thousand feet above the sea. The town of Beyshehr, which gives its name to the lake, is found on its south-eastern corner; and the road thereto from Iconium passes by Fassiler, a place remarkable for its ancient monuments and the peculiar facial type of its inhabitants. Further to the north, and near the eastern border of the lake, is Eflatoun-Bunar, the site of a famous ' Lycaonian' structure called ' Plato's spring.' With the tract westward of Konia, however, we have at present little concern,1 and when we turn eastward we are inclined to regard the Hittite sites, whether along the edge of Taurus like Mahalich and Ivriz, or isolated in the desert like Emir-Ghazi, as pertaining not to Konia, from which they are separated by desert, but to the same group as Tyana, with which they are to some extent geographically connected. This eastern group of sites, indeed, is remarkably linked together by a common river system. The centre is the ' White Lake' Ah Geul, at the foot of the Taurus, westward from Eregli, and southward from the desert 1 I t is, however, full of interests, as any student of Professor Ramsay's researches will know.

PLATE XVIII

NKI ¥•/, K M l : MIN A REt' O » T H E V il.l.AfiK MOSQÜE litiilt üf the »Irtim of a fiüleil columjn, :in riltar ami mmiUied s>f ihf k'-:iiati:jjCMi.nl, i ' f t / i . ¡1.)

ANATOLIAN MOKSKS: T H E HALT AT NOONDAY (.Sic A

J

THE SOUTH-EASTERN REGION

41

ridge called K a r a j a Dagh, on the northern slopes of which is Emir-Ghazi.1 This lake is of variable size. When overfull its surplus waters disappear in a hole that passes under the mountain; during the dry season, however, it becomes a marshy pond of stagnant water. Into this come three chief rivers. From the south-east the A k Su, which rises in the main chain of Taurus, drains also the outlying spur known as the Kara Dagh, on the crest of which is Mahalich. Here also is Bin Bir Kilisse, ' The Thousand and One Churches,' an ancient site; while just to the north the isolated hill called Kizil Dagh rises from the plain. From the south-east there comes the Kodja Su from high in the Bulghar Dagh, flowing past Eregli, before which it is joined by a stream that with wonderful noise gushes forth in many points from the rock near the hamlet of Ivriz, six or seven miles above the town. This source is called by the natives Huda Verdi, ' Godhas-given,' in appreciation of a divine gift that transforms an arid corner of the desert into a garden-valley rich in fruit-trees and vines. Into the same lake from the north-east comes the Kizilja Su, after a sluggish journey across the eastern plains, fed in its course by many streams descending from the inner ranges of the Taurus. The head-waters of this river give life to a whole district of peculiar interest. The main stream rises just northward at Andaval, flowing past that village to Nigdeh and thence to Bor; just below here it is joined by another branch on which is Kilisse Hissar, the site of old-time Tyana. Here are abundant and picturesque ruins of antiquity, and though nothing 1 Professor Ramsay's Luke the Physician, pp. 129 ff., tells of numberless neglected irrigation works in the desert and on the slopes of Taurus. The country must, at one time, have presented quite a different appearance.

42

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

h a s y e t been f o u n d e a r l i e r t h a n t h e t i m e of t h e P h r y g i a n Midas, 1 t h e r e seems t o be n o d o u b t f r o m t h e a c c o u n t s of S t r a b o a n d o t h e r sources t h a t i t w a s f r o m earliest t i m e s t h e political c e n t r e of t h i s region. I t is even p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e H i t t i t e i n s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d in each of t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g t o w n s j u s t m e n t i o n e d h a v e been t r a n s p o r t e d f r o m h e r e in p a s t times. 2 This district is m o s t l y level, being a c t u a l l y t h e e a s t e r n b o r d e r of t h e plain, t h o u g h l y i n g a t t h e f o o t of t h e Ala Dagh Mountains t h a t f r o m here trend north-east t o w a r d s Argseus. Owing doubtless t o t h e v a r i o u s f e r t i lising p r o p e r t i e s of t h e n u m e r o u s s t r e a m s t h a t come d o w n f r o m t h e hills t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y is u n u s u a l l y f r u i t f u l a n d p r o d u c t i v e ; indeed, t h e r e g i o n a r o u n d B o r w a s in olden t i m e s selected as a p a r t of t h e R o m a n I m p e r i a l E s t a t e . E v e r y w h e r e a r e wide acres of c o r n - l a n d ; while in t h e vicinity of t h e t o w n a r e g a r d e n s , groves, a n d vineyards, a d d i n g t o t h e a t t r a c t i o n which t h e n u m e r o u s m o n u m e n t s of a n t i q u i t y a l r e a d y i m p a r t t o it. T h e s a m e f e a t u r e s prevail all a l o n g t h e r o u t e f r o m Csesarea b y I n j e s u , passing b y t h e e x t e n s i v e groves a n d g a r d e n s of Develi K a r a h i s s a r a n d t h e miles of a r a b l e land, d r y b u t productive, b e t w e e n A r a b l i a n d A n d a v a l . The a p p r o a c h t o T y a n a , a s w e proceed, r u n s f o r miles alongside a n a n c i e n t b u t r u i n e d a q u e d u c t , p i c t u r e s q u e l y placed a m o n g g a r d e n s a n d trees. 3 C o n t i n u i n g south, t h e rolling plains give w a y g r a d u a l l y t o t h e o u t l y i n g s p u r s of t h e T a u r u s , a n d t h e m a i n r o u t e crossing t h e w a t e r s h e d leads on t o w a r d s t h e Cilician Gates, d o w n t h e m a i n valley of t h e C h a k i a Su. 4 1

See below, p. 56, and PI. x x v . (iii). Cf. Ramsay and Hogarth, Recueil de Travaux, xiv. (1893), pp. 74 and ff. See PI. i.v. 4 Locally called the Bozanti Su or Ak Su, from the names of important points along the route ; it is a main tributary of the Sarus, which it joins after uniting with the Korkun as it nears the plain. 2

3

P L A T h. X I X

BOR ; B B I B ö E O V E * T H K K I Z Î L J A - S U

A VALLEY IN THE TAURUS

43

A m o u n t a i n - t r a c k , leaving t h e r o a d a t Bayal, leads s o u t h w a r d over a series of parallel ridges of i n c r e a s i n g h e i g h t a n d g r a n d e u r 1 directly f o r Bulghar-Maden. T h e silver mines, to which t h e place owes its n a m e a n d p r o b a b l y its being, seem t o h a v e been considerably w o r k e d in a n c i e n t times. T h e village is f o u n d deep in a valley u n d e r t h e B u l g h a r D a g h , a chief r a n g e of T a u r u s , n e a r l y n i n e t h o u s a n d f e e t in h e i g h t . The s t r e a m rises f a r u p t h e ridge, f r o m t h e opposite side of which a b r a n c h of t h e K o d j a Su flows d o w n t o w a r d s Ivriz a n d Eregli. I t s course is e a s t w a r d , a n d a s it dashes down its r o c k y bed it is already, w h e n p a s s i n g Bulghar-Maden, n e a r l y t h r e e t h o u s a n d f e e t below t h e snow-splashed crags along t h e base of which it flows. F r o m t h e r e t h e valley, t h o u g h n a r r o w a n d steep-sided, a s s u m e s t h e v e r d a n t a n d e n c h a n t i n g b e a u t y t h a t ever dwells by m o u n t a i n - s t r e a m s , l e n d i n g c h a r a c t e r t o a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e H i t t i t e s ' c o u n t r y . B u t t o t h e t r a v e l l e r f o l l o w i n g in s u m m e r - t i m e t h e t r a c k t h a t winds d o w n t h e l e f t b a n k of t h e river, this b e a u t y a n d e n c h a n t m e n t is intensified h e r e b y t h e vast s e t t i n g of t h e picture, by its fulness a n d v a r i e t y of detail a n d rich c o n t r a s t s of colours, combined w i t h t h e movem e n t a n d v a r i e g a t e d costumes of t h e people t h a t mingle in t h e scene. T h e b a n k s a r e f r u i t - g a r d e n s , a n d wildflowers of varied sorts c a r p e t t h e g r o u n d w i t h splendour. Vines a n d m u l b e r r i e s a r e in p r o f u s i o n ; a n d ripe cherries m a y be plucked even f r o m t h e saddle, t h e i r b r i g h t clusters m o t t l i n g e v e r y w h e r e t h e d a r k green foliage. Below, t h e swirling w a t e r s , seen a t i n t e r v a l s , c o n t r i b u t e also t h e i r h a r m o n i o u s changes, being w h i t e a n d g l e a m i n g w h e r e played on b y t h e b r i g h t sunlight, and a g a i n clear g r e e n in t h e deeper 1

See frontispiece.

44

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

pools and shaded places. F r o m among the trees, t h e bright colours prevailing in Turkish costumes, reds and blues, yellow and white, add to the effect; for the whole population of the scattered hamlets, men and women, boys and girls, are in the gardens or beneath the trees. At one place m a y be seen an aged couple bending side by side a t their work upon their tiny plot of land. Below, under a spreading tree, against t h e stem of which he leans, a bare-legged boy is piping his reed flutes, as Marsyas did, while boys and girls stand near in groups talking and a t play. Beyond, out of sight of these, upon a sand-and-pebble beach two little boys, quite naked, are dancing merrily by themselves to the distant music. In the background rises t h e immense wall of m o u n t a i n : its lower slopes are thickly wooded with larch and pines, giving way in t h e middle heights to scrub oak, which continues to struggle upward until the bleak rock appears. Overhead a curious phenomenon tempers t h e heat of noonday in this happy valley, especially on windless days when its beneficence is most appreciated. Towards midday a mist, arising probably from the melting of t h e snows upon the ridge, spreads over the valley like a canopy, and so it remains until as the afternoon wears on the vapour re-condenses, and t h e b r i g h t sun reappears to cheer the evening. E x c e p t for this peculiarity t h e valley resembles in general m a n y of those innumerable sheltered rifts among the Taurus and AntiTaurus Mountains, wherein t h e rigour of winter is recompensed by t h e bounteous summer, and the scattered population pursues its life, isolated from and almost independent of the moving world. W h e r e this mountain-stream unites with t h e Chakia Su a bridge carries the t r a c k across to the other bank

PLATE XX

HISTORIC PASS THROUGH TAURUS 45 t o join equally t h e m a i n r o a d t o t h e South. This is t h e historic r o u t e leading t h r o u g h t h e Cilician Gates, t h e only pass available f o r traffic t h r o u g h t h e u n b r o k e n rock w a l l of T a u r u s . Peoples h a v e passed t h r o u g h it t h a t h a v e f o r m e d n a t i o n s ; t h e a r m i e s of conquerors h a v e t r a v e r s e d it in t h e s t r u g g l e of c o n t i n e n t s ; religions f r o m t h e E a s t h a v e m a d e it t h e i r c h a n n e l of a p p r o a c h t o w a r d s t h e u n t h i n k i n g W e s t ; P a u l of T a r s u s travelled t h r o u g h it b r i n g i n g t h e Cross of P e a c e ; a n d t h r o u g h it t h e C r u s a d e r s t o o k b a c k in due t i m e t h e Cross of W a r . M a k e r s of history—Persian, Greek, a n d Maced o n i a n ; Christian, J e w , a n d Moslem, all h a v e passed t h i s way. T h e nicely engineered road, however, w i t h its bridges a n d e m b a n k m e n t s , its rock-cuttings a n d eased gradients, is a w o r k of m o d e r n times. A t t h e o p e n i n g of o u r s t o r y we m u s t look back t o t h e beginn i n g s of t h e pass in a r o u g h t r a c k alongside t h e r u s h i n g s t r e a m . E v e n in e a r l y H i t t i t e times, if we p a y r e g a r d t o t h e disposition of t h e i r m o n u m e n t s , i t seems probable t h a t t h e l o n g e r b u t m o r e open r o u t e t h a t follows t h e T o c h m a Su, a n d t h e s h o r t e r b u t r o c k y t r a c k t h a t descends by K u r u - B e l , c o n t i n u e d to be t h e chief lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o m a i n b r a n c h e s of t h e i r empire. 1 Previous, however, t o P e r s i a n t i m e s t h e r o a d t h r o u g h t h e Cilician Gates m u s t h a v e been sufficiently a r r a n g e d t o e n a b l e a wheeled c a r t or c h a r i o t t o pass t h a t way. 2 The r o u t e m a y be divided i n t o m a i n sections, t h e first 1 It is stated, however, by Aucher-Eloy, Relations de Voyages en Orient de 1830 a 1838, i. p. 160, t h a t a rock sculpture (of uncertain character) which he had seen in the Cilician Gates was destroyed in 1834. 2 W e may reasonably suspect t h a t this dates from the revival of the Hittite state with Tyana as its centre, in the tenth century B.C. (See above, p. 24, and below, p. 373.) On this question see Ramsay, The Cities of St. Paul (London, 1907), pp. 114 and if., also Pauline and other Studies (London, 1906), ch. x i . ; ef. also, for a description of the route, Davis, Life in Asiatic Turkey (London, 1879), ch. viii.

46

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

r e a c h i n g as f a r as B o z a n t i H a n . I n this p o r t i o n , which m a y be r e g a r d e d as t h e n o r t h e r n a p p r o a c h t o t h e Cilician Gates, t h e scenery g r a d u a l l y a t t a i n s all t h e beauties of a deep m o u n t a i n - p a s s . The steep slopes of t h e valley a r e clad w i t h t h e dense g r o w t h of pines, mixed f r e e l y w i t h oak a n d cypress, a n d o t h e r t r e e s of v a r y i n g foliage. I n places t h e b a r e rock p r o t r u d e s a n d t o w e r s a l o f t precipitously, w i t h s h a r p p e a k s r e a c h i n g to t h e snow-line. E v e r a n d a g a i n a m o r e open glade, or t h e w i d e n i n g of t h e wooded valley w h e r e t h e river is joined b y o t h e r w a t e r s , a d d s p l e a s i n g v a r i e t y to t h e j o u r n e y , a n d b r i n g s i n t o g r e a t e r prominence t h e boldness a n d b e a u t y of t h e views. A t one place, visible b y a s h o r t detour, t h e r e b u r s t o u t of t h e rock t h e clear d a r k w a t e r s called a p p r o p r i a t e l y K a r a Su, c h a n g i n g t h e colour of t h e e n t i r e river. S e v e r a l ' H a n s ' 1 a r e passed a n d bridges crossed b e f o r e n e a r i n g B o z a n t i ; a n d h e r e a b o u t s t h e river, w i t h w h i c h t h e road h a s descended t h u s f a r , e n t e r s a r o c k y a n d precipitous defile t h r o u g h which it r u s h e s t o t h e plain. Avoiding this, t h e r o u t e crosses a low divide, a n d descends u p o n a n a r m of a n o t h e r river, t h e Oydnus, w h i c h leads d o w n e v e n t u a l l y t o T a r s u s a n d t h e sea. F o r a s h o r t w a y in t h i s second section of t h e r o u t e t h e c o u n t r y is m o r e open, b u t t h e e n c h a n t m e n t of i t is m a i n t a i n e d in t h e wooded h i g h l a n d landscapes, w i t h views of t h e d a r k g r e e n slopes of r a g g e d T a u r u s a n d t h e s n o w y crest a n d crevices of B u l g h a r D a g h . T w o well-placed o r n a m e n t a l f o r t s 2 a r e passed, a n d t h e w i n d i n g road, w h e n seemingly faced by a n i m p e n e t r a b l e ridge of m o u n t a i n , e n t e r s suddenly a deep rocky gorge. The spot is m a r k e d by a n inscription of Marcus A u r e l i u s 1 2

Koadside rest-houses. Cf. Pis. XIII., x x . Built or rebuilt it would seem by Ibrahim Pasha.

i'LATF. X X I

E N T R A N C E UK T W « C I U C I AN i . A T K S

T H E CILICIAN GATES

47

on a rock in the river s bed. This is the veritable Gate of Cilicia. A doable door would close it and defy an army. In keeping with its momentous history, the scenery as the descent continues at once assumes a wild and impressive grandeur, unparalleled in beauty, passing description, to which all that has passed before served but as introduction. Now the keynote is changed, and Nature's full orchestra breaks forth into a theme of violent and majestic discords, ever changing yet sustained, leaving for ever the impression of its grand harmonies. Here the crags tower up a thousand feet on either side. A myriad trees, their varied tones intensified by the glowing sunlight, clothe with soft colours the heights that hem in the horizon save where it is broken by fantastic peaks. Now the valley is torn by great rifts of red and grey rock, and warning precipices of prodigious character overhang the pathway. Below, on a verdant bed bedecked with flowers and creepers, peaceful glades and vistas disclose the chequered waters of the stream. Another turn, and a broad sweep of virgin forest lines the slopes in an unbroken curve ; and ever and again Nature's panorama changes, attracting the eye to some fresh beauty or surprise. Though seemingly inaccessible, yet up in the wooded heights here and there a small village may be found, its houses nestling among fruit-trees and luxurious wildflowers. The people are very poor, for on these broken hilltops arable spots are scarce and difficult to work. They are also reticent and unsophisticated, and it is impossible to obtain from them any consistent reason as to their choice of dwelling-place while so many miles of corn-land in the interior await man's

48

A CHAPTER OF GEOGRAPHY

labour. And since t h e b r a c i n g m o u n t a i n a i r a m i d t h e pines, a n d t h e u n i q u e views all round, w h i c h e x t e n d beyond T a r s u s to t h e sea, a r e t o t h e m considerations of l a s t i m p o r t a n c e , w e a r e l e f t t o c o n j e c t u r e in this case also t h a t t h e i r ancestors f o u n d r e f u g e h e r e f r o m t h e political s t o r m s of a n u n k n o w n date. W e a r e inclined to believe t h a t this w a s t h e reason, a n d t h a t t h e d a t e w a s r e m o t e , because of t h e survival a m o n g s t t h e m in s t r i k i n g p u r i t y of a t y p e of t h e old H i t t i t e races which, t h o u g h peculiar, is f a m i l i a r on t h e E g y p t i a n m o n u ments. I t m a y indeed h a v e been t h a t of t h e Cilicians in g e n e r a l : it is s t r o n g l y mongoloid in a p p e a r a n c e except f o r t h e nose, which is s t r o n g a n d s t r a i g h t , b u t fine. The chin is beardless, b u t t h e r e is a t h i n d a r k cynical m o u s t a c h e ; t h e cheek-bones a r e h i g h a n d t h e eyes oblique. In the Egyptian sculptures a pigtail usually completes t h e s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s of t h e p o r t r a i t , b u t t h i s seems n o t t o h a v e survived t h e Moslem t o n s u r e . Once t h r o u g h t h e pass t h e w h o l e c h a r a c t e r of t h e c o u n t r y changes as b y a magician's w a n d a n d a n o t h e r l a n d u n f o l d s itself. The b r a c i n g d r y u p l a n d s a r e l e f t b e h i n d w i t h t h e i r peculiar f a s c i n a t i o n a n d unrealised possibilities, a n d in t h e i r place t h e r e a p p e a r t h e palmt r e e s a n d f r u i t - g a r d e n s of a s o u t h e r n clime, w i t h p h y sical peculiarities, economy, a n d population e n t i r e l y different. The w e s t e r n plain of Oilicia is e n t i r e l y alluvial soil, a n d is well called t h e f r u i t - g a r d e n of W e s t e r n Asia. T o w a r d s t h e e a s t t h e r e a r e some hilly places, b u t t o t h e n o r t h - e a s t t h e plain s t r e t c h e s o u t again, following a n inland b a y of t h e m o u n t a i n s . These plains seem t o be wholly t h e g i f t of t h e n u m e r o u s rivers which w a t e r t h e m . These, descending f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n o u s region above, w h e r e i n t h e n a t u r e of t h e

PLATE

TARSUS:

THE GARDENS

ANU THB

TOWS

X X TL

T H E P L A I N OF C I L I C I A

49

stone is various and to a large extent volcanic, bring down with them the rich alluvium which is deposited in their sluggish course below. Their names have been already mentioned. Some further streams to the west have a swifter course from the mountains which in that direction gradually approach the sea. Mersina, the modern port, marks almost the western extremity of the plain. The green tract of Cilicia is so shut in to the north by the Taurus ranges, and to the east by the Amanus mountains, and so exposed to the sea, that it seems as if Nature had designed this unique corner of Asia Minor for a history of its own. Its remarkable fertility, however, and the important passes which lead down to it in several directions, make it impossible that it could have been overlooked by any power in possession of its frontiers. For this reason, and in this instance, the absence of any clearly Hittite remains 1 must be attributed to accident and to the nature of the country. But it is indeed remarkable that in none of the defiles that connect it with the several portions of the Hittite land has a single Hittite monument been discovered. When we consider how suitable many spots would seem to be for Hittite monuments, whether in the Cilician Gates, or in the valley of the Pyramus, or in the pass leading by Bogche over the Amanus mountains eastward, or on the wave-washed rocks which must be crossed by the coast route to Alexandretta, this absence of any Hittite trace becomes the more conspicuous and significant. It establishes the probability towards which we have been already drawn, 1 W e c a n n o t a c c e p t a s H i t t i t e , f r o m t h e evidence before u s , t h e doorw a y a n d c a r v e d lintel f r o m L a m a s near A s e l i - K e u i ; L a n g l o i s , Voyage en Cilicie, p. 169; P e r r o t a n d Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 57; Messerschnsiidt, C.I.H. (1900), PI. X X X I I I . H.

50

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that the main channel of communication between the lands of the Hittites in the north of Syria and in Asia Minor was by way of the mountain passes of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus where their monuments are found in comparative plenty.

PLATE

TARSUS:

XXIII

SACKKD STONK IN A C O W IK. IN T H E C O O B T ÖF AN A R A B SHRINK

II

SOME PAGES OP HISTORY IN this chapter w e take a passing glance a t the history of the Hittite lands a f t e r the Hittite power had passed, down to the establishment of the S e l j u k T u r k s in the t w e l f t h and thirteenth centuries A.D. I t is not a connected story, f o r w i t h the disappearance of the Hittites the political horizon changed: therea f t e r the balance of power in the Near E a s t w a s several times distributed anew. W e must therefore be content to sketch an outline of the general course of e v e n t f u l history in which the lands subsequently shared, and to note in w h a t manner, but not to w h a t extent, the local records and monuments are evidence of the parts t h e y severally played. W e are compelled to m a k e these limitations, f o r no land on earth can claim a history so momentous as the drama t h a t w a s worked out in Asia Minor during the centuries t h a t followed the Hittite domination. Here w a s the scene of a long struggle f o r supremacy both among its o w n peoples and between the adjoining portions of the t w o continents which it connects; a thousand Iliads would do scant justice to the deeds of arms alone. A n d the struggle of the continents w a s not merely f o r the possession of a land itself rich in minerals and f o r the most p a r t highly fertile, but f o r a passage-way f o r great migrations, civilisations, and religions. To this story w e h a v e nothing to contribute, 51

52

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

n o n e w evidence t o b r i n g f o r w a r d , n o n e w opinions to m a i n t a i n ; t h e h i s t o r y of Asia Minor h a s been w r i t t e n b y pens m o r e able a n d m o r e c o m p e t e n t t o deal w i t h it. 1 I n i n t r o d u c i n g these f e w pages our object is t o subserve o u r m a i n i n q u i r y ; t o enable us t o distinguish b e t w e e n t h e w o r k s of t h e v a r i o u s p h a s e s of h i s t o r y t h a t w e m e e t w i t h in o u r w a n d e r i n g s , a n d especially t o a p p r e c i a t e b y c o n t r a s t t h e peculiarities of t h e H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s w h i c h w e shall n e x t consider. T h o u g h w e d e f e r w r i t i n g t h e s t o r y of t h e H i t t i t e s u n t i l we h a v e seen w h a t t h e i r o w n w o r k s can tell us, w e find ourselves obliged t o t r a c e its o u t l i n e 2 in o r d e r to decide a t w h a t p o i n t t h a t s t o r y ends. T h e H i t t i t e s first a p p e a r in h i s t o r y a b o u t 2000 B.C., w h e n it would a p p e a r t h a t t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y p o w e r f u l e n o u g h t o o v e r t u r n t h e first d y n a s t y of B a b y l o n a n d sack t h a t city, a n d t h a t t h e y h a d s e t t l e m e n t s in s o u t h e r n S y r i a on t h e f r o n t i e r s of E g y p t . C e r t a i n H i t t i t e t a b l e t s f r o m C e n t r a l Asia Minor a r e said t o belong to t h e s a m e age. N o t h i n g is k n o w n , h o w e v e r , of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e H i t t i t e s in t h e s e e a r l y t i m e s ; b u t it m a y be inferred that they subsequently retired f r o m the south or w e r e t h e r e s u b m e r g e d . I t is n o t u n t i l t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y B.C. t h a t t h e n a m e of t h e H i t t i t e s definitely reappears, w h e n successive expeditions of t h e P h a r a o h s e n c o u n t e r e d t h e m in t h e n o r t h of Syria. T h e n in t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e i r c a p i t a l is f o u n d a t BoghazKeui, in t h e r u i n s of which t h e i r archives of t h i s period h a v e been r e c e n t l y u n e a r t h e d . These, s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e Tell-el-Amarna l e t t e r s , tell h o w t h e K i n g of t h e 1 Among works readily accessible, we may refer the reader to Mr. Hogarth's summary in the introduction to Murray's Handbook; to the articles by Winckler and Brandis in vols. iii. and iv. of The World's History, Ed. Helmolt (London, 1902); and for the materials to Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (London, 1890). 2 For a detailed account, with the sources, see below, Chapter vi.

SOME P A G E S OF H I S T O R Y

53

' Hatti'—the local and at that time dominant element— became Great K i n g of the Hittite confederated peoples and vassal states, whose chief towns included most of the sites identified with Hittite remains, like H a m a t h , Aleppo, Carchemish, Marash, Malatia, and m a n y citystates as yet unidentified. This was the period of their greatest empire, and it is probable t h a t the regions of Cilicia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, and even L y d i a a t this time acknowledged the suzerainty of the all-powerful soldier-king. F o r five or six generations of the H a t t i rulers the position of the Hittites a s a dominant power in Western Asia was recognised by the P h a r a o h s and the K i n g s of Babylon, both in their letters and treaties and by the exchange of a m b a s s a d o r s . D u r i n g the g r e a t migrations of the twelfth century B.C., however, it would seem t h a t the H a t t i dynasty was overthrown and the Hittite empire dismembered. This m a y be inferred f r o m the cessation of their own archives a n d f r o m the appearance of the Muski, identified in later times with the Phrygians, 1 upon the north-west frontier of Assyria, 2 having thus f o u g h t their w a y across the heart of Asia Minor. These were repulsed, 3 but this incursion w a s contemporaneous with a shifting of the chief Hittite power to Carchemish, while H a m a t h on the Orontes and other southern centres come into increased prominence. In trying to work out the story of the decline and fall of the Hittite power, we a r e faced with the s a m e difficulty that enshrouded the whole problem of the Hittites until recent discoveries shed the light of 1 The identification of Mita of Muski with Midas of Phrygia was first pointed out by Winckler, Ostorientalische Forschungen, ii. 71 ff. Our inference is that the Muski of the Assyrian Annals, the Moschoi of Herodotus (iii. 94), were really akin to the Phrygians of later history. 2 About 1170 b.o. 3 Fifty years later, in the reign of Tiglath Pileser I.

54

SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

internal documentary evidence upon the period of their empire—namely, that for the most part only the events connected with certain of their frontier lands came at all within the horizon of the Assyrian and the Greek historians, and these are seen by us with relative disproportion. To take a single illustration, we fail to find in the Egyptian and Assyrian records any suggestion as to the position of the Hittite capital of the fourteenth century at Boghaz-Keui; and for more than seven hundred years we are without any direct evidence as to its fortunes, until a chance reference by Herodotus in describing the affairs of Lydia tells us of its final overthrow. In the tenth century, however, during the temporary decline of Assyria and the withdrawal of the Phrygians, the Hittite states may be inferred to have largely recovered their power and independence. But though there were frequent alliances between neighbouring states, there does not seem to have been any over-lord, as of old, powerful enough to unite them all under his leadership and to maintain a consistent policy. Malatia and Marash appear as the chief cities of kingdoms in Taurus, while in the Anti-Taurus the kingdom of Tabal (or Tubal) probably included the districts of Komana, Ekrek, Mazaca, and Fraktin. On the plateau the kingdom of the Khilakku, which we may call Greater Cilicia (embracing the region from Tyana to the Kara Dagh, and from Karaburna to BulgharMaden), replaced the original state of Hatti within the Halys as chief representative of Hittite power and tradition. But it was not for long : if the Muski had retreated it was only to gather strength; while in the east a new rival, of force and character similar to the Hittites, had appeared in the region of Lake Yan, press-

THE LAST OF THE HITTITES

55

ing d o w n to t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d even i n t o Syria, w h e r e also t h e s t e a d y i n f i l t r a t i o n of A r a m a e a n peoples w a s a l r e a d y c h a l l e n g i n g t h e d o m i n a n c e of t h e old H i t t i t e stock. F r o m t h e m i d d l e of t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y also t h e s t r u g g l e s of t h e w e a k e n i n g H i t t i t e t r i b e s a g a i n s t t h e r e v i v i n g p o w e r of Assyria w e r e r e n e w e d ; a n d t h i s t i m e t h e y w e r e doomed. T h e i r l a n d s of S y r i a a n d in t h e T a u r u s w e r e t h e r e a f t e r t h e objective of m a n y punitive expeditions on t h e p a r t of successive A s s y r i a n kings, w h o claim a l w a y s t o h a v e conquered a n d e x a c t e d t r i b u t e . F o r over a c e n t u r y , however, t h o u g h m a n y t i m e s d e f e a t e d a n d severely punished, these s t a t e s as o f t e n f o u n d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c a s t i n g off t h e yoke. B u t Sargon, l a t e in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , a d o p t e d w i t h s t e r n d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h e policy w h i c h his predecessors h a d i n i t i a t e d , of t r a n s p o r t i n g l a r g e n u m b e r s of t h e rebellious p o p u l a t i o n a n d replacing t h e m by A s s y r i a n colonists. One by one t h e g r e a t e r H i t t i t e centres on his f r o n t i e r s w e r e absorbed, a n d w h e n t h e A s s y r i a n forces passed i n t o Asia Minor t o challenge t h e suprem a c y of t h e P h r y g i a n Midas, a b o u t 718 B.C., it is clear t h a t t h e s e t w o p o w e r s h a d divided t h e H i t t i t e t e r r i t o r y b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e a p p e a r a n c e , too, in t h e n o r t h , of t h e Cimmerians, in wellnigh irresistible s t r e n g t h , h a d c h a n g e d t h e political horizon. 1 F r o m one p o i n t of view, h o w e v e r , it would be n a t u r a l t o p o i n t t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of P t e r i a b y Croesus, in t h e middle of t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y B.C., as the last e v e n t of H i t t i t e history, a n d so begin our p o s t - H i t t i t e s t o r y f r o m t h a t time. The conquest b y C y r u s and t h e reunificat i o n of all t h e H i t t i t e l a n d s u n d e r P e r s i a n rule a f e w y e a r s l a t e r , in 546, would p r o v i d e a suitable s t a r t i n g 1

See t h e Maps accompanying Chap. vi. pp. 375, 385.

56

SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

p o i n t ; yet, in fact, f r o m t h e age of Sargon, a c e n t u r y a n d a half before, t h e r e can be t r a c e d n o r e a l semblance of surviving H i t t i t e p o w e r n o r a n y of t h e old H i t t i t e individuality in t h e local a r t s . Their v e r y n a m e t h e n a l m o s t d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m O r i e n t a l history, a n d w a s ret a i n e d b u t as a m e m o r y ; while in Asia Minor t h e p o w e r of t h e P h r y g i a n k i n g s w a s t h e n a t its zenith, a n d in t h e presence of P h r y g i a n inscriptions a t E y u k , 1 n e a r t h e old H i t t i t e capital, a n d a t Tyana, 2 w h i c h seems t o h a v e replaced P t e r i a in i m p o r t a n c e in t h e revival of t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e is indication t h a t t h e H i t t i t e d a y w a s a l r e a d y ended. B u t t h o u g h t h e H i t t i t e p o w e r w a s b r o k e n a n d d i s i n t e g r a t e d , t h e i r civilisation f a d e d only g r a d u a l l y f r o m view. L o n g a f t e r t h e sun h a d set u p o n its pride i t l i n g e r e d on, f e l t r a t h e r t h a n seen, in t h e t w i l i g h t t h a t obscures o u r vision of t h e tableland in t h e early p a r t of t h e first m i l l e n n i u m B.C., s u r v i v i n g long e n o u g h h e r e a n d there, as w e shall see, in t h e f o r m of i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d religious customs, t o h a v e l e f t a t r a c e in t h e pages of Greek h i s t o r y . T h e r e a f t e r w e h a v e several clear phases to review, i n t e r r u p t e d b y o t h e r s of considerable d i s t u r b a n c e a n d obscurity. F o l l o w i n g t h e o v e r t h r o w of Assyria on t h e one h a n d , a n d t h e decline of P h r y g i a on t h e o t h e r , t w o n e w p o w e r s a p p e a r e d in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y in t h e Medes a n d t h e Lydians, w h o similarly divided Asia Minor, w i t h t h e H a l y s as t h e i r m u t u a l b o u n d a r y . By 546, h o w e v e r , Cyrus h a d a n n e x e d t h e whole c o u n t r y t o t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e , in t h e c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y of which it s h a r e d u n t i l t h e a d v e n t , in B.C. 324, of A l e x a n d e r , w h o once m o r e established t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e W e s t . W i t h 1 Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, i. p. 383; Ramsay, Jour. Roy. As. Soc., xv. p. 123. 2 See PI. x x v . (iii), from Liv. Annals, i. PI. x i n . The name of Midas in this inscription was first recognised by Prof. Myres, op dt., p. 13.

Pl.ATI-:

DKY-KEUl :

T H K «OVAI. KU A l l THACKJi "SFÁCE

BV H U T S I N

XXIV

TBK

JilX'K ( i V i / A Ï 4 . 38.)

P 1 M E R L 1 : Ä K A I . I.EN

M O N U M E N T S

O F

MÖtt

PORVG1A

{See / . • )

THE PHRYGIAN IMMIGRATIONS

57

his death the tribal struggles of antiquity reappear in new guise, and history is occupied chiefly with the varying fortunes of the kingdoms of Pergamum, of Pontus, and of the Seleucids, until in the first century B.C. Roman organisation gathered together the loose threads of independence and retied the knot in a manner that remained firm, in fine, for several hundred years. The next great landmark is not till 668 A.D., when, forty-six years after the flight of Mohammed, the Saracen army laid siege to Constantinople. In 1067 the Seljuks appeared from the east, followed two centuries later by the Osmanli-Turks, though these were not finally re-established in power, after the Mongol invasions, until 1413 A.D. Of the monarchies that arose as the Hittite power declined, and in their turn passed away, that of the Phrygians first attracts our attention by its proximity in time and place. When the Muski first appeared in the twelfth century B.C. upon the north-west frontier of Assyria, 1 they gave warning of a tide of Aryan immigration setting in from the north-west. This first wave, after beating vainly against the ramparts of the Assyrian Empire, seems to have retreated ; but it left its traces behind in a group of people, whether colonists or prisoners settled on the soil in the Assyrian manner, who by the same name reappear some centuries later 2 as a small state on the east of the Euphrates opposite Malatia. We know nothing of the early history of this movement, but, so f a r as can be seen, the rolling of this wave across Asia Minor was coeval with the submergence of the Hatti seated at Boghaz-Keui as Cf. Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, pp. 591, 643. In the reign of A s s u r - N a z i r - P a l ; cf. Maspero, The Passing Empires, p. 16. 1

2

of

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SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

the dominant power among the Hittite states. Nor is it clear to what cause we must attribute the retiring of this vanguard. Probably, as in Syria with the Hittites, 1 and in Asia Minor with the Cimmerians, the migratory movement was intermittent; and historically we may see in the repulse by the Assyrians on the one hand, and in the development of the rival state of Lydia and the Greek colonies on the other, coupled with a certain recuperative vitality latent in the Hittite states of the centre, various active causes tending to the consolidation of the Phrygians at the focus of least resistance, in the fertile tracts to which they gave their name. However that may be, at the dawn of Greek history we find them already a fading power, but one which had left an indelible impression in Greek tradition and romance, obscuring entirely the old-time Hatti power of which no memory remained. Though the settlement of the Phrygians is just beyond historical vision, the leading features of the movement can be inferred from Greek literature, and a certain amount of detail gathered from the monuments which they have left behind.2 The chief migration of the Phrygians—the ninth wave of our simile—may be judged, from certain facts which Professor Ramsay has pointed out, to have taken place about the beginning of the ninth century B.C. They came in irresistible bands of mail-clad warriors from Macedonia and Thrace, crossing into Asia Minor by the Hellespont, and eventually establishing their monarchy 1 Regarding, that is, the successive appearance of the Mitanni, the Hittites, and the Urartu (the Vannic power) as analogous movements. Cf. Winckler, Mitteil. d. Deut. Orient.-Oes., December 1907, pp. 47 ff. ; and in The World's History, vol. iii. p. 113 etc. 2 See especially Ramsay, ' A Study of Phrygian A r t , ' in the Jour. Hell. Stud., ix. (1887-8), pp. 350-352, and an earlier article in vol. iii. pp. 1-32; and Maspero, The Passing of Empires, pp. 328-335.

PHRYGIANS IN TRADITION

59

and state on t h e sources of the Sangarius. 1 Being all men and conquerors, their coming introduced new ideas of the dominance of the male element in religion and in society. 2 The pre-existing central ideal of the people of Asia Minor had been based on the importance of motherhood, reflected in religion by the worship of the Mother-goddess, and in society by a m a t r i a r c h a l system and absence of true marriage. Now t h e Phrygians introduced a new Father-god and a god of thunder, and a reminiscence of the struggle between the old and new ideals m a y be traced in the pages of H o m e r ; but ultimately they were amalgamated in various ways in different parts of the country. 8 Profound as were the changes in religious and social ideals which t h e Phrygians introduced, these influences could hardly stir the popular imagination so deeply or so rapidly as their deeds of arms. Defended f r o m all h a r m by their impenetrable armour, they carried all before them, so t h a t t h e y appeared in Greek tradition as a race of heroes, whose kings were the associates of the gods, whose language was before all, 4 and the speech of the goddess herself. 5 ' Their country was the land of g r e a t fortified cities.' 6 In this popular acclaim we suspect t h a t the P h r y g i a n s received credit f o r works and to some e x t e n t for the prestige of t h e H a t t i whose realm they had inherited. 7 Their kingCf. Homer, lllacl, iii. 187; xvi. 719. Oil this point, see Ramsay, ("ities and Bishoprics of Phrygia (Oxford, 1895), i. p. 7. 3 Ramsay, loc. cit. Of. tlie central group of Uittite sculptures at Iasily Kaya, PI. i.xv., where, however, the father-god, the consort of the Mother-goddess, is seemingly derived from Babylonian origins. So, too, the Storm-god of the Hittites has clearly a Babylonian prototype in Hadad. On the subject of the Hittite deities, see below, pp. 350 if. 4 Herodotus, ii. 2. 6 Homer, Ilymn. Aphr. I l l and if1. c ®pvyir)s eirei^iji-oio. Cf. Ramsay, loc. cif. 7 In this opinion we may appear to differ from Hogarth, Ionia and the East (Oxford, 1909), p. 70, but the standpoints are different. 1 2

60

SOME P A G E S OF HISTORY

dom without doubt held chief sway over t h e northwest and centre of Asia Minor during the ninth and eighth centuries B.C. I n the west, indeed, it was only a t the end of t h a t period challenged by t h e independence and growing strength of L y d i a ; and on t h e other hand it must have embraced, as we have shown, the regions both of P t e r i a 1 and of T y a n a , where it touched the Assyrian f r o n t i e r in t h e age of S a r g o n ; but on the whole we fail to find any wide range of Phrygian works, of walled cities or of vast monuments, t h a t could entitle the Phrygians to t h e whole credit of these memories. None the less, some P h r y g i a n monuments, like t h e ' tomb of Midas' n e a r Doghanlu, are striking, peculiar, and impressive. So, too, are others f u r t h e r south, of which we reproduce some illustrations, 2 because of t h e added interest of the influence of H i t t i t e a r t and technique which can be traced in them. The ' lion tomb,' near Dimerli, illustrates a motive dominant in their decorative reliefs, reflected in the l a t e r sepulchres of Ayazin. Here are seen two lions, guarding as it were the entrance to the tomb, arranged facing one another on either side of t h e door. I n the t o m b of Dimerli the lions are rampant, and a column or a l t a r is seen between them. The symbolism of this design m a y be purely Phrygian, but the decorative conception of the twin guardian lions is too freely found in 1 In addition to the Phrygian inscriptions at Eyuk, cited above, the story of Daskylos, the fugitive Lydian prince (K.C. 720), indicates close political relation between the two sides of the Ilalys at this time ; for when fearful of remaining in Phrygia at the accession of Myrsos to the Lydian throne, for greater security he crossed the Halys and took refuge with the ' White Syrians.' Cf. Nicholas of Damascus, Fragm. Hist. Grec. (ed. Miiller-Didot), No 49. On the relationship with Pteria and the Chalybes see also Radet, La Lydie et le Monde Grec, pp. 63, 111. 2

P i s . XXIV.,

XXV.

T H E P H R Y G I A N S IN HISTORY

61

Hittite a r t 1 f o r us to doubt t h a t it had been borrowed from t h e older population. So, too, in the method of carving the reliefs, as well as in detail of t r e a t m e n t , as, f o r instance, in t h e outline of the shoulder muscles of t h e fallen lion, 2 there is abundant indication to us now of an influence not visible to the historians of antiquity. Though t h e monuments and legends together help us to reconstruct the base and f r a m e w o r k of P h r y g i a n history, there are very few authenticated d a t a with which to fill in t h e details. There is no long list of royal names, f o r t h e rulers are supposed to have been named Midas and Gordius a l t e r n a t e l y ; and a few other names preserved in Greek tradition are merely legendary. I t is not until t h e age of S a r g o n 3 a t the close of the eighth century B.C., t h a t a few f a c t s come to light among the Assyrian archives. Then it would appear t h a t the P h r y g i a n sphere of influence had penetrated f a r into south-eastern Cappadocia and was expanding, until challenged by the Assyrian forces in a series of campaigns beginning in 718 B.C. B u t Midas t h e Phrygian was not easily restrained, and in the n e x t y e a r prevailed on Pisiris of Carchemish to revolt against t h e Assyrian supremacy, while several minor states of Cappadocia, forming part of the region called Tabal, followed this example, prompted, doubtless, f r o m t h e same source of inspiration. T h e rebels were promptly punished, and one of these expeditions sent against them penetrated, it would seem, to Tyana, a t this time an important centre for t h e P h r y g i a n s 4 in t h e conduct 1

Cf. P i s . i x . , LXXVIII.

2

P I . x x i v . ( i i ) ; cf. pp. 121, 265, 289.

Our newest authority for this period is Olmstead, Western Asia in the Days of Sargon (New York, 1908). 4 If the Tuna of the Assyrians be really Tyana, there is clear evidence of Phrygian supremacy there in 714, in the fact that Matti of Tuna disclaimed his allegiance to Assyria and turned to Midas. If, however, Tuna is to be located somewhat further east (cf. the Tynna of Ptolemy v., 3

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of their wars. I n 709, however, following a f a r t h e r expedition sent a g a i n s t Midas f r o m Cilieia, t h e P h r y gians capitulated, sending a m b a s s a d o r s and t r i b u t e . T h e reason f o r this sudden c h a n g e of f r o n t is also made a p p a r e n t . A b o u t t h e middle of t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B.C. t h e r e had a p p e a r e d t h e first w a v e of a n overwhelming m o v e m e n t of peoples f r o m S o u t h e r n Europe, 1 including seemingly b o t h C i m m e r i a n s and Scythians, coming b y w a y of t h e Caucasus, spreading t e r r o r and devastation as it passed. T h e V a n n i c p o w e r of U r a r t u in S o u t h e r n A r m e n i a a b o u t 720 B.C. received t h e first onslaught, and t h e n t h e f r o n t i e r s of S a r g o n , who had to call up all t h e resources of his a r m i e s t o p r o t e c t his kingdom. Recoiling, t h e tide set westw a r d t h r o u g h Asia Minor, m e e t i n g a b o u t 710 a n o t h e r similar s t r e a m 2 t h a t had crossed t h e B o s p h o r u s ; a n d t h e united b a r b a r i a n s f o r h a l f a c e n t u r y established a reign of t e r r o r in t h e n o r t h of Asia Minor. T h e details of t h e s t o r y a r e wanting, so f a r as it directly affects t h e P h r y g i a n s during this f a t e f u l period. About 675 however, t h e r o y a l Midas (presumably t h e grandson of Mitci who had begged A s s y r i a t h r o u g h his a m b a s sadors f o r help), defeated on e v e r y hand, in despair c o m m i t t e d suicide. T h e C i m m e r i a n s o v e r r a n his country, and t h e k i n g d o m of P h r y g i a h e n c e f o r t h ceased to be. W e do n o t f o l l o w t h e m o v e m e n t s of t h e s e hordes f u r t h e r ; f o r t h e y h a v e l e f t no t r a c e or h a n d i w o r k upon t h e H i t t i t e lands which t h e y h a d overrun, a l t h o u g h it was not until t h e close of 6, 22, and Maspero, The Passing of Empires, p. 239, note 2), or southeast at Faustinopolis (Ramsay, Hist. Geog., p. 08), then the inference is equally clear that the Phrygian sphere reached at least to Tyana, if not beyond. This evidence is supplementary to that of the inscription already mentioned (PI. X X V . ) . 1 Herodotus, iv. 11, 12. W e follow the story as worked out by Maspero, s Strabo, x i v . i. 40, op cit., p. 315,

LYDIAN KINGS AND STATE

63

t h e seventh century t h a t they disappeared. Their inroads, however, and the violent deflections which t h e y gave to t h e course of history, are probably responsible f o r the final disappearance of all trace and memory of the H i t t i t e power in Greek history. The Lydian state in the west, t h a t fought the final struggle for civilisation against these restless and untiring foes, next claims our notice from the way in which certain of its institutions and ancient customs reflect the influence of the Hittite civilisation, from which, indeed, they m a y have been inherited. 1 Unlike the rulers and customs of Phrygia, t h e leading elements of the Lydian society had been matured on the soil from dim antiquity. Tradition speaks of a dynasty of Heraclidae who ruled from t h e twelfth century for five hundred years, 2 and whose ancestor, Agron, 3 was descended from Hercules himself. Even before t h a t date there is m e m o r y of a royal family of Atyadae, whose rule, if there be anything in this memory, must have passed back to t h e days of direct Hittite domination t h a t saw the carving of t h e warrior-gods of K a r a - B e l and maybe the Mother-goddess of Sipylus. However t h a t m a y be, we see the Lydians already an organised state, even while the Phrygian power was still a t its height, before t h e Cimmerian storm had burst. As with t h e Hittites in past time, their constitution was partly t h a t of confederate or vassal states governed by hereditary chiefs owning allegiance to the Cf. Maspero, op. cit., p. 336 ; also Sayce, Empires of the East, i. p. 427. Herodotus, i. 7. On the way in which the date is derived, see Schubert, Gesch. der Könige von Lydien, p. 8. 3 F o r the character of the early names and their relation to the Hittite see Sayce, loc. cit. ; cf. also Hall on Mursil and Myrtillos, Jour. Hell. Stud., xxix. (1909), pp. 19-22; and on the same point, Winckler in the Orientalistische Litteratur-Zeitwig, Dec. 1906, 1

2

64

SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

r u l i n g p o w e r a t Sardis, a n d p a r t l y feudal, 1 t h e chieft a i n s owing t h e i r m i l i t a r y service a n d t h e i r t r i b a l forces to t h e king, while t h e c o m m o n people a p p e a r a s serfs. I n this society t h e k i n g w a s b o t h h e a d of t h e priesthood a n d chief c o m m a n d e r of t h e vassal chiefs in war. 2 The e m b l e m of s o v e r e i g n t y w a s a double axe, w h i c h t h e Greeks said w a s derived f r o m Hercules himself. 3 F r o m a m o n g t h e m a s s of legend which characterise t h e earliest efforts of Greek h i s t o r y , it m i g h t be possible t o t r a c e m a n y suggestions of t h e influence of t h e H i t t i t e civilisation; b u t t h e lack of local m o n u m e n t s (a f a c t due doubtless to physical conditions), t o reveal t o us t h e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e s of L y d i a n a r t , r e s t r a i n s us f r o m t h i s aspect of inquiry. One p o i n t a t a n y r a t e is established, t h a t n o t m e r e l y w a s t h e district of Lydia a t one t i m e embraced w i t h i n t h e H i t t i t e empire, 4 b u t t h a t it became i m b u e d t h e n w i t h m a n y f e a t u r e s of social o r g a n i s a t i o n w h i c h it carried d o w n f r o m t h e old world t o t h e new. Our m a i n i n q u i r y being based on t h e m o n u m e n t s of t h e H i t t i t e lands, we c a n n o t dwell u p o n t h e stories of t h e L y d i a n kings, of t h e i r d e s p e r a t e s t r u g g l e s w i t h t h e C i m m e r i a n s following t h e d o w n f a l l of P h r y g i a , n o r of t h e i r w a r f a r e w i t h t h e Medes, w i t h w h o m , a f t e r t h e f a l l of Nineveh in 607 B.C., t h e y u l t i m a t e l y divided Asia Minor, w i t h t h e Halys as t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m . The n a m e s of t w o kings a r e w o r t h y of m e n t i o n as historical land1 Gelzer, Das Zeitalter des Gyges, Rheins. Mus., vol. xxxv. (1880), pp. 520-524 ; cf. Radet, La Lydie et le Monde Grec, etc., pp. 90, 91. 2 Cf. the position of the H a t t i kings, pp. 340, 361 ff; and of the kings of Comana, of Pontus, and other states (Strabo, Bk. x n . ch. iii. see. 32). On this subject see also Ramsay, in Becueil de Travaux, vol. xiv. pp. 78 if, on ' The Pre-Hellenic Monuments of Cappadocia.' 3 For the double axe in Hittite symbolism, see PI. LXV. ; and for the relation of the God-of-the-double-axe to Hercules, see pp. 195, 240. 4 On this question, and on the whole subject of H i t t i t e influence surviving in the civilisations of the western coast, see the brilliant survey by Hogarth, Ionia and the East, especailly pp. 74 ff, and 101-2.

PLATE

XXVI

V I E W NEAR SAR DIS, T H E A N C I E N T CAPITAI, OF LYDIA T h e valley o f ihe Pactohis. a tributary o f the flcrtiHtö- which fïsïiigtfli M t , TjiigIìls flowed past the temple o f K y b c k at Surdiiv

HITTITE CULTURE IN T H E W E S T

65

marks ; the one is Gyges, first of the Mermnad dynasty in the middle of the seventh century B.C., contemporary of Assurbanipal, the Assyrian, and of P s a m t e k , P h a r a o h of Egypt, with both of whom he held relations of diplomatic character. The other is Croesus, the last and greatest of t h e m all, who, having established his power eastward to the Halys, turned his a t t e n t i o n to those rich Greek cities which had sprung up in the West. These colonies, founded in selected spots along t h e coast several centuries before, had indeed in m a n y cases already passed their zenith. Cities like S m y r n a , Ephesus, and Colophon were in the pride of their prosperity before the fall of P h r y g i a and t h e rise of Lydia. How old they were in their origin is not determinable, but they had received, and retained in historic times, t h e impress of the Hittite civilisation, so much so t h a t Mr. Hogarth, writing of Ionia, concludes t h a t ' t h i s coast was long dominated by a n inland, continental power, t h a t of t h e Cappadocian Hatti, who imposed their own distinct civilisation, and admitted the i E g e a n culture only as a faint influence ascending along the trade routes.' 1 ' The Goddess of the Phrygian mountains became a t S m y r n a t h e Sipylene Mother, and a t Ephesus Artemis of the Many B r e a s t s was worshipped with rites more Oriental than Greek.' Recently also Sir Cecil Smith, in discussing certain ivory statuettes found by Mr. H o g a r t h in the foundations of t h e temple of Artemis, has pointed out further analogies with the old cult of the goddess, as revealed by the sculptures of Boghaz-Keui. 2 However t h a t m a y be, t h e fact t h a t the H i t t i t e armies of the 1 2

Op. cit., pp. 101-2. Excavations at Ephesus:

I. The Archaic Artemisia E

p. 173,

66

SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

f o u r t e e n t h or t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B.C. h a d p e n e t r a t e d t o t h e coast a t S m y r n a a n d Ephesus, is m a d e clear b y t h e sculptures of Sipylus a n d of K a r a - B e l , t o w h i c h w e h a v e alluded. 1 Now t h e s e f a i r cities of I o n i a fell one b y one t o Croesus, w h o seemed likely t o establish a n e m p i r e even over t h e islands, w h e n s u d d e n l y C y r u s t h e P e r s i a n a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e E a s t , r e u n i t i n g all t h e s u n d e r e d p a r t s of t h e old e m p i r e s of Assyria a n d of B a b y l o n a s h e passed. Croesus m a r c h e d i m m e d i a t e l y o u t t o resist his oncoming, a n d as a p r e l i m i n a r y step crossed t h e H a l y s a n d ' r a v a g e d t h e lands of t h e " Syrians," a n d t o o k t h e city of t h e P t e r i a n s a n d enslaved t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . H e also t o o k all t h e a d j a c e n t places a n d expelled t h e population, w h o h a d given h i m n o cause f o r blame.' 2 Possibly w e m a y see in t h e s e acts, w h i c h a p p e a r e d w a n t o n to t h e h i s t o r i a n , a n e f f o r t on t h e p a r t of Croesus t o delay or p r e v e n t t h e passing of t h e Persian a r m y , which would n a t u r a l l y follow t h e old r o y a l r o a d in p r e f e r e n c e to t h e undeveloped r o u t e across t h e desert. H o w e v e r t h a t m a y be, t h e e f f o r t w a s v a i n : a b o u t 546 B.C. t h e L y d i a n c a p i t a l a n d its k i n g fell i n t o t h e h a n d s of Cyrus. The old H i t t i t e r e a l m s w e r e n o w r e u n i t e d u n d e r P e r s i a n rule, a n d continued t o s h a r e in t h e c o m m o n h i s t o r y of t h e E m p i r e of t h e G r e a t K i n g f o r m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d years. F o r the p u r p o s e of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n Asia Minor w a s divided i n t o provinces, governed b y S a t r a p s , of which t h e old k i n g d o m of Lydia f o r m e d one, a n d t h e regions of Konia, A n g o r a , P t e r i a , a n d Sivas were included in a n o t h e r , t h e l a r g e s t of all, w h i c h reached f r o m L y d i a to A r m e n i a , a n d included t h e whole p l a t e a u f r o m t h e T a u r u s n o r t h w a r d s t o t h e sea. 1 2

Above, p. 37; see also below, p. 338, and Pis. Herodotus, i. 76.

L I I I . , I-IV.

ASIA MINOR UNDER PERSIAN RULE

67

The tract of Cilicia with part of the province of Aleppo formed another, while the former Hittite states in the north of S y r i a were similarly grouped together. But the hold of the Great King ruling in Susa over his distant provinces was weak, and the spirit of Persian civilisation did not penetrate, or could not, into these historic lands. No monument remains to tell us of this phase, during which the old local institutions were maintained and even developed unrestrained. The Greek cities of the coast retained their Greek characters under Greek governors; while the tribes of the interior restored the rule of their local princes or priest-dynasts amid a condition of security and freedom which they had not known for many generations. All that the central power demanded was tribute and tranquillity. Local feuds between the Satraps might smoulder, and the symptoms of rebellion here and there remain almost unheeded, so long as these conditions were fulfilled. Under these circumstances the western people gradually recovered the spirit of independence, while from across the sea the Greek states even aspired to empire. The march of the Ten Thousand in 402, under Cyrus the younger, made famous by Xenophon in his Anabasis, showed how l a x w a s the organisation and how weak the control of the central government. It also opened up incidentally the southern route by the Mseander, Ilgin, and Iconium to the Cilician gates, in preference to the longer royal road by w a y of Boghaz-Keui, by which hitherto the posts from Susa had travelled west to Sardis. In B.C. 334 Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont, and within a year, by his energy and ability to use the new army-machine which he had inherited, had conquered western Asia Minor as f a r as the Halys, and

68

SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

passed on leaving it his own. This date m a r k s an issue more changeful to Asia Minor t h a n the conquest of Cyrus. F o r though no monuments throw light on t h e story of the n e x t two centuries, t h e system of governm e n t was now initiated which in due time was to result in the Hellenising of the interior. Cities were founded with Greek names, and the Greek speech gradually made its way, through Greek-speaking princes and governors, as the official language. The change worked very slowly, but it was profound in t h e issue, as we shall see. A t first the states maintained their old customs and native dialects without appreciable difference, except in t h e vigour of the new government, but in the course of two or t h r e e centuries Greek language and Greek culture even to some e x t e n t Greek thought and religious ideas, had permeated widely among the upper-class natives of the interior. The struggles of Alexander's successors, who had inherited from him the empire, are m a t t e r s of common history. The Seleucids reunited, though in futile manner, the formerly H i t t i t e regions in the north of S y r i a and Cilicia, and f o r a time gained some ascendency in Asia Minor, until defeated in 191 B.C. and driven back beyond the Taurus, where f o r another century t h e y retained a sphere of influence. B u t of g r e a t e r interest to us is t h e survival of local power in Cappadocia, under the dynasty of Ariarthes, which had come to the fore in the last century of Persian domination. This state, a t first with incessant warfare, and then by means of tribute to the Seleucids, maintained in effect a form of local independence which survived even down to the R o m a n occupation and beyond. A n o t h e r state t h a t retained its freedom and local princes throughout this time was Bithynia, on the t r a c t opposite Constan-

PLAÏh XXV] ï

DIVISION INTO ROMAN PROVINCES

69

tinople, b u t this is a region outside the boundaries of our story. The R o m a n s dallied long in following up the defeat of the Seleucids a t Magnesia, when the way lay open to the a n n e x a t i o n of Asia Minor, for which its peoples torn by their internal wars, would have been even grateful. B u t it was not until late in the second century B.C. t h a t the west was united as a R o m a n province. E v e n then the east remained under the direct government of the local princes, to whom the R o m a n S e n a t e entrusted their frontier. At t h e beginning of the first century B.C. the disaffection of Mithridates, king of Pontus, a state bordering t h e B l a c k Sea, and his efforts to win for himself a kingdom in Cappadocia and Bithynia, was one of the last fitful traces of t h e old native power, and called up more serious efforts on t h e p a r t of Rome. The Cilician pirates, who from their base under t h e southern slopes of Taurus had become a leading naval power, were also suppressed, and during the century t h a t followed t h e whole country as f a r as the E u p h r a t e s was gradually brought under direct control, and the provincial system was established. The province of Cilicia had been founded in B.C. 103, and a f t e r various successive modifications, during which t h e western district, Cilicia Tracheea, continued to be ruled by t h e priest-dynasts of Olba, t h e whole was united with Lycaonia under a consular legate about 137 A.D. Bithynia-Pontus, t h e scene of the late rebellions, came into t h e power of R o m e by the will of its last king in B.C. 74, and t h e double province was put under t h e administration of a praetorian proconsul in B.C. 27. Galatia was constituted in B.C. 25, and Pontus was added to it in 63 A.D. Finally, t h e occupation of Cappadocia, dating from A.D. 17, completed t h e division

70

SOME P A G E S OF H I S T O R Y

of the administrative districts; for the sixth province Asia, in the west, had been the earliest founded, as we have noted, in B.C. 133. The system of Roman organisation at first modified and finally broke up the old tribal communities. For some time, many old-world institutions were maintained, notably the priest-dynasts of Comana, Olba, and Yenasa ; but gradually the native communal temple-district organisation of society gave way, to be replaced by the Greek political system, the seeds of which had been planted two or three centuries before, and had now taken root. In this system the city became the administrative centre, and the villages around were its branches. Greek became more and more the language of the people. 1 The formal records of military works, the milestones and imperial monuments, are inscribed in Latin, but the inscriptions in the old graveyards are carved in Greek letters. We cannot dwell upon the history of these times, of the reorganisation under Diocletian, at the close of the third century, marking the commencement of the Byzantine period, nor of the spread of Christianity, with the great social changes that involved. We reproduce, however, some illustrations of Roman works, such as are met with in plenty throughout the length and breadth of Hittite lands, from Malatia to Iconium and beyond, from Tarsus to the Black Sea coast. The great aqueducts like those of Tyana, 2 and those which stretch for miles across the Cilician plain, 3 are an indication of the vast scheme of development that was instituted under the new well-ordered system of government. Great cities both in Syria and in Asia Minor were the product of 1 On this s u b j e c t see Mommscn, The Provinces (London, 1909), pp. 120, 123. 2

P I . LV.

3

of the Roman

PI. XXVII.

Empire

l'I.AtE

KYRRHUS:

HUMAN

TOMB AMJ

R U I N I J)

XXVIII

BSIOGE

(Step- 7".)

R U I N S OF A R O M A N C I T Y

71

these times. Many of these were the foundations of places that still remain centres of administration ; while some have lost their importance, and are falling gradually to ruin in silence and desolation. The remains of Kyrrhus upon the Afrîn, 1 a site now marked only by the small village of Huru-Pegamber some distance away, are among the wonderful memorials of antiquity. The imposts are falling from their pilasters, and the keystones to its arches are working loose, but it retains its silent streets of impressive stone buildings, its arches and colonnades, its amphitheatre, as though its people had quitted hardly a generation ago. Numerous Greek inscriptions may still be found amongst the ruins,2 and just southward of the Acropolis several sarcophagi of marble, with Greek names upon them, indicate the position of the old-time burying place. In the extreme south of the site, with its sanctity still maintained in a modern Mohammedan shrine and well adjoining, there stands perfect a tomb-structure 8 in the Roman style of the second century A.D. W e give a photograph of this, which is one of the best-preserved examples of its kind. Our other photographs i taken at Ephesus and at Ba'albec,5 at the two ends of the Hittite lands, will 1 This place was visited by Drummond, Travels . . . in Parts of Asia to the Euphrates (London, 1874), who gives a sketch plan (No. 9 to f. p. 201). Theodoret in his Ecclesiastical History mentions three inscriptions over the gate, as well as a castle, a 'very superb' Theatre, a Basilica, Temple, and other buildings ; cf. also Maundrell, A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem (ed. 1799), p. 158. 2 For these see a paper by the Rev. W. M. Linton Smith, in the Liv. Annals of Arch., 1910. 3 PI. x x v i i i . Cf. the Mausolée Pyramidal de Maktar, published by Gauckler, Les travaux d'Art . . . en Tunisie, in Revue Générale des Sciences (Paris, November 30,1896), p. 971, fig. 15. Also tombs at Aries and in Algeria, published by Gsell in Les Monuments Antiques d'Algérie (Paris, 1901). For these references w e are indebted to Professor Bosanquet. 4 Pis. x x i x . , x x x . 5 The old Aramaean name for Heliopolis ; it is really just south of the historic H i t t i t e frontier in the Lebanon.

72

SOME PAGES OF HISTORY

sufficiently illustrate the art and civilisation of their time and place. The very prosperity of the country during the Roman occupation was one cause of its danger, presenting it as an alluring prize to the forces gradually arising along its frontiers. The extreme centralisation of the Byzantine system weakened, if it did not altogether exterminate, the power of local resistance andadministration. So long as the central government remained powerful all was well, but the danger of the system was manifested by the ease with which the Arab forces in 668 passed through the land from end to end, pausing only before the walls of Constantinople. The hold of the Saracen power, however, was not firm, and the Roman system was possessed of great latent vitality which in the end was equal to the emergency, so that in a series of campaigns extending from 920 to 965, the Saracens were driven back from point to point, until firstTarsus 1 was recovered and then Antioch, which had for more than three hundred years been in their possession. The Seljuk Turks, who next appeared on the scene, were a more formidable and resistless enemy. Having at one time been the servants of the Arab sultans, they had now become the masters, and in 1067 they entered Asia Minor, conquering Cilicia and Cappadocia. Four years later the Emperor Romanus Diogenes himself was their prisoner, and by 1081 the whole centre and east of the tableland was recognised as their realm. Adopting a policy of depopulation and devastation, in which the whole of Phrygia was laid waste, the Turks rapidly set up an almost impassable frontier between themselves and the Byzantine power which still held 1 For photographs of the ruins and city of Tarsus see PI. XXII., XXIII. ; cf. also Ramsay, Cities of St. Paul, Part ii., with Pis. n.-v.

ri.ATE XXIX

SELJUK AND OSMANLI TURKS

73

sway in the W e s t . Notwithstanding spasmodic efforts of the old rulers to regain their dominion, the country gradually relapsed into Orientalism, and with the rise of the Osmanli Turks from 1289 the E m p i r e of t h e W e s t rapidly disintegrated. Under the S e l j u k rule, a new aspect of decorative a r t and architecture appeared in Asia Minor, a phase much neglected yet most worthy, as Professor R a m s a y has pointed out, of special study. Under certain of their lines a brilliant series of monuments arose, among which the H a n s 1 or roadside resthouses are specially noteworthy, contributing also as they did to public security and pacification. I n addition to these, other public works like their bridges and fortifications, as well as their mosques and colleges with cloisters and sculptures, are all evidence of one of the brightest phases of Moslem art. Some of the beautiful monuments which are shown in our illustrations, like t h e sculptured portal of the old school (or Midresseh) a t Nigdeh, and the 1 tomb of Havanda,' a t the same place, 2 with its delicate t r a c e r y and design, belong to t h e best phases of this memorable period. W i t h t h e e n t h r o n e m e n t of t h e Seljuks the old world faded rapidly from view. No conquest in all the history of t h e H i t t i t e lands had been so thorough and so enduring. Previously we had seen old institutions surviving under a new system t h a t grew up around t h e m ; but now a new language and new forms of government, with new administrative districts, were imposed by t h e conquerors ; while t h e devastation of the earlier stages of the conquest, followed by the repeated incursions of nomad peoples, profoundly modified the racial stock of the population. With them the modern Turkey-in-Asia was born. 1

See PL xxxiv. (ii).

2

Pis. xxxn., x x x i n .

Ill MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES PRELIMINARY :

CHRONOLOGY—CLASSIFICATION— DISPOSITION

WITH this outline of the chief historical phases of Asia Minor before us, we pass f r o m the remains of mediaeval and classical antiquity to a consideration of those more ancient monuments which bear witness to Hittite handiwork. Notwithstanding the progress of historical research, these remain the surest basis f o r the study of our subject, giving us an insight into the Hittite civilisation, which is rendered more valuable and more intelligible by the light thrown upon Hittite chronology by recent excavation. Their nature and intrinsic details are material evidence of Hittite arts, which, in the lack of internal literary documents, no other sources can satisfactorily supply; while their disposition defines f o r us the Hittite lands in a manner more reliable and more substantial than theories based on vague and difficult references in oriental history. A reasonable consideration of the environment of these monuments, also, may help us to appreciate something of that which is most difficult to realise but all-important, namely the circumstances of the life of those whose hands produced them. 1 1 On the importance of this aspect of study, cf. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, and Osiris, in the Preface ; and Hogarth in Authority and Archaeology, 2nd ed. (London, 1899), Preface, vii.

74

TM.ATK X X X

METHOD OF S T U D Y : C R I T E R I A

75

Obedient to a now accepted principle of psychology, we follow in t h e development of our inquiry t h e sequence of evidences by which this subject has been established during the past generation. Postponing f o r t h e present any detailed account of t h e walled towns and groups of sculptures which have been the scene of recent investigation, we shall consider firstly those monuments which are found isolated and scattered throughout the regions indicated in t h e opening chapter. If, in so doing, we can yet be guided by the light of modern discoveries, we m a y hope to avoid some of the difficulties which beset the path of these pioneers whose work introduced to us this new material. Our method of study, like theirs, must be comparative; but we shall be content to confine ourselves almost entirely to the monuments identified as H i t t i t e by t h e presence of the peculiar hieroglyphic signs or inscriptions carved upon them. I t was indeed upon this line of evidence t h a t Professor A. H. Sayce was enabled, t h i r t y years ago, to establish the relationship of the unexplained inscriptions of H a m a t h with the sculptures of K a r a - B e l in the f a r west of Asia Minor, and thence to m a k e his brilliant inference of a forgotten empire. 1 W e use the t e s t of H i t t i t e hieroglyphs, not only because it has become in this way fundamental to our subject, but because it is no longer open to doubt whether these peculiar signs are of H i t t i t e origin or not. F o r m e r l y there m a y have been room f o r reasonable criticism so long as this conclusion was based only on t h e fact t h a t these symbols were found chiefly on unexplained monuments f r o m H a m a t h and neighbouring places in Northern Syria associated in 1

Sayce, The Hittites

(London, 1888), 3rd eel., 1902, p. 67.

76

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

h i s t o r y w i t h t h e H i t t i t e s . B u t n o w t h e increasing a c c u m u l a t i o n of t h i s kind of c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence h a s been crowned b y t h e discovery t h a t t h e chief site of such m o n u m e n t s in Asia Minor, n a m e l y BoghazKeui, w a s f o r t w o c e n t u r i e s t h e capital of t h e H i t t i t e s , whose n a m e ( H a t t i ) a p p e a r s f r e e l y on t h e l i t e r a r y d o c u m e n t s t h a t h a v e been u n e a r t h e d 1 t h e r e in r e c e n t excavations. B e i n g secured t h e n a g a i n s t f u n d a m e n t a l error, a comparison of t h e H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s identified on t h i s basis readily reveals peculiarities of a r t which m a y be r e g a r d e d as typical, so t h a t we m i g h t reasona b l y include in o u r c a t e g o r y o t h e r m o n u m e n t s of like k i n d which lack only t h e u l t i m a t e criterion w h i c h w e h a v e set before us. W e do n o t wish, however, n o r do w e need, in t h e scope of t h i s volume, t o press t h e a r g u m e n t b y analogy, being w a r n e d a g a i n s t t h e pitfalls of such a m e t h o d b y several g e n e r a l considerations, a n d especially by t h e noticeable s u r v i v a l of H i t t i t e influence in t h e local sculptures, like t h o s e of P h r y g i a 2 a n d w e s t e r n Lycaonia. 3 T h o u g h we c o n t i n u e to employ t h e old m a t e r i a l s , however, w e see t h e m n o w in a clearer light. J u s t a s t h e t i m e h a s passed by w h e n t h e w o r d ' H i t t i t e ' m u s t be w r i t t e n in i n v e r t e d commas, or qualified w i t h t h e adjective 'so-called,' so n o w w e a r e n o t c o n t e n t a n y l o n g e r t o r e g a r d t h e older m o n u m e n t s of t h e i n t e r i o r t o g e t h e r in general as pre-Hellenic, m u c h less pre-historic, w i t h o u t distinction as t o period or locality. The r e f e r e n c e s 1 As well as other sculptured and inscribed stones; see W i n c k l e r : Preliminary Report of Excavations a t Boghaz Keui, 1907. (Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, No. 35, Dec. 1907), figs. 6, 7, pp. 57, 58. 2 Hist. Relations of Phrygia and Gappadocia (Jour. Roy. Asiatic Soc., xv., PI. I.), p. 124. 0 Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. etc., pp. 214 and ff. ; also Hamilton, Researches, etc., ii., pp. 350, 351; and Revue Arch., 3, v. pp. 257-264, and Pis. xi., XII.

PLATE XXXI

CHRONOLOGICAL BASIS

77

to the Hittites in Babylonian, Egyptian, and Assyrian history alone, it is true, would not be sufficient t o establish an historical basis for this phase of our inquiry, though giving us a range of dates that covers broadly the whole of the second millennium down to the eighth century B.C., 1 but these allusions are now supplemented, and in great measure made intelligible, by the evidence of the Hittite archives recently discovered at BoghazKeui, which establish chronological relationships of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuriesB.c., 2 togetherwith a series of contemporary Hittite works. This date n o w becomes the basis for all inquiry, bringing into line several points previously problematical and much disputed, just as the intrinsic evidence of these archives throws a new flood of light over the disposition and constitution of the Hittites at the very period w h e n t h e y figure most prominently in the pages of Egyptian history. Other researches have contributed towards broadening this basis of investigation. At Sakje-Geuzi recent 1 (a) A H i t t i t e invasion preceded t h e o v e r t h r o w of t h e F i r s t Babylonian Dynasty. The date in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y B.C. assigned by K i n g (Chronicles, etc., i. p. 137) is accepted by Meyer, b u t t h o u g h t by Sayce and o t h e r s to be too late. (b) The E g y p t i a n annals, diplomatic letters, m u r a l decorations, etc., m a k e f r e q u e n t mention of t h e K h e t a f r o m t h e 33rd year of Thothmes i n . (about B.C. 1471) u n t i l t h e time of Barneses HI., early in t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y B.C. There is a n early appearance of t h e group of signs reading ' K h e t a ' on a stela of t h e T w e l f t h D y n a s t y (Louvre, ci.); some philologists are disposed to regard t h e g r o u p in t h i s instance as f o r m i n g p a r t of a longer word—a unique instance which implies a t any r a t e familiarity w i t h t h e word K h e t a in t h e T w e l f t h Dynasty. I t is more probable, Mr. Griffith tells us, t h a t t h e group is really to be t r a n s l a t e d ' K h e t a ' though w r i t t e n (under circumstances t h a t can be explained philologically) w i t h a false determinative. The Babylonian evidence now prepares us for this early appearance of t h e name, (c) I n t h e A s s y r i a n records t h e earliest reference to t h e H a t t i seems to be in t h e reign of Shalmaneser i., about 1320 B.C., b u t t h e n a m e is n o t f o u n d recurring u n t i l t h e time of Tiglath Pileser I., about 1120 B.C. : Sargon (B.C. 721-704) seems finally to have subjected a n d disunited t h e i r principalities in N. Syria. 2 Winckler, Report, cit., especially pp. 27 a n d if.

78

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

excavations 1 have established the fact previously in doubt, t h a t t h e settlements of Hittite peoples had begun there a t a n y r a t e m a n y centuries, possibly several thousand years, previous to the age marked by the on-coming and ultimately overwhelming tide of Assyrian influence early in the first millennium B.C. The relation of the later phase of local arts to Assyrian chronology is given by t h e results of excavations made on the g r e a t mound a t Sinjerli, distant about a day's j o u r n e y in the same valley towards t h e south. 2 Here certain palace buildings and sculptures, some of which betray Assyrian feeling, m a y be dated, by help of inscribed monuments t h a t were unearthed, to the eighth century B.C., when this principality became t r i b u t a r y to Tiglath Pileser i n . The reign of Esarhaddon, the conqueror of Egypt, brought even this nominal independence to an end about

680 B.C.

To these revelations by the spade there should be added various contributions of t h e pen, which, together with the old materials, m a k e possible the study of Hittite remains upon an historical r a t h e r t h a n a purely archaiological basis. W e might indeed m a k e some general inferences from the results of these researches, but it will be wise to keep ever in view the geographical conditions, and never to assume collateral development among the various branches of t h e H i t t i t e peoples whose lands were physically so disunited. Evidence affecting one state in t h e north of S y r i a m a y be applied with some surety to its neighbours; but it m a y not be applicable beyond the Taurus. No published accounts enable us to test the antiquity of H i t t i t e 1 2

See chap, v., Part 3, pp. 290, 314. See chap, v., Part 2, pp. 271-273.

PLATE XXXU

HISTORICAL INFERENCE

79

settlements upon the tableland of Asia Minor, and it is doubtful if even the necessary soundings have been made. For the middle period, however, the difficulty is less, where history shows that the influence of the Hatti administered from Boghaz-Keui must have predominated in the north of Syria, and contemporaneity of development may therefore be inferred. But when we come to the inferior limit of date the same difficulty (the possibility of independent development) is reopened, for, in the absence of positive material evidence to the contrary, the Assyrian arms seem never to have passed the Halys even while Assyrian influences were dominant in Syria. On the other hand, as we have seen in the previous chapters, we have to take into account the possible influence of the new civilisations, like that of the Phrygians, which had meanwhile been developing upon the tableland. One thing at any rate seems clear, that no Hittite monuments of Asia Minor can well be later than the period of Phrygian domination in the eighth century B.C., 1 so that in the end a general parallel is suggested with the closing dates afforded from Assyrian history. Having now considered in general terms the method and the new chronological basis of our inquiry, we come first to an account of those isolated monuments which illustrate to us the diversity of Hittite art and the wide range of its influence. The most striking of these are perhaps those carved on the living rock, which may take the form of single figures, some gigantic, others less than life-size, or groups representing deities and their ministers, accompanied in each case by Hittite hieroglyphs, or long inscriptions without any sculptures 1

See above, pp. 55, 56 ; cf. also Xenophon, Anabasis,

v. 4-30.

