The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima, Parts i and ii: Results of the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation Project, 1980-1985. Volume I: The Site and the Excavations 9781407390239, 9781407390246, 9780860546283, 9781407347806

Citation preview

The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima Results of the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation Project, 1980-1985 General Editor: John Peter Oleson Volume I: The Site and the Excavations by

Avner .. Raban With Contributions by R. L. Hohlfelder, J. P. Oleson, R. L. Vann, and S. Breitstein, K. Emery, M. Fitzgerald, N. Flemming, E. Linder, D. Neev, Y. Nir, Y. Peleg, A. Sherwood, Y. Tur-Kaspa.

Part i Center for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa Publication No. 3

BAR International Series 491 1989

B.A.R. 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S491 (i),1989 'The Harbours af Cae sare a Maritima,volume I', Part i © The Authors,1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390239 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390246 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546283 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347806 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546283 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TH IS BOOK I S DED ICATED W ITH GRAT ITUDE AND AFFECT ION TO ALL THE VOLUNTEERS AND BENEFACTORS WHO MADE CAHEP POSS IBLE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

( Part i )

T ab le o f Contents

v

L ist o f I l lustrat ions

i x

L ist o f Abbrev iat ions

x ix

L ist o f Contr ibut ing A uthors

x x i

F oreword [ E .L .] P reface

x x i i i

[ J .P .0 .1

Acknow ledgments

x xv [ A .R . ]

x x ix

Chapter I :T he S ite . A .

Natura l F eatures 1 .T opog raphy a nd Geography

[ A .R . ]

2 . Geo logy a nd Geomorpho logy 3 . T ecton ics a nd S ea L eve ls 4 . B eaches a nd Dunes B .

I

[ D .N . , K .O .E . ]

3

[ N .C .F . ]

1 3

[ Y .N . ]

2 /

Man-Made F eatures 1 .S traton 's T ower [ R .L .V . ]

2 5

2 . Herod ian Caesa rea [ R .L .V . ]

2 7

3 . P ost-Herod ian Caesarea

[ R .L .V . 1

3 1

4 . E ar ly A rab Caesarea [ R .L .V . ]

3 7

5 . Med ieva l Caesarea [ R .L .V . ]

4 0

6 . B osn ian C aesa rea E R .L .V . ]

4 2

7 . Modern C aesarea

4 4

[ R .L .V . ]

8 . Water-Supp ly S ystem

[ Y .P . ]

4 6

Append ix I .A : J osephus ' Descr ipt ion o f S ebastos [ J .P .0 . ]

5 1

Chapter I : L and a nd S ea E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP . A .

S um ma ry o f L and E xcavat ion 1 .I n troduct ion

[ A .R . ]

5 5

2 . E ar ly Mandate a nd I s rae l i E xcavat ion s 3 . Hebrew U n ivers ity E xcavat ions

4 . Nat iona l P ark S erv ice E xcavat ions 5 . E xcavat ions o f t he I ta l ian M iss ion

5 6 5 7

[ A .R . ]

6 0

[ A .R . ]

6 . J o int E xped it ion t o Caesa rea Ma r it ima B .

[ A .R . ]

[ A .R . ]

6 2

[ R .L .H . ]

6 3

U nderwater S urvey a nd E xcavat ion 1 .L ink E xped it ion

[ R .L .H . ]

6 5

2 . I s rae l U ndersea E xp lorat ion S oc iety S urvey 3 . CMS S urvey f or t he I s rae l E lectr ic C o . 4 . CMS F ie ld Workshops

[ A .R . ]

[ A .R . ]

[ A .R . ]

5 .J o int E xped it ion Underwater S urvey -V-

7 1 7 4 8 9

[ R .L .H . ]

9 6

v i

T ab le o f Contents Append ix I LA : B ib l iograph ica l L ist o f S ites n ear Caesa rea [ A .R . ]

9 9

Chapter I I : The CAHEP E xcavat ions . A .

I ntroduct ion : E vo lut ion o f t he P ro ject , 1 980-87

[ A .R . ]

1 01

B .

A reas A , B , C : I nner E dge o f S outhern B reakwa ter [ A .R . ]

C .

A rea D : E ntrance Channe l a nd Head o f N orthern B reakwater

1 04

1 . Area D : Head o f Northern B reakwater [ A .R . , J .P .0 . ]

1 13

2 . A rea D1 a nd D 2 : Harbour E ntrance C hanne l [ J .P .0 . }

1 15

3 . A rea D3 : P robe f or West Wa l l o f E ntrance Channe l

1 19

[ J .P .0 . ]

D .

A rea E : S ubs id ia ry B reakwater [ J .P .0 . 1

1 20 1 24

E .

A rea F : S unken P avement

F .

A rea G : NW T ip o f Northern B reakwa ter a nd Ad jacent T ower

[ A .R . ]

[ J .P .0 . ]

1 27

G .