80

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

to give a suggestion of their meaning.1 Of the moveable monuments only one is found clearly in situ,2 and this from its position and nature may be thought, like some of the rock-inscriptions, to have been a boundary stone. There are others, however, of such weight 3 or peculiar character4 that they maybe judged to have been set up not far from the sites where they have been found. The provenance of monuments found on or in the vicinity of ancient sites is also reliable as evidence.8 Sculptures are rarely executed in the round, except for architectural purposes,6 though in one or two instances there have been found fragments of statues.7 Reliefs however, are plentiful, mostly representing mythological creatures or persons; while a distinct class, which represents a ceremonial feast or communion, seems to include some specimens of funerary character.8 Among inscribed monuments the most interesting are those stelae which show a human figure, accompanied, it would seem, by a formal biography of good works.9 Unfortunately a

considerable

proportion

of

the

' The inscriptions still largely hold their secrets. The cause would seem to be chiefly the imperfections in our copies, for Professor Sayce's system (described in the Proc, Soc. Bibl. Arch., 1904, et seqq.) has consistently developed geographical and local names corroborated by the circumstances of discovery. The language seems to be unlike any that is known, and to vary in localities. 2 The inscribed round-topped stone on its pedestal, on a rise of ground near Bogche, overlooking the Halys. See P I . XLVIII. 3 Like the massive altar on the pass of Kuru-Bel. See p. 147. 4 E.g. the lions found near Derendeh; the obelisk of Izgin, and the columnar figure from Palanga. See pp. 141, 145. 3 E.g. the monuments of Jerablus, the site of CARCHEMISH ; and of Marash, the ancient MARGHASI ; also those found at Emir-Ghazi near ARDISTAMA; or at Bor, Nigdeh, and Andaval near TYANA. 6 Like the lions of Sakje-Geuzi, Marash, Eyuk, etc. 7 E.g. at Kurts-oghlu and Marash. See pp. 98, 113. 8 E.g. from Kara-burshlu, Sinjerli, Sakje-Geuzi, Marash, Malatia. E.g. from Jerablus, Marash, etc. See the readings of Professor Sayce, Proc, S.B.A., 1904, Nov. et seqq.

Pl.ATE

S IG DE H : TOMB OF S E t J Í K

XXXtil

l'KSKW

Tratliiioaally the toiiib. f '..i. wife of Ala-cd'diu, ! :n dated 1344 a . b . N o t e ilic design, ;r.,i:ci v. ;ind biataclire oftiamentoii. {v«v/>. „ , )

CLASSIFICATION

81

inscribed blocks of stone that have been found are imperfect, so that little can be hoped from the inscriptions themselves. There are also a few small objects so portable, and reported from regions so exceptional, that they cannot be used as topographical evidence. Lastly, there are naturally a number of monuments simulating Hittite work which we hesitate to include without further evidence. I t will be useful at this stage to give a classified list of the places where the chief Hittite monuments have been found.1 Towns and palaces are included though not discussed in this chapter; further, classifications which are based on inference, or doubtful in any way, are denoted by square brackets, while an asterisk signifies that the Hittite origin of the monument to which it refers is problematical and unconfirmed. Other special features are pointed out in the footnotes. W A L L E D TOWNS.—Boghaz-Keui, Eyuk, Sakje-Geuzi, Sinjerli. [Ilgin (Kolitoghlu Yaila), Jerablus (Carchemish), Marash.] PALACES.—Boghaz-Keui, Eyuk, Sakje-Geuzi, Sinjerli.2 [Malatia, Marash.3] F O R T R E S S E S . — Boghaz - Keui (Sary Kaleh, Yenije Kaleh), Giaour Kalesi, Karaburna, Kizil Dagh. R O O K C A R V I N G S . — Sculptures with Inscriptions — Boghaz-Keui (lasily Kaya), Fraktin, Ivriz, Kara-Bel (Mount Tmolus), Kizil Dagh, Mount Sipylus, Tashji. Sculpture only—Giaour-Kalesi.4 Inscriptions only— Asarjik, Boghaz-Keui (Nishan Tash), Bulghar-Madcn, Gurun, Kara Dagh (Mahalich). 1 These are marked upon the map, p. 390. A more detailed place-index to these monuments, with a bibliography, is given in Appendix B. 2 Sculptures decorate the three last-named palaces. 3 May be inferred from analogy of sculptured blocks and locality. 4 A careful scrutiny might reveal some signs.

F

82

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

STONES

SITU.—Inscribed Sculpture

IN

Inscription

— Kuru-Bel.

only—Bogche.

M O V E A B L E STONES.—Sculptures in the round—Boghaz-Keui, 1 Derendeh 2 (and at Arslan Tash),2 Eyuk, 2 Eski Yapan, 2 Kurts-oghlu, 3 Kuru - Bel,4 Marash,3 Yamoola. 1 Reliefs; mitral—Aintab, Boghaz-Keui, Doghanlu, Malatia, Marash. [ A n g o r a (Kalaba, Yalanjak, Amaksiz Keui).] Reliefs representing a Ceremonial Feast—Kara-burshlu, Malatia, Marash, Sakje-Geuzi, Sinjerli,® Yarre. Inscriptions accompanying human 6 figure—Andaval, Bor, Jerablus (Carchemish), Kellekli, Marash, 0 Samsat, Tell - Ahmar. Inscriptions only— Aleppo, Alexandretta, 7 Albistan (Kirchuk Yapalak), Bey-Keui, Ekrek, 7 Emir-Ghazi, 4 Hamath, Ilgîn (Kolitoghlu Yaila), Izgîn, 8 Jerablus, Karaburna, Nigdeh, 4 Restan, Suasa. EXCEPTIONAL

Passinler), 0

DISTRICTS.—Babylon, Erzerum

Kedabeg, 7

PROBLEMATICAL

(Kaza

Toprah Kaleh.

MONUMENTS.—Eflatoun-Bunar,

Fas-

siler, Gerger. The first thing that strikes us in considering this list is that these monuments are all of stone. W e might possibly be able to include, with suitable caution, some number of small objects of bronze or pottery, mostly in animal form, and also a number of peculiar ceramic types, including painted vases and neolithic pottery decorated in a primitive manner by incisions. But, except in the latter instances,10 these do not advance the main subject of our inquiry ; f o r while their 1 2 3 4 6 7 9

Eagle monuments, presumably Hittite. Lion monuments, head only in the round. Statuettes in the round ; at Marash, Lion monuments also. 5 Built into the gate façade. Altar. Seemingly biographical or memorial. 8 Columnar statue. Objects easily portable. 10 Cf. below, ch. v. p. 313. Provenance doubtful.

PLATE

EPHKSUS:

XXXIV

MEQIK1 AI. VOKTRE5S « I T H .-KL.li K kt-, MAINS A T AVASOLUK

K O M A : XAÜAÖlN MAX, OK SKI.jC'K VS'OHK AM

STHUE i

r

.1

ARGUMENT FROM DISPOSITION

83

identification with the Hittites is chiefly a matter of general inference, their provenance is nearly always doubtful. The same thing might be said unhappily of the definitely Hittite seals and kindred objects, of which several excellent specimens are on record,1 whether made of silver,2 stone,3 or ivory. 4 While all of these are worthy of closest study from the point of view of Hittite art and motif, yet nearly all have been found in the hands of peasants who were loath to tell the exact site of their discovery, or of town-dealers who did not know. Hence to define our Hittite land by the disposition of the monuments, we fall back largely on the works in stone, the original position of which is known or can be inferred. Doubtless at one time the surface of the ground was covered with other indications, with ruins of villages and houses where now the grass grows over indistinguishable mounds; and doubtless also many exposed monuments must hitherto have escaped scientific record. Hence our argument from the disposition of the monuments should be guarded; it is positive, indeed, so far as we have evidence, but the negative case should not be urged. The durability of stone has perpetuated these monuments to us, but it is not thereby demonstrated that the Hittites had any exclusive preference for this material. And being of stone, they are most plentiful in stony regions, and rarely found upon grassy plains. W e cannot expect, for instance, upon the broad pastures of Iconium anything analogous to the sculptures which are found in rocky Taurus, where the opportunity was all-tempting Messerschmidt, C.I.II. (1900), Pis. XXXIX.-XT.V. E.g. from Bor, IlecueU de Travaux, xiv. p. 88. 3 E.g. from Aintab, op. cit., vol. xvii. p. 26. 4 See below, p. 160, PI. XL. (ii). 1

2

84

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

which in t h e f o r m e r case w a s lacking. I t h a s been well said t h a t 'if t h e p l a t e a u p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r , t h e r e would be n o need t o seek on its s u r f a c e m o n u m e n t s of t h e past. H u n t e r s a n d woodm e n build no cities, a n d a r t s a r e u n k n o w n to t h e m . ' 1 Consequently, in finding a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of H i t t i t e sites u p o n t h e hilly regions of t h e m a p , t h i s f a c t should n o t be allowed t o weigh disproportionately, a l t h o u g h t h e r e is i n d e p e n d e n t evidence t e n d i n g t o t h e conclusion t h a t several b r a n c h e s of t h e H i t t i t e peoples, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of Asia Minor, w e r e of m o u n t a i n origin. 2 W i t h t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in mind, a s t u d y of t h e disposition of t h e s e H i t t i t e sites u p o n t h e m a p 3 can t e a c h us much, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g our self-imposed restrictions. Our southerly frontier reaches to H a m a t h on the Orontes. E a s t w a r d o u r b o u n d a r y is t h e E u p h r a t e s , flowing p a s t Malatia, S a m s a t , a n d J e r a b l u s . Westw a r d t h e m o n u m e n t s follow t h e i n n e r edge of T a u r u s as f a r as t h e K a r a D a g h , w i t h n o t a single site u n d e r t h e s o u t h e r n slope of t h e s e m o u n t a i n s . I n t h e n o r t h w e have no clear b o u n d a r y . E y u k a n d B o g h a z - K e u i a r e f o u n d in t h e middle of t h e circuit of t h e Halys, w i t h no places n e a r e r t h a n t h o s e w h i c h lie in t h e valley of t h a t river. Across t h e r i v e r a single line of m o n u m e n t s , including Giaour-Kalesi, Y a r r e , D o g h a n l u , a n d Bey-Keui, seems t o lead on t o w a r d s t h e L y d i a n coast, t o w h e r e Sipylus a n d K a r a - B e l a r e f o u n d b e t w e e n S a r d i s and Smyrna. A brief consideration of t h e classified list of m o n u m e n t s above will r e v e a l t h e f a c t t h a t f o r description n o g r o u p i n g of t h e s e places is so convenient as t h a t f o r m e d n a t u r a l l y by g e o g r a p h i c a l divisions. T h e first 2

1 Perrot in Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 83. 3 See later, p. 321. To face p. 300.

P L A T E XXXV

GEOGRAPHICAL GROUPING: SYRIA 85 m a i n g r o u p (A) will include all t h e m o n u m e n t s of t h e n o r t h of Syria, in w h i c h w e m a y recognise t h r e e s e p a r a t e districts. T h e m o s t s o u t h e r l y is t h e O r o n t e s valley, w i t h w h i c h we can include Aleppo, t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r historically would seem t o h a v e been t h e c e n t r e of a n i n d e p e n d e n t state. 1 The m o n u m e n t s f r o m H a m a t h consist of a series of s t o n e s inscribed in relief, p a r t l y belonging t o t h e s a m e inscription ; while a t Aleppo t h e r e is one small s t o n e of similar c h a r a c t e r . The places R e s t a n a n d Horns i n d i c a t e d u p o n t h e m a p a r e positions of imp o r t a n c e f u r t h e r u p t h e Orontes, t h o u g h unidentified b y local remains. 2 The site of Kadesh, t h e historical f r o n t i e r f o r t r e s s of t h e H i t t i t e s in t h e i r w a r f a r e w i t h E g y p t , is similarly n o w unrecognisable, b u t a consensus of opinion a m o n g s t u d e n t s of t h e E g y p t i a n records places it n o t f a r s o u t h w a r d of t h e p r e s e n t l a k e of Homs. 8 E a s t w a r d w e h a v e t h e m o n u m e n t s on t h e E u p h r a t e s , including n u m e r o u s inscriptions, a stela, a n d f r a g m e n t s of sculpture, f r o m t h e i r r e g u l a r m o u n d s w h i c h m a r k t h e site of a n c i e n t C a r c h e m i s h a t J e r a b l u s . Several carved a n d inscribed m o n u m e n t s a r e r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d f r o m Kellekli a n d Tell-Ahmar, 4 w h i c h a r e in t h e s a m e vicinity, while f u r t h e r u p t h e r i v e r t h e r e a r e f o u n d a n inscribed a n d s c u l p t u r e d block f r o m S a m s a t , a n d a d o u b t f u l c a r v i n g on t h e rocks n e a r Gerger Kalesi. The r e m a i n i n g m o n u m e n t s of t h e n o r t h of S y r i a lie t o w a r d s t h e west, mostly in t h e valley of t h e K a r a Su. 1 Khalabu in Annals of Thothmes III., 33rd. y e a r ; K h a l m a n in the Assyrian records ; Khalpa in Hittite, and Haleb in Arabic. 3 Except a small archaic bronze figure procured from Homs (Menant: R s vue Arch., 1895, p. 31); another bronze figure and a cylinder seal of ironstone purchased at Latakiaupon the coast. (Longpérier Musée Napol.. Pis. xxx.-xxii. ; and American Jour. Arch., 1898, p. 163, and 1899, p. 18.) Addendum : an inscription of two lines in relief has recently been found a t Restan by the Rev. F a t h e r Ronzevalli of Beyrout. 3 See, for instance, P e r r o t and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 18 ; Breasted, The Battle of Kadesh (Chicago, 1903), pp. 13, et ff. 4 See pp. 128, 130 ; and the list of monuments in Appendix B.

86

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

The mounds of S i n j e r l i and Sakje-Geuzi are included, wherein excavations have disclosed the ruins of sculptured palaces and other monuments t h a t will be described with more detail in a l a t e r chapter. A relief with inscription comes f r o m K a r a - b u r s h l u in t h e same vicinity; while a sculptured and inscribed corner-stone of peculiar c h a r a c t e r has been found a t Aintab, a little to t h e east. To the south of this town is Killiz, a place not marked by a n y peculiar remains, b u t t h e centre where numbers of bronze figures,1 seals, and other small objects of H i t t i t e character, are commonly found in t h e bazaars. Lower down on t h e Afrin, and hence geographically contiguous, is Kurts-oghlu, whence comes a portion of a small statue carved in the round, upon which still remain two lines of incised inscription. W e include Marash also in this group, though it is on higher ground a t t h e ascent of the Taurus mountains. Here there must have been a city of importance, suggested alike in the strategic position and in the number and character of the monuments found upon the site. Among these are two sculptured lions (one inscribed with hieroglyphs in relief), slabs carved with reliefs depicting interesting scenes, and t h e lower p a r t of an inscribed statue, as well as several blocks and f r a g m e n t s also inscribed. Passing northwards the monuments found in t h e mountain regions of Taurus and Anti-Taurus constitute our second main group (B). This embraces the district marked by t h e four sites in the valley of t h e Tochma Su, with which there m a y be included two others in the head-waters of the Pyramus. At Malatia there have been found several architectural blocks sculptured in relief with religious representations and hunting 1

See PI.

X L . (i).

TAURUS AND ANTI-TAURUS

87

scenes, most of them bearing also groups of Hittite hieroglyphs upon them. There can be 110 doubt that, situated like Marash in a position of great strategic importance, 1 at one time on the Mitannian and later on the Assyrian frontier, this place is equally one of the more noteworthy Hittite sites. From Derendeh come an inscribed fragment of a statue and a small basaltic lion; and from a spot called appropriately Arslan Tash, one hour distant to the south, two other lions, which are presumably architectural. A t Palanga an inscribed cylindrical columnar figure has been found; while Gurun, further up the valley, is the site of two inscriptions, one on the living rock and the other on an isolated block. On the southern side of the watershed an inscribed stone has been found in a cemetery at Kirchuk Yapalak, two hours distant from Albistan; while the column or obelisk from Izgin, inscribed on four sides with hieroglyphs in relief, is an object almost as remarkable as the round column from Palanga. This group includes, as a second district, five sites in the Anti-Taurus. The most easterly is Kuru-Bel, a pass near old-time Comana: here is one of the most striking Hittite works, resembling a great altar with lions crouching upon the top on either hand. Three places are on the main stream of the Zamanti Su : from an Armenian cemetery at Ekrek there has come a stone inscribed in incised hieroglyphs, which has been redressed with Christian emblems; at Tashji are two figures and an inscription incised upon the rock; while Fraktin is famous as the site of rock-sculptures that 1 Ramsay (Hist. Geoff., p. 35; also Becueil, xv., p. 28) believes in a main eastern route passing through Malatia, and connecting with the Royal Road. The place was, of course, the site of a Roman frontier fortress.

88

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

m a k e i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n s to H i t t i t e religious symbolism. Lastly, a t Asarjilt, on t h e n o r t h e r n slope of M o u n t Argaeus, overlooking Csesarea, a n i n s c r i p t i o n is incised u p o n a b r o k e n rock, accompanied b y i n t e r e s t ing m a r k i n g s like graffiti. I n o u r t h i r d m a i n g r o u p (C) w e include t h o s e f e w m o n u m e n t s f o u n d in or n e a r t h e valley of t h e Halys, n o r t h - w e s t w a r d of Csesarea. These a r e a g r e a t sculpt u r e d eagle on a lion-base, a n o b j e c t n o t d e m o n s t r a b l y of H i t t i t e w o r k m a n s h i p , on t h e r i v e r - b a n k n e a r Y a m o o l a ; a p e r f e c t inscription covering f o u r sides of a r o u n d - t o p p e d stone, s t a n d i n g on a pedestal, overlooking t h e r i v e r valley on t h e s o u t h b a n k n e a r B o g c h e ; thirdly, a n inscription in t h r e e lines on a stone f o u n d a t K a r a b u r n a , which is on t h e opposite b a n k considera b l y lower d o w n ; a n d lastly, t w o incised i n s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d r e c e n t l y a t Suasa, w h i c h lies back considerably f r o m t h e river, a l m o s t opposite t h e place l a s t n a m e d . W i t h t h e s a m e g r o u p w e class t h e district inside t h e circuit of t h e Halys, t h e m o n u m e n t s of w h i c h a r e a l m o s t confined t o t h e f a m o u s r u i n s of Boghaz-Keui, w i t h t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g s c u l p t u r e d s a n c t u a r y of Iasily K a y a , a n d t h e walled m o u n d a n d palace of E y u k , b o t h of which a r e described in l a t e r chapters. T h e r e are, however, one or t w o f e a t u r e s w h i c h m a y be approp r i a t e l y singled o u t f o r c o m p a r i s o n in t h i s c h a p t e r , n o t a b l y t h e inscription in relief on t h e rock called N i s h a n Tash, on t h e h i g h g r o u n d of t h e citadel a t Boghaz-Keui, a n d a couple of building blocks s c u l p t u r e d like t h o s e of Sinjerli, Malatia, a n d E y u k , r e c e n t l y f o u n d a t t h e f o o t of t h e acropolis. If w e m a y m e n t i o n also t w o objects of d o u b t f u l provenance, t h e s e i n t r o d u c e a place called E s k i - Y a p a n , on t h e r o a d f r o m S u n g u r l u t o C h o r u m , w h e r e a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l lion is b u i l t i n t o a

P L A T E XXXVI

T H E HALYS BASIN AND T H E W E S T

89

modern wall, 1 and Denek-M'aden, n e a r t o CheshmeK e u p r u , w h e r e a n i n t e r e s t i n g round ivory o b j e c t engraved with H i t t i t e c h a r a c t e r s and signs h a s been rescued. 2 W e a r e inclined t o group t o g e t h e r all t h e m o n u m e n t s w e s t w a r d of t h e H a l y s (D), including with t h e m t h e t w o f a m o u s sculptures n e a r t h e L y d i a n coast. We thus bring together for comparison the rock carvings of G i a o u r - K a l e s i and of K a r a - B e l , which a r e analogous, and t h e dethroned Niobe seated on Mount Sipylus. I n t h e P h r y g i a n c o u n t r y t h e r e a r e on record a n inscribed stone a t B e y - K e u i , and a sculpture w i t h u n c e r t a i n hieroglyphs a t D o g h a n l u Daresi. A relief f o u n d a t Y a r r e , r e p r e s e n t i n g a ceremonial feast, c o n f o r m s w i t h a definite class of H i t t i t e sculptures found elsewhere on t h e several sites m e n t i o n e d in t h e list above. T h e s a m e m a y be said, t h o u g h with less confidence, of carved slabs found in t h e vicinity of A n g o r a , r e p r e s e n t i n g lions, b u t we exclude t h e sculptured lion t o be seen n e a r t h e bridge a t Cheshme Keupru. The remarkable thing about the disposition of t h e s e m o n u m e n t s , excluding t h e reliefs a t A n g o r a , is t h a t t h e y seem t o m a r k out t h e line of a single road, n a m e l y t h e R o y a l R o a d f r o m B o g h a z - K e u i t o Sardis and t h e west. 3 T h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l e doubt seems t o be as t o t h e r o u t e f r o m G i a o u r - K a l e s i t o B o g h a z - K e u i , a b o u t which t h e r e is n o evidence. S o m e students of t h e l o c a l t o p o g r a p h y t h i n k it m u s t h a v e gone by w a y of A n g o r a , in spite of t h e t r a d i t i o n (which in t h e a b s e n c e of evidence becomes of i n t e r e s t ) t h a t A n g o r a w a s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a t e P h r y g i a n foundation. 4 Liverpool Annals of Arch., i. p. 9. Ibid., p. 11, and PI. xiv., fig. 1. See below, PI. XL. (II). 3 See above, p. 38, and Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia pp. 30, 31. 4 Pausanias, I. iv. 5. 1

2

Minor,

90

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

O t h e r s u r g e 1 t h a t it w a s i m p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e r o a d ' s w e r v e d s o u t h w a r d s t o Giaour-Kalesi,' a n opinion seemingly f o r g e t f u l of t h e road's objective. 2 The district w e s t w a r d of Iconium, in which a r e f o u n d t h e L y c a o n i a n - H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s of E f l a t o u n - B u n a r a n d Fassiler, s t a n d s by itself. B u t as t h e r e is only one clearly H i t t i t e object f r o m t h i s region, n a m e l y a s t o n e inscribed w i t h h i e r o g l y p h s in relief, f r o m n e a r Kolitoghlu Yaila, n e a r Ilgin, w e include t h i s w i t h t h e m a i n western group. W e n o w come t o t h e fifth a n d l a s t g r o u p (E) of t h e s e a r b i t r a r y divisions, which includes nine sites a n d several of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m o n u m e n t s . 3 I t e m b r a c e s t h e w h o l e of t h e s o u t h - w e s t e r n r a n g e of T a u r u s f r o m t h e K a r a D a g h to B u l g h a r Dagh, a s well as t h e districts a t its foot, of w h i c h in classical t i m e s E r e g l i (Cybistra) A r i s s a m a (Ardistama) a n d Kilisse H i s s a r (Tyana) w e r e t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t centres. The m o n u m e n t s r e c e n t l y discovered on t h e K a r a D a g h m i g h t indeed h a v e been r e g a r d e d as a g r o u p a p a r t ; b u t a s this district s h a r e s in t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l economy of t h e others, a n d is a s p u r of t h e m a i n T a u r u s range, w e p r e f e r to class t h e m w i t h t h e rest. T h e y a r e f o u n d in t w o places, firstly, n e a r Mabalich, on t h e s u m m i t of t h e K a r a D a g h , w h e r e t h e r e a r e t w o inscriptions in relief a n d a p a s s a g e in t h e r o c k ; a n d secondly, on t h e o u t l y i n g k n o l l called Kizil D a g h , on w h i c h a r e t h e r e m a i n s of a ' h i g h place,' including a r o c k - t h r o n e a n d a n incised seated figure w i t h t h r e e i n s c r i p t i o n s ; while on t h e v e r y s u m m i t t h e r e a r e t h e r u i n s of a f o r t r e s s , a n d a n inscription in relief upon t h e rock. The m o n u m e n t of Ivriz, 1

Journal Hellenic Studies, xix., Part I., 1899, p. 50. Or perhaps discrediting it. Cf. J.H.S. loc. cit., p. 45, at the top. 3 Our relatively large material for this region is mostly due to the consistent researches of Professor Sir William Ramsay and his school. 2

T H E SOUTH-EASTERN DISTRICT

91

above Eregli, is well known; it is a gigantic and imposing sculpture of the god of fertility (by whatever name he may be known) with the local priest-king in adoration; three short inscriptions accompany the scene. The traces of a second sculpture of similar character are to be found not f a r above. 1 At BulgharMaden, on the other side of a lofty ridge, an incised inscription of five lines is graved upon the living rock. These two monuments seem to have been connected in some way with Tyana, in the vicinity of which several inscribed stelae and sculptures have been found. That from Bor, discovered in two portions which were rescued at different times, is the best of these ; and an interesting fragment remains at Eski Andaval, where jealousies and suspicions prevent it from being seen. Nigdeh contributes an incised altar of round shape. From Tyana itself nothing is reported, but the antiquity of the site is unquestioned, and its known monuments reach back to the time of a Phrygian Midas. 2 In this district, particularly at Bor, numerous small objects of great interest have been secured, and there is little reason to doubt but that they were found originally not f a r away. 3 Further west, in the desert tract of the eastern extremity of the great salt plains, there are the ruins of Ardistama; and in the vicinity, near Emir Ghazi, there have been found in late years an inscription in relief, and three others on round altars. These are included in the same group on account of their geographical proximity. Now that we have completed this preliminary survey Ramsay, Luke the Physician, p. 174, footnote. See above, p. 56, and PL x x v . 3 This uncertainty, however, forbids us to use their provenance as evidence, though in themselves objects with special features of interest. 1 2

92

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

of the disposition of such Hittite monuments as by their character or the circumstances of their discovery may be accepted by us as evidence in our inquiry, we realise more clearly the reason for the distinction we made in an earlier chapter between the eastern and western portions of Asia Minor. In the West we can speak of only nine monuments, of which four are not of Hittite origin. Six of these seem to lie along the line of a single road; and of the others, only one is inscribed with Hittite characters, and even that is moveable and not found in its original position. If only by contrast with this paucity, the comparative frequency of monuments towards the East, and their definite character, naturally inclines us to assign some tentative boundaries to the Hittite country. In the North this is not difficult; the Halys River remained in the time of Croesus a division between peoples of different race, 1 and Sir William Ramsay has pointed o u t 2 differences in important racial customs between the peoples of the two banks in ancient times. But to the south there is no such boundary; even the great plains, which form so prominent a landmark in the map, seem to be more barren now than in the days when Ardistama flourished.3 This change is illustrated by the western extension of the monuments along the foot of the Taurus and in the desert. W e must not forget, also, that whole tracts are eliminated from our purview from absence of stone; nor should we allow ourselves to be prepossessed with the idea of divisions on the tableland, which is, after all, continuous and coterminous. I f it is true that nearly Herodotus, i. 76, and i. 72 ; see also above, pp. 21, 22. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (London, 1890), p. 32 . 3 Professor Ramsay points out the neglected irrigation works, Lu ke the Physician, p. 129. 1 2

MONUMENTS OF NORTH SYRIA

93

all t h e evidences of H i t t i t e occupation in t h e w e s t resolve t h e m s e l v e s i n t o m o n u m e n t s erected a l o n g a single road, i t is also t r u e t h a t if w e exclude f r o m o u r v i e w t h e g r o u p of r e m a r k a b l e m o n u m e n t s a t B o g h a z - K e u i a n d E y u k , t h e r e r e m a i n s l i t t l e sign t h a t t h e c o u n t r y w i t h i n t h e circuit of t h e H a l y s w a s indeed a t a n y t i m e H i t t i t e t e r r i t o r y , m u c h less t h a t it enclosed t h e i r n o r t h e r n capital. I n face of such considerations t h e g r e a t sculptures a n d f o r t r e s s of Giaour-Kalesi, t h e carvings of D o g h a n l u , t h e inscription a n d t u m u l u s of Bey-Ketii, a n d m o s t s t r i k i n g of all, t h e s c u l p t u r e s of t h e w e s t on M o u n t Sipylus a n d in t h e pass of K a r a - B e l , as well as t h o s e m o n u m e n t s in P h r y g i a a n d W e s t e r n Lycaonia w h i c h a t least reflect t h e influence of H i t t i t e a r t , become i m b u e d w i t h a r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e n o t t o be overlooked in o u r i n q u i r y . The l a n d of t h e H i t t i t e s is f o r us a s b r o a d as t h e e x t e n t of t h e i r w o r k s : it is f o r a n o t h e r p h a s e of o u r s u b j e c t to i n q u i r e w h e t h e r t h e r e is evidence t o tell us h o w a n d w h e n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y w a s acquired, a n d f o r h o w long it r e m a i n e d in t h e i r power.

S E C T I O N A . — M O N U M E N T S OF T H E N O R T H OF S Y R I A . HAMATH,

RESTAN,

DRETTA), AINTAB

A L E P P O ; KURTS-OGHLU

SINJERLI, (KILLIZ),

KARA-BURSHLU, MARASH;

(ALEXAN-

SAKJE-GEUZI;

JERABLUS,

KELLEKLI,

T E L L - A H M A R , SAMSAT, R U M K A L I (GERGER).

The t o w n of H a m a t h h a s g r o w n u p w h e r e t h e m a i n r o a d f r o m t h e n o r t h e n t e r s t h e O r o n t e s valley. This river, in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a s h i o n , flows f o r t h e m o s t p a r t deep below t h e level of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g p l a i n s ; a n d

94

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

H a m a t h is f o u n d a t a spot w h e r e t h e b a n k s w i d e n out, so t h a t t h e t o w n is in a hollow, a l m o s t s u r r o u n d e d b y e s c a r p m e n t s f o r m e d of t h e steep b a n k s a n d t h e b r o k e n edges of t h e plain. T h o u g h picturesque, t h e position in g e n e r a l can h a v e h a d little s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e , even in a n t i q u i t y , being overlooked a n d exposed. H e n c e it p r o b a b l y came i n t o being in H i t t i t e t i m e s as a n imp o r t a n t halting-place u p o n t h e m a i n r o a d t h r o u g h Syria, a n d as a n a t u r a l c e n t r e f o r t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l districts. The original H i t t i t e s t r o n g h o l d would seem t o h a v e been m o r e s t r o n g l y p l a c e d ; t h i s p r o b a b l y covered t h e b r o a d - t o p p e d m o u n d 1 w h i c h m a r k s , in t h e m a n n e r so f a m i l i a r in old S y r i a n t o w n s , t h e b e g i n n i n g s of t h e site. Doubtless this would be s u r r o u n d e d a t a c e r t a i n s t a g e w i t h a wall, a s w a s t h e f a s h i o n of t h o s e d a y s ; a n d l a t e r , on t h e a n a l o g y of Sinjerli, t h e p o p u l a t i o n o v e r s p r e a d t h e limits of t h e enclosure, a n d so settled in t i m e s of quiet on t h e t e m p t i n g g r o u n d a t t h e f o o t of t h e acropolis. I n t h i s development, a n d in t h e n a t u r e of its situation, H a m a t h s h a r e s largely t h e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of m a n y S y r i a n sites. Being (even now) s o m e w h a t o u t of t h e w a y of E u r o p e a n travellers, i t is curious t h a t n u m e r o u s inscriptions should h a v e been noticed here, w h i l e a f a m o u s historical site like K a d e s h r e m a i n s unidentified, a n d a s t r o n g n a t u r a l position like R e s t a n w a s u n t i l r e c e n t l y w i t h o u t record of H i t t i t e occupation. 2 W h a t e v e r m a y be t h e e x p l a n a t i o n , as e a r l y as 1812 a black basaltic block built i n t o t h e c o r n e r of one of t h e houses in a b a z a a r a t t r a c t e d t h e eye of a f a m o u s 1 Thought by Miss Gertrude Bell to have been artificially separated from the ridge, of which it seems like a projecting headland. See The Desert and the Sown (London, 1905), p. 223. The same work may be consulted for modern interests of this remarkable Arab town. So also Tyke, Dar el Islam (London, 1907). 2 See p. 85, note 2 (addendum); and Sayce in Proc. S.B.A. (1909), p. 259.

P I A T E X X X \ [1

Il A M A T I ! :

I S'SCRIWTON

s s T H I i l ' E UNKH O F I t I T T I T E

Hri-.KOfiLVI'HS CABVI-:n IN RI I.IKF, OHE O F T U E SO-CALLK» ' H A M A T H i r '

I N S I D I C I lONs

(Sa /•. « ; . ) The

r..|i':i ìs takefi Troni a

' : impréssion.

HAMATH: THE INSCRIPTIONS

95

traveller 1 by reason of the strange-looking hieroglyphic signs upon it. Sixty years later other stones came to light; 2 some were built into the modern walls, others lay loose. All were regarded with veneration by the inhabitants,3 and it was with great difficulty that they were removed, in 1872, to a place of safety by the Turkish Governor through the energetic initiation of Dr. Wright, supported by the British Consul. The inscriptions are five in number,4 whereof two are on adjacent sides of the same block of stone. The first was found in the wall of a house; it measures nearly 15 inches in height and 13 inches in length.6 The inscription is in three lines; and it begins at the top right-hand side, with the symbol of the human arm and head, with finger touching the lips, a sign which indicates the beginning of a first personal declaration. Other hieroglyphics may be readily recognised in the photograph. The yoke which has the phonetic value of our letter S is thrice repeated in the lower part of the line ; while towards the end there is seen the hand and fore-arm, marked off by the smaller 1 Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, (London 1822), p. 149. 2 For the progress and vicissitudes of the attempts to obtain a record of the Hamath stones, consult W r i g h t , The Empire of the Hittites-, Burton, Unexplored Syria, and the Quarterly Statements of the Palestine Exploration Fund (1871-2-3); and for a connected account, Sayce, The Hittites (1905); pp. 60-64. 3 One in particular, which was long, had virtues for the rheumatic, who stretched themselves upon it. The Aleppo stone was regarded as effective for ophthalmia ; and some superstition clings to nearly all such remains when they have long been known to village communities. In Egypt any monuments of stone, even a stela newly found but of guaranteed antiquity, is particularly sought out by barren women, who seem to have a definite formula and ritual to observe—one of these acts is to cross and recross the stone, if possible, seven times each way without turning the eyes to right or left. 4 C.I.H. (Mitteilungen, etc., 1900, 5), Pis. i n . B ; iv. A , B ; v., vi., and text (1900, 4), pp. 6-8. Also W r i g h t , op cit., Pis. I.-IV., pp. 139-141. 5 Being a characteristic specimen and of historical interest we reproduce this monument in PI. XXXVII.

96

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

word-dividing signs above a n d below, which in t h i s g r o u p i n g seems t o express some a t t r i b u t e of lordship, 1 a s ' m i g h t y ' or ' powerful.' On t h e a n a l o g y of o t h e r hieroglyphic systems, t h e signs f a c e a l w a y s t o w a r d s t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of t h e inscription. I n t h i s w a y t h e c h a r a c t e r of H i t t i t e inscriptions m a y be recognised as boustrophedon, t u r n i n g a l t e r n a t e l y in direction w i t h t h e successive rows, like oxen p l o u g h i n g in a field. The second r o w in t h i s case m u s t be r e a d t h e n t o w a r d s t h e r i g h t . T h e m o s t noticeable sign is t h e r o y a l headdress, which is conical a n d d r a w n a l w a y s w i t h a midrib. 2 This symbol is a n i d e o g r a p h m e a n i n g king. Below t h e first e x a m p l e of t h i s sign t h e r e occurs t h e f r e e l y used d e t e r m i n a t i v e of a l o c a l i t y ; it is oval in shape, a n d is to be distinguished by details f r o m a similar symbol i n d i c a t i n g s a n c t i t y or divinity, w h i c h is seen c o m m o n l y a t t h e t o p of t h e g r o u p s of signs w h i c h seem t o n a m e i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e sculptures. 3 T h e r e seems t o be little v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t e x t s of this inscription a n d t w o o t h e r s f r o m t h e s a m e place. 4 Of these, No. 2 is a n inscription likewise in t h r e e lines, lacking only a f e w signs a t t h e end. The s t o n e m e a s u r e s n e a r l y 20 inches in l e n g t h by 15 inches in h e i g h t ; it w a s f o u n d built i n t o t h e wall of a g a r d e n . The inscribed end of t h e t h i r d s t o n e ( t h a t w h i c h w a s looked on as possessed w i t h v i r t u e f o r t h e r h e u m a t i c ) , is only j u s t 11 inches in h e i g h t , w i t h a w i d t h t h e s a m e as in t h e f o r m e r instance. T h e r e a r e t w o lines of in1

Sayce, Proc. S.B.A., 1903, March. This feature distinguishes this sign from the determinative of a district, represented as a conical hill. 3 See for example the groups of symbols accompanying the divine figures at Boghaz-Keui, Pis. L X V . , L X I I . 4 A reading of No. 1 was tentatively p u t forward by Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. (1903), p. 354; but this m u s t be revised in the light of the n e w r e a d ing of No. 2, and the note on one of the signs of No. 1, in Proc. S.B.A., 1905, Nov., p. 218. 2

A L E P P O : AN INSCRIPTION

97

scription preserved. T h e l a r g e s t stone of all w a s f o u n d built i n t o t h e c o r n e r of a small shop ; its h e i g h t is j u s t over 2 feet, a n d its l e n g t h 3 f e e t in f r o n t . I t is cubical, w i t h a thickness or d e p t h of a t least 15 inches. I t w a s p r o b a b l y a corner-stone in a n t i q u i t y also, f o r it is inscribed on t h e f r o n t a n d on t h e l e f t - h a n d side. 1 T h e signs, as in t h e o t h e r cases, a r e in relief. The inscription is n o t continuous a r o u n d t h e corner, f o r in f r o n t a r e five rows, which begin t o r e a d f r o m t h e r i g h t , while b y t h e side a r e f o u r r o w s only, b e g i n n i n g f r o m t h e left. The d e p t h of t h e r o w s is t h e s a m e in each case. The f a c e inscription is considerably r u b b e d a n d damaged, a n d a p o r t i o n of t h e last line m i s s i n g ; while t h e edges of t h e side-inscription a r e also r u b b e d away. 2 The one m o n u m e n t of A l e p p o 3 is a single p a n e l of inscription carved in relief u p o n a block of basalt, n e a r l y 2 f e e t 6 inches long, a n d 1 f o o t 6 inches high. W h e n seen originally it w a s built i n t o t h e s o u t h wall of a n old mosque, a n d w a s r e g a r d e d w i t h special s u p e r s t i t i o n b y t h e n a t i v e people, w h o ascribed t o it p o w e r s of curing o p h t h a l m i a . The s m o o t h - r u b b e d n a t u r e of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e stone m a y be p a r t l y ascribed t o t h e devotions of t h e afflicted, w h o w e r e w o n t t o r u b t h e i r affected eyes u p o n it. W h e n a t t e n t i o n w a s d r a w n t o t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d archaeological i m p o r t a n c e of this m o n u m e n t , i t w a s h a s t i l y removed, a n d r e p o r t e d as b r o k e n . Rather m o r e t h a n t w e n t y y e a r s later, however, it w a s refound, 4 1 Cf. the Aintab stone below, p. 107, and PI. XLI. Also the corner-stones in situ at Eyuk, Pis. L X X I I . , L X X I I I . 2 These monuments are now to be seen a t Constantinople, in the Ottoman Museum. (Nos. 831, 832, etc.) 3 C. I. H., PI. m . A, Text, p. 4 (Mitteilungen, etc., 1900, 4, 5), and Proc. S.B.A.,w. (1883), p. 146. 4 By the Liverpool Expedition of 1907. See Hv. Annals of Arch., i. p. 8, PI. ix., 3; and cf. Proc. S.B.A., .Tune 1908. For three uninscribed but presumably H i t t i t e sculptures from Aleppo, seeJAv. Annals, ii. p. 184,

a n d P I . XLII, CT

98

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

built again into the wall of a mosque, and a new photograph was obtained. The signs are too worn to t r a n scribe with certainty, and the inscription is too incomplete to be of much present use for comparative study. I t is remarkable t h a t no other Hittite monuments from Aleppo have been recorded. Possibly t h e reason is t h a t the fine mediaeval Turkish castle now completely covers the bold acropolis which was probably t h e position of the stronghold in Hittite times. 1 T h e r e is rumour of other inscriptions in the masonry of t h e keep, and in the town, but nothing has y e t come to light. W e pass now westward towards the ancient lands of W a n . F r o m here only one monument is recorded, 2 but t h a t is of peculiar interest, being part of a sculpture in the round. This was found in a large rubbish-mound a t Amk near Kurts-oghlu, a village not f a r from t h e Gindarus of R o m a n times upon the Afrin. I t is now in the Berlin Museum. 3 I t consists of the lower p a r t of a statue, which must have represented a somewhat stolid person standing, clad in long skirt, below which the toes protrude. The inscription is incised in two rows around the f r o n t and sides of the skirt a t t h e bottom, beginning from behind the right-hand side. The space not inscribed behind is filled with four vertical folds, descending from t h e waist, which seems to be encircled with a belt. The upper part of the body is broken away, but it seems to have been clad in a g a r m e n t which reached down, in front and behind, to t h e waist and descended lower over the thighs ; but the upper part is all broken away, leaving only t h e position of one elbow, which was bent. The height of t h e preserved portion of the statue is 16 inches, and width 1 3

2 C.I.H. (1900), PI. VH, and p. 8, See Pl. XXXVIII., to face. Vorderasicitische A bteilung, No. 3009.

PLATE XXXVI11

KURTS-OGHLU: KARA-BURSHLU

99

at the bottom 10J inches. Dr. Messerschmidt notes with regard to the inscription that an attempt seems to have been made to add a third line, which was abandoned possibly owing to lack of room, and the signs added were then effaced with cross-lines. I t remains probable, none the less, that these extra words were essential to complete the sense of the inscription.1 Northward lies Sinjerli, the centre of old-time Shamal, in the valley of the Kara Su, under the eastern slopes of Mount Amanus. Here one of the numerous mounds in this locality has been excavated, and disclosed the site of a walled town surrounding an acropolis which was separately enclosed. Within were palaces, or Hilani, of different building periods, and decorated like the gates of the citadel and town with sculptures of varying character. Several inscriptions, from the dated evidence upon them and their relative positions, added to the archaeological value of these discoveries, which will be found described in greater detail in Chapter v. A n hour northward from Sinjerli is the village of Kara-burshlu, at the foot of Mount Amanus, and on the way from one of the chief local descents from the mountains called significantly Arslan Boghaz (Lion Gorge). Above this village there towers a steep knoll, on the summit of which an interesting carved monument was found by members of the first Berlin expedition to Sinjerli. 2 The subject of the relief is a Ceremonial Feast, similar in its general features to 1 Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1900, pt. 4, p. 8. There is another inscribed object coming from this region now in the museum at Alexandretta, but it seems to have come originally from Marash. I t is a small stone inscribed on both sides, of which one is flat and the other convex. The four rows of hieroglyphs in relief are preserved on either side, while portions of a fifth are visible, for a part of the object is broken away. Its width is 9| inches, and the height of what is preserved 14 inches (ibid., loc. cit,.). C ' . l . l l . (1900, 5), PL xxvi. 1, 2, and do. (1900, 4), p. 20.

100 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES others observed in the locality at Sinjerli, 1 Sakje-Geuzi, Marash, and Malatia, and in Asia Minor at BoghazKeui (Iasily Kaya) and at Yarre, but rendered important through certain variations. For it seems to have been inscribed on both sides and on the top ; while, below, part of a pedestal remains, on which it must have been designed to stand.2 Thus it could not have been intended for a building stone, nor is there any suggestion that it was an old stone re-used. Its height is 3 feet 7 inches, its width 3 f e e t ; and the pedestal is preserved to a length of about 5 inches with a width of 18 inches. Unfortunately the stone was found in a poor state of preservation, and could not be moved, so that we have to rely chiefly on sketches and impressions taken on the spot by the discoverers. These, however, were executed with great skill, and it is the fault rather of the condition of the monument, and of our unfamiliarity with the writing, that more of the inscription cannot be made out. As it is, only part of four rows from the right-hand side have been published; but there seem to have been originally six rows on each side and at least one row on the top. The letters are all incised. The sculpture is in relief, and represents two figures seated on either side of a low table, similar to one another and vis-à-vis. The hair of the one seems to be short, and of the other curled. Their shoes turn upwards at the toe. Their robes are long and fringed, reaching to the ankles, and 1 The illustration of the Sinjerli scene, PI. I X X Y . , explains thesubject in general: only at Sakje-Geuzi one of the figures is standing, in the other cases both are seated. 2 Compare in shape and subject the ' gravestone of an Aramaic Queen,' eighth century B.C., Berlin Museum (Vorderasiatisehe Abteilung, No. 2995). The shape corresponds also w i t h that of the monument f r o m Samsat (below, p. 130) ; and of the stela of Nabonidus f r o m Mujelibeh now at Constantinople, published by Scheil, Recueil de Travaux, xviii. 1, 2 (Paris, 1896).

THE CEREMONIAL FEAST

101

there is a belt (partly at least) around the waist. Each raises the further hand with something in it to the level of the mouth. The nearer elbow is drawn back in a natural position, and a staff is suggested in the hand. The chairs are square cornered and straight legged, twice as high as broad, with spindles to match, and low backs, the upper bars of which are thicker and rounded behind. The table is of familiar shape, rather squeezed in the drawing. The top seems to be round, and the curved legs (which are probably three in number) cross about two-thirds of their height, forming a tripod. The feet of the legs are ornamented, probably but not clearly, as animals' feet. Upon the table are five flat circular objects (if we interpret the perspective of the drawing rightly) like native loaves of bread, and upon them are two small pear-shaped objects more difficult to define. The class of sculpture to which this monument belongs is to be distinguished in our opinion from that in which one of the personages represented is clearly more exalted than the other,1 hence presumably the lord or master to whom a servant ministers ; whereas in these, the persons seem to be on an equality, and both share in the feast. The suggestion of a 'funerary feast' 2 as an explanation of these sculptures seems most natural, but the difficulty in accepting this arises from the fact that at Sinjerli the stone in question forms part of a mural decoration, and others of those mentioned seem to be clearly architectural blocks. This difficulty might be explained away by the compromise that the scenes were originSuch as are to be seen at Sakje-Geuzi and in one instance at Marash. Unfortunately there seem to have been no soundings made for a much-wanted Hittite necropolis. On the possible evolution of the motive in general, see below, p. 357. 1 2

102 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES ally c o m m e m o r a t i v e of some religious i n s t i t u t i o n of a f u n e r a r y c h a r a c t e r , t h o u g h n o t a c t u a l l y tombstones. 1 One of t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g m o n u m e n t s of t h i s k i n d is f o u n d a t Sakje-Geuzi, w h i c h lies in t h e s a m e valley a s Sinjerli, a b o u t a day's j o u r n e y t o t h e n o r t h - e a s t . The r o u t e passes t h r o u g h a g a p in a low ridge w h i c h divides t h e valley t r a n s v e r s e l y a n d f o r m s a n a t u r a l b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o districts. R e c e n t e x c a v a t i o n s 2 h a v e u n e a r t h e d in one of t h e m o u n d s a t Sakje-Geuzi t h e outline of a walled citadel a n d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of a palace w i t h portico s c u l p t u r e d in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a s h i o n . These buildings we describe w i t h t h o s e of Sinjerli a n d E y u k in a l a t e r c h a p t e r ; b u t t h e r e a r e one or t w o s u r f a c e m o n u m e n t s of t h i s site t h a t m a y a p p r o p r i a t e l y be m e n t i o n e d n o w . One of t h e s e is t h e relief in question. 3 T h e s t o n e w a s f o u n d in t h e m a r s h y g r o u n d a t t h e f o o t of t h e m o u n d called J o b b a E y u k . T h e s t o n e is p r e s e r v e d t o a h e i g h t of 27 inches, a n d is p r o b a b l y a d e c o r a t i v e building slab, b r o u g h t d o w n in m o d e r n t i m e s f r o m t h e m o u n d . T h e c a r v i n g is v e r y w e a t h e r e d , b u t its m a i n f e a t u r e s m a y be readily m a d e out. T h e figure on t h e l e f t is seated, w i t h h a n d s s t r e t c h e d o u t t o w a r d s t h e t a b l e ; while t h a t on t h e opposite side s t a n d s f a c i n g t h e o t h e r , w i t h h a n d s f o r w a r d as t h o u g h in t h e act of serving. 4 The dresses seem t o be long r o b e s ; t h a t of t h e s t a n d i n g figure m a y be b o r d e r e d or f r i n g e d . 1 On this point see p. 357, a n d of. J e n s e n , Hittiter und Armenier (Strassburg, 1898), p. 166 ; a n d Crowfoot, Jour. Hell. Stud., xix., pp. 42, 43. 2 Liv. Annals of Arch., i. pp. 97-117, and Pis. X X X I I I . - X L I X . 3 P u b l . in Liv. Annals of Arch., i. PI. XLV., and pp. 101-2. There is a cast a t t h e Liverpool I n s t i t u t e of Archaeology. 4 Cf. t h e m o n u m e n t s of this class f r o m Marash, described below, a n d t h e stela of Nerab, a Phoenician m o n u m e n t of t h e n i n t h century B.C. (of which a good photograph is published by Ball, Light from the East, to face p. 236). These sculptures should be compared w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of shrines, or offerings a t t h e altar, like t h e reliefs a t F r a k t i n , Pl. XLVII. (Recueil de Travaux, xiv., PI. vi., a n d C h a n t r e , Mission en Cappadoce, PI. XXIII.); also a scene a t Eyuk, PI. LXXIJI. (i).

SAKJE-GEUZI : CEREMONIAL FEAST 103 The hair of the seated figure ends in a bunched curl.1 The chair is straight-legged as before, only the back is higher, and while curving very slightly backwards does not thicken but rather tends to taper. The table is better drawn than in the last instance; the curve and crossing of the legs is more clear; but the third leg is shown in each case stopping short at the junction, possibly because the artist thought the curve took it out of the plane of the sculptures. The objects upon the table cannot be identified : the one which seems to be proffered by the left hand of the standing figure is round and set upright ; the other is small and T-shaped. Another monument not found in situ, and no longer at Sakje-Geuzi, was removed to Berlin 2 some years ago from the walls of the Konak, or chief's house, in the village. I t consists of three sculptured stones, obviously part of a mural decoration, but forming in themselves a complete group. The subject depicted is a royal lion hunt.3 The king or priest dynast is marked out by a winged disk near to his head ; he rides in a two-horsed chariot, which is driven by a companion. The horses, like the men, are clad in mail ; jaunty tassels hang from their sides and shoulders. The car is small and seemingly open at the back; a quiver for arrows is hung up on each side, as well as an implement which seems like a javelin. The tires of the wheels are thick, and there are eight spokes. The two figures standing within the chariot are clad exactly alike, in long mail robes with short sleeves that do not reach the elbow. Both are without other 1 Cf. the similar sculpture from Marash, p. I l l , and C.I.II. (1900, 5), PI. xxil., and from Malatia, below, p. 135. 2 Vorderasiat. Mus., No. 971. 3 PI. x x x i x . ; cf. also Humann and Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und, Nord Syrien (Berlin, 1890): Atlas, PI. XLVI. Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 64, and fig. '¿79.

104 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES h e a d g e a r t h a n t h e i r copious h a i r or wig, w h i c h is a r r a n g e d in long parallel curls over t h e h e a d ; t h e i r beards also a r e dressed in p e n d e n t curls in t h e A s s y r i a n style. The f a c e of t h e w a r r i o r is p a r t l y h i d d e n b y t h a t of h i m w h o drives, b u t t h e visible characteristics a r e t h e same. The eye is r e n d e r e d in full, while t h e somew h a t aquiline nose a n d p r o m i n e n t lips a r e in profile. The similarity of t h e s e t w o figures is s o m e w h a t striking ; possibly, on t h e E g y p t i a n analogy, it is t h e king's son w h o drives. H e holds t h e reins in his t w o h a n d s , a p a i r in each, while in his r i g h t h e seems t o g r a s p also a short-stocked whip. The figure seen p a r t l y behind, which w e t a k e f o r t h e m o n a r c h , is p o r t r a y e d in t h e a c t of shooting. T h e s h o r t b o w is d r a w n t o t h e b a c k of t h e neck, a n d t h e middle p a r t of t h e weapon, held b y the outstretched left hand, together with the long p o i n t of t h e a r r o w , is seen p r o t r u d i n g f r o m b e f o r e t h e face of t h e n e a r e r figure. His q u a r r y is a noble lion which is seen i m m e d i a t e l y in f r o n t of t h e c h a r i o t horses. A t h i r d figure in t h e b a c k g r o u n d h e r e intervenes, being p a r t l y hidden by t h e forelegs of t h e h o r s e s a n d t h e hind p a r t s of t h e lion. H e is clad only in a s h o r t t u n i c f r o m t h e w a i s t ; t h e g a r m e n t has a p p a r e n t l y a seam vertically down t h e f r o n t , a n d t h e fold, which is f r i n g e d or bordered, falls t r a n s v e r s e l y over t h e r i g h t t h i g h . His f e e t a r e shod in sandals. 1 T h e face of t h i s person is n o t well preserved, b u t his h a i r is s h o r t a n d v e r y curly. I n his r i g h t h a n d a n i m p l e m e n t r e s e m b l i n g a double a x e is poised a l o f t , while w i t h his l e f t h e still grasps a spear, t h e p o i n t of w h i c h p r o t r u d e s f r o m t h e n e a r flank of t h e lion. T h e b e a s t itself is s h o w n also in p r o f i l e ; t h e tail w i t h b u s h y tip is d o w n ; t h e 1 Cf. the similar composition of another sculpture from the same site. Liv. Annals, i. (1908), PI. xv., fig. 2.

SAKJE-GEUZI : THE LION HUNT

105

mane and ruffle are depicted, and the hair is shown full behind the shoulder and under the belly. 1 The mouth is open, with the teeth all bared, and the left paw is upraised with the claws turned outwards, both actions threatening a fourth person who with face turned towards the group completes the scene. W i t h both hands this man drives home a spear into the skull or left shoulder of the animal. He is clad like the riders in the chariot in a long suit of mail, with short sleeves. In this case the lower part of the garment may be seen, which in the others is hidden by the side of the chariot: it is cut away from above the knees, though falling behind nearly to the ankles. There is a belt around the waist as before; the sandals have flat soles, while toe-piece and ankle-strap are clearly delineated. The head-dress of this person is peculiarly interesting. While perpetuating the form of the conical hat it seems to look more clearly like a helmet. This may, however, be an illusion, as there is a border around the brow, and the appearance of a turnover fold which reaches down the side from the peak. Over the back of the animal, between the spears of the two standing figures, there appear four rosettes of twelve petals each; while the upper and lower borders of the stones are decorated also with a pattern composed of contiguous concentric circles. The height of these slabs is nearly four feet, which accordswith the measure of other stones of similar character and decoration found upon one of the mounds of this site. 2 Together these form a series of pronounced Assyrian feeling, and obviously of later date 3 than the palace-portico recently unearthed. 1 Cf. the lion of Marash, PI. XLII., and the newly found lion of Sakje2 Cf. Liv. Annals, Geuzi, PI. LXXIX. i. (1908), Pis. x x x i v . 2, x x x v . 2. 3 Attributed by Puchstein, Pscudo-hethitische Kunst (Berlin, 1890), to the age of Sargon.

106 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES F r o m Sakje-Geuzi a difficult m o u n t a i n t r a c k leads over t h e Q u r t D a g h to K a r t a l , crossing t h e headw a t e r s of t h e A f r i n , and, f o l l o w i n g t h e wild u p p e r valley of t h a t r i v e r t o K a r a d i n e k , passes t h e n c e u n d e r t h e curve of t h e b a s a l t p l a t e a u t o Killiz. T h e distance in t i m e is m u c h t h e s a m e as t h e b e t t e r r o a d b y w a y of Aintab, being t w o days' j o u r n e y in e i t h e r case, b u t t h e scenery a n d i n t e r e s t s of t h e f o r m e r r o u t e a r e u n p a r a l l e l e d in N o r t h e r n Syria. A t Killiz v a r i o u s small objects h a v e been f r o m t i m e t o t i m e b o u g h t in t h e bazaars, such as s t o n e seals a n d small bronze figures. T w o of t h e l a t t e r w e i l l u s t r a t e here, 1 b u t it is n o t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y a r e of H i t t i t e origin. T h e i r a r c h a i c a p p e a r a n c e , h o w e v e r , t h e r a n g e of c o u n t r y a n d localities in w h i c h t h i s class of objects a r e f o u n d , a n d several o t h e r considerations, r e n d e r t h e suspicion a probability. 2 Aintab, one day's m a r c h e a s t w a r d f r o m Sakje-Geuzi, lies a t t h e j u n c t u r e of t w o m a i n routes, t h e one f r o m Cilicia e a s t w a r d across t h e E u p h r a t e s , t h e o t h e r f r o m M a r a s h s o u t h w a r d b y Killiz to Aleppo. I t is s o m e w h a t s u r p r i s i n g t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e r e is n o f u r t h e r evidence of H i t t i t e h a n d i w o r k f o r t h c o m i n g t h a n a single g r a n i t e corner-stone. This is a cubical block, 3 a b o u t t w e n t y inches in height, inscribed on t h e one f a c e a n d sculptured on t h e a d j o i n i n g side t o t h e r i g h t . 1

PI. XL. (i). F r o m TAv. Annals, i. (1908), figs. 2, 3, PI. x i v . Cf. inter alia C h a n t r e , Mission cn Cappadoce, PL x x i v . ; also (Bezz e n b e r g e r u n d ) Peiser, Die bronze Figur von Scliemen (Sitzungsber. der Altertumsges. Prussia, He£t 22), w h e r e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s class of bronze figure is t h o r o u g h l y e x a m i n e d . A m o n g t h e sites of A s i a M i n o r t h e r e a p p e a r Y u z g a t , A n g o r a , A m a s i a , K a r a s h e h r , Iconium, a n d t e n u n n a m e d places of Cappadocia. On t h e S y r i a n side, M a r a s h a n d H o m s a n d t h e Lebanon r e g i o n a r e noticeable. The d i s t r i b u t i o n t h u s includes m a n y H i t t i t e sites, b u t n o t exclusively, 3 PI. XLI. ; cf. Liv. Annals Arch., i. (1908), P i s . x . , XL, p. 8, a n d fig. p. 7. Several i m p o r t a n t s m a l l objects h a v e been secured a t A i n t a b . 2

PLATE XL

KILLIZ : BRONZE FIGURES. (See icö.)

DENEK MADEN ' l\OKV .SEAL. (.SV« /'• 160.)

KILLIZ A N D AINTAB

107

I t is clearly a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l piece, f o r n e i t h e r sculpture nor inscription is completed on t h e single s t o n e ; y e t it should be m e n t i o n e d t h a t in t h e palace buildings of S a k j e - G e u z i , Sinjerli, and E y u k in no case h a s a n inscription been f o u n d built i n t o the w a l l s w h i c h a r e decorated w i t h sculptures. R e c e n t l y a t Malatia, a n d a t B o g h a z - K e u i , sculptured blocks h a v e been f o u n d on t h e f a c e of w h i c h are h i e r o g l y p h i c signs, as m a y be seen in situ a t E y u k ; but in n o case is a n inscription f o u n d b u i l t into a wall. W e feel inclined t o r e g a r d this stone t h e r e f o r e as p a r t of a n o t h e r class of structure, like a built-up h e r o - m o n u m e n t or shrine. 1 The inscription is in t h r e e panels, of w h i c h t h e middle one is complete and enclosed by a b o r d e r ; t h e l o w e s t is l a c k i n g only in t h e l e f t - h a n d corner a t t h e bottom, w h i l e t h e u p p e r m o s t is s u g g e s t e d only b y traces of t h e l o w e s t signs w i t h i n it. A religious c h a r a c t e r is suggested in t h e reading of t h e middle panel t e n t a t i v e l y offered b y P r o f e s s o r S a y c e : ' T h i s (monument) erecting to t h e god of m y country.' T h e sculptured side is equally problematical. T h a t w h i c h r e m a i n s s h o w s t h e r i g h t leg of a m a n f r o m t h i g h to knee. T h e dress seems t o be a short tunic, t h e l o w e s t edge of w h i c h seems to be curled up behind. T h e position of t h e l e g and dress s u g g e s t s e v e r a l points of interest in a t t e m p t i n g a restoration of t h e attitude. T h e f i g u r e m u s t h a v e been a b o u t life-size, and posed f o r a c t i o n w i t h l e f t leg f o r w a r d ; not r u n n i n g b u t r a t h e r w a l k i n g quickly, or possibly h u r l i n g a spear, w i t h t h e muscles of t h e l e g s t r u n g up to g i v e t h e final i m p e t u s to t h e throw. Marash lies one day's j o u r n e y n o r t h w a r d s of A i n 1 Cf. the monument recently discovered at Marash, described below, pp. 114 if.

108 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES t a b : it is a considerable t o w n placed a t t h e descent f r o m t h e T a u r u s on sloping g r o u n d well a b o v e t h e plain a n d 2500 f e e t above t h e sea. W e h a v e seen t h a t it h a s played a considerable p a r t in local h i s t o r y , as follows f r o m its i m p o r t a n t position a t t h e j u n c t i o n of several m a i n r o u t e s ; a n d t o j u d g e f r o m t h e r e m a i n s t h a t h a v e been f o u n d t h e r e , it m u s t h a v e been in earlier t i m e s one of t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t centres of t h e Hittites. As in t h e parallel cases of Aleppo a n d H a i n a t h , p r o b a b l y t h e conical k n o l l t o t h e w e s t of t h e town, crowned by t h e r e m a i n s of t h e mediaeval a n d earlier fortifications, m a r k s t h e original village ' tell,' which, like t h e m o u n d s of Sakje-Geuzi, b e g a n t o g r o w w i t h t h e first s e t t l e m e n t s of H i t t i t e s u p o n t h e spot. I n t o a n a r c h e d s t o n e g a t e w a y on t h i s acropolis t h e r e h a d been built t w o s c u l p t u r e d lions of H i t t i t e w o r k m a n s h i p , one of t h e m , indeed, f r e e l y inscribed with Hittite characters. Originally t h e t w o lions h a d u n q u e s t i o n a b l y g u a r d e d t h e e n t r a n c e to a p a l a t i a l building, f o r m i n g t h e corner-pieces of t h e lowest c o u r s e ; 1 b u t in l a t e r t i m e s t h e y h a d been poised a l o f t in t h e m a s o n r y as m e r e o r n a m e n t s . 2 T h o u g h t h e s e a r e p e r h a p s t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g objects f r o m t h i s place, several o t h e r m o n u m e n t s a r e on record, t h e i n t e r e s t of w h i c h is enhanced b y t h e i r v a r i e t y of c h a r a c t e r a n d detail. 3 These include a slab sculptured w i t h t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a Ceremonial F e a s t , similar t o t h o s e of K a r a - b u r s h l u a n d Sinjerli, b u t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h s u p o n t h e sculptured face. T h e r e is also t h e body of a small s t a t u e w i t h a considerable p a r t of t h e s c u l p t u r e preserved, a n d a stela 1 2 3

As a t Sakje-Geuzi. See PI. L X X V I I I . Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii., fig. 268. H u m a n n and Puchstein, llciscn, etc., Atlas, Pis. X L V I I . - X L I X .

¡ i \ I 1

AINTAli :

INSCRIPTION

UPON S C U L P T U R E D

GRANITE

CORNEK-STONK (Sec/t.

107.)

XI,1

MARASH : LION CORNER-STONE 109 w i t h carved figure a n d long incised inscription. Several o t h e r sculptures m a y be u n h e s i t a t i n g l y included in t h e list, t h o u g h w i t h o u t H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h s u p o n t h e m . One of t h e s e is a f r a g m e n t s h o w i n g a w o m a n seated w i t h a child on h e r knee, holding in h e r l e f t h a n d a lyre u p o n w h i c h is p e r c h e d a bird. A n o t h e r is also b r o k e n , b u t t h e figure of a m a n serving a t a t a b l e is preserved, a n d t h e r e is clear suggestion of a g r e a t e r figure on t h e opposite side. Below, in a n ill-drawn scene, a m a n h o l d i n g a spear is represented leading a horse. 1 R e c e n t l y a fine m o n u m e n t a l piece h a s been a d d e d t o t h e list, consisting of a cubical block of s t o n e carved on t h e f o u r sides, w i t h inscription in t h i s case as well as a h u m a n figure in relief. T h e r e a r e also v a r i o u s f r a g m e n t a r y inscriptions w h i c h h a v e been l o n g e r k n o w n . T h e r e can be n o d o u b t b u t t h a t M a r a s h w a s a r o y a l s e a t of even g r e a t e r i m p o r t ance t h a n t h o s e a t Sinjerli a n d Sakje-Geuzi. T h e first object of t h i s list, t h e inscribed lion, is well k n o w n , a n d h a s several t i m e s been published in illust r a t i o n . W e r e p r o d u c e a p h o t o g r a p h of its profile, 2 w h i c h is t h e m o s t typical a n d i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t of view. I t s a r c h i t e c t u r a l n a t u r e is evident, a n d is e n t i r e l y a c c o r d a n t w i t h t h a t of t h e lions f o u n d in situ a t S a k j e Greuzi.3 I t m u s t h a v e stood a t t h e l e f t h a n d a s t h e decorative c o r n e r - s t o n e of a p a l a t i a l portico, w i t h its fellow lion in t h e corner opposite. The place on t h e back p r e p a r e d f o r t h e reception of a n u p p e r course of m a s o n r y m a y be seen, a n d t h e r e l a t i v e a l i g n m e n t of b o t h walls m a y be i n f e r r e d . The f o r e - q u a r t e r s a n d head of t h e lion stood o u t f r o m t h e wall, a n d t h e s e a r e 1

O t h e r s c u l p t u r e d f r a g m e n t s a r e described on pp. 118-122. PI. XLII. f r o m a p h o t o of t h e I m p e r i a l O t t o m a n M u s e u m a t Cons t a n t i n o p l e , by c o u r t e s y of H. E . H a m d y Bey. 2

3

B e l o w , P i s . XXXVIII., LXXIX.

110 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES sculptured in t h e r o u n d ; t h e r e s t of t h e body is in relief. The t r e a t m e n t obeys t h e n o w f a m i l i a r canon, t h o u g h n o t carried o u t in d e t a i l : t h e ruffle of t h e neck a n d h a i r y belly a r e s u g g e s t e d ; t h e tail curls u n d e r , a n d is seen b e t w e e n t h e t w o hindlegs. Only one foreleg is seen in profile, in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to t h e f a m i l i a r Assyrian representations. I n t h i s case, however, detail of execution is sacrificed to t h e l o n g inscription, w h i c h uniquely covers t h e body a n d even t h e legs of t h e a n i m a l as well as t h e spaces b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e hieroglyphs a r e d e l i b e r a t e a n d well c u t ; t h e basaltic n a t u r e of t h e rock p r o b a b l y accounts f o r t h e i r superficial roughness, especially in view of t h e g r e a t n u m b e r of signs carved on a really small s u r f a c e ; f o r t h e object is m u c h less t h a n life-size, b e i n g only 17 inches high, 35 inches long, a n d j u s t over 10 inches thick. 1 F r o m t h e r e n d e r i n g of t h e inscription b y P r o f e s s o r Sayce, 2 it would a p p e a r t o h a v e been carved b y t h e H i t t i t e k i n g of t h e district, w h o u n i t e d t h e p r i e s t l y dignities w i t h his office, as w e should expect f r o m t h e accounts of S t r a b o in p a r a l l e l cases. 3 T h e r e a r e several s t r i k i n g points developed by t h i s t r a n s l a tion, which t h o u g h u n c o n f i r m e d c o m m a n d s o u r i n t e r e s t a n d respect. T h e k i n g claims f o r himself a m o n g s t o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s t o be ' t h e d i r k - b e a r e r 4 p o w e r f u l , ' ' c i t i z e n of Merash,' ' p r i e s t of Merash,' ' r o y a l lord of t h e s e lands, k i n g of t h e lands of t h e god,' ' w h o provides food f o r t h e s a n c t u a r y , ' ' of t h e m e n of t h e c o r n l a n d t h e c h i e f , ' ' seated on t h e t h r o n e of Kas.' H e also 1 The original is now a t Constantinople Museum, No. 840; a cast may be seen in the British Museum. 2 Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch. 1905, Nov., p. 225. 3 E.g. atComanaof Pontus, Strabo, XII. iii. 32 ; ibid., and of Cappadocia, where the priest was second in rank, ibid., XII. ii. 3; also a t Pessinus, ibid., XII. vi. 3. 4 Cf. the sculpture No. 72 a t Iasily Kaya, PI. LXX., and p. 228; also p. 360,

P L A T E XLII

MARASH: CEREMONIAL FEAST

111

c l a i m s t o ' h a v e n o u r i s h e d t h e s a n c t u a r y of t h e H i t t i t e . . . t h e god's h i g h place,' a n d t o ' h a v e m a d e a h i g h p l a c e f o r t h e d a n c e r s ' f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of r e l i g i o u s rites. T h e A s s y r i a n n a m e of M a r a s h w a s Markhasi, w h i c h s e e m s t o t a k e t h e f o r m Ma(a)rghasi in t h e H i t t i t e . T h e r e is a clear s u g g e s t i o n of a t h e o c r a t i c i d e a l in s t a t e a f f a i r s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e h i g h priesth o o d of t h e s o v e r e i g n , a n d b o r n e f u r t h e r b y n a m i n g t h e s u b j e c t s of t h e M a r a s h k i n g ' c h i l d r e n of t h e gods,' f o r w h i c h t h e r e is a n a l o g y i n t h e V a n n i c i n s c r i p t i o n s . S a n d e s seems t o be chief god. T h e s t o n e s c u l p t u r e d w i t h t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n f o u n d , t o g e t h e r w i t h ' l a n c e h e a d s a n d p o t s h e r d s , ' in a viney a r d of M a r a s h . 1 This is a n o t h e r of t h a t class of m o n u m e n t of w h i c h w e n o t e d t h e w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d v a r y i n g f e a t u r e s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h a t f o u n d a t Kara-burshlu. I n t h i s case b o t h f i g u r e s a r e s e a t e d . They a r e presumably b u t n o t necessarily female. They a r e clad in l o n g r o b e s ; d e t a i l s of t h e b u s t a r e n o t visible, a n d it is o n l y t h e r e l a t i v e s m a l l n e s s of t h e f e e t a n d h a n d s , a n d c e r t a i n f u l n e s s i n t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e bodies, t h a t o f f e r a s u g g e s t i o n of t h e i r sex. T h e y a r e s e a t e d on h i g h s q u a r e c h a i r s w i t h b a c k s t h a t c u r l a w a y a t t h e top, a n d t h e i r f e e t r e s t u p o n l o w s q u a r e f o o t s t o o l s . A t a b l e b e t w e e n t h e m h a s s t r a i g h t legs, of which only t w o are shown, ornamented in some w a y a t t h e f e e t . On t h e t a b l e a r e t h r e e r o u n d b r e a d - c a k e s a n d a cup. T h e figures a r e vis-à-vis : each one s t r e t c h e s o u t t h e f u r t h e r h a n d , t h e l e f t o n e h o l d i n g a cup, t h e o t h e r a r o u n d m i r r o r of f a m i l i a r E g y p t i a n s h a p e . T h e i r o t h e r h a n d s a r e d r a w n b a c k a n d o n l y j u s t prot r u d e f r o m t h e i r cloaks ; e a c h s e e m s t o hold t h e s a m e 1

Messerschmidt, C'.l.H. (1900, pt. 5), PI. xxir., and ibid4,

p. 18,

112 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES s o r t of object, ' p e r h a p s a vase or p o m e g r a n a t e . ' 1 The g a r m e n t is curious, being c o n t i n u o u s over t h e head-dress, a n d descending t o t h e ankles, w i t h a f r i n g e or b o r d e r all along t h e edge a n d r o u n d t h e b o t t o m . There is a w a i s t b a n d t o each figure, w h i c h is seemingly composed of s e p a r a t e strands, b u t i t is difficult t o u n d e r s t a n d its a t t a c h m e n t . 2 The head-dress is singular, being cylindrical in shape, recalling m o s t n e a r l y t h a t of t h e T u r k o m a n women. 8 The faces of t h e persons a r e illd r a w n a n d u n n a t u r a l , b u t p r o m i n e n c e is given t o t h e s t r a i g h t n e s s of nose in line w i t h t h e receding f o r e h e a d 4 a n d t o t h e f u l n e s s of t h e lips. Above a n d b e t w e e n t h e h e a d s t h e r e a r e t r a c e s of a considerable inscription in relief, of w h i c h t h e signs t o w a r d s t h e sides can be m a d e o u t w i t h some c e r t a i n t y ; b u t t h e middle p o r t i o n is too w o r n t o enable one t o s t u d y t h e sequence of t h e characters, or even t o decide w h e t h e r t h e y f o r m t w o groups, one r e f e r r i n g to each person. T h e w h e r e a b o u t s of t h i s stone is u n c e r t a i n , b u t casts a r e in t h e Berlin Museum. I t s h e i g h t is 49 inches a n d w i d t h 35 inches; it is j u s t over 15 inches thick. The m a t e r i a l is basaltic stone or dolerite. T h e p o r t i o n of a s t a t u e f r o m M a r a s h 6 is of i m p o r t a n c e as n u m b e r i n g , t o g e t h e r w i t h a l a r g e h a n d f r o m t h e s a m e place a n d t h e b r o k e n figure f r o m K u r t s - o g h l u , a m o n g t h e v e r y f e w recorded H i t t i t e s c u l p t u r e s in t h e r o u n d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s one is t o o b r o k e n a n d t o o small t o tell us m u c h in detail of t h i s f e a t u r e of H i t t i t e a r t . 1

Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 64. Cf. the similar feature in a sculpture from Carchemish, p. 127. Cf. the photograph PI. v. (ii) of women at Kartal, which is in the Kurt Dagh to the south of Marash. A suggestive general resemblance is to be found on certain Etruscan monuments. 2

3

4

6

Cf. PI. LXXV., LXXVII. C.I.H. (1900-5), PI. X X I I I .

tisches Museum, No. 973.

A-B.

Original in the Berlin Vorderasia-

M A R A S H : TORSO A N D STELA

113

W i t h the exception of the right shoulder, however, the whole body is preserved, and only the head and feet are lacking; but the style of the object is formal, and in place of artistic detail there are merely four or five irregular bands of inscription in relief, with other signs upon the preserved shoulder. The right hand remains, but it is worn and lacks detail; in the left there seems to be held a sort of loop with pendent tassel. The material of the statuette is basalt. The height preserved is under 9 inches, its width 6 inches. This torso seems to have belonged to a figure quite distinct from another of similar material which seems to have come from the same vicinity. 1 Of this only two broad bands of the inscription remain, but they seem to mark the beginning of a long inscription; the symbols are boldly cut in relief, and are similar in every way to those of Jerabis. The fragment is rounded and apparently formed part of a hollow figure: it was copied by the discoverers amid much difficulty and subsequently disappeared. The existence of a third statue at Marash, but in this case of gigantic size, is indicated by a large hand, fully twice life-size, and carved in the round.2 I t is, of course, impossible to say from this fragment whether it is really of Hittite origin. Another important monument of Marash has the appearance of a royal stela with a long inscription accompanied by an image of the king. This belongs to a class of monument of which we shall find further examples at Carchemish and in the neighbourhood of Tyana. In this case the figure occupies the central part of the stone, reaching almost to its full length; and 1 2

Hogarth, Recueil, etc., xv. p. 32, and PI. n., fig. B. Berlin Vorderasiatisches Museum, No. 972. II

114

M O N U M E N T S OF T H E H I T T I T E S

the inscription is incised in six rows across the whole, the face and feet and f o r e a r m s of the m a n alone excepted. The f a c e of the kingly personage is turned to his right, and the whole figure is in profile with the exception of the shoulders, which are square to the observer—in conformity with the common Oriental principles of drawing. The right hand holds a staff which touches the ground in front of the right foot, and rises vertically as high as the shoulders; both elbows are bent at right angles, the left fist being closed and shown about the middle of the body. The robe is a single garment reaching to the ankles, the bottom being fringed or bordered. The toes of the boots are upturned, and, being represented clumsily, look like sabots. The face of the man is too worn to show much character; there is a long curled beard, a band around the forehead, and the hair or wig ends in a prominent curled bunch behind the neck. This stone seems to have been found outside Marash in a buryingplace on the road to Adana. 1 Its height is nearly 3 feet 8 inches, and its breadth j u s t over 1 foot 10 inches. 2 This monument must yield place to another, which is of unique character and interest, more recently discovered 3 on the citadel. This is a block of granite more nearly cubical in shape, but with the top and bottom broken away, so t h a t its original height remains problematical. The preserved portion measures about 2 feet 3 inches in height, and the combined length of three sides, which are approximately equal, is about 5 feet 2 inches. On three sides the inscription is continuous; the hieroglyphs a r e in relief and are C.I.H. (1900-4), p. 20; Ibid. (1900-5), PI. x x v . It is now in the Metropolitan Museum, New Y o r k ; (Cesnola Coll., No 1904), and there are impressions in the Berlin Museum. 3 C.I.H. (1906), pp. 12-15, and PI. LII. 1

2

M A R A S H : A F O U R - S I D E D M O N U M E N T 115 arranged in five bands, of which four are seemingly complete. A sixth band at the bottom is partly traceable, and there may have been others below; at the top, however, the limit is clearly marked, so that the beginning of the inscription is preserved. The opening groups of signs resemble closely those on the lion previously described, though variations of single signs are noticeable, and may possibly supply philologists with alternative readings. It is not, however, the inscription, though unusually legible and complete, that attracts our interest, so much as the sculptures and composition of the whole. The inscription is preceded by a king-like figure in relief, who occupies the righthand portion of the side on which he is carved and faces away from the inscription, to the right, looking that is to the corner. The inscription follows: the height of the figure is equal to four bands of the hieroglyphs, and the lower bands project under his feet. The second side is entirely filled with the continuation of the inscription, which comes to an end at the left hand of the third side (which is opposite the figure) with the upper part of the picture of a dagger and part of an attachment for it. On the fourth side there is no inscription; the corners are cut away, but there is seen in the middle a sort of tassel, on a large scale accordant with that of the dagger-hilt. It must be noted that the king is turned towards this object in the extended drawing: he is portrayed much as on the stela described above, but the drawing is not good or well preserved. He wears a long robe bound around the waist; the short sleeves are ornamented at the ends, whether with a plain band or otherwise; and the bottom of the plain skirt, which reaches to the ankles, is also fringed or bordered in

116 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES some way. The toes are shown upturned. The headdress seems to be a close-fitting skull-cap, behind which the hair descends in the familiar bunching curl. The beard hangs in curls. The face is crudely represented, the mouth being no longer distinguishable. The left hand, which is very disproportioned, is held up before the face with fingers towards the mouth, in the position which in the hieroglyphs is read to indicate the beginning of a personal declaration. The right hand is drawn up breast high, but no staff is shown, possibly because it would have traversed the body. This stone is thought by Dr. Messerschmidt, who has studied it closely,1 to have been re-dressed and re-used in Hittite times; he thinks that a large god-figure, wearing a dagger suspended from the shoulder, must have been originally the chief subject of the sculpture; and that this was partly effaced in Hittite times by the king, who had the stone re-dressed and his own figure carved thereon. The inscription he regards as pertaining to the larger figure; and he looks upon the mutilation of the figure of a god as the sign of a period of decline and degradation. This monument is unique in character, and every respect must be paid to the conclusions of one who, being familiar with Hittite works, has studied this one carefully. Having only the photograph and drawings which he published as guide, we naturally hesitate to put forward any alternative v i e w ; yet it must be said that there are several fundamental objections to the explanation which has been offered. The most obvious and irremovable is that there is direct evidence on the face of the stone that the carving is all contemporary; f o r it is all in relief, and in accordance 1

Op. cit., p. 13. The original is at the Constantinople Museum, No. 1625.

MARASH: A PECULIAR CULT

117

with precedent the background not sculptured must h a v e been c u t a w a y , so t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e been impossible s u b s e q u e n t l y t o carve t h e r e o n a figure w i t h t h e s a m e relief as t h e r e s t . Added t o this, it is clear t h a t t h e i n s c r i p t i o n is a r r a n g e d w i t h due r e g a r d t o t h e small figure, n o t t h e reverse. Also t h e e n d s of t h e inscribed bands are coterminous with the dagger, stamping t h e w h o l e composition a s c o n t e m p o r a r y . I t m u s t n e x t be n o t e d t h a t n o t r a c e of a g r e a t figure is t o be seen, n or can its f o r m be c o n j e c t u r e d , seeing t h a t t h e d a g g e r h a n g s on one side a n d t h e tassel on t h e n e x t , unless indeed t h e stone f o r m e d t h e lower p o r t i o n of a s o m e w h a t a n g u l a r statue, 1 a b o u t f o u r t i m e s its p r e s e n t h e i g h t . A figure in relief would h a v e occupied p a r t of t w o sides of t h e s t o n e including t h e c o r n e r — a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d complication in H i t t i t e s c u l p t u r e . The a n a l o g y q u o t e d by D r . Messers c h m i d t of t h e god-figure discovered in t h e last excavat i o n s a t Sin j erli b r e a k s d o w n a t t h i s point. T h a t object w a s carved in t h e r o u n d , r e p r e s e n t i n g a deity s t a n d i n g in H i t t i t e f a s h i o n u p o n a base composed of t w o s t a n d i n g lions, a s on t h e m o n u m e n t s of C a r c h e m i s h a n d BoghazKeui. H e w e a r s a d a g g e r s t u c k i n t o a belt, a n d w i t h t h e t r a p p i n g s t h e r e is a l a r g e tassel of t h e k i n d seen on t h e f o u r t h side in t h i s instance. F r o m t h e s e details Dr. Messerschmidt t h i n k s t h a t t h e M a r a s h m o n u m e n t only differed i n t h a t t h e d a g g e r m u s t h a v e b e e n w o r n suspended f r o m t h e s h o u l d e r , on a c c o u n t of t h e pend e n t p o s i t i o n of t h e belt. On all a n a l o g y , h o w e v e r , t h e p r i e s t - k i n g i n t h i s case m u s t be f a c i n g t h e deity h e is w o r s h i p p i n g . If t h e n n o o t h e r f o r m of deity can be suggested, w e m u s t t a k e t h e only evidence b e f o r e us as 1 After inspection of the object we believe this to be the real explanation. "We are confirmed also in our impression t h a t the inscription and carving are contemporary with the original monument.—March 1910.

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to its nature, which would lead us to infer that it is here represented by the dagger and tassel. We venture no hypothesis in explanation; the Sacred Dirk 1 as a cult object is known in Hittite symbolism and familiar in the hieroglyphs; and it would be equally accordant with precedent to imagine that the dirk was really emblematic of the deity with whom it was usually associated. Alternatively the object of worship may have been a great divine statue upon the skirt of which these representations were carved. Among the minor inscribed objects from Marash there should be mentioned one, which is a fragment of basalt 10| inches high and 8 inches wide, inscribed with characters in high relief on two adjacent sides. 2 There are also several uninscribed sculptures from Marash of peculiar interest. The first is a slab of basalt 21 inches high, carved in relief. 3 The subject is that of a female seated at a table facing to the l e f t ; on her left knee 4 is a child, whose face is towards the mother. In the right hand of the woman is a decorated mirror, or something of that f o r m ; and in her left, which is extended over the table, she holds a primitive five-stringed lyre, square in shape. 5 Over the lyre is a bird often taken for a dove, but more nearly resembling a vulture. 0 The counterpart to the figure, if such existed, is broken a w a y ; the carving 1 See, for example, fig. No. 72 in the small gallery a t Iasily K a y a , below, PI. LXX. ; also pp. 110, 360. F o r the tassel cf. pp. 306,308, a n d PI. LXXXI. (ii) 2 C.I.H. (1900-4), p. 19 ; and (1900-5), PI. x x i v . 3 H u m a n n and Puchstein, Reisen, etc., Atlas, PI. XI.VII., No. 2 ; P e r r o t a n d Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii., fig. 281. Metrop. Mus. of Art, N e w Y o r k , No. 1906. 4 Thought by Perrot to be a high stool. 6 Cf. the lyre held by an Asiatic i m m i g r a n t into E g y p t about 2000 B.C. Newberry, Beni Hasan (London, 1893), PI. x x x i . 0 A s a cult object this bird provides a wide and interesting r a n g e of study. Cf. for example, an Archaic Greek s t a t u e of the sixth century B.C., from A s i a Minor, in the Berlin M u s e u m (Stehende Frau), No. 1597.

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119

is crude a n d t h e s u r f a c e w o r n . Such details as a r e distinguishable, t h e robe, t h e h a t , t h e chair a n d table, seem t o be similar respectively t o t h o s e u p o n t h e sculpt u r e of t h e C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t f r o m t h i s place previously described. T h e r e is a second uninscribed stone on which a p p e a r s t h e e m b l e m of a bird similar t o t h e o t h e r in outline a n d appearance. 1 I n t h i s case t h e s u b j e c t shows t w o figures, one on e i t h e r side of a s m a l l t w o legged table. T h a t on t h e r i g h t , which is seated, w e a r s t h e s a m e cylindrical h a t as in t h e cases j u s t described. T h a t on t h e left, which is s t a n d i n g , is clad in a long robe, which, f r o m such details as a r e visible, suggests t h e toga-like g a r m e n t w h i c h distinguishes t h e priestly class on c e r t a i n m o n u m e n t s of Asia Minor. The f u r t h e r h a n d of each is o u t s t r e t c h e d as usual, t h e one holding a m i r r o r a n d t h e o t h e r t h e b i r d ; t h e l a t t e r f e a t u r e , however, is n o t carved w i t h t h e s a m e d e t a i l as in t h e case j u s t quoted. Over t h e r i g h t shoulder of t h e s t a n d i n g figure t h e r e seems t o h a n g a b o w of t h e peculiar t r i a n g u l a r f o r m o f t e n depicted in a n c i e n t drawing. 2 T h e cord, h o w e v e r , is n o t s e e n ; a n d t h e s t o n e is in g e n e r a l w o r n so s m o o t h t h a t l i t t l e detail can be discerned. T h e bow r e a p p e a r s on a t h i r d uninscribed f r a g m e n t , w h i c h p r o b a b l y r e s e m b l e d t h e f o r m e r in s u b j e c t s o m e w h a t closely. On t h i s a figure is s h o w n s t a n d i n g b e f o r e a t w o - l e g g e d table, over w h i c h h e holds a l o f t a c u r v i n g b o w w i t h his e x t e n d e d l e f t h a n d . I n his r i g h t h a n d , w h i c h is k e p t low, t h e r e m a y be seen t w o a r r o w s , w h i l e a q u i v e r h a n g s a t his waist. This s t o n e is also v e r y smooth-worn, b u t some details of dress m a y still be recognised, n o t a b l y t h e skull-cap 1 H u m a n n and Puchstein, Eeisen, etc., Atlas, PI. XLVII., fig. 4. There is a cast in t h e Berlin Museum, No. 61. 2 E.g. a t Kara-Bel, PI. LIV. ; and a t Malatia, PI. XLIV. Cf. also the scene of the storming of Dapur in the Ramesseum at Thebes.

120 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES long robe with fringe, and turned-up shoes. The Hittite character of the theme is sustained b y the arrangement of the hair, which falls away in a single thick cluster or curl behind the neck. A tassel is attached to the waist-belt.1 A fourth stone of somewhat larger size, being 35 inches high, is decorated with a subject of unusual character, but unfortunately the most important figure of the scene is largely broken away. 2 This must have been a picture of a god, represented in long fringed robe, and sandals with upturned toes. Poised aloft in front of him, but how supported is not seen, there is the end of an implement or weapon, the attachment to which forms a loop, and then hangs down. A low table, with two curving legs, is placed opposite the middle height of this figure; upon it is a bird, seemingly a goose, with bread-cakes and other eatables. On the opposite side, and facing the major being, a small male figure stands at the same level as the table. He is clad in a short fringed tunic, with oblique fold, and a vest with short sleeves. On his feet are sandals, with the points very prominently returned, and above these are anklets, unless these be long laces wrapped around the ankles to bind the sandals. His hair is curly on the head and bound by a fillet, while lower down it hangs more straightly as far as the shoulders. An ear-ring is suggested, and thick bracelets are clearly shown. He holds an object in his left hand which may be taken for a palm leaf, while with the right he partly proffers towards the greater person a small cup which seems to be bound A cast is in the Berlin Vorderasiatisches Museum, No. 63, V . A.G. Humann, etc., op. cit., XLVII. 5; Perrot, etc., op. cit., fig. 282. The original is in the Metropolitan Museum, N e w Y o r k , No. 1905 ; and there is a cast in the Berlin Museum. 1

2

MARASH: SCULPTURED FRAGMENTS 121 around with two small bands, as though made of wood. Below, in such space as remains available, the sculptor has added a horse led by a man. Both are on a small scale, but disproportionate, as the man stands higher than the horse's head ; this arises from the fact that a greater height is available under the feet of the small figure than under the greater one, where the horse's body is seen. The animal is a stallion, represented with a vague suggestion of spirited movement in the fore-legs; and his shoulder-muscles are shown in the same conventional outline as is seen sometimes on the representations of lions in this style of art. 1 The man holds the bridle with his right hand; and, with his back to the horse, and indeed to the greater figure, he holds a spear upright with his left hand, the end of the shaft resting on the ground. He seems to wear a skull-cap, and his hair falls behind in the characteristic bunch or knot. In this case, as in nearly all the figures considered, the outline of the face shows the nose and forehead as practically continuous. There are two further sculptured fragments of stones from Marash worthy also of special mention. On the one there is preserved the front part of a chariot and the hind part of a h o r s e ; 2 the carving is rough, and the drawing neither clear nor good. A small animal under the horse may be a dog. The wheel of the chariot seems to have had eight spokes. The driver is hardly seen, except for the forearm and the hand that grasps the reins. W e may conclude none the less that the fragment formed part of a scene of the royal hunt. 3 Cf. pp. 265, 282. Humann and Puchstein, op. ext., PI. XLVII. 1. Berlin Vorderasiatisches Museum, 62. 3 Cf. similar sculptures of Malatia, p. 133; Sakje-Geuzi, PI. x x x i x . 1 2

122 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES The o t h e r f r a g m e n t is b e t t e r k n o w n , s h o w i n g t h e h e a d of a musician p l a y i n g t h e double pipes. 1 F r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e h a i r a n d g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e carving of t h i s piece w e suspect t h a t it is of postH i t t i t e a r t , corresponding t o t h e A r a m a i c period a t Sinjerli. T h e r e is also in t h e Berlin Museum a n e w piece in H i t t i t e style w h i c h m a y v e r y well come f r o m t h e s a m e place. I t is a b o u t t w o f e e t high, a n d r a t h e r wider. The s c u l p t u r e is f r a g m e n t a r y , b u t of s t r i k i n g i n t e r e s t , f o r t h e c e n t r a l figure, a m a n , seems t o be r i d i n g on horseback. H e g r a s p s t h e bridle w i t h his l e f t hand, a n d holds a c u r v i n g n a m e l e s s object in t h e right. His legs a n d t h e body of t h e horse a r e n o t visible. I n t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e l e f t t h e r e is t h e smaller figure of a f e m a l e s e a t e d on a chair. She holds a p o m e g r a n a t e in h e r r i g h t h a n d , a n d raises a drinking-cup w i t h t h e left. To t h e r i g h t of t h e m a n ' s h e a d a t i n y figure seems t o r e p r e s e n t t h e whiskbearer, t u r n i n g t o w a r d s his lord, a n d w a v i n g a p a l m leaf. This b r i n g s t o a n end t h e list of m a j o r m o n u m e n t s f r o m Marash. W h e n i t is considered t h a t t h e site h a s n e v e r been e x c a v a t e d f o r its antiquities, a n d t h a t t h e s e discoveries a r e m o s t l y accidental, it m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e r e is evidence h e r e of a H i t t i t e city of exceptional i m p o r t a n c e . The d a t e to w h i c h it can be assigned as a s e a t of p o w e r will be considered w h e n all t h e d a t a f o r c o m p a r i s o n a r e b e f o r e us. 2 W e n o w pass t o a t h i r d g r o u p of S y r i a n m o n u m e n t s : those which a r e f o u n d a t places on t h e E u p h r a t e s , w h i c h w e accept as t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r . W e begin n a t u r a l l y w i t h J e r a b l u s , t h e site of Car1 Original Berlin V o r d e r a s . Mus., No. 974; P e r r o t a n d Chipiez, op. 2 ii. p. 77, fig. 290. See below, p. 380.

cit.,

I • \ I !

XI.Ill

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chemish, as being t h e nearest, t h e f u r t h e s t south and the most famous. Here was t h e strategic f r o n t i e r in the struggle of the oriental nations, and here a Hittite fortress was so strongly placed t h a t it defied the assaults of the Pharaohs, and resisted with a g r e a t measure of success the efforts of t h e Assyrians to reduce it several centuries a f t e r the Hittite power had passed its zenith. 1 Some amount of excavation has been made upon t h e site, and though not thorough and inadequately reported, we gain thereby an indication of a walled city upon the river's brink, protected on the land side by ditches in addition to the ramparts, 2 and enclosing as usual a high knoll which m a r k s a t once the acropolis and the site of the original settlement in a r e m o t e r age. Here there have been found several lengthy inscriptions in H i t t i t e characters, numerous f r a g m e n t s of t h e same kind, two stelse and the upper portion of a third, as well as a stone sculptured upon its flat side with the full-face p o r t r a i t of an exalted being. I n some of the sculptures the motive, and in others t h e details, of t r e a t m e n t tell of t h e proximity to a dominant extraneous artistic influence. This is particularly to be noticed in t h e emblems of winged deities, and in some of t h e monuments on whioh no H i t t i t e hieroglyphs are found. One of t h e l a t t e r category is a striking monument representing two figures standing upon t h e back of a crouching lion. T h e mane of the lion is represented, but no hair is shown underneath t h e belly. T h e attitude of the beast is uncommon in Hittite art, as m a y Cf. below, p. 371, and Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, pp. 145 ff. See Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. p. 281, for summary of a report printed in the Graphic. Consult also Drummond, Travels . . . to the Banks of the Euphrates (1754), p. 209 ; and Maundrell (Hy.), A Journey . . . to the Banks of the Euphrates (Oxford), 1749. 1 2

124 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES be seen b y c o m p a r i n g t h e lions of Sinjerli, S a k j e Geuzi, Marash, D e r e n d e h , a n d elsewhere. T h e a n i m a l s carved on t h e rock walls of t h e s a n c t u a r y of Iasily K a y a , w h i c h also s u p p o r t e x a l t e d persons, a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as s t a n d i n g ; w h e r e a s in t h i s case t h e chin, belly, a n d t a i l of t h e a n i m a l a l m o s t t o u c h t h e g r o u n d . The n e a r e s t a n a l o g y is p e r h a p s one of t h e less k n o w n s c u l p t u r e s of E y u k , 1 b u t t h e r e is no r e a l p a r a l l e l f o r t h i s t r e a t m e n t of t h e subject. Of t h e p e r s o n a g e s , o n e is w i n g e d a n d clearly divine, w h i l e t h e other, t h o u g h dressed in t h e s a m e w a y , s t a n d s b e h i n d over t h e q u a r t e r s of t h e animal, w i t h one h a n d raised in a n a t t i t u d e of reverence or supplication. O t h e r w i s e t h e figures a r e of e q u a l h e i g h t , a n d t h e i r costumes also a r e alike. T h e h e a d - d r e s s 2 is a conical h a t w i t h p r o m i n e n t u p t u r n i n g b r i m ; t h e toes of t h e shoes a r e likewise t u r n e d u p i n a n e x a g g e r a t e d m a n n e r . T h e robe in each case is long, w i t h a b r o a d f r i n g e a r o u n d t h e b o t t o m ; a r o u n d t h e waist t h e r e is a, belt or girdle, a n d a fold of t h e s k i r t falls sideways f r o m t h e middle t o w a r d s t h e r i g h t . T h e w i n g s of t h e leading figure rise s h a r p l y u p w a r d s f r o m behind t h e shoulders, a s on one of t h e deities of Iasily K a y a . H e s t a n d s u p o n t h e shoulders of t h e beast, whose h e a d cowers in abjection. I n t h e p h o t o g r a p h b e f o r e us t h e r e is a s u g g e s t i o n of h i e r o g l y p h s u p o n t h e f a c e of t h e stone, a f e a t u r e w h i c h is n o t , however, confirmed b y t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s of o t h e r s . W e t h u s h a v e in t h i s s c u l p t u r e a recognisable m i n g l i n g 1 See p. 263; a n d cf. PI. i x v . (Iasily Kaya), PI. T,X:X ix. (Sakje-Geuzi), a n d P I . X L I I . (Marash). F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m o t i v e in general, see Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, cit., p. 270, n o t e 1. 2 A s r e p r e s e n t e d by P e r r o t a n d Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 62, fig. 276. F o r t h e p h o t o f r o m w h i c h w e w r i t e w e a r e i n d e b t e d to t h e c o u r t e s y of t h e Mission a t Ca3sarea. This o b j e c t is i l l u s t r a t e d by a n ill-printed p h o t o g r a p h in Sayce's The Hittites, t o face p. 58, w h e r e it is described by o v e r s i g h t as f r o m M a r a s h .

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125

of t h e H i t t i t e a n d A s s y r i a n m o t i v e s ; a n d t h e sculptor's a r t , a t a n y r a t e , h a s n o t suffered in t h e combination. B o t h in t r e a t m e n t a n d in d r a w i n g t h i s m o n u m e n t , t h o u g h w e a t h e r e d a n d exposed, reveals a n evidence of a r t i s t i c skill w h i c h in some of t h e p u r e l y H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s elsewhere is n o t even suggested. T u r n i n g n o w t o t h e m o n u m e n t s of J e r a b l u s t h a t b e a r H i t t i t e inscriptions u p o n t h e m , a n o t h e r deity is f o u n d on a f r a g m e n t of basalt, 31 inches high, u p o n w h i c h t h e l o w e r p a r t of t h e b o d y a n d t h e ends of f o u r b a n d s of h i e r o g l y p h s a r e preserved. 1 I n t h i s case t h e wings a r e depressed, folding b y t h e sides, a n d r e a c h i n g t o t h e knees, o t h e r w i s e t h e y w o u l d h a r d l y be visible on t h e b r o k e n stone. The f e e t of t h e figure a n d t h e l e f t h a n d a r e m i s s i n g ; in t h e r i g h t h a n d , w h i c h is in f r o n t of t h e body, is a small seed-basket—a symbolism derived f r o m t h e o t h e r side of t h e E u p h r a t e s . 2 The l o n g r o b e of t h i s d e i t y is similarly s t r a n g e t o e a r l y H i t t i t e a r t , being b o r d e r e d w i t h a long f r i n g e , a n d divided by several p a r a l l e l b a n d s of embroidery. 3 This seems t o be a n o u t e r cloak, f o r one m a y see on t h e original t r a c e s of t h e f a m i l i a r s h o r t tunic. The c a r v i n g of t h i s m o n u m e n t is u n s u r p a s s e d on a n y inscribed H i t t i t e relief. The delicate indications of t h e k n e e muscles m a y be n o t e d as a n i l l u s t r a t i o n , especially w h e n t h e g r i t t y n a t u r e of t h e s t o n e is t a k e n i n t o consideration. I n m a k i n g t h i s c o m p a r i s o n i t should be b o r n e in m i n d t h a t m o s t of t h e k n o w n H i t t i t e reliefs are worn t h r o u g h exposure to t h e w e a t h e r ; and t h a t 1 British Museum, Guide to Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities, p. 27, No. 3 ; P e r r o t and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii., fig. 277; Messersclimidt, C.I.H. (1900), PI. x n . A photograph in Ball, Light from the East, p. 142. 2 Cf. also the sculpture found at Sakje-Geuzi, PL i , x x x . ; and Liv. Annals Arch., 1908 (4), PI. XLI., No. 2, where the deity has four wings. 3 Cf. the sculptures of Bor, PI. LVI. ; and Ivriz, PI. L V I I .

126

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

objects u n e a r t h e d f o r t h e first time, as a t Sakje-Geuzi, give a d i f f e r e n t impression as r e g a r d s t h e sculptor's c r a f t . A n o t h e r n o t e w o r t h y instance is a t Iasily K a y a , w h e r e a r o w of figures which h a d been p a r t l y covered, a t least f o r long centuries, h a s been cleared d u r i n g t h e l a s t f e w decades, giving evidence of a detailed t r e a t m e n t of t h e whole series which would n o t h a v e o t h e r wise been suggested. A n o t h e r sculptured object belongs t o t h e c a t e g o r y of stelae, r e s e m b l i n g in g e n e r a l t h a t of M a r a s h . I t is p a r t l y chipped a w a y , b u t sufficient r e m a i n s f o r us t o m a k e o u t its original c h a r a c t e r a n d dimensions. 1 I t is 47 inches h i g h a n d 26 inches wide. I t is crossed horizontally w i t h e i g h t b a n d s of hieroglyphic inscriptions in relief, w i t h raised lines b e t w e e n t h e m , except w h e r e t h e outline of t h e c e n t r a l figure intervenes. This r e p r e s e n t s a m a n , in h i g h e r relief t h a n t h e r e s t of t h e carving, 2 w h o s t a n d s in t h e middle p o r t i o n of t h e stone, his f e e t descending below t h e inscription, a n d his h e a d j u s t e n t e r i n g t h e t o p m o s t band. T h e figure is n e a r l y all chipped a w a y , b u t t h e outline r e m a i n s by t h a t v e r y process well defined. T h e person, u n d o u b t e d l y a king, faces to his left, a n d in his extended l e f t a r m he holds a l o f t a s h o r t staff or r o d which is m a r k e d as t h o u g h divided d o w n t h e middle. His r i g h t a r m is n o t seen. His robe w a s crossed obliquely b y folds, a n d it descended to t h e ankles. His f e e t w e r e shod, a n d t h e toes of t h e shoes t u r n e d s h a r p l y u p w a r d s . His h a i r seems t o h a v e been d r e s s e d 3 in a 1 C. T.H., 1900, PI. x . ; British Museum Guide, cit., p. 27, No. 8. Rendering by Sayce in Proc. S.B.A., 1905, Nov., p. 201, beginning ' t h e dirkbearer of Carchemish.' The repetition of the geographical word Kar-ka-me-is (Assyrian Gargamis) is a remarkable corroboration of Professor Sayce's system of translation. 2 Cf. for this feature the Bor sculpture, PI. LVI. 3 On the importance of this detail as a criterion, see p. 379.

CARCHEMISH : INSCRIPTIONS

127

single b u n c h e d curl behind t h e neck, b u t t h e p o i n t is obscure. T h e u p p e r p o r t i o n of a second similar m o n u m e n t is on record, 1 b u t t h e object is destroyed. I t shows a c e n t r a l figure t u r n e d likewise t o t h e l e f t ; w i t h t h e l e f t h a n d up, a n d f o r w a r d , a n d t h e r i g h t h a n d b e f o r e t h e chest. T h e head-dress seems t o be a skull-cap, w i t h b a n d across t h e f o r e h e a d . The sleeves of t h e dress a r e s h o r t ; a n d a r o u n d t h e w a i s t t h e r e is a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e of t h e b r o a d girdle of cords, ending, it would seem, in a curling k n o t or loop. 2 T h e r e a r e f o u r r o w s of hieroglyphs, of w h i c h w e h a v e only a n i m p e r f e c t copy. A f r a g m e n t of a t h i r d m o n u m e n t of like k i n d is preserved, 3 b u t it is u n i n s t r u c t i v e . T h e r e a r e t w o n o t a b l e inscriptions f r o m J e r a b l u s a m o n g m a n y w h i c h a r e f r a g m e n t a r y . T h e one is a c o r n e r - s t o n e of special shape, 4 being recessed in t h e v e r y a n g l e f o r e i g h t inches on each side. T h e raised inscription u p o n it, however, seems t o be c o n t i n u o u s even t h r o u g h t h e recessed a n g l e t o t h e b r o k e n end of t h e block. T h e s t o n e is basalt, a n d t h e whole m e a s u r e s 39^ inches in h e i g h t . The w i d t h s of t h e v a r i o u s stages, b e g i n n i n g f r o m t h e r i g h t side, w h i c h is u n b r o k e n , a r e 7 inches, inches, 8J inches, a n d 22 inches t o t h e f r a c t u r e d edge. I n f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e f o r m of t h e stone, it m a y be said t h a t t h e first a n d t h i r d of t h e s e m e a s u r e s a r e in t h e same p a r a l l e l direction, a n d combine t o give t h a t side of t h e w h o l e stone a w i d t h of 15^ inches. Similarly t h e n e x t side w a s a t least 30^ inches wide. The inscription is in relief, a n d is a r r a n g e d in 1 Boscawen in the Graphic, Dec. 11,1880 ; P e r r o t and Chipiez, op. cit., ii., Additions, fig. 390; C.I.H. (1900), PI. xv. 13, and Text, p. 12. 2 Cf. Baruch, vi. 43. ' The women having cords around their body s i t ; and one says . . . why was I not chosen and my cord broken ?' 3 Brit. Mus. Guide, p. 27, No. 6 ; C.I.H. (1902), PI. xiv., No. 7. 4 British Museum Guide, p. 27, No. 1, where ' portion of a building' is the sum of information available; C.I.H., PI. ix., and Text, p. 9; Ball, Light from the East, p. 143; Sayce in S.B.A., 1905, Nov., p. 204.

128

M O N U M E N T S OF T H E H I T T I T E S

five bands, divided by lines of equal projection. The signs are clear, and the tenor of the inscription, according to Professor Sayce's reading, is religious and monumental, giving the king-priest's account of his setting up a bull shrine on a high place at Carchemish. Another considerable inscription is found on a portion of a round column, 5 feet 6 inches high. 1 Four bands of the inscription are perfect so f a r as they continue, namely, for 41 inches, but the beginning and ending of the lines are not preserved. There is another band partly visible above. The back of this object has been dressed, subsequently to the breaking of the stone, for the purpose of carving thereon a figure seemingly divine and in full face. It is not in Hittite style, but Hittite influence may be found surviving in certain features. We cannot dwell longer with profit upon the details of these broken remains, nor of the numerous inscribed fragments, of which copies of nearly twenty are before us. But if we may cull from a somewhat unusual source, namely the columns of a daily newspaper, an account of excavations made for the British Museum on the site, it would seem that the foundations of at least one palatial building were come upon. 'Facing the entrance,' we are told, ' there were found two imperfect tablets, which formed part of an adoration scene. On the one was the image of a goddess, the Hittite Kybele, naked, winged, and with hands offering her breasts.' Her hair descends in a double plait on each side, curling away at the bottom around the shoulders. 2 The hat is of conical shape, the brim upturned, and 1 C'.I.H. (1900), PI. XI., 2, and Text, p. 10; British Museum Guide, p. 27, No. 2 ; Savce in S.S.A., 1905 (Nov.), p. 206. 2 Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., fig. 390. Addendum, 1910 : our information about these sculptures is now supplemented by Mr. Hogarth's account, Liv. Annals of Arch. (Dec. 1909), ii. pp. 165-172, a n d P i s . x x x v . , x x x v i . (i). See also Kellekli in Appendix B .

BIREJIK AND T E L L - A H M A R

129

b u l g i n g a t t h e top. The priestess r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e a d j o i n i n g slab w a s t h o u g h t b y t h o s e w h o saw t h e sculptures t o h a v e been clad in a cloak, b u t t h e s t o n e w a s b r o k e n a w a y above t h e k n e e s of t h e figure. A little f u r t h e r a l o n g w e r e t h r e e figures in procession. This s t o n e w a s likewise b r o k e n a b o u t t h e middle of t h e f i g u r e s ; 1 b u t t h e c e n t r a l figure m a y be seen t o h a v e been clad in a long f r i n g e d cloak, w i t h a long u n d e r g a r m e n t w h i c h is belted, w h i l e t h e o u t e r figures h a v e only t h e s h o r t t u n i c f a m i l i a r in H i t t i t e sculptures. Only t h e o u t e r figures w e a r t h e t u r n e d - u p shoe, a n i n t e r e s t i n g distinction if correctly represented. M. P e r r o t sees in t h e sculptures a p r i e s t b e t w e e n t w o warriors. The b o r d e r t o t h e s t o n e is t h e p a t t e r n of c o n t i n u o u s concentric circles such as w e h a v e seen a t Sakje-Geuzi on sculptures of l a t e H i t t i t e a r t . A s h o r t distance u p t h e E u p h r a t e s f r o m J e r a b l u s is Birejik, w h i c h h a s n o w s u p p l a n t e d t h e f o r m e r a s t h e place f o r t h e p a s s a g e of t h e river. F r o m h e r e t h e r e comes a curious m o n u m e n t of indefinite origin, n o w in t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m u n d e r t h e t i t l e ' Monolith of a King.' As t h e r e is no clear evidence u p o n it or in t h e circumstances of its discovery t h a t it is of H i t t i t e h a n d i w o r k , w e do n o t dwell u p o n it. I t has, h o w e v e r , several suggestive f e a t u r e s , n o t t h e least i n t e r e s t i n g of which is t h e winged disk w i t h horse-shoe o r n a m e n t above t h e figure, as in t h e emblems which designate t h e priest-king a t Boghaz-Keui. 2 A t Tell-Ahmar, w h e r e t h e r e is a n o t h e r crossing of t h e E u p h r a t e s a b o u t t h e s a m e distance s o u t h w a r d f r o m J e r a b l u s , Mr. H o g a r t h h a s recently m a d e discoveries w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e i m p o r t a n t evidences t o o u r subject. A w a i t i n g a f u l l descrip1 2

Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, fig. 391, Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit.% ii. p. 62, fig. 278,

X

130 MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES tion of these newly-found monuments, 1 we m a y t a k e note t h a t t h e site of the finds was on the eastern b a n k of t h e river, revealing t h e Hittites of t h a t day as masters of this crossing; and t h a t among the objects discovered, here or in the neighbourhood, are a lion of somewhat H i t t i t e character, inscribed in cuneiform but not in hieroglyphs, and a stela or sculptured monument of sorts, with eight lines of inscription in relief around three sides, and on the fourth side the lower p a r t of a male figure standing upon a bull. F u r t h e r up t h e river, above B i r e j i k , is R u m - K a l e , whence comes a n o t h e r f r a g m e n t equally doubtful and even more curious. I t is certainly one of the worst serious efforts to draw a human figure t h a t sculptor or mason ever worked upon. M. P e r r o t 2 apparently includes this in his list of Hittite works, though he describes it as ' uncouth.' There is in this case no indication of H i t t i t e or of a n y other style, so t h a t nothing can be gained by considering it further. W h e n we reach Samsat, however, a definitely Hittite monument presents itself. 3 This is an object which in form recalls the funerary stela of K a r a - b u r s h l u ; but as in this case a pedestal of diminishing thickness is preserved, and the inscription is likewise found upon t h e two sides of the stone, there is further evidence in favour of its having stood alone. The subject of the sculpture carved upon the face is quite different, however, being only a single figure. So f a r as this can be seen (for a deep groove has been cut a t some time down the length of the stone through the middle of the body), 1

Since published, see App. B, and Hv. Annals

183, a n d P i s . X X X V I I . - X L .

of Arch.,

ii. pp. 177-

Op. ext., fig. 283. First published in Gazette Arch., 1883. PI. XXII. Humann and Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und Nord Syrien (Berlin, 1890), Atlas, PL XLIX., No. 1-3. Also Messerschmidt, C.I.H. (1900), PI. XVII., and Text, p. 14. 2

3

SAMSAT A N D GERGER

131

it seems to be that of a man turned to his right. He is clad in a long robe fringed at the bottom, and wearing shoes with the toes turned extravagantly upwards. He seems to be holding (with the right hand possibly) a staff, and more doubtfully a reversed lituus with the left, after the manner of the priests of Boghaz-Keui and Eyuk. The inscription is incised, but it is hardly sufficiently well preserved to be copied with any certitude. Nine rows of hieroglyphs are traceable at the one side and six upon the other, but nearly half of the stone is missing. I t was found in the open, partly buried, between the town and the hill of the acropolis. Its height is just over five feet, without including the pedestal, so that the figure which stands clear of the bottom was about life size. The face of the stone is 25 inches wide, and the depth of the inscribed sides seventeen inches. A t Gerger Kalesi, almost at the main turn of the river, there is a monument on the rocks, about which further details would be full of interest. From the published drawings 1 it resembles the Hittite reliefs of Giaour-Kalesi and Kara-Bel in the west of the Hittite lands ; and we await some further careful examination with expectation of finding Hittite hieroglyphs upon it. The figure is apparently gigantic, of three times human height. I t is that of a warrior clad in short tunic (the details of which are doubtful). He wears a collar of some kind and a conical hat. There is a bow over the left shoulder; the right hand is down and forward. I t simulates a Hittite monument very closely, and its presence on the brink of the Eastern frontier of that people is the more full of interest. 1 Humann and Puchstein, Reisen, etc., p. 355, fig. 50. Gerger.'

'Felsrelief bei

132

THE L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

SECTION B . — M O N U M E N T S

IN T H E T A U R U S

AND

ANTI-TAURUS. MALATIA, DERENDEH, PALANGA, ALBISTAN; KUKU-BEL;

GURUN; ARSLAN

EKREK, TASHJI,

TASH,

FRAKTIN.

F r o m the north of Syria we pass to t h e mountainous region of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus. Here is t h e centre, if not the focus, of t h e Hittite lands, and isolated monuments are found in considerable numbers and variety. W h e n one takes into account t h e difficulty of exploration, it must be conceded to be a remarkable and suggestive fact t h a t no fewer t h a n eleven H i t t i t e sites in the Taurus country are clearly indicated, as compared with the same number in t h e north of Syria, and about t w e n t y scattered throughout the whole tableland and west of Asia Minor. One of the most i m p o r t a n t of these sites is located a t Old Malatia, which lies n e a r the confluence of the Tochma Su with t h e Euphrates. Here there must have been a fortified city, comparable to Marash, f o r the defence of the frontier. Though no systematic excavation of t h e site has yet been made, yet the nature of the several sculptures found there speaks for itself. The mound which m a r k s the old-time acropolis is probably t h a t now called Arslan Tepe, n e a r t h e village of Ordasu, about two or three miles northeastward from the modern t o w n : the attention of scholars was called to this spot by the visit of Mr. Hogarth's expedition in 1894. The explorer describes t h e mound 1 as about fifty feet in height, of irregular shape, longest from north to south, like t h e accumula1

Secueil

de Travaux,

xvii. p. 26.

M A L ATI A : THE LION-HUNT

133

tion above a building, but without any visible masonry upon it. West of it rise two smaller mounds, and to the south one. The Euphrates is about two hours distant. The sculptured stones are seven in number, and they seem to form part of a series decorating a façade. Three of these are facing-slabs merely, while four others (found independently) are more solid, and may have been building-blocks. The most perfect slab 1 is just under four feet in length, with a height of two feet, and thickness one foot. Along the top is an incomplete row of hieroglyphs in relief, 2 reading from the left. Below is the main theme of decoration, representing a lion hunt, carved in strong relief. The picture is composed of a horse chariot with two riders, a dog below the horse, and a wounded lion in front. Several hieroglyphic signs are found above the horse's back, and also between his head and that of the lion ; but as these signs read now from right to left, it may be concluded that they continue the inscription above. The sculpture is formal and lacking in vitality, but several details may be noticed. The chariot is small. The charioteer and the warrior stand within, side by side ; the latter occupies a front place in the picture, which is drawn in profile with the usual conventions. Both men are clad in short tunics with waist-belts, and both wear close-fitting skull-caps, and the hair of the warrior curls in characteristic fashion behind the neck. His weapons are the bow and the spear. The bow is short and curved, and the arrow is strongly barbed ; two quivers are depicted cross-ways upon the side panel of 1 Constantinople Museum, No. 846. Hogarth, loc. cit., with Plate, fig. 3. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands (Philadelphia, 1897), fig. 159 ; Messerschmidt, C.I.H. (1900), PI. x v i . A., and Text, p. 13. 2 Discussed by Sayce, S.B.A., 1905, Nov., p. 212. Hand copy, Hogarth, loc. cit., p. 25.

134

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

t h e chariot. The spear is s h o w n p o i n t u p w a r d , r e a d y a t h a n d in t h e b a c k of t h e chariot. The d r i v e r holds t w o p a i r s of reins, f r o m w h i c h it m a y be i n f e r r e d t h a t t w o horses a r e being driven, t h o u g h being side b y side t h e outline of only one is visible. The shoulder muscles of t h e horse a r e outlined conventionally, a n d i t is noticeable t h a t his m a n e is t i g h t l y bound and ends in a curl. The t r a p p i n g s a r e n o t distinguishable. The figure of t h e dog is seen b e t w e e n t h e horse's f r o n t a n d back legs; it is crude a n d u n i n t e r e s t i n g . The pose of t h e lion is u n c o n v e n t i o n a l . H e is r e p r e s e n t e d as half r a m p a n t , t u r n i n g r o u n d his h e a d w i t h open m o u t h t o w a r d s his t o r m e n t o r s , a n d clawing t h e a i r w i t h t h e p a i n of his w o u n d . The s h a f t of a n a r r o w is seen below t h e shoulder. The t a i l is s h o r t a n d t h i n , a n d curls u p w a r d s ; t h a t of t h e horse is long, a n d falls so as a l m o s t t o touch t h e g r o u n d . The m a n e of t h e lion is r e p r e s e n t e d f u l l y b y s h o r t c u r l s ; b u t t h e belly a n d shoulders a r e hairless. 1 The claws a r e e x a g g e r a t e d ; t h e nose is o u t of d r a w i n g , a n d t h e execution of t h e s c u l p t u r e in g e n e r a l is poor. The second b l o c k 2 is smaller, b u t b r o k e n in t w o pieces; it seems to lack also t h e u p p e r b a n d of inscription. On t h e r i g h t h a n d i t is clearly defective, s h o w i n g t o w a r d s t h a t side t h e b a c k p a r t of a chariot, w i t h six-spoked wheels, quivers, spear, a n d b o w m a n , exactly as in t h e p r e v i o u s instance. The m o r e p e r f e c t scene, t h o u g h b r o k e n t h r o u g h t h e middle, shows t w o figures s e a t e d a t a c e r e m o n i a l f e a s t of t h e k i n d previously described. 3 T h o u g h b o t h persons a r e seated, t h e y a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t e d exactly alike. T h a t 1

Ci. the sculptures, Pis. X L I I . and L X X I X . Constantinople Museum, No. 817. C.I.II. (1900), PI. xvi. B. Hogarth, 3 Recueil, xvii. p. 25. See pp. 99, 103, 111. 2

MALATI A : CEREMONIAL FEAST 135 on the left seems to be a male; he is distinguished by a close round skull-cap with upturned peak or ornament upon the brow. His long, straight nose is very prominent. His hair turns backward in a single full curl behind the neck. His robe is long, and fringed around the bottom. The toes of his shoes are prominently upturned, and his feet rest on a square-framed stool. The chair on which he sits has curving legs, forming a figure-of-eight cross, and ending in a small outward curve, similar to those supporting the table in other sculptures. The back of the chair is high and turns outward. In his right hand the man holds a crooked staff reversed, and in his left he holds up a small cup. The objects on the table cannot well be identified, as the stone thereabouts is rubbed smooth ; but the table may be seen to be supported by two straight legs which cross. The figure on the right of the table, which faces towards the other, is less clearly seen upon the stone, but sufficient may be made out to show that it differs considerably in some details. The head-dress is a hat which is not close-fitting, but rises squarely in front. From behind, a long veil or shawl seems to descend to the waist, where it can no longer be traced owing to the weathering of the stone. The suggestion of the face and clothing is that the figure represents a woman. She is seated, as in the other cases of women, 1 on a square-framed seat with spindle, the back of which must have been low. I t is suggested, but not certain, that her feet rest on a footstool. A few hieroglyphic signs between the heads of the figures, and a longer row over all, complete the whole. Though poorly preserved and poorly carved, the general theme of these sculptures is not without 1

Cf. PI. Lxxv.(i), and p. 111.

136

MONUMENTS OF T H E H I T T I T E S

special interest. The right-hand portion with the chariot and a r c h e r is of t h e same nature as the lionhunt seen on t h e stone previously described, and possibly formed p a r t of the same scheme. The left side, with its two seated figures, belongs to t h e class of ceremonial feast, of which we have already described various examples. The association of this subject with others of entirely different import has a parallel in the wall sculptures of Sinjerli, where, however, the different subjects a r e not found on t h e same stone as in this instance. Here also the persons represented seem to be man and woman. Neither serves the o t h e r ; both seem to share equally in t h e rite. I n them we are inclined to see t h e local king and queen, inasmuch as they are personages of sufficient importance to be represented, even though no special attributes of r a n k denote them. The chieftain and his consort feasting would constitute a theme readily comprehensible in oriental a r t ; but if the subject have really a religious significance, which is more probable, we see them in their capacity of chief priest and priestess, 1 an association f o r which the sculptures of E y u k provide us with sufficient analogy. 2 This alternative we regard as the real explanation in this instance. A third sculpture from M a l a t i a 3 is of smaller size, measuring only t h i r t y - two inches in length and eighteen in height. I t is, however, in beautiful condition, and though the edges are broken, the scene depicted upon it is complete in itself. The carving is Cf. the epilogue to the treaty between Rameses 11. and Hattusil, p. 349. Cf. PI. LXXII. On this question in general see below, p. 360. 3 In the Louvre Museum, Paris. Publ. Heuzy, Les Origines Orientates dc I'Art, Pt. i. (Paris, 1892), PI. x . Messerschmidt, C.I.H. (1906), PI. 1 2

X L V I I . , a n d p . 7.

M A L A T I A : SCENE OF THE CHASE

137

in relief. As in previous cases a line of inscription 1 runs along the top from left to right. The subject reproduces a striking resemblance to most of the features on the stone first described, except that a fleeing stag takes the place of the wounded lion. Otherwise the horse, chariot, bowman and driver, even the dog below the horse's feet, are reproduced almost in exact facsimile. Only in this case the better preservation of the stone enables us to trace some details more clearly, while the drawing and carving are executed with greater skill and care. The short sleeves of the men's dress are distinguishable; the ' two quivers' suspended crosswise on the side panel of the chariot seem almost like stout diagonal supports to an open framework. As in the former case only one horse is represented, but the trappings are clearly designed for two, and there is a raised band above his back which may be taken for the back of the further horse, or possibly the pole of the chariot. The horse is entire. The muscles of the shoulder and thigh on all the animals are outlined with deliberation, and behind the horse's shoulder are certain further markings, intended probably to represent the ribs or muscles more fully, recalling the similar convention seen on certain sculptures of Byuk 2 and of SakjeGeuzi.3 The stag is represented with branching horns; and his head is well drawn. He is in full flight before his pursuers, his hind legs being shown in the picture as overlapping the forelegs of the horse. 1 First published and discussed by Sayce, P.S.B.A. xxvi. (1904, Jan.), p. 13, with drawing. Prof. Sayce's rendering is : ' of this gateway the carver-out is Lie . . s, the lord of . . . the . . . ian,' but Messerschmidt disputes the reading ' gateway,' loc. cit. 2 3

C f . P I . LXXII., a n d pp. 256, 265. P I . LXXIX., a n d p. 301.

138 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES T h e o t h e r stones f r o m M a l a t i a 1 a r e f o u r in n u m b e r , each decorated on one face. U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o inf o r m a t i o n is f o r t h c o m i n g in r e g a r d t o t h e m except t h e published p h o t o g r a p h s , w h i c h a g a i n a r e n o t satisf a c t o r y . The s u b j e c t s carved u p o n t h e s t o n e s a r e of s t r i k i n g i n t e r e s t . I n t h e first of t h e series a deity, w e a r i n g a conical head-dress d e c o r a t e d w i t h rings, 2 s t a n d s upon t h e back of a h o r n e d bull. 3 His l e f t leg is f o r w a r d (as h e faces t o t h e right), a n d on his f e e t a r e tip-tilted shoes. I n his r i g h t h a n d , w h i c h is d r a w n back, t h e r e is a t r i a n g u l a r bow, 4 a n d in his outs t r e t c h e d l e f t h a n d h e seems t o hold u p a f o r k e d emblem, like t h e l i g h t n i n g t r i d e n t , 5 a n d t o g r a s p a t t h e s a m e t i m e a cord w h i c h is a t t a c h e d t o t h e nose of t h e bull. His dress is a s h o r t b o r d e r e d tunic. F a c i n g h i m is a long-robed personage, in w h o m w e recognise t h e king-priest, distinguished b y his closefitting cap a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l a r g e curl of h a i r behind t h e neck. I n his l e f t h a n d h e holds a reversed l i t u u s ; his r i g h t is p a r t l y e x t e n d e d a n d seems t o be p o u r i n g o u t some fluid w h i c h falls in a w a v y s t r e a m . H e is followed b y a small p e r s o n w h o leads u p (with some difficulty it would seem) a g o a t clearly i n t e n d e d f o r a n offering. Some h i e r o g l y p h s complete t h e picture. I t is i n s t r u c t i v e t o c o m p a r e t h e whole t h e m e w i t h t h a t w h i c h d e c o r a t e d t h e l e f t 1 See PI. XLIX. f r o m Liverpool Annals of Archaology, i. (1908), Pis. iv., v. More recently Mr. Hogarth (ibid., 1909, PI. XLI.) has secured a new set of photographs which show the details much clearer. 2 Cf. the head-dress of the god a t Boghaz-Keui, Pis. L X V . , L X X I . 3 He corresponds, Professor Sayce points out, with the Syrian Hadad, who similarly stands on the back of a bull which he guides with a cord. Cf. also the statement of Lucian (De Dea Syria), t h a t the chief god of Hierapolis, which replaced Carchemish, was supported on a bull. On the position of the god in the Hittite Pantheon, see p. 359. 4 Cf. sculpture of Kara-Bel, PI. LIV., also p. 119. 5 For this object cf. a sculpture of Sinjerli, PI. L X X V I I . (ii); and for a formal representation, the leading god at Boghaz-Keui, PI. LXV.

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M A L A T I A : OBLATION SCENES

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h a n d of t h e f a ç a d e t o t h e palace a t E y u k , 1 especially as t h e blocks of s t o n e seem t o be in t h i s i n s t a n c e also cubical building stones. The second s c u l p t u r e of t h i s series shows a different deity, w h o is winged, 2 t h o u g h w e a r i n g t h e s a m e conical h a t w i t h r i n g s a n d u p t u r n i n g peak. His dress is curious ; t h e l o w e r p a r t seems like a m a n y - p l e a t e d continuous flowing g a r m e n t which winds a r o u n d his body a n d one leg, a n d passes behind t h e o t h e r leg. His t w o h a n d s a r e held n e a r his body, a n d in t h e l e f t he grasps some o b j e c t w h i c h is obscured, b u t m a y be seen t o h a v e reached t o t h e l e f t shoulder. H e is a p p r o a c h e d b y t h e queen-priestess, w h o is recognised (as in f o r m e r cases) b y t h e low cylindrical h a t a n d t h e long cloak or veil descending t h e r e f r o m b e h i n d t h e shoulders t o t h e g r o u n d . Her l e f t h a n d is r a i s e d as in reverence, a n d h e r r i g h t one, e x t e n d e d b u t low, seems t o hold a n a r r o w jug, w i t h side h a n d l e a n d long neck, f r o m which she is clearly p o u r i n g a n oblation i n t o a t w o - h a n d l e d vase w h i c h seems t o rest on t h e g r o u n d b e f o r e t h e f e e t of t h e god. 3 B e h i n d h e r t h e r e follows a small a t t e n d a n t l e a d i n g a n a n i m a l which m a y be p r e s u m e d t o be a g o a t as in t h e previous case. The f e w h i e r o g l y p h s a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s e figures a r e illegible. The t h i r d block of t h e series seems t o h a v e been decorated w i t h a r o w of m a l e figures, unaccompanied b y a n y hieroglyphs. T w o of t h e s e r e m a i n . E a c h is clad in a s h o r t b o r d e r e d t u n i c r e a c h i n g t o t h e knees, a conical h e l m e t w i t h r i n g s b e t w e e n t h e ribs, a n d shoes w i t h t u r n e d - u p toes. The second m a n , w h o b r i n g s t h e series t o a n end, is bearded ; his nose is 1

2

P I . LXXII.J p . 256.

Cf. t h e w i n g e d deity of B o g h a z - K e u i (Iasily Ivaya), No. 5 L., p. 216. F o r t h e t y p e s of vases cf. t h e S y r i a n t r i b u t e in Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, p. 263 ; a n d especially t h e H i t t i t e t r i b u t e , temp. A k h e n a t e n , p u b l i s h e d by Davies, El Amarna II., PI. XL., a n d p. 41 ; cf. also t h e oblation scenes of E y u k (k., p. 268), a n d of F r a k t i n , PI. XLYII. 3

140

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

mongoloid r a t h e r t h a n aquiline or Semitic, a n d h e w e a r s a conspicuous curling pigtail. I n his a d v a n c e d l e f t h a n d h e holds in a vertical position a long spear (or similar object), t h e s h a f t of w h i c h rests on t h e g r o u n d . I n his r i g h t h a n d , which is held t o his side, h e clasps t h e h a n d l e of a mace, t h e h e a d of which is m a d e u p of a ring-like device similar t o t h a t seen in t h e helmets. A t his waist-belt t h e r e h a n g s a d a g g e r w i t h c u r l i n g blade a n d crescental handle. The m a n w h o m h e follows seems to be beardless, a n d he w e a r s a s h o r t m a n t l e , one end of which is t h r o w n loosely over t h e r i g h t shoulder. His k n i f e is like his n e i g h b o u r ' s ; b u t a n object w i t h long s h a f t t h a t he carried obliquely, g r a s p e d in b o t h hands, is difficult t o r e c o g n i s e ; f r o m t h e u p p e r end t h e r e seems t o h a n g a s h o r t tassel or object a t t a c h e d b y a cord. B o t h figures f a c e t o t h e r i g h t , a n d in obedience t o convention, t h e i r faces a n d bodies a r e in profile, t h e shoulders in f u l l view, while t h e l e f t f o o t a n d l e f t a r m a r e advanced. The l a s t of t h i s series is f r a g m e n t a r y , a n d seems t o be t h e decorated u p p e r border of a l a r g e r subject. I n w h a t r e m a i n s i t is possible t o see h y p o t h e t i c a l l y a p a i r of h a n d s held a l o f t a m i d flames. Over all is t h e p a t t e r n of a t w i s t e d coil of rope. L o o k i n g back f o r a m o m e n t a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e sculptured m o n u m e n t s , w e m a y w i t h some c e r t a i n t y a t t r i b u t e t h e m t o t w o different building periods. T h e earliest a r e t h o s e f o u r j u s t described, which, f r o m t h e p o i n t of view of c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d of symbolism, resemble, as w e h a v e seen, t h e palace w o r k s a n d sculptures of E y u k . 1 The o t h e r s c u l p t u r e d slabs, w h i c h w e described first, c o r r e s p o n d m o r e n e a r l y f r o m b o t h p o i n t s of view w i t h t h e r e m a i n s of Sinjerli a n d Sakje-Geuzi, 2 w h i c h 1

On the question of date, see p. 339.

2

See pp. 277, 301.

P A L A N G A : COLUMNAR FIGURE 141 we shall find reason to believe in later chapters belong probably to a later phase than the foregoing. The one group may be dated in general terms to the later half of the second millennium B.C., and the other to the early centuries of the first. Passing up the valley of the Tochma Su, a small group of monuments is met with just after passing Derendeh. There was a rumour, when the English explorers, Hogarth and Munro, passed that way in 1891,1 of a sculptured lion at a place called Hauz, not far from Derendeh towards the north. But the monuments on record were found in the neighbourhood of Palanga (Chiftlik), which lies on the higher ground after leaving the gorge of the river, some three hours' journey westward from Derendeh. Here a small lion carved in basaltic stone was seen built into the main gateway: while lying in a puddle near a well hard by,and used as a stepping-stone, was a fragment of a unique columnar figure made also of basalt. The lion was similar to those found in the neighbouring wayside cemetery, hence called Arslan Tash, which we shall presently describe; the columnar figure,2 however, is unique and instructive. The fragment preserved is fifty-two inches high and about fiftyfive inches in circumference towards the top : it swells a little lower down. I t ' represents the lower portion of a draped figure; it is a mere shapeless column without feet, but a double protuberance of the stone at the end of the first line of the inscription is evidently intended to represent the buttocks. The drapery consists of an underskirt, plain except for a short series of perpendicular pleats down the middle of the back, Eecueil de Travaux, xv. p. 27, Pt. iv. Ramsay and Hogarth, Recueil de Travaux, xv. PI. in., Constantinople Museum, No. 1215 (630); Messerschmidt, C.I.H. (1900), PI. xx., and revised copy, 1906, PI. x x . 1 2

142 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES a n d a n u p p e r g a r m e n t t h r o w n r o u n d t h e l e f t side, t h e folded edges a l m o s t m e e t i n g u n d e r t h e r i g h t a r m . 1 This m a n t l e or cloak r e a c h e s d o w n below t h e level of t h e k n e e s ; its v e r t i c a l edges a r e f r i n g e d w i t h a b o r d e r of n a r r o w l a p p e t s or t a g s v e r y similar to t h o s e represented on a t e r r a - c o t t a s t a t u e t t e f r o m Cyprus.' 2 The inscription on t h i s m o n u m e n t e x t e n d s f r o m t h e f r o n t of t h e figure a r o u n d t h e l e f t side t o t h e back, covering t w o - t h i r d s of t h e circumference. T h e signs a r e incised, a n d a r r a n g e d in f o u r bands, whereof t h e lowest is b r o a d e r b u t less c a r e f u l l y cut t h a n t h e others. Mr. H o g a r t h , in his description, points o u t o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g analogies. The c o l u m n a r f o r m , t h e flat t r e a t m e n t of t h e d r a p e r y , a n d t h e ribbed pleats of t h e u n d e r s k i r t , recall t o h i m t h e H e r a of S a m o s in t h e L o u v r e ; while f o r t h e r e n d e r i n g of t h e zigzag folds a t t h e edges of t h e cloak a n d t h e b u t t o c k s , a p a r a l l e l m i g h t readily be f o u n d in early Greek a r t , as, f o r example, a m o n g t h e archaic s t a t u e s in t h e Acropolis Museum a t A t h e n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e large t e r r a - c o t t a figures f r o m Salamis present an interesting comparison as regards both f o r m a n d t h e g e n e r a l disposition of t h e draperies. I t is difficult t o p o i n t to a n y n e a r e r analogies t h a n t h o s e which Mr. H o g a r t h indicated a t t h e t i m e of his discovery. T h o u g h belonging t o a different place a n d l a t e r period, t h e s t a t u e of H a d a d , f o u n d n e a r Sinjerli, seems t o us to be a p r o d u c t of t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n in a r t . 3 T h e r e is a n o t h e r s t a t u e of l a t e r d a t e f r o m t h e l a t t e r place, t h e discovery of which w a s recently announced. 4 1

Cf. Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xii. PI. ix. Hogarth, loc. cit., p. 31. Vorderasiat. Mus., Berlin, No. 2882, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, i. {Mitt, aus den Orient. Sammlungen, 1893, Berlin, H e f t xi.), PI. vi. 4 Messerschmidt, C.I.H. (1906). p. 13. The base of the s t a t u e appears to be a survival of the columnar bases of Sinjerli and Sakje-Geuzi (PI. LXXXII.), in the design of which two sphinxes support the drum 2

3

PALANCA : INSCRIBED COLUMNAR

STATUE

G U R U N : ROCK INSCRIPTIONS

143

This is also of columnar form, though the bottom of the skirt and feet are shown. The arms also are in relief, while the head and face, the latter w o f u l l y illdrawn, are in the round. It is a survival and development from the older motive. The string of monuments from Palanga to Albistan indicates a southern bifurcation of the route, linking in Hittite times w i t h the valley of the Pyramus. The suggestion of an important Hittite road leading continuously up the valley of the Tochma Su, and so over the watershed to the Halys and possibly towards Pteria, seems to be substantiated by t w o further inscriptions found on the rocks at Grurun, which is some w a y further up the river on the edge of the divide. This place (the Gauraina of Ptolemy and Guricinia of the Assyrian texts) lies in a defile on both banks of the river. J u s t above the village the waters race through a narrow rocky gorge, at the foot of which the t w o inscriptions were found. 1 The one is incised on the face of an overhanging crag, near a small spring. It fills a space about four feet wide and three f e e t high, of the column upon their backs. In this case the design is modified, b u t retains striking features surviving from the older prototype, The sphinxes are replaced by lions, in the style of the corner-stone lions of Sinjerli (Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, iii., PI. XLVII.), and between their fore-parts there appears the figure of a man carved in relief. H e is in a crouching attitude, dictated probably by the small space a t the sculptor's disposal; his hands are stretched out to the collars of lions on either side ; his face is shown in full, with square-cut ridged beard, and a curl of hair prominent on either side of his head, attached clearly to a wig. His dress is a short fringed tunic and short-sleeved vest; a belt is round his waist, to which a dagger is attached. His legs are turned towards his l e f t ; upon his feet there seem to be bands or anklets, possibly to bind on his footgear. Though no shoe is visible, t h e toes are prominently upturned. I t is a striking object. The rim of the drum is not decorated in any way, but on the top there is a large square-cut socket, corresponding to the tongue upon the bottom of the statue. (Orig. Consple. Mus., No. 1519.) 1 By Sir Charles W . Wilson; W r i g h t , Empire, etc., p. 57. Kamsay and Hogarth, Becueil, etc., xiv. and PI. iv. C.I.H., 1900; PI. XVIII., and p. 15.

144

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

and is placed about twelve f e e t or more above t h e ground. The other is somewhat higher on the declivity, and f u r t h e r from t h e s t r e a m : t h e hieroglyphs are larger than in the f o r m e r case, and less carefully incised. The inscriptions are very weathered, so t h a t it is hardly possible to m a k e much of them, but t h e y seem to be partly in duplicate. The emblems which distinguish the two chief male deities in t h e divine triad a t Boghaz-Keui 1 m a y be recognised; and Professor Sayce has also detected a v a r i a n t of t h e placename frequently recurring on t h e inscriptions of Carchemish (Gar-ga-me-i-si-ya), which makes it appear t h a t there was some political relation between t h e two places. Turning from Derendeh southward up towards the divide, ' Arslan T a s h ' is reached, about t h r e e miles a f t e r passing Palanga. The place lies about one mile east of the Kurdish village of Y e n i Keui. The spot is marked by a series of hummocks n e a r a small wayside graveyard, and receives its n a m e 2 from two g r e a t monumental lions of hard limestone, 3 one erect, and the other fallen on its left side. They form a pair each about eight feet in length, and nearly six f e e t in height. These monuments, though large and impressive, are of crude appearance. They recall most nearly two massive early lions found a t Sinjerli, 4 but though obeying certain early canons they are less thoroughly worked, as well as more roughly drawn. Their mouths are open, but exaggerated in size. The rough of t h e 1

C f . P i s . 1VXV., L X X I .

The name means ' Lion-stone,' and is familiar wherever such monuments are found. 3 Ramsay and Hogarth, loc. cit. PI. n., A. 4 See below, p. 297, and Mitt. a. d. Orient. Samm. Sendschirli, iii. (Berlin, 1902), PI. XLVI. Originals in the Berlin Vorderas. Mus., Nos. 37X8, 3001. 2

A L B I STAN : INSCRIBED OBELISK

145

mane is strongly but not finely marked; the legs are not at all disengaged from the stone; the forepaws are almost shapeless, but the hind ones are fully outlined, with the muscle of the thigh suggested. Only one forepaw and one hindpaw appear in the profile view (a purely Hittite convention) while the tail comes down between the legs forward, ending in a curl.1 Mr. Hogarth thinks that as they lay when found these lions may have marked the position of the entrance to a building. Just over the watershed, at a place called (Ashagha) Yapalak, a badly defaced Hittite inscription has been seen,2 but not published, and it seems to have been removed. The record, however, marks the continuity of the track, and the next discovery brings us well into the valley of the Pyramus at Izgin. The monument itself was seen and photographed amid considerable excitement at Albistan, 8 whither it had been transported, and it is now in safe keeping in the museum at Constantinople. The object is an obelisk, a unique example among Hittite works. Its Hittite origin is attested by the inscription which covers its four sides. Its material is coarse limestone ; in height it measures eight feet two inches; in form it narrows slightly towards the top from one point of view, maintaining its width (twenty-one inches) in the other. The tapering faces are narrower at the bottom than the others, being only ten inches wide. The apex is slightly rounded. The hieroglyphs are in strong relief, arranged in rows. There are about nineteen of these rows on the broad faces, and sixteen 1 2 3

Cf. the lions of Marash and Sakje-Geuzi, Pis. x l i i . , l x x i x . Sterrett, Epigraphical Journey (1884), p. 299. Ramsay and Hogarth, Becueil, etc., xv. p. 30 and Pis. i.-ii. K

146

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

only on the narrow ones, so t h a t the signs are less crowded on these sides. Unfortunately the monument is very worn around the middle, and a considerable portion of the inscription cannot be recovered. I t was originally seen standing as a headstone in a graveyard a t Izgin, which is a T u r k o m a n village, some six miles north-east from Albistan, near the confluence of the K u r m a n Su with the Pyramus. W e have seen t h a t the monuments which we have examined thus f a r in the Taurus region m a r k out the t r a c k of two main highways, t h e one following t h e valley of the Tochma Su, t h e other branching from t h a t route southward to gain the valley of t h e Pyramus. A monument recently discovered now suggests one way a t least by which in ancient times the Anti-Taurus might be traversed. This is found in the high pass of Kuru-Bel, a route which has now fallen considerably into disfavour, though not without its advantages. T h e distance is not more t h a n ten miles to COMANA (identified with the modern village of Shahr), which lies to the south-east. B y this route, the tracks from t h e east, whether by way of Marash or by Albistan, converging on Comana, might lead down directly to Csesarea and t h e interior; or they might, without serious difficulty, connect with E k r e k f a r t h e r to the north, or T a s h j i and F r a k t i n f a r t h e r south, all of t h e m sites of H i t t i t e works. I n this case the monument seems like a great a l t a r of stone, square cut, with a lion crouching on t h e top on either hand. T h e material is grey trachyte, which is only found fifteen or twenty miles nearer to Mount A r g a e u s ; 1 and 1 G. de Jeraphanion, Proc. S.B.A., 1908 (Feb.), p. 42 and PI. I. For the two photographs before us as we write we are indebted to the members of the American Mission at Ccesarea.

KURU-BEL : A L T A R W I T H LIONS

147

a s t h e object w e i g h s j u s t over a ton, it is a m a t t e r of considerable p e r p l e x i t y h o w it w a s t r a n s p o r t e d in a n c i e n t t i m e s over t h e r u g g e d p a t h t o t h e spot w h e r e it n o w lies. T h e r e is little d o u b t b u t t h a t it r e m a i n s in its a n c i e n t position. I t is f o u n d on a l i m e s t o n e r o c k w h i c h rises f r o m a small g r a s s y p l a t e a u overs h a d o w e d b y t h e l o f t y p e a k s of t h e S o g h a n D a g h , being itself a b o u t 7500 f e e t above t h e sea. The base of t h e object is solid a n d r e c t a n g u l a r in f o r m , w i t h a l e n g t h of f o u r f e e t ; its w i d t h is j u s t u n d e r t h r e e feet, a n d its h e i g h t seventeen inches. The t w o c r o u c h i n g lions a r e carved in t h e s a m e piece of stone, one on e i t h e r side, like t h e decorative a r m s t o a t h r o n e . T h e s t o n e is considerably w e a t h e r e d , so t h a t it is n o t possible t o r e c o v e r m u c h impression of t h e original finish or detail of t h e w o r k . The limbs of t h e a n i m a l s a r e outlined, a n d s h o w n in f u l l r e l i e f ; t h e c a r v i n g is all in t h e r o u n d . The lions a r e n e a r l y as long a s t h e s t o n e is b r o a d , while t h e y a r e t e n inches h i g h a n d a b o u t eleven inches broad. The clear space b e t w e e n t h e m on t h e t o p of t h e a l t a r is a b o u t t w o feet. I n f r o n t t h e r e m a y be m a d e o u t several incised H i t t i t e hieroglyphs, which seem to h a v e f o r m e d p a r t of a considerable inscription in t h r e e lines. W e accept t h e t e r m a l t a r a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n of this m o n u m e n t on t h e m e r e g e n e r a l suggestion of its s h a p e ; it is, h o w e v e r , unique, a n d t h e r e is n o m a t e r i a l f o r f o r m i n g a definite opinion. T h e m o d e r n s h e p h e r d s of t h e vicinity m a k e use of it f o r p o u n d i n g u p t h e r o o t s f r o m which t h e y e x t r a c t a dye f o r m a r k i n g t h e i r sheep. This u s a g e h a s considerably d a m a g e d t h e lions, a n d a f f o r d s us n o clue as t o t h e original p u r p o s e of t h e m o n u m e n t . I t m a y , however, h a v e v e r y well been a n a l t a r t o t h e God of t h e M o u n t a i n or of t h e Pass. T h e s c u l p t u r e s of

148

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

t h e K a r a Dagh, 1 a n d even t h o s e of Boghaz-Keui, 2 p r e p a r e us f o r local cults of this c h a r a c t e r . F r o m K u r u - B e l , as w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d , several d i f f e r e n t r o u t e s lead on to t h e p l a t e a u of t h e interior. One of these (but n o t t h e easiest or m o s t direct) follows t h e s t r e a m called K u r u Chai d o w n till it joins t h e Z a m a n t i Su. A little w a y a b o v e t h e j u n c t i o n on t h e opposite side t h e r e flows in a n o t h e r s t r e a m which comes p a s t E k r e k . This is a small A r m e n i a n village, e i g h t hours' easy j o u r n e y e a s t w a r d f r o m Caesarea. I t b o a s t s t h r e e C h r i s t i a n churches, a n d f r o m one of t h e g r a v e y a r d s t h e r e h a s come to light a s t o n e 3 of special i n t e r e s t . This w a s originally a H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t w i t h a p a n e l of h i e r o g l y p h s incised a l o n g t h e b o t t o m , bordered b y a double line. A f e w signs a p p e a r below, b u t t h e y a r e n o t continued. T h e s t o n e h a s b e e n r e d r e s s e d , i t w o u l d a p p e a r , in Christian times, a n d five crosses h a v e been carved u p o n it, being l e f t in false-relief b y c u t t i n g a w a y t h e s u r f a c e of t h e stone. T h e r e is a f e a t h e r a n d zig-zag b o r d e r a r o u n d t h e edge, w h i c h m a y possibly be original. The t w o rosettes m i g h t equally well be a H i t t i t e device, b u t t h e i r relief corresponds w i t h t h a t of t h e crosses. T h e l a t t e r a r e s y m m e t r i c a l l y a r r a n g e d , t w o small ones on each side u n d e r t h e a r m s of t h e l a r g e r c e n t r a l cross, w h i c h s t a n d s on a b a r u p o n a r o u g h l y incised ' calvary.' F a r t h e r down t h e Z a m a n t i Su w e come t o t h e village of Tashji, placed in a n a r r o w glen on t h e b a n k of a small t r i b u t a r y . H e r e , u p o n a rock, t h e r e a r e visible t h e incised outlines of t w o figures a n d a considerable n u m b e r of hieroglyphs. 4 T h e c a r v i n g s a r e so w e a t h 1

2 Pp. 180, 181. P. 237. PI. XL v i ; G.I.H. (1900), PL x x x i . p. 26; Ibid. (1906), PI. x x x i . A and p. 23. Constantinople Museum, No. 1217. 4 Hans Rott, Kleinasiatische Denkmäler (Leipzig, 1908), p. 178, fig. 3 ; Jeraplianion, Proc. S.U.A., xxx. (1908) pp. 43, ii, and PI. II 3

PLATE

XI.VI

KKRËK : H I T T I T E INSCRIPTION UEDRESSED WITH C H R I S T I A N EMBLEMS

EKREK : TASHJI: FRAKTIN

149

ered, and the record of them so insufficient, t h a t little can be made out of the inscription. The two figures, however, m a y be judged to have been clad in priestly dress, with close-fitting skull-cap. The sharply-cut features of one of them remain conspicuous. They are to the right hand of the scene a s published, and facing to the observer's right; hence it is probable t h a t they are facing some deity or deified object which has escaped observation. The position of this monument is of special interest, as it is only eight miles eastward f r o m Fraktin, which is found on the next main bend of the river. Here, at F r a k t i n (otherwise Ferak-Din), 1 is one of the most famous of Hittite sculptures, which makes most important contributions to Hittite religious symbolism. 2 F r o m its position on the river, Professor R a m s a y has, with reason, identified this place with the Dastarkon on the river Karmcdas mentioned by Strabo, 3 and has shown how the omission of the name of the place f r o m the list of Hiera, though at one time the most important, and the head over all others in Cappadocia, argues for its extreme antiquity as a religious centre, the importance of which was already passing when the list was made. Its sanctity was preserved, however, even in Christian times, by the Bishopric of Kiskissos, situated at Kiskeui, the nearest village to the site. The sculptures 4 of F r a k t i n are found about half a mile north-north-east of the village, carved upon a Murray's Handbook for Asia Minor, p. 273. Ramsay and Hogarth, Becueil, etc., xiv. p. 81, and PI. vi. ; C.I.H. (1900), PI. x x x . and p. 25; Chantre, Mission en Cappadoce (Paris, 1898), 1 2

P I . X X I I I . a n d p . 125.

3 Hist. Geog., pp. 288, 312. The identification probably remains unshaken by the discovery at Tashji. Cf. Strabo, xii. 2-6. The word seems 4 PI. X L V I I . to involve the name TABIC. . . .

150

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

convex rock f a c i n g t o t h e west, w h e r e a cliff a b o u t fifteen or t w e n t y f e e t h i g h rises a b o v e a sluggish s t r e a m , t h e K a r a Su, w h i c h flows p a s t a t t h e foot. T h e y a r e a b o u t f o u r f e e t f r o m t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e figures a r e f r o m t h r e e f e e t to t h r e e f e e t f o u r inches in height. The g r o u p fills a space nine f e e t e i g h t inches wide, or, including a n o u t e r g r o u p of hieroglyphs, t h i r t e e n f e e t t e n inches over all. The c a r v i n g is executed in relief a b o u t t w o inches high. T h e r e a r e t w o scenes, in each of t h e m t w o personages. The g r o u p on t h e l e f t consists of t w o m a l e figures, f a c i n g one a n o t h e r , a n d s e p a r a t e d by a n a l t a r . They a r e b o t h clad in H i t t i t e f a s h i o n , w i t h s h o r t tunic, conical h a t , a n d shoes w i t h u p t u r n e d toes, 1 while each h a s s e e m i n g l y a d a g g e r a t t h e waist. T h e figure t o t h e l e f t holds o u t some object in his extended l e f t h a n d a b o v e t h e a l t a r . I n his r i g h t h a n d t h e r e is g r a s p e d a c u r v i n g staff, which r e s t s u p o n t h e shoulder. 2 W i t h this figure t h e r e is associated t h e divided oval, t h e e m b l e m of s a n c t i t y ; so t h a t w e c a n n o t d o u b t t h a t if e i t h e r of t h e s e t w o is a divine figure t o w h o m t h e o t h e r is ministering, t h e n it is t h e one in question. The figure u p o n t h e o t h e r side of t h e a l t a r is m o r e defaced ; he seems t o hold u n d e r t h e l e f t a r m a t r i a n g u l a r bow, 3 while w i t h h i s r i g h t h a n d h e g r a s p s a n object which is c o n t i n u e d b y a w a v y outline t o t h e g r o u n d b e f o r e his feet. 4 The a l t a r b e t w e e n t h e t w o is v e r y curious, a n d t h e object u p o n it unintelligible. The pedestal seems t o be d r a p e d a l m o s t like a h u m a n figure w i t h a n a r r o w folded g a r m e n t e n d i n g in a f r i n g e . T h e n a r r o w i n g a t t h e top, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e waist, a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l b e l t a r o u n d it, a r e evident. 1 2 3 4

Cf. the god-figures of Boghaz-Keui, PI. LXV. This position is unique; cf. the priest-figures in Pis. L V I I I . , L X X I I . Cf. the god-figures of Kara-Bel, PI. L I V . ; Malatia, PI. X L I V . Cf. the oblation scenes of Malatia, PI. XLIV., p. 138, and of Eyuk, p. 268.

P L A T E X L VI I

F R A K T I N : THE ROCK SCULPTURES

151

The group to the right is not completely carved, the outlines only being shown, though the background is cut away. On the left of the altar in this case, the figure is seated on a square-shaped stool, and notwithstanding the conical hat (generally a part of the male attire), the only parallel cases of a seated deity suggest the figure of Ma, the Mother-goddess.1 Whoever or whatever it may be, the hands are held out towards the altar. On the opposite side there is a similar long-robed figure standing, and the garment in this case shows a considerable train behind, while in front the turned-up toe of one foot protrudes. The right hand seems to lean on a long staff,2 while the left, contrary to the usual convention, is extended, and grasps a long pendent object which reaches the floor,3 as in the counterpart. The object perched upon the altar is unexplained, but most resembles the crudely drawn outline of a falcon or other large bird 4 facing the goddess. Much has been written, and much might still be argued, as to the meaning of these sculptures. All that is certain is the insufficiency of evidence by which to identify them. W e seem to have, however, two acts of worship, probably oblation scenes, represented ; and on the analogy of the sculptures of Boghaz-Keui, fi we may feel drawn to see in these sculptures two shrines, the one of the Mother-goddess, later known as Cybele, the other of her companion, likewise familiar in later times as Attis. A t Boghaz-Keui the same divine pair appear in other guise. But being ignorant of the local religion, we learn little or nothing from these Cf. Eyuk, PI. LXXIII. ( i ) ; Sipylus, PI. l i i i . Cf. the female figure at Boghaz-Keui, PI. LXVII. 3 Cf. the tassel at Sakje-Geuzi, PI. LXXXI. (ii); and Marash, p. 115; also the oblation-scene at Malatia, above, PI. XLTV. 4 Cf. the sculptures from Marash, p. 118, and Yarre, p. 165. 5 Cf. p. 241. 1

2

152

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

identifications. It is h o w e v e r of interest to notice h o w deeply permeated and how w i d e l y spread t h r o u g h o u t the Hittite lands w a s the cult of the Nature-goddess in early times.

SECTION C . — M O N U M E N T S OF THE H A L Y S ASARJIK,

SUASA;

YAMOOLA,

BOGCHE,

BASIN.

KARABURNA ;

B O G H A Z - K E U I (DENEK MADEN).

W i t h this group of monuments there are t w o or three outside the convex curve of the Halys, though none the less in the basin which t h a t river drains. The first of these, on the slopes of Mount Argaeus, m i g h t perhaps more appropriately h a v e been classed w i t h the monuments of Anti-Taurus, of which system A r g a e u s is really the most advanced and most prominent peak. W e have no doubt t h a t near the summit of this magnificent slumbering volcanic cone there m i g h t be found traces of Hittite high-places, but f o r the present our only evidence of Hittite presence in this locality is t o be found a comparatively short w a y up the ascent, a t a place called Tope Nefezi, near to Asarjik. 1 Here, a m o n g a number of small rocks, there is found one, enclosed w i t h a g r o w t h of low scrub, upon the southern face of which a Hittite inscription is incised. The spot is near one of the main ascents of the cone, commanding a view of the plain below, while in f r o n t the snowy peak emerges in vivid, gleaming contrast out of the dense g r o w t h of pine and fir trees t h a t clothe the middle heights of the mountain. A stream coming f r o m high up the mountain passes near the spot, and 1 Liverpool and i x . (i.).

Annals

of Archceology,

vol. i., No. 1, p. 6, and Pis. VIII.

ASABJIK : ROCK INSCRIPTION

153

descends j u s t e a s t w a r d of Csesarea t o j o i n t h e Deli Su. This river, flowing west t h r o u g h t h e m a r s h e s , s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s e n t e r s t h e K a r a Su, w h i c h e m p t i e s i n t o t h e H a l y s j u s t a b o v e Bir Geuz bridge. 1 The rock itself is cracked vertically a n d w e a t h e r e d a t t h e edges, so t h a t some of t h e inscription on t h e l e f t h a n d is missing, a n d some of it is illegible. I t covers a space n e a r l y f o u r f e e t wide a n d n e a r l y t w o f e e t h i g h . I t consists of t w o bands, of which t h e l o w e r one, a b o u t e i g h t inches in h e i g h t , is m a r k e d only f a i n t l y w i t h h a l f - o b l i t e r a t e d signs w h i c h suggest graffiti. The u p p e r b a n d is covered w i t h incised h i e r o g l y p h s a n d a g r o u p of s h o r t u p r i g h t strokes p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t i n g n u m e r a l s . I n t h e l e f t p a r t of t h e inscription, t h r e e or m o r e signs a r e superposed in each column, while t h e w h o l e is t o be r e a d clearly f r o m r i g h t t o l e f t . F o r t h e m o m e n t t h e presence a n d position of t h i s m o n u m e n t a r e its chief f e a t u r e s of i m p o r t a n c e . T h e o t h e r site, a b o u t e q u a l l y d i s t a n t f r o m t h e Halys, b u t considerably t o t h e west, is Suasa, on t h e h e a d w a t e r s of t h e s t r e a m w h i c h e n t e r s t h e H a l y s j u s t above K a r a b u r n a . Here, on a cubical block of stone, similar t o m a n y h u n d r e d s f a l l e n f r o m t h e cliff, t h e r e h a s been f o u n d 2 a n inscription, incised on t h e f r o n t a n d back. The exposed p a r t of t h e s t o n e is r a t h e r m o r e t h a n t h r e e f e e t wide. T h e record of t h e m o n u m e n t is insufficient t o let us assign m u c h i m p o r t a n c e t o its a p p a r e n t i n t r i n s i c details, such as t h e possible a p p e a r ance of a w i n g e d a n i m a l a n d a fish a m o n g t h e hieroglyphs. T h a t w h i c h concerns us most, as in t h e f o r m e r case, is t h e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y H i t t i t e n a t u r e of t h e m o n u 1

See above, p. 24. H a n s R o t t , Kleinasiatische pp. 175-179 and figs. 1, 2. 2

Denkmäler

(Messerschmidt in t h e same),

154

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

m e n t , a n d t h e place w h e r e it is f o u n d . If w e a r e t o r e g a r d these isolated m o n u m e n t s as g e n e r a l evidence of H i t t i t e routes, we m a y see in this one t h e suggestion of a r o a d f r o m Akserai (Archelais) direct to K a r a h u r n a , connecting on t h e one h a n d w i t h A r d i s t a m a or w i t h Konia, a n d on t h e o t h e r w i t h B o g h a z - K e u i b y a s o u t h e r n b r a n c h of t h e r o y a l road. 1 K a r a b u r n a lies on t h e n o r t h b a n k of t h e H a l y s river. 2 J u s t behind t h e village a steep hill rises a b o u t f o u r h u n d r e d feet, a n d is c r o w n e d w i t h a n a n c i e n t fortress. On t w o sides t h e wall of rock f o r m s a sufficient defence, b u t on t h e west, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e n o r t h , t h i s is m o r e b r o k e n , a n d is supplem e n t e d by a n artificial wall of r o u g h s t o n e work. 3 I n t h e east side t h e r e is a sort of g a t e w a y , a n d below t h e r e is a n u n d e r g r o u n d p a s s a g e leading p r o b a b l y t o a well. 4 On a shelf of rock t o t h e l e f t of t h i s e n t r a n c e t h e r e is a l e n g t h y H i t t i t e inscription. 5 The s u r f a c e of t h e rock is n o t v e r y smooth, a n d i t w a s f o u n d b o t h w o r n a n d covered w i t h lichen. None t h e less t h e discoverer b r o u g h t b a c k good copies of t h e inscription, which is i m p o r t a n t b o t h intrinsically a n d t o p o g r a p h i cally. The h i e r o g l y p h s a r e incised, a n d a r e a r r a n g e d in t h r e e rows w i t h b o r d e r a n d dividing lines. T h e y seem to h a v e filled a space r a t h e r m o r e t h a n five f e e t long a n d j u s t less t h a n t w o f e e t wide. The inscription, as t r a n s l a t e d by P r o f e s s o r Sayce, r e f e r s chiefly t o t h e building of t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n a n d t h e t o w e r s t h e r e o f ; 1

See above, p. 24. I t is described by Anderson, Jour. Hellenic Studies, xxi. (1901), pp. 328-332 as six miles north-north-west of Tuz Keui, hence is probably the Karapunar of Kiepert's map, and to be distinguished from Karapuma, north-west of Arapison. 3 Cf. the fortress and inscription of K a r a Dagh, below, p. 178. 4 Cf. Jour. Hellenic Studies (1899), p. 55 ff. 6 Discovered by Anderson, cf. op. cit. and P l a t e ; also Sayce, Proc. S.B.A., 1905 (Nov.), p. 217; C.I.H. (1902), PI. X L V I . 2

P L A T K X I .V111

K A R A B U R N A : BOCCHE : YAMOOLA

155

t h e r e is also a r e m a r k a b l e suggestion t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t w a s s u b j e c t t o or p a r t of T y a n a . If w e m a y m a k e a n inference t h e r e f r o m , it is t h a t t h e inscription belongs to a t i m e w h e n T y a n a h a d superseded P t e r i a as t h e H i t t i t e capital, a n d w h e n G r e a t e r Cilicia h a d t a k e n t h e place of n o r t h e r n Cappadocia as t h e m o s t important Hittite state. A t Bogche, h i g h e r u p t h e river, a n d on t h e opposite b a n k , t h e r e is a u n i q u e H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t , which, so f a r as can be judged, s t a n d s n o w precisely w h e r e it did in a n t i q u i t y . I t is a flat r o u n d - t o p p e d g r a n i t i c stone, inscribed on b o t h sides a n d ends, a n d s t a n d i n g u p o n a suitable p l i n t h or pedestal. T h e w i d t h of t h e s t o n e is a l m o s t e x a c t l y f o u r f e e t , a n d its h e i g h t t h r e e f e e t . A t t h e side it is t w e n t y - o n e inches wide a t t h e b o t t o m , n a r r o w i n g t o eleven a n d a half inches a t t h e top. 1 The position of t h e m o n u m e n t is a slope of h i g h g r o u n d overlooking t h e valley of t h e river, a n d isolated a m i d p a s t u r e s t o t h e w e s t of t h e village. I t s n a t u r e a n d s i t u a t i o n alike suggest a t r i b a l or village b o u n d a r y stone, such as w e suspect a t G u r u n a n d B u l g h a r - M a d e n . The inscription is a r r a n g e d in f o u r lines, a n d seems t o commence a t t h e t o p r i g h t h a n d of t h e n o r t h e r n f a c e (which is t o w a r d s t h e river). The h i e r o g l y p h s a r e incised, a n d include several n e w a n d u n c o m m o n signs. T h o u g h difficult t h e inscription is one of t h e m o s t perfect pieces available f o r t h e decipherer or philologist. P a s s i n g t h e Bir Geuz bridge, Y a m o o l a is f o u n d some little w a y f a r t h e r u p t h e river, u p o n t h e n o r t h e r n b a n k . The village is i n open ground, b u t j u s t above t h e valley n a r r o w s t o a gorge, which is practically c o n t i n u o u s as f a r as Chok Geuz Keupru.^ A p a t h w a y follows t h e 1 See PI. XT.VIII. f o r our photo of t h e s o u t h e r n face. Cf. C . I . H . (1900), PI. LI. a n d pp. 11, 12. 2 Cf. p. 27, above.

156

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

river-side f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , w i n d i n g a l o n g t h e n a r r o w s t r i p of soil b e t w e e n t h e w a t e r a n d t h e h e i g h t s w h i c h overlook it. O t h e r t r a c k s t a k e t h e h i g h e r g r o u n d , b u t t h e y a r e r e n d e r e d difficult b y t h e loose stones t h a t t h i c k l y cover t h e surface, i m p a r t i n g a desolate a n d wild c h a r a c t e r t o t h e region. A b o u t f o r t y m i n u t e s ' j o u r n e y above Y a m o o l a , or t w o a n d a half h o u r s below Chok Geuz K e u p r u , t h e m o n u m e n t is f o u n d u p o n gently-sloping g r o u n d n e a r t h e b r i n k of a steep k n o l l a b o u t five h u n d r e d f e e t in h e i g h t . The spot does n o t c o m m a n d a n extensive v i e w of t h e river, t h o u g h only a h u n d r e d y a r d s a w a y , because t h e g r o u n d rises slightly in b e t w e e n ; b u t a little w a y u p s t r e a m t h e b a n k s a r e m o r e gentle, a n d t h e w a t e r comes i n t o view a t a bend. The m o n u m e n t is a gigantic eagle of stone, 1 s c u l p t u r e d in t h e r o u n d , s t a n d i n g u p o n a solid base carved in bold relief w i t h t h e design of a s e a t e d lion w i t h i n each of t h r e e panels a t t h e f r o n t a n d sides. The h e i g h t over all is seven f e e t . I t n o w lies u p o n one side, b u t it would a p p e a r t h a t it w a s o r i g i n a l l y set u p some f o u r or five y a r d s d i s t a n t on a p l a t f o r m of stones, t h e f r o n t edge of which is slightly raised like a ridge t o p r e v e n t slipping. 2 The h e a d of this g r e a t eagle is u n f o r t u n a t e l y b r o k e n a w a y , a n d h a s n o t been f o u n d . A r o u n d t h e n e c k t h e f e a t h e r p a t t e r n w h i c h covers t h e body gives w a y t o a hair-like r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , seen as t w o clusters of h a i r curling finally t o w a r d s one a n o t h e r . This m a y , indeed, be only a m e t h o d of r e p r o d u c i n g t h e d o w n u p o n t h e neck, parallel w i t h t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e l e g s ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a i r m a y be intended, a n d it is t h u s possible 1 See PI. XLIX. Cf. Robinson, Proc. S.B.A., 1908(Jan.), p. 27 and fig. 1, 2; and Liv. Annals of Arch., 1, i. Pis. vi., vrr. and p. 5. 2 Cf. the constructive details of the Lower Palace at Boghaz-Keui, below, p. 208.

PLATE X L I X

YAMOOLA : GIANT H E A D L E S S

EAGLE

SUPPORTED

STANDING BY

ON A S O L I D

LIONS

T h e background has been removed.

PEDESTAL

YAMOOLA: THE GIANT E A G L E

157

t h a t t h e bird w a s h u m a n - h e a d e d . A f t e r due considerat i o n of t h e details a n d probabilities, h o w e v e r , w e a r e disposed t o accept t h e simpler s o l u t i o n : t h a t t h e emblem w a s a simple t h o u g h g i g a n t i c eagle, set u p o n a lion-base. U p o n t h e b r e a s t of t h e bird, t h e p l u m a g e is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a leaf-like p a t t e r n w i t h a boldness a c c o r d a n t w i t h t h e g r e a t size of t h e subject. U p o n t h e b a c k t h i s detail is r e p e a t e d t o some e x t e n t , b u t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e w o r k is m o r e conventional, consisting of b a n d s of h e r r i n g - b o n e p a t t e r n r u n n i n g d o w n t h e f u l l l e n g t h of t h e body, d i v e r g i n g u p o n t h e shoulders, a n d t h e n c o n v e r g i n g g r a d u a l l y so as t o cross t o w a r d s t h e tail. T h e legs a r e s h o w n covered w i t h down, a n d t h e t a l o n s a r e f o r c e f u l l y executed. The base of t h i s m o n u m e n t is also of special i n t e r e s t . I n each of t h e t w o visible panels (hence p r e s u m a b l y u p o n t h e t h i r d ) a lion is s h o w n in a n a t t i t u d e n o t e x a c t l y crouching, b u t as t h o u g h s u p p o r t i n g t h e w e i g h t u p o n his shoulders a n d back. His f o r e - q u a r t e r s a r e too m u c h raised f o r a n o r d i n a r y r e c u m b e n t position, t h o u g h o t h e r w i s e t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e s e a n i m a l s is reposeful. The l e f t leg in each case crosses over t h e r i g h t , a n d t h e t a i l curls u p f r o m b e t w e e n t h e legs backw a r d over t h e t h i g h . The r i g h t side is p r e s e n t e d in each case, a n d t h e f a c e looks o u t w a r d s . T h e w i d t h of t h e base, excluding t h e tail, which p r o j e c t s a b o u t five inches, is t h r e e f e e t nine inches. F r a m i n g t h e p a n e l s in which t h e lions a r e shown, a n d s e p a r a t i n g t h e pedestal f r o m t h e r e s t of t h e m o n u m e n t , t h e r e is a curious w a v y ridge of stone u p o n w h i c h t h e eagle is perched. I t m a y possibly be i n t e n d e d as a b r a n c h of a tree, b u t it is m a d e a l m o s t t o resemble a w r i t h i n g serpent, w i t h its a l t e r n a t e n a r r o w i n g a n d widening. W e h a v e d e p a r t e d f r o m t h e s t r i c t lines laid d o w n a t

158

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

t h e o u t s e t of our i n q u i r y in including this object, which is uninscribed, a n d b e a r s n o direct evidence of d a t e u p o n it. W e do so because we claim it w i t h some confidence as H i t t i t e w o r k . Eagles, in relief a n d in t h e r o u n d , a n d lions, a r e f a m i l i a r e m b l e m s in H i t t i t e religious a r t , a n d t h e y a r e f o u n d in association a t B o g h a z - K e u i ; 1 indeed, a t t h i s place, which w e m a y believe to h a v e been t h e religious c e n t r e f o r t h e whole H a l y s basin, a cult of t h e eagle seems t o h a v e been p e r p e t u a t e d in H i t t i t e times. 2 Hence, t h o u g h t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d composition of t h e m o n u m e n t a r e unique, t h e e m b l e m s which it comprises a r e f a m i l i a r subjects in H i t t i t e art, a n d a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e locality. As t o its m e a n i n g , however, w e can h a z a r d n o o p i n i o n ; its position n e a r t h e valley of t h e r i v e r suggests a possible relationship, a n d w e k n o w s t h a t r i v e r s w e r e sacred t o some H i t t i t e tribes. L e a v i n g n o w t h e valley of t h e Halys, it is a s i n g u l a r f a c t t h a t t h e r e is n o p e r m a n e n t t r a c e of H i t t i t e presence on record w i t h i n t h e b r o a d circuit w h i c h t h a t river encloses, except t h e r u i n s of t h e c a p i t a l a t Boghaz-Keui a n d of t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g palace a t E y u k . A t t h e f o r m e r place t h e r e is one m o n u m e n t called Nishan Task, w h i c h claims m e n t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e buildings a n d s c u l p t u r e s t o which w e devote a special chapter, i n a s m u c h as it is a r o c k - c a r v i n g unlike a n y t h i n g else on t h e acropolis w h e r e it is f o u n d . I t lies b e t w e e n t h e t w o f o r t r e s s e s of B e u y u k a n d Y e n i j e Kaleh, w h e r e t h e s u r f a c e of a rock f a c i n g t o t h e south h a s been s m o o t h e d f o r a space a b o u t t w e n t y f e e t b y ten, a n d carved w i t h a design or inscription a r r a n g e d in t e n s e p a r a t e lines. I t is g e n e r a l l y 1 3

Cf. PI. LXV. 2 Sec pp. 235, 236. From the treaty between Hattusil and Barneses II., see below, p. 348.

BOGHAZ-KEUI: ISOLATED CARVINGS 159 thought t h a t this is an inscription in H i t t i t e hieroglyphs, and probably t h a t is c o r r e c t ; but owing to its extremely weathered state, we do not believe it possible now to recognise t h e signs with any certainty, though one traveller claims to have deciphered four lines in comparatively recent years. T h e rock lies back a t a considerable angle, and is thus entirely exposed to rain and frost. At the present time t h e carving simulates a series of animal forms, arranged in pairs facing one another, and (in the second row) of winged creatures placed singly and separated by dividing lines f r o m one another. I n the ninth row there is a suggestion of bulls facing one a n o t h e r in pairs, with lowered heads. Doubtless this is illusion, 1 but it shows t h e unfortunate impossibility of recovering the original inscription with any reliability. Two f u r t h e r monuments, recently discovered, 2 m a y be appropriately mentioned, inasmuch as t h e y have no clear relation to any other buildings of t h e site. T h e y are cubical building blocks of granite (similar to those f r o m Malatia and elsewhere), and the face of each is decorated with a relief. I n the upper p a r t of the stone there is a socket-hole, f r o m which f a c t the discoverers argue t h a t they were the bases for statues, though f r o m the a n a l o g y which their other discoveries afford, it would appear more probable t h a t they supported a building carried up in timber. The subject of the relief is clearly religious, and it includes some striking and important features, which appear on each stone. Indeed, t h e only difference between t h e two is found in three out of five hieroglyphic 1 Especially as some hierogylphs are visible in M. Perrot's photograph. 2 Winckler, Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient. Gesellschaft zu Berlin, Dec. 1907, No. 35, pp. 57, 58, figs. 6, 7.

160

THE L A N D OF THE HITTITES

signs that occur in each case. Otherwise the subject represented is the same. This shows a priest, clad in toga-like robe standing in an attitude of prayer before an altar. He wears a skull-cap, shoes with turned-up toes, and ear-ring. The toga is worn (in one case plainly) over a short tunic and vest. His left hand is raised towards the altar, and his left foot is advanced. The altar is of square shape, and without parallel in Hittite representations.1 I t is decorated with squares divided by diagonal lines and crosses. There is a little difference discernible in the arrangement of these decorative details, the chief point being that on the one they are arrayed in rows (in which case there are no crosses) and in the other in columns (in which case the crosses form a partial middle column between two of diagonals). Most curious of all, upon the altar, seemingly one on the right hand and one on the left, are two tall loop-like or round-topped objects standing vertically. Behind the altar there seems to be the cult object, which at first glance looks very like a harpoon, though the head is bent somewhat backward. I t may, however, be thought to represent some pointed object (like the Hittite hat) on a pole. (There is a small ivory object recently obtained at Denek Maden, near Chesme Keupru, which we may appropriately mention here,2 as it is characteristic of a certain class of Hittite objects, though not of direct use to our present subject. Its form makes it improbable that it was a seal in the ordinary sense. On the obverse there is the figure of a god clad in a short tunic; from the hieroglyphs alongside he is to be recognised perhaps as Sandan, or Sandes. On the 1 Though found in hieroglyph at Emir Ghazi; and in the round at Kuru-Bel (above p. 147). 2 See PL XL. (ii), and Liv. Annals of Arch., 1, i. p. 11, and PI. x i v . (1).

MONUMENTS OF T H E W E S T

161

reverse there is the robed figure of a priest holding apparently a long staff in his hand, and w e a r i n g a skull-cap. Certain hieroglyphs accompany this figure also. The character of the object and t r e a t m e n t of detail have several features of special interest.)

SECTION D . — M O N U M E N T S OF THE ANGORA,

GIAOUR-KALESI,

YARRE

DOGHANLU, B E Y - K E U I ;

WEST.

(CHESME

KEUPRU) ;

SIPYLUS, K A R A - B E L ;

ILGIN

(KOLIT-OGHLU Y A I L A ) , (EFLATOUN-BUNAR, FASSILER).

I t has already been indicated t h a t the Hittite w o r k s in the west are f e w in number and of somewhat special character, and t h a t they are disposed f o r the most p a r t seemingly along a single line of road. 1 They betoken a line of conquest rather than a period of settlement. Nevertheless, if w e m a y permit ourselves to t a k e into consideration certain sculptures which, though uninscribed, are of strongly Hittite character, we shall find reason to feel the presence of Hittite influence, or close contact w i t h Hittite artistic feeling, in Galatia northeast f r o m P h r y g i a . In view of the f a c t which has been established 2 t h a t the Halys R i v e r formed a boundary between peoples of different racial customs, this evidence, if it m a y be accepted, assumes definite importance, inasmuch as such influence was less likely, under the circumstances, to be the result of neighbourly assimilation. I t would argue, in short, f o r a definite occupation or suzerainty. Of such uninscribed w o r k s w e m a y single out three in the immediate vicinity of Angora, the one at Kalaba, 3 1 3

See pp. 37, 38. Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . ,. Asia Minor,

L

2 See pp. 21, 92. ii. p. 198, fig. 350.

162 MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES which is j u s t e a s t w a r d of t h e t o w n , t h e o t h e r s a t Amaksiz a n d Y a l a n j a k , 1 w h i c h lie t o t h e w e s t a n d south-west respectively. These a r e u n i f o r m slabs of stone, suitable f o r t h e f a ç a d e of a building, d e c o r a t e d w i t h reliefs of lions. 2 I t is n o t m e r e l y t h e a n a l o g y of m o t i v e a n d of subject, b u t certain details of t r e a t m e n t , which give t h e m a H i t t i t e character. T h e beasts a r e in each case r e p r e s e n t e d as advancing, w i t h wide open m o u t h s . The f a r t h e r legs a r e advanced a n d t h e tail curls over t h e back. On t h e lion f r o m K a l a b a t h e b o d y is seemingly h a i r y below t h e belly a n d t h e collar is suggested. Most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of all is t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e shoulder muscles, which a r e d r a w n in conventional outline, as a t E y u k , Sinjerli, a n d elsewhere. (At Chesme K e u p r u , also, exposed to t h e w e a t h e r on t h e w e s t e r n side of t h e bridge, t h e r e is a lion sculptured completely in t h e round. This is in itself a f a s h i o n u n k n o w n to H i t t i t e a r t , a n d added t o t h a t t h e r e m u s t be noticed t h e seated p o s t u r e of t h e a n i m a l a n d u n c o u t h t r e a t m e n t of t h e subject. W e c a n n o t see in this a n y semblance of H i t t i t e influence.) The sculptures of Giaour-Kalesi, however, a r e of u n m i s t a k a b l y H i t t i t e origin, even t h o u g h n o inscription seems to h a v e been noticed w i t h t h e m . H e r e t h e subjects a r e god-like figures, in f a m i l i a r H i t t i t e guise. 3 They a r e carved in relief u p o n t h e living rock, a n d t h e i r situation is p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y . A r o c k y knoll overlooks, indeed p a r t l y o v e r h a n g s , a n a r r o w pass : u p o n t h e s u m m i t is a fortress, r e c t a n g u l a r in shape, a b o u t eighteen y a r d s b y t h i r t y - seven, a n d supported b y a n o u t e r a n d lower wall a t a distance of 1 2 3

Crowfoot, Jour. Hellenic Studies, xix. pp. 45-48, fig. 5. Cf. the construction at Sakje-Geuzi, PI. i . x x v n i . Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. p. 202 fig. 352.

PLATE L

ANGORA : THE

ACROPOLIS (See also p. 36.)

Gì AOUR-K ALESI: FORT AND RELIEFS 163 twelve t o t h i r t y yards. The m a s o n r y of t h e i n n e r wall is r o u g h dry-walling, while t h e o u t e r is built in t h e style of t h e f o r t r e s s on B e u y u k K a l e h a t Boghaz-Keui, 1 of stones r o u g h l y p e n t a g o n a l in shape, i r r e g u l a r in size, fitted t o one a n o t h e r , a n d laid w i t h o u t m o r t a r . I n its s h a p e t h i s f o r t r e s s corresponds t o t h a t of Y e n i j e K a l e h a t B o g h a z - K e u i ; 2 in its double w a l l a n d r o u g h i n n e r m a s o n r y t o t h a t on Kizil D a g h ; 3 a n d in t h e position of t h e m o n u m e n t s n e a r its e n t r a n c e to t h a t on Kizil D a g h just mentioned, and to another at Karaburna.4 The s c u l p t u r e s r e p r e s e n t t w o m a l e figures: t h e one bearded, t h e o t h e r beardless. B o t h a r e clad in t h e s h o r t tunic, tip-tilted shoes, a n d conical h a t f a m i l i a r in t h e god-figures a t Boghaz-Keui. 6 A d a g g e r w i t h crescental hilt is stuck i n t o t h e belt of each. They a r e of g i g a n t i c size, seemingly a b o u t t e n or t w e l v e f e e t high, a n d b o t h a r e posed in t h e s a m e w a y f a c i n g in t h e s a m e direction. They t u r n to t h e observer's l e f t ; t h e i r r i g h t h a n d s a r e advanced, as t h o u g h p o i n t i n g d o w n t h e pass, while t h e i r l e f t a r m s a r e d r a w n back. Obedient t o convention, t h e r i g h t legs a r e advanced, a n d t h e shoulders a r e seen a l m o s t in f u l l view. S o m e t h i n g h a n g s d o w n f r o m t h e h a t of each, f a l l i n g behind t h e n e c k ; 0 a n d u p o n t h e f r o n t of t h e h a t w o r n by t h e bearded figure t h e r e m a y be traced a c u r v i n g object, b u t w h e t h e r t h e u p t u r n e d b r i m f a m i l i a r on t h e sculptures a t Sinjerli a n d BoghazKeui, 7 or some o t h e r emblem, is n o t d e t e r m i n a b l e . There can be little d o u b t as t o t h e identification of these t w o figures, as t h e y a r e p o r t r a y e d , w i t h t h e f a t h e r god a n d t h e son-god (the t w o f o r m s of A t t i s of l a t e r 1

2 See p. 205. See PI. L X I (i). 3 S e e p_ m 5 See p. 154. See PI. i x v . 6 It is interesting to compare this head-dress with that of the Scythians (cf. the designs on the Electron Vase from Kul-Oba, Reinach, etc., 7 Antiquities of Southern Russia). See p. 215, note. 4

164 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES times), seen in exact correspondence 011 the sculptured walls of the sanctuary at Boghaz-Keui. 1 Is it merely a coincidence that, while being a link in the great westerly route f r o m Boghaz-Keui towards Kara-Bel and Sipylus, they are pointing down the pass which is thought by many to have led also directly to Pessinus or Pessinous, the chief sanctuary of the Mother-goddess 2 in this part of Asia Minor ? Whatever may have been the direction of the Royal Road eastward of Giaour-Kalesi, it would seem to have passed west by w a y of Yarre, which is found near a bridge over the Sangarius called Karanji Keupru. H e r e a sculptured slab has been found 3 decorated with a relief representing a ceremonial feast. This is an important link, f o r this class of subject has a wide distribution, as we have seen,4 throughout Hittite lands on both sides of the Taurus. Its appearance west of the Halys betrays the influence not only of Hittite art but of a common religious institution. The slab is almost exactly thirty inches square and twelve inches thick. The back is rough, and on the upper side is carved a tongue or ' joggle,' f o r attaching another slab : clearly it formed part of the façade of a building like the slabs of Angora, Sinjerli, and SakjeGeuzi. The drawing of the scene is more angular and less free than is seen on most Hittite works, but there are several intrinsic Hittite peculiarities. T w o figures are seated, their feet on footstools, at opposite sides of a narrow table or altar. The head and back of the See PL LXV. Strabo, XII. v. 3 ; for the route cf. Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., p. 202 ; Anderson, Jour. Hell. Stud., xix. p. 95 ; Bamsay, Hist. Geog., p. 31 ; and Jour. Ray. Asiat.Soc., xv. (1883), p. 109. 3 Crowfoot, Jour. Hell. Stud., xix. Pt. 1 (1899), pp. 40-45, and fig. 4. 1

2

4

S e e pp. 99,100, a n d P I . LXXV. (i).

P L A T E LI

Y A R R E : CEREMONIAL FEAST

165

left-hand figure are missing. The shoes of both turn upwards at the toes, and their garments seem to be long, reaching to their ankles. The end of a toga-like garment is conspicuous on the right-hand figure, falling over the right shoulder and reaching almost to the seat. The head-dress of this figure resembles a skullcap with expanding front, and a short hood or veil falls behind the neck. The features are sharp, the nose and chin being particularly prominent. The figure is seated on a stool with two straight legs which cross. In the left hand (which, as at Sinjerli and elsewhere, is inaccurately represented with the palm instead of the knuckles towards the observer) there is grasped a small round-topped object; and in the right hand, which is partly raised, there seems to be a cup. The opposite figure is clad alike, so f a r as it can be seen, and similarly raises a cup towards the lips. The object between them resembles in form the narrow tapering altars seen on the sculptures of Fraktin. Upon it there seem to be a bird, and possibly some other offerings not clearly defined. In the background between the two heads, and above the ' altar,' there appear certain marks, in relief, which may be the remains of hieroglyphic signs. It is unfortunate that the whole of this sculpture is not preserved, a circumstance which makes us hesitate to attempt to explain its meaning. It is probable, however, that the persons, being both seated, are in this case on an equality, and both share in the feast, as at Marash, 1 Boghaz-Keui, 2 and Sinjerli. 3 We infer that they are man and woman, but that is not clear. The figure on the right, clad in the toga and long robe, wears also an earring. The seat on the left is not a stool of the same kind as that on 1

P . 111.

2

P . 226.

S p . 284 a n d P I . L X X V . (i).

166 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES the right, but rather a square-shaped chair, though, being broken in two, we have only a portion remaining from which to judge. In the Phrygian country the rock sculptures of nonPhrygian character near the Midas-tomb at Doghanlu 1 may be thought to carry on the line of Hittite highway to the west. These are found on a plateau above the valley in which are the Phrygian monuments, and they seem to have been anciently reached by means of a road ascending in a gentle curve, now partly hidden at the bottom by accumulated earth. There are several figures of gigantic size carved in relief upon the rocks, but that which has attracted most attention is a small one in the series, two feet four inches high, described by the discoverer as a figure of ' Hermes.' The person stands, facing left, his left foot and arm advanced. His hair is dressed close, or it may be covered by a skull-cap, and a curl is visible behind the neck. In the left hand a cciduceus is held upright, the head of which is seen like a small disk with horn-like objects projecting from the top and turned towards one another. Beyond the staff are certain picture-signs, amidst which a bird 2 may be recognised, with a small triangular sign below. These signs, in the opinion of the discoverer, are not the same as the Hittite hieroglyphs. None the less, the monument is accepted as Hittite by Dr. Messerschmidt 3 and M. Perrot. 4 We consider their interpretation of the origin of the sculpture to be extremely doubtful. W e do not feel so strongly as Professor Ramsay that the Phrygians 1 Kamsay, Jour. Hell. Stud., iii (1883) pp. 6-11 and fig. 2. For the Phrygian monuments in brief see Murray's Handbook, p. 142, etc. 2 Cf. the sculpture from Marash, p. 119, and at Fraktin, p. 151. 3 G.I.II. (1900), PI. x x x v i . B, and text, p. 32. 4 Art in .. . Asia Minor, ii. p. 206 and fig. 353.

PLATE

AYAZIN : ROCK-HKWN

ROOK OF T H E

CHRISTIAN

CHURCH

N o t i c e the dome and capitals, (See

P I . i.i. and p.

60.)

LII

D O G H A N L U A N D BEY-KEUI

167

obviously learned this type f r o m the Hittites of Pteria, as may be seen f r o m a comparison with the youthful god in the sanctuary of that place. On the other hand, the caduceus, the picture-signs, and the short robe of the figure, are not really those familiar in Hittite art. W e are told, however, that other sculptures of the series with which the ' H e r m e s ' is associated have more in common. The theory of Hittite influence, though not of Hittite origin, is perhaps easiest reconciled with history, and we may accept it tentatively as a working hypothesis explaining their presence, but not as independent evidence. The same doubt does not exist, however, in regard to an inscription f r o m Bey-Keui, which is a definite trace of the Hittites in the west. The monument is a dressed block of limestone, dug by Professor Ramsay 1 out of a mound at the entrance to a glen. The hieroglyphs are in relief, and on the portion of the stone preserved were arranged in rows, of which t w o partly remain. The whole was surrounded by a plain border. 2 From the published copy t w o or three of the signs may be readily recognised as distinctively Hittite. The position of the monument has thus a great interest amid the paucity of evidence in the west. Those monuments which tell of the Hittite influence in the extreme west are found on the mountains of Sipylus and Tmolus, not f a r in either case f r o m Smyrna. The river Hermus before entering the sea flows about a mile distant on the northern side of Mount Sipylus. On the other bank there stretches out a considerable expanse of highly fertile plain. The road and railway 1 Mitteilungen der Deutschen Arch, Inst. Athen. Abtlg., xiv. (1889), p. 181; C.I.H. (1900), PI. x x x v i . A, and text, p. 32; Murray's Handbook, p. 135. 2 Cf. the original appearance of the inscription from Ekrek, PI. XLVI.

168

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

pass between the river and the mountain, and from them the famous sculpture may be plainly seen. It is several hundred feet up the slope, involving a sharp climb up the accumulated debris and soil at the foot of the cliff. Above, the cliffs rise sheer and almost precipitous. 1 The monument occupies a recess specially prepared, about forty feet in height, while the figure itself is over thirty feet high. This gigantic sculpture, perhaps on account of its accessibility, has been more noticed in writings, ancient and modern, than any other. Its present condition, 2 however, leaves us no chance of forming any new opinion as to its original meaning and character. Fortunately on both points there remains little doubt, in spite of a considerable controversy, which is, however, now no longer of interest. As to its meaning, we are guided by the studied words of Pausanias, 3 read in the light of modern information, to believe that it was a rock image of the Mother-goddess; and as to its character, we m a y see in its present weathered state the indications of a sculpture in very high relief, almost indeed in the round, though not disengaged from the rock, which once represented a female seated, with her feet presumably upon a stool. The head of the figure is seemingly inclined forward, and the form of the female bust may still be recognised. Those who previously may have thought the carving to represent a bust upon a pedestal were deceived by its present appearance, for certain hiero1 For a description of the mountain, and a comparative study of the religion of the famous monument, see a paper by Ramsay, ' Sipylus and Cybele,' in Jour. Hell. Stud., iii. pp. 33-68. Cf. Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 234 and ff., and fig. 365 ; Weber, Le Sipylus et ses monuments (Paris, 1880); C.I.H. (1900), Pis. x x x v n . , x x x v m . , 2 See PI. LIII., to face. and text, p. 33. 3 Pausanias, III. xxii. 4, quoted below.

PLATE

MT.

SIPYLUS : GIANT

IMAGE

OF T H E

MOTHER-GODDESS

LIII

SIPYLUS : THE MOTHER-GODDESS 169 glyphs 1 in the recess near the head a t t e s t its H i t t i t e origin: t h e motive of bust and pedestal finds no place in t h e category of Hittite art, while t h e seated figure of the Mother-goddess has its counterpart in t h e Hittite sculptures a t E y u k 2 and F r a k t i n . 3 The inscription in question is very f r a g m e n t a r y , though certain characteristic symbols can be recognised, notably t h e tip-tilted shoe and t h e horned (ram's) head. ' I t contains,' writes Professor Sayce, ' the n a m e of t h e Mother-goddess, with her title " Queen of t h e Rock," all of which signs recur in an inscription from Emir-Ghazi.' 4 I t would seem t h a t classical writers, following generally in the footsteps of Homer, confounded this image with another object, a n a t u r a l rock on the same mountain, which tradition associated with Niobe, and would seem indeed to have conveyed a suggestion of h e r weeping form. Thus H o m e r 5 sings t h a t ' Niobe, turned to stone, upon arid Sipylus broods o'er h e r s o r r o w s ' ; and so again Ovid : 6 ' Fastened to the rock she weeps, and the marble sheds tears.' F o r t u n a t e l y Pausanias, himself probably a native of this country, ascertained the f a c t s and showed how t h e confusion had arisen. ' T h i s Niobe,' he says, 7 ' I myself saw when I ascended Mount Sipylus; close a t hand it is merely a rock and a cliff, with no resemblance to a woman, mourning or otherwise ; but if you stand f a r t h e r off, you will t h i n k you see a weeping woman bowed with grief.' This is clearly the Niobe of Homer, Ovid, and Sophocles, and clearly also t h e smoothed appearance of t h e rock above 1

Dennis, Proc.

(1900), P I . XXXVIII. 4 6 7

S.B.A.,

iii. p. 49; Sayce, ib., vol. vii. PI. v . ; 2

P I . LXXIII. (i).

Below, p. 184. Iliad, xxiv. 615. Pausanias, trans. Frazer, i. xxi. 3.

6

Metamorphoses,

3P1-

XLV1I

vi. 310.

C.I.B. .

170 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES t h e i m a g e of t h e Mother-goddess (which is not, it seems, due a t all t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e water), w a s one of t h e r e a s o n s a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e confusion. As to t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e image, P a u s a n i a s leaves us in no d o u b t w h e r e h e says, 1 ' H e r e (at Aeriae) t h e r e is a t e m p l e of t h e M o t h e r of t h e Gods, w i t h a s t o n e i m a g e of h e r : b o t h a r e w o r t h seeing. T h e people of Aeriae s a y t h a t it is t h e m o s t a n c i e n t s a n c t u a r y of this goddess in t h e Peloponnese. T h e oldest of all h e r images, 2 however, is on t h e rock of Coddinus a t Magnesia, t o t h e n o r t h of Sipylus : t h e M a g n e s i a n s s a y it w a s m a d e b y B r o t e a s , son of T a n t a l u s . ' F i n a l l y t h e s a m e w r i t e r m a k e s his distinction a p p a r e n t by s h o w i n g t h a t h e w a s a w a r e of t h e passage in H o m e r r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s t o r y of Niobe. 3 As in o t h e r cases, w e do n o t dwell u p o n t h e religious symbolism of t h e m o n u m e n t . T h a t t h e Mother-goddess (Ma) w a s t h e p r o t o t y p e of K y b e l e r e m a i n s undisputed, a n d all t h a t is of i n t e r e s t in t h e cult of t h e g r e a t P h r y g i a n goddess h a s been p o i n t e d o u t b y Sir W i l l i a m R a m s a y 4 a n d others. B u t t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e goddess in t h e m i n d s of t h e H i t t i t e s r e m a i n indefinite, a n d a r e t o be i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e r i t e s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h h e r a t Boghaz-Keui, E y u k , a n d F r a k t i n , f r o m t h e r i t u a l described by S t r a b o a n d H e r o d o t u s , as s u r v i v i n g a t Oomana, T y a n a , Pessinus, a n d elsewhere, a n d f r o m t h e i n h e r i t e d a t t r i b u t e s of Kybele herself. 5 The o t h e r H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s of t h e west on t h e pass of K a r a - B e l a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y n e a r a t h a n d . A 1

Pausanias, trans. Frazer, HI. xxii. 4. Cf. Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. p. 236, where this passage is translated : ' A statue of the Mother of the Gods, the oldest goddess of all.' The Greek runs : fXTjTpos Oca>v ap^aioraTov airavrcov ayahpa. There can be no doubt, however, as to the identity of the monument. 3 Pausanias, VIII. xxxviii. 10. 4 J.H.S. (loc. cit.), iii. p. 41, etc., p. 54. Cf. also Rawlinson, Ancient Monarchies, i. p. 494. 6 On the place of this cult in the Hittite religion, see pp. 354 ff. 2

K A R A - B E L : THE GOD OF ARMS

171

stream which feeds the Hermus, flowing around the foot of Mount Sipylus on the east, comes down from the valley which separates that mountain on the south from the opposite slopes of Olympus. The bed of another small tributary leads up these southern slopes to a narrow wooded glen upon the ridge, in which are the sources of the Kara Su. Through this glen there passes a track, now not much used, connecting Ephesus to the south with Sardis or Smyrna by the northern valley. About seventy feet above this track, in the perpendicular face of the cliff, a niche of rock encloses a sculpture in relief. The niche is about six feet wide at the base and nine feet high, being considerably narrower at the top.1 The figure within is that of a warrior, similar to those of Giaour-Kalesi, and resembling the god-figures at Boghaz-Keui. He stands facing to his left, his left leg and arm advanced, and his shoulders squared to the observer. He wears a short tunic and short-sleeved vest and high boots, which in some early drawings are shown as turning up at the toes.2 The conical Hittite hat completes his costume. A triangular-shaped bow is carried over his right shoulder, and his extended left hand seems to grasp a long staff or spear.3 The sculpture, being on the east side of the ravine, is turned towards Ephesus. There is another similar sculpture on a detached block of stone some two hundred and fifty yards farther up the pass. This stone seems to have fallen from the rocks above, and it now lies on the west side near the stream, 1 See PL Liv., taken from Sayce, The Hittites (1903), p. 68, and republished by courtesy of the author and the S.P.C.K. 2 Texier, Description, vol. ii. PI. CXXXII. ; Perrot and Chipiez, op. ext., ii. p. 229,fig.362. 3 Alternatively a sword held aloft; the markings on the stone above and below the hand are not in line. Cf. the God 2 L. at Boghaz-Keui,

PI.

LXV.

172

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

a b o u t twelve y a r d s below t h e level of t h e p a t h . As it lies t h e s c u l p t u r e d face is t o w a r d s t h e east, a n d t h e figure being t u r n e d as in t h e f o r m e r case, t o w a r d s t h e left, looks t o t h e n o r t h . I t is probable, h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e t w o subjects, t h a t t h e y originally looked in t h e s a m e direction. I t is curious t h a t t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n of t h e s e sculptures by P a u s a n i a s . H e r o d o t u s , however, describes t h e m as images of Sesostris, 1 ' t h e one on t h e w a y f r o m E p h e s u s to Phocaea, t h e o t h e r f r o m Sardis t o S m y r n a . I n b o t h places a m a n is carved, f o u r a n d a half cubits high, b e a r i n g a s p e a r in his r i g h t hand, a n d in his l e f t a b o w ; a n d t h e rest of his e q u i p m e n t is in unison, f o r it is p a r t l y E g y p t i a n a n d p a r t l y E t h i o p i a n . F r o m one shoulder t o t h e o t h e r t h e r e e x t e n d across t h e b r e a s t sacred E g y p t i a n characters, incised, which r e a d a s f o l l o w s : " I acquired t h i s region by m y own shoulders." W h o or whence he is he does n o t h e r e show.' I t is clear t h a t H e r o d o t u s w a s w r i t i n g f r o m h e a r s a y : t h e r e is j u s t e n o u g h g e n e r a l accuracy in his account t o i d e n t i f y t h e m o n u m e n t s , a n d e n o u g h discrepancy t o m a k e it a p p a r e n t t h a t he h a d n o t visited t h e m himself. The details as to position we h a v e a l r e a d y n o t i c e d ; a n d P r o f e s s o r Sayce h a s s h o w n 2 t h a t t h e inscription, so f a r f r o m b e i n g across t h e b r e a s t of t h e figure a n d in E g y p t i a n characters, is f o u n d in t h e characteristic place, b e t w e e n t h e spear a n d t h e h e a d of t h e figure, a n d consists of a g r o u p of H i t t i t e hieroglyphs, in w h i c h c e r t a i n symbols can be recognised. On t h e fallen block n o t r a c e of inscription remains, as t h e s c u l p t u r e h a s suffered m u t i l a t i o n ; in fact, a Y u r u k ' s t e n t w a s a t one 1

Herodotus, ii. 106. Trs. S.B.A., vii. pp. 266,439, and Proc. S.B.A., xxi. p. 222 ; also in The Hittites, pp. 67 ff. Cf. G.I.II. (1900), PI. x x x i x . and p. 38. 2

PLATE

K A R A - B K I . : NIL-: M R R I ' I ' E T;ORJ OF AM M S

1,1V

KÔLIT-OGHLU: INSCRIPTION

173

time pitched against it, and the niche used as a fireplace. B u t sufficient remains to make it demonstrable that no Egyptian inscription ran across the breast. We can hardly hesitate to identify this figure with one of the two forms of the Hittite national deity, and if the suggested absence of beard be a guide, he will be in this case the son-god of Boghaz-Keui, the Sandon of Tarsus, the prototype of Attis the consort of Kybele. We are inclined to see him here, as at Giaour-Kalesi, in the aspect of a God of Arms. We may notice once more, and ask, as in a previous case, whether it can be mere coincidence that the only Hittite monuments surviving in the extreme west are representations of the Mother-goddess and of the chief male deity of the Hittite peoples. With these monuments of the west we classify also one definitely Hittite inscription from near Iconium, and two instructive monuments reflecting Hittite influence, found near the L a k e Beyshehr. The inscription was found near Ilgîn, at a place called Kôlit-oghlu Yaila, 1 about three miles from the latter and eight miles eastward from the former, and about three hundred yards off the road from Ilgîn to Kadyn Khan. Actually the spot is about fifty miles north-westward from Iconium. Here there are traces of an ancient site in a slight eminence upon the plain, and the ruins of a wall running in a curve for a long distance. It is possible, Professor R a m s a y thinks, that these indications may mark the site of pre-Hellenic Tyriaion,2 which was one of the three chief cities of the Phrygio-Lycaonian 1 Recueil de Travaux, x i v . ; G.I.H. (1900), Pl. x x x v . and p. 31; Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. p. 213 (where the name is incorrectly given as Kosli-Tolu). The inscription w a s first published in Revue Archéologique, 3 e série, 1885, v. p. 262. Revised copy of Sayce in Proc. S.B.A., J a n . 1904, 2 Xenophon, Anabasis, p. 24, with P l a t e . I. ii. 14.

174 MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES frontier lands. In Roman times, however, Tyriaion was placed without doubt at Ilgîn. I t is more probable that the mound indicates a site of antiquity that fell for some reason into neglect as Tyriaion came into prominence. Out of the top of this there was dug up a block of limestone, about two feet eight inches high and six feet long. I t is not quite complete ; but upon it there may be made out with some certainty three rows of Hittite hieroglyphs in relief, the inscription commencing with the right-hand side at the top. The position of the monument is of special importance, for it seems clearly to have been found near to its original position, and is the sole witness of Hittite handiwork in this part of the tableland. And though it stands alone, it does not seem to be of that class, the isolation of which may be accounted for and is in itself instructive, like the sculptures of Sipylus and Kara-Bel. I t seems, on the other hand, to be the product of settled conditions, and its presence implies a whole field and period of Hittite influence which would otherwise have remained in obscurity. There are two monuments south-west of Konia which, though not inscribed nor demonstrably of Hittite handiwork, reflect clearly Hittite influence and feeling in art. One of them is 'Plato's Spring' at EflatounBunar, 1 nine miles northwards from Beyshehr. This consists of two walls of an unexplained structure, of which about two-thirds has been destroyed. The façade, which is decorated with sculptures, is about twelve feet in height and twenty feet in length. I t is washed by a stream which has been partly dammed by 1 Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, ii. pp. 350, 351 ; Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. p. 214 and fig. 356; Revue Archéologique, 3 e série, vol. v. pp. 257-264, Pis. xi., XII.

E F L A T O U N - B U N A R : FASSILER

175

stones t a k e n f r o m t h e building. The stones a r e large, a l m o s t gigantic, a n d dressed w i t h c a r e : t h e y a r e decorated w i t h h u m a n figures in relief, which v a r y in size w i t h t h e stones, t h o u g h f o r m i n g a s y m m e t r i c a l group, a n d each posed w i t h h a n d s raised, in f u l l v i e w ; several of t h e m w e a r t h e conical H i t t i t e h a t . T w o pairs of wings, enclosing disks, a r e carved u p o n a single stone w h i c h spans all b u t t h e corner-stones, while a g r e a t slab which covers t h e whole r e t a i n s t h e decorat i o n of a single p a i r of wings a n d p a r t of a c e n t r a l disc. I n t h e side view some of t h e stones a r e dressed w i t h a p a n e l ; o t h e r stones a r e lying a b o u t , a n d P r o f e s s o r R a m s a y h a s detected one on which a lion seemed t o h a v e been carved. There is a n o t h e r r e m a r k a b l e b u t equally problematical m o n u m e n t a t Fassiler, 1 n e a r t h e r o u t e f r o m Beys h e h r t o Iconium. I t is a g i g a n t i c stela, a b o u t e i g h t y a r d s in h e i g h t , a n d n e a r l y a y a r d thick. A t t h e b o t t o m its w i d t h is n e a r l y t h r e e yards, n a r r o w i n g a t t h e t o p t o n e a r l y t w o yards. The s u b j e c t r e p r e s e n t e d u p o n it is carved in v e r y h i g h relief. I t shows t w o lions side by side s e p a r a t e d only b y a figure, clad in a long robe, w i t h h a n d s folded b e f o r e t h e breast. Upon t h e s h o u l d e r s 2 t h e r e is posed a g r e a t e r figure, w e a r i n g t h e s h o r t t u n i c a n d conical h a t of peculiar f o r m . The r i g h t h a n d is raised, while t h e l e f t a r m is bent, a n d some indistinct o b j e c t is grasped by t h e h a n d . Meagre as is our i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h i s m o n u m e n t , w e do n o t h e s i t a t e to see in i t a reflection of a n idea which w e see carried o u t in t h e H i t t i t e s a n c t u a r y of Boghaz-Keui. The t h e m e seems t o us t o r e p r e s e n t 1 Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. pp. 222, 223; illustration in Ramsay, The Cities of St. Paul (London, 1907), p. 134, fig. 7. 2 This is an inference from the omission of the feet; actually the legs come to an end upon the head of the lower figure.

176

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES

t h e s t a t u e of t h e god b o r n e u p o n t h e shoulders of his priest ; a n d t h e lions, as emblems or g u a r d i a n s of t h e god, suggest a derived f o r m of t h e son-god or Attis, which we discuss in a l a t e r chapter. 1 The c h a r a c t e r of t h e lions flanking t h e m o n u m e n t , w i t h t h e i r h e a d s p r o j e c t i n g boldly in f r o n t , is also in k e e p i n g w i t h H i t t i t e t r a d i t i o n ; 2 a n d t h e position of t h e s c u l p t u r e b e t w e e n t h e lions h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t in a m o n u m e n t , equally of p o s t - H i t t i t e times, w h i c h h a s been b r o u g h t t o l i g h t a t Sinjerli. 3 F i n a l l y t h e w h o l e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e m o n u m e n t suggests a c o l u m n a r figure u p o n a lionbase, 4 of which t h i s is a clumsy a n d ill-carved s u b s t i t u t e . A w o n d e r f u l gulf s e p a r a t e s t h e d r a w i n g a n d execution of this m o n u m e n t f r o m t h e sculptures of Boghaz-Keui.

SECTION B . — M O N U M E N T S I N THE S O U T H - E A S T OF THE TABLELAND. K A R A DAGH, EMIR-GHAZI, T Y A N A (BOR, N I G D E H , A N D A V A L ) , BULGHAR-MADEIN,

IVRIZ.

W e t u r n in fine t o t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n c o r n e r of t h e tableland, n o w a desert t r a c t f r i n g e d by t h e n o r t h e r n slopes a n d o u t l y i n g ridges of t h e T a u r u s m o u n t a i n s . O u r c o m p a r a t i v e l y i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of t h e m o n u m e n t s a n d historical g e o g r a p h y of this region is d u e a l m o s t entirely t o t h e consistent researches of P r o f e s s o r Sir V m , R a m s a y a n d his school. W e come firstly t o t h e K a r a D a g h (Black Mountain), a n o u t l y i n g ridge of Taurus, 5 w h i c h rises t h r e e o r f o u r 1

Cf. pp. 235, 239. Cf. especially the lions and sphinx-base of Sakje-Geuzi, Pis. 3 LXXXII. See p. 142 above, note 4. 4 6 Cf. below, p. 311. Cf. chap. i. p. 41. 2

LXXIX.,

MONUMENTS OF THE SOUTH-EAST

177

thousand feet above the plain, to a height of seven thousand feet above the sea. At the foot of the mountain, on the north, the little village of MadenShehr marks the classical site of B A R A T A , better known, perhaps, as Bin Bir Kilisse, 'the thousand and one churches.' Professor Ramsay tells 1 of the great changes that time has wrought in this locality. Here there 'must have been in ancient time the summer sanatorium of the Lycaonian plain. The soil is very fertile, and being volcanic, is specially suitable for vines. Many kinds of fruit trees also were cultivated. Water is not plentiful, but there are several springs of remarkably good water. The needs of agriculture and viticulture were met by a wonderfully elaborate system of storing the rain and the melted snows of winter.' But now 'the site of this ancient city is the most inhospitable in the whole of Lycaonia. There is no water except filthy half-poisonous puddles stored in the ancient cisterns. The vines have almost entirely disappeared, the orchards remain only in a few trees run wild. There is hardly any cultivation. The water runs rapidly off the steep slopes of the mountain, and is of no benefit to agriculture except in the lowest parts of the little sheltered valley where the city was built.' That the life, and possibly the sanctity, of the place dates back to remote antiquity is shown by the discovery 2 of two Hittite inscriptions on the summit of the mountain. The spot called Mahalich is marked by a Byzantine Church, which seems to preserve the ancient sanctity of a high place of older times. 3 The church 1 2 3

Luke the Physician, pp. 163, 164. By Miss Gertrude Bell, 1907. Ramsay, op. cit., Pis. xiy., xv,

M

178

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

is supported on t h e north side by rocks in which a passage can now be traced, though it would seem to have been partly hidden a t least by t h e Byzantine walls. This passage was to some e x t e n t artificial, and on its rock-walls are two inscriptions, a short one in relief upon the north, and a longer one incised on t h e south. The shorter inscription consists of four groups of signs only, translated by Professor S a y c e 1 to mean ' Tarkyanas, the supreme king.' The other inscription is longer, comprising twelve groups of signs in a row, in addition to the same royal name, which in the middle recurs with little variation in its hieroglyphic form, though surmounted in this case by a winged emblem. There appears in this inscription 2 a hieroglyphic sign otherwise unknown, resembling a horned altar. I n the same neighbourhood, about eight miles to t h e north-west, there is an outlying rocky hill called Kizil Dagh, which rises sharply from the plain to a height of nearly four hundred feet. The summit of this knoll is crowned with a fortress, the early character of which is betokened, says the discoverer, 3 by its style and by three hieroglyphic inscriptions found near by. W e are not y e t told the precise nature of the ramparts, but t h e position of the fortress recalls those of GiaourKalesi, Boghaz-Keui, and K a r a b u r n a . Near a gate in t h e western wall, on the right-hand side, the longest inscription of the series is to be seen upon a sort of rock altar. The hieroglyphs are carved in relief, and arranged in two rows. As with t h e inscription on t h e Kizil-Dagh, the same royal name appears in the middle 1 2 3

Proc. S.B.A.(March 1909), xxxi. p. 86, PI. VII. No. 5. Sayce, op. cit., PL v i n . No. fi. Ramsay, op. cit., p. 160 and PJ. x v i .

KIZIL-DAGH: FORT & INSCRIPTIONS 179 of the group of signs, surmounted, it would seem, by a winged disk. Lower down on the hill, but still upon the shoulder, there rises a sharp rock, roughly hewn into t h e f o r m of a high-backed seat or throne, and on the back of this a bearded figure has been engraved. T h e personage is represented as seated on a squareshaped throne, his feet upon a stool; but the details of the design are unlike anything else t h a t has been recorded. 1 Much of its peculiarity m a y be attributed to t h e unskilled hand t h a t carved it, but t h e r e are certain features rendered with deliberation t h a t a r e worthy of note. T h e left a r m is outstretched, and t h e hand grasps towards t h e top a staff with crescental knob, which is held vertically. T h e lower end of t h e staff stops short above the stool, possibly in obedience to the general convention of perspective in H i t t i t e art. W e r e the drawing completed, indeed, in our own convention, with t h e vanishing point suitably chosen, it would be found t h a t t h e staff seemed to rest upon t h e stool. I n the right hand, which is j u s t in front of t h e body, there seems to be a cup of some kind. 2 T h e dress is not clearly drawn, but there is the suggestion, by a simple oblique line, of a loose fold or possibly t h e loose end of a toga across the body. T h e hem of t h e skirt is fringed. No foot-gear is apparent, and t h e head-dress is apparently a degradation of the familiar conical hat, reduced in this case to an inverted V-shape by unskilled drawing. The hair falls s t r a i g h t and backwards upon the shoulders. The seat is curious, and plainly simulates a substantial chair of wood. The back is a solid Proc. S.B.A. (March 1909), PI. vn. Professor Sayce does not agree with Professor Ramsay's interpretation, which we adopt in lack of an alternative explanation, and especially in view of the parallels afforded by the sculptures of Eyuk (PI. L X X I I I . (i)) and of Sakje-Geuzi (PI. L X X X I . ) . 1

2

180

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

u p r i g h t piece, s q u a r e cut, a n d t h e side-pieces w h i c h f o r m t h e a r m s are lateral strips, connecting t h e f r o n t legs w i t h t h e b a c k . T h e f o o t s t o o l is s i m i l a r i n style. W i t h o u t o t h e r e v i d e n c e it w o u l d h a v e b e e n difficult t o s u p p o r t a n a r g u m e n t of H i t t i t e o r i g i n s f o r t h i s c a r v i n g ; b u t t h a t q u e s t i o n does n o t arise, o w i n g t o t h e p r e s e n c e of a g r o u p of h i e r o g l y p h s a p p e a r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y b e t w e e n t h e t o p of t h e staff a n d t h e face, a n d t h e s e signs a r e a t o n c e r e c o g n i s a b l e a s f o r m i n g t h e same group which we have m e t with three times p r e v i o u s l y in t h e s a m e vicinity, n a m e l y , t h e r o y a l n a m e r e a d b y P r o f e s s o r S a y c e Tarkyanas.1 The same n a m e a p p e a r s in t w o o t h e r places on t h e s a m e r o c k . I n t h e o n e case it is f o l l o w e d b y t w o s h o r t lines of i n s c r i p t i o n , incised like t h e r e s t , a n d t h e s p e l l i n g of t h e n a m e s e e m s t o i l l u s t r a t e a n i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y of t w o h i e r o g l y p h i c signs. S u r m o u n t i n g t h e w h o l e t h e r e is a w i n g e d e m b l e m , in w h i c h t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n s e e m s t o be c o m p o s e d of t w o c r e s c e n t s u n d e r n e a t h a d i s k (which is a l s o divided like a crescent). A b o v e t h e e m b l e m t h e r e a p p e a r t h e s y m b o l of s a n c t i t y ( t h e divided oval) a n d t h e hieroglyph which Professor Sayce interprets a s t h e n a m e of t h e g o d Sandes. 2 T h e s a m e a r r a n g e m e n t , w i t h s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s , is r e p e a t e d w i t h t h e o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e of t h e n a m e , w h i c h i n t h i s case, h o w e v e r , is spelt a s i n t h e e a r l i e r i n s t a n c e s . T h e c e n t r e of t h e w i n g e d e m b l e m m a y b e seen t o b e a r o s e t t e , w i t h a 1 Professor Ramsay (op. cit., p. 160) reproduces the name as Tarkuattes; but the form given by Professor Sayce ( S . B . A . loc, cit., p. 84) corresponds closely with the name of a Hittite leader, Targannas, recorded by Rameses II. 2 The sign is ideographic, and the reading Sandes (or Sandon) is corroborated in various ways. The same sign seems to denote the storm-god (the Babylonian Hadad, and Tessup of the Mitanni) on the Hittite monument found at Babylon (Sayce, Proc. S.B.A., 1904, p. 306). Dr. Winckler, however, in discussing the archives of Boghaz-Keui, believes that Tessup was the name of the national Hittite deity. See also p. 358.

KIZIL-DAGH: THE MOUNTAIN-GOD 181 curious s p r e a d i n g object below. Above, t w o dots follow t h e n a m e of Sandes, a n d t h e picture-sign of a h u m a n a r m b e n t ' in a d o r a t i o n ' is by t h e side. These t w o g r o u p s of inscriptions, a n d t h e c a r v i n g w h i c h accompanies t h e m , a w a k e n several i n t e r e s t i n g t h o u g h t s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t point is one which m i g h t be easiest lost sight of, namely, t h a t t h e s e sacred places a r e s o u g h t on r o c k y p o i n t s or hilltops, b e a r i n g o u t t h e suggestion of t h e sculptures n e a r Boghaz-Keui, 1 in w h i c h t h e r e m a y be r e a s o n a b l y suspected t h e surviving t r a c e s of mountain-cults, or cults of m o u n t a i n deities, u n d e r l y i n g t h e n e w e r religious symbolism. T h e r e t h e idea is conveyed in t h e d r a w i n g s , h e r e in f a c t . W h o t h i s deity was, in his local guise a t a n y r a t e , w e do n o t learn. I t would seem, however, t h a t h e w a s identified a t some t i m e or o t h e r w i t h Sandes, j u s t a s a t Boghaz-Keiii m o s t of t h e various local deities seem t o be identified w i t h t h e chief n a t i o n a l god of t h e age. T h e m o n u m e n t s b e f o r e us, t h e n , p r o b a b l y belong t o t h e t i m e w h e n t h e cult of this god w a s d o m i n a n t , as u n d e r t h e H a t t i rulers, o r d u r i n g t h e ascendency of G r e a t e r Cilicia (possibly Kas in t h e inscriptions) as h e a d - s t a t e of t h e H i t t i t e confederacy. As f o r t h e n a m e r e p e a t e d in each inscription, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e winged rosette, or w i n g e d emblem of sorts, overs p r e a d s i t in f o u r instances, leads us t o i n f e r f r o m t h e a n a l o g y of similar H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t s , 2 t h a t t h e n a m e is t h a t of t h e k i n g - p r i e s t of t h e locality. W e recognise t h e n in o u r Tarkyanas (by w h a t e v e r n a m e h e m a y h a v e been called) t h e local d y n a s t of t h e period 1 Below, PL LXV. and p. 237. Notice also the altar on the Pass of KuruBel, above, p. 147. 2 Cf. pp. 129, 232. Among the Hatti, it appears from the archives of Boghaz-Keui, the King was called the Sun-God. Winckler, Mitteil. der D. Orient-Ges., No. 35, Dec. 1907.

182

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

of the sculptures, who was the chief minister and representative of the local god. Who, then, is the seated figure ? I t may be naturallythought that the group of hieroglyphs repeating the same name decide that fact, but we are led on further consideration to incline to another conclusion. F o r there is no single example in Hittite art where the king is represented seated or enthroned. On the other hand, it is the god who is found to be enthroned, and the king appears in such scenes by virtue of his priestly office. In this case the winged emblem does not accompany the writing of the name between the figure and his staff; hence it is conceivable that we have here a representation of the deity called by a name which was that used also by the priest; if this be so, then it may be assumed that the priest has really adopted to himself a name similar to, or compounded of, that by which the god was known in the locality. 1 There is one further point of importance which these inscriptions illuminate. I t is hardly to be doubted but that they are all contemporary, especially as we have reason to believe that they each contain the name of the same living person. Y e t the different styles in which they are carved—some in relief, others incised, some badly drawn, others outlined with more care—would have otherwise given scope for argument as to different periods of origin. W e may dismiss, at any rate for the future, the arguments as to period based merely upon the difference between relief-work and incision, irrespective of style and details. 2 1 In this conclusion we differ somewhat from Professor Sayce, and agree partly with Professor Ramsay. Our argument, however, is only based on somewhat distant analogies. Cf. also Ramsay in the Becueil, etc., xiv. pp. 74 if. on the priestly office. 2 Cf. Ramsay and Hogarth, Eecueil de Travaux, xv. p. 26.

EMIR-GHAZI: INSCRIBED ALTARS 183 The plain is b r o k e n b e t w e e n Iconium a n d T y a n a b y a low r i d g e called t h e K a r a j a D a g h . On t h e n o r t h e r n side of this, a n isolated m a s s of rocks rises f r o m t h e plain, a n d is k n o w n as t h e A r i s s a m a D a g h . On one of its h i g h e s t p e a k s a n a n c i e n t f o r t r e s s , called n a t u r a l l y A r i s s a m a Kaleh, c o m m a n d s a t r a c k w h i c h s k i r t s t h e n o r t h e r n s h o u l d e r of t h e ridge a n d looks d o w n on t h e r e m a i n s of a village called E s k i K i s h l a (Old W i n t e r Quarters), a b o u t f o u r miles d i s t a n t t o t h e west. T h e place is n o w h a r d l y i n h a b i t e d , save f o r a f e w h a l f s t a r v i n g n o m a d s ; b u t t h e r e a r e considerable t r a c e s of a n a n c i e n t site in t h e s q u a r e d stones t o be f o u n d a m o n g t h e debris. H e r e t h e r e h a s been f o u n d 1 a rem a r k a b l e s t o n e a l t a r of m u s h r o o m shape, a n d inscribed in t h e H i t t i t e hieroglyphs. Some t h r e e miles southeast is t h e village of Bmir-Ghazi, placed u p o n t h e slope of a considerable m o u n d , w h e r e also old w o r k e d s t o n e s a r e e x c a v a t e d in q u a n t i t y . H e r e P r o f e s s o r a n d L a d y R a m s a y discovered t w o f u r t h e r m o n u m e n t s , also i n s c r i b e d ; t h e one w a s a f r a g m e n t of a second a l t a r of t h e s a m e f o r m , b u t t h e o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e o t h e r object r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n , as i t h a d been c o n v e r t e d i n t o a w a t e r - t r o u g h a n d so considerably d a m a g e d . These t h r e e m o n u m e n t s 2 a r e a n i m p o r t a n t contribution t o H i t t i t e archaeology, a n d t h e i r position t h r o w s considerable l i g h t u p o n t h e c h a n g e d conditions a n d e c o n o m y of t h e p a s t . The a l t a r is u n i q u e a n d p e r f e c t . I t is f o r t y - t w o inches high, cylindrical in shape, w i t h a n e x p a n d i n g top, t h e d i a m e t e r of which is t w e n t y f o u r a n d a half inches. The m a t e r i a l is black basalt. 1

By Mr. T. Callander, a member of Prof. Ramsay's expedition of 1904. Ramsay, Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire (Aberdeen, 1906), p. 178 and Pis. ix., x., xi. ; C.J.H. (1906), p. 9 and Pis. X L I X . , L. Professor Ramsay found still another altar in 1907. 2

184

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

The pedestal tapers somewhat from the base upwards, and the top spreads out sharply like a table. The Hittite hieroglyphs upon it are in relief, and form a seemingly continuous inscription, arranged around the top edge and around the shaft in six parallel rows. A conspicuous feature of the inscription 1 is the JEdicula (so called), being the grouping of the royal or priestly emblems in the form of a shrine (or naiskos) under the outspread wings attached to a rosette, and recalling closely the emblems of the priest-king at Boghaz-Keui. 2 From the second altar, the tray and bottom of which are broken away, one line of inscription is entirely missing, while the ends of the other lines (of which there were five originally) are also wanting. As in the former case the hieroglyphs are carved in relief. This form of altar, though not found elsewhere in the round, is suggested by the rock carving of Fraktin, 3 and is clearly and elaborately represented on the dromos-decorations at Eyuk. 4 In the latter case the altar is placed before the enthroned bull, and towards it the priests and priestess lead up rams to the sacrifice. The remaining monument is so imperfect that but little can be made out as to its original nature. That it was a corner-stone is certain from the arrangement of the inscription, and we may compare it with the monuments from Aintab 6 and from Marash. 8 Dr. Messerschmidt is inclined to give it the same form as a corner-stone with recessed angle from Carchemish. 7 1 For an exhaustive comparative study of these inscriptions see a paper by Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. xxvii. (1905), pp. 21-31 and Pis. I., II., in., and revised note, ibid., vol. xxviii. (1906), May, p. 134. 2 3

See below, Pis. LXVJII., LXXI. 4 Below, PI. LXXII. Above, PI. XLVII.

8 Pp. 114

ff.

7

P. 127.

6

P . 107, P I . X L I .

P L A T E LV

TYANA AND VICINITY

185

However that may be, five lines of hieroglyphs in relief are partly preserved upon the two inscribed faces, the rest being cut or broken away; the height is about twenty-five inches, and the width of the sides seventeen and fifteen inches respectively. At the eastern limits of the great plains we reach Kilisse Hissar, the site of the old-time TYANA.1 I t is shut in on three sides by ridges and low outlying hills, but is open to the plain, and accessible from Eregli and from Bulghar-Madén. I t can hardly be doubted t h a t this was the chief city for the region we are considering, even in Hittite times, to judge from its importance in the minds of classical writers and from the extensive nature of its mounds and ruins. Strabo2 describes it as ' built upon the mound of Semiramis' which was ' fortified with good walls.' Here, curiously enough, no Hittite monument has been brought to light, probably because haphazard excavation in the mound is hardly possible, owing to the fact that it is almost covered by the modern houses. None the less, a Phrygian inscription of Midas 8 attests the antiquity of the site; and three separate Hittite inscriptions seen in the neighbouring places of Bor, Nigdeh, and Andaval may be reasonably believed, as is supposed, to have come from the same source. The most instructive and interesting of these monuments is that from Bor, which is a monumental stela, recovered in two main portions at different times at an interval of twelve years or more. 4 Even now the 2 xii. 2-7. 3 Above, p. 56. See above, p. 41. Constantinople Museum, No. 857. Hogarth, Wandering Scholar, p. 16.; Ramsay and Hogarth, Recueil, xiv. PI. i. ; Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. xxviii. (1906), p. 94 ff. and PI. HI. ; Messerschmidt, C.I.II. (1906), PI. x x s i i i . and p. 3. For our photo, PL LVI., we are indebted to the authorities of the Imperial Ottoman Museum. 1

4

186

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

stone is not complete; as may be seen from our illustration the fitted edges do not quite correspond, so that a small portion is missing from the height, while the left-hand edge is entirely broken away. The upper part measures thirty inches by sixteen, with a thickness of eight inches. The lower part is five inches taller, so that the whole must have been six feet or more in height. Fortunately, on the fragments that have survived, there is to be seen nearly the whole figure and face of a man, clearly the priest-king, as well as an indication of the nature and arrangement of the inscription. The figure is carved in high relief, with a projection amounting in places to three inches, while the hieroglyphs are incised upon the background. The figure occupied a height equivalent to eleven bands of the hieroglyphs, of which fourteen are indicated. W e have no means of judging how wide the stone was originally, as the bottom is fractured and the top has plainly been re-dressed since it was broken, to correspond with the narrower width. W e are inclined to think that the larger and more important portion of the stone is still lacking. For the attitude of the figure is that of adoration or of a suppliant. The man is depicted with his back near the edge of the stone, and his hands raised before his chin, exactly as on the rock monument of Ivriz. 1 Now on the stelse in which one figure alone appears, like those of Carchemish and Marash,2 the personage, be he priest or king, occupies the central position on the stone, and almost its whole height. He stands in those cases with one arm outstretched grasping his staff, while the other arm is close to his side; on the one he faces to the left, on the other to the right, but 1

See below, PI. LVII.

2

Above, p. 126 and p. 113.

P L A T E LVI

liOK : KITUTK INSCRIPTION AND REUKF T h e subject i-« the King-Priest in adoration of a deity whose figure i s missing. Cf. PL LVti.

TiOR: THE PRIEST-KING

187

the pose is the same. In this ease t h e details are all changed. To judge by certain f a i n t indications on the stone, and by comparison w i t h the m o n u m e n t of Ivriz described below, it m a y be inferred t h a t the hands are clasped in f r o n t of the f a c e ; it is a t a n y rate clear in the photograph t h a t one hand a t least is raised before the mouth. He does not occupy the centre of the stone but the side of it, as m a y be judged f r o m the short lines of inscription beginning just opposite the face. He does not fill the whole monum e n t in accordance w i t h the idea of 1 exclusive m a j e s t y ' so common and so dominant in Oriental a r t ; on the other hand there are three lines of inscription above his head, and a t least one below. W e are inclined f r o m these considerations to regard these f r a g m e n t s as forming part of a much larger whole, on which the theme was one of adoration, n o t much unlike t h a t carved on the rocks a t Ivr'v/J The resemblance m a y w e l l be extended, f o r on comparing the t w o priestly or k i n g l y figures many striking features will be found in common. The most a p p a r e n t difference is the a r r a n g e m e n t of the cloak, which on the Bor stone is fastened below the throat, while on the Ivriz sculpture i t is shown to h a n g more loosely, so t h a t the f r o n t edge of the fringed border trails on the ground. Otherwise the details correspond closely; in each case the cloak is embroidered in three bands, and bordered w i t h a fringe. Even the patterns are similar, the svctstika appearing on the stone before us in the middle band between t w o bands decorated w i t h diamond pattern (or 'continuous squares'). The skirt below is even more sumptuously embroidered; in each case the svastika fills the lowest band, and f r o m this hangs 1

PL LVII,

188

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

a fringe. On the Bor fragment other elaborate devices are introduced, including the double or quadruple Ionic curve, and the rosette; an embroidered waistbelt, collar, and shoes complete the treatment. Other features, less exceptional, conform to the old conventions: the turning-up points to the shoes, the bunched curl of hair behind the neck, the skull-cap, and the straightness of the nose. The beard is full and curly. The inscription commences with two groups of hieroglyphs which may be read Ay-mi-ny-a-s of the land of Tyana} An earlier reading 8 by the same decipherer suggested Ai-m-gal-a-s, corresponding to the royal name Ati^yaXos occurring in Greek inscriptions of Cilicia. However that may be, and whatever may be the precise values to be assigned to these hieroglyphs, the initial group which contains the royal name 3 will be found to recur on the two famous monuments of Bulghar-Maden and Ivriz. On the latter, the name appears in one place written exactly in this instance, and in another place, as at Bulghar-Maden, with a slight and evidently grammatical variation. This fact throws a welcome light upon the local history of the period. Of the other monuments of the locality, the fragment from Andaval—now hidden in the Greek church of that place—seems from the description given of it to have been part of a similar monument, or at any rate of a stone decorated with human figure and inscription.4 The stone is broken and rounded, measuring about Letters from Professor Sayce dated Oct. 2, Oct. 9, 1909. Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. 1905, p. 200; and 1906, p. 94, with PI. III. 3 The first five signs on the right of the first column. 4 C.I.H. (1900), PI. x x x i . , c. and text, p. 27. Ramsay and Hogarth, Recueil, xiv., PI. i. p. 84. 1 2

ANDAVAL AND NIGDEH

189

thirteen inches across. I t shows only the top and b a c k of t h e head of the figure, with two lines of incised hieroglyphs above and t h e beginnings of two lines behind. The hair on the head is shown by small curls, while behind t h e neck it falls in the characteristic bunch. The eye is seen as usual in full upon the profile of the figure, which is turned to the observer's right. The third m o n u m e n t has been f o u n d 1 in l a t e years a t Nigdeh, where it was dug out of the foundations of a house. I t is round and moulded, and in all probability formed part of t h e base of a column or of a built-up pedestal of some kind. At the b o t t o m t h e r e is a protrusion of stone f o r a t t a c h m e n t , and in t h e top there is a square-cut socket hole, of a width equal to about a third of the whole diameter. The mouldings, which run around t h e upper edge only, look almost R o m a n in style. The i n s c r i p t i o n 2 upon it is short, occupying a space only twelve inches by four, and the letters are incised. The m o n u m e n t of Bulghar-Maden is an inscription in five lines of incised hieroglyphs. 3 I t m a y be reached by crossing t h e outlying ridges of Taurus between T y a n a and Bulghar-Maden (a distance of t h i r t y miles), or by turning f r o m the main road up the valley of the stream which flows at t h e foot of the B u l g h a r Dagh. 4 I n either case t h e monument is found near t h e small village of A li Hodje, two miles below Bulghar-Maden, on the left (or north) b a n k of the stream ; and it is to By a botanist, Herr Walter Siehe, C.I.II. (1906), PI. LIII. p. 15. Professor Sayce suggests to us the following translation : ' This stone was set up by the king, the Prince of Kas.' 3 C.I.H. (1900), PI. XXXII. and p. 27; Hogarth and Ramsay, Recueil, xiv. PI. II. and p. 85 ; Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. 1905, p. 229. In the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology there is an enlarged photo of the original, which has been collated with the cast in the Ashmolean Museum. 4 See frontispiece and p. 43, 1 2

190

MONUMENTS OF T H E HITTITES

be reached only by a sharp climb up t h e steep side of t h e valley, a little way above t h e village. A guide is necessary, f o r t h e inscription is inconspicuous, and i t is carved on an outcrop of brown rock similar to m a n y others in the locality. T h e rock overhangs slightly, and is fairly smooth, though its rough granitic n a t u r e renders it difficult to work with ease. The inscription is in fair preservation, but it has probably never been deeply or clearly incised. I t occupies a space about four feet high and r a t h e r more t h a n six feet wide, and it is divided off from the rock around by a border-line incised to about the same depth as those which separate the rows of hieroglyphs. These rows are not all of t h e same length, for the two uppermost are shorter on t h e left hand than the others, probably on account of a considerable flaw in t h e stone which t h e y thus avoid. The top of the inscription is about ten feet f r o m the ground, so a ladder is desirable in order to study it closely. I t is generally thought t h a t the vicinity of the silvermines explains the presence of this inscription. Y e t t h e mines are some four miles distant, and a more appropriate spot n e a r t h e entrance to t h e m could have been readily found. I t seems much more probable t h a t this monument, like the stone upon a pedestal n e a r to Bogche, m a r k s the boundary to a territory or state, which in this case, for t h e reason we have indicated, would be t h a t ruled f r o m Tyana. T h e general tendency of t h e reading given by Professor Sayce, 1 which is remarkably instructive, seems to confirm this opinion. Thus ' A prince a m I who has fixed the boundaries,' and again, ' T h i s is the prince-god's sacred stone f o r the land, set up here, belonging to t h e boundary.' I t is only fair to say t h a t Professor Sayce regards his 1

Op cit., p. 230, line ¡J and line 5.

BULGHAR-MADEN AND IVRlZ

191

reading in this case as tentative; he also reads the name of the prince in this case as a ' son of Ayminyas' of Tyana; and there is another compound form of the word which may be taken for ' the land of Ayminyas.' W e come, in conclusion, to the monument of Ivriz, 1 which is best approached from Tyana or Iconium by way of Eregli, 2 but is also accessible to the adventurous traveller from Bulghar-Maden by traversing the rocky snow-flecked ridge that lies between. From Eregli following up the bed of the Kodja Su the dreary barren plains are left behind, and a verdant though neglected valley is unfolded. The pathway lies through old gardens and vineyards and reaches of cornland ; willows line the waterside, and the country is cheered by a profusion of trees in which the hazel and chestnut abound, with here and there a great walnut or a row of poplars. The valley with its singular fertility and beauty is in marked contrast to the arid tx-acts beyond, and the change is only intensified where, leaving the main stream, the pathway follows up, on the left bank, a richly wooded vale that trends towards the south. This new valley leads into the mountain, and after a distance of nearly three miles it comes to an abrupt end where the wall of Taurus is met, rising almost precipitously, and encircling the head of the glen where the hamlet of Ivriz is found. At the foot of the rock a stream of water, clear and cool, bursts out in tremendous volume, and, supplemented by other similar sources, becomes in a hundred yards a raging and impassable torrent, roaring with a wonderful noise as it foams and leaps over the rocks in its course. Before joining the main 1 W e pronounce this word Ivreez ; though locally it is commonly pronounced Ibreez, owing probably to racial difficulty with the letter v, 2 See Chapter I. p. 41.

192

MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES

s t r e a m of t h e valley it w a s h e s a t a b e n d t h e f o o t of a b a r e rock, u p o n which f r o m t h e opposite side t h e r e m a y be seen t h e f a m o u s sculptures, 1 t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g of all k n o w n H i t t i t e works, a n d one of t h e m o s t imposing m o n u m e n t s of t h e a n c i e n t E a s t . T h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e s e sculptures is all in relief. I n composition t h e r e a r e t w o p e r s o n s r e p r e s e n t e d : t h e Peasant-god, a g i g a n t i c figure f o u r t e e n f e e t in h e i g h t , distinguished by t h e b u n c h e s of g r a p e s a n d b e a r d e d w h e a t which h e holds, a n d t h e King-priest, a n heroic figure e i g h t f e e t in h e i g h t , f a c i n g t o w a r d s t h e god, w i t h clasped h a n d s raised in a d o r a t i o n or t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r his b o u n t y . The god is clad in t h e s h o r t tunic, short-sleeved vest, pointed cap, a n d shoes w i t h t u r n e d - u p toes, characteristic of t h e godlike figures on all H i t t i t e sculptures. B u t h e r e t h e sculptor h a s e l a b o r a t e d his t h e m e , a n d h a s w o r k e d i n t o i t ideas or conceptions which w e m a y r e a s o n a b l y suspect w e r e derived u l t i m a t e l y f r o m t h e E a s t t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y of Cilicia. 2 The figure is s q u a t a n d stolid, a n d t h e f a c e a l m o s t Semitic. T h e nose, while s t r a i g h t a n d p r o m i n e n t , is t r e a t e d w i t h u n u s u a l fulness. The h a i r is a r r a n g e d in ringlets, so too t h e beard, except u p o n t h e f a c e w h e r e i t is r e p r e 1 There is a plentiful literature on the subject. See inter alia for a picturesque description of the country, Davis, Life in Asiatic Turkey, pp. 245-248. For an account of the monument in relation to its environment, with much beauty of thought and written with charm of expression, see Ramsay, Luke the Physician, pp. 171-179, and PI. x x i . ; also a note in Pauline and other Studies, pp. 172, 173. For a comparative study of the religious symbolism of the monument, Frazer, Adonis, Attis, and Osiris (1907), pp. 93-97. For our photograph, PI. LVII., taken from a plaster cast in the Asia Minor Museum a t Berlin, we are indebted to Dr. Messerschmidt, who describes his visit tothe spot, C.I.H. (1906), pp. 5, 6, and PI. xxxiv. This photograph shows more of the delicate detail t h a n any of the originals t h a t have been published, in which the shadows are usually too violent. 2 On the development of the route through the Cilician Gates, see above, p. 45.

P L A T E LVII

lVRfZ : GIANT SCULPTURES ON THE ROCK T h e subject is the King-Priest in adoration of t h e H i i t i t e god of cultivation. From a plaster cast in the IJerlfri Museum,

I V R i Z : ADORATION SCENE

193

sented by curls. 1 The l e f t h a n d is advanced, holding u p t h e e a r s of c o r n ; w h i l e t h e r i g h t one is b y t h e body, g r a s p i n g t h e v i n e - b r a n c h w i t h p e n d e n t clusters. The d r a w i n g of t h e b o d y obeys t h e o r d i n a r y conv e n t i o n ; t h e l e f t leg is advanced, t h e h e a d is seen in profile t o t h e left, while t h e shoulders a r e s q u a r e d t o t h e observer. T h e r e a r e b r a c e l e t s on t h e wrists, a n d t h e suggestion of s o m e t h i n g u n d e t e r m i n e d u p o n t h e r i g h t f o r e a r m . The belt is d e c o r a t e d as if of w o r k e d l e a t h e r , a n d ends in a curl b e f o r e t h e body, possibly s u g g e s t i n g a n a t t a c h m e n t on t h e f u r t h e r side. The b o o t s a r e high, w i t h a f r o n t flap b o u n d t o t h e a n k l e b y a lace w r a p p e d a r o u n d , like t h e b o o t s of t h e p e a s a n t r y of t h e district a n d of Cilicia in m o d e r n times. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t peculiar a n d O r i e n t a l detail is t o be f o u n d in t h e h o r n s w h i c h d e c o r a t e t h e h e l m e t , of w h i c h f o u r p a i r s a r e visible. I n f r o n t of t h e r i g h t f o o t is t h e suggestion of a bolted i m p l e m e n t , possibly a plough. F a c i n g t h e god, a n d posed a t a h i g h e r level (possibly, as in o t h e r e x a m p l e s of e a s t e r n a r t , so t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e smallness of t h e figure would be less a p p a r e n t ) , is t h e figure of t h e priest-king, who, if w e m i s t a k e n o t t h e g r o u p of h i e r o g l y p h s t h a t d e n o t e him, is t h e s a m e t h a t w e h a v e previously m e t w i t h n e a r Tyana. 2 I n g e n e r a l style a n d in some details, t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h i s figure is s i m i l a r ; b u t t h e dress differs in several ways. The p r i e s t l y skull-cap is s u r r o u n d e d b y t h r e e decorated fillets w i t h a k n o t t e d o r n a m e n t of j e w e l s u p o n t h e b r o w . The long s k i r t is a richly w o v e n g a r m e n t , on w h i c h t h e p a t t e r n is chiefly a series of p u n c t u a t e d s q u a r e s in p a r a l l e l rows, w i t h a svastika 1 Cf. the t r e a t m e n t of the priest-king and other monuments at SakjeGeuzi, PI. L X X X I . 2 Cf. PI. L V I ,

N

194 MONUMENTS OF THE HITTITES b o r d e r edged w i t h a f r i n g e . Over t h e s h o u l d e r s t h e r e is t h r o w n a n e m b r o i d e r e d m a n t l e , w i t h a m p l e collar, a t t a c h e d in f r o n t w i t h a jewelled clasp or brooch. I t f a l l s behind t o below t h e knees, while in f r o n t t h e tasselled or f r i n g e d ends t r a i l on t h e g r o u n d . The p a t t e r n is a r r a n g e d in t h r e e b a n d s of c o n t i n u o u s s q u a r e s or double zigzags. T h e r e is a s u b s t a n t i a l necklace a n d bracelet. The b o o t s a n d f e a t u r e s a n d h a i r a r e t r e a t e d as in t h e god-figure o p p o s i t e ; p e r h a p s t h e h a i r is b u n c h e d in this case a little m o r e t h i c k l y b e h i n d t h e neck. The r i g h t leg is advanced, a n d t h e t w o raised h a n d s a r e clearly clasped b e f o r e t h e face, t h e fingers a n d nails of t h e f u r t h e r h a n d b e i n g c a r e f u l l y represented. T h e r e a r e t h r e e s h o r t inscriptions a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s e figures. I n t h a t w h i c h is carved b e f o r e t h e f a c e of t h e god, P r o f e s s o r s Sayce 1 a n d J e n s e n b o t h find t h e n a m e of S a n d e s in t h e first line (the W-like sign below t h e divided oval t h a t signifies divinity). I n t h e n e x t line, as in t h e o v e r l a p of t h e first a n d second lines of inscription behind t h e king, w e find t h e s a m e n a m e (read A y m i n y a s ) 2 as w e h a v e previously seen in t h e inscriptions of B o r a n d of B u l g h a r - M a d e n . This p o i n t is of i m p o r t a n c e in considering t h e h i s t o r y of t h e H i t t i t e peoples when, as i t seems, t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y w a s n o l o n g e r a t Boghaz-Keui. F o r t h e d a t e of t h e s e sculptures, if only f r o m t h e i r close a n a l o g y in t r e a t m e n t t o t h o s e of Sakje-Geuzi, m a y be p u t d o w n t o t h e t e n t h or n i n t h c e n t u r y B.C. I t would seem indeed 1

Sayce, Proc. S.B.A., May 1906, pp. 133, 134, and Plate. In the former instance in a compound or variant, Ay-mi-ny-a-si-s (? son of Ayminyas); in the latter instance exactly as at Bor, Ay-miny-a-s. The signs are the two last of the first row, and the three below them in the second row, of the inscription behind the king. Cf. the first five signs of the Bor inscription, PI. LYI. 2

IVRIZ: IDENTITY OF T H E GOD 195 that we are here drawn into relation with the kingdom of (Greater) Cilicia, which, with Tyana probably as capital, took the place of the Hatti-state within the Halys, as the dominant Hittite state at the beginning of the first millennium B.C.1 This point becomes more probable as we dwell upon the religious symbolism of the monument. As Professor Ramsay has shown, in the muscular toiling peasant-god who by his hoe and plough reclaims an arid waste and makes it bounteous, we have a conception of Hercules, and that he was the recognised chief deity of the district is evident from the name Herakleia given by the Greeks to Eregli. Professor Frazer also has put it beyond doubt that the attributes of this Hercules are to be found in Sandon of Tarsus. Now the prototype of Sandon we shall find in the national Son-god (later Attis) portrayed in the sculpture gallery of Boghaz-Keui, 2 and in this way we are linked at once with the older Hittite mythology through the intermediary of the Cilician. See what is said on this subject in the previous chapter, p. 54. Cf. pp. 238, 240. On the origins and development of this conception of the god, see below, pp. 378, 379. 1

2

IV THE NORTHERN C A P I T A L A

DESCRIPTION

OF

PTERIA,

THE

ANCIENT

CITY

AT

BOGHAZ-KEUI, AND THE SCULPTURES CALLED IASILY KAYA.

t h o u g h t h e y a r e to our inquiry, t h e isolated m o n u m e n t s w h i c h h a v e been r e v i e w e d in t h e preceding c h a p t e r illustrate o n l y certain aspects of H i t t i t e art, and disclose only incidentally a f e w details of f e a t u r e s , dress, and a r m o u r , w i t h some suggestion of religious observances and customs. Their disposition, it is true, helps us to d e t e r m i n e t h e confines of t h e land w e h a v e set f o r t h to e x a m i n e ; b u t t h e i r provenance tells us little or n o t h i n g of w h e r e and h o w the people lived w h o f a s h i o n e d them. Nevertheless, j u s t as these w e r e t h e first materials f r o m w h i c h scholars h a v e little b y little created a science of H i t t i t e studies, so w e m a y e m p l o y t h e m most fittingly as t h e criteria f o r our f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; t h a t w e m a y e x a m i n e , w i t h minds prepared, t h e m o r e coherent evidences of the H i t t i t e civilisation, as disclosed b y t h e ruins of their cities and fortifications, their sanctuaries, and t h e i r palaces adorned w i t h m y s t i c sculptures. FUNDAMENTAL

S u c h places a r e f e w indeed ; b u t o u r k n o w l e d g e of t h e m is chiefly t h e result of recent scientific expeditions, and is t h e r e f o r e t h e surer and m o r e precise. 1 1 W e may pay special tribute to the pioneer work of the Berlin expedition at Sinjerli, to the explorations of Sir W m . Ramsay and his school in Phrygia and Lycaonia, and to the organised labours of Dr. W i n c k l e r at Boghaz-Keui. W e shall incorporate also some of the preliminary results of the excavations of the Liverpool Institute at Sakje-Geuzi.

196

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

197

The published accounts enable us t o select f o u r sites, which h a p p i l y a f f o r d m a t e r i a l f o r a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y . Two of these, E y u k a n d Boghaz-Keui, a r e t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h of Asia Minor, 1 w i t h i n t h e wide circuit of t h e H a l y s ; while t h e o t h e r t w o a r e f o u n d below t h e T a u r u s a t S i n j e r l i a n d Sakje-Geuzi in t h e n o r t h of Syria. 2 T h r e e of these, m o r e o v e r , a r e sites superficially similar, being small walled t o w n s placed on considerable mounds, w h i c h contain also t h e r e m a i n s of palace buildings d e c o r a t e d w i t h peculiar sculptures. The f o u r t h , w h i c h covers t h e hilltop above t h e village of Boghaz-Keui, is of vastly g r e a t e r e x t e n t , a n d includes in its r e m a i n s m a n y peculiarities n o t r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e others. I t h a s w i t h some c e r t a i n t y been identified 3 w i t h t h e P t e r i a (or P t a r a ) across t h e H a l y s which, according to Herodotus, 4 fell a b o u t 550 B.C. b e f o r e Croesus of Lydia, w h o f o u n d it in possession of a ' S y r o - C a p p a d o c i a n ' p o p u l a t i o n w h o m h e reduced t o servitude. 6 I t h a s also f o r some t i m e been linked w i t h t h e H i t t i t e s in t h e m i n d s of scholars, b o t h b y t h e n a t u r e of t h e a r t its r u i n s illustrate, a n d by t h e d o u b t f u l hieroglyphic inscription on t h e rock called N i s h a n T a s h , 6 a n d m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e clear h i e r o g l y p h s associated w i t h t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g sculptures of Iasily K a y a . Recently Dr. W i n c k l e r h a s added to t h e s e links t w o building-stones decorated w i t h sculptures a n d w i t h 1

2 Vide supra, p. 32. Vide supra, p. 13. See inter alia, Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. pp. 103 et seq. The name P t a r a is suggested by Ramsay, who accepts the identification (Luke the Physician, p. 215, note). 4 Herodotus, i. 76. The situation of P t e r i a is indicated vaguely as Kara SivaTrrjv which is read to mean ' opposite' or ' over against S i n o p e ' ; the full context is: rj de IIreply ecrrl rrjs 'op7]s ravrrjs TO T C ^ U P O R A R O v Kara "2IVIOITT]V noXtv . . . ¡XAKITJTA KIJ KEIPEVRJ. 6 We prefer the term 'Syro-Cappadocian' to 'White-Syrian,' or 'Leuco-Syrian,' as a more comprehensive equivalent in our days of the 0 original name Suri. Supra, p. 158. 3

198

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

hieroglyphs 1 in t h e familiar H i t t i t e style; and has finally riveted the chain of evidence by t h e discovery in the ruins of an early palace of numerous inscribed tablets of brick inscribed in cuneiform characters, which prove to be from the archives of H a t t i kings, including f r a g m e n t s of diplomatic correspondence with the Pharaohs of E g y p t and other Oriental potentates in the t h i r t e e n t h and fourteenth centuries B.C. I t seems clear, then, t h a t f o r several centuries a t least the ancient city of this place was t h e centre of H i t t i t e power and civilisation. I n an earlier c h a p t e r 2 we have shown reason to believe t h a t the decline of this power is traceable to an early movement of a people akin to the Phrygians, in t h e t w e l f t h century B.C. W e do not know as yet to w h a t e x t e n t the city suffered a t their hands, if a t all, or indeed during t h e later struggles with Assyria. The palace of the fourteenth century B.C., however, would seem to have been in ruins some two or three hundred years later when it was rebuilt. 3 T h e visible remains of the city, some of which possibly belong to this period of revival, present no evidence of any striking changes in the art they typify, and we m a y assume t h a t they represent to us the H i t t i t e handiwork, or a t least t h e direct survival of Hittite art, down to t h e period of P h r y g i a n domination in t h e eighth century B.C., if n o t to the final overthrow and depopulation of t h e city a t 1 Winckler, ' Preliminary Report on Excavations at Boghaz-Keui, 1907' (Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1907), p. 57-58. See also above, p. 160. See also an earlier article in Orientalistische Litteratur-Zeitung, Dec. 1906. 2 See above, p. 53. 3 I t had probably been destroyed, as the archives were not transferred to the new building which was placed upon the ruins of the old. The date is based on a calculation of difference in axial direction kindly supplied by Sir Norman Lockyer, vide infra, p. 210.

PTE RI A : SITUATION A N D ROADS

199

t h e h a n d s of Croesus. These r u i n s t h u s claim o u r first consideration. F o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e s e r e m a i n s t h e village of Boghaz-Keui lies j u s t below t h e boundaries of t h e a n c i e n t site, a n d is also a day's j o u r n e y f r o m t h e n e a r e s t m o d e r n t o w n s of a n y i m p o r t a n c e , n a m e l y , Y u z g h a t a n d S u n g u r l u . I n a n c i e n t times, however, t h e place seems t o h a v e been connected b y a s y s t e m of engineered r o a d s w i t h o t h e r p o r t i o n s of t h e c o u n t r y . The r o y a l r o a d w h i c h t r a v e r s e d P h r y g i a , 1 linking, i t is supposed, b y t h e H e r m u s valley w i t h Sardis a n d t h e west, held on t o w a r d s t h e H a l y s 2 witho u t o t h e r a p p a r e n t objective t h a n to a p p r o a c h t h i s city. To t h e s o u t h also a similar r o y a l r o a d h a s been t r a c e d f o r miles, 3 scouring t h e s u r f a c e r o c k s n o r t h w a r d s f r o m I n j e s u (near Csesarea), leading t o w a r d s a f o r d of t h e H a l y s n e a r t o Bogche. T h e P e r s i a n posts f r o m e a s t t o west a r e credited w i t h h a v i n g followed t h i s n o r t h e r n route, a l t h o u g h t h e direct r o a d f r o m C a r c h e m i s h t o E p h e s u s or S m y r n a , w h e t h e r by w a y of t h e Cilician Gates or b y one of t h e passes leading d o w n on Csesarea, did n o t need t o a p p r o a c h , m u c h less t o cross, t h e H a l y s r i v e r a t all. I t is indeed possible t h a t t h e earliest c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e r o u t e passed e a s t w a r d by t h e valley of t h e T o c h m a Su, 4 while a n o r t h e r n objective m a y be f o u n d in t h e old-time i m p o r t a n c e of Sinope as seaport. These considerations h o w e v e r , only increase t h e i m p o r t a n c e of BoghazK e u i as t h e focus of t h e system. N o w a d a y s , as w e h a v e seen, 6 t h e m a i n r o u t e s r u n differently, a d a p t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o c h a n g e d conditions, a n d t h e place w h i c h w a s once t h e a p p a r e n t c e n t r e of all activities in t h e 1 4

2 Supra, p. 37. Herodotus, v. 52. As suggested by Kiepert, cf. pp. 143, 366.

3 5

Supra, p. 24. Supra, pp. 33, 34.

200

T H E C A P I T A L OF T H E H A T T I

interior is now w i t h o u t economic interest, a wonderf u l memorial of the past. The position chosen f o r this city was one of considerable n a t u r a l strength. Its walls surround the broad top of an outlying hill which is connected w i t h the watershed lying to the south only by the high ground in t h a t direction. On either side it is cut off by the steep valleys of t w o mountain-streams flowing northward, which meet just below the modern village. These in turn are fed by small tributaries f r o m just behind the hill, which is thus almost enclosed. F r o m the point w h e r e these rise the f a l l is about a thousand f e e t to the confluence of the main streams t w o miles a w a y ; and though the descent of the latter is necessarily more gradual, t h e y are still v e r y rapid, and in the winter are f o a m i n g torrents. T h a t on the eastern side in particular, the B e u y u k K a y a n i n , has by its force w o r n down its r o c k y bed so deeply t h a t where it passes by the eastern knoll of the citadel, called B e u y u k K a l e h , its banks have become precipitous cliffs requiring little or no artificial defence. 1 The Y a z i r Daresi, on the western side, flows through more alluvial ground, and has there scooped f o r itself a gorge, in the steep bank of which the harder rocks are l e f t protruding, thus rendering an assault uninviting on t h a t side also. The engineers w h o planned the defence utilised the natural advantages of the position, banking up the slopes, and bringing their w a l l w h e r e v e r practicable to the edges of the rocks, in which all possible footholds were filled up w i t h masonry. On the north side, where the line of defence is less clear, the ground is broken by a third small stream, 1

See P l . L I X .

u y J= — o H S*

PLATE LVIII

P T E R I A : W A L L S AND DEFENCES

201

the K i z l a r K a y a Daresi, which rises within the circuit of the w a l l in the high ground of the acropolis, and now joins the Y a z i r in the modern village a t its foot. On the level ground, near this junction, there are the traces of an ancient r a m p a r t ; but the line of n a t u r a l defence being somewhat higher, i t m a y reasonably be suspected t h a t the enclosure w a s at some time extended in this direction, possibly in order to include the L o w e r Palace. H o w e v e r t h a t m a y be, the really vulnerable point would seem to h a v e been by w a y of the higher ground to the south, and here the artificial protection w a s stronger in proportion. The wall seems to have been built on this side upon a r a m p a r t revetted w i t h stone, w h i c h in its turn followed the line of a natural ridge in the ground, giving an almost impregnable appearance to the enormous mass of the defensive works. So high is this mound t h a t a n a r r o w subterranean w a y w a s constructed through it, giving access to the interior. The ground within, which we call the acropolis, is the flat top of the hill, around which the w a l l forms approximately three sides of a h e x a g o n (omitting the northern portion which descends, as we h a v e seen, to a l o w e r level). The length of the w a l l upon the acropolis is about one and a half miles, and the greatest width across f r o m east to west is about three-quarters of a mile. The whole circuit of the defences, including the l o w e r portion, is about three miles and a h a l f ; while the greatest length f r o m north to south upon the plan is about one mile and a quarter, of which about half lies on the upper level. The city wall, though built w i t h o u t mortar, w a s constructed in such a w a y t h a t it is still traceable continuously around the acropolis, and is preserved in

202

THE CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

many places to a height of twelve feet or more. I t has an average thickness of about fourteen feet, made up of an inner and outer facing each about four feet thick, padded with a core of stone between. The outer face was especially strong, consisting of large stones sometimes as much as five feet in length (but averaging from two feet six inches at the bottom to one foot towards the top), dressed so as to fit cleanly together, with a preference for an approximately rectangular or five-sided form. The masonry was laid in courses as far as practicable with such material, but was liable to be interrupted by a stone larger than usual, or from other cause. Indeed, in some of the inner walls, where the masonry is less massive though similar in character, large stones have been inserted at intervals as a bond and to give general stability. The contour of the wall was further strengthened by buttresses or extra-mural towers, placed at intervals which varied according to the situation, averaging about a hundred feet apart. These do not seem to have been designed from principles of defence, but solely as architectural supports.1 Some of the original doorways leading through the wall seem to have been extremely small, not more than three feet in width. The subway under the southern rampart is also very narrow, but this was possibly a later addition. Its exit is a plain doorway, four feet wide, built of three granite blocks arranged as jambs and lintel; inside, the passage has a width of about five feet at the bottom, and is lined with stones in triangular arrangement, with the apex six feet from the floor. I t is of interest to compare the principle of 1 Cf. however the mural towers so characteristic of the Syrian fortresses, infra, pp. 273, 300.

PLATE LIX

P T E R I A : T H E GATEWAYS

203

vaulting under pressure illustrated by its construction with t h e system of counterpoise employed in the arches of the larger gateways. These again m a y have been added since t h e original inception of the wall. In t h e vicinity of t h e Lion-gate, a t a n y rate, t h e regular courses of t h e outer masonry give way a t t h e corners, and in their place an a r r a n g e m e n t of fitted stones, shaped to receive t h e corners and eccentricities of their neighbours, recalls the bonding of the palace walls in the lower portion of the interior. This m a y of course have been a deliberate original variation designed to strengthen t h e corners where the recess for t h e g a t e intervenes ; and it is also obvious t h a t some g a t e w a y wide enough to admit a cart or chariot must have been necessary a t the beginning. Such, however, we are inclined to see in the unsculptured entrance, of similar character b u t smaller size, called B s h u k Tash, on t h e south-east of the town. The architectural principle, however, is in each case much t h e same, and m a y b e studied in the photograph of the Lion-gate itself. 1 This e n t r a n c e is set b a c k thirteen feet from the road, with an approach t w e n t y f e e t across, narrowing to a clear space of thirteen feet between the j a m b s of the gateway. These main supports are of g r e a t size and w e i g h t ; and while tending towards one a n o t h e r in a gentle curve as they rise, are so shaped and bonded to the wall t h a t they stand in solid equilibrium. The height of these single stones is about twelve feet, and in t h e other gate mentioned about eleven feet. The l a t t e r illustrates more clearly the upper structure, in which the pointed arch was brought to its completion by repetition of the same principle of counterpoise. E a c h of t h e upper stones projected towards the other, 1

PI.

LX.

204

THE CAPITAL OF THE HATTI

while overhanging sufficiently in t h e opposite direction to retain its balance singly. F u r t h e r details are not preserved, but the faces of these also must have been dressed to the curve of t h e arch, and if they did not approach one a n o t h e r close enough to touch, then the arch must have been completed by a fifth stone placed over all, as is indeed suggested in the case of the E s h u k Tash. I n this way we gain a minimum height f o r the gateway, without superficial structure, of fifteen or sixteen feet. As the arch was repeated within a t a distance of twenty-five feet, it is probable t h a t the two spans supported a chamber or sentry-walk continuous with the parapet. Probably the mass of masonry to left and right indicates a guardchamber flanking the approach on either side, in the well-known style later adopted by R o m a n engineers and finally transmitted to mediaeval architecture. W e have dealt somewhat lengthily with the elem e n t a r y details of this stronghold, but none t h e less deliberately; for the contemplation of this mass of masonry and the details of its execution is rewarded by an insight, which perhaps no other monument discloses, into the solidarity, power, skill and resource of the people whom it has so long survived. The famous Lions which guard this entrance are f u r t h e r witness to t h e standard of their civilisation, and are among t h e brightest products of their art. T h a t on t h e right hand, which is almost perfectly preserved, illustrates a wealth of detail which the somewhat distant photograph does not show. The appropriate boldness and realism of the design, however, are manifest. This fashion of adorning the gateways, particularly with lions, as also a t Sinjerli, Marash, and Sakje-Geuzi, is f u r t h e r paralleled by the sphinxes of B y u k , and to

PLATE LX

P T E R I A : INTERNAL FORTS

205

some e x t e n t by the monstrous emblems in relief warding off trespassers f r o m the inner gallery a t Iasily Kaya. 1 I n another g a t e w a y of the same character on this acropolis, Professor Winckler's excavations have disclosed a high relief of a being clad in the H i t t i t e tunic, shoes and hat, supposed a t the time to represent a king, 2 but since recognised as a f e m a l e warrior or Amazon. T h e outer wall was n o t t h e only defensive work which t h e advantages of t h e site afforded. Across the enclosure are a series of prominent crags overlooking the lower ground to the north, and m a r k i n g by t h e i r alignment the edge of the acropolis which gives access to them. 3 One m a y be tempted to presuppose, as indeed we have already suggested, t h a t these indicate a line of earlier defences and the n a t u r a l limits of an earlier city situated entirely upon the hill. They were crowned with rectangular forts, built of square blocks of masonry arranged in courses, and constituted in any case a formidable second line of defence against a t t a c k f r o m below. T h a t which is called Y e n i j e K a l e h is illustrated by our photograph : 4 its position is not naturally so strong, however, as t h a t of the middle of the t h r e e f o r t s of this series, which presents a precipitous face to the northern side. The largest of these knolls—hence called B e u y u k Kaleh—is to t h e east, and overlooks t h e gorge of the river on t h a t side. 6 To t h e north, however, where the slope descends to the lower part of the enclosure on which lie the famous palace ruins, it is less abrupt, and it has been fronted 2 R e p o r t e d . , PI. XII. Cf. infra, p. 226. Cf. below, p. 357. A plan is published in Humann and Puchstein, Reisenin Kieinasien, PI. xiv., and a revised version in Murray's Handbook, p. 21. 4 Cf. the Forts of Giaour-Kalesi, p. 163, Karaburna, p. 154, and Kizil Dagh p. 178. 5 Vide the photograph on PI. LVIII., where these features may be seen in the distance. 1

3

206

THE CAPITAL OF THE H ATTI

accordingly w i t h a s t o u t buttressed wall, built of large stones roughly p e n t a g o n a l or squared, t h e lowest courses of which a r e f r o m t w o t o t h r e e f e e t in h e i g h t . Hereabouts, in t h e dip between t h e t w o f o r t s last described, is the w e a t h e r e d rock inscription k n o w n a s Nishan Tash, 1 Descending thence t o t h e lower ground, following t h e course of t h e s t r e a m which flows t h r o u g h t h e middle of t h e enclosure, t w o f u r t h e r rocks a r r e s t a t t e n t i o n b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y h a v e been w o r k e d by h a n d . The first of these is called t h e Maiden's Rock, a n d has given its T u r k i s h n a m e o£ Kizlar K a y a t o t h e s t r e a m which passes j u s t below it. T h o u g h of considerable dimensions, this rock, besides being dressed a r o u n d t h e sides a n d w o r k e d d o w n squarely in t w o places in t h e body, has been cleanly c u t across t h e t o p w i t h t h e exception of a small table-like p r o t u b e r a n c e r e m a i n i n g t o w a r d s one end. The other, which lies still f u r t h e r down a n d n e a r e r to t h e Lower Palace, h a s been cleft in two, t o form as it were a passage t h r o u g h it f r o m side t o side. I t would be u n s a f e w i t h o u t evidence to suggest a n y definite use f o r t h e s e rocks in ancient times, a n d i t is possible t h a t t h e i r peculiarities m a y have resulted only f r o m t h e q u a r r y i n g of t h e stone blocks used f o r t h e Lower Palace or o t h e r buildings of the site. W e use t h e t e r m Lower Palace t o designate t h e f o u n d a t i o n s m a d e f a m o u s by t h e visit of Texier, 2 a n d t h e later descriptions of Professor Perrot, 3 in distinct i o n t o those m o r e r e c e n t l y discovered by Dr. W i n c k l e r on t h e U p p e r Acropolis, w h e r e t h e ruins of f o u r such buildings were found, of which t h r e e were p r o b a b l y 1 2 3

Vide supra, p. 158. Texier, Description of Asia Minor, i. PI. L X X X . Perrot and Chipiez, op. tit,, pp. 108 et seqq.

PLATE

L X I

MMMMBIft

EOGHAZ-KEl'I : T H E FOKTHKSS C A L L E D

YENIJE-K ALEH {Seep.

«

•

•

205.)

•

I

« • H a H R

^ I P P I I m « B O G H A Z - K E U I : REMAIN'S OF T I 1 E

LOWEli

PALACE

PTERÏA : THE LOWER PALACE

207

palaces a n d t h e f o u r t h a temple. 1 T h e lower courses of t h e first-mentioned palace, h o w e v e r , a r e visible a b o v e t h e g r o u n d , so t h a t its p l a n m a y be readily t r a c e d o u t ; a n d w h e t h e r t o be identified as palace or as a temple, it p r e s e n t s a n i n t e r e s t i n g study, a n d a peculiar link b e t w e e n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e of t h e E a s t a n d West. 2 As m a y be seen in o u r p h o t o g r a p h , 3 t h a t w h i c h r e m a i n s of i t is b u i l t i n l a r g e single blocks of s t o n e a b o u t f o u r f e e t in thickness a n d a v e r a g i n g twice t h a t m e a s u r e in l e n g t h . I t s f o r m is r e c t a n g u l a r , w i t h a l e n g t h j u s t over t w o h u n d r e d a n d t e n f e e t d o w n t h e m a i n axis, a n d a w i d t h of one h u n d r e d a n d t w e n t y - e i g h t feet. I t s chief e n t r a n c e is in t h e middle of t h e s o u t h e r n side, and, passing small g u a r d - r o o m s on e i t h e r h a n d , it leads i n t o a l a r g e c e n t r a l court, a r o u n d w h i c h a r e c h a m b e r s , a double series a t t h e ends a n d a single series a t t h e sides. To t h e n o r t h a n d t o t h e w e s t a p a s s a g e or corridor i n t e r v e n e s b e t w e e n t h e c o u r t a n d t h e r o o m s : t h a t o n t h e n o r t h seems t o h a v e been e n t e r e d by a n opening opposite t h e m a i n e n t r a n c e , a n d one c h a m b e r (across t h e p a s s a g e a n d t o t h e left) is filled b y a l a r g e t a n k or b a t h of stone. These p o r t i o n s of t h e building m a y be j u d g e d t o h a v e been residential, while t h e f r o n t a n d east wings w e r e d e v o t e d t o offices of t h e palace. T h e r e a r e f e w f u r t h e r f e a t u r e s of t h e i n t e r i o r obvious t o t h e eye except t h e size a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e rooms, on w h i c h w e do n o t need t o dwell. T h e c e n t r a l c o u r t is p a v e d w i t h r o u g h s t o n e s 4 a t a d e p t h of t h r e e f e e t below t h e p r e s e n t surface, a d e p t h w h i c h 1

"Winckler, Report cit., pp. 62 a n d ff. The best plan was published by Barth, Seise von Trapesunt . . . nach Scutari, p. 48. 3 PI. LXI. (ii). 4 W e are indebted to the courtesy of Dr. Winckler and his colleagues for the facilities which enabled us to study this site during the progress of the excavations. 2

208

THE CAPITAL OF THE HATTI

probably accords with the foundations of the walls and with the ancient level. The sloping ground to t h e north was prepared f o r this building by a stone revetment mounting in steps; and special precautions were t a k e n against slipping in t h e bonding of the masonry on t h a t side. Not only are the stones of t h e upper courses shaped to fit into one another in a scheme of ' joggles,' resembling ' tongues and grooves,' to borrow a t e r m better known, but t h e lower course is provided with a ridge rising along its f r o n t edges, which f u r t h e r prevented a n y general movement of the whole in t h a t direction. As for t h e upper part of this structure, it is for the excavators to decide whether it was carried up in masonry, of which there remains no visible trace, or whether it was of wood and brick, as in the Hittite palaces across t h e Taurus. The level nature of the preserved masonry, and certain features pointed out by Perrot, 1 suggest t h a t t h e l a t t e r method was employed here also, as is indeed supported by observations made by Dr. Curtius in one of the upper buildings recently discovered in the acropolis. 2 To judge by the foundations disclosed a t a greater depth by Dr. Winckler's expedition, t h e palace which we have j u s t described seems to m a r k the site of an earlier and somewhat similar building, in t h e ruins of which were found numerous precious tablets inscribed in the cuneiform script. These are long-lost pages in t h e history of monarchs, of empires and principalities in W e s t e r n Asia, and as such their relevance lies with a later chapter of our work. T h a t which is important f o r the moment is t h e fundamental date they give, overlapping in part the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties 1 2

Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., p. 115. Winckler, Report cit., p. 64 and ff.

PLATE LXJ!

P T E R I A : D A T E OF THE RUINS

209

of E g y p t , a n d coming t o a n end s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e r e i g n of R a m e s e s n . in t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B.C. W e h a v e n o published m e a n s of estimating, f r o m t h i s source or otherwise, t h e h i s t o r y of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h i s a n c i e n t capital. B u t some conjectures, as Si w o r k ing hypothesis, m a y be m a d e f r o m t h e probabilities of t h e case w i t h t h i s d a t e as a basis, a w a i t i n g m e a n w h i l e f u r t h e r illumination f r o m Dr. W i n c k l e r a n d his colleagues. I n t h e first place, as t o t h e d a t e of t h e m a i n fortifications, t h o u g h t h e period of e m p i r e is n o t o f t e n t h e t i m e of building h o m e defences, y e t in t h i s case t h e deliberate a n d v a s t n a t u r e of t h e o u t e r walls conveys n o impression of a stricken people h a s t e n i n g t o d e f e n d themselves, n o r even of precipitation. T h e scheme a n d details a r e carried o u t w i t h dignity, t h o r o u g h n e s s , a n d elaboration. I t w a s t h e p r o d u c t of a p r o s p e r o u s age, dictated by p r u d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n i m m e d i a t e conscious necessity. Y e t t h e pride of H i t t i t e p o w e r soon p a s s e d ; even while t r e a t i n g on equal t e r m s w i t h t h e c o u r t s of Thebes a n d Babylon, t h e s h a d o w of t h e Assyrian a r m i e s a l r e a d y clouded t h e e a s t e r n h o r i z o n ; a n d t h e m e n a c e of b a r b a r i a n n o r t h e r n h o r d e s w a s p r o b a b l y ever p r e s e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e i r offensive p o w e r s w e a k e n e d . I t m a y safely be supposed t h a t t h e i r city m u s t h a v e been p r e p a r e d a g a i n s t a s s a u l t a t a n y r a t e b e f o r e t h e i n r o a d s of t h e P h r y g i a n Muski, in t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y B.C. A n d secondly, w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e palace j u s t considered, built as it is u p o n t h e r u i n s of one which flourished in t h e t i m e of Rameses t h e Great, i t r e p r e s e n t s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of r o y a l s t a t e a t some t i m e s u b s e q u e n t . As t o t h e d a t e of t h i s r e v i v a l t h e r e is little evidence. F r o m t h e p l a n of t h e palace i t m a y be c o n j e c t u r e d t o h a v e preceded a n y wide s p r e a d i n g of A s s y r i a n influences; a n d f r o m o

210

THE CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

o u r own observations it was p r o b a b l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h a certain class of coloured p o t t e r y , which a t Sak je-Geuzi 1 w a s a l r e a d y passing o u t of vogue a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e first millennium B.C. Upon t h i s point it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o notice t h a t t h e difference of a x i a l direction b e t w e e n this a n d t h e buried palace, namely, 2^°, would, if astronomically dictated, suggest a difference of d a t e a m o u n t ing t o a b o u t t w o h u n d r e d a n d t h i r t y years, 2 assigning t h e period of r e s t o r a t i o n to t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y B.c. Doubtless some clear evidence will be f o r t h c o m i n g w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s of e x c a v a t i o n s ; f o r t h e p r e s e n t w e can only p a y due r e g a r d t o t h e f e w i t e m s of circums t a n t i a l evidence t h a t a r e available. The absence of visible sculptures on t h e f a ç a d e of t h e building, in c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e buildings of E y u k , Sinjerli, a n d S a k j e Geuzi, is curiously significant. T h a t p h a s e of m o t i v e seems t o be reflected r a t h e r in t h e t w o sculptured stones a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d as r e c e n t l y f o u n d s o m e w h a t f u r t h e r u p t h e slope of B e u y u k Kaleh, a t t h e f o o t of w h i c h t h e palace stands. 3 Two s c u l p t u r e d lions indeed a r e f o u n d lying in close p r o x i m i t y t o t h e lower palace, t h o s e which w e r e supposed by Texier a n d P e r r o t 4 to be t h e a r m s of a t h r o n e , b u t a r e n o w s h o w n 5 t o be t h e end o r n a m e n t s of a t a n k , w i t h a similar p a i r on t h e opposite side. These correspond b o t h in style a n d in details of a r t w i t h t h e lions g u a r d i n g t h e palace e n t r a n c e a t Sakje-Geuzi,® w h i c h m a y be d a t e d w i t h some security to t h e t e n t h or n i n t h c e n t u r y B.C. If t h e n t h e lions of Boghaz-Keui can be s h o w n t o h a v e 1

See infra, p. 312. From calculations supplied from our rough data by Sir Norman Lockyer. 3 Above, p. 159 ; for our date, see below, p. 339. 4 Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., p. 114. 5 By Dr. Winckler's excavations, Report cit., figs. 3, 4; pp. 54-55. 6 Infra, Pis. L X X I X . , L X X X . , and p. 311. 2

PLATE

BOGHAZ-KEUI : THE

SANCTUARY OF IASILY

1CAYA

V i e w of t h e s c u l p t u r e s o n t h e l e f t s i d e f r o m w i t h i n .

LXIII

IASILY KAYA : T H E SCULPTURES

211

organic relation to the palace in the precincts of which they lie, then a basis for solution to the problem is obtained, and the date depends upon the range of time during which such sculptures were in vogue. But if, on the other hand, this tank was an addition to the palace, and of later date, as its partly exposed situation, above the level of the palace floor, suggests, then the palace is of earlier date, preceding the period when such sculptured lions were in fashion, a conclusion which our other considerations seem to justify. Incidentally we arrive at a possible date for certain sculptures of like kind, as the lion of Eyuk, and possibly the Lion Gateway of the acropolis. In conclusion we tentatively summarise the present possibilities of local development, which any new item of evidence may profoundly modify : 1350-1300 B.C. 1300-1200 ,, 1200-1100 ,, 1100-1000 ,, 1000- 850 ,, 850- 700 ,, 700- 600 ,, Circa 550 ,, PART

P e r i o d of the earlier lower palace. Main fortifications built, temp. H a t t u s i l . F i r s t Phrygian invasions. L o w e r p a l a c e reconstructed. P e r i o d of Lion-sculptures. Phrygian domination. Cimmerians. F a l l before Croesus.

II.—THE

ROCK SCULPTURES C A L L E D

IASILY K A Y A .

The far-famed sculptures named by the Turks simply ' Inscribed Rock' are at a distance of about two miles eastward from the village of Boghaz-Keui. They are not easy to locate. After leaving the village and crossing the river opposite the lower palace, a footpath rises steeply to the plateau about six hundred feet above, meeting the roadway, which skirts the base of this knoll on its northern side, about a mile further on, where it turns southwards towards Yuzghat. The ancient city is no longer visible, and there are few

212

THE CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

l a n d m a r k s of special c h a r a c t e r . To t h e n o r t h - w e s t a n u m b e r of rolling valleys u n f o l d themselves, while t h e g e n t l y rising g r o u n d to t h e n o r t h - e a s t is p a r t l y corn-land a n d p a r t l y g r e e n p a s t u r e , splashed as it rises t o its c r e s t w i t h d a r k scrub, a n d b r o k e n h e r e a n d t h e r e w i t h b a r e l i m e s t o n e rocks ; a typical view of a n Asiatic h i g h l a n d . The sculptures a r e f o u n d in one of these masses of rock, w h i c h is n o t t h e l a r g e s t or m o s t conspicuous of t h e series, n o r d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e in a n y g e n e r a l w a y . I t s chief a t t r a c t i o n of old w a s p r o b a b l y t h e n a t u r a l facility which c e r t a i n i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in its f o r m a t i o n afforded to t h e p u r p o s e in view. T o w a r d s its w e s t side t h e r e is a recess a b o u t t h i r t y y a r d s deep, w h i c h opens t o w a r d s t h e s o u t h - w e s t on t o a b r o a d g r a s s y t e r r a c e . The e n t r a n c e t o t h i s r o c k y c h a m b e r , so f a r as it concerns us, m a y be r e c k o n e d a b o u t s e v e n t e e n y a r d s wide. I t s walls a r e i r r e g u l a r w i t h projections, especially on t h e r i g h t h a n d , b u t on t h e w h o l e t h e y d r a w g r a d u a l l y t o g e t h e r u n t i l s e p a r a t e d b y only six or seven y a r d s a t a d i s t a n c e of a b o u t six y a r d s f r o m t h e end. The f a r t h e r p o r t i o n is m o r e r e g u l a r in shape, w i d e n i n g slightly, so t h a t t h e i n n e r f a c e opposite t h e e n t r a n c e is a b o u t e i g h t y a r d s in w i d t h . This b e i n g t h e l a r g e s t p l a n e s u r f a c e a n d placed s u i t a b l y in t h e d e p t h of t h e recess, it w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e c e n t r a l g r o u p of sculptures, w h i c h a r e on a scale p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e r e l a t i v e d i g n i t y of t h e p e r s o n a g e s t h e y r e p r e s e n t . F o r t h e rest, t h e sides w e r e dressed in s h o r t l e n g t h s of t w o or t h r e e yards, f o l l o w i n g t h e w i n d i n g s of t h e rock, in a m o r e or less continuous b a n d a b o u t t h r e e f e e t high. T h o u g h t h e s t o n e w a s p r e p a r e d , t h e s m o o t h s u r f a c e m u s t h a v e been f a s h i o n e d in clearing a w a y t h e b a c k g r o u n d s of t h e sculptures, w h i c h a r e t h r o u g h o u t in relief a n d in t h e peculiar H i t t i t e style.

PLATE LXIV

I A S I L Y K A Y A : ARRANGEMENT 213 A t the outset it may be noticed that the motive of these sculptures seems to be commemorative or emblematic rather than decorative: they are also extremely weathered, being protected only from the violence of the wind from certain quarters, and not at all from the rain; so that little need be said as to the artistic composition of the whole, or the details of its execution. The design, in brief, represents two processions of beings which meet in the middle (on the inner wall facing the entrance south). On the right the figures, with two exceptions, are those of robed females. On the left the persons represented are chiefly male,1 but include two females, and are interspersed with certain winged beings of mythological character, and a group of two monstrosities which have not been explained. Hittite hieroglyphs and emblems accompany many of the figures, which are further identified by certain recognisable details of dress and weapons. Our chief interest centres naturally in the significance or symbolism of the leading figures of these processions—those which are carved on the short wall opposite to the opening: the relative importance of these is made clearer by a preliminary glance at those 1 Ramsay (Luke the Physician, p. 203, in a chapter largely reprinted from a paper in the Jour. Boy. Asiatic Soc. 1882) makes the remarkable suggestion that most of the figures apparently male are those of females in disguise (e.g. of Amazons); but we have found nothing in our study of these sculptures to support this view. W i t h all deference to a great scholar's first impressions, we believe that if he revisited the monuments, and viewed them in the light of the new comparative material, he would find no reason to maintain the point of view which may have seemed warranted twenty-seven years ago. One of the chief arguments is the delicacy and femininity of face seen in some of the sculptures ; yet on the same argument several of the Pharaohs of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty would appear to have been female. The refinement is clearly that of the sculptor. The same point of view is taken in reference to the Amazon sculptures recently discovered ( E x p o s i t o r y Times, Nov. 1909), in an article on The Armed Priestesses of the Hittite Religion; but in our judgment these belong to a phase of art quite distinct, and several centuries later in date. On this point, see below, p. 357.

214

THE CAPITAL OF THE H ATTI

which follow in their trains. 1 The main figures on the left hand are forty-three in number, of which the first stands upon the shoulders of two others, bringing the total number on that side to forty-five. The leader is a godlike figure nearly seven feet high, clad in short tunic and shoes with turned-up toes. His left leg is forward and his left arm is advanced; the right arm is drawn back, and, the face being in profile to the left, we have here an illustration of the convention familiar also in Egyptian drawing, whereby the front view of the upper part of the body is seen, while the head and limbs are reproduced in profile. Only in the sculptures before us we see, whether as an illusion caused by the softening hand of Time, or whether by the deliberate treatment of the Hittite sculptor, an infinitely greater freedom, fulness, and suggestion of life imparted to the figure than we are wont to find in Egyptian funereal sculptures and temple decorations, notwithstanding the masterly skill with which the latter may have been executed. The right hand of this figure grasps the handle of a large round mace which rests upon his shoulder, and a dirk with crescent-shaped handle hangs at his left side, presumably from a girdle. Upon his head there is the tall conical head-dress of the Hittite peoples, though differing slightly from the ordinary representations in that the vertical ribs or flutings of this hat are connected by rings, in suggestion of metal work. 2 In the treatment of this feature the sculptor has realised our own convention of perspective, never adopted by the Egyptians, in the diminishing distances between the ribs receding round the sides. The hair at the back was dressed in a long pigtail, the 1

2

See t h e plan, p. 221, and P i s . LXIII.-LXVIII.

Cf. Malatia sculptures, etc., PI. XLIV.

PLATE LXV

IASILY K A Y A : L E A D I N G GODS

215

curling end of w h i c h is seen b e h i n d t h e elbow. T h e f a c e seems t o h a v e been bearded, a n d it is s u g g e s t e d , b u t n o t clear, t h a t a l a r g e e a r r i n g h u n g f r o m t h e lower lobe of t h e ear. The o u t s t r e t c h e d l e f t h a n d holds a t h r e e p r o n g e d e m b l e m a n d sign t o w a r d s t h e a d v a n c i n g figure t o w h i c h i t is opposed, t h e t w o figures being balanced in t h e composition of t h e group. B e h i n d each is a small h o r n e d a n i m a l , p r e s u m a b l y a goat, capped w i t h t h e plain conical h a t u p o n its head, a n d w i t h t h e f o r e - p a r t a n d legs a d v a n c i n g beyond t h e body of t h e m a i n figure. T h e t w o beings w h i c h s u p p o r t t h e f i g u r e j u s t described w e a r long robes, b o u n d by a girdle a t t h e waist, a n d seemingly f r i n g e d or b o r d e r e d r o u n d t h e b o t t o m of t h e s k i r t . T h e i r clasped h a n d s a r e raised b e f o r e t h e i r b e a r d e d chins, a n d t h e i r h e a d s a r e slightly bowed in a n a t u r a l pose of r e v e r e n c e or a d o r a t i o n . Their h a t s a r e similar t o t h a t j u s t described, b u t seem t o be flexible, b e n d i n g f o r w a r d s t o w a r d s t h e tip in response t o t h e inclination of t h e h e a d s ; while lower d o w n t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g p r o j e c t i n g , possibly t h e b r i m of t h e h a t u p t u r n e d , b u t r a t h e r m o r e suggestive of t h e r o y a l uraeus as in t h e c r o w n of a n c i e n t E g y p t . 1 The figure which follows, t h o u g h s o m e w h a t smaller in s t a t u r e , would seem t o h a v e considerable i m p o r t a n c e , being raised on t w o t a l l flat-topped pinnacles, so t h a t his h e a d is on a level w i t h t h e o t h e r s of t h i s group. I n details of pose, costume, a n d a r m o u r , t h i s figure resembles t h a t which precedes it, except t h a t in t h e l e f t h a n d a long sword w i t h flat hilt is held aloft, a n d t h e e m b l e m s w h i c h d e n o t e his r a n k a r e placed 1 This is a common feature on Hittite sculptures, and on several wellpreserved instances from here [cf. PI. LXIX. (ii)] and elsewhere, notably from Sinjerli [cf. PI. L X V I I . (ii), and Berlin V.-A. Mus., Cast No. 199], it seems to be due to a plain metal or otherwise stiff attachment rising from or continuous with the brim of the hat.

216 THE C A P I T A L OF THE H A T T I between the sword and hat. The girdle also is plain in this instance, and the left elbow seems to rest upon a staff. A third figure follows, on this wall, but is not shown in our photograph. I t is in an exposed corner, and most of the detail is lost, but it may be seen to resemble the foregoing, though the emblem held in the left hand seems to differ considerably, being of featherlike appearance. The right leg also, which is behind as in all other cases in this scene, may be designedly hidden by the fold of a cloak descending to the ankle. Turning now to the left-hand wall, the fourth figure resembles again the leader of the procession, though on the smaller scale, being only three feet in height. The fifth is altogether different in character. The shoes, pigtail, and earrings are repeated; the hat also is the common one without the rings; but the long shirt or cloak has curious oblique curving folds, and it trains somewhat behind the right leg. The left toe alone is visible, and the front edge of the robe is seen as far forward as the elbow, obviously descending from the shoulder. Most conspicuous of all are a pair of narrow wings rising from behind the shoulders well above the top of the head.1 The objects held by the hands cannot now be recognised. Then follow two female figures, clad in long pleated skirts like the figures in the opposite procession. A belt encircles the waist of each, but it is not clear whether the upper part of the body is bare or clad in a tight-fitting garment; the breasts in any case are visible. The head-dress is not plain; if a cap is worn it must fit closely, while the hair or wig ends in large distinct curls above the shoulder. The left hands are not visible, but the right hands fall by the side, holding 1

Compare the winged deity of Malatia, PI. XLIV. and p. 139.

TASILY K A Y A : A CHIEF PRIEST

217

by their handles in a reversed position a curved object not very clear, but which in the rear figure forms a complete disk, suggestive of the Egyptian mirror. 1 The eighth figure, like the fifth, is winged; and horns, or a crescent, are conspicuous in the hat, but other details are obscure. The ninth is clearer and of great interest. The robe, however, is like a toga, with a tight sleeve to the right arm, and the loose end flung over the left shoulder, as on certain figures at Eyuk. A dirk is by the side as before, but in the right hand there appears a new object in the long curving lituus held reversed. Above the outstretched left hand is a group of three signs, which may be recognised as a crescent, a feather or star-like object, and above them the divided oval which accompanies all such devices.2 The face is beardless, and the cap is close-fitting to the skull. Above the head is a composite emblem, in which the main elements are a rosette surrounded by a horseshoeshaped device recalling the shape of the wig on the Eyuk Sphinx,3 and reminiscent of the so-called Hathor head-dress of the Egyptian monuments. The whole is supported by large outspread wings, bound at intervals, and turning slightly upwards at the ends. This figure closely resembles the larger one opposite to it, the isolated twenty-second figure on the right, 4 which is described below. The six figures just described fill the left-hand wall of the inner part of the enclosure. The rock now breaks away somewhat sharply, and the next length is decorated with nine figures on a somewhat smaller scale. Five of these are similar to one another.6 Their 1 2 3

Cf. pp. I l l , 118. Presumably a sacred stone; vide Sayce, Proc. S.B.A., 1903, p. 154, No. 11. P I . L X X I I . a n d p . 255.

4

See PI. ivxvni.

Namely, Nos. 10, 11, 13, 16, 18, in the plan, p. 221. thegroup, see the photograph, PI. LXIV. 5

For position of

218

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

costume includes t h e short-belted tunic, t h e conical ribbed h a t w i t h rings, a n d t h e shoe w i t h u p t u r n e d t o e ; a n d t h e pose of figures is as previously detailed. T h e pigtail is suggested in some cases, t h o u g h t h e chins a r e beardless. No w e a p o n s a r e discernible, b u t each carries in his r i g h t h a n d a n object like a sickle or scimitar, which is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e r i g h t shoulder. A g r o u p of e m b l e m s or signs precedes each figure, v a r y i n g in e a c h case. Two o t h e r figures of t h e nine differ only slightly f r o m this m o d e l ; t h e o n e 1 in h a v i n g a p p a r e n t l y a long cloak which p a r t l y covers t h e r i g h t leg, in a d d i t i o n t o t h e t u n i c ; a n d t h e o t h e r 2 in t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a w i n g rising f r o m t h e l e f t shoulder, a cap of closer fit, a n d n o object over t h e r i g h t s h o u l d e r ; b u t these t h r e e distinctions m a y be illusions due t o t h e w e a t h e r i n g of t h e stone. W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r e m a i n i n g pair, 3 h o w e v e r , t h e r e is a n u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t motif. These t w o a r e n e a r l y alike, a n d t o g e t h e r f o r m a g r o u p of m o n s t r o u s character. The a r m s a n d body of each a r e h u m a n , t h e legs a r e t h o s e of a q u a d r u p e d , a n d t h e head, w i t h feline ears, is also t h a t of a n animal. To t h e r i g h t - h a n d figure a tail is added, while each is r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a pigtail. The left-hand figure w e a r s a s h o r t plain skirt. The a r m s of b o t h a r e upraised, a n d bracelets m a y be detected on t h e w r i s t s ; t h e y s u p p o r t a n object of crescental f o r m , n e a r t h e lower edge of which a r e folds or ridges. The p a i r a r e placed s y m m e t r i c a l l y u p o n a n object (possibly a wine-press 4 ) oblong in f o r m w i t h t w o rod-like h a n d l e s p r o j e c t i n g f r o m each side, e q u a l l y difficult to describe as t o explain. I t is possible t h a t m o n k e y s a r e intended by t h i s group, b u t if so, t h e 1

2 3 No. 17. No. 12. Nos. 14, IS. Resembling a large double bellows. Professor Sayce points out the analogy with a Hittite hieroglyph in an inscription from Emir-Ghazi. (See above, p. 183.) 4

P L A T E

B O G H A Z - K E U I

:

G R O U P

OF

T W O O N

M O N S T R O U S A

J-'HJUKKS

W I N E - P R E S S

In t h e Iarp;e r e c e = s a t

Iasily

Kaya.

S T A N D I N G

I.XVI

I'OSSIRLY

I A S I L Y KAYA: T H E PROCESSION 219 animal was unfamiliar to the artist; it is more probable that they represent some composite mythological creature of the imagination. The three figures following this pair have been described, and with them the second straight length of wall comes to an end. The next bend is inwards, and the wall becomes nearly parallel to the axis of the chamber, containing in this length nine further figures. The leaders 1 are similar in general appearance to those which precede them, though the object carried on the shoulder may be thought to resemble rather the mace carried by the head of the whole procession. The same may be said of two others 2 of this series, but the condition of the stone is too bad to enable much detail to be gathered. In regard to the pair between these, 3 no objects are now visible in their hands, while their costumes also show some difference of detail. The one seems to have a long cloak, or possibly a staff, hanging from the arm, while the robe of the other is striped horizontally over the left leg. The third figure of the group 4 is peculiar; the arms seem to be thrown forward, with a cloak or long staff hanging down from below the shoulder, while the hat also is inclined slightly forward. A horn or peak to the hat is also traceable. The two last of this series 5 resemble rather the type of the figures supporting the leader of the procession, both as regards costume, position of the hands, and the curving forward of the hat, even though the heads are not inclined as in the earlier instance quoted. There next follow, on a short return of the wall, three figures6 which we found too weathered to describe, though two of them have been represented by earlier visitors as 1

i

Nos. 19, 20. No. 21.

2 6

Nos. 22, 25. Nos. 26, 27.

3 Nos. 23,24. Nos. 28-30.

6

220

T H E C A P I T A L OF T H E H A T T I

bearded and wearing embroidered robes. T h e n e x t and last turn of t h e wall, which now resumes its main parallel direction, is occupied by thirteen figures, of which the first1 seems to be a robed and bearded figure of the kind indicated by those two which precede it. I t stands a p a r t from those which follow; so too do the n e x t two, though not so far, while the remaining ten figures2 are close together. These twelve figures a r e all alike, clad in tunics, conical hats, and tip-tilted shoes. They carry no weapons, and their r i g h t f e e t are partly raised, touching the ground only with t h e toes, as in the act of running, which is suggested also by t h e position of the arms, drawn up a t the double, and to some e x t e n t by the poise of the bodies. These figures also, unlike the rest, are not in procession but in line, for the right elbows and r i g h t feet of t h e more advanced are hidden by those which are shown behind them, and the left hands of t h e l a t t e r partly hide t h e former—a convention of perspective adopted freely by Egyptian artists also, and repeated in an inner gallery which has yet to be described. This completes the series of sculptures on the left. 3 1 3

2 Nos. 32-43. No. 31 of the whole series. A schedule of the figures with our reference numbers may be of use :

LEFT.

f 1 L. One standing on two others, bearded and exalted. ] \2,3. Two others, younger, on pinnacles. / ' ' 'i. One similar, but not raised aloft. 5. One winged. "1 6, 7. Two females as a group. 5- PI. LXIII. (ii). 8. A second winged. J 9. One with lituus and toga ; winged rosette above (cf. 22 R.). nO-13. Four with scimitars, of which one is winged."! p j -! 14,15. Two monsters as a group (PI. LXVI.). J ' [16-18. Three with scimitars. f 19-20. Two with maces like the leaders. 21. One with arms and hat forward. 22. One with mace. 23. 24. Two with no weapons visible. 25. One with mace. 26-27. Two with arms and hat forward.

IASILY

KAYA:

REFERENCE

PLAN

221

This series of sculptures finds its counterpart in those upon the opposite side of the recess, which being less

Scivle

BOGHAZ-KEUI :

oj

MeCres

P L A N OF THE ROCK SANCTUARY CALLED I A S I L Y K A Y A , T H E POSITIONS OP THE SCULPTURES

WITH

NUMBERED.

28. One indistinct (tunic and hat). 29-31. Three robed and bearded. 32-43. Twelve in line, running. RIGHT.

f l R. One female on back of panther. ) LXV • -J 2. One youthful male with double axe. ) 1^3, 4. Two similar to first, forming a group on double eagle. 5-21. Seventeen in procession resembling 1 R. (PI. LXVII.). 22R = 65. One with lituus, toga, and winged rosette, etc., in hand, standing on two stony mounds (PI. LXVIII.).

222

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

n u m e r o u s , a n d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t like one a n o t h e r , a r e m o r e readily described. The figures a r e t w e n t y - t w o in n u m b e r , of which only t w o a r e m a l e ; t h e y a r e r e p r e s e n t e d likewise in procession, b u t a p p r o a c h i n g in t h e opposite direction w i t h t h e i r faces t u r n e d cons e q u e n t l y t o t h e observer's left. The l e a d i n g figure, which is opposed to t h e godlike figure j u s t described, is likewise of m a j e s t i c s t a t u r e . She s t a n d s u p o n t h e back of a p a n t h e r , which in t u r n is poised u p o n f o u r low flat-topped pedestals (or ' m o u n t a i n s ' ) . She is clad in a long pleated s k i r t w i t h t r a i n a n d w a i s t b e l t ; t h e u p p e r p a r t of t h e body seems t o be b a r e or clothed in a t i g h t - f i t t i n g g a r m e n t , a n d t h e f e m a l e b r e a s t is suggested in t h e f u l n e s s of t h e b u s t below t h e o u t s t r e t c h e d a r m . H e r head-dress is t h e ' m u r a l crown,' a n u p r i g h t fiat-topped b o n n e t w i t h v e r t i c a l supports. 1 H e r long plait of h a i r a n d t u r n e d - u p shoes a r e conspicuous. B o t h a r m s a r e f o r w a r d ; w i t h h e r l e f t h a n d she holds a long staff on w h i c h she p a r t l y leans, a n d w i t h h e r r i g h t she p r o f f e r s c e r t a i n special emblems, 2 w h i c h a l m o s t touch those held o u t b y t h e m a l e figure w h i c h m e e t s her. To complete t h e balance of composition, t h e forep a r t of a g o a t w i t h a conical cap u p o n his head, p r o t r u d e s f r o m behind h e r dress also. The figure t h a t follows, t h o u g h smaller, is n o n e t h e less s t r i k i n g a n d i m p o r t a n t . I t r e p r e s e n t s a boy or beardless m a n , w i t h curling pigtail, in t h e n o w f a m i l i a r costume, consisting of s h o r t tunic, shoes w i t h toes 1 See t h e p h o t o g r a p h , PI. LXV. The h e a d - d r e s s w a s commonly employed by t h e P h r y g i a n w o m e n . I t s s h a p e is recalled by t h e m o d e r n h a t of t h e T u r k o m a n women, w h i c h is w o r n covered by a s h a w l t o serve a t t i m e s as a veil. 2 These e m b l e m s are composed in each case of pictorial or hieroglyphic signs, a n d in t h e m d o u b t l e s s lies t h e clue to t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e figures. A sign like a divided oval ( w h i c h P r o f e s s o r Sayce believes to r e p r e s e n t a sacred stone) is f o u n d a t t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of each g r o u p a c c o m p a n y i n g a divine or e x a l t e d p e r s o n a g e .

l'LATK

LXVIL

• k m MBBiBWi _ _ , . B W M B M L

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•

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OF T H E F E M A L E

IN T H E L A R G E

FIGURES

RECESS AT

OF T H E

IASILY

RIGHT-HAND

KAYA (See p.

224.)

IASILY K A Y A : T H E GODDESSES

223

upturned, and a conical fluted hat. He also stands upon the back of a panther, which differs only from the former in the position of its tail, which is held up while the other is kept low. 1 W i t h his outstretched right hand he clasps the upper end of a staff, and in his left he holds an axe with double head,2 the offensive edges of which are curved. A short dagger with semicircular handle hangs by the belt, but worn in this case on the right side, doubtless at the discretion of the artist, so as to avoid breaking the contour of the figure. The symbol which seems to denote his name is the lower part of the body and legs of a small being clad in the same fashion as the figure itself, under the usual oval emblem. Behind are two female figures, which in all respects resemble that which heads this series, except that they are smaller, and the emblems above their right hands are different. These sculptures are comparatively well preserved, being in a corner sheltered somewhat from the weather. Their headgear, staves, long plaits (or shawls) down their backs, and turned-up shoes, are particularly clear. They form a pair, standing as though supported by a double-headed eagle with outspread wings.3 The heads of the eagle face in opposite directions, and the wings, which are turned upwards towards the tips, are represented, as in a previous case, by lateral lines bound by vertical bands on each side. An interesting addition to the design is in the horseshoe-shaped device,4 the ends of which only, however, are seen, as though placed over the back behind the wings: they A similar detail is noticeable on a familiar Etruscan design. Cf. the sculpture f r o m Sinjerli, PI. LXVII. (ii). See also p. 104. 3 Cf. the sculpture at Eyuk, P I . LXXII. 4 Cf. a similar detail ornamenting the emblem above figs. No. 9 L . and 22 R . (PI. LXVIII.). 1 2

224

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

descend as a t h i n line on each side of t h e body a n d curl o u t w a r d s a t t h e level of t h e top of t h e legs. T h e legs of t h e eagle a r e wide a p a r t , a n d t h e t a l o n s a r e in t h e position of r e s t i n g on s o m e t h i n g flat which is n o t represented. 1 This completes t h e sculptures on t h e m a i n f r o n t a g e . The figures w h i c h follow, as f a r a s t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t , a r e n e a r l y alike, a n d closely r e s e m b l e t h e f e m a l e figures j u s t described. T h e y all s t a n d , however, on t h e l e v e l ; t h e i r l e f t h a n d s a r e u p r a i s e d t o w a r d s t h e face, a n d t h e staff w h i c h seems t o be held b y t h e i r r i g h t h a n d s is clearly seen t o c u r v e a w a y t o w a r d s t h e top. The e i g h t e e n t h figure is distinguished by obliquity of t h e pleats in t h e skirt, b u t it falls n o n e t h e less n a t u r a l l y i n t o t h e series. I t m a y be said also t h a t in n o t one of t h e s e figures is t h e r e clear proof p r e s e r v e d t h a t e a r r i n g s w e r e w o r n , t h o u g h t h e suggestion is p r e s e n t in several cases. Their h e i g h t a v e r a g e s t w o f e e t e i g h t inches. Two a r e f o u n d in t h e recess f o r m e d b y t h e r e t u r n of t h e w a l l t o t h e r i g h t , a n d t h e r e is space f o r a t h i r d on t h e w e a t h e r e d surf a c e of t h e rock. Seven o t h e r s f o l l o w in a s o m e w h a t i r r e g u l a r line, w h i c h is b r o k e n by a small g a p in which one m o r e is f o u n d . T w o follow on a s l i g h t p r o j e c t i o n , a n d seven o t h e r s a l o n g t h e receding wall b r i n g t h e series t o a n end. The twenty-second figure is q u i t e different, a n d w o r t h y of special study. I t is of m u c h g r e a t e r size, being eight f e e t high, a n d it s t a n d s alone on t h e i n n e r f a c e of a p r o j e c t i o n in t h e rock, t h u s f a c i n g t h e i n n e r m o s t p o r t i o n of t h e enclosure w h e r e t h e t w o processions m e e t . I n it w e see a g a i n u p o n a l a r g e r scale t h e details of costume, w i t h toga, skull-cap, a n d tip-tilted shoes, w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y noticed in 1

At Eyuk they clutch hares, PI. LXXII. and p, 268.

PLATE

BOGHAZ-KEUI : THE

CHIEF PRIEST,

POSSIHI.Y T H E

KING

L a s t s c u l p t u r e on t h e r i g h t in t h e l a r g e r e c e s s a t l a s i l v K a y a .

IASILY KAYA : T H E KING-PRIEST

225

connection w i t h t h e n i n t h figure on t h e left, only in t h i s case t h e figure faces to t h e observer's l e f t ; t h e l e f t a r m is t h u s t h e one t h a t is sleeved, a n d t h e loose end of t h e robe h a n g s over t h e r i g h t shoulder, r e a c h i n g a l m o s t to t h e g r o u n d a n d e n d i n g possibly in a tassel. The d i r k is b y t h e r i g h t side, a n d t h e reversed l i t u u s is g r a s p e d in t h e l e f t h a n d , which is raised t o hold it. The cap h a s t h r e e b a n d s r o u n d t h e e d g e ; a pigtail is possible b u t d o u b t f u l . The f e e t rest on t w o r o u n d e d pedestals w i t h scale-like s u r f a c e s ; 1 a n d t h e e x t e n d e d r i g h t h a n d s u p p o r t s a series of emblems. 2 These f o r m a s o m e w h a t complicated g r o u p ; in t h e middle of it t h e r e is a small b e a r d e d figure w e a r i n g a conical r i b b e d h a t which tilts f o r w a r d a t t h e top, a n d clad in a long r o b e decorated w i t h scale-like p a t t e r n . A t t h e sides a r e t h r e e p r o t r u s i o n s which a r e difficult t o explain. 3 This little figure r e s t s u p o n w h a t resembles a H i t t i t e shoe, t h e t o e of which is p r o m i n e n t l y u p t u r n e d . I t s l e f t h a n d is u p r a i s e d above t h e head, a n d t h e r i g h t a r m is o u t s t r e t c h e d . T h e outside e l e m e n t s of t h i s e m b l e m a r e t a p e r i n g columns of t h r e e flutes capped by Ionic v o l u t e s ; b e t w e e n t h e s e a n d t h e figure a t h i r d device i n t e r v e n e s on each side, consisting possibly of a d i r k w i t h its p o i n t r e s t i n g in a quiver. T h e w h o l e is covered b y a device in w h i c h t w o r o s e t t e s f o r m t h e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e s , t h e lower one encircled by a horseshoe-shaped object, a n d b o r n e on a p a i r of outspread w i n g s as previously described. This figure, w e shall find, r e c u r s once m o r e in a g r o u p in t h e a d j o i n i n g gallery, t o w h i c h we shall s h o r t l y pass. On t h e opposite side of t h e s a m e projection of rock, 1

Clearly stony hilltops, as on the gates of Balawat. Arranged, as Professor Ramsay suggests {Luke the Physician, to resemble a valaKos. 3 Possibly, suggests Prof. Sayce, a sort of fringe. P 2

p. 212)

226

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

a n d t h e r e f o r e f a c i n g t o t h e south, exactly w h e r e w e h a v e defined t h e e n t r a n c e , t h e r e is a g r o u p of t w o figures1 which h a v e n o t been previously described, b u t a r e characteristic a n d of special interest. These a r e v e r y difficult t o t r a c e on t h e w e a t h e r - b e a t e n rock, a n d t o m a k e o u t t h e details it is necessary t o e x a m i n e t h e m in v a r i o u s lights, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e early m o r n i n g a n d a g a i n in t h e e a r l y a f t e r n o o n . B y t h i s m e a n s i t is possible t o m a k e o u t t h a t t h e g r o u p consists of t w o f e m a l e s or robed figures s e a t e d a t opposite sides of a t a b l e in t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e seen o n t h e slabs r e p r e s e n t i n g c e r e m o n i a l f e a s t s , f r o m Marash, Sinjerli, Y a r r e , a n d elsewhere. 2 One of t h e figures a t least h a s t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a p l a i t of h a i r or s h a w l t h r o w n b a c k ; t h e chair on which she sits seems t o be solid. C e r t a i n emblems accompanied each figure, b u t t h e s e c a n n o t n o w be identified, except t h e oval e m b l e m of s a n c t i t y or divinity which s u r m o u n t s e a c h g r o u p . On t h e n e x t b e n d of t h e wall, some six y a r d s d i s t a n t , a n d t h u s really outside t h e m a i n c h a m b e r , t h e r e a r e t w o m o n s t r o u s winged figures j u s t over t h r e e f e e t high. They f a c e one a n o t h e r on opposite sides of a n a r r o w r i f t in t h e rock, w h i c h seems t o h a v e been t h e a n c i e n t a p p r o a c h t o a n i n n e r s a n c t u a r y a d o r n e d also w i t h a series of sculptures. T h a t on t h e l e f t h a n d 3 p r e s e n t s most detail. T h e b o d y a n d limbs a r e h u m a n , b u t t h e h e a d is t h a t of a lion, a n d t w o s h o r t w i n g s a r e added behind, of w h i c h t h e r i g h t is slightly raised a n d t h e l e f t h a n g s down. The h a n d s a r e raised one on each side of t h e head, a n d t h e fingers a r e extended like claws, a d d i n g m e n a c e t o t h e t h r e a t e n i n g aspect of t h e j a w s , as in w a r n i n g t o t h o s e w h o d a r e d t o a p p r o a c h 1

Nos. 66-67. The presence of sculptures at the spot was noted by 2 3 Perrot and Chipiez. Cf. pp. 101 ff. and PI. LXXV. (i). No. 68.

PLATE

BOGHAZ-KEUI : H I T T I T E

LXIX

PORTRAITS

T h r e e figures f r o m t h e g r o u p on t h e left in t h e small g a l l e r y a t I a s i l y K a y a .

I A S I L Y K A Y A : INNER G A L L E R Y

227

the entrance over which it watched. A short tunic tied across the waist reaches barely to the knees, and around the lower edges a broad fringe m a y be traced. The upper p a r t of the body seems also to be clad in a g a r m e n t fastened down the front. T h e carving of t h e companion figure, 1 on the opposite side, seems hardly to have been completed in detail, though it reproduces in general the design and appearance of the former. The entrance which these creatures guard is now closed by fallen stones, and access to the interior is gained f u r t h e r to the right by climbing over stones and rubbish a t a place which would seem to have been originally closed. On entering f r o m this end we find ourselves in a n a r r o w gallery between vertical walls of rock, which open out slightly as we advance. B y t h e original entrance, however, the approach would be f r o m the broader end. 2 On the west side there are carved twelve male figures 3 side by side, resembling the similar group in the main chamber already described. 4 I n this case, however, the group is low down, and until recent times was partly or wholly covered with earth, so t h a t the sculptures are in excellent preservation. 6 The action and attitude of the figures suggests a quick march in line. T h e costume and details in each case are the same, and have already become familiar. E a c h wears a short tunic with a fold in front, a belt around the waist, shoes with upturned toes, conical ribbed hats with brim, and a horn-like emblem attached to the front. The earring is plain in several cases. The left a r m is forward and turned up a t the elbow, the hand being empty. The No. 00. The broad end is not altogether enclosed, but leads to rocky broken ground. 3 Nos. 70-81. 4 Nos. 32-43 L. 5 PI. LXIX. (ii). 1

2

228

T H E CAPITAL OF THE HATTI

right hand holds a weapon like a sickle, which rests upon the shoulder, the curved part of the blade being upwards. The f o r m is very nearly that of the sacred khopesh of Egypt. 1 The figures are not unnaturally stolid, but the faces are heavy and the nose and lips thick, though not protrusive. On the opposite wall are t w o important sculptures, facing in the same sense. The front one 2 is generally regarded as an heraldic figure. I t is very tall, being about eleven feet in height. The upper part is the body of a man, face right, wearing the conical hat with ribs and rings. H e is represented as clad in lion-skins, t w o of which hang f r o m the shoulders, the heads facing outwards and replacing the arms, which are not visible or suggested. The other pair hang downwards f r o m the waist, each suspended by one foot, their other hind-legs being drawn under the bodies and approaching close to one another. The heads of the lions reach with the fore-paws to the approximate level of knees. The whole design may be alternatively regarded as composed of lions in this combination, replacing altogether the body of the man, while reproducing the same form. Below the knees the legs are replaced by a device which may be taken f o r the tapering point of a great dagger or dirk with midrib. The figure has no visible frame. W e come now to the last sculptures of the series, which form a group of t w o figures. 3 The one is great and majestic, resembling on a large scale in all details the youthful figure that stands upon the lioness in the main series.4 Only in this case the rings in the conical hat are prominent, and seem not to lie wholly 1 2

Cf. The weapon carried by the men on the Phaestus cup. 3 Nos. 73, 74. 4 No. 2 R. No. 72.

PLATE

-f.V

> r *•

-

.

'

'

wm

i-.yv

Wc

-

LXX

WtBm 1 R P M B 1 S

S/'S •

I

skIe

.

-¿«'s

•• H H • E •S H üH I " S u v * BOGHAZ-KEUI : T H E DIRK-DEITY,

C L A D IN LION

In the small gallery at Iasily K a y a .

SKINS

•

,

IASILY KAYA : INNER G A L L E R Y

229

between the ribs, but to be bisected by them. The left hand also, which in the other figure holds the doubleheaded axe, here grasps the upraised right wrist of a smaller figure, which his left arm enfolds about the neck. This smaller figure is in all respects similar to that which we have met with twice previously in the outer chamber,1 clad in the toga as before, and carrying the lituus reversed in the hand which is free. The curled end of a pigtail is seen behind his shoulder, but this may be judged to belong to the larger figure, on account both of its large scale and position, and because the bare neck of the smaller figure is visible. Both figures are identified by the emblems which accompany them: the greater by the device of a small body and legs, held up as in its counterpart by the outstretched right hand; the smaller one by the composite group placed in the bare space above his head to the right. This is the same as that accompanying the figure mentioned,2 except for the small central figure which is here replaced by a different symbol, thought by some to be a phallus. The symbols on either side give the impression of uraei crowned with a disk, seen in full face, but the real motive is doubtful.

So many and so various are the hypotheses that have been put forward as to the meaning of these sculptures,8 that it will prove less confusing perhaps to regard them entirely de novo. W e are the more con2 No. 22 R. Nos. 22 R., 9 L . See particularly Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. pp. 149-153; Ramsay, Luke the Physician, chap. v i . ; and Journal Soyal Asiatic Society, vol. xv., N e w Series (1885), pp. 113-120; Hamilton, Researches, etc. (i.) p. 394; and for an illuminative anthropological point of view, Frazer, Adonis, Attis, and Osiris (Golden Bough, iv. 2nd ed.), bk. i. chap, vi., § 4, pp. 105-110. 1

3

230

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

strained to do so, in t h a t t h e attention of scholars has been largely focussed on the identification of the deities in the central group, without much consideration of t h e series as a whole, or its relation to Boghaz-Keui and the Hittite peoples. I t seems to us t h a t the whole series must f r o m its composition illustrate one central idea, on which any explanation of individual figures should throw some light. Looking then broadly a t the sculptures, it is clear t h a t certain of t h e figures, notably those with wings, are of divine aspect, representing gods or minor deities. 1 The exalted figures which lead the procession must then be those of gods or of persons held in highest reverence. These are, on t h e left, firstly, the great male figure borne on the shoulders of two ministers, and behind him two other male figures of like kind but lesser magnitude. On t h e right are the leading female figure and the youth borne on the backs of lionesses or panthers. Behind these is a pair of female figures, clad like their leader, standing upon the emblem of the two-headed eagle. These two groups are parallel; if t h e leading figures are those of gods, as we are led to infer, the pair of figures which follow on each side should equally be gods or personages of divine rank. Casting our eyes left and right we find numerous figures clad in like fashion to their leaders, and we conclude t h a t t h e gods of t h e Hittites a t this stage of t h e i r a r t are represented in their national costumes as they are in human form. 2 1 These, it seems to us, have been too much neglected in attempts which have been made to elucidate the meaning of the sculptures. 2 Frazer, Adonis, Attis, and Osi7-is (The Golden Bough, iv., 2nd ed.), p. 107, reminds us that the deities associated with animals are probably derived from a more primitive conception when the god was indistinguishable from the beast. Doubtless the lioness (or panther) and the eagle were cult objects, if not totems, before they were humanised. In fact, in the sphinx and human-headed eagle, there is seen the intermediate anthropomorphic stage. The human forms were already developed in

I A S I L Y K A Y A : GENERAL V I E W

231

The train which follows the goddess and her youthful companion and the female divinities of the double eagle is composed of females, m a n y of whom are denoted by special symbols. 1 I n these we see the priestesses of t h e cult or cults, wearing the dress and simulating the persons of t h e goddesses. 2 T h e common costume on the left, excluding certain special figures,3 is the short tunic characteristic of the H i t t i t e soldiery and people. I n these male figures we readily recognise two classes. F i r s t , those who mingle with t h e main procession, and are often denoted by special symbols. These seem to be t h e priests, though some of the foremost m a y be demi-gods. Second, those who f o r m a group of twelve a t the end of the procession. These m a y represent t h e populace 4 t a k i n g part in t h e rites represented. W h e r e now is the king under whose direction these sculptures were made, and whose figure on the analogy of all the commemorative sculptures of the ancient E a s t should occupy a place and r a n k second only to t h e gods? On the main façade he finds no place, for t h e a t t e n d a n t figures in each case are in pairs, and the Babylonia, whence they may have been derived, being superimposed on the pristine native beliefs and fetishes. (On the relations with Babylonia and kindred cults, see pp. 323, 355 ff.) We may assume that the evolution of the mountain-god was similar, though inanimate. The ' high place ' on Kizil Dagh, with image of the god carved on the rock, (p. 181) is an illustration. Probably also the altar on Kuru Bel (p. 147), may be most naturally explained as dedicated to the spirit of the mountain or of the pass. 1 W e do not deal with these symbols in detail, as the reading of some of the signs is doubtful, and being isolated groups, they present special pitfalls to attempts at translation. I t is interesting to note, however, that such priests and priestesses commonly received a special sacred name as a mark of their office. 2 Cf. Ramsay, in Recueil de Travaux, xv. (1890), p. 78, on the priestclasses of Asia Minor. 3 E.g. excluding Nos. 29-31 from the whole series, 19-43. 4 Or servants of the temple. Cf. Strabo on the rites at Comana, bk. x n . chap, xi., g 3.

282

THE CAPITAL OF THE HATTI

y o u t h w h o follows t h e l e a d i n g goddess t o t h e r i g h t shows no insignia of r o y a l t y , b u t seems t o be g r o u p e d n a t u r a l l y w i t h his leader. L o o k i n g a r o u n d , we find f a c i n g t h i s scene t h e m a j e s t i c figure clad in a toga, 1 accompanied by a w h o l e g r o u p of e m b l e m s which indicate his r a n k . H e s t a n d s alone, e x a l t e d a n d distinguished, y e t f o l l o w i n g as it w e r e in t h e t r a i n of t h e goddess. I n t h e o t h e r procession, t o t h e left, 2 h e follows t h e figures of t h e lesser gods. I n t h e i n n e r g a l l e r y he is e m b r a c e d by t h e godlike figure of t h e s a m e y o u t h f u l deity who, in t h e o u t e r gallery, accomp a n i e s t h e goddess; a n d we a r e r e m i n d e d of t h e E g y p t i a n t e x t w h i c h describes t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e god of t h e H i t t i t e s e m b r a c i n g t h e i r k i n g as t h e design u p o n t h e r o y a l signet w h i c h w a s a t t a c h e d t o a t r e a t y . 4 N o w t h i s figure is t h a t w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as repres e n t i n g t h e h i g h priest, a n d n o t w i t h o u t r e a s o n ; i t r e a p p e a r s w i t h o u t insignia a s leading in t h e a c t of sacrifice b e f o r e t h e bull-shrine a t E y u k , 5 a n d on t w o sculptured blocks r e c e n t l y discovered a t Boghaz-Keui, w e find t h e same a g a i n m i n i s t e r i n g b e f o r e t h e altar.® I t m a t t e r e d little w h a t w a s t h e object of t h e c u l t ; t h e c o s t u m e w a s e v i d e n t l y t h a t of t h e priesthood. N o w t h e s a m e t r e a t y i n f o r m s us t h a t t h e g r e a t k i n g of t h e H i t t i t e s w a s also chief p r i e s t of t h e god. The kingp r i e s t indeed w a s a f e a t u r e of H i t t i t e n a t i o n a l life, a n d in t h i s l i g h t we a r e able t o i n t e r p r e t t h e i r m o n u m e n t s across t h e T a u r u s also. 7 W e a r e led t o conclude t h a t such is t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e sculptures, 1

2 No. 22 R. No. 9. The treaty of Rameses n . with Hattusil. 4 This analogy was first pointed out by the late De Cara, Oli Pelasgi (Rome, 1894), i. p. 192. 5 Cf. below, p. 257 and PI. i.xxir. 6 Winckler, Report cit., pp. 57-58 ; above, p. 159. 3

7

Cf. P i s . H X X I . (i) ( S a k j e - G e u z i ) , a n d LXIV. ( M a l a t i a ) .

Ilethei

PLATE

BOGHAZ-KEUI:

H I T T I T E GOD E M B R A C I N G T H E

I.XXI

PKIE.ST

In t h e s m a l l g a l l e r y a t I a s i l y K a y a S u t e k h of the H i t t i t e s e m b r a c i n g the g r e a t K i n g . (.SVf also p. 2 2 8 . )

IASILY KAYA : HISTORICAL POINTS 233 and t h a t in the figures before us we have both chief priest and king. The problem is now much simplified. T h e kingly figure accompanies both processions: t h a t in which his m a j e s t y is most clear is t h a t of the g r e a t goddess and h e r consort; while on the other side he seems to embrace or a t least to sanction by his presence the worship of the other deities. I t is possible, however, t h a t when the minutise of t h e royal insignia, the winged rosette, shall be more thoroughly understood, it will be found t h a t these two kings are not one and the same person. W h o then can they be ? W h y are they associated here together with so many different deities? W h o are these deities? W h a t can be the meaning of t h e whole series of representations ? B e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g to answer any of these questions, let us pause to remind ourselves of several fundam e n t a l considerations. R e c e n t discoveries have made it clear t h a t in the f o u r t e e n t h century B.C. the organising c e n t r e of the H a t t i power—the capital, in short, of t h e H i t t i t e peoples—was a t Boghaz-Keui. So f a r as we can see, this was the greatest period of t h e Hittite empire, when their arms were not only contesting the possession of S y r i a with the Pharaohs, on t h e one hand, but had penetrated through Lydia to t h e i E g e a n on t h e other. W e are prepared to believe t h a t the great sanctuary of Iasily K a y a was also t h e product of this age, if only f r o m t h e fact t h a t it is the most imposing monument which has survived. The intimate correspondence, moreover, in the n a t u r e and t r e a t m e n t of the chief male figures with those which f r o m their position beyond the Halys must belong to t h e period of empire, like the sculptures of K a r a - B e l and Giaour-Kalesi, points also to this period. W e are indeed

234

T H E CAPITAL OF T H E HATTI

already prepared in our minds for this suggestion by the clear correspondence of the seal impressed upon the treaty between Hattusil and Rameses the Great with the design of the sculpture in the inner sanctuary described above. Now the constitution of the Hittite power at this period was clearly a confederacy, an alliance of petty states, the traces of which may be found on both sides of the Taurus. The ' k i n g s ' of those states were the 'allies' or vassals of the great king who directed their military operations, and whose seat at this time was at Boghaz-Keui. The archives of the site itself confirm the point, which was already suggested by the Egyptian monuments, and especially from the intrinsic evidence of the treaty (which has now, in view of recent discoveries, become authenticated material for our use). W e have made this digression to establish certain facts, the appreciation of which seems to us fundamental to a right consideration of the problem of the sculptures. Briefly put, these a r e : that Boghaz-Keui marks the site of the Hittite capital at the time of the greatest Hittite extension (in the xivth and xiiith centuries B . C . ) ; that the constitution of the Hittite power at this time was a confederacy of states from both sides of the Taurus; and that the sanctuary of Iasily Kaya was contemporary with this period. W e may expect then to find the national deities most prominent in the sculptures. Again, having due regard to the nature of the states, each ruled by its own king or priest-king, each separated from its neighbour by the broken nature of the country, developing its own customs, ritual,and religion, it is not to be supposed that any common national cult could supplant or greatly change the loeal worships. The definite history of later times leads us to infer the

I A S I L Y KAYA : MOTHER-GODDESS

235

c o n t r a r y ; and we are again confirmed in this conclusion by the evidence of the treaty, to the sacredness of which the numerous gods of states were called as witness. 1 W i t h some of the states the national deity, or the national word for a deity (Sutekh), is associated; others mention their separate deities by name. L e t us return now to the sculptures. T h e first t w o figures on t h e right hand, the female and t h e youth who ride the backs of lionesses, are recognised almost unanimously by scholars as prototypes of t h e g r e a t Mother-goddess (MA) of Asia Minor and her Lover-son, identified on the one hand with Cybele and Attis, as with I s t a r and Tammuz on the other. This identification, while it helps us to conjecture the local a t t r i b u t e s of the deities, enables us also to recognise a t once the national character of the leaders in the procession, f o r t h e cult of the Nature goddess was world-wide. H e r association with the lioness is familiar in her m a n y guises, as f o r instance in Phrygia, where she rides in a lion-drawn car. Doubtless in t h e Liongoddess accompanied by the Lion-son thex-e is a reminiscence of some primitive worship, the origins of which perhaps were already lost to view, and which we must seek somewhere in t h e hilly borders of the Euphrates valley. The Lion pair is followed by the twin deities of the Double Eagle, goddesses both. 2 The significance of the double-headed eagle is unknown. B u t t h a t there was a local worship associated with the eagle is indicated alike by the discovery a t BoghazKeui of a sculptured head of this bird, in black stone, 1 Cf. Winckler, Report cit., p. 36 (below, p. 338), where the same custom is illustrated in a treaty with the Mitanni. 2 Incidentally it is of interest to note that an eagle was associated with the rites of Sandon of Tarsus, identified with the Son-god, who here precedes the eagle-deities. Cf. Frazer, op cit., p. 99.

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l a r g e r t h a n n a t u r a l size, 1 a n d b y a n e w l y deciphered c u n e i f o r m f r a g m e n t f r o m t h e s a m e site, on w h i c h m e n t i o n is m a d e in ideographic w r i t i n g of t h e h o u s e or t e m p l e of t h e eagle.' T h a t such a cult w a s g e n e r a l w i t h i n t h e circuit of t h e H a l y s is suggested b y t h e g r e a t m o n u m e n t which n o w lies p r o n e in a wild spot o v e r l o o k i n g t h e r i v e r n e a r t o Yamoola, 3 a n d b y v a r i o u s smaller objects. A t E y u k also t h e r e is a conspicuous t h o u g h p a r t l y defaced r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a p r i e s t of t h e Double Eagle, on a s p h i n x - j a m b of t h e palace gateway, 4 a symbolism which w e r e a d t o imply t h a t t h e occupant of t h e palace w a s chief p r i e s t of t h e cult. This palace, h o w e v e r , a t so s h o r t a d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e capital, p r o b a b l y m a r k s t h e site of a r o y a l e s t a t e r a t h e r t h a n a n i n d e p e n d e n t kingdom. N o w w e h a v e a l r e a d y come to t h e conclusion t h a t t h e sculpt u r e s on t h e r i g h t - h a n d procession p e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y to t h e locality of Boghaz-Keui, i n a s m u c h as t h e chief r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e king-priest is associated w i t h t h i s group. H e n c e w e conclude t h a t , following t h e i m a g e s of t h e n a t i o n a l deities on t h i s side (the M o t h e r goddess a n d h e r Son, t h e Lion deities), t h e r e come t h e i m a g e s of t h e local cult of t h i s p a r t of Cappadocia, n a m e l y , t h e t w i n goddesses of t h e Double Eagle. T h e o t h e r f e m a l e figures of this side distinguished b y s e p a r a t e symbols r e p r e s e n t p r o b a b l y t h e priestesses of t h e cults, w h i c h m a y h a v e been t o some e x t e n t allied; while t h e continued procession of n a m e l e s s w o m e n recalls t o m i n d t h e r i t e of self-dedication p r a c t i s e d in t h e temples of I s t a r a t Babylon. 5 The l e f t - h a n d series of sculptures is m o r e complex, b u t 1 2 3 s

Berlin Vorderasiatisches Museum (Konigl. Mus.), No. 977. Letter irom Professor A. H. Sayce, July 23, 1909. 4 See above, p. 155 and PL X L I X . See p. 269. Cf. Herodotus, i. 199; Strabo, x v i . i. 20.

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open t o e x p l a n a t i o n in g e n e r a l t e r m s on t h e s a m e line of a r g u m e n t . The leading figure clearly r e p r e s e n t s t h e F a t h e r - G o d (in c o n t r a p o s i t i o n t o t h e MotherGoddess), t h e Zeus of t h e Greeks, t h e B a a l of Tarsus, t h e ' Sutekh,' or n a t i o n a l deity of t h e H i t t i t e s . This is s h o w n s u p p o r t e d u p o n t h e shoulders of t w o priestly a t t e n d a n t s , who, like t h e lions opposite, seem t o s t a n d u p o n t h e t o p s of m o u n t a i n s . T h e r e is in t h i s detail a l u r k i n g reminiscence or a b s o r p t i o n of a m o u n t a i n - c u l t , which becomes clearer in t h e t w o figures w h i c h follow. These deities w e t a k e t o be t h e local f o r m s of ' S u t e k h ' pertaining to different Hittite states1 other t h a n C a p p a d o c i a n ; t h e first is distinguished by t h e uns h e a t h e d sword, t h e second by a detail of his dress, b u t b o t h a r e a l m o s t identical w i t h t h e leader, while b o t h s t a n d u p o n m o u n t a i n - t o p s . I t is significant t h a t t h e peoples w h o m w e suspect f r o m t h e i r dress t o h a v e descended f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n s should p r e s e r v e also in t h i s w a y t h e unconscious m e m o r y of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l deity. A n o t h e r figure of like k i n d follows, b u t it is t h e t w o w i n g e d figures t h a t p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t o u r notice. 2 H e r e in H i t t i t e a r t w e h a v e clearly deities f r o m across t h e Taurus, 3 claiming place in t h e cerem o n y h e r e depicted j u s t as t h e y claim s e p a r a t e m e n t i o n in t h e list of H i t t i t e deities in t h e E g y p t i a n t r e a t y . 4 T h e r e follows t h e i m a g e of a p r i e s t - k i n g ; b u t w h e t h e r t h a t of t h e g r e a t k i n g seen on t h e opposite side, or of a vassal k i n g f r o m b e y o n d t h e T a u r u s similarly 1 I n d e p e n d e n t l y P r o f e s s o r Sayce i n f o r m s u s t h a t lie h a s recognised in t h e symbol a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e first of t h e s e t h e e m b l e m of t h e k i n g d o m 2 of K a s , t h e second s t a t e of t h e confederacy. Nos. 5, 7. 3 Compare especially No. 5 w i t h t h e w i n g e d deity of M a l a t i a . PI. XLIV. 4 I n view of t h e proposition of Sayce (Proc. S.B.A. 1904) t h a t t h e r e w e r e n i n e chief H i t t i t e s t a t e s , it is r e m a r k a b l e to notice t h a t t h e figures p r e c e d i n g t h i s p r i e s t m a y be r e g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g seven d i f f e r e n t gods or cults, w h i l e t w o a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e opposite series. On t h i s s u b j e c t see also below, p. 348.

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a c c o m p a n y i n g his deities, is n o t determined. The star-like emblem a n d crescent w h i c h h e b e a r s m u s t be a clue, if only it could be i n t e r p r e t e d . A t t h i s p o i n t w e suspect t h e list of divine beings gives w a y t o t h e s a c r e d ; b u t it m a y be t h a t t h e gods of m i n o r s t a t e s (in all cases identified w i t h t h e g r e a t god) cont i n u e t o occur, accompanied in several cases b y t h e i r local r e t i n u e . F i n a l l y t h e r e comes t h e g r o u p of m o v i n g beings, w h i c h alone tells us t h a t t h e scene which w e a r e looking on is t h e p i c t u r e of a rite, a n d n o t a m e r e c o m m e m o r a t i o n of a n alliance. W h a t t h e n is this r i t e ? T h e r e is little direct evidence to a n s w e r us. I n t h e c e n t r a l g r o u p a r e t h e i m a g e s of m a l e a n d f e m a l e deities, accompanied by a y o u t h , N a t u r e ' s divine Triad. W e c a n n o t hope a t t h i s s t a g e of o u r k n o w l e d g e t o p e n e t r a t e t h e m y s t e r y of t h e symbolism seen in t h e m o u n t a i n s , t h e lions, a n d t h e goats. B u t f r o m w h a t is k n o w n of t h e cult of Cybele in h e r various f o r m s , a n d of Attis, h e r lover-son, w h o s e a t t r i b u t e s a r e distinguished y e t identified in t h e s e p a r a t e cults of B a a l a n d S a n d o n of Tarsus, t h e r e can be little d o u b t as t o t h e m a i n object of t h e ceremony. 1 The rejuvenescence of N a t u r e , symbolised b y t h e divine n u p t i a l s of t h e Goddess of E a r t h w i t h t h e God of Fertility, is t h e c e n t r a l m o t i v e ; a n d t h e f r u i t s of t h e e a r t h a r e t h e issue. B u t t h o u g h w e recognise t h e n a t u r e of t h e cult, w e do n o t f e e l justified in presupposing a n y t h i n g b u t a g e n e r a l resemblance b e t w e e n t h e local worship a n d t h e rites practised elsewhere in l a t e r times. T h a t which Ave do see in this m o n u m e n t is a n a t i o n a l religious c e r e m o n y of t h e H i t t i t e s , a t w h i c h t h e local deities of t h e chief states, or t h e divine personages r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m , w e r e p r e s e n t . I n this cere1

For a full insight into these cults see Frazer, op cit,, pp. 97,110.

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m o n y t h e i m a g e of t h e n a t i o n a l god w a s b o r n e u p o n t h e shoulders of his priests 1 t o t h e s h r i n e of t h e M o t h e r Goddess, w h i c h w a s f o u n d in t h e local s a n c t u a r y of t h e capital. The objective w a s t h a t t h e e a r t h should be f e r t i l e a n d yield h e r produce, t h a t t h e f r u i t s should r i p e n a n d t h e e a r s of corn g r o w f a t . As t o t h e season w h e n t h i s c e r e m o n y t o o k place, t h e r e is little suggestion. T h e s p r i n g - t i m e is t h a t which seems t o us a p p r o p r i a t e ; b u t if t h e g r o t e s q u e figures in t h e l e f t h a n d series 2 really s t a n d u p o n a wine-press, a n d if t h e g r o u p of m e n 3 on t h e s a m e side really hold sickles in t h e i r h a n d s , t h e n t h e h a r v e s t - t i m e is indicated. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c e r e m o n y m a y h a v e b e e n seasonal or i r r e g u l a r , or a d a p t e d t o some g r e a t d a t e of t h e H i t t i t e calendar. Speculation on t h e point is useless. As t o t h e f u r t h e r n a t u r e of t h e r i t e s w e r e m a i n likewise in ignorance, realising only t h e dance or m a r c h of t h e m e n a n d t h e presence of t h e women, a n d h a v i n g only t h e k n o w l e d g e which h a s been h a n d e d t o us of rites practised a t t h e s h r i n e of t h e goddess in o t h e r places. If w e pass t o t h e i n n e r s a n c t u a r y w e only find ourselves f a c e t o f a c e w i t h n e w mysteries. The g r o u p of figures on t h e l e f t is clearly a c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h o s e depicted in t h e o u t e r c h a m b e r , s u g g e s t i n g t h e ceremonies in t h e act. B u t on t h e opposite side t h e t w o s e p a r a t e s c u l p t u r e s a r e of n e w a n d i n d e p e n d e n t chara c t e r . I n t h e one is seen t h e dirk-deity enfolded in lion-skins ; in t h e o t h e r t h e y o u t h f u l god, n o w assuming a g r e a t e r dignity, e m b r a c e s t h e king. I t h a s been suggested, w i t h m u c h a p p a r e n t reason, 4 t h a t t h e 1 Cf. the rites of Comana (Pontus), Strabo, bk. xi. chap. iii. § 32; and in the temple of Mabog, Lucian, De Dea Syria. 3 * Nos. 14, 15. Nos. 32-43. 4 Professor Frazer, op. cit., p. 108.

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symbolism m a y be i n t e r p r e t e d t o m e a n t h a t t h e priestk i n g or his r e p r e s e n t a t i v e is g e n t l y guided by t h e deity ' t h r o u g h t h e valley of t h e s h a d o w of d e a t h ' t o sacrifice. B u t we k n o w of n o parallel f o r such symbolism in O r i e n t a l sculptures, a n d w e p r e f e r t o see in t h i s i n n e r c h a m b e r m e r e l y a special s a n c t u a r y of t h e god, w i t h images p e r t a i n i n g t o his cult. I n t h e one t h e k i n g is received as h i g h priest into t h e presence a n d embrace of t h e god. W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen t h a t such a n action in itself w a s deemed of so g r e a t m o m e n t t h a t it f o r m e d t h e subject of t h e r o y a l signet. T h e r e by, maybe, t h e k i n g became invested with s a n c t i t y of p e r s o n ; in a n y case, his privilege of access t o t h e god is recognised. I n t h e o t h e r sculpture, in o u r opinion, w e see t h e god once more, b u t in a n o t h e r guise, a n d identified w i t h a n o t h e r cult, w h i c h f r o m its w i d e s p r e a d vogue and influence m u s t h a v e been a l m o s t national— namely, t h a t of a sacred dirk. 1 A first a t t r i b u t e of t h e kingship, indicating, it would seem, his priestly office, w a s t h e g u a r d i a n s h i p of t h e sacred dirk, j u s t as one m i g h t say ' D e f e n d e r of t h e Faith.' T h a t such a dirk h a s some original r e f e r e n c e t o sacrifice we c a n n o t doubt. H e r e we find it f o r m i n g t h e lower p a r t of a composite divine figure. The f a c e of t h e deity m a y be t h o u g h t t o s u g g e s t t h e Son-god: w e a r e t e m p t e d t o believe in this identification b y a s o m e w h a t v e n t u r e some analogy. F o r this god is clearly t o be identified w i t h t h e Sandon of Tarsus, Hercules son of Z e u s ; a n d in his early c h a r a c t e r Hercules is r e p r e s e n t e d clad in lion-skins, m u c h as w e see t h e deity b e f o r e us. H e n c e it is possible t h a t t h e sculpture w h i c h d e c o r a t e s t h e wall of t h e i n n e r s a n c t u a r y c o m m e m o r a t e s some r i t e 1

Cf. Sculpture of Marasli, p. 110, also the translations of Professor Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. 1904-5.

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of investiture of the king with the insignia of his office as high priest of the god. W e see, then, in the inner chamber a separate shrine of the Son-god, to which the king had access, by virtue of his office as high priest. The outer recess we regard as a shrine of the Mother-goddess, adorned on the one side with the symbolism of her cult, and on the other with the representation of the rite we have described. The further consideration of the historical aspect of these sculptures belongs to a later chapter.

«

y W A L L E D TOWNS AND P A L A C E S P A K T I . — T H E P A L A C E AND SCULPTURES OP E Y U K .

IN the foregoing chapter it has incidentally become apparent t h a t the northern capital arose to greatness as the centre of a military organisation r a t h e r t h a n as the geographical or economic focus of a country. The alliance between the states, though seen to us mainly as a confederacy in arms, cannot h a v e been w i t h o u t effect in tending to some e x t e n t to unify, if not to nationalise, the local customs and institutions. On the other hand, t h e y were separated in m a n y cases by physical boundaries t h a t must otherwise h a v e fostered and emphasised their natural differences. In passing then to examine such of these minor capitals as h a v e been sufficiently disclosed to us by excavation, it will be a special and constant interest to note h o w f a r a common or mutual influence in art and architecture can be traced among their ruins. The result is, on the whole, surprising. W e can only single out f o r comparison one site f r o m Asia Minor and t w o neighbouring sites in the North of S y r i a ; and though the inquiry is rendered difficult through insufficient chronological material, and the result complicated by the intrusion of other influences more potent on the one side than the other, nevertheless w e shall find a correspondence in general features and in some detail which is sufficient 242

T H E LAND OF T H E HITTITES

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a t any rate to stamp them as products of the same civilisation, all dominated by a common motive, even though separated by some generations or maybe centuries in point of time. "We begin with the site of Eyuk, a village situated some twenty miles northwards from Boghaz-Keui, sufficiently near to have been closely in touch with the activities and culture-progress of the capital, albeit sufficiently far to have maintained some local peculiarities. Here the ruins which we now know to be Hittite were lighted upon by Hamilton, 1 ' the prince of travellers,' in 1835; subsequently they were visited by B a r t h 2 and Van Lennep. 3 The account of them given by the last-named, who was for thirty years a missionary in Turkey, was the first attempt to hand down a reliable and complete description, accompanied by a rough plan of a building and sketches of the sculptures which adorned its portico. Then came Professor Ramsay, in 1881, and in the record 4 of his visit to these monuments we have the first scholar's impression of their meaning and significance. M. Perrot visited the site and incorporated his notes in his great work on Exploration Archéologique,6 and many inquirers have followed in his wake. The Liverpool Expedition of 1907 called here and secured a complete series of photographs and a measured plan;® and subsequently in the same year the Ottoman Government was enabled to make some useful clearances in Researches in Asia Minor, etc. (London, 1842), i. pp. 382-3. Beise von Trapesunt nach Scutari, pp. 42 and 43 ; also TJber die Buinen bei Hejuk (Arch. Zeit. 1859, pp. 50, 59). 3 Travels in Little-known Parts of Asia Minor (London, 1870), pp. 129148. 4 Ramsay on The Early Historical Belations of Phrygia and Cappadocia, P t . 11 ( J o u r n a l Boyal Asiatic Society, xv., London, 1883), pp. 116. 5 Also Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, vol. ii. pp. 153-158, 6 Liv, Annals Arch., i. (1908), p. 3, and Pis. II. and i n . 1 2

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f r o n t of t h e n o w f a m o u s portico of sphinxes, a d d i n g considerable i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d b r i n g i n g t o l i g h t t w o i n t e r e s t i n g sculptures w h i c h h a d lain previously buried. 1 The accounts of t h e s e v a r i o u s writers, t h o u g h in t h e m a i n agreed as t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e ruins, differ t o some e x t e n t in t h e i r description of details, a n d v e r y considerably in t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e m e a n i n g of t h e sculptures. This b e i n g so, w e shall use o u r o w n n o t e s a n d plans as t h e basis of o u r description, indicating so f a r as possible t h e places w h e r e w e differ in o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f r o m one or o t h e r of t h e m o r e r e c e n t investigators. I n t h e plan, also, w e shall o m i t t h e p r e s e n t position of those s c u l p t u r e d blocks n o l o n g e r in situ, b u t whose original position is k n o w n , because t h e y h a v e been considerably m o v e d i n r e c e n t years, leading t o discrepancies in successive published plans. W e shall also f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n use l e t t e r s i n s t e a d of figures t o denote t h e blocks, in order to avoid f u r t h e r confusion w i t h t h e v a r i o u s classifications a n d e n u m e r a tions t h a t h a v e been published. T h e m o u n d w h i c h t h e little h a m l e t of E y u k j u s t covers is m o r e or less q u a d r a n g u l a r in s h a p e w i t h r o u n d i n g c o r n e r s ; its l e n g t h f r o m n o r t h t o s o u t h is a b o u t 250 yards, a n d its w i d t h a little more. I t is n o t p r o m i n e n t as one a p p r o a c h e s f r o m Boghaz-Keui, as i t rises gently f r o m t h e plain on t h a t side, a t t a i n i n g i t s g r e a t e s t h e i g h t of f o r t y t o f o r t y - f i v e f e e t t o w a r d s its n o r t h e r n limits, w h e n c e i t gives w a y a g a i n s o m e w h a t steeply to t h e level g r o u n d . T h e b a c k g r o u n d on t h i s side is a r a n g e of low hills, f r o m which, h o w e v e r , t h e m o u n d is q u i t e distinct a n d s e p a r a t e d . Traces of a wall enclosing t h e t o p of t h e m o u n d m a y be seen h e r e 1 Macridy Bey, La porte des sphinx Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1908, 3).

it Euyuk

(Mitteilungen

der

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and there, and would be readily followed ont by excavation. Near the northern brink the masonry is visible inside a stable with a low-lying floor ; in fact, t h e new wall has partly used the old one for a foundation. I t is generally similar in construction to some of the roughly polygonal masonry seen in some interior walls a t Boghaz - Keui, like t h a t which surrounds Beuyuk Kaleh. Hereabouts also a postern-way is reported, constructed entirely like t h a t on the south slope of t h e acropolis a t Boghaz-Keui, roofed with corbelled masonry, and sufficiently high for a man to walk through it upright. I t can be followed in a southerly direction for some fifteen yards, when it turns abruptly westwards and continues for six or seven yards further. 1 I n t h e ridge of the roof there m a y be noted a flat slab of stone perforated with a circular hole, as for the admission of light, or the drainage of water f r o m above. W e are not told to w h a t depth t h e roof is now buried beneath the surface. About twenty yards westward from this spot, on the mound, there are a number of dressed blocks of stone, one of which a t least has a rounded hole in one face, a feature noticeable in several instances a t BoghazKeui. F r o m these general indications of an ancient walled t o w n 2 we pass to the more famous sculptures, which are found on t h e lowest part of the mound towards the south-east, about twenty yards only f r o m the cultivated plain. These decorated t h e lowest course of t h e façade of a gateway which in plan resembles closely First noticed by Macridy Bey, op. cit., p. 2. A town Teiria, of the ' Leuco-Syrians,'is mentioned byHecataeus of Miletus ( F r a g m . Hist. Graec., ed. Muller-Didot, No. 194). M. Maspero inclines to the identification of this place with Eyuk ( T h e Passing of Empires, p. 338). 1

2

246

W A L L E D TOWNS AND PALACES

t h a t of t h e Lion-gate on t h e acropolis a t Boghaz-Keui. This p l a n is s h o w n t o scale on t h e opposite page, so t h a t w e do n o t need t o give detailed m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e blocks w h e r e t h e a r r a n g e m e n t involves n o reconstruction. F o r t u n a t e l y , t h o u g h exposed f o r long ages, t h e a l i g n m e n t of t h e s t o n e s r e m a i n s a l m o s t intact, so t h a t t h e plan of t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g g a t e w a y m a y be d e t e r m i n e d w i t h o u t m u c h difficulty. I t rem a i n s also u n i q u e h i t h e r t o a m o n g H i t t i t e w o r k s of Asia Minor. As in t h e Lion-gate a t Boghaz-Keui this e n t r a n c e h a s a n o u t e r a n d a n i n n e r d o o r w a y . The n e a r e r one lies b a c k f r o m t h e f r o n t a g e of t h e m a i n wall a distance of j u s t over t h i r t e e n feet. T h e w i d t h b e t w e e n t h e corners of t h e a p p r o a c h (E, G), m a k i n g allowance f o r a slight displacement of t h e corner-stones, is a l m o s t e x a c t l y t w e n t y f e e t : this is reduced b e t w e e n t h e g r e a t monoliths which f o r m t h e j a m b s t o a f e w inches over eleven feet. The i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e f a c e s of t h e o u t e r a n d i n n e r m o n o l i t h s on e i t h e r side is a b o u t t w e n t y six feet, which m u s t h a v e been a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e distance f r o m one door t o t h e other. B e t w e e n t h e t w o g a t e w a y s t h e space widens o u t t o t h e same w i d t h as t h e a p p r o a c h o u t s i d e ; b u t inside t h e i n n e r g a t e t h e walls r e t u r n a t once on e i t h e r side (II, K K ) w i t h o u t a n y a p p r o a c h on t h a t side c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h a t f r o m w i t h o u t . Thus t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e walls flanking t h e a p p r o a c h beyond t h e g a t e s becomes b y comparison w i t h t h e L i o n - g a t e a t B o g h a z - K e u i a n established f e a t u r e of H i t t i t e m i l i t a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e , designed t o p r o t e c t t h e g a t e w a y b y enfilading fire f r o m above. 1 The r e c e n t e x c a v a t i o n s conducted b y Macridy Bey h a v e t h r o w n l i g h t on several i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s n o t 1

Cf. the citadel gateway of Sinjerli, p. 278.

EYUK: PLAN OF THE SPHINX-GATE

247

248

W A L L E D TOWNS AND PALACES

previously determined. From the plan which he publishes 1 it would seem t h a t the frontage to the approach, on the left side at any rate (E, F), is really the outer wall of the gate tower and external to the main wall. W e are thus confirmed in our conclusion that the entrance was flanked on either side by extramural towers, as later well known in Roman military forts and mediaeval architecture of Europe. Unfortunately the excavators did not carry on their inquiry to ascertain (as might have been done with little difficulty) the line of frontage of the main wall of the whole building or enclosure. This we suspect would be in line with the nearer monoliths, though from a suggestion upon the plan it may have been a little nearer the interior—a position which from several reasons would not be probable — and, indeed, such a wall must have been much stouter than anything marked upon the plan. From the foundations preserved it would seem that each tower was designed with chambers. Two other strong oblong chambers or vaults may be noted in the thickness of the wall, and there seems to be indication in the plan of a continuation to the series. The excavators were troubled by the fact that no door openings were found to these rooms. 2 As no section is given by them to show the relative levels of the different walls, it is not possible to form an opinion as to whether they are at all preserved above the lower courses. I t is in any case interesting to observe that in military Roman forts of later days (in the earlier system of the first and second centuries) the chambers on the lower floors of such guard-rooms were often merely vaults or cellars, gained from the upper floor 1

Op. cit., PI. i. fig. 10.

2

Macridy Bey, op. cit., p. 6.

EYUK : TWO BUILDING PERIODS

249

(which w a s n e a r l y level w i t h t h e sentry-go u p o n t h e wall) b y m e a n s of a n i n t e r n a l ladder. T h e r e is a still m o r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t revealed b y t h i s r e c e n t excavation, t h e f u l l significance of w h i c h does n o t seem t o h a v e been noted. This is t h e discovery, on t h e l e f t h a n d , of a lower f r o n t a g e w a l l or f o u n d a t i o n (X, Y), u p o n w h i c h t h e u p p e r one p a r t l y rests. N o w b e t w e e n t h e s e u p p e r a n d lower walls t h e r e is, according t o t h e plan, a clear angle of deviation a m o u n t i n g t o five degrees. The m a s o n r y of t h e lower wall corresponds w i t h t h e r o u g h l y ' p o l y g o n a l ' s y s t e m of w a l l i n g i l l u s t r a t e d on B e u y u k K a l e h a t Boghaz-Keui a n d elsewhere, w h i l e t h a t of t h e u p p e r consists ent i r e l y of l a r g e s q u a r e blocks of g r a n i t e , n e a r l y u n i f o r m in h e i g h t a n d mostly five or six f e e t in l e n g t h , b o u n d t o g e t h e r b y m e a n s of 'joggles,' a n d backed by a r e v e t m e n t of r o u g h stones, m a k i n g t h e whole a b o u t t w o m e t r e s thick. So f a r as one can j u d g e f r o m t h e published evidence, t h e r e is clear suggestion of t w o d i f f e r e n t building periods, as w e n o t e d in r e g a r d to t h e lower palace a t Boghaz-Keui. The earlier one is seen in a s t o u t m i l i t a r y wall of p o l y g o n a l type, t h e l a t e r in t h e line of sculptured blocks w h i c h w a s built p a r t l y over t h e r e m a i n s of t h e other. The m o n o l i t h s a n d o t h e r sculptures, a n d t h e visible r e m a i n s in general, belong t o t h i s l a t e r series. B e f o r e passing on t o a consideration of t h e sculptures t h e r e a r e t w o or t h r e e a r c h i t e c t u r a l points t o be noted. I n t h e l a r g e cubes f o r t h e f r o n t a g e wall, it is noticeable, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e interior, t h a t t h e i r faces a r e dressed only f o r a w i d t h of five or six inches a r o u n d t h e edges, while t h e r e s t of t h e face p r o j e c t s considerably beyond t h i s dressed line. This seems t o h a v e been a r e g u l a r mason's m e t h o d of t r e a t m e n t , f o r t h e s a m e m a y b e

250

WALLED TOWNS AND PALACES

noticed in t h e smaller s t o n e s in t h e m a i n w a l l a t t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e Lion-gate a t Boghaz-Keui (PL lx.). I t is clear t h a t in t h e l a t t e r case n o s c u l p t u r e s w e r e contemplated, hence this f e a t u r e does n o t necessarily i m p l y t h a t such stones w e r e l e f t by t h e m a s o n f o r t h e sculptor, a n d r e m a i n e d f o r some r e a s o n unfinished, n o r even t h a t t h e sculptures w e r e w o n t t o be c a r v e d a f t e r t h e stones h a d been placed in position. 1 If t h e l a t t e r w a s t r u e , it m u s t be proved f r o m o t h e r evidence; t h e c o n t r a r y conclusion seems t o be m o r e p r o b a b l e prima facie, a n d t o be b o r n e o u t t o some e x t e n t b y t h e g e n e r a l completeness of t h e g r o u p of sculptures u p o n each stone individually, a n d by t h e care w i t h which t h e b o t t o m - m o s t details of t h e reliefs a r e executed, f e a t u r e s which would h a v e t e n d e d t o be neglected h a d t h e s t o n e been a l r e a d y in position on t h e g r o u n d . A n o t h e r p o i n t is t h e reconstruction of t h e d o o r w a y , w h e t h e r as a cantilever a r c h w a y , as a t Boghaz-Keui, or by a single massive lintel. The g r e a t size of t h e g r a n i t e block w h i c h m a r k s t h e t h r e s h o l d shows t h a t t h e l a t t e r m e t h o d w a s possible t o t h e engineers, a n d p a r t of t h e lintel m a y perh a p s be seen in a h u g e square-cut m a s s of g r a n i t e (i), w i t h a f e w h i e r o g l y p h s u p o n it, w h i c h lies, u n c l a i m e d f o r a n y o t h e r purpose, in f r o n t of t h e g a t e w a y , w h e r e it m i g h t easily h a v e fallen. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e clear space b e t w e e n t h e j a m b s is n e a r l y t w e l v e f e e t in length, a n d it m a y be t h o u g h t t h a t t h e j a m b s a r e n o t designed of sufficient r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s t o s u p p o r t a m a s s a n d w e i g h t so g r e a t as would h a v e been r e q u i r e d of a single s t o n e t h a t s p a n n e d t h e m . I n t h e p r e s e r v e d u p p e r p a r t of t h e l e f t - h a n d m o n o l i t h also (B) it m a y be seen t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o r t i o n declines a little a s t h o u g h to f o r m t h e o f f s p r i n g of a n arch, while t h e 1

I n t h i s conclusion we differ f r o m M a c r i d y Bey, op. cit., pp. 11, 13.

E Y U K : MASONRY OF WALLS

251

vertical stop is inclined slightly outwards, as t h o u g h designed to receive the direct thrust of an arch, w h e t h e r of t w o large stones or of m a n y small ones. T h e t h r u s t would be f u r t h e r taken by a backing of masonry behind the monoliths, which may be seen from the plan t o have been included in the original design. Notwithstanding these considerations, the material evidence in this case is in f a v o u r of a g r e a t stone lintel, of s t r e n g t h and size proportionate to the w i d t h of its span. A third point is the reconstruction of the upper courses of the building, and this involves a consideration of the m u t u a l relation of the upper and lower walls of the frontage ( E F and X Y ) . W i t h regard to the upper wall (EF), a dressed block of the second course remains seemingly not much out of its original position. 1 This prepares us for the restoration of the whole course in stone, and possibly another fallen block (lying just in f r o n t of t h a t m a r k e d / ) m i g h t be fitted into place to the l e f t hand of the former. This creates f o r itself a precedent, for in other sculptured walls t h a t are known, as a t Sinjerli and Sakje-Gcuzi, the wall w a s carried up in brick. In those cases, however, the sculptures were carved on f a c i n g slabs merely, not on cubical building blocks, so t h a t f o r architectural analogy w e must look rather to the palace at Boghaz-Keui. The latter, however, furnishes 110 direct evidence on the point, though M. Perrot suspected that it w a s carried up on a timber frame. W e must, then, accept the suggestion of this single stone in situ; but we must hesitate to accept w i t h o u t clear proof tlie theory t h a t there were sculptures also on t h e second tier,' a f e a t u r e f o r 1 I t may be seen in the photograph, PI, LXXli., and covers the sculptured block marked e in the plan, extending ¡i little way on either side. - The r e s t o r a t i o n suggested by Maeridy Bey, op. cit., p. 11.

252

W A L L E D TOWNS A N D PALACES

which w e have no analogy in H i t t i t e works. The t w o sculptured blocks (x, y) recently found at a lower level, in f r o n t of the l o w e r wall ( X Y ) , represent subjects entirely different to those in situ, and seem f r o m the published photographs 1 to illustrate a phase of art as different as the early and later reliefs of Sinjerli. Measurements taken of stones irregular in outline are apt to be deceptive, and not until these, when tried, are found to fit accurately into the position suggested, alongside that which is in situ, on the second course of the upper wall, can w e believe that such was their original position. I t has been noted that these blocks were found in the excavation which disclosed the lower wall. N o w there is clear suggestion, in plan and photograph, that the lower wall was antecedent to the upper, and bearing in mind the later level, which is best seen in the threshold between the sphinxes, it is highly improbable that the lower wall remained exposed to v i e w at the time when the upper one was in use. I t was probably already hidden by debris and ruins. The analogy of the palaces of Boghaz-Keui is entirely accordant. W e are inclined, therefore, to believe that the t w o sculptured blocks in question (x, y), representing scenes of the chase, belong to the earlier period coeval with the lower wall. H o w e v e r that m a y be, the evidence before us tells of t w o distinct phases in the history of the H i t t i t e E y u k : the first when the site was surrounded by a t o w n wall, possibly with a decorated gateway ; 2 the second a f t e r the earlier works had been ruined (like the neighbouring palace of the H a t t i at Boghaz-Keui), and in their place a palace was conMacridy Bey, op. cit., figs. 23, 24. Cf. the ' Stadt-thor' at Sinjerli; Von Luschan, Ausgrabungcnin schirli (Berlin, 1902), Pis. xxix., x x x i v . ; and below, p. 274. 1

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EVENTS IN MITANNI

337

an alliance, 1 which brought their struggle for some time to an end. Some of the events which we have described seem to have happened with a swiftness surprising even in oriental history, but the Great King probably foresaw that a sterner task lay before him in the consolidation of his empire. Here again fortune proved to be on his side, by removing the two chief sources of inquietude on his Asiatic frontiers. In Egypt, Amenhetep IV., who had succeeded to the throne about 1375 B.c., was too young or too busily occupied with home affairs to take any active interest in the possession of Syria, and was only too glad to renew the Hittite treaty in due course.2 Babylonia, where the kings of Karduniash sat upon the throne, was too distant to give occasion for anxiety, and in addition the broad tract subject to the Amorite regime was wedged between their respective spheres of influence. In the East the tragic development of affairs among the Mitannians, 3 the murder of Tushratta, the flight of the heir-apparent from the usurper and patricide, Sutatarra, and the invasion of the land by the Assyrians and by the mountaineers of Alshe, were a series of events all favourable to the Hittite cause. The armies of Subbiluliuma crossed the Euphrates to make good his claim to a portion of the disintegrated kingdom, and when he realised the distressful condition which the anarchy of these times had brought about, he even sent his administrators with cattle, sheep, and horses to reestablish the population. 4 Finally, when the fugitive 1 The treaty with II.), temp. Eameses 2 With Maurasar 3 Hittite-Mitanni 4 Ibid.

Sapalulu mentioned in that with Khetasar (Hattusil II. (Mursil), who succeeded, ibid. treaty ; Winckler, B. K. Tablets, p. 36. Y

338 THE STORY OF THE HITTITES Mattiuaza, after a vain appeal to the court of Babylon,1 turned to him for protection, he saw and grasped his opportunity. The oracle was consulted, and ' the Hittite god gave judgment in favour of Mattiuaza, Tushratta's son' (as against Sutatarra, whom he had previously supported). Taking, therefore, the unhappy prince by the hand, Subbi-luliuma gave him one of his daughters to wife, and set him upon the remnants of his father's throne. Terms of allegiance were defined, and the new but reduced kingdom of Mitanni was created a special Protectorate. 2 The gods of both peoples were invoked as guardians of the treaty. The frontier of Subbi-luliuma on the Euphrates was amply secured by the gratitude of the re-established king. The empire of the Hittites beyond Taurus had now reached, under Subbi-luliuma, its furthest historical extent; and in Asia Minor, though direct evidence is not yet available, we may infer that his sway had been extended westward far beyond the confines of the Halys, even if his arms had not already penetrated to the Lydian coast.3 W e thus see in Subbi-luliuma the founder of the Hittite empire under the dynasty of the Hatti, which for nearly two hundred years continued to hold its own amid the constant tremblings of the balance of oriental power throughout this time. Relieved for the present from their frontier campaigns, the Great King and his allies seem to have reaped the reward of their good fortune and prosperity. 1 "When he appears under the name of Abu-Tessub, Winckler, op. cit., p. 38. 2 Hittite-Mitanni treaty; Winckler, op. cit., p. 36. 3 Such evidence as there is on this point (pp. 163, 199) seems to link the monuments of the west, at Giaour-Kalesi and Kara-Bel, with the reign of Hattusil II., by analogy with the sculptures of Boghaz-Keui ; but historically the opportunity for westward expansion was now open. Hattusil, like his Egyptian compeer, seems to have been mostly concerned with retaining what he had inherited.

E M P I R E OF SUBBI-LULIUMA

339

In the capital at Boghaz-Keui, ' the city of the Hatti,' the royal palace seems to have stood on the northern crest of Beuyuk Kaleh. 1 At Malatia, the palace of his vassal or ally, the king of Khali-rabbat (the Milid of later Assyrian records), was decorated with sculptured blocks showing the ruler and his consort as high priest and high priestess, making oblations before Sandes (the Hittite national deity), and to the winged deity who seems to have been the guardian of the tribe. 2 To the same phase of art, though not necessarily the work of this generation, we must assign the similar oblation scenes of E y u k 3 and F r a k t i n 4 ; in the former case, moreover, the forms of the sacred vessels are the same as those seen at Malatia. I t is true that such vases may have continued in use for ceremonial purposes after their common vogue had passed; but in any case the lower buildings at Eyuk, the existence of which we have pointed out, 6 must be as old as these times; while in the rock-sculptures of Fraktin we recognise a phase of art and motive as early as that of any recorded Hittite works. I t is a singular fact that notwithstanding the great deeds of Subbi-luliuma and his successors, no sculpture of any kind has come down to perpetuate the Hittite See pp. 159, 205. See P L x l i v . , and pp. 138,139. Our date is based on the resemblance of the oblation vases (more clearly seen in Miss Bell's photographs published by Hogarth in Liv. Annals of Arch., 1909) to those found in t h e hands of H i t t i t e prisoners in Egypt, temp. Aklienaten-, see B e Garis Davies, El Amarna II. (London, 1905), pp. 41, 42, and PI. x l . (bottom row). Such vases were common in H i t t i t e Syria during the fifteenth century B.C. (cf. Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, fig. on p. 263), and the date of the sculptures is therefore liable to modification from various considerations, such as the range of time such types were in use, the probability of antique forms surviving in religious practices, and the possibility of special forms being sent as tribute to the Pharaoh. 3 P . 268. B u t see Puchstein, Pseudo-hethitische Kunst., who assigns i t to the ninth century B.C. 1

2

4

P . 151, P I . x l v i i .

6

P . 249.

340

T H E STORY OF T H E H I T T I T E S

triumphs. The Hittite monuments of Asia Minor are all of primarily religious signification. The royal palaces were decorated with religious scenes, while even the warrior deities of Giaour-Kalesi and Kara-Bel are identified with forms of the national god Sandes. The king is always spoken of as The Sun, and this fact may be reflected in the terms of address to the Pharaoh by his Syrian subjects at this time, 1 who otherwise is invariably styled the Horus. At Malatia the local king and queen are already seen as high priest and high priestess of the gods.2 In these early suggestions we see the first traces of ideals so clear in later history, namely, priest-kingship and the high status of the woman, 3 with all the ramifications which the maintenance of these principles involved. The nature of the Hittite constitution as a whole becomes more clear in later reigns, but we have already seen something of the nature of the kingdom and confederacy in watching the tying of its bonds. Three distinct grades of allegiance can be recognised already: 4 the allies, the vassals under tribute, and the conquered states administered by the crown. The special protectorate of Mitanni may be classed with the first of these. Each subject state would seem to have been bound to the Great King by special t r e a t y : that with the Amorites has been already mentioned, while even the petty kingdom of Nukhasse seems to have its special firman granted when first conquered, previous to the disaffection of its chief. 5 1 Though Akhenaten himself may have claimed the title, it was employed before his conversion. 2 Cf. the position of Hattusil and Putukhipa, in the seal of the treaty 3 On this point see below, p. 353. with Rameses II., below, p. 349. 4 See what is said above (p. 64) about the surviving elements of the Hittite constitution in the state of Lydia. 5 Winckler, B. K. Tablets, op. cit., p. 35.

PLATF. I , X X X V I I

THE REIGN OF MURSIL

341

Subbi-luliuma died, 1 and ' mounted the hill,' 2 where on the sacred high place he was gathered to his god. Thereafter f o r over a century and a half, notwithstanding the constant development of new historical situations, t h e dynasty of the H a t t i sat firmly on t h e throne, t h r o u g h o u t the greatest visible period of Hittite power. His son Arandas, who nominally succeeded a f t e r a short i n t e r r e g n u m , seems to have been without effective power, and was shortly replaced by his brother Mursil, t h e Maurcisar of t h e Egyptian texts. During the earlier p a r t of an apparently long reign, this monarch seems to have had leisure and tranquillity to enjoy the empire which he had inherited f r o m his f a t h e r . During t h e first ten years a t any rate, the annals of which are preserved, t h e r e seems to have been no incident of foreign affairs more notew o r t h y t h a n a series of minor troubles on the frontiers. His relations with a n u m b e r of states are mentioned, but the H i t t i t e names of these are not yet recognisable. 3 The governorship of various f r o n t i e r lands was apportioned, or possibly these were now f o r the first time brought under H i t t i t e rule. One Barkhu-izuwa was appointed to the land of Mira, Manapa-Tessub4 to Amaskhe-haku, and Targds-ndli to Happalama. The terms of the Amorite vassalage were renewed in a special t r e a t y with Abbi-Tessub, who now appears as chieftain of t h a t people. 6 In t h e period of a p p a r e n t 1 W e infer, from the synchronisms with Egypt and Mitanni, between 1360 and 1340 B.C. ; he and his successor overlap by their reigns those of Amenhetep i n . and Sety I. Mutallu and Hattusil were contemporary with Rameses II. 2 On this interesting expression, occurring in the preamble to the Amorite treaty, temp. Hattusil, see Winckler, Ausgrabungen, etc., 1907, p. 43, note. W e have still to learn the nature of the Hittite burial rites, but this reference is significant. 3 E.g. Gasga (Assyrian Kaska), Tibia, Zikhria; cf. Winckler, op. ext., p. 18. 4 6 ? Manapa-Sanda. Winckler, op. cit., pp. 19, 44.

342 THE STORY OF THE HITTITES calm in t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h i s reign, w e m a y see historically t h e o p p o r t u n i t y w h e n in t h e security of his k i n g d o m t h e m o n a r c h b u i l t a n e w r o y a l palace a t Boghaz-Keui on t h e lower g r o u n d t o t h e n o r t h of t h e acropolis, outside t h e m a i n line of t h e defences. 1 B u t i n a c t i v i t y in t h e s e e m p i r e s of t h e sword w a s a l w a y s f r a u g h t w i t h d a n g e r . T o w a r d s t h e close of his reign, if w e read t h e s o m e w h a t obscure c h r o n o l o g y of t h i s period rightly, t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r s of his e m p i r e suffered several shocks. The A s s y r i a n k i n g d o m h a d been steadily g a t h e r i n g s t r e n g t h , a n d soon a f t e r 1320 B.C. S h a l m a n e s e r I. seems t o h a v e dispossessed t h e H i t t i t e e n t i r e l y of his s u z e r a i n t y e a s t w a r d of t h e E u p h r a t e s , r a v a g i n g all t h e kingless c o u n t r y of M i t a n n i as f a r as Carchemish. 2 F u r t h e r n o r t h h e even crossed t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d e n t e r e d K h a l i - r a b b a t , capt u r i n g Malatia, j u s t as a p r e v i o u s A s s y r i a n m o n a r c h h a d done a h u n d r e d y e a r s b e f o r e . I n t h i s c a m p a i g n t h e H i t t i t e forces sent a g a i n s t h i m seem t o h a v e been definitely d e f e a t e d , a n d S h a l m a n e s e r p e n e t r a t e d as f a r a s Muzri, 3 while his successor also i n v a d e d t h e district of K u m m u k h , w h i c h lay on t h e H i t t i t e side of t h e E u p h r a t e s a r o u n d S a m s a t . E g y p t also, r e j o i c i n g i n t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s t r o n g line of kings, w a s n o t long in t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of t h i s t e m p o r a r y w e a k e n i n g . S e t y I. h a d h a r d l y ascended t h e t h r o n e of t h e P h a r a o h s w h e n h e i n i t i a t e d a series of c a m p a i g n s in t h e s o u t h of Syria, a n d e r e l o n g f o u n d himself able t o b e a t back t h e 1

See above, pp. 207, 208; cf. Winckler, op. cit., p. 14. Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, p. 608; Johns, in Hastings' Abridged Dictionary (1909). We adopt the latter's chronology. 3 See the map, p. ¡375. Muzri is a term meaning ' the frontier lands,' and hence not fixed, vide Hommel, Gesch. Bab. und Assyr., p. 530, note 2; Tiele {Bab. Assyrische Gesch., p. 201) regarded this Muzri as referring to the border-lands of Cilicia, while Winckler (Alttestamentliche Untersuch., p. 172) thinks it applies at this time to the whole of North Syria. 2

STRUGGLE W I T H EGYPT

343

Hittite forces, and to penetrate northwards as f a r as Tunip and t h e land of Naliarain, 1 reaching possibly to t h e Euphrates. The early operations of his successor, Rameses n., however, seem to have extended only as f a r as the Lebanon, 2 where the Hittites were encountered ; hence we m a y conclude t h a t t h e l a t t e r had been able to regain their ascendency in northern Syria. I n these critical times, with a g r e a t struggle inevitable and even imminent, Mursil died, and his son Mutallu succeeded to the Hittite throne. 3 The new monarch was not slow to realise the critical state of affairs t h a t had arisen on his eastern frontiers. Assyria, indeed, seems to have withdrawn temporarily, through internal reasons, from her efforts to obtain a footing in the H i t t i t e lands, but the repeated incursions of the E g y p t i a n armies, and the evident intention of the P h a r a o h to regain his dominion over Syria, called f o r t h a m i g h t y effort on t h e p a r t of Mutallu to r e t a i n t h e empire which his g r e a t ancestor, Subbiluliuma, had established, if not even to extend its boundaries. The call to a r m s was sounded through the H i t t i t e lands, and the response from every side showed how deeply and widely the power of the Great King had been established. Practically all parts of Asia Minor are represented in this splendid rally round the H i t t i t e leader. United in this common enterprise, 1 The argument of Petrie, History, iii. (1905) p. 17, as to the reliability of the Egyptian sources in this matter seems to be supported historically by the new light upon the period. 2 Though Professor Sayce has detected at Karnak a scene which may refer to the northern districts. 3 W e place this event about the time of the accession of Barneses ii., c. 1292 B.C. (following the chronology of Breasted, based on Meyer). The battle of Kadesh, which is reflected in the Hittite treaty of Rameses n . (cf. Winckler, op. cit., p. 45), links the two reigns, and would fall under this system of dates about 1288-1289 B.C. Mutallu's short reign (Winckler, op. cit., p. 20) would thus end shortly afterwards: he is the Mautenel or Mautal of the Egyptian texts.

344

T H E STORY OF T H E HITTITES

t h e s t a t e s of t h e centre, like t h e H a t t i (Kheta), A r i n n a , Pisidia, w e r e joined by D a r d a n i a n s a n d Mysians f r o m t h e f u r t h e s t p o r t i o n s of t h e peninsula, as well as by Lycians of t h e s o u t h e r n coast, a n d K a t a o n i a n s f r o m t h e anti-Taurus. 1 N o r t h e r n Syria, f r o m Carchemish t o K a d e s h , sent also its c o n t i n g e n t s , f o r t h e H i t t i t e leader ' l e f t n o people on his road. T h e i r n u m b e r w a s endless, n o t h i n g like it h a d ever been seen before. They covered t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d hills like g r a s s h o p p e r s f o r t h e i r n u m b e r . ' The P h a r a o h v a l i a n t l y went out to meet this formidable enemy before it e n t e r e d his o w n dominions, a n d t h e f a t e f u l b a t t l e w a s joined n o t f a r f r o m K a d e s h . T h e o p e n i n g stages w e r e f a v o u r a b l e to t h e H i t t i t e , w h o m a d e a s t r a t e g i c a n d u n f o r e s e e n o n s l a u g h t on t h e enemy's flank, a n d f o r a t i m e disorganised t h e E g y p t i a n forces. The P h a r a o h ' s position, indeed, a t one m o m e n t seems t o h a v e been a l m o s t desperate, b u t in t h e issue h e m a n a g e d t o recover his f o r m a t i o n a n d claims t o h a v e p u r s u e d t h e H i t t i t e s f r o m t h e field.2 The E g y t i a n losses w e r e so g r e a t t h a t t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o follow u p t h e i r a d v a n 1 For a summary of the Egyptian sources, see de Rouge, Revue Egypto logique, iii. p. 149; vii. p. 182. For discussion of the identity of'tlie peoples, with the authorities, Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, pp. 390, 398. Time has brought respect for the latter's common-sense principle of inquiry, p-id for the insight of Professor Sayce (The Hittites, 1903 ed., p. 26) in this matter. The argument of Professor Petrie, based on the improbability of troops, ' t h r e e men in a car,' being able to cross ' s o rough a country as Asia Minor' ( H i s t o r y , iii. p. 47), breaks down at the first name on the lists, and we may regard the main subject of this controversy practically closed. So, too, new evidence makes it unnecessary to discuss in detail the attitude of Hirschfeld, Die Felsenreliefs in Kleinasien unci das Volk der Hittiter (Berlin, 1881), and O. Puchstein, Pseudo-hethitisehe Kunst (Berlin, 1890), though we notice special points of criticism. For a review of the whole situation down to 1896, see Keinach, Chroniques d'Orient, especially i. pp. 372 ff. and pp. 772 ff. 2 For an exhaustive study of the strategy of the Egyptian leader, and a critical examination of the authorities, see Breasted, The Battle of Kadesh (Chicago, 1903). Cf, also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, pp. 288 f . ; Maspero, Histoire (1875), pp. 220 ff., and Struggle of the Nations, pp. 392 ff.

PLATE

T,XXXVIII

KADESH AND A F T E R

345

t a g e : even Kadesh remained unassailed, though the Hittite king had taken refuge within its walls ; so t h a t the battle must be regarded as indecisive. The moral effect, however, on both sides was sufficient. Mutallu made overtures for a truce, which the Pharaoh readily accepted, 1 and the Egyptian forces were withdrawn. The result of this battle proved indeed an effective rebuke to the ambitions of the leaders on both sides. Thereafter Rameses confined his military operations to southern Syria. With the Hittites the issue was more serious, and the consequences more immediate. Two princes of the royal blood, Sipa-zar (? Subbi-sil) and Mazarima, several chiefs, soldiers, and charioteers had been counted among the slain. The Kataonian chief also perished in the battle, and the king of Aleppo was drowned while attempting to cross the moat and marshes t h a t protected Kadesh. The great army had to be disbanded, dismayed and disappointed, when victory had been so nearly within their grasp. The Amorites, whose home lands had suffered perhaps most of all in this warfare, and who were at all times watchful of the balance, threw off their allegiance. 2 Their* chief, Put-akhi, 3 was deposed, but escaped the punishment of his offence. The disaffection spread among the troops : a mutiny took place, in which the chief general figures conspicuously, and Mutallu was assassinated. 4 The zenith of Hittite power was passed ; 1 Miiller (Asien und Europa, p. 216, note 1) thinks this passage in the poem of Pentaur must refer to the overtures of Hattusil n. sixteen years afterwards ; but the preamble to the treaty with the latter, read in the light of the new synchronisms, leads us to accept the text as historical. 2 Winckler, B. K. Tablets, op. cit., p. 45. 3 Professor Sayce notes that this rendering of the name, which is written ideographically, must be considered doubtful. The same person appears as Banti-shinni in other texts. 4 The facts alone transpire (Winckler, op. cit., p. 19); this sequence is our interpretation of them.

346

THE STORY OF THE HITTITES

the Hittite Sun had reached its highest point, and the shadows at that same moment began to lengthen. Never again, it would seem, could the Hittite leaders call up in their special enterprise so many allies drawn from such varied peoples. The dynasty of the Hatti none the less retained the throne; Hattusil, brother of the ill-starred leader, whose end we have described, now became Great King, and Putukhipa, Princess of Qizwadna, was his queen. As daughter of the city of Arinna, the home of the sungod, this lady was probably the foremost of the land, and her union with the Prince of the Hatti was one of the events that contributed to restore the prestige of his house. As Khetasar this monarch looms big in the pages of Egyptian history, and indeed his reign was one of considerable importance and duration. But, as with his compeer upon the throne of Egypt, the actual tendency of events throughout this reign shows signs of weakening in the Hittite power and the gradual dismemberment of their empire. 1 As with Egypt also from this date, this reign was free from serious Conflict or disturbance in Syria. Assyria had fallen temporarily behind in the bid for empire, the Mitannians were utterly submerged, and neither of the other two powers was yet disposed to resume hostilities. One of Hattusil's first acts contributed indeed to secure the tranquillity of his frontier in this direction, by the reinstatement of Put-akhi as Chief of the Amorites, under the same terms of vassalage as of old.2 I t was indeed to Hattusil's intervention that the Amorite prince owed his life at the time of his disaffection ; and now, with a Hittite princess (Gashuliawi) for wife, 1 2

Cf. Winckler, Ausgrabungen, etc., 1907, p. 27. Winckler, B. K. Tablets, op, cit., p. 24.

POLICY OF HATTUSIL

347

Put-akhi was united in his allegiance by a double bond. Later in his reign, about 1271 B.C., Hattusil succeeded in bringing about a definite offensive and defensive alliance, and treaty of extradition, ' a good treaty for friendship and concord, which was to assure peace, for a longer period than beforetime' with the Pharaoh. The preliminary negotiations occupied many months, and were carried out with a full measure of oriental dignity. The queens on either side took part in the negotiations, and the chief wife of Rameses wrote to Putukhipa specially expressing her satisfaction when the affair was concluded. The first draft of the treaty was clearly prepared by the Hittite diplomatists; not only does the name of the Hittite king come first in all cases where both names occur, but a summary has been found among their archives which does not contain all the clauses finally incorporated. 1 I t is prefaced with an historical preamble, after the wellestablished precedent found in the Hittite treaties with the Amorites and the Mitannians, as well as with minor vassal states. Only in this case, the treaty being one of equity, no pointed allusion was made to the first conquest of Subbi-luliuma on the one side, or to the exploits of Sety on the o t h e r : the fact of past wars and of the previous interim treaties was mentioned, but now the two kings were to be as allies, friends, and brothers, with a good understanding between them for evermore. Neither should henceforth invade the other's lands, the boundary between them being the northern Lebanon; on the other hand, if either was in distress of war, and appealed to the other for assistance, then troops should be sent accordingly ; their warfare should 1

Winckler, op. cit., p. 21.

348 THE STORY OF THE HITTITES be in common.1 Minor matters, such as the question of fugitive servants and refugees, were also arranged. W e do not know whether duplicate copies of this treaty were actually exchanged, but this may be inferred from the fact that an Egyptian embassy was received in the Hittite capital.2 The Egyptian record of this affair, inscribed on the walls of the temple of Karnak, only makes it known that two Hittite ambassadors, by name ' Tal-tisebu' and ' Rameses,' accompanied by a goodly retinue, presented the Hittite copy engraved on a silver tablet to the Pharaoh. The gods of all the Hittites were separately invoked, after their time-honoured custom, as guardians to the inviolability of this treaty. The sun - god, lord of heaven, takes first place, followed by the sun-god of Arinna. Then come the various localised forms of Sandes,3 called Sutekh by the Egyptians, and associated here with nine chief states, in which we seem to recognise three,4 Arinna, Aleppo (Khilpa), and Sarisu, possibly the classical Sareisa. A list of the tutelary deities follows, including seven gods and three goddesses,5 but possibly the gaps in the text betoken others. Finally, the god of the land, the queen of heaven, the goddess of the soil, the mistress of the oath, the goddess (Askhir) of the mountains, and the rivers of the Hittite lands, are appealed to ; with a last reference to the gods of Qizwadna, the home of the 1 See the translation into English by Professor Sayce, The Hittites, pp. 31-39; also trans, f r o m text of Miiller (Der Biindnis-vertrag Ramses I I . und des Chetiterkonigs, Berlin, 1902) in Messerschmidt, The Hittites. 2 W i n c k l e r , B. K. Tablets, op. cit., p. 23. 3 The sculptured figures of the god at Malatia, P L XLIV. ; at Sinjerli, P L LXXVII. ; and at B o g h a z - K e u i , N o . 1 L., PI. J.x v. 4 T h e others a r e : Zanu-arnda, Pirqa, Khisa-sapa, Rukhasina, Tonisa, Sakhepaina, all unrecognisable in their Egyptianised forms. 5 Cf. the arrangement of the seven god-figures and three d i v i n e female figures l e f t and r i g h t in the sculpture of Boghaz-Keui, p. 215, Pis.

L X I I I . ( i i ) , LXV.

T R E A T Y W I T H EGYPT

349

Hittite queen, and to those of Egypt, who are all covered by one clause. The designs and inscriptions of the seals are of special interest: upon the tablet itself these were naturally engraved. On the obverse, we are told, there was the image of the Hittite national god embracing the Great King, 1 surrounded by an inscription rendered, through the medium of the Egyptian t e x t , ' The Seal of Sutekh, Prince of Heaven,' and ' the seal of the treaty made by Khetasar (Hattusil) son of Maursar (Mursil), the great and powerful king of the Hittites.' This was the seal of the Hittite god of the skies. The reverse was parallel, only in place of the figure of Sandes was that of the sun-god of Arinna, lord of the whole earth, and the Great Queen was shown in the deity's embrace. Around was an inscription, 'The seal of the sun-god of the city of Arinna, lord of the earth,' and ' The seal of Putukhipa, Great Queen of the Hittites, daughter of the land of Qizwadna . . . of the land of Arinna, the mistress of its territory, the priestess of its goddess.' The fame of this treaty was noised abroad, and an inquiry was received from the king of Babylonia as to its purport. The Hittite king replied 2 with firmness and obvious exultation : ' I will inform my brother: the king of Egypt and I have made an alliance, and made ourselves brothers. Brothers we are and will [unite against] a common foe, and with friends in common.' The letter continues with an explanation of the previous warfare between the nations that had rendered this compact desirable, and allusion is made to the inroads of the Pharaoh on the Hittite lands. Though relations between Egypt and Babylonia at 1

2

C f . P I . L X X I . a n d p p . 228, 239.

Winckler, B. K. Tablets, op. cit., pp. 23, 24.

350

THE STORY OF THE HITTITES

t h i s t i m e w e r e well established, it m i g h t h a v e been t h o u g h t t h a t B a b y l o n w a s t o o d i s t a n t t o h a v e been m u c h concerned w i t h t h e H i t t i t e seated in t h e n o r t h of Asia Minor. Y e t in f a c t a t t h i s t i m e only t h e e a s t w a r d extension of t h e A m o r i t e r e a l m divided t h e t w o powers> j u s t as t h e s a m e people f o r m e d t h e f r o n t i e r w i t h E g y p t f u r t h e r west. D i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h a d indeed b e e n opened b e t w e e n t h e m f o r f u l l y a g e n e r a t i o n , a n d several long l e t t e r s h a v e been recovered. T h e y r e f e r chiefly t o t h e b r i g a n d a g e of t h e A m o r i t e s , w h o m t h e H i t t i t e k i n g is asked t o k e e p in order, a n d p u n i s h a s being his vassals. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o notice also t h e influence which H a t t u s i l exerted, t h r o u g h t h e f o r c e f u l l a n g u a g e of his a m b a s s a d o r a t t h e B a b y l o n i a n court, a n d his o w n a l m o s t t h r e a t e n i n g diplomatic l e t t e r s , i n t e r f e r i n g even in t h e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e succession t o t h e B a b y l o n i a n t h r o n e . This s u b j e c t m i g h t well be r e g a r d e d as outside t h e s p h e r e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l politics, a n d t h e B a b y l o n i a n k i n g f o u n d r e a s o n t o o b j e c t also t o t h e t e r m s of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n on this m a t t e r , w h i c h would h a v e b e e n addressed m o r e fittingly t o a vassal r a t h e r t h a n a compeer. B u t H a t t u s i l ' s r e p l y is w o r t h y of r e c o r d : ' I only w r o t e this, " If y o u do n o t a c k n o w ledge t h e son of y o u r lord, will i t n o t h a p p e n t h a t if a n e n e m y a t t a c k you, I will n o t come t o y o u r aid ? " f o r m y b r o t h e r w a s t h e n a child, a n d h e is a n evil m a n w h o deals according t o evil t h o u g h t s . ' Questions of f o r e i g n policy also w e r e discussed b y t h e s e t w o p o w e r s in several l e t t e r s . One f r a g m e n t f r o m B a b y l o n s h o w s t h a t t h e increasing p o w e r of A s s y r i a 1 w a s t h e p r o b l e m of t h e m o m e n t , a n d a r e p l y 1 Winckler {op. cit., p. 21) identifies Katashman-turgu of the letters with Katashman-buriash, and hence synchronises these events with the period of Shalmaneser i., which we have treated as earlier. Possibly we have here new material for a revision of Assyrian chronology.

T H E L A S T H A T T I KINGS

351

of Hattusil 1 shows that they were being drawn together on this matter, which was of grave concern to them both. His advice to the younger king, expressed in flattering terms, to ' go and plunder the land of the foe,' indicates the astute politician's anxiety to get the sword that hung menacing over his own head removed. The situation that now developed is one of considerable historical interest. Like Tushratta of Mitanni on the approach of the Hatti, so now the Hittite king at this crisis took special means to ensure the support of Egypt, where Rameses the Great still sat upon the throne of Thebes beside the tranquil Nile. Formerly Tushratta had granted a daughter in marriage at the first time of asking, contrary to precedent; but now not only was the first Hittite princess seemingly offered to Rameses, to take a place among the other royal wives, but the Hittite king himself with great state accompanied her to Egypt, and, escorted up the Nile, visited the Egyptian monarch in his capital, an event without parallel in oriental history. Naturally Rameses made adequate record of this incident,2 and the beauties of his new bride received the praises of his courtiers. Little is known of the two successors of Hattusil, Dudkhalia, and his son Arnuanta, under whom the Winckler, op. cit., p. 26. The only surviving record is found in the rock-temple of Abusimbel, high up on the southern side. Unfortunately the name of the H i t t i t e king could not be made out by Lepsius, who first noticed the scene. Probably he was Hattusil's successor, for the princess offered to Barneses was apparently his eldest daughter, and on all precedent could not well have been older than fifteen or sixteen years if she was to prove acceptable. Y e t Hattusil was already of mature age when he succeeded to the throne, for it will be recalled that his father's reign was a long one, and his brother's short reign also intervened. The date of the event was about B.C. 1258, in the thirty-sixth year of Barneses' reign, thirteen years after the treaty with Hattusil, twenty-nine years after the battle of Kadesh—three events without historical connection. 1

2

352

THE STORY OF T H E HITTITES

dynasty of the Hatti kings was prolonged into the twelfth century, B.C. An edict issued by the former concerns the organisation of the empire and the position of the greater vassals. 1 The names of some of the chieftains transpire among the witnesses to the document : Eni-Tessub 2 appears at this time as king of Carchemish, which was probably the second state of the empire. Another event in the reign of Dudkhalia is a ' treaty' with the king of Aleppo, doubtless a ratification of the terms of vassalage, but the name of that chieftain is not revealed. The name of Arnuanta, his son, who in turn became Great King, is the last of the dynasty that has come to light, and circumstances tend to show that the day of Hatti dominion was really over. He is known only from two fragments of royal edicts, and a more complete document (found in the debris of a gateway), seemingly an elaborate land register or cadastral survey. 3 This is rendered of special interest by the seals, which, like the famous boss of Tarkudimme, were inscribed in Hittite hieroglyphs and in cuneiform. The Hittite inscription on one seal is defaced, but the cuneiform can be read in both cases. The first seal is that of Arnuanta himself, the Great King, son of Dudkhalia. The second gives the names of the royal ladies, namely, the Queen-Mother Tawassi, 4 and his wife, the Great Queen, Munidan; while a daughter of Dudkhalia is mentioned, though her name is lost. The appearance of these royal women side by side Winckler, op. cit., p. 28. Alternatively read Eni-Sanda by Prof. Sayce, the last group being ideographic. 3 Winckler, B. K. Tablets, op. cit., p. 15 and p. 19. 4 Winckler (loc. cit.) interprets these relationships otherwise, and sees in them the traces of family intermarriage. 1 2

S T A T U S OF WOMAN

353

with the monarch in the transaction of state affairs reawakens a whole series of interesting allusions which transpire in the earlier archives of this dynasty, indicating a clear position of authority held by the female side, and even suggesting a m a t r i a r c h a l system of succession to the throne. I n the edict of Dudkhalia t h e Queen-Mother, Putu-khipa, is mentioned as cor u l e r ; and we have seen above t h a t she separately placed her seal upon the t r e a t y with Egypt, wherein she is described as Great Queen of the land of t h e Hittites, . . . of the land of Arinna, t h e mistress of its territory.' F u r t h e r , the son of this powerful lady succeeded to t h e throne upon t h e death of Mutallu, even though the latter's son was still alive (being mentioned in documents of Hattusil). During the i n t e r r e g n u m 1 she maintained the continuity of the government, with sole powers in her hands, as appears from her correspondence a t this time with Rameses. The title of Hattusil himself to t h e throne can best be explained in view of these facts, by his m a r r i a g e with this lady, a first princess of the l a n d ; 2 and t h a t her son would succeed seems to have been foreseen by Rameses n . when he wrote to her diplomatically, wishing h i m ' good health.' The part t a k e n by royal women in state affairs in t h e E a s t can be illustrated f r o m modern events in China, which under its Mongol rulers presents us with so much interesting comparison, no less t h a n from the records of the correspondence between E g y p t and Mitanni in t h e age with which we deal. This respect of t h e worshippers of the MotherGoddess for t h e female was inculcated by them among 1 A similar short interval seems to have occurred before the succession of Arnuanta, and probably of Mursil previously. (Winckler, op. cit., p. 18.) 2 Qizwadna seems to have held an autonomous position exceptional among the Hittite states. Cf. Winckler in Orient. Lit.-Zeitloc. cit. L

354

THE STORY OF THE HITTITES

various branches of their peoples. It will not be forgotten that the founder of the Hatti dynasty, when he admitted the fugitive Mitannian prince to his family and extended to him his protection, laid down the condition of a monogamous marriage. So, too, Hattusil, in granting his daughter to the Amorite chieftain, Putakhi, whom in like manner he re-established in his authority, inserted in the document recording the alliance a clause to the effect that the sovereignty over the Amorite should belong to the son and descendants of his daughter for evermore. These indications all agree with the impression that Greek tradition and the Hittite monuments have already left upon our minds. The worship of the Mother-Goddess, to which we have alluded, would seem, indeed, to have been paramount throughout the Hittite lands, from Carchemish to Ephesus, from Kadesh to the coast of the Black Sea. Originally a nature cult, derivable from the productivity of the earth, this had now taken divine form with the quality of self-reproduction, to develop later into the conception of a universal mother. Though this worship was general throughout western Asia, its introduction into Asia Minor is traceable to the Hittites, upon whose monuments its symbolism appears earlier than it is known elsewhere, notably at BoghazKeui,1 Eyuk, 2 Fraktin, 3 and on Sipylus. 4 We do not wish to imply a local development of the cult, though that may be admitted as a possibility when we consider the simple and general nature of its origins, and the power of the human mind then as now to attain in a few years the standpoint reached only by generations 1

P . 235, PI. LXV.

2

P . 262, PI.

LXXIII.

2

P . 151, PI. XLVII.

4

P . 168, Pl.

LUI.

THE MOTHER-GODDESS

355

of ancestral experiences, and thereon to build up new conceptions, to be transmitted in like manner together with those inherited. Yet on the fertile plains of Babylonia the seasonal productivity of nature was more conspicuous and almost spontaneous; there indeed, as it seems, man was earlier able to give up his wandering life and settle, noting with satisfaction and gratitude that earth and sunshine with other elemental forces provided him with the means of living. Taking also the evidence as it stands, it would seem that the embodiment of these conceptions in divine form (under the name Istar) is earliest attributable to Babylonia; and from there consequently we are disposed to derive her when found in Asia Minor, whether by general contact, as is historically admissible, or introduced, as seems more probable, by some early migration of Hittite peoples that had already assimilated her to themselves. The worship of a goddess with virtues so natural and with powers that it was so desirable to propitiate would, in any case, it may be thought, be readily acceptable to a peasant people. It became deeply rooted, and in certain localities took special forms, reflected many centuries later in rites like those of Ma at Comana, Kybele in Phrygia, Artemis at Ephesus, and, latest of all, Semiramis at the post-Hittite city at Carchemish. From the sculptures of Boghaz-Keui 1 it may be seen that, as in Babylonia, there was already associated with her a youth, whose male powers were necessary to complete her own. With her also there appears a lioness or panther whose force and character seemed to be emblematic of hers. Though clearly attributable to an earlier phase of thought, this association may have 1

PI. LXV.

356

T H E STORY OF THE HITTITES

been made before the cult was localised. T h e r e are, however, traces in these sculptures of more primitive conceptions, attributable to older strains of population. F r o m the evidence in general, four or five strata, indeed, m a y be discerned in the H i t t i t e pantheon. I n the lowest of these there appear the purely elemental forms, mountains and streams, 1 earth, 2 sun, 3 m o o n 4 and star. 6 Passing f r o m t h e inanimate to the animate, we find the lion, 6 the bull, 7 the eagle, 8 the falcon or dove, 8 the goat, 1 0 the stag, the serpent 1 1 and other living creatures, some of t h e m possibly adopted as tribal totems, and all no doubt representing some special virtue or power t h a t l a t e r became embodied in t h e deities associated with them. Upon these substrata the gods of human form appear to be imposed, and first among these the Mother-goddess. Already, as we have noticed in these sculptures, 1 2 her supreme powers in life and her unfathomable actions had found expression in the semblance of a lion, before she was adopted by the mountain-worshippers; and another class of monument, possibly of l a t e r evolution, seems to reveal her in another aspect, as a goddess to be propitiated at death. The two ideas in her case a r e n o t f a r separated ; for j u s t as in the simplest conception of h e r powers through her t h e dead e a r t h revived, while in her developed cult, her dead son yet lived in her offspring (through h e r unnatural union with him), so the Cf. p. 318 and PI. L X V . Cf. p. 348 and PI. LXVIII. The boot in the design of the asdicula may be taken to be emblematic of the earth. 1

2

3 6

5 1 P p . 217, 303; cf. P i s . LXVIII., L X X X . Cf. P I . LXVIII. Ibid. 7 P i s . XLIV., LXXII., p. C f . p p . 157, 235, a n d P I . L X V . 256.

9 Pp. 118,151,165. Pis. xLix., LXV., p. 236. PI. L X V . and p. 215, 11 The two latter only appear upon small seals, C.I.H. (1900), PI. XLI. (i), which, though Hittite. we must regard as beyond the scope of 12 PI. LXV., p. 235. this volume. 8

10

AMAZONS IN HISTORY

357

instinctive belief of humanity in the incompleteness of death found expression in offerings to her for the dead,1 and in communion of the dead at her table.2 The idea of a future life after death was inseparable from her worship. In the sculptures3 of these times there are associated with the goddess a number of divine attendants and priestesses, each holding as it seems a bent staff upon which she leans. These are not armed, but in them we may see the prototypes of a class of women devoted to the goddess, who in later centuries, on the decline of the Hittite power, at the coming maybe of the Phrygians, at first for the defence of their religion, and later separating in independent action, developed into armed priestesses, and possibly the Amazons of tradition. 4 But that was not yet; nor do we see in any of the shrines of the goddess of this age any sign 1

C f . p p . 102, 119, a n d P i s . X L V I I . , L X X I I I . ( i ) .

In this way w e explain the development of the funerary symbolism of the Ceremonial Feast (p. 100), which became a stereotyped design 2

( P I . L x x v . ( i ) , p p . I l l , 135, 164, 226, 284, 290).

3

PI. LXVII.

A s w e differ on this question in our interpretation of the sculptures of Boghaz-Keui from Professor Ramsay (see p. 213), who inter alia ranks what we regard as male figures [PI. LXIX. (ii)] among the female bodyguard of the cult, we feel it due to him to recapitulate our argument. a (i) In Egyptian art down to 1200 B.C., though there are detailed descriptions of Hittite allies (cf. PI. LXXXIII.), and down to 1150 B.C. of AsiaticiEgean coalition (p. 368), there is no suspicion of women warriors; (ii) In Greek tradition there is no memory of the Hatti power, but the Amazons appear, b (i) These sculptures seem to belong to the great Hatti period, and in particular to the age of Hattusil (cf. the argument on p. 233), being somewhat more conventionalised than those of probably earlier phase (compare the lightning emblem of fig. 1 L, PI. LXV., with that of the Malatia god, PI. XLV., which is freely drawn like that of Sinjerli, PI. LXXIII.) ; (ii) the sculptured gateway, newly recognised as decorated with an Amazon figure (p. 205), has been independently dated by us (pp. 210, 211, 380) by a series of direct analogies in aesthetic treatment, to a period probably some centuries later. Thus far w e are possibly agreed, but at the next point we differ. c (i) In the sculptures of Iasily Kaya, the males and females seem to us to be as distinct as ever man and woman were in art; the former are characterised by their short tunics, muscular athletic figures, firm thighs, and masculine chests, not to speak of their arms; the latter are disclosed by their long robes, their 4

358

T H E STORY OF T H E H I T T I T E S

or suggestion of the orgies and carnal festivals t h a t a thousand years later were celebrated in her name. On the other hand, we see the cult a t this age in its simplicity; in some cases the goddess worshipped alone, in others accompanied by the son-consort, whose position in legend and a t Boghaz-Keui is secondary to her own. I n the l a t t e r case, however, she is face to face with another god who is h e r equal. W e have been able to trace in these sculptures to some e x t e n t t h e merging of this religion with t h e old conceptions, and now we pass to consider its union with the new. I n this fourth phase the m a l e predominates. The new divinity was a god omnipotent, with lightning in his hand. W e call him Sandes, from a n a m e surviving in Greek tradition in Cilicia and L y d i a ; but his real name is unknown. Possibly T a r k u was one Hittite f o r m of i t ; but a t this period of his conspicuous individuality B a a l or Zeus would suit him better. L i k e t h e goddess, he was well known in western Asia under various guises, the Tessub of Mitanni, the Hadad of Syria, t h e Rimraon of Babylonia. He came into Asia Minor, it seems to us, as guardian deity of t h e conquering H a t t i , clad like their w a r r i o r s ; and in their w a k e came a limited number of kindred tribes, among whom also he was worshipped under various forms, 1 notably as a God of W a r with sword in hand. 2 B y them he was full breasts, and other ordinary feminine characteristics, (ii) In view of the emphatically female character of the Amazon figure of the gateway, stamped by the conspicuous breasts, the feminine thighs, and long hair, we think it unreasonable to suppose any concealment of sex in the warrior figures of the earlier sculptures. W e conclude then (d) that in neither the contemporary records nor monuments, so far as known, is there any trace of female warriors, before 1200 or 1150 B.O. ; that the whole cycle of the Amazon legends belongs historically to a later age, subsequent to the downfall of the Hatti warrior-kings. On the eunuchpriest, however, see p. 361, note 2. 1 Cf. The Sutekh cycle of the nine states in the Egyptian treaty, p. 348. 2 Cf. figures 2 L and 3 L at Boghaz-Keui, PI. LXV., and at Kara-Bel, PI.LIV.

T H E FATHER-GOD

359

t r a n s m i t t e d as t h e n a t i o n a l god t o t h e o t h e r H i t t i t e peoples, w h o s e t u t e l a r y deities, however, seem t o h a v e been various. 1 I n him, t h e e m b o d i m e n t of m a n l y s t r e n g t h , t h e n a t u r e w o r s h i p p e r s s a w t h e sun, r u l i n g in t h e skies, 2 supreme, a f i t t i n g h u s b a n d f o r t h e i r M o t h e r E a r t h . I t w a s n o t h a r d t o reconcile t h e cults. J u s t as t h e sun's r e t u r n in s p r i n g - t i m e t o shine u p o n t h e e a r t h w a s n e c e s s a r y t o r e v i v i f y t h e d e a d y e a r ; so w a s t h e periodic u n i o n of t h e god w i t h t h e goddess natural and appropriate, t h a t the earth might bring f o r t h h e r f r u i t s in d u e season. The s c u l p t u r e s 3 i l l u s t r a t e t h e r i t e t h a t a r o s e u p o n this n e w ideal, w h e r e w e see t h e s t a t u e of t h e god b o r n e u p o n t h e shoulders of his priests t o t h e open-air s a n c t u a r y of t h e goddess, a n d t h e divine n u p t i a l s celebrated w i t h t h e d a n c i n g a n d r e v e l r y t h a t h a v e accompanied m a r r i a g e f e s t i v a l s t h r o u g h all time. T h e conception of F a t h e r h o o d , h i t h e r t o s u b m e r g e d , n o w f o u n d expression in i n d e p e n d e n t f o r m , w h e r e i n t h e n e w god w a s identified w i t h t h e Bull, t h e e m b l e m of virility. A t M a l a t i a 4 t h e god rides u p o n t h e a n i m a l ' s b a c k ; a t E y u k 5 t h e a n i m a l alone is f o u n d , in a scene w h e r e his m i n i s t e r s a r e t h e r o y a l h i g h p r i e s t a n d priestess, t h e c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e w o r s h i p of t h e goddess herself on t h e o t h e r side of t h e g a t e w a y . I n t h i s c h a r a c t e r f o o d a n d music a n d revelry w e r e his delight. T h e r e w e r e p r e s e n t all t h e e l e m e n t s w h i c h u n d e r o t h e r conditions m i g h t h a v e led t o t h e develop 1 The second cycle mentioned in t h e Egyptian t r e a t y ; cf. t h e sculptures of Malatia, where the chief god and a winged deity are worshipped with different rites. 2 Sutekh and the sun-god are both called lord of heaven in the Egyptian treaty (pp. 348, 349). Cf. the identification of Sandes with the 3 sun-god (p. 322). PI. i.xv. 4

6

P I . XLIV.

PI. l x x i i . The bull figure, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , is not wholly shown in these photographs.

360

T H E STORY OF T H E HITTITES

m e n t of a special a n d e x a g g e r a t e d w o r s h i p of masculine powers. B u t h e r e t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w e r e u n favourable. So long, indeed, as t h e w a r r i o r k i n g s m a i n t a i n e d t h e throne,' t h e i r god also r e t a i n e d his individuality, 1 a m i d a n e n v i r o n m e n t , however, too deeply imbued w i t h t h e older ideals t o m a i n t a i n his s e p a r a t e w o r s h i p a f t e r t h e i r downfall. A l r e a d y w e see one w a y in which his cult w a s liable t o be subm e r g e d ; f o r t h e p a r t h e n o w claimed, as i t were, b y force, h a d been h i t h e r t o p l a y e d in esoteric f a s h i o n by t h e son. Hence a n e w i d e n t i t y arose, in w h i c h t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e f a t h e r - g o d a n d t h e son-god b e c a m e c o n f u s e d a n d m e r g e d in one. 2 This f a c t seems t o be reflected even in t h e s c u l p t u r e s of Boghaz-Keui, w h e r e t h e cult of a dirk, which each i m p o r t a n t m a l e figure wears, becomes endowed w i t h a s e p a r a t e ritual. 8 Possibly, h o w e v e r , t h i s m a y be m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a n aspect of t h e son-god, a n d associated w i t h t h e r i t u a l of t h e Mother-goddess. I t was, moreover, a n a t i o n a l cult, widespread, a n d revered. 4 I n a n y case t h e association of t h e F a t h e r - g o d w i t h t h e Son-god in t h e cult of t h e Mother-goddess, n a t u r e ' s divine t r i a d , seems t o us a n essential f e a t u r e of t h e religion of t h e s e times. T h e p a r t played b y t h e k i n g a n d his q u e e n in t h i s w o r s h i p is clear in t h e s c u l p t u r e s of E y u k 5 a n d Malatia, 6 a n d t h e i r position as h i g h p r i e s t a n d priestess of t h e god is defined in t h e t e x t of t h e E g y p t i a n t r e a t y . 7 W h e t h e r t h e k i n g himself t o o k a n official position in t h e w o r s h i p of t h e goddess is still open t o c o n j e c t u r e ; 1 At Boghaz-Keui (PI. LXV.), and Giaour-Kalesi (p. 163) he is represented with a beard in contradistinction to the beardless Son-god. 2 Cf. the legends of Baal and Sandan of Tarsus, above, pp. 195, 238. 3 4 5 PI. LXX., p. 240. Cf. p. 170. Pi. iixxu., p. 268. 0

P I . XLIV., p. 139.

' P . 349.

THE HATTI KINGSHIP

361

f o r the pictures of the high priest at Boghaz-Keui, 1 though accompanied by the royal insignia, are open to another interpretation, 2 and possibly in her festivals t h e king's place was taken by a eunuch-priest of considerable authority, in accordance with a ritual long established and surviving in l a t e r times. At Sinjerli there is an interesting suggestion in a certain series of sculptures 3 belonging possibly to this era. I n comparing these it seems to us t h a t t h e king himself is shown impersonating his gods or god in various characters ; in one he is the warrior with shield and spear, in another he holds aloft the lightning trident, and in a third we see him like Thor with a magic hammer. In the rites of t h e various deities the king m a y possibly have carried these sacred emblems ceremonially. The position of the H a t t i kings in state affairs, t h e n a t u r e of their kingdom and their empire, has been already disclosed in watching how their power was won. 4 The a r m y was the m a i n s t a y of their empire, yet no m a r t i a l scenes decorate the walls of the palaces and temples t h a t have been hitherto unearthed. This m a y be accounted f o r by the essentially feudal nature of the constitution, whereby the bulk of the forces would be composed of troops under the more direct command of the vassal kings and chieftains. W i t h i n the domain of his own tribe or tribes, though doubtless a royal bodyguard was maintained, it would almost seem t h a t t h e power of t h e Hittite king was sustained r a t h e r by con1

P i s . LXVIII.,

LXSXI.

We have given our reasons (p. 231) for preferring to see in them the person of the king; but if certain emblems in the naiskos are really phallic, they maybe read as indicating the sacrifice of these organs. On the other hand, like the bull, they may be merely emblematic of the king's position as chief representative of the virile god. The evidence seems to us insufficient to solve this point. 3 Above, p. 297. 4 Above, pp. 326 ff. 2

362

THE STORY OF T H E HITTITES

stitutional rights such as have been indicated. Some of the religious sculptures, however, give an indication, though in somewhat conventional and maybe antiquated form, of the dress and armour of the Hittite infantry ; while the general character of their chariots and arms may be gathered from the hunting scenes of later date in Syrian towns. Where the home sources fail, the Egyptian carvings supply a wealth of detail illustrating all branches of the Hittite forces andthese, though drawn as it were from afar, have none the less the advantage of being contemporary evidence, recorded, too, by past-masters in this branch of archivism, who allowed no characteristic detail to escape them. The freest drawing of a foot-soldier is that from Sinjerli, 2 wherein a warrior is seen armed with a spear and shield; the head of the spear is narrow and ribbed down the middle, and the shaft is about the length of the man ; the defensive weapon is of the figure-of-eight shape traditional in Asia Minor, and associated with some branches of the Hittites in Egyptian sculptures.3 The dirk which is worn, an invariable side-arm of the Hittites, is here shown so long that it looks almost like a two-edged sword; from other sculptures, however, like those of Giaour-Kalesi 4 and Boghaz-Keui, 6 we may be sure that a dirk or dagger is indicated. The crescental hilt and the mid-rib are noticeable features. That the sword was used, however, may be gathered from other scenes.6 The dress of the Hittite warrior, like that of his gods, was uniformly the short tunic, short-sleeved vest, shoes with turned-up points, and tall conical hat; the last named is seemingly padded in 1 See Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, pp. 356 f. ; and cf. W. Max 2 PI. i.xxv. (ii).; cf. p. 281. Miiller, Asien und Europa, pp. 324-329. 3

6

Cf. P L LXXXIII. (ii).

4

P . 163.

5

P i s . LXV, , LXX.

Cf. Boghaz-Keui, PI. LXV., NO. 2 L., and Kara-Bel, PI. I.TV.,P. 171, note 3.

HITTITE A R M Y AND A R M S

363

this instance a t the top. E q u e s t r i a n s and charioteers seem to have modified or discarded this head-dress 1 as being unsuitable f o r rapid motion. I n addition to t h e spear, the bow was doubtless used by both i n f a n t r y 2 and chariotry ; 3 but other implements, originally of an offensive character, like t h e club, double-axe, 4 mace, and curved dagger, 5 are found only in religious symbolism in such connection t h a t it must be considered doubtful w h e t h e r they continued t o be used in war. The throw-stick is, however, admissible, though found only in sporting scenes. 0 As to t h e H i t t i t e cavalry the local sources almost fail us. Two stones f r o m S i n j e r l i show a rider armed with bow and dagger, and possibly a shield decorated with a human f a c e ; 7 and a third sculpture f r o m t h e same site introduces a large round shield and possibly a quiver. 8 T h e r e is also a f r a g m e n t , possibly f r o m Marash, showing a horse rider, 9 though apparently not in t h a t instance a fighting man. I n another case a led horse is shown, with a t t e n d a n t groom, as though awaiting his royal master's pleasure. 1 0 I n E g y p t i a n scenes, 11 however, t h e H i t t i t e horse-rider is conspicuous, fleeing before the Pharaoh's arrows, himself armed with a lance ; and in two literary passages a t least, clear reference is made to the H i t t i t e cavalry. 1 2 The c h a r i o t r y of the Hittites was, however, their Cf. pp. 274-5. Cf. PI. XLIV. (Malatia) and PL LIV. (Kara-Bel). 3 Cf. PI. x x x i x . (Sakje-Geuzi), and there are earlier confirmatory 4 PI. i x v . and p. 287. scenes described on pp. 133, 134. 5 P. 140 ; Liv. Annals of Arch., i. PI. v. 6 P. 283. 7 Pp. 274-5. 8 P. 293 (No. xxv.). 9 P. 122. 10 P. 121. 11 Cf. N. wall of the temple of Karnak, the rout after the battle of Kadesh. 12 Treaty with Fgypt, temp. Hattusil, p. 347 ; Preamble to treaty with Mitanni, temp. Subbi-luliuma, cf. p. 331. 1 2

364

T H E STORY OF T H E H I T T I T E S

chief a r m of offence. U n f o r t u n a t e l y only one warchariot is shown in their own sculptures, 1 and this is apparently of later date and employed in an intertribal struggle. I n this case two persons are shown in t h e car, the warrior and his driver. The wheel has six spokes, the car is lightly built, and a pair of horses are harnessed to it. 2 The warrior's arms are t h e bow and spear. Other chariots appear in hunting scenes, showing little variation except the eight-spoked w h e e l s ; but it m a y be thought f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n representations t h a t a somewhat heavier car with panelled sides was employed f o r war. The magnificent appearance of the massed H i t t i t e chariots in a t t a c k excited the admiration of their enemies, the Egyptians, who have handed down vivid pictures of t h e m t a k e n from t h e i r w a r s : the assault on a hill, 3 an incident in t h e battle of Kadesh, shows excellent formation in close order while advancing at a gallop. T h e E g y p t i a n s were unanimous in representing three Hittites in each car, a practice which differed f r o m their own, and so attracted their attention. The third man was a shieldbearer, whose absence from the hunting scenes of t h e Hittite sculptures is self-explanatory. A square shield, mostly associated with the S y r i a n allies, makes its appearance in the scene before u s ; but the E g y p t i a n artists were so much perplexed by the necessity of crowding and showing three men within the t i n y car, t h a t they forgot or found no room for the offensive arms of their redoubtable enemy. F o r transport in war the Hittites

seem to have

P. 279. On the antiquity o£ the horse and chariot, see what is said above, p. 320, note 3. 3 Cf. PI. LXXXVIII., from the north wall of the temple of Rameses n. at Abydos. 1

2

TRANSPORT AND ROADS

365

employed f r e e l y a covered wagon on four wheels, a characteristic vehicle throughout western Asia to-day, and drawn then as now either by bullocks or a pair of horses. I n addition, the hardy ass was also requisitioned, represented as struggling with the weight of his panniers. 1 Though f o r the frontier wars with Egypt, fought out mostly n e a r the Lebanon, t h e Hittite doubtless employed a strategic base in n o r t h e r n Syria, such as Carchemish, yet f o r his Syrian campaigns, and for the general control of his Syrian dependencies, it becomes almost self-evident t h a t there must have been one route a t least available for wheeled traffic connecting with the interior and t h e capital. B u t it is by no means easy to determine which of the several passes may have been used for this purpose. 2 T h e history of these times leads us to infer a system of communication throughout the empire, with Bogbaz-Keui as its focus. F r o m this centre, to judge by the disposition of the earlier monuments and other evidence,roads already radiated in several directions. To the north was Sinope, 3 which seems a t one time to have been the first port of the country, but to have fallen into decline with Boghaz-Keui itself. To the east we must infer a road connecting the valley of the Halys, whether by way of Sivas or otherwise, with t h a t of the Tochma Su, 4 and so leading down to the f r o n t i e r at Malatia. A southerly bifurcation of this route led by Albistan down the passes of the Pyramus to Marash, 5 communicating thence severally with Carchemish, Aleppo, and the valley of the K a r a Su, wherein lay t h e cities of Sakje-Geuzi and Sinjerli. A more direct t r a c k over the mountains from Mazaca (Csesarea) to Marash passed by K u r u - B e l near 1 2

Abydos temple, N. wall, the Hittite prisoners. 3 See p. 34, note 2. 4 See p. 143. Cf. p. 5, note 1.

5

See pp. 6, 24.

366

T H E STORY OF T H E HITTITES

old-time Comana, 1 whence also Dastarkon (near Ferakdin) might be approached. The line of communication from Boghaz-Keui to Mazaca is not known, but a direct road from the former towards Tyana is traceable, and possibly it sent off a branch corresponding with the modern route from Injessu to Caesarea. Whether in its direct southerly line it continued as a wheel track thus early through the Cilician gates to Tarsus is open to question, though it was clearly open some three centuries later. 2 Westward also there must have been established now or shortly afterwards an embranchment connecting Tyana by w a y of Ardistama with Iconium; while, as we have already noted, 3 the existence of a main westerly route from Boghaz-Keui to the Lydian coast is testified by the contemporary sculptures of Giaour-Kalesi and Kara-Bel. Of the cities which these roads connected there remains little trace. A t Boghaz-Keui only the buried remains of the palace built by Mursil 4 and the sculptured sanctuary which we have dated to the age of Hattusil 5 can be assigned with any security to the t w o centuries 1

Ccippadocuc, later distinguished always from Comana of Pontus. See pp. 24, 45. As to the problem of the direction followed by the Persian Posts in later times, we have formed no opinion, and it is beyond our subject. The suggestion made by Prof. Kiepert t h a t it led over by Sebasteia to the valley of the Tochma Su, and so past Malatia, seems to be supported by the fact t h a t no second crossing of the Halys was considered noteworthy in the record. Mr. Hogarth's summary (Macan's Herodotus, 1895, vol. ii. App. xiii. §!$ 8, 0) in favour of a route by Mazaca and Comana, descending on Samosata (Samsat), satisfies all t h e conditions, but seems to us to be improbable owing to its difficulties and to a lack of internal evidence of its importance. Prof. Ramsay's original preference for a route by the Cilician gates is seemingly substantiated by our new evidence of a visible section northwards from Injessu, which corresponds so nearly to that portion of the Royal Road which he has traced on the Phrygian uplands (PI. xxiv.). W e do not think the material a t present sufficient to solve the problem, which we believe m u s t in any case be attacked upon the lines laid down by Prof. Myres in a paper read before the Roy. Geog. Soc. 1896, in which he attempted to reconstruct the Maps of Herodotus. 3 4 5 Pp. 37, 38. Pp. 208, 342. P. 233. 3

E A R L I E R HITTITE CENTRES

367

t h a t w e h a v e b e e n considering. A t E y u k a n d M a l a t i a t h e cubical building blocks d e c o r a t e d w i t h s c u l p t u r e s seem t o indicate t h e existence of palaces as e a r l y as t h e r e i g n of Subbi-luliuma. 1 T h e site of Sakje-Geuzi w a s a l r e a d y occupied b y H i t t i t e people, a n d p r o b a b l y c o u n t e d six walled t o w n s h i p s a n d citadels w i t h i n its n e i g h b o u r h o o d ; 2 we suspect it to be t h e c e n t r e of t h e s t a t e t h a t l a t e r becomes k n o w n in t h e Assyrian records by t h e n a m e of Iaudi. S i n j e r l i w a s also a l a r g e a n d flourishing city, 3 t h e capital of t h e k i n g d o m l a t e r called by t h e Assyrians Samalla. Carchemish, 4 Aleppo, 6 a n d H a m a t h 0 a r e also k n o w n as H i t t i t e cities f r o m t h e h i s t o r y of t h e s e times, b u t n o r e m a i n s of buildings h a v e been f o u n d w i t h i n t h e i r a r e a s t h a t can be assigned t o t h i s period. 7 W e m a y i n f e r , h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e evidence of t h e e x c a v a t i o n s a t Sinjerli, a n d f r o m cont e m p o r a r y E g y p t i a n sculptures, a s well as f r o m t h e designs of l a t e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , t h a t t h e cities of t h i s age w e r e a l r e a d y s u r r o u n d e d by m a s o n e d walls, s u p p o r t e d by numerous external towers, and entered t h r o u g h g a t e w a y s b a r r e d by a p a i r of double doors a n d g u a r d e d b y w i n g t o w e r s on e i t h e r h a n d . B u t m o s t of t h e visible a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e m a i n s of Boghaz-Keui, a n d n e a r l y all t h o s e t h a t h a v e come t o l i g h t in Syria, including t h o s e of M a r a s h , b e l o n g u p o n o u r evidence to a l a t e r period a f t e r t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e empire, w h e n f o r a while i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h i s t o r y t h e o p p o r t u n i t y occurred f o r a r e v i v a l of local a r t s u p o n t h e old models a m o n g t h e s m a l l k i n g d o m s t h a t survived. The d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e H i t t i t e e m p i r e i n t r o d u c e s 1

See p. 339, note 2. P. 298, and Liv. Annals f P- 272. 2

5

7

of Arch., i. Pl. XXXIII. 4 See p. 123.

S e e p p . 7, 97, a n d P I . X X X V I I I .

(i

S e e p . 94.

In regard to an inscription from Carchemish, see, however, p. 371.

368

T H E S T O R Y OF T H E H I T T I T E S

a new phase of their history. With it was involved the downfall of the Hatti rulers, indicated by the failure of the archives of Boghaz-Keui after the reign of Arnuandas, two generations after the time of Hattusil, and hence probably about 1200 B.C. In the great combine of land and sea powers against Egypt, which Rameses HI. resisted and dispersed, 1 the Hittites again figure among the confedei-ates, but this time no longer as leaders ; and subsequently they appear no more in Egyptian history. They had held sway over Asia Minor for about two centuries, a lengthy period for an oriental dynasty, and now they were submerged by historical movements, of which the details are wanting so far as it affected them, though the development of events may be traced in outline. As often in the history of Asia Minor, the tide of immigration that had formerly set westward had now turned, and, sweeping irresistibly from Europe southward and eastward over the Greek world and the iEgean Islands, traversed also the peninsula. 2 The wave which Rameses in. turned away from the Egyptian frontier had swept away the Hatti power, and it may be thought that their part in the movement, like that of others, was migratory rather than warlike, pressed onwards by newcomers from beyond. In the redistribution of dispersal of these peoples, Asia Minor seems to have whom we presume to be a the Phrygian conquerors of

power that followed the the dominant position in been held by the Muski, 3 European people, akin to later times. 4 With these

1 Inner wall of the second pylon of the temple Medinet Habu a t Thebes. 2 On this subject, cf. Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, pp. 468 and 587. 3 Cf. Winckler, Ausgrabungen, etc., 1907, p. 30. 1 Cf. above, p. 53, note 1.

DISRUPTION OF T H E E M P I R E

369

newcomers a t any r a t e the Assyrian kings were occupied f o r half a century. B y 1170 B.C., it would appear, they had traversed Asia Minor and descended upon K u m m u k h , t h e Hittite state lying around Samsat, between Carchemish and Malatia, upon t h e Assyrian f r o n t i e r ; and it was not until 1120 t h a t they were driven b a c k by the valorous expeditions of T i g l a t h Pileser I. I t is possible t h a t the Assyrian king followed up his victories as f a r as t h e B l a c k S e a ; 1 but in any case the power of the Muski would seem to have been broken and to have gradually declined until reinforced by the Thracian immigrants of the n i n t h and eighth centuries B.C.2 I n t h e meanwhile the H i t t i t e states found t h e opportunity f o r a r e m a r k a b l e revival. The readiness of these peoples, though no longer politically united, to combine against a common enemy is well shown by t h e experiences of t h e Assyrian king, who had no sooner crossed t h e f r o n t i e r a t Malatia, t h a n he was assailed on his right flank by twenty-three chieftains, 3 while in f r o n t lay sixty others whose domains extended to t h e Upper Sea. Though possibly this expedition lay eastward of t h e boundary of t h e H i t t i t e lands, t h e c e n t r a l H i t t i t e states did not escape f r o m t h e ambitious raids of t h e Assyrian king, who crossing t h e E u p h r a t e s on r a f t s of skin, this time nearer to Carchemish, put Mount B i s h r i 4 to t h e sword, 1 Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterthums, i. p. 331. See, however, Schrader, Bab.-Ass. Gesch., pp. 162-3, who identifies the 'Upper S e a ' of the t e x t (published by Winckler, Inschriften Tigl. -Pilesers I.) with Lake V a n ; he is supported by Sayce and others. Menant thought that the Caspian was referred to, and Rawlinson the Mediterranean, but neither of the latter theories agrees with the geography of the expedition, on which see Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, pp. 653-4. 2 See what is said on this subject above, pp. 57-8. 3 The Annals of the x t h year record the number as 30, Winckler, op. cit., p. 28, 1. 10. 4 (?) Tell Bashar, in difficult country between Aintab and Carchemish.

2

A

370

T H E STORY OF T H E HITTITES

and advancing northwards, devastated the frontier lands (Muzri), which lay now, as we have seen, beyond Kummukh, nearer to the kingdom of Malatia. The Kumani, dwelling probably in the mountainous region round Comana (Shahr), seem to have gone out to the assistance of their kinsfolk, harassing the Assyrian probably on his left flank. But their native fastnesses and walled cities did not protect them from the vengeance of the Assyrian. Their advanced troops were overcome and imprisoned in the fortress of Arinni; while the remainder of their fighting men, some 20,000 strong, who lay entrenched on Mount Tala, were driven out and piirsued as far as the range of Kharusa, on the frontiers. 1 Kibshuna, the capital of the Kumani, surrendered. The states of Syria were the next to fall to the Assyrian conqueror, for a fresh expedition passing up the Orontes seems to have crossed the Lebanon and reached the Mediterranean coast northward from Beyrout. 2 Though the expeditions of Tiglath-Pileser i. were far-reaching, they do not seem to have established anything like a permanent hold over the Hittite states of Syria. Carchemish, upon the frontier, does not seem to have lost any of its independence, and it may be suspected that after the decline of the Hatti, this state remained the chief centre of the Hittite 1 W e are inclined to place this range in the Amanus, on the Cilician frontiers. The treble-walled city of Kibshuna (Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, pp. 655-6) recalls strongly the defences of Sinjerli (see above, p. 272); possibly it is to be identified with Kabessus on the Sarus. The route of the Assyrian army, descending southward by the passes of the Pyramus, might easily avoid Marash, which is not mentioned in the record. 2 Maspero, op. cit., pp. 657-8. The inscription on the rocky sea front at Nahr-el-Kelb is hardly legible; and our photograph yields no fresh evidence on this point.

R E V I V A L OF THE STATES

371

power. 1 There is indeed a suggestion that its kings were descended from, or early related to, the Hatti rulers,2 and that at one time, perhaps in the eleventh century, they held sway as far as Gurun,3 in the valley of the Tochma Su, indicating a kingdom which embraced all the central Hittite states. However that may be, some names of the early kings of Carchemish have been handed down among the archives of the Hatti, 4 under whom it seems clearly to have been already a state of major importance; and its independence was maintained, in name at least, as late as any of which the history is known. The apparent independence of Carchemish throughout the reign of Tiglath-Pileser is not only a testimony to its own military resources, but an indication that the Assyrian conquests were not secured. The time of the great Assyrian empire was not yet, and as the Assyrian power gradually weakened for a while, so did that of the Hittite states revive. For something like a century and a half, until about 950 B.C., some semblance of Assyrian authority may still be traced on the near side of the Euphrates,® but in view of the history of these times it may be said that during the tenth century B.C., until the renewal of Assyrian invasions (about 850 B.C.), the Hittite states of Syria were free, and their works illustrate to us their latent vitality and the revival of their traditions. 1 Cf. Schrader, Keilinschriften und GescMchts-forschung, pp. 225-236. Maspero, Struggle, of the Nations, pp. 589, and note 3. 2 Sayce, translation of a Hittite inscription of Carchemish, above, p. 126. 3 Sayce, inscription of Gurun, above, p. 144. 4 Biyassili (? Kasyas-sil, suggested by Professor Sayce), temp. Subbiluliuma; and Eni-Sanda, temp. Dudkhalia. Other kings of later history are: Shangara (or Sangar), circa 860 B.C., and Pisiris, the last of all, circa 740-717 B.C. 5 Assur-bel-kala seems to have retained possession of Kummukh, and later Assurirba claims to have penetrated to Mount Amanus and the sea, circa 950 B.C. Cf. Hommel, Gesch, Bab. und Assyr., p. 540,

372

T H E STORY OF T H E H I T T I T E S

I t was not only in S y r i a t h a t this opportunity was afforded, f o r a parallel development of circumstances upon the plateau of Asia Minor seems to have encouraged the revival of the chief states also by t h e removal of their embarrassments. The Assyrian invasions had broken the strength of the Muski, who had f o r some time threatened to overwhelm and submerge the H i t t i t e peoples ; and now t h e gradual withdrawal of both enemies was marked by a cycle of H i t t i t e w o r k s which proved how deep-rooted was their civilisation, and later history shows how radical must be t h e changes t h a t would supplant it in their mountain homes. At Boghaz-Keui a new palace, unadorned, however, with sculptures, sprang up on the site of t h a t of the Great Kings, which was now completely ruined. I t is possible t h a t the g r e a t walls of the citadel as they a r e now seen were t h e product also of this age. 1 T h e y would seem to have been furnished, now or within a few generations, with the g r e a t arched gateways decorated with sculptures 2 which a r e one of their most striking features. Incidentally there is disclosed in t h e representation of a female w a r r i o r upon one of t h e g r e a t j a m b s 3 the development of, or union with, t h e 1 The visible lower palace (p. 207) and the main defence of the upper city (p. 201) are related by the feature of joggles and fitted stones (cf. p. 208). 2 Cf. PI. LX. and p. 203. The treatment of the lion's face is an important factor in the date, as it corresponds to the works of this period at Sinjerli and Sakje-Geuzi (p. 311). The lion tank of Boghaz-Keui (p. 210) is related in like way, and this from its position helps to give a date to the lower palace (p. 211). The unplaced lion corner-stone of Eyuk ( ' p ' on the plan, p. 247) belongs to the same class and phase of art, and is indicative of an upper series of buildings that have seemingly disappeared. 3 See above, pp. 205, 357. The importance and nature of this sculpture were first pointed out by Miss Dodd, having been apparently overlooked by the members of Dr. Winckler's expedition, under whom it was brought to light (Ausgrabungen, etc., 1907, PI. x n . ) . A t the time of writing we have only seen Miss Dodd's sketch and memoranda, for which we are indebted to the courtesy of Professor Sayce.

T H E CILICIAN E M P I R E

373

Amazons, 1 whose f a m e lived in Greek history and tradition while t h e deeds of t h e old H a t t i kings were already buried in oblivion. At E y u k we have seen there is indication of a corresponding phase of local buildings, involving details of architecture and sculpture peculiarly Hittite. I t would seem, however, t h a t it was not in the old centre of administration t h a t t h e dominant H i t t i t e spirit most revealed itself. T h e sculptures of B o r 2 and Ivrîz, 3 and t h e related inscriptions of B u l g h a r - M a d ê n 4 and Karaburna, 6 with others on the K a r a D a g h and a t Bogche, as well as numerous minor works, are all indications of a considerable a r e a united as a single kingdom, the centre of which was Tyana. T h e Assyrian records of later times tell indeed of a powerful tribe or people named by t h e m t h e Khilakku, whose geographical disposition seems to correspond with this area. These two facts in association recall t h e tradition of a great 1 Cilician ' empire, mentioned by Solinus, 6 which was said to have embraced within its sway most of t h e g r e a t states of Asia Minor and of S y r i a t h a t had formerly acknowledged t h e rule or suzerainty of the H a t t i kings. 7 Though this renaissance of t h e H i t t i t e kingdoms m a y 1 A passage from Pindar, quoted byStrabo ( x n . iii. 11), seems to imply that in the old Hatti state within the Halys the Amazons became the recognised leaders in warfare. There is also a suggestion that these developments were coeval with the rise of the Iron Age. 2 PI. i,vi„ p. 186. 3 PI. Lvn., p. 191. 4 P . 190. P . 1.Ï4. 6 Quoting Hecatieus of Miletus {Polyhistor., ed. Mommsen, p. 129, c. ¡S8, § 1 and ff.). This tradition formed the basis of many old theories about the Hittites, notably those advanced by Mordtmann, Lehmann, and Jensen, upon which we need no longer dwell. 7 Professor Maspero (Struggle of the Nations, p. 668) seems to us to have traced the origin of the tradition in a confusion between the memory of the great kingdom of Khilakku and the fabled dominion of the Hatti kings.

374 THE STORY OF THE HITTITES h a v e been short-lived, 1 it w a s n o n e t h e less r e a l a n d general, as t h e peculiar f e a t u r e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e m o n u m e n t s of this a g e t e s t i f y . Practically n o t h i n g is k n o w n , however, of t h e h i s t o r y of t h i s period: t h e i r o w n inscriptions seem to be m o s t l y t h e o c r a t i c or religious, while E g y p t a n d Assyria w e r e t o o m u c h e n g a g e d w i t h h o m e a f f a i r s to send expeditions into Hittite-Syria, t h e records of whose a d v e n t u r e s m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e enabled us to p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e obscurity which hides t h i s b r i l l i a n t epoch f r o m o u r view. T h e period falls, h o w e v e r , w i t h i n t h e first pale g l i m m e r of Greek t r a d i t i o n , which enables us a t a n y r a t e t o i n t e r p r e t m o r e clearly some aspects of t h e local m o n u m e n t s of these times. The m a p of t h e H i t t i t e w o r l d 2 in t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y B.C., deduced f r o m t h e disposition of t h e i r m o n u m e n t s , a n d f r o m t h e records of t h e A s s y r i a n s w h e n t h e y came a g a i n i n t o contact, is also instructive, a n d seems t o us t o i n d i c a t e t h e home-lands or settling-places of t h e r e a l H i t t i t e peoples m o r e clearly even t h a n a m a p of t h e H i t t i t e empire, based as t h a t would necessarily be on t h e w h o l e r a n g e of H i t t i t e w o r k s a a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n identification of E g y p t i a n names. E a s t w a r d of t h e K h i l a k k u , 4 t h e k i n g d o m k n o w n by t h e A s s y r i a n s a s Tabal seems f o r p a r t of t h e t i m e to h a v e e m b r a c e d m o s t of t h e cities of t h e A n t i - T a u r u s f r o m F r a k t i n to Comana, e x t e n d i n g n o r t h w a r d s possibly as f a r a s E k r e k a n d Mazaca (Csesarea). I t included n u m e r o u s 1 The inscriptions of Bor, Bulghar-Maden, and Ivriz are clearly confined to two generations at m o s t ; cf. p. 188. 2 P. 375. In this map the Assyrian names of the states are used, and modern names are quoted in some cases where identification is possible. Capitals denote modern towns not necessarily Hittite but useful as landmarks. 3 Cf. the map to face p. 390. 4 W i t h Khilakku we incline to include Cilicia with T a r s u s ; Northeastern Cilicia seems to have been distinct under the name of Que; see above, p. 326, note 3.

T H E HITTITE STATES

375

376

T H E STORY OF T H E HITTITES

small states, 1 some of which a t various times became separately prominent, a m o n g which K a m m a n u seems to be recognisable in K o m a n a (identified with the modern Shahr), while the principality of S h i n u k h t a and the city of T y n n e 2 lay nearer to Tyana. On the T o c h m a Su, Guriania was the n a m e of a minor kingdom seated a t Gurun, while lower down old Malatia was t h e chief town of the kingdom of Milid (Miliddu), which still retained its great importance. 3 Gurgum lay seemingly around Marash, then known as Marghasi, to which we refer below, while K u m m u k h 4 extended, as we have seen, north-eastward up the near b a n k of t h e Euphrates. Several states lay in the valley between t h e K u r t Dagh and the Giaour Dagh, 5 like Mikhri, bordering on the P y r a m u s ; Iaudi, with its centre (Kullani) possibly a t Sakje-Geuzi or a t Killiz; and Samalla, f a r t h e r south, with its capital a t S i n j e r l i ; while lower down on t h e K a r a Su was Unki, 6 which probably included Kurts-oghlu and t h e site of t h e classical Gindarus. The boundaries of the small states and larger kingdoms alike cannot be fixed, and probably varied continually with t h e ascendency of this ' Twenty-four k i n g s ' are mentioned, c. B.C. 838. Identified by Ramsay with Faustinopolis , see above, p. 01, n. 4. The record is dated B.C. 718, by which time the power of the ' Cilician ' kings in Asia Minor had probably been broken by the Phrygians. 3 See the note on Khali-rabbat, p. 327, note 1; and the description of monuments, pp. 132 if. Names of kings found in Assyrian sources are : c. 800, Lalle (which seems to lack the god-name usually prefixed, cf. Subbi-luliuma); 758, Khite-ruadas ; 717, Tarkliu-nazi; and 672, Mugailu, who seems to have ruled also the Tabal. 1 The names of three kings appear in the Assyrian records : Kundaslipi, c. 859 B.C. ; Kushtashpi, c. 743 B.C. ; and Mutallu, c. 717 B.C. See p. 13. c The name of one king, Tutammu, appears c. 740 B.C., whose capital was a t Kinulua. Earlier, c. 884, Lubarna, King of the Hattina, had his palace at the same place, which is identified with Gindarus. Cf. Maspero, Passing of Empires, p. 38, and Tomkins, Bab. and Oriental Record, iii. p. 6, who points to the name surviving in I'ell-Kunana. I t was a riverine country, with woods and mines ; cf. Polybius, v. 59. 1

2

L A T E R HITTITE CENTRES

377

chief or t h e other. The region last mentioned, f o r example, seems a t one time to have been mostly subject to Samalla, 1 while at other times it was divided between Gurgum and t h e Hattina, or subject to one or other of these powers. The latter, as t h e i r name implies, were a H i t t i t e folk, whose numerous principalities 2 lay in the valley of the Orontes, 3 with H a m a t h doubtless as their capital. Lastly, t h e H a t t i themselves seem to be represented by t h e powerful kingdom of Carchemish on the E u p h r a t e s / the boundaries of which were indefinite, but reached a t any r a t e to the K h a b o u r River on t h e south. On the outskirts of the Hittite kingdoms there were already present most of the elements of the powers t h a t later were to submerge them. I n the immediate W e s t we place the Muski-Phrygians, but t h e m u t u a l boundary is indefinable and probably varied constantly. 5 B a s t of the Euphrates, Mitanni was no more, and Assyria was r e c r u i t i n g ; while from t h e south and south-east there had already begun t h e steady infiltration of Aramaean peoples, who now occupied most of the tongue of land between the Orontes and the Euphrates. 0 Damascus was their centre, and within the HittiteAssyrian sphere t h e y had already planted strong settlements in the plains westward of the Euphrates. Even the kings of Samalla are early found with Semitic 1 These local struggles are reflected in one of the monuments described above, p. 280. 2 ' Twelve k i n g s ' are referred to, c. 849 b.c. (Maspero, Passing of Empires, p.|78). Three names of kings found in Assyrian texts are Lubarna, c. 880 b.o. ; Shapalulme, c. 860 B.C.; and Garparunda, c. 859 B.o. 3 Cf. Winckler, Altorient. Forscli. i. p. 3 ; Delattre, L'Asie Occid. dans les Inscr. Assyr., pp. 44-52. * Cf. Schrader, Keilinschriften und Geschichts-t'orschung, pp. 221, 236. 5 See what is said, pp. 83, 84, on the archaiological problem of the plateau. 0 Cf. Maspero, The Passing of Empires, p. 589.

378

T H E STORY OF THE HITTITES

names, 1 a f a c t which corresponds w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r of a whole series of its m o n u m e n t s . 2 W e m a y suspect f r o m t h e n a m e in like m a n n e r t h e Aramaean e x t r a c t i o n of t h e d y n a s t y of Bit Adini, w h i c h ruled over a b r o a d a n d n u m e r o u s l y peopled H i t t i t e t r a c t e x t e n d i n g f r o m s o u t h of Carchemish even across t h e E u p h r a t e s , includi n g p r o b a b l y t h e site of Tell-Ahmar. S h u g a b lay also on b o t h b a n k s of t h e river, s o m e w h a t f u r t h e r n o r t h . In the north-east a new and formidable power akin to t h e earlier H i t t i t e s w a s g a t h e r i n g s t r e n g t h in t h e vicinity of L a k e Van, by n a m e U r a r t u ; b u t t h e Cimm e r i a n h o r d e s h a d n o t as y e t a p p e a r e d in t h e n o r t h . M a n y of t h e s u r f a c e m o n u m e n t s of t h e H i t t i t e s seem t o belong t o this period of r e v i v a l : t h e y a r e linked b y v a r i o u s c o m m o n f e a t u r e s in detail, a n d i l l u s t r a t e a t t h e same t i m e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w motives in a r t . The increasing p o w e r of t h e p r i e s t - k i n g is reflected in t h e p r o m i n e n c e n o w given t o his p o r t r a i t as a chief s u b j e c t f o r t h e sculptures. 3 His dress h a s n o w a s s u m e d a magnificence of e m b r o i d e r y a n d t a p e s t r y u n k n o w n in earlier times, t h o u g h clearly derived, as r e g a r d s t h e close cap, long robe, m a n t l e , a n d shoes, f r o m t h e priestly dress of t h e b y g o n e age. On t h e rock c a r v i n g of Ivriz he p a y s his devotions t o a god of a g r i c u l t u r e , w h o p r e s e n t s so m a n y n e w f e a t u r e s t h a t h e m i g h t a t first sight be t a k e n f o r a n e n t i r e l y n e w conception, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h a t his dress is obviously a direct modification only of t h e t i m e - h o n o u r e d a n d sacred costume 1

E . g . Akhuni, c. 860 B.C., a n d Khaiani, c. 859 B.C.; see also p. 272. See above, p. 273. Cf. also a s c u l p t u r e of l a t e r d a t e f r o m S i n j e r l i , n o w in t h e B e r l i n V o r d e r a s i a t . M u s e u m , No. 2996, w h e r e a H i t t i t e is s e e n p l a c e d b e t w e e n t w o S e m i t e s , t h e f o r m e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d inter alia by t h e t y p i c a l b u n c h of h a i r c u r l e d b e h i n d h i s n e c k , t h e l a t t e r b y t h e e q u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e s i g n i n g of t h e h a i r in r i n g l e t s . On t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g c r i t e r i o n see below, p. 380. 3 Cf. t h e m o n u m e n t s of B o r , PI. LVII., I v r i z , PI. i . v u . , M a r a s h , p. 113, S a k j e - G e u z i , PI. IXXXI. 2

CHANGED MOTIVES IN ART

379

of the H a t t i gods. Y e t he is a descendant of t h e Songod of Boghaz-Keui, 1 and his new virtues are a product of t h e H i t t i t e lands. Now he has become t h e peasant's god, the patron of agriculture, himself rewarding toil with f r u i t and corn. I n Babylonia, where t h e grain grew wild, and the harvest was a gift of n a t u r e varying only in degree, the function of the consort to t h e earthgoddess, as t h e fertiliser, had been a secondary consideration. I n t h e prominence of manhood under the H a t t i kings, the god had received his separate local attributes and sanctuary. Now he appears, alone, in a third phase clearly developed upon a soil where t h e goddess was benign only to those who toiled. Here the clearing of t h e ground, irrigation, ploughing, sowing, and constant tending were necessary before t h e harvest could be w o n ; and in this attribution the god is worshipped. The Greeks, when they arrived upon t h e scene, saw in him their own Hercules as t h e god of toil. His dress, however, as we have mentioned, betokens his Hittite origin. T h e tunic and turned-up shoes, though more elaborate, remain essentially t h e same as of old. T h e national hat, however, has lost its height, and is also broader; and the same difference m a y be noted in the newly found Amazon figure a t Boghaz-Keui. This change, indeed, may be traced back to the l a t e r years of t h e H a t t i period, if reliance m a y be placed on the Egyptian representation 2 of t h e Hittite monarch who visited Rameses n . The pigtail, moreover, has disappeared, and f r o m the source last quoted and other considerations we are inclined to believe t h a t even in t h e H a t t i period it was already antiquated, surviving only in religious representations as sanctified by time. F o r civil purposes it m a y even 1

Cf. pp. 222, 240.

2 T e m p l e of A b u Simbel, N. wall.

380

T H E STORY OF T H E HITTITES

t h e n h a v e been replaced by t h e n e w style, w h i c h a t a n y r a t e is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e m o n u m e n t s of t h e a g e w e a r e considering, in w h i c h t h e h a i r is g a t h e r e d in a t h i c k b u n c h curling b a c k w a r d b e h i n d t h e neck. 1 The r a n g e of these c h a n g e s in detail on b o t h sides of t h e T a u r u s is a n o t h e r indication of close bonds b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s of t h e H i t t i t e peoples. I n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e of t h e s e t i m e s t h e r e a p p e a r s a n e w a n d s t r i k i n g motive, equally w i d e in its d i s t r i b u t i o n , in t h e lion corner-stone. 2 T h e lion itself w e h a v e seen t o h a v e been e a r l y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o H i t t i t e symbolism, b u t t h e earliest e x a m p l e s in t h e r o u n d seem to be t h e p r o d u c t of t h i s age. The c a r v i n g s of S a k j e Geuzi, which show t h e H i t t i t e style j u s t t i n g e d w i t h A s s y r i a n or A r a m a i c (Semitic) influence, can be assigned w i t h some c e r t a i n t y t o t h e period 900-850 B.C. A t Sinjerli t h e g r e a t lions seem t o be of earlier date, 3 b u t in a n y case t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b l e coherence in design a n d m e t h o d of e m p l o y m e n t b e t w e e n all t h e recorded specimens; as well as a correspondence in t r e a t m e n t of detail w i t h t h e lions w h i c h d e c o r a t e t h e chief g a t e w a y a n d t h e t a n k a t Boghaz-Keui. 4 One of t h e lions of M a r a s h is covered w i t h a n inscription, t h e n a t u r e of w h i c h seems t o c o n f o r m e n t i r e l y w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t t h e o c r a t i c ideals of t h e age. 5 The m o n u m e n t s a n d r u i n s of this place a r e in themselves evidence of a city of r e m a r k a b l e s t r e n g t h a n d of conspicuous i m p o r t a n c e in t h e H i t t i t e world, 6 of which it w a s one of t h e last s u r v i v i n g m e m b e r s . U n h a p p i l y f o r h i s t o r y w e m u s t still w a i t h e r e as else1

See also above, pp. 188, 194.

• C f . P i s . XLII., L X X I X , a n d p p . 109, 265, 297, 3 0 1 .

3

4 Cf. above, p. 297. Pp. 203, 210. See above, pp. 110, 111, and cf. Strabo, xi. iii. p. 32. 6 Cf. above, pp. 108-122. Only two kings are known, namely, Garparunda, c. 859 B.C., and Tarkhulara, c. 740 B.C. 6

ONCOMING OF A S S Y R I A

381

where for the evidences which the excavator's spade alone can satisfactorily bring to light. The bare references in the Assyrian annals to the capture of this or that city, or to the various desperate coalitions of the Hittite states against the power that threatened their independence, if not their existence, tell us little but the date and manner of their downfall. If one could but penetrate the gloom that enshrouds the story of the Hittites in these stirring times, how many Iliads could be written to delight their readers! We pass then to the last phase, which covers the period 850-700 B.C., during which the Hittite states were one by one submerged by the various powers that encircled them, and finally the Cimmerians blotted out from Asia Minor the memory of the past. The story is soon told; for we have only the record of the Assyrian 1 and Tannic 2 inscriptions to help in filling the outline of the Hittite story of these last centuries which was sketched in an earlier chapter. These records also are usually either brief and formal, or expressed in terms obviously exaggerated and partial; and the operations of which they tell were for the most part confined to the eastern Hittite states. Such as they are, however, they are welcome. The story opens about 884 or 885 B.C., with the loss of Tul Barsip, a chief stronghold of the Bit Adini. This was, as it were, the warning of a long series of incursions by the Assyrian forces under Assur-nazirpal and his successor, Shalmaneser II. The Euphrates was crossed by them on rafts of skin as aforetime. Shangara, King of Carchemish, was awed into sending 1 Our w o r k of constant reference at this stage is Maspero, The Passing of Empires, coupled w i t h various articles by Johns, Winckler, and others cited in the footnotes. 2 Published by Sayce, Jour. Boy. Asiatic Soc., xiv.

382 THE STORY OF THE HITTITES a h a n d s o m e t r i b u t e t o secure t h e s a f e t y of his c r o w n a n d life. A m o n g his g i f t s w e r e a r o y a l chariot, objects of gold, silver, copper a n d iron, bulls of bronze, decor a t e d cups a n d carvings in ivory. The r o u t e of t h e A s s y r i a n leader lay by w a y of t h e O r o n t e s valley, a n d f o r a brief m o m e n t , L u b a r n a , w h o a t t h a t t i m e w a s h e a d of t h e principalities of t h e H a t t i n a , seems t o h a v e c o n t e m p l a t e d resistance. Realising, however, t h e i n u t i l i t y of such a course, h e followed t h e e x a m p l e of S h a n g a r a , a n d paved w i t h p r e s e n t s t h e w a y of t h e A s s y r i a n king, who, w i t h t h e r o u t e n o w open, passed o n w a r d s beyond t h e L e b a n o n . B u t t h e H i t t i t e leaders w e r e n o t y e t conquered. S o m e w h e r e a b o u t 860 B.C. n e a r l y all t h e H i t t i t e s t a t e s of Syria, including Carchemish, Bit Adini, G u r g u m , Samalla, Que, a n d t h e H a t t i n a , leagued t h e m s e l v e s in a d e t e r m i n e d e f f o r t t o resist, if n o t t o rid t h e m s e l v e s of, t h e Assyrian menace. T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of t h e absence of S h a l m a n e s e r ' s a r m y in t h e n o r t h , w h e r e h e w a s assailing t h e f a s t n e s s e s of t h e U r a r t u , t h e y even crossed t h e f r o n t i e r a n d m a d e considerable i n r o a d s u p o n t h e A s s y r i a n lands. T h e vengeance of t h e Assyrian w a s s w i f t . The t o w n s of Bit Adini w e r e t a k e n by storm, a n d t h e E u p h r a t e s w a s crossed. G u r g u m , one of t h e s t a t e s first open t o a t t a c k , seceded f r o m t h e c o n f e d e r a t e s a n d s u b m i t t e d . The combined a r m y of Adini, Samalla, a n d t h e H a t t i n a was next defeated, and the Assyrian forces pressed once m o r e u p t h e valley of t h e Orontes, t h i s t i m e in p u r s u i t of t h e K i n g of t h e H a t t i n a , Shapalulme, w h o h a d escaped. Seizing t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , t h e K i n g of S a m a l l a collected his troops, a n d being joined by t h e K i n g of Carchemish, w i t h r e i n f o r c e m e n t s also f r o m Que a n d f u r t h e r west, h e p r e p a r e d to d e f e n d his c o u n t r y a g a i n s t t h e invader. T h e effort, h o w e v e r ,

H I T T I T E STATES COMBINED

383

was vain. The fortress of Shapalulme was burnt. I t is even possible t h a t the Assyrian passed over t h e Amanus into Cilicia, 1 being only stopped on t h e frontiers of t h e chief H i t t i t e state by ambassadors and presents. 2 H i t t i t e prisoners graced this triumph of the Assyrian conqueror, in his capital, being distinguished by t h e i r long robes and cumbrous hats. 3 Though in the following y e a r B i t Adini once more rebelled, with t h e result t h a t two hundred villages and six fortresses were t a k e n or destroyed, and Tell Barsip was garrisoned by Assyrian troops, it would seem t h a t five years l a t e r t h e states of Carchemish, K u m m u k h , Milid, Samalla, H a t t i n a and Gurgum 4 still acknowledged, however unwillingly, the suzerainty of t h e i r all-powerful neighbour, and their respective kings attended a conference a t his bidding. Aleppo alone stood aloof, and was persuaded accordingly by force of arms. Satisfied a p p a r e n t l y with their submission and a t t i tude, the Assyrian king determined to t r y conclusions with t h e Aramsean power seated a t Damascus. The Hittites of H a m a t h , Que, and the Taurus fought against him in t h e g r e a t b a t t l e which ensued a t Qarqar. 5 T h e issue was indecisive, but the Assyrian, as the a t t a c k e r , lost prestige by his lack of success. Carchemish and other vassal states promptly refused Tarzi (Tarsus) was among the cities that fell. We place Muzri in this instance in the Taurus, in the vicinity of the Cilician gates, partly because of the nature of the presents—claimed in the Assyrian records as tribute—which included silver (derivable from Bulghar-Maden and Bcreketli Maden) and salt (obtainable from Tuz Geul and elsewhere in the plain of Konia). Cf., however, the opinions of Tiele, Babylonisch-Assyrische Gesch., p. 201, note 1; Hommel, Gesch. Bab. unci Ass., p. 609, and Winckler, Alt-testament. Forsch., p. 172. 3 Maspero, op. cit., p. 64. 4 There is probably some confusion in the text at this point where Garparuda appears as king of both Gurgum and Hattina, since Khaiani ruled at Samalla, which intervened. Cf. Winckler, Gesch. Bab. und /Us., p. 193. 6 Cf. Maspero, op. cit., p. 71. 1 2

384

THE STORY OF THE HITTITES

to renew their tribute. Shalmaneser was a whole y e a r suppressing this rebellion, a n d t h e r e a f t e r f o u n d it desirable to send a n expedition to the f r o n t i e r each y e a r to m a i n t a i n his a u t h o r i t y . T h u s f a r , it is clear, t h e i n c u r s i o n s of t h e A s s y r i a n s i n t o t h e H i t t i t e t e r r i t o r y h a d b e e n r a t h e r of t h e n a t u r e of r a i d s f o r b o o t y a n d t h e e x a c t i o n of t r i b u t e ; n o serious effort had been m a d e as yet to b r i n g t h e s t a t e s w i t h i n t h e d i r e c t g o v e r n m e n t of A s s y r i a , a n d t h e operations h a d been confined practically t o t h e n o r t h of S y r i a . T h e r e is a r e c o r d of 850 B.C. f r o m w h i c h i t m a y b e t h o u g h t t h a t a first b l o w w a s n o w aimed a t t h e central H i t t i t e states.1 In the next year, however, a f t e r the Assyrian forces had passed Carchemish and reached the Amanus, and then turning southward had held H a t t i n a to ransom, a l e a g u e of t w e l v e H i t t i t e k i n g s in t h e v i c i n i t y of H a m a t h seems to have barred their f u r t h e r progress. These kings a r e no m o r e mentioned, a n d possibly t h e i r territory was absorbed by Damascus, which had o b v i o u s l y g a i n e d i n f l u e n c e a f t e r t h e b a t t l e of Q a r q a r . T h e K i n g of H a m a t h , h o w e v e r , p a i d h o m a g e t o t h e A s s y r i a n w h e n h e once m o r e e n t e r e d t h e v a l l e y of t h e O r o n t e s in 842 B.C. T u r n i n g f o r a m o m e n t f r o m t h e a f f a i r s of S y r i a , t h e k i n g d o m of T a b a l w a s f o r t h e first t i m e i n v a d e d i n 838 B.C., a n d t h e A s s y r i a n c l a i m s t o h a v e r e d u c e d t w e n t y - f o u r of i t s c h i e f t a i n s t o s u b j e c t i o n . I n Q u e t h e king, Kati, was dethroned and replaced by a n o t h e r n a m e d K i r r i ; while f u r t h e r west Tarsus also fell into the Assyrian hands. At this stage Shalmaneser gave u p his m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d ; f o r a while t h e H i t t i t e 1 Maspero, op. cit., p. 28. Tiele, Bab.-Ass. W i n e k l e r , Gesch. Bab. und Ass., p. 197.

Gesch.,

pp. 187, 201.

THE VANNIC POWER

885

states had respite, and some of them, like the Hattina, resumed an attitude of independence.

Submergence of the Hittite States in the Eighth Century B.C.

Meanwhile, however, the Yannic kings had been steadily gaining strength and now found themselves powerful enough to more than hold their own. Erelong they began to cause the Assyrians considerable inquietude on their northern frontier, and about 804 B.C. Menuas drove back the Assyrians and attacked the Hittites. Crossing the Euphrates the Urartians exacted tribute from Malatia. 1 The events of the next generation are obscure; but in 776 the Hittite tribes of Syria, notably those under the Amanus, took advantage of the discomfiture of the Assyrians at the hands of the new Urartian king, Argistis of Ararat, to throw off their allegiance ; and within a f e w years most of them were free of the Assyrian yoke. But their freedom was transient. Argistis looms in the history 1

Sayee, op. ext., pp. 558-592, No. xxxiii.

2

B

386

THE STORY OF T H E HITTITES

of t h e s e times as a g r e a t conqueror, a n d t h e H i t t i t e s t a t e s on his i m m e d i a t e f r o n t i e r , including n o t only Malatia a n d K u m m u k h , b u t possibly a g r e a t p a r t of Tabal, yielded t o his a u t h o r i t y . A f t e r a t e m p o r a r y w i t h d r a w a l , it would seem, t h e whole of n o r t h e r n S y r i a w a s s w i f t l y b r o u g h t w i t h i n t h e d o m a i n of t h e n e w power. I n 758 B.C. t h e k i n g d o m of Malatia, w h i c h u n d e r K h i t e - r u a d a s h a d r e g a i n e d a m o m e n t a r y independence, w a s invaded once m o r e by t h e h a r d y m o u n t a i n e e r s : t h e capital, as well as f o u r t e e n castles a n d a h u n d r e d towns, fell i n t o t h e i r hands. 1 B y 756 B.C. M a r a s h also h a d p r o b a b l y fallen, f o r t h e c o n q u e s t s of t h e V a n n i c p o w e r e x t e n d e d as f a r s o u t h as h a d t h e Assyrian, a n d t h e H i t t i t e s t a t e s of n o r t h e r n S y r i a w e r e all forced into allegiance. P r e v i o u s t o t h e y e a r 744 B.C. a t a n y r a t e , w h e n t h e A s s y r i a n king, Tiglath-Pileser hi., w i t h a r e i n v i g o r a t e d a r m y , p r e p a r e d t o r e p e l t h e invaders, Carchemish, G u r g u m , K u m m u k h , U n k i a n d Que all a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e s u z e r a i n t y of Sharduris. 2 The details of t h e s t r u g g l e f o r S y r i a b e t w e e n t w o f o r e i g n p o w e r s c a n h a r d l y be r e g a r d e d as H i t t i t e h i s t o r y . The H i t t i t e s t r e n g t h w a s a l r e a d y g o n e ; t h e i r k i n g d o m s in S y r i a a n d t h e T a u r u s h a d been b r o k e n , r a v a g e d , a n d w e a k e n e d by t h e scourge of c o n s t a n t w a r s ; while in Asia Minor a similar b u t m o r e v i t a l struggle, all u n k n o w n t o history, w a s b e i n g w a g e d b e t w e e n t h e a d v a n c i n g P h r y g i a n s a n d t h e chief H i t t i t e k i n g d o m s of t h e i n t e r i o r . All hope of g e n e r a l u n i o n w a s a t a n end. Y e t in t h e records of t h e S y r i a n side of these affairs, it is w o n d e r f u l t o see h o w t h e 1 Sayce, The Cuneiform Inscr. of Van; op. cit., xiv. p. 642-649, also xx. pp. 18, 19. 2 This must be regarded as the minimum extent of the Urartian conquests, inasmuch as the source of information is Assyrian, being drawn from Annals of Tiglath-Pileser, p. 743,11. 59-62.

T H E LAST STRUGGLES

387

spirit of independence lived on in t h e old H i t t i t e centres, ready at any time to b r e a k out in open rebellion. No ordinary military punishments seemed able to crush it. I n 743, Tiglath-Pileser m e t and routed the g r e a t confederate a r m y of Sharduris, with whom fought the H i t t i t e contingents f r o m Agusi, Gurgum, K u m m u k h , and Malatia. 1 T h e issue was decisive and momentous. B o t h kings led their armies in person, and the Assyrian r e c o r d 2 states t h a t 73,000 of t h e enemy were slain in battle. Y e t undismayed, Matilu of Agusi, the centre of which was Arpad, seems to have asserted his freedom and to have resisted the Assyrian for nearly three years, when he was overcome and slain in 740 B.C. T h e downfall of Arpad and the death of its king were not without a reactive effect upon the other states, so t h a t t h e kings of K u m m u k h , Gurgum, Carchemish, and Que came to the victors to humbly tender their formal submission. The H a t t i n a still held out, but the Assyrian moved on their capital, Kinalua, which was carried by a s s a u l t ; and in order to avoid f u r t h e r disturbance in these rebellious quarters, both Agusi and Unki were herea f t e r administered by Assyrian officers and garrisoned by Assyrian troops. The policy thus initiated, coupled with t h a t of deportation of the natives in large numbers, proved more fateful to the Hittites t h a n the long series of punitive expeditions sent against them. Samalla was n e x t in arms. Profiting by the absence of the Assyrian forces on their own north-eastern frontiers, Azriyahu, who appears to have been a native prince, laid claim t o t h e throne, though it was occupied by 1 2

Maspero, op. cit., p. 146 and note 3. Annals of Tiglath-Pileser, iii. 11. 59, 73.

388

THE STORY OF T H E HITTITES

P a n a m m u II.,1 a Semitic r u l e r w h o h a d been set u p b y t h e A s s y r i a n king. Tiglath-Pileser h a s t e n e d b a c k t o r e s t o r e order, l a y i n g w a s t e K u l l a n i 2 on his w a y . H e t h e n passed s o u t h w a r d s u p t h e valley of t h e Orontes, r a v a g i n g as h e w e n t . H a m a t h yielded, a n d t h e k i n g s of Carchemish, Malatia, a n d Tabal, w i t h others, w e r e convinced by t h e s e exploits t h a t it w a s t h e i r best policy to t e n d e r t h e i r complete submission a n d t o send t h e i r t r i b u t e . The A s s y r i a n s u p r e m a c y w a s n o w complete, a n d it w a s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a n a r d u o u s expedition which p e n e t r a t e d t o t h e walls of t h e U r a r t i a n capital, in t h e m o u n t a i n s of t h e n o r t h . T h e Y a n n i c p o w e r w a s b r o k e n , a n d t h e r e a f t e r its w a r r i o r s only a p p e a r like t h o s e of t h e H i t t i t e s , in a series of vain struggles against the greater power t h a t was steadily o v e r w h e l m i n g t h e m . I n 732 B.C. t h e f a l l of D a m a s c u s a t last laid open t h e w a y t o t h e f o u n d i n g of t h e g r e a t e s t Assyrian empire. O u r t a l e is n e a r l y t o l d ; t h e inevitable issue is traceable in a b a r e s t a t e m e n t of t h e chief events of a dozen years. A last combine in 720 B.C. of t h e H i t t i t e s of T a b a l a n d Carchemish, reinforced by t h e U r a r t i a n s , only tended t o p r e c i p i t a t e t h e end. I n 718 t h e t r o o p s of S a r g o n passed n o r t h w a r d s t h r o u g h t h e Cilician gates, 3 beyond which T y a n a n o l o n g e r r e p r e s e n t e d t h e 1 Cf. p. 271. He was the grandson of the earlier ruler of that name, and son of Barzar. For a reflection of these local wars, cf. the monument of Sinjerli described on p. 280. For a full discussion and bibliography of these incidents, cf. Maspero, op. cit., p. 150. 2 From local geographical considerations, this place may perhaps be identical with Killiz. But cf. Tiele, Bab. Ass. Gesch., p. 230; Hommel, Gesch. JBab. und Ass., p. 660; Winckler, op. cit., p. 225. 3 The objective of this expedition was the punishment of Kiakku of Shinukhta, whose principality was given to Matti of Atuna or Tuna. On the possible identification of this place with the Tynna of Ptolemy (v. vi. 22), see above, p. 61, note 4, and with Faustinopolis, see Ramsay, Hist. Geog., p. 68. Olmstead (Western Asia in the Days of Sargon, p. 83, note 9) places it at Tyana itself, which opens up interesting possibilities.

F A L L OF C A R C H E M I S H

389

chief Hittite centre, but was now a frontier stronghold of the Phrygian Midas. 1 This monarch was obviously perplexed by the Assyrian advance, and made overtures to Pisiris of Carchemish, who openly revolted. But Midas failed him: his kingdom became an Assyrian colony, and the greatest Hittite stronghold of Syria, that had so long retained a semblance of real independence amid the submergence of the states around, was now garrisoned with Assyrian soldiers. 2 The Tabal were again in arms in 713 B.C., though the rebel leader was a protege of Assyria. 3 He was duly punished, and his fief was annexed to the Cilician province. Following an incursion led by Tarkhunazi of Malatia, the eastern portion of the Tabal, around Comana, was in 712 B.C. fortified as an Assyrian frontier state, with five forts on the Urartian side, two towards the north, and three as protection against the Phrygians. The kingdom of Malatia itself was in 710 put under the rule of Mutallu of Kummukh, and the whole mountain region was renamed Tulgarimme. Gurgum, with its stout fortress of Marash, was the last to succumb. For something like thirty years its last king, Tarkhulara, had retained his throne by diplomatic presents and submission first to the Urartian, and then to the Assyrian. Upon the outbreak of local hostilities, however, in 709, this state also was created an Assyrian province, and with that event the last element of Hittite freedom disappeared. In the mountains of Taurus, in the kingdom of 1 On the identification with ' M i t a of M u s k i ' of the A s s y r i a n texts, see above, p. 53. 2 On the organisation of the A s s y r i a n provinces in these times, see Winckler, Gesch. Bab. und Ass., pp. 210 ff.; Tiele, Bab. Ass. Gescli., pp. 497-499. Cf. also Olmstead, op. cit., pp. 163 ff. 3 On these events which concern U a s s a r m i , chief of Tabal in 740 B.C., and others, cf. Maspero, op. cit., p. 251.

390

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

Tabal, the smouldering fire might still burst from time to t i m e 1 into a flame. But the Cimmerian hordes put out that spark, as they had done for the Urartu, and did in due time for the Muski; and before they could be driven back the course of history was changed. The story of the Hittites was ended; ' Meshech and Tubal' 2 were destroyed, and ' the Land of the Hittites' became a memory of the past. 3 1 As in 706 B.C., Pinches, Bab. Chron., col. 2, 1. 9; a n d later in 672 B.C., Winckler, Alt. Forsch., ii. pp. 125 ff. 2 Cf. Ezekiel xxxii. 26, 27. 3 Cf. Egyptian inscription, temp. Taliarqa, B.C. 073, which mentions Mitanni also; and an Assyrian record, temp. Esarliaddon, B.C. 672 (Maspero, op. cit., p. 370).

EPOCHS OF HITTITE HISTORY 2000 B.c.

1

1400 B.c.1 1380 B.c.1 1370 B.c. 1

1350 1330 1320 1310 1295

B.c. 1 B.c. 2 B.C.1 B.c.1 B.c. 2

Settlements in southern Syria ; overthrow of the 1st Dynasty of Babylon (p. 323). Horse and chariot used in Asia Minor (p. 320). H a t t i k i n g s established at Boghaz-Keui (p. 326). Subbi-luliuma annexes N. Syria (p. 330) and invades Mesopot a m i a (p. 331). Amorite vassalage (p. 336); Treaty w i t h E g y p t (p. 337); Mitanni a protectorate (p. 338). Empire in Asia Minor a n d N. Syria. 2 Palace on Beuyuk-Kaleh a t Boghaz-Keui; local palaces at E y u k and Malatia ; sculptures of F r a k t i n and (?) Sipylus (p. 339). Reign of Arandas. 1340 B.C.1 Accession of Mursil (p. 341). Lower palace at Boghaz-Keui constructed (p. 342). Assyria takes Mesopotamia and Malatia (p. 342). Egypt reconquers N. Syria (p. 343). Accession of Mutallu (p. 343). 1288 B.c., 1 B a t t l e of Kadesh (p. 343). 1

Date approximate.

- Date inferred.

EPOCHS OF HITTITE HISTORY

391

H a t t u s i l concludes t r e a t y w i t h E g y p t (p. 347). Diplomatic relations w i t h Babylonia (p. 350). 2 Sculptures of Iasily Kaya, Giaour-Kalesi, a n d K a r a - B e l (p. 366). [ ? Fortifications of B o g h a z - K e u i c o n s t r u c t e d ] H i t t i t e cities a t H a m a t h , Aleppo, Carchemish, Sinjerli, Sakje-Geuzi, Marash, Malatia, Cornana; confederate s t a t e s in western a n d southern Asia Minor. 1258 B.c. H i t t i t e k i n g (? Dudkhalia) visits t h e Pharaoh (p. 351). 1220 B.c. 1 A r n u a n t a , cadastral survey (p. 352). 1200 B.C.1 Invasions by t h e M u s k i - P h r y g i a n s ; fall of t h e H a t t i and (?) Boghaz-Keui (p. 368). 1170 B.c. 1 Muski reach t h e Assyrian f r o n t i e r ; 1120, repelled (p. 368). 1120 B.C. et seqq. A s s y r i a n invasions of N. Syria and T a u r u s (p. 369). 1000 B.c. 1 Revival of t h e H i t t i t e kingdoms. 2 Sculptures of Bor, Ivriz, E y u k , Malatia, Marash, Sinjerli, S a k j e - G e u z i ; inscriptions of B u l g h a r - M a d e n and Karab u r n a (p. 373). to Boad opened t h r o u g h Cilician Gates (p. 366). Palace reconstructed a t Boghaz-Keui ; Amazon sculpture (p. 372). 900 B.c. 885 B.c. Invasions by Assyria as f a r as (838) Tabal and T a r s u s (p. 384). 750 B.c. 1 N. Syria and T a u r u s subject to t h e V a n n i c k i n g s (p. 386). 2 P l a t e a u of Asia Minor subject to P h r y g i a . 743 B.c. Assyrian supremacy re-established (p. 387). 718 B.c. Pall of Carchemish ; Assyrian troops e n t e r Asia Minor (p. 388). 712 B.c. Tabal (Taurus) conquered ; 709, fall of M a r a s h (p. 389). 1271 B.C.

1

Date approximate.

- Date inferred.

A P P E N D I X A.—BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS

ON H1TTITE

ARCHAEOLOGY

QUOTED

For Works of History, Travel, and General Reference, see Author

Index.

J o u r n a l of Hellenic Studies, xxi. ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p. 3 2 2 . BARTH, Reise von T r e p e s u n t n a c h S c u t a r i . Ü b e r die R u i n e n bei H e y u k (Arch. Zeit., 1859). BELCK, V e r h a n d l u n g e n d e r B e r l i n e r A n t h r o p o l o g i s c h e n Ges. (Dec., 1901.) ANDERSON,

CALLANDER,

See RAMSAY.

CHANTRE, Mission en Cappodoce. (Paris, 1898.) CROWFOOT, J . W . , J o u r . Hell. S t u d . , xix. 1 (1899), pp. 34-51, figs. 4, 5. DAVIS, E. J., On a N e w H a m a t h i c I n s c r i p t i o n a t Ibreez. (Trs. Soc. Biblical Arch., vol. iv. 1876.) —— Life in A s i a t i c T u r k e y . (London, 1879.) D A V I E S , D E G A R I S , El A m a r n a n . (London, 1905.) F B A Z E R , P R O P . J . G . , T h e Golden B o u g h , iv.; Adonis, A t t i s , Osiris, 2nd ed. (London, 1907.) HAMILTON, W . J., R e s e a r c h e s in Asia Minor. (London, 1842.) HILPRECHT, R e s e a r c h in Bible L a n d s . ( E d i n b u r g h , 1905). P r o fessor P. J e n s e n in s a m e : ' T h e so-called H i t t i t e s a n d t h e i r I n s c r i p t i o n s ' (755-793). HIRSCHFELD, Die Felsenreliefs in Klein-Asien u n d das V o l k d e r H i t t i t e r ( A b h a n d l u n g e n der A k a d e m i e in Berlin, 1887). HOGARTH, D. G. (i), Recueil de T r a v a u x , . . . xvii. [See also Ramsay.] (ii) A p p e n d i x xiii., § 9, in Macan's ed. of H e r o d o t u s . (Oxford, 1895.) (iii) I o n i a a n d t h e E a s t . (Oxford, 1909.) (iv) Liv. A n n a l s of A r c h . , ii. (1909). H U M A N N a n d P U C H S T E I N , Reisen in Kleinasien u n d N o r d - S y r i e n ( w i t h Atlas), 1890. J E N S E N , P . , H i t t i t e r u n d A r m e n i e r ( S t r a s s b u r g , 1898). 392

BIBLIOGRAPHY J E R A P H ANION

(GU.

DE),

TWO n e w

Hittite

393 Monuments

in

the

Cappadocian Taurus. Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., xxx. (1908, Feb.). Liverpool Annals of Archfeology, vols. i. ii. iii. (Liverpool, 1908 et seqq.) [Abbr. Liv. Annals?^ LENNEP, VAN, Travels in . . . Asia Minor. (London, 1870.) LUSCHAN, YON, and others, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, i. ii. iii. (Mitteilungen aus den Orientalistischen Sammlungen, K. Museen zu Berlin.) Berlin, 1893, '98, 1902. MACRIDY BEY, La porte des Sphinx à Euyuk. (Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1908, 3, Berlin.) MASPERO, The Struggle of the Nations. (London, 1896.) The Passing of Empires. (London, 1900.) MESSERSCHMIDT, (i) Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum. (Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft.) Berlin, 1900, 4 and 5 ; 1902, 3 ; 1906, 5. [Abbr. C.I.H.] (ii) The Hittites. (Ancient East Series v i . ) (London, 1903, being transi, of Die Hittiter, Der alte Orient, Leipzig, 1903.) (iii) Orientalistische Litteraturzeitung (1909, Sept.). MEYER, ED., Geschichte des Alterthums. (Stuttgart 1884, et seqq.) MÜLLER, W . MAX, (i) Asien und Europa. (Leipzig, 1893.) (ii) Der Bündnis-vertrag Ramses II. und des Ohetiter-Königs. (Berlin, 1902.) MURRAY, Handbook for Asia Minor, etc. (London, 1895.) MYRES, PROF. J. L „ (i) Midas beyond the Halys. (Liv. Annais, i, 1908.) (ii) Geography of Herodotus (Roy. Geog. Soc., 1896). OLMSTEAD, Western Asia in the days of Sargon of Assyria, 722-7 B.C. (New York, 1908.) VON OPPENHEIM, Der alte Orient, 1908. Heft. i. PEISER, Die Bronze-figur von Schemen (Sitzungsber. der Altertumsges. Prussia. Heft 22. PERROT AND CHIPIEZ, History of A r t in Sardinia . . . Syria and Asia Minor ii. (Engl. ed. London, 1890). [Abbr. Art in .. . Asia Minor. ] AND GUILLAUME, Exploration Archéologique (Cappadoce, etc.) PUCHSTEIN, O., (i) Pseudohethitische Kunst, ein Vortrag (Berlin, 1890). RAMSAY, PROF. SIR WM., (i) On the early Historical Relations between Phrygia and Cappadocia, i. ii. iii. (Jour. Roy. Asiatic Soc. N. S. xv., 1883.) AND HOGARTH, Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie

394

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

et à l'archéologie Égyptiennes et Assyriennes, xiv. xv. xvii. [Abbr. Recueil de Travaux.] R A M S A Y (ii) Studies in Asia Minor, i. and ii. (Jour. Hellenic Studies, iii. (London 1883), also ibid., ix. p. 372. (iii) The Historical Geography of Asia Minor. (London, 1890.) Royal Geog. Soc. Suppl. Papers. Vol. iv. [Abbr. Historical Geog.] (iv), Studies in t h e History a n d A r t of t h e E a s t e r n Provinces of t h e R o m a n E m p i r e (Aberdeen, 1906) ; V. T. C A L L A N D E R . Exploration in Lycaonia a n d Isauria, 1904. [Abbr. Stud. History and Art\. (v) Pauline and other studies. (London, 1906.) Esp. Chs. VI. XI.

(vi) The Cities of St. Paul. (London, 1907.) (vii) Luke t h e Physician (London, 1908). Esp. Chs. v. VI. R E I N A C H , Chroniques d'Orient. ( P a r i s 1891, 1 8 9 6 . ) R O B I N S O N , W . A . , A m o n u m e n t f r o m Tsok-Goz-Kupruköo. Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., xxx. 1. (1908, J a n . ) R O T T , H A N S , Kleinasiatische D e n k m ä l e r (Leipzig, 1908), Messerschmidt in do., pp. 175-8, figs. 1, 2, 3. SAYCE, t h e R E V . P R O F . A .

H.

(i) The Hittites. (3rd ed., London, 1903.) (ii) Monuments of t h e Hittites, Trs. S.B.A., vii. (iii) The H i t t i t e s Inscriptions, in t h e Proceedings of t h e Society of Biblical Archaeology; 1903, March, May, J u n e , Nov., Dec. ; 1904, Jan., Nov. ; 1905, Nov.) (iv) Inscriptions f r o m t h e K a r a Dagh. (Ibid., vol. xxxi., 1909, March.) SAYCE, A H i t t i t e Cuneiform Tablet f r o m Boghaz-Keui. (Publ. jointly by t h e Royal Asiatic Society, London, a n d Liv. Inst, of Arch., Oct. 1908.) VAN LENNEP. V O N LUSCHAN.

See LENNEP. S e e LUSCHAN.

Vorläufige Nachrichten über die A u s g r a b u n g e n in Boghaz-Keui in Sommer 1907. (Mitteilungen der deutschenorient. Gesellschaft zu Berlin. No. 35, Dec. 1907.) [Abbr. Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-K., 1907.] Note on A u s g r a b u n g e n in Boghaz-K., 1906, Orientalistische Litteraturzeitung, ix. W R I G H T , W M „ B . A . , D . D . , The E m p i r e of t h e Hittites. (London, 1884.) WINCKLER, H.,

APPENDIX B I N D E X OP H I T T I T E MONUMENTS, W I T H BIBLIOGRAPHY [C.I.H. = Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum (Messerschmidt). For other abbreviations see Appendix A ; and for full titles of the books of travel and general reference see the footnotes.] A i n t a b : S c u l p t u r e d a n d I n s c r i b e d C o r n e r - s t o n e , pp. 106, 107, PI. X L I . B i b l . : Liv. Annals of Arch., i. (1908), p. 8andfig. p. 7 ; Pis. x., XI. A l b i s t a n : I n s c r i b e d Obelisk f r o m Izgin, pp. 145, 140. B i b l . : C.I.H. (1902), pp. 13 and PI. x i x . ; Recueil de Travaux, p. 30 and Pis. I., II. Now in the Constantinople Museum.

xv.

A l e p p o : I n s c r i b e d Stone, p. 97. B i b l . : C.I.H. (1900), p. 4, PI. i n . A; Quart. St. Pal. Expl. Fd., 1873, p. 73; Wright, Empire, p, 142, Pis. v . - v n . ; Proc. S.B.A., v. (1883), p. 146, and 1908 (June); Liv. Annals of Arch. i. (1908), p. 8 and PI. ix. (iii), Sculptured Lion and Eagle; uninscribed. B i b l . : Liv.

Annals

of Arch.,

relief of C e r e m o n i a l

Feast,

ii. p. 184 a n d P I . x l i i . (i, ii, iii).

A l e x a n d r e t t a : S m a l l Stone, inscribed b o t h sides, possibly f r o m Marash, p. 99, n o t e 1. B i b l . : C.I.II. (1900), p. 8 and PI. v m . Amaksiz.

See A n g o r a .

A n d a v a l : Top of Inscribed S t e l a w i t h figure, pp. 188, 189. B i b l . : C.I.H. (1900), p. 27 and PI. x x x i . c.; Recueil de xiv. p. 84 and PI. i.

Travaux,

A n g o r a ; Reliefs of Lions f r o m A m a k s i z , K a l a b a , a n d Y a l a n j a k , pp. 161, 162. B i b l . : Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Asia Minor, ii. p. 202 and fig. 352; Jour. Hell. Stud., xix. pp. 45-48 and fig. 5. A s a r j i k : I n s c r i p t i o n on Bock, p. 153. B i b l . : Liv. Annals

of Arch.,

i. p. 6 a n d P i s . v i i i . , i x . (i). 396

396

THE L A N D OF THE HITTITES

Bey-Keui : Inscription on Black Stone, p. 167. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), p. 32 and Pl. x x x v i . A ; Mitt. d. Deut. Arch. Inst. Athen., xiv. (1889), p. 181; Jour. Hell. Stud., ix. p. 372; Murray's Handbook for Asia Minor, p. 135. Bogche : Inscribed Stone in situ, p. 155 and PI. XLVIII. B I B L . : C.I.H.

(1906), pp. 11, 12, a n d P I . LI.

Boghaz-Keui : (i) Rock Inscription (Nishan Tash) ; ( i i ) T w o Sculptured Blocks with hieroglyphs, pp. 158, 159. (iii) Remains of Pteria, pp. 196-211, with Pis. LVIII.-LXII. ( i v ) Sculptures of Iasily K a y a , pp. 211-241, with Pis. i.xm.(u)-r.xxi., and Plan, p. 221. BIBL. : (i) C.I.H. (1900), p. 22 ; Perrot, Exploration, ii., PI. x x x v . ; Mitteil. d. Deutsch. - Arch. Inst. Athen. Ablly. (1889), xiv. p. 170. (ii) Mitteil. d. Deutsch. Orient. Ges. Berlin (1907), 35, pp. 57, 58, and figs. 0, 7. (iii) The Name : Herodotus, i. 76 ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in ... A sia Minor, ii. p. 103 ; Ramsay, Luke the Physician, p. 215, note. Excavations : Chantre, Mission en Ccippadoce, pp. 13 ff. ; Winckler, Mitteil, der Deutsch. Orient. Ges. (1907), pp. 57, 58; Winckler, Orientalistische Lit. Zeitung (1906), Dec. (iii and iv) Descriptive : Barth, Reise . . . nach Scutari, pp. 44-52; Humann and Puchstein, Meisen in Kl. A., pp. 54 ff. and Pis. vu. ff ; Perrot, Exploration Archéol., ii. Pis. x x x v . ff. ; Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., pp. 108 ff. ; Texier, Description de l'Asie Mineure, i. Pis. LXXX. ff. (iv) Religion : Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., pp. 149-153; Ramsay, Luke the Physician, ch. vi. ; Ramsay, Jour. Roy. As. Soc., xv., N.S. (1885), pp. 113-120 ; Expository Times, Nov. 1909 ; Hamilton, Researches in A. M., i. p. 396; Frazer, Adonis, Attis, and Osiris, i. vi. pp. 105-110. Sculptures and Hieroglyphs : C.I.H. (1900), Pis. xxvu.XXIX.

Bor : (part o f ) Inscribed Adoration Scene, pp. 185-188 and PI. LVI. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1906), p. 3 and PI. x x x n i . ; Recueil, xiv. Pl. I. ; Proc. S.B.A., xxviii. (1906), p. 94 and PI. in. ; Hogarth, Wandering Scholar, p. 16. Now in Constantinople Museum, No. 857. Bulghar-Madên : Rock Inscription, pp. 189, 190. BIBL. ; C.I.H. (1900), p. 27 and Pl. x x x i i . ; Recueil, xiv. p. 85 and Pili. ; Proc. S.B.A. (1905), p. 229. Casts at Oxford (Ashmolean Mus.) and Berlin (Vorderas. Mus.). Large-scale photographs at Liverpool (Inst. Arch.). Carchemish.

See Jerablus.

[Denek Maden : I v o r y Seal, p. 160 and PI. XL. ( i i ) . ] Derendeh.

See Palanga, Haüz.

Doghanlu ; Hermes and other Rock Sculptures, pp. 166, 167. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), p. 32 and PI. x x x v i . B ; Jour. Hell. Stud., iii. (1883), pp. 6-11 and fig. 2 ; Mitteil. d. Deutsch. Arch. Inst. Athen. Abtlg. (1889), xiv. p. 182, PI. vi. ; Perrot and Chipiez, op. cit., ii. p. 206 and fig. 353.

I N D E X OF H I T T I T E MONUMENTS 397 E f l a t o u n - B u n a r : Sculptured ' L y c a o n i a n ' Monument, pp. 174, 175. BIBL. : Hamilton, Researches, ii. pp. 350, 351 ; Revue Arch., 3E ser. vol. v. pp. 257-264 and Pis. xi., XII. ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 224, flg. 356. E k r e k : I n s c r i b e d S t o n e (redressed), p. 148 and Pl. X L V I . B I B L . : C.I.H.

(1900), p. 26,

Pl. x x x i . ,

and

ibid.

(1906), pp. 2, 3,

Pl. x x x i . A. Now in Constantinople Museum, No. 1217.

E m i r - G h a z i : T h r e e Inscribed A l t a r s and an Inscribed Cornerstone, pp. 183, 184. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1906), p. 9 and Pis. XLIX., L. ; Proc. S.B.A., xxvii. (1905), pp. 21-23, Pis. I.-III., and ibid., xxviii. (1906), p. 1 3 4 ; Ramsay, History and Art of the Eastern Provs. of Rom. Emp., p. 178 and Pis. ix., x., xi. E s k i - Y a p a n : Uninscribed Sculptured Lion, p. 88. BIBL. : Liv. Annals of Arch., i. (1908), p. 9. E y u k : F o u n d a t i o n s of W a l l e d Town. P a l a c e G a t e w a y w i t h Sculptures, pp. 242-269, Pis. L X X I I . , L X X I I I . , P l a n , p. 246. B I B L . : C.I.H. (1900), pp. 24, 25 ; Hamilton, Researches, i. pp. 382, 383; Barth, Reise . . . nach Scutari, pp. 42, 43; Arch. Zeit. (1859), pp. 50-59 ; Van Lennep, Travels in . . . Asia Minor, pp. 129-148 ; Perrot, Exploration, ii. Pis. LUI. ff. ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. pp. 153-158 ; Chantre, Mission, p. 1 ; Maspero, Passing of Empires, p. 338 ; Struggle of Nations, p. 648 ; Humannand Puchstein, Reisen, p. 82, Pl. vu. ; Recueil de Travaux, xiv. p. 91. flg. 5 ; Jour. Roy. As. Soc., xv. p. 116 ; Mitteil, d. Vorderas. Ges. (1908), 3; Liv. Annals of Arch., i. (1908), p. 3, Pis. I I . , I I I . Fassiler : S c u l p t u r e d ' L y c a o n i a n ' Monument, pp. 175, 176. BIBL. : Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. pp. 222, 223. ILLUSTR. : Cities of St. Paul, p. 134, flg. 7. F r a k t i n : R o c k Sculptures, pp. 150, 151, and Pl. X L V I I . BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), pp. 25, 26, and Pl. x x x . ; Recueil de Travaux, p. 87 and Pl. xiv. ; Chantre, Mission, p. 125 and Pl. x x i n . Gerger ; R o c k S c u l p t u r e (doubtful origin), p. 131. Giaour-Kalesi : F o r t and R o c k Sculptures, pp. 162-164. BIBL. : Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, fig. 352.

ii. p. 202,

Gurun : R o c k Inscriptions, pp. 143,144. B I B L . : C.I.H. (1900), p. 15 and Pl. x v i n . ; Recueil de Travaux, xiv. p. 86 and Pl. iv. ; Wright, Empire, p. 57 ; Sayce, Trans. S.B.A., vii. p. 305 ; Proc. S.B.A. (1903), p, 148. H a m a t h : F i v e Inscribed Stones, pp. 95-97 a n d Pl. x x x v u . BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), pp. 6-8 and Pis. m . B-vi. ; Wright, Empire, pp. 139-141 and Pis. I.-IV. ; Sayce, Hittites, pp. 60-64 ; Burckhardt, Travels in Syria . . ., p. 146 ; Burton, Unexplored Syria, p. 335; Palestine Expl. Fund, Q. S., 1871, p. 173 ; ibid., 1872, pp. 74,

T H E L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

398

199; ibid., 1873, pp. 35, 61, 74 ; Amer. Pal. Expl. Soc. (1871), p. 31; Trs. S.B.A., \n. p. 429; Proc. S.B.A. 1903 (March), ibid., 1905 (Nov.), p. 218. Now in the Constantinople Museum, Nos. 831834. Ilgin.

See K ö l i t - o g h l u .

I v r i z : R o c k S c u l p t u r e s w i t h I n s c r i p t i o n , pp. 191-195 a n d PI. L V I I , BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), p. 30 and PI. x x x i v . ; ibid. (1906), p. 5 and PI. x x x i v . , and pp. 19, 20; Davis, Trs. S.B.A., iv. (1876). pp. 336, 346; Life in Asiatic Turkey (1879), pp. 245-260; Hamilton, Researches, ii. pp. 304-307 ; Ramsay and Hogarth, Recueil, xiv. pp. 71-85, Pis. III.-IV. ; Ramsay, Luke the Physician, pp. 171,179, and PI. x x i . : Ramsay, Pauline, etc., pp. 172, 173; Sayce, Proc. S.B.A. (1906), pp. 133, 134, and PI.; Frazer, Adonis, etc. (1907), pp. 93-97. Cast in the Berlin Vorderas. Museum. Izgin.

See A l b i s t a n .

J e r a b l u s , Site of O a r c h e m i s h . I n s c r i b e d S t e l a w i t h relief a n d f r a g m e n t s of t h e o t h e r s . Inscription with Winged Figure. Inscribed Corner-stone : Inscribed Column. Inscribed Fragm e n t s of S t o n e . Relief s h o w i n g F i g u r e s on L i o n ' s B a c k . Relief s h o w i n g ' A d o r a t i o n of K y b e l e . ' Relief s h o w i n g P r i e s t b e t w e e n W a r r i o r s , p p . 123-129. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), pp. 9-12 and Pis. ix.-xv. ; ibid. (1902), pp. 2-12 and Pis. x.-xv. ; Wright, Empire, pp. 143, 148, Pis. V I I I . - X I I I . , also X I X . - X X I I . ; Trs. S.B.A., vii. p. 435; P e r r o t and Chipiez, Art in Asia Minor, ii. p. 62, figs. 276, 277, and p. 281, with figs. 390, 391; Ball, Light from the East, pp. 141-143 ; Proc. S.B.A. (1905), pp. 201 ff.; The Graphic, Dec. 11, 1880; Liv. Annals of Arch. (1909), ii. pp. 165-171, with fig. l a n d Pis. x x x v . , x x x v i . (i); Maspero, Struggle, p. 145; Maundrell, Journey to Euphrates (1749); Drummond, Travels to . . . Euphrates (1754), p. 209. The Inscriptions now in British Museum (Guide, p. 27). Kalaba.

See A n g o r a .

Kara-Bel.

R o c k S c u l p t u r e s , pp. 171-173 a n d PI. Liv. C.I.H. (1900), p. 37, PI. x x x i x . ; Sayce, Hittites (1903), p. 67, with PI. ; Texier, Description, ii. PI. c x x x n . ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 229 and fig. 362 ; W r i g h t , Empire, p. 155 and PI. x v i n . ; Revue Archeol. (1866), xiii. PI. x n . ; Trs. S.B.A., vii. pp. 266, 439; Proc. S.B.A., x x i . p. 222; Herodotus, ii. p. 106.

BIBL. :

K a r a b u r n a : R o c k I n s c r i p t i o n , pp. 154, 155. BIBL.: C.I.H. (1902), pp. 17, 24, PI. XLVI; Jour. Hell. Stud., (1901), pp. 328-332, with PI. ; Proc. S.B.A. (1905), p. 217.

xxi.

K a r a b u r s h l u : I n s c r i b e d S c u l p t u r e , C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t , pp. 99-101. B I B L . : C.I.H. (1900), p. 20 and P I . x x v i . (1, 2). Kara-Dagh : Rock Passage, w i t h t w o Inscriptions. (Kizil-Dagh): Fortress, with three Inscriptions ; Rock Altar, w i t h Inscription : R o c k T h r o n e , w i t h F i g u r e a n d I n s c r i p t i o n , pp. 177-181.

I N D E X OF HITTITE MONUMENTS 399 : Ramsay, Luke, the Physician, pp. 160 if. and Pis. Proc. S.B.A. (1909), xxxi. p. 86 and Pis. VII. and v m .

BIBL.

XIV.-XVI.

K e l l e k l i : E i g h t m i l e s n o r t h of J e r a b l u s . R e c e n t l y f o u n d : (i) Relief of H u m a n F i g u r e in l o n g robe, (ii) S t e l a s h o w i n g relief of t w o F i g u r e s f a c i n g , i n s c r i b e d on f a c e a n d t w o sides. B I B L . : Hogarth in Liv. Annals of Arch. (1909), ii. p. 172, figs. 2, 3, and PI. x x x v i . (ii, iii). Kizil-Dagh.

See K a r a Dagli a b o v e .

K u r t s - o g h l u : F r a g m e n t of S t a t u e t t e inscribed, pp. 98, 99. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), p. 8 and PL v n . Now in Berlin Vorderas. Museum, No. 3009. K u r u - B e l : I n s c r i b e d A l t a r w i t h Lions, pp. 146448. BIBL. : Proc. S.B.A. (1908), xxx., P t . II., p. 42 and PI. i. [Remains in situJ\ M a l a t i a : T h r e e R e l i e f s of L i o n H u n t , S t a g H u n t , a n d C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t , w i t h I n s c r i p t i o n s . F o u r Reliefs w i t h D e i t i e s a n d Oblat i o n Scenes, etc., pp. 135-140 a n d PI. X L I V . B I B L . : C.I.H.

(1900), p . 13, P I . x v i . ( A , B) ; ibid.

(1906), p . 7, P I . X L V I I . ;

Heuzy, Les Origines Orientales d'Art, i. PI. x . ; Liv. Annals of Arch., i. (1908), Pis. IV., v . ; ibid., 1909, p. 180 and PI. XLI. ; Hogarth, Becueil, xviii., with PL, p. 2 5 ; Proc. S.B.A. (1905), p. 2 1 2 ; ibid. (1904), xxvi. p. 13. Lion H u n t and Feast now in Constantinople Museum, 846, 847; Stag H u n t in the Louvre Museum, Paris.

M a r a s h : (a, b) T w o L i o n C o r n e r - s t o n e s (one I n s c r i p t i o n ) , pp. 108111 a n d P I . XLII.

Inscribed:—(c) Relief of C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t , pp. 111-112. (d) P o r t i o n of a S t a t u e , p. 113. (e) F r a g m e n t of a S t a t u e , p. 113. (/) R o y a l S t e l a , p. 114. (g) F o u r - s i d e d M o n u m e n t , pp. 115-117. (h) F r a g m e n t of B a s a l t , p. 118. U n i n s c r i b e d R e l i e f s :—(i) W o m a n s e a t e d w i t h Child, p. 118. (k) C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t , p. 119. (I) W a r r i o r b e f o r e Table, p. 119. (TO) A d o r a t i o n Scene, p. 120. (n) C h a r i o t a n d H o r s e , p. 121. (o) Musician w i t h P i p e s , p. 122. (p) H o r s e - r i d e r , p. 122. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), pp. 18,19, and Pis. XXII.-XXV. ; (1902), pp. 15, 16, and PL x x i . ; (1906), p. 2 and PI. x x n . ; H u m a n n and Puchstein, Reisen, Atlas, Pis. X L V I I . - X L I X . ; Becueil, xv. p. 32 and PI. II. B; Wright, Empire, p. 162 and PL x x v i . ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. fig. 268 and pp. 64 ff. ; Proc. S.B.A. ix. (1887), p. 374; (1905), p. 225. N o w a a t Constantinople Museum, No. 840; Cast a t British Museum ; d, n, o at Berlin (V.A. Museum, Nos. 973, 974); / , h, I Metropolitan Museum, New York, Nos. 1904-6-5; l , k , m Casts a t Berlin (V.A.G., 61, 63, 62); g at Constantinople Museum, No. 1625. N i g d e h : I n s c r i b e d A l t a r or M o u l d e d Base, p. 189. B I B L . : C.I.H.

(1906), p . 15 a n d P L L I I I .

400

THE L A N D OF T H E HITTITES

P a l a n g a : C a r v e d Lion. C o l u m n a r F i g u r e inscribed, pp. 141,142, a n d PL X L V . BIBL. : C.I.II. (1900), p. 17 and PL x x ; ibid. (1906), pp. 1, 2, and Pl. x x ; Recueil, xv. p. 95 and Pl. m . ; Proc. S.B.A., xxviii. pp. 93, 94, and Pl. n. Now in Constantinople Museum, No. 1215. R e s t a n : I n s c r i b e d Stone, p. 85, n o t e 2, a n d p. 94 BIBL. : Proc. S.B.A. (1909), p. 259. S a k j e - G e u z i : (a) Reliefs of Lion H u n t , C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t , a n d f r a g m e n t s of Lions, etc., pp. 102-105 a n d PL x x x i x . (6) W a l l e d Mounds, P a l a c e Ruins, a n d Reliefs, pp. 298-314 a n d Pis. L X X V I I I . LXXXII.

BIBL. : (a) Humann and Puchstein, Reisen, Atlas, Pl. XLVI. Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. p. 61 and fig. 279 ; Liv. Annals of Arch., pp. 101, 102, and Pl. XLV.; (6) ibid., pp. 97117 and Pis. XXXIII.-XLIX. Now Lion Hunt at Berlin ; casts of a at Liv. Inst, of Arch. S a m s a t : Inscribed S t o n e w i t h P e d e s t a l , pp. 130, 131. BIBL. : C.I.H. (1900), p. 14 and Pl. xvii. ; Humann and Puchstein, Reisen, Atlas, Pl. XLIX. (1-3). S i n j e r l i : W a l l e d T o w n a n d Citadel : G a t e Sculptures, R u i n s of Palaces, Carvings, p p . 270-297 a n d Pis. L X X V . - L X X V I I . BIBL. : Luschan and others, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli. Now half gate sculptures at Berlin and half at Constantinople. Sipylus : Rock S c u l p t u r e of Mother-goddess, w i t h I n s c r i p t i o n , pp. 168-170 a n d P l . LIII. BIBL.: C.I.H. (1900), pp. 33-36 and Pis. x x x v n . , x x x v m . ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in . . . Asia Minor, ii. pp. 234 ff. and flg. 365; Weber, Le Sipylus, pp. 36 ff. ; Jour. Hell. Stud., iii. pp. 33-68 ; Proc. S.B.A., iii. p. 49; ibid., vii. PL v . ; Academy (1879); Pausanias, HI. xxii. 4. G e r g e r : Rock S c u l p t u r e r e s e m b l i n g H i t t i t e , p. 131. BIBL. : Humann and Puchstein, Reisen, p. 355 and flg. 50. Suasa: I n s c r i p t i o n on Stone, p. 153. BIBL. : Rott, Kleinas. Denkmäler, pp. 175-179 and figs. 1, 2. T a s h j i : Rock C a r v i n g s a n d I n s c r i p t i o n , p. 149. BIBL. : Rott, Kleinas. Denk., p. 178, flg. 3 ; Jeraphanion, Proc. S.B.A., xxx. (1908), pp. 43, 44, and Pl. II. T e l l - A h m a r : M o u n d s of H i t t i t e Site, E a s t B a n k of E u p h r a t e s , s o u t h of J e r a b l u s , pp. 129, 130. (i) S t e l a in Black B a s a l t , r o u n d topped, u p p e r half ; figure w e a r i n g polus, a n d clasping object, (ii) Six b r o k e n Blocks of Basalt, w i t h hieroglyphs, f o r m i n g a four-sided m o n u m e n t , w i t h m a l e H i t t i t e d e i t y s t a n d i n g on bull u p o n t h e face, a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n in e i g h t lines of h i e r o g l y p h s in relief u p o n t h e sides a n d b a c k . [Measures a b o u t 200 X 90 X 90

I N D E X OF HITTITE MONUMENTS 401 cms., t a p e r i n g s l i g h t l y . ] (iii) B r o k e n Slab, t w o d r a p e d figures, w i t h f r i n g e d r o b e a n d u p t u r n i n g shoes, (iv) B r o k e n S l a b w i t h t w o f i g u r e s in relief, clad in t u n i c s a n d u p t u r n e d shoes w i t h o b j e c t s in h a n d s , (v) [ G i g a n t i c L i o n s c u l p t u r e s , i n s c r i b e d in c u n e i f o r m . ] (vi) [ U n i n s c r i b e d l a r g e Block, w i t h relief of t w o r a m p a n t h o r s e - d e m o n s . ] (vii) [Slab, T - s h a p e d , w i t h relief of a bull.] (viii) [ B r o k e n Block, relief of f o r e a r m a n d h a n d s . ] (ix) [ B a s a l t Block, relief of e a g l e - h e a d e d w i n g e d d e i t y in Assyrian attitude.] BIBL. : Hogarth, Liv. Annals of Arch. (1909), ii. pp. 177-183 and P i s . x x x v i . (iv)-XL.

Yalanjak.

See A n g o r a .

Y a m o o l a : S c u l p t u r e d E a g l e on Lion Base, p p . 155, 156, a n d PI, XLIX.

Proc. S.B.A. (1908), p. 27 and figs. Arch., i. p. 5 and Pis. vi., vii.

BIBL. :

1, 2 ;

Y a r r e : Belief C e r e m o n i a l F e a s t , pp. 164, 165. B I B L . : Jour. Hell. Stud., xix. pp. 40-45 and fig. 4. Y a p a l a k : I n s c r i p t i o n seen, p. 145. BIBL. : Sterrett, Epigraph. Journey,

p. 299.

Liv. Annals

of

AUTHOR INDEX H a m i l t o n , 20-22, 56, 76, 174, 243. Heuzy, 36. H i l p r e c h t , 133. Hirschfeld, 344. H o g a r t h , 4, 5, 7, 19, 42, 52, 59, 64, 65, 74, 102, 113, 132-134, 138, 141-144, 145, 149, 182, 185, 188, 366. H o m m e l , 342, 371, 383, 388. H u m a n n , 103, 108, 118-121, 130, 131, 205, 308.

ANDERSON, 154,164.

BALL, 102,125, 127. B a r t h , 207, 243. Belck, 322. Bell, 94, 177, 339. B o s a n q u e t , 71. B o s c a w e n , 127. B r a n d i s , 52. B r e a s t e d , 85, 344. B u r c k h a r d t , 95. B u r t o n , 95.

J E N S E N , 102, 323, 373.

C A L L A N D E R , 183.

d e Cara, 232. C h a n t r e , 102, 106, 149, 269, 313. Chipiez, 34, 49, 70, 85, 103, 108, 112, 122-125, 127-129, 161, 162, 164, 168, 170-174, 197, 206, 208, 210, 226, 229, 243, 264, 266, 267, 269, 308. Crowfoot, 36, 102, 162, 164. C u r t i u s , 34. D A V I E S , 139, 318, 339.

Davis, 45, 192. Dennis, 169. Didot, 60. Dodd, 372. D r u m m o n d , 71, 123. E L O Y ( A u c h e r - ) , 45.

J e r a p h a n i o n , 146, 148. J o h n s , 333, 342. K I E P E R T , 154, 366.

K i n g , 20, 323. K n u d t z o n , 315, 334. K o l d e w e y , 277. L A N G L O I S , 49.

L a y a r d , 6, 310. L e h m a n n , 373. L e n n e p (Van), 20, 243. Lepsius, 351. Lockyer, 198, 210. Longperier, 85. L u s c h a n (Von), 13, 124, 144, 252, 270, 274, 278, 279, 281-3, 288, 290, 291-3, 297, 310, 311.

E v a n s , 313. M A C A N , 24, 366. FRAZER,

7 4 , 169, 170,

235, 238, 239. G E L Z E R , 64.

Glaucher, 71. Griffith, 71, 77. Gsell, 71. Guillaume, 263. H A L L , 63.

H a m d i Bey, 109 402

192,

229, 230,

M a c r i d y Bey, 244, 245, 248, 250-252, 258, 263, 264, 267, 269. Maspero, 6, 12, 39, 57, 58, 62, 63, 123, 139, 245, 254, 319, 323, 324, 339, 342, 344, 368-371, 373, 377, 381, 383, 384, 387, 388, 390. M a u n d r e l l , 71. M e n a n t , 85, 369. M e s s e r s c h m i d t , 3, 7, 16, 49, 83, 97-99, 103, 111, 114, 118, 125, 127, 128, 130, 133, 134, 136, 141, 142, 143, 153, 166,

A U T H O R I N D E X , ETC. 184, 185, 192, 209, 284, 311, 324, 348, 362. Meyer, E., 77, 324, 344, 369. M o m m s e n , 70. de Morgan, 313, 327. M o r t m a n , 373. M ü l l e r ( W . Max), 12, 60, 321, 327, 345, 348, 362. Myres, 56, 366. N E W B E R R Y , 118, 255. OLMSTEAD, 61, 388, 389.

O p p e n h e i m (Yon), 7. P E I S E R , 16, 105.

P e r r o t , 34, 46, 76, 85, 103, 108, 118, 120, 122-125, 127-129, 159, 162, 164, 166, 168, 170-174, 197, 206, 208, 210, 225, 229, 243, 263, 266, 267, 269, 308. P e t r i e , 12, 313, 318, 319, 343, 344. P i n c h e s , 320, 390. P u c h s t e i n , 103, 105, 108, 118, 119, 130, 131, 205, 339, 344. P u m p e l l y , 313, 320.

112, 161, 200, 264,

121,

403

R a w l i n s o n , 170, 369. R e i n a c h , 163, 332, 344. R i d g e w a y , 303. Robinson, 156, R o t t , 148,153. de Rouge, 344. S A Y C E , 3, 124, 126, 171, 172, 188, 189, 227, 229, 343, 344,

63, 74, 77, 80, 94, 95, 96, 97, 128, 133, 137, 138, 154, 169, 173, 177, 179, 182, 184, 185, 194, 217, 218, 222, 225, 226, 257, 286, 319, 323, 324, 331, 348, 371, 372, 381, 386.

Scheil, 100. Schlesinger, 261, 295. S c h l i e m a n n , 313. S c h r ä d e r , 327, 369, 371, 377. S c h u b e r t , 63. S c h u c h h a r d t , 313. S m i t h (C.), 65. S m i t h (M. L.), 71. S t e r r e t t , 145. T E X I E R , 171, 206.

Theodoret, 71. Tiele, 312, 383, 384, 388.

R A D E T , 60, 64.

W E B E R , 168.

R a m s a y , 5, 17, 22, 24, 28, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 45, 52, 58, 59, 62, 64, 72, 76, 87, 89-92, 102, 141, 143, 144, 145, 149, 164, 166-168, .170, 173, 175, 177, 179, 182, 183, 185, 188, 192, 196, 197, 210, 213, 225, 229-231, 243, 265, 267, 357, 376, 388.

W i l s o n , 34, 143. W i n c k l e r , 7, 52, 53, 58, 63, 76, 77, 159, 181, 196, 210, 232, 330-343, 383, 384,

197, 198, 205, 206, 207, 208, 235, 269, 315, 316, 322-328, 345-353, 368, 369, 372, 377, 388, 390.

W r i g h t , 95, 143.

C L A S S I C A L A N D B I B L I C A L W R I T I N G S , ETC., Q U O T E D . A r i s t o p h a n e s , 261. B a r u c h , 127. Ezekiel, 324, 390. Genesis, 323, 324. H e c a t a e u s of Miletus, 245, 373. H e r o d o t u s , 21, 22, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 53, 59, 62, 63, 66, 92, 172, 197, 199, 236, 332. (ed. Sayce), 3 ; ibid. (ed. Macan), 5, 24, 366. H o m e r , 36, 59, 169. J o s h u a , Book of, 12.

Livy, 19. Lucian, 138, 239. Nicholas of D a m a s c u s , 60. Ovid, 169. P a u s a n i a s , 89, 168, 169, 170, 172. P i n d a r , 373. P t o l e m y , 61, 388. Sophocles, 169. Strabo, 19, 22, 23, 26, 35, 62, 64, 110, 149, 231, 236, 239, 372, 380. X e n o p h o n , 79, 173.

GENERAL INDEX For works of reference cited in the footnotes, see Author Index and App. A. A B Î N A , 331.

Aboriginal people of southern Syria, 321. Abusimbel, rock-temple of, 351, 379. Abu-Teshub, 338. Abydos, Hittite warrior in a relief at, 281 n. royal tombs of, 313. Adana, 15. iEdicula, 184. iEgean Archipelago, 3. coast, 17. Islands, 368. pottery, 312. j®riae, temple of the mother of the gods at, 170. Afrîn River, 8, 12, 15, 80, 71, 98. Agron, king of Lydia, 63. Agusi, 387. Aintab,4-7,11,14,86, 97 n., 106, 106 m., 184. Aitakama, 331, 333, 334. Ak Dagh, 29, 35. A k Geul (White Lake), 40. Akhenaten, 336. Akia, king of Arakhti, 333. Akizzi, story of, 332, 334. Akkar-tchai, 37. Akserai, 39, 154. Ak Su, 41, 42 n. Ala Dagh, 42, Alakshandu, vassal of Tarkundarus, 327. Albistan, 5, 145. monuments near, 143. Aleppo, 4, 7, 8,15, 16, 53, 67, 85, 97, 106, 319. description of, 7. Alexander in Asia Minor, 56, 67. Alexandretta, 14,15, 49. 404

Algeria, 71 n. Ali Hodje, near Bulghar-Maden, 189. Alliance between Hattusil and the Pharaoh, 347. Alshe, 332. Altar, 150. of stone, 146, 183. Altars on sculptures of Fraktin, 165. Am, 331. Amanus, 14, 49, 99, 213, 370, 383. Amasia, 34, 35, 106 n. Amazon figure a t Boghaz - Keui, 205, 357, 373. Amazons, 213, 357, 373. on the Thermodon River, 35. Amenhetep hi., 327. iv., 337. Amkh, statue at, 98. Amon, 336. Amorite face-type, 12TO.,34. vassalage and tribute, 336. Amorites, an Arameean (Semitic) people, 318, 324. Amraphel of the Old Testament, 325 n. Andaval, 41, 42, 80 n., 185. inscription of, 25 n. Angora, 21, 24, 28, 34-36, 66, 89, 106. Annals of Tiglath-Pileser, 386. of Thothmes m . , 327. Antaraki, 332. Anti-Lebanon, 16. Anti-Taurus, 2, 4, 17, 19, 21, 24, 44, 87. Antioch, 8,15. taken from Saracens, 72. Apis, worship in Egypt, 256. Arabli, 42.

GENERAL A r a b s in Asia Minor, 72. Aramaean d i s t r i c t of A m (or A m m a ) , 331. m o n u m e n t s a t S i n j e r l i , 277 ff. peoples, 55. A r a m a i c influence in H i t t i t e a r t , 311,312. period a t S i n j e r l i , 122. A r a n d a s , son of Subbi-luliuma, 341. A r a r a t , M t . , 3. A r c h e d g a t e w a y s decorated w i t h s c u l p t u r e , 372. A r c h i t e c t u r a l r e m a i n s of B o g h a z K e u i , 367. A r c h i v e s of t h e B a b y l o n i a n a n d A s s y r i a n k i n g s , 315. of t h e k i n g s of H a t t i , 315. recently discovered a t BoghazK e u i , 3. A r d i s t a m a , 39, 80 m., 90-92, 154. Argseus, Mt., 5, 17,18, 23, 28, 42, 88, 146, 152. A r g i s t i s of A r a r a t , U r a r t i a n k i n g , 385. A r i a r t h e s , 68. A r i n n a , t h e h o m e of t h e sun-god, 344, 316, 353. A r i s s a m a , 39, 90. D a g h , 183. Aries, 71 n . A r m e d priestesses, 213, 357. A r m e n i a , 66. Greater, 3. s o u t h e r n , 62. A r m e n i a n hills, 17, 26. A r n u a n t a , son of D u d k h a l i a , 329, 351, 352. A r p a d , d o w n f a l l of, 387. A r s l a n Boghaz, 99. Tash, s c u l p t u r e s at, 87, 141, 144. Tepe, m o u n d of, 132 IT. A r t e m i s , 65. a t E p h e s u s , r i t e s of, 355. A r y a n i m m i g r a t i o n , 57. A r z a w a , g r e a t H i t t i t e s t a t e , 326. Arzawia, k i n g of R u k h i z i , 334. A s a r j i k , 23, 88, 152. A s h k i r , goddess of t h e m o u n t a i n s , 348. Asia, R o m a n province, 70. Asia Minor, g e o g r a p h y of, 17 ff. Asia Minor, t a b l e l a n d of, 17, 18.

|

INDEX

405

Ass w i t h p a n n i e r s for t r a n s p o r t , 365. Assur-ballit n . , A s s y r i a n k i n g , 333. A s s u r b a n i p a l , 65. Assur-belkala, 371. A s s u r i r b a , 371. Assur-nazir-pal, 57 n., 295, 381. Assyria, 271. revival of power of, 55. Assyrian influence in H i t t i t e a r t , 299. invasions, 371. A s s y r i a n s invade M i t a n n i , 337. Assyro-Babylonian l a n g u a g e u s e d in earliest i n t e r n a t i o n a l correspondence, 31, 325. A s t a r t e , 128. Astrology, g r e a t B a b y l o n i a n w o r k on, 323. A t t i s , 151, 238. A t y a d a e , 63. A u t h o r s . See App. A. A x e w i t h double head, 223. Ayazin, s c u l p t u r e s of, 60. Ay-mi-ny-a-s of t h e l a n d of T y a n a , 188. A z r i y a h u , 387. BAAL, 237, 238.

Ba'albek, 71. Babylon, 3 n., 53, 209. archives, 323. sacked by I l i t t i t e s , 52. B a g h d a d , 39. railway, 15 n. B a k s h i s h , 38. B a n t i S h i n n i , 329, 345. B a r b a r i a n n o r t h e r n hordes, 209. B a r g y l u s m t s . , 15. B a r k h u - i z a w a , 341. B a r r e k u b , k i n g of S a m a a l , 271. Bayal, 43. B e d o u i n s in Syria, 6. Beilan P a s s , 15. Bell, Miss, 339. B e r e j i k , m o n u m e n t at, 129. B e r e k e t l i , 383. B e r l i n E x p e d i t i o n a t Sinjerli, 196. B e u y u k K a l e h , 200, 205, 300. walls at, 245, 249. K a y a n i n , 200. Daresi, 32. Bey-Keui, inscription at, 25, 37, 38, 84, 89, 93,167.

406

T H E LAND OF T H E HITTITES

Beyrout, 15, 370. Beyshehr, lake and village of, 40, 174. Bin B i r Kilisse, ' the thousand and one churches,' 177. Bird, 151. offering on altar, 105. sign, 166. Birejik, ford of Euphrates at, 7, Bir-Geuz, 24, 27. Bridge, 153. Bishopric of Kiskissos, 149. B i t Adini, 378, ¡382, 383. Bithynia, Pontus, Roman province, 68, 69. Biyassili (? Kawyas-sil), 371. Black Basalt, altar of, 183. Sea coast, 28, 34, 37, 195. Bogche, 49, 80 m., 88, 155, 199. pass near, 14, 15 m., 373. Su, 14. Boghaz-Keui, 7 m., 24, 25, 27,28, 32, 33, 64 m., 65, 67, 79, 84, 88, 89, 93, 96 n., 100, 107, 158, 277, 292 n., 297, 300, 306 m., 244-256, 269, 273, 275. priest-king in sculptures of, 256. Book of Omens, 323. Bor, 41,42, 80 m., 91, 305. — — aqueducts of, 70. inscribed sculptures of, 373. inscription from, 23 m., 185. Bosphorus, 37, 62. Boss of Tarkudimme, 352. Boundary stone, 155. Bow, triangular, 150, 171. Bozanti Han, 46. Su, 42 m. Bracelets on wrists of peasant-god, 193. Brigandage of the Amorites, 350. Bronze axe and trappings of Boghaz-Keui, 322. Building blocks, cubical, 159. Bulghar Dagh, 41, 46, 90. Bulghar-Maden, 43, 44, 54, 91, 185, 188, 373, 383. Bull, shrine of Eyuk, 256. identified with father-god, 359. Buttresses of extra-mural towers, 202. Byzantine church at Mahalich, 177. period, 70, 72.

CADASTRAL survey, 352.

Caduceus, 166, 167. Cœsarea, 5, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34, 39, 42, 88, 366.

Calvary, 148. Campaigns of Subbi-luliuma, 330. Canaanites, 324. Cappadocia, 36. Phrygian influence in, 61, 69, 106 m., 110 m. Carchemish, Kybele represented at, 53, 61, 80 M., 85, 262.

early Hittites at, 52. monuments at, 122 FF., 305, 318,

327, 330.

stele at, 113, 117. Carvings of Sakje-Geuzi, 380. in ivory, 382. Caspian Sea, 3. Caucasus, 3, 62, etc. Cavalry, Hittite, 320. Cayster River, 37, 39. Ceremonial Feast, 164. Chair, square shaped, 166. Chakia Su, 42, 43. Chalybes, 60 M. Chariot with panelled sides, 364. Chekerek, 32, 35. Cheshme Keupru, 24, 28, 34, 36, 38, 3 8 M., 89, 162, etc. Chok-Geuz, 26. Keupru, 24, 25, 27, 155. Chorum, 34, 35. road to, 88. Christian churches, 148. Christianity, spread of, 70. Cilicia, 14, 21, 67, 68, 72. Roman province, 69. under the Hittites, 53. western plain of, 48-50. Cilician face-type, 48. Cilician gates, 24, 25, 39, 42, 383, 388.

d e s c r i p t i o n of, 45-48.

horses, 39 M. pirates, 69. plain, 4, 6, 14. aqueducts of, 70. Cimmerians in Asia Minor, 55, 58, 62, 64, 378, 3 8 1 .

Classical writings cited. See App. A. Cloak with fringed border, 187. Club, 363. Colophon, 65.

GENERAL INDEX Comana ( K o m a n a ) , 87, 110 n., 146, 366. Combine of l a n d a n d sea powers a g a i n s t E g y p t , 368. Confederacy, 318. Conical H i t t i t e h a t , 171, 215, 223, 362. Constantinople, 36, 72. Constitution of t h e H i t t i t e power, 234. Contemporary r u l e r s a n d royal alliances, 329. Convention in a r t , 145. Crescent, 217, 238, 303 m. Crete, early M i n o a n p o t t e r y of, 31. • neolithic p o t t e r y of, 313, 320. Croesus, 22, 33 n., 38, 38 n . , 55, 65, 66, 92, 197, 199. Crosses carved on H i t t i t e monum e n t , 148. Crusaders, 45. Cubical b u i l d i n g blocks decorated w i t h s c u l p t u r e s , 367. C u l t of t h e N a t u r e - g o d d e s s , 235. C u n e i f o r m s y s t e m of w r i t i n g , 317. documents found recently at B o g h a z - K e u i , 325. Curtius, Dr., 208. Curved dagger, 363. Cybele. See K y b e l e . Cybistra, 90. Cydnus, 46. Cyprus, copper sources in, 322. terra-cotta statuette from, 142. Cyrus, 66, 67, 68. a n n e x e s H i t t i t e c o u n t r y , 56.

407

D i r k , t h e sacred, 118. with crescent-shaped handle, 214. w i t h m i d r i b , 228. deity, 239. c u l t of, 360. Dimerli, ' lion t o m b ' a t , 60. D i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e H i t t i t e E m pire, 368. D i s k s u g g e s t i v e of m i r r o r , 217. D o g h a n l u , 25, 84,166. Daresi, 37, 38, 89, 93. ' t o m b of Midas,' a t , 60. Double-axe, 363. god of the, 64 n . Double Eagle, 235. a t E y u k , p r i e s t of the, 236. D o w n f a l l of t h e H i t t i t e r u l e r s , 368. D r e s s of H i t t i t e w a r r i o r , 362. Dromos, decoration a t E y u k , 184. D u d k h a l i a , successor of H a t t u s i l , 351, 352. Dud-khaliya, 324.

Eagle,

double-headed, 223. g i g a n t i c stone, 156. m o n u m e n t a t Y a m o o l a , 236. E a g l e s in H i t t i t e religious a r t , 158. E a r r i n g , 215, 227. Ebed-Asherah, Amorite patriarch, 328, 334, 335. E d i c t of D u d k h a l i a , 326, 352, 353. E f l a t o u n - B u n a r , 40, 90, 174. E g y p t , Delta, 2, 255. early H i t t i t e s e t t l e m e n t s on f r o n t i e r s of, 52. Daggeb, c u r v e d , 363. E g y p t , w a r of E s a r h a d d o n w i t h , w i t h c r e s c e n t a l h i l t , 163. 271. D a g g e r w i t h semicircular h a n d l e , E g y p t i a n a r t i s t s , 318. 223. face-type in Syria, 12, 16. D a m a s c u s , 16, 377, 383, 384. influence in t h e s p h i n x e s of E y u k , 254. fall of, 388. E k r e k , 5, 24, 54, 148. D a r d a n i a n s , 344. Daskylos, L y d i a n prince, 60 n . inscribed s t o n e at, 87. D a s t a r k o n , 149, 366. E m b l e m s in f o r m of a s h r i n e u n d e r Delije I r m a k , 29, 30. o u t s p r e a d w i n g s , 84, 217, 225. Emir-Ghazi, 39, 40, 41, 80 «., 91, 169, Deli Su, 153. 183. D e l t a of E g y p t , 2, 255. D e n e k M a d e n , 160. r o u n d a l t a r at, 256. m i n e s a t , 34. Eni-Tessub, 352. D e r e n d e h , 5, 80 n„ 87, 141 ff. E p h e s u s , 37, 65, 66, 71. Develi K a r a h i s s a r , 42. Eregli, 24, 29, 40, 41, 43, 90, 185, 191. Diocletian, 70. Erzerum, 3 n.

408

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES

E s a r h a d d o n , 78, 271, 273, 278, 297, 390. E s h u k Tash, 203, 204. E s k i Andaval, s c u l p t u r e at, 91. K i s h l a (old w i n t e r quarters), 183. E s k i - Y a p a n , stone lion at, 88. E u n u c h - p r i e s t , 3(51. E u p h r a t e s , 2, 3, 4, 6, I n . , 15, 21, 39, 85, 106, 318. valley, 317. E y u k , 35, 80 n., 84,102,107, 277, 282 n., 296 n,, 297, 301 n., 303 n., 306 n„ 339. H i t t i t e site at, 33. m o u n d a n d palace at, 88, 93. palace and s c u l p t u r e s oi, 242 ff. P h r y g i a n inscriptions a t , 56, 6 0 M.

s p h i n x at, 298, 309. Ezekiel, 45, 390.

Giaour-Kalesi, 36, 38, 84, 89, 90, 93, 338. s c u l p t u r e s at, 162. G i n d a r u s , 98, 378. Girdle, 214, 215. Goat, 215. w i t h conical cap on head, 222. God of A r m s , 173. God of t h e M o u n t a i n , 117. Gordius, 61. Goyyim, 324 n . Graffiti, 153. Greek colonies in Asia Minor, hist o r y of, 58, 65 ff. face-type, 31. influence in Asia Minor, 68, 70. G u r g u m , 376, 377, etc. G u r i a n i a . See G u r u n , 143, 376. G u r u n , 4, 51, 87, 143, 371. Gyges of Lydia, 65. HADAD, s t a t u e of, 142.

t h e Syrian god, 59 n., 138 n . H a i f a , seal f r o m , 16 n . H a l y s Basin, m o n u m e n t s of the, 152. description of, 18, 22, 26 ff. River, 2, 4, 5,18, 21, 26, 28, 29,34, 35, 36, 38, 54, 56, 64, 65, 66, 84, 88, 89, 92, 318, 338. H a m a t h , 53. inscriptions of, 75. k i n g d o m of t h e H a t t i n a , 331. r e m a i n s at, 93 ff. H a m m u r a b i , 334. H a r p o o n c u l t object, 160. 183. H a t w i t h flutings, 214. a t Giaour-Kalesi, 162. H a t h o r head-dress, 217. on Kizil Dagh, 178. H a t t i , t h e d o m i n a n t tribe, 318, 319. F o r t r e s s of A r i n n i , 370. H a t t i n a , f e u d a l s t a t e of, 271, 377, of Shapalulme, b u r n t , 383. etc., 382. F r a k t i n , 5, 24, 54, 87, 149, 256, 262, H a t t u s i l , 136 n. 339. H a t t u s i l I., 326. F r i n g e d skirt, 215. i i „ 338. H a v a n d a , t o m b of, 73. GALATIA, R o m a n province, 69. Heliopolis, 71 n . G a r p a r u n d a , 377, 380, 383. Gasliuliawi, a H i t t i t e princess H e l m e t decorated w i t h h o r n s , 193. H e r a of Samos, the, 142. m a r r i e d to P u t - a k l i i , 347. H e r a c l i d a e of Lydia, 63, G a u r a i n a . See G u r u n , 143. H e r a k l e i a , 195. Genealogical table, 329. H e r a l d i c figure, 228. Gerdschein, s t a t u e at, 311. Hercules, 63, 64, 64 n., 195, 240. Gerger, 4. H e r m e s , 167. G e r g e r Kalesi, 85. H e r m u s , 2, 37. Gerger Kalesi, m o n u m e n t at, 131. H e r m u s valley, 199. Giaour Dagh, 2, 13, 27. F A S S I L E B , 40, 90, 175.

F a t h e r - g o d , 237, 359, 360. of t h e P h r y g i a n s , 59, Paustinopolis, 388. F e a t h e r - l i k e emblem, 238. F e m a l e warrior, 372. F e r a k - D i n . See F r a k t i n , 149. F i s h hieroglyph, 153. Flexible h a t s , 215. F o o t g e a r of t h e H i t t i t e s , 320. F o r t r e s s , ancient, 154. a t Arissama Dagh, ancient,

GENERAL INDEX Herodotus, 22, 170, 197. Hilani, 99, 273. Hilt of sword, flat, 215. Hittite routes, 154, 305. sites and monuments. See Appendix B. Hogarth, D. G., 145, 339. Homer, 109. Horns, 10, 85, 85 n., 100 n. bronze figure from, 10 n. Horned altar, 178. Horse, early use by the Hittites of the, 39ra.,320. Horses and chariots employed by Aitakama, 320. Horus, the, title of the Pharaohs, 340. Huda Verdi, spring, 41. Human-headed bird, 157, 230. H u r u Pegamber, 71. Hyksos period, 255 n., 324. sculptures at, 59 n. carved walls at, 124, 120. reliefs at, 196, 205, 255, 257, 262, 268, 269, 303 n. sanctuary at, 88, 110. Iaudi, 271, 367, 376. Iconium, 20, 38, 67, 90, 106 n. inscription from near, 173. traces of ancient site near, 173. Ilgin, 3, 67, 90. Imperial Ottoman Museum, 185. Incursions of the Assyrians, 381. Indo-Germanic element, 324. Injesu, 24, 25, 42, 199, 366. Inscribed Rock (Iasily Kaya), 211. Inscriptions, Hittite. See App. B. on walls of Byzantine church, 178. Ionia, 65. Ionic volutes, 225. Iris River, 35. Istar, 236, 355. Isuwa, land of, 332. Ivory object, 160. Ivriz, monument of, 41, 43, 187, 191, 281 n. sculpture at, 90, 373. Izgin, 5, 80 n., 87, 146. IASILY K A Y A ,

JEBEL ANSARIA,

Jensen, 19.

15.

409

Jerabis, reliefs at, 113. .Terablus, 80 n „ 84, 85. monuments at, 122 ff. Jewish face-type, 34. Jobba Eyuk, relief at, 102. ' Joggle,' 164, 208. K A D E S H , 16.

site of, 85. the battle of, 343, 314, 345, 364. Kalaba, 161. Kara-Bel, 2 n „ 37, 63, 66, 75, 84, 89, 93, 233. pass of, 170, 338. Karaburna, 28, 54, 153, 154, 373. inscription at, 88, 100. Kara-burshlu, 80 n., I l l , 86, 108. K a r a Dagh, 41, 54, 84, 90, 176, 373. pottery of, 313 n. Karadinek, 106 n. Kara Eyuk, pottery of 313 n. K a r a j a Dagh, 41, 183. Karakul, 9. K a r a n j i Keupru, 164. Karasliehr, 100 n. Kara Su, 12, 13, 16, 85, 99, 153, 171, 321, 330, 376. Karduniash, 337. Karmalas, 149. Kartal, 11, 23, 34, 106. Kas, 110. Kataonians, 344. Katashman-turgu identified with Katashman-buriash, 350. Kati, king of Que, dethroned, 384. K a t n a , 33. Kedabeg, 3 n. Khaiani, king of Samalla, 383. Khaleis ' t h e Khalian,' 325. Khali-rabbat (the Milid of late Assyrian records), 326, 339. Khalpa (Aleppo), 333, etc. Khammurabi, 323. Khani-galbat. See Khali-rabbat. Kharusa, range of, 370. Kheta, 77 n., 344. K h e t a s a r (Hattusil n.), 337, 346. Khilakku, kingdom of, 54, 373, 375. Khite-ruadas, 376, 386. ' Khopesh,' 228. Kiakku of Shinuklita, 388. Kibsliuna, 370.

410

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES

Kibshuna, treble-walled city, 370. Killise Hissar (Tyana), 39, 41, 90. site of the ancient Tyana, 185. Killiz, 7, 8, 86, 106, 330, 388. Kinalua, 376,387. King-priest, 192. Kinza, 331. Kirchuk Yapalak, inscribed stone at, 87. Kirri, king of Que, 384. Kiskeui, 149. Kizil Dagh, 90,178. Irmak, 26. Kizilja Su, 41. Kizlar Daresi, 201. K o d j a Su, 41, 43, 191. Kolit-oghlu Yaila, 90. inscription found at, 173. Komana (Comana), 5, 24, 54, 64 n., 70. (identified with modern Shahr), 376. Konia, 18, 21, 24, 38, 40, 66, 174. Korkum, 42 n, K u c h u k Kizil-Hissar, 12. Kulakly, 33. Kullani, 388. K u m m a n u , 376. K u m m u k h , 342, 368. Kundashpi, 376. K u r d s in Syria, 6, 8. K u r m a n Su, 146. Kurts-oghlu, 76, 80 n., 86, 98, 112. Kuru-Bel, 24, 45, 80 n., 87, 146. K u r u Chai, 148. Ku-sar (Susar), 326. K u s h Dagh, 28. Kushtashpi, 376. Kybele, 128, 151, 238, 268. in Hittite mythology, 262. in Phrygia, rites of, 355. Kyrrhus, ruins of, 71.

[ Latakia, seal and bronze figure from, 16 n. Lebanon, 2. Lepsius, 351. Leuco-Syrians of Strabo, 22, 245 n. Lightning emblem, 357. trident, 361. Lion, 146. a t Cheshme Keupru, 162. seated, 156. base, columnar figure upon, 176. gate, 203. tank, 210, 372. of Eyuk, 211. corner-stone of Eyuk, 372, 380. goddess and son, 235. Lions a t Amaksiz and Y a l a n j a k 162. a t Boghaz-Keui, 380. a t Sinjerli, 380. on monuments a t Fassiler, 175. Lituus, 217, 229. Lubarna king of the H a t t i n a , 376. 377, 383. Lycaonia, 69. local sculptures in, 76. Western, 93. Lycaonian structure, 40. Lycians, 344. Lycus, 35. Lydia, coast of, 2 n. empire, 21 n. history of, 56, 58, 60, 63 ff. under the Hittites, 53, 66. Lyre, the, in Egypt, 118 n.

MA, Mother-goddess, prototype of Kybele, 170, 235. a t Comana, rites of, 355. the Mother-goddess, 151. Mace, 214. Maden-Shehr marks the classical L A K E BEYSHEHR, m o n u m e n t s resite of Barata, or Bin Bir Kilisse, flecting Hittite influence, found 177. near, 173. Maaander, 37. Van, 378. route by, 67. Lalle, 376. Magic hammer, 361. Lamas, monument probably not Magnesia, 69. Hittite, 49 n. Mahalich, H i t t i t e site, 40, 41, 90. Lance, 263. marked by a Byzantine church, Language of the Hittites, 319. 177.

GENERAL INDEX

411

Maiden's Rock, 206. I Mithridates, 69. Malatia, 4, 5, 53, 54, 57, 80 n., 84, 86, Mohammed, flight of, 57. 87 n., 88, 107, 339. Mongol invasions, 57. monuments at, 132 ff. type of face, 307. sculptures of, 279. Mongoloid Hittite allies, 318. Manapa-Sanda, 341. Monstrous figures, pair of, 218. Tessub, 341. Monstrous winged figures, 226. Marash, 4, 5, 6, 14, 24, 25, 53, 54,80 M., Mother-goddess, 164, 322, 353, 354. 86, 87, 99 n., 101 n., 102 n., 105 n., ' Queen of the Rock,' 169. 106, 184, 205, 276 n., 279, 282 n „ Mouldings in Roman style, 189. 292 n„ 296 n., 301 n., 308 n., 330, Mount Amanus, 371, etc. 333. Bishri, 369. Marash, inscribed objects at, 118, ff. Tala, 370. royal stela at, 113,114-118. Mountain cult, 321, 327. Mugallu, 376. sculptured fragments, 121. Mujelibeh, 100 n. statue at, 113. Mural crown, 222. Marcus Aurelius, 46. Margasi, 80 n. Mursil replaced his brother AranMarkhasi, 111. das, 341, 306. Masonry, pentagonal in shape, 163. Muski, 53, 54, 57, 368. Matilu of Agusi, 387. Phrygians, 377. Matriarchal system in Asia Minor, Musri, 342, 370, 383. 59. Mutallu, 326, 341, 343, 345, 376. Mutiny of the Amorites, 345. Matti, 61 n. Myrsos, Lydian king, 60 N. Matti of Atuna or Tuna, 388. Mysians, 344. Mattiuaza, 325, 338. Mazaca (Old Gicsarea), 22 ff., 54, 366, 375, etc. NABONIDUS, stele of, 100 n. Nahr-el-Kelb, 370. Mazarima, Hittite prince, 345. Medes, appearance in Asia Minor, Naram-Sin, 313, 323. National deity (Sutekh), 235. 56, 64. Nature-cults, 322. Median empire, 21 n. Medinet Habu, temple of, 368. goddess, cult of the, 152. Menuas drives back the Assyrians, Nefez-Keui, description of, 30-32. 385. Nefret, queen of Egypt, 255, 309. Merenptah, 2. Nerab, stele of, 102 n. Mermnad dynasty, 65. Ni, 333. Mersina, 49. Nigdeh, altar at, 91. Meshech, 390. Hittite inscriptions at, 41, 80 n., 185. Midas, in history, 55, 61, 62. monuments at, 189. monument of, 38. Phrygian inscription of, 42, Seljuk sculptures at, 73. Nineveh, 3 N. 91, 185. fall of, 64. so-called tomb of, 60, 166. Mikhri, bordering on the Pyramus, Niobe, 89. 376. confused with figure on Mount Sipylus, 169. Milid (Miliddu), 376. 'Mita of Muski,' the Phrygian Nishan Tash, inscription at, 88,158, 206. Midas, 62, 389. Nukhasse, 330, 340. Mitanni, 7 n., 58 «,., 328. created a special protectorate, OBELISK, 145. 338. Mithraic type of face at Jerablus, Oblation vases, 339. Olba, priest-kings of, 69, 70. 128.

412

THE L A N D OF THE HITTITES

Old M a l a t i a , H i t t i t e s i t e a t , 132 ff. I P r i e s t , 160. O r d a s u , m o u n d n e a r , 132. j k i n g , 186, 237, 340, 738. O r o n t e s , 8, 14, 15, 16, 93, 321, 370, k i n g s of L y d i a , 64. 377. P r o t o - G r e e k t y p e of H i t t i t e allies, 318. O s m a n i y e h , 14. P s a m t e k of E g y p t , 65. O s m a n l i T u r k s , 57, 72, 319. Oval, t h e e m b l e m of s a n c t i t y , 150. P t e r i a , 9, 25, 32, 60, 60 «., 66, 196, 197. Ovid, 160. d e s t r u c t i o n of, 55. o v e r t h r o w by Croesus, 38. P t o l e m y , 388. PAINTED p o t t e r y of S a k j e - G e u z i , 320. P u t - a k h i , chief of t h e A m o r i t e s , 345, 346. P a l a c e a t B e u y u k Kaleli, 206, 207. P a l a n g a , 80 n., 87, 311. P u t u k h i p a , P r i n c e s s of Q i z w a d n a , 340, 346. m o n u m e n t s a t , 141 ff. P u t u - k h i p a , mentioned as co-ruler P a l m y r a , 16. 353. P a n a m m u , k i n g of S a m a a l , 271, 311. Pylae Syria; e t Cilicite, 15 n . II., a S e m i t i c r u l e r , 388. P y r a m u s , 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 49. P a n t h e o n , H i t t i t e , 317. R i v e r , 86. P a n t h e r a n d eagle, p r o b a b l y c u l t valley of t h e , 145, 365. o b j e c t s , 230. r o u t e via, 143. P a u l of T a r s u s , 45. P y r e n e e s , 321. P a u s a n i a s , 168, 170. P e a s a n t - g o d , 192. QARQAR, b a t t l e o f , 384. t h e p a t r o n of a g r i c u l t u r e , 379. Q i z w a d n a , 346, 348. P e n t a u r , p o e m of, 345. Que, 375, 382, etc. P e r g a m u m , k i n g d o m of, 57. Q u r t D a g h , 7, 13, 14, 106. P e r s i a n E m p i r e , u n d e r C y r u s , 50. Q u r t s - o g h l u . See K u r t s - o g h l u . Gulf, 3. posts, 199. RACIAL CHARACTER, w i d e d i f f e r e n c e P e r s p e c t i v e convention, 214. of, 318. P e s s i n u s , 110«., 164. R a f t s of s k i n , 381. P h a r a o h , 323. P h o e n i c i a n m o n u m e n t s a t S i n j e r l i , R a m e s e s , 77 n. R a m e s e s t h e G r e a t , 209, 351. 270 ff. R a m e s e s , H i t t i t e a m b a s s a d o r , 348. P h r y g i a , 24, 39, 93. R a m e s e s n . , 2, 12M,., 136, 281 n . , 343. b o u n d a r i e s of, 36, 37. h i . , 7 7 n . local s c u l p t u r e s in, 76, R a m e s s e u m , 319. m o n u m e n t s , 37. R a s E l K h a n z i r , 15. pine-woods of, 19, 20. R e n a i s s a n c e of t h e H i t t i t e k i n g S e l j u k s in, 72. d o m s , 373. u n d e r H i t t i t e s , 53. R e c o r d s of t h e A s s y r i a n s , 375. P h r y g i a n c o n q u e r o r s , 317. R e s t a n , 16, 85. h i s t o r y of t h e , 57. R i t e s of C o m a n a , 239. p o w e r a t i t s h e i g h t , 56. of I s t a r a t B a b y l o n , 236. P i g ' s H e a d , cape, 15. R o c k c a r v i n g of F r a k t i n , 184. P i g t a i l , 216, 218, 222, 229, 318, 379. c a r v i n g s , 148. P i s i d i a , 343. of I v r i z , 378. P i s i r i s , 61, 371, 389. i m a g e of t h e M o t h e r - g o d d e s s , P l a n of t h e R o c k S a n c t u a r y called 168. I a s i l y K a y a , 221. s c u l p t u r e s called I a s i l y K a y a , P l a t o ' s S p r i n g , 40, 174. 211. P o n t u s , k i n g d o m of, 57, 69. R o m a n p r o v i n c e of Asia, 69. R o m a n province, 69. p r o v i n c e s in A s i a M i n o r , 69, 70. P o t t e r y , coloured, 210.

GENERAL INDEX

413

R o m a n s in Asia Minor, 57, 69 ff. Seal of t h e H i t t i t e god of t h e skies, E o m a n u s Diogenes, 72. 349. Rosette device on stela a t Bor, 188. of Sutekh, Prince of Heaven, surrounded by horseshoe349. shaped device, 217. Seals inscribed in H i t t i t e hieroRosettes, 148. glyph a n d cuneiform, 352. Rowanduz, 9. of treaty, 349. Royal insignia, 233. Seated figure on t h r o n e near Kizil Road, 24, 25, 89, 199, 366, Dagh, 179. R u m Kale, m o n u m e n t at, 130. Seleucid kings, 57, 68,69. Seljuk Turks, 50, 57, 72 ff, 319. S A Y C E , 190, 194. Sesostris, images of, described by Sacred dirk, 240. Herodotus, 172. Sakaria (Sangarius), 35. Sety I., 342. Sakje-Geuzi, 13, 14, 77, 80 ra., 86, 100, Shahr, 5, 146. 101 n., 102, 103, 106, 109, 264, 276«,., Shalmaneser I., 77n., 342, 382. 282n., 286m., 289 n., 290TO., 297. II., 381, 384. column bases of, 142 n. Shahr, Comana, 370. mounds a n d palace-portico at, Shangara (or Sangar), 371. 298 ff. k i n g of Carchemish, 381, 382. sphinx at, 275. Shapalulme, 377. technique of walls, 251. —— k i n g of t h e H a t t i n a , 382. t h e Berlin relief, 103 ff. Sharduris, 386, 387. Salamis, terra-cotta figures from, S h i n u k t a , 376. 142. Shoe w i t h u p t u r n e d toe, 320. Samalla (Samaal), identified w i t h Shugab, 378. Sinjerli, 270, 367, 376, 377. Sickle, or scimitar, 218. Samosata (Samsat), 366. Silver mines near Bulghar-Maden, Samsat, 4, 84, 85, 100™., 333, 342, 369. 190. m o n u m e n t at, 130-131. Silver and salt recorded as t r i b u t e Samsun, 28, 34. in Assyrian records, 383. Sanctuary of Iasily Kaya, 226, 234. Sinjerli, site of, 13, 80«,., 86, 88, 99 ff., Sandes, or Sandan, 160, 322, 339, 348, 100, 101, 102,(106, 108, 109, 122. 358. column bases of, 142 n . Sandon of Tarsus, t h e prototype of gateways of, 246 n., 252 n. Attis, 173, 235, 238. god-figure at, 117. Sangarius, 21, 35, 36, 37, 38, 59. technique of walls, 251. Saracens, 72. t o w n and sculptures of, 270ff., besiege Constantinople, 57. 300, 301 n., 309, 310 n., 311. Sardis, 2, 38, 64, 67, 84, 89, 199. Sinope, 199, 365. Sargon, 60, 61, 62, 77 n., 273n., 323, Sipa-zar, 345. 388. Sipylene Mother, 65. Sipylus, Mount, 2 n., 37, 63, 66,84,89, conquers H i t t i t e country, 55. 93, 167, 262, 366. Sarisu, possibly t h e classical Sareisa, 348. sculpture on, 168. Sarrupsi, k i n g of Nukhasse, 330. Sites, Hittite. See App. B, Sarus, 5, 42. Sivas, 5, 26, 29, 34, 36, 66, 365. Satraps of Persia, 66, 67. road to, 23. Sculpture on M o u n t Sipylus, 168. Skull - cap surrounded by three of non-Phrygian character, 166. decorated fillets, 193. Sculptures of Iasily Kaya, 357. Smyrna, 37, 65, 66, 84. Socket-hole in g r a n i t e blocks, 159. of Boghaz-Keui, 319. Soghan Dagh, 147. of Sinjerli, 319. Solinus, 373. Scythians, invasion of, 62.

414

THE LAND OF THE HITTITES

Son-god, 195, 235, 240, 241, 360. Sophocles, 169. Sphinx, 230. Sphinxes of Eyuk, 204, 253 ff. Square shield, 318, 364. Staff with crescental knob, 179. Stela, C. 1, Musée du Louvre, 323. a t Bor, 185. a t Fassiler, 175. Stool with straight legs, 165. Storm-god, the Hittite, 138 n. Strabo, 23, 185, 231, 239. ritual of Mother-goddess described by, 170. Suasa, inscriptions at, 88, 153. Subbi-luliuma of Hatti, 315, 325, 326, 330, 331,334, 367. Subbi-sil (Sipa-zar), 345. Sultan Han, 24, 39. Sumur, 335. Sun-god, 322. invoked on Hittite treaty, 348. Sungurlu, 34. road to, 88. Susa, 67. excavations at, 313. Sutatarza, king of Kinza, 331. Sutekh, 359. national deity of the Hittites, 237. Sutekh cycle of the nine states in the Egyptian treaty, 358. Svastika, 187. Sword, long, 215. Syria, 4, 14, 19, 55, 67, 68. Assyrian influence in, 79. desert, 6. early Hittite settlements in, 52. geography of, 6 ff. Syrian villages, 10,11. wars, 336. Syrians, 66. Syro-Cappadocians, 22.

! Tarku, a Hittite form of Sandes, 358. Tarkulara, 380, 389. Tarkundaraus writes to Amenhetep hi., 326. Tarqu or Tarkhu, tutelary deity of Arzawa, 326 n. Tarsus, 46, 48. falls into Assyrian hands, 384. taken from Saracens, 72. T a r t a r peoples, 320. Tashji, 5, 148. figures and inscription on rock, 87. Taurus Mountains, 2, 3,13,14, 17,18, 19, 21, 41, 42, 44, 49, 68, 78, 84, 86, 92, 262, 330. copper sources in, 322. Tavium, 30. Teiria, 245 n. Tell-Ahmar, 7 n., 85, 129-130, 378. Tell el Amarna letters, 315, 316, 330. Tell Halaf, 7 n. Temple of the eagle, 236. Ten Thousand, march of, 67. Tessup, Hittite storm-god, 291. Texier, 206. Thebes, 53, 209, 328. Thermodon River, 35. Thothmes i., 327. h i . , 77TO.,327. Thracian immigrants, 369. Throne hewn out of the rock near Kizil Dagh, 179. Throw-stick, 363. Tiglath-Pileser I., 77 n., 273, 369, 371. III., 78, 271, 386, 388. Tigris, 3, 332. Timber used for building, 159. Tinne, capital of Shinukta, 376. identified by Ramsay with Faustinopolis, 376. Tmolus, mountain, 167. Tochma Su, 4, 5, 25, 45, 86, 143, 146, 327, 365, 371. route by the, 199. T a b a l , 375, 390. kingdom of, invadedin 858 B.c., Toga, 160, 217, 232. Tope Nefezi, 152. 384. Track connecting Ephesus with Tablets of brick, 198. Sardis or Smyrna, 171. inscribed in cuneiform script, Transport wagon, 365. 208. Treaties with internal states in Taharka, 390. Syria, 325. Tal-tisebu, 348. Treaty between Hattusil and RamTargâs-nâli, 341. eses the Great, 234. Tarkhunazi of MaJatia, 376, 389.

GENERAL INDEX Treaty, Hittite copy of, presented to the Pharaoh, 348. with Mitanni, 338. Triangular bow, 318. Tribal totems, 356. Tripolis, 16. Triumph of Assyrian conqueror, 383. Troad, white incised pottery of, 313, 316. Tubal, kingdom of, 54, 61. Tul Barsip, chief stronghold of the Bit Adini, 381. Tuna, 61 n. Tunip, 343. Turkestan, mounds of, 320. Turkey in Asia, 319. Turkomans a t Kartal, 11. in Halys Valley, 29. a t Nefez-Keui, 31. Tushratta, 328, 337, 351. of Mitanni, 315. Tutammu, 376. Tuz Geul, 24, 28, 40. Twin goddesses of the Double Eagle, 236. Two-headed eagle, 230. Tyana, 19, 21, 24, 39, 40, 42, 45 n„ 54, 60, 61, 62 n„ 80 «,., 90, 91, 155, 221, 366, 373. centre of second H i t t i t e kingdom, 25. Phrygian inscription from, 25, 56. stele at, 113. Types of faces, various, 33 n. of Hittites, 318. Tyre, war of Esarhaddon with, 271. Tyriaion, 173, 174.

Urartians exact tribute Malatia, 385. Urartu, 62, 378, 382, 390. Urfa, seal from, 7 n.

415 from

VAN, Lake, 54. Vannic inscriptions, 62, 381, 385,388. monuments, 3 n. Vassalage of t h e Amorite to the Hittite, 324. granted to non-Hittite tribes, 326.

Venasa, 70. Vine-culture, 177. W A L L E D TOWNSHIPS, 367.

W a n , monuments at, 98. War-chariot, 363. Warrior deities of Giaour-Kalesi, 340.

statue of, 171. Weapon resembling a sickle, 228. W h i t e Syrians, 60. Winged animal, 153. deity, 339. disk on inscription found at Kizil Bagh, 187. rosette, 233. Worship of mountains and streams, 322. X E N O P H O N , 67. YAMOOLA, 27, 236.

s c u l p t u r e s a t , 88,155.

Yapalak, 145. Yarre, 36, 38, 84, 89, 100. Yazir Daresi, 32, 200. Yeni Keui, monuments near, 144. Yenije Kala, 205. Yeshil Irmak, 35. UASSAKMI, chief of Tabal, 389. Yuzgat, road to, 23, 24, 30, 34, 35, 36, Umman Manda or Nations of the 106 m. North, 324. Underground passage, 154. ZAMANTI S U , 5, 87, 148. Unki, 271, 376, 386, 387. Zeus, 237.