A rea H : S outhern F ace o f N orthern B reakwater [ J .P .0 . ]

1 30

H .

A rea I :I nner Harbour B as in [ A .R . ]

1 31

1 . A rea

1 32

Quay Wa l l , Northern E nd [ A .R . ]

2 . A rea 1 2 : Quay Wa l l , S outhern E nd 3 . A rea 1 3 : P od ium V au lt

[ A .R . ]

1 37

[ A .R . ]

1 38

I .

A rea J : He l len ist ic Quay [ A .R . ]

1 43

J .

A rea K : Tw in T owers West o f E ntrance Channe l

K .

A rea L : Herod ian Quay a nd P ier [ A .R . ]

1 51

L .

A rea M : C rusader C itade l

1 54

M .

A rea N : I nner E dge o f S outhern B reakwater [ A .R . ]

1 57

N .

A rea P : P isc ine [ J .P .0 . ]

1 60

0 .

A rea Q : P romontory , S outh S ide o f I n termed iate B as in

P .

A rea R : Rubb le P ro ject ion I n s ide Harbou r E ntrance [ A .R . ]

1 72

Q .

A rea S : S ea-Wa l l t o N ortheast o f I ntermed iate B as in

1 73

R .

A rea T : Wa l ls a nd T owers i n I n termed iate B as in [ A .R . ]

[ R .L .V . 1

[ R .L .V . ]

[ A .R . ]

[ A .R . ]

1 . A rea T i:R ound T ower [ A .R . ] A rea Y : Roman S h ipwreck

1 67

1 77

2 . A rea T 2 : C rusader Wa l l a nd S quare T ower S .

1 49

[ A .R . ]

[ M .F . , A .R . ]

1 81 1 84

Append ix I I .A : Ana lys is o f Wood a nd Rope [ N .L . , S .L-Y . , Y .W . , U .K-G . , J .P .0 . ]

1 91

Append ix I I .B : Rad iocarbon Dat ing [ A .R . ]

1 97

Append ix I I .C : Chem ica l Ana lys is o f Morta r [ N .L . , S .L-Y . , Y .W . , J .P .0 . ]

/ 99

Append ix I I .D : P hys ica l Ana lys is o f Mortar [ J .P .0 . ]

2 01

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys . A .

A rch itectura l S urvey o n L and [ R .L .V . ]

2 05

B .

S urvey o f t he S outh B ay

2 06

C .

S urvey L ines a nd S ect ion D raw ings [ J .P .O . , A .N .S . , A .R . ]

2 09

D .

M isce l laneous Underwater S urveys

2 30

E .

J et-Probes

[ Y .T-K . ]

[ R .L .H . ] [ A .R . ]

2 35

T ab le o f Contents

v i i ( Part i )

Chapter V : P ract ica l O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP . A .

O rgan iza t ion , S taff ing , a nd F und ing [ R .L .H . ]

2 39

B .

D a i ly S chedu le [ R .L .H . ]

2 41

C .

Work ing B ase [ A .R . ]

2 43

D .

R eg istrat ion a nd Conservat ion o f F inds 1 .F inds f rom Underwa ter E xcavat ion [ J .P .0 . ]

2 46

2 . F inds f rom L and E xcavat ion [ A .R . ]

2 48

3 . Conserva t ion a nd R estora t ion [ A .R . ]

2 50

E .

B as ic L and S urvey s [ A .R . ]

2 51

F .

A rch itectu ra l S urvey T echn iques [ R .L .V . ]

2 53

G .

B a rge a nd A ir S upp ly S ystem

2 56

H .

A ir l ifts [ S .B . ]

I .

H ookah S urface-Supp ly B rea th ing -A ir S ystem

J .

S ha l low-Water E xcava t ion [ S .B . ]

2 62

K .

D iver S uperv is ion a nd S afety [ S .B . 1

2 63

L .

O rgan izat ion o f L and E xcavat ion [ A .R . ]

2 64

[ S .B . ]

2 58 [ S .B . ]

Append ix V .A : L ist o f CAHEP S taff a nd V o lunteers , 1 979-85 .

2 60

2 67

C hapter V I : S ummary D iscuss ion . A .

S traton 's T ower [ A .R . ]

2 71

B .

T he I nner B a s in [ A .R . ]

2 75

C .

T he I n termed iate B a s in [ A .R . ]

2 76

D .

T he S ubmerged B reakwaters [ A .R . ]

2 79

E .

T enta t ive R econstruct ion o f t he Herod ian Ha rbour [ A .R . ]

2 86

F .

T he S outh B ay [ A .R . ]

2 89

G .

L a ter Man-Made F ea tures [ A .R . ]

2 89

H .

L and-Sea R e la t ions [ A .R . ]

2 93

B ib l iography

2 97

I lustrat ions

3 25

v i i-

L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS

I n o rder t o f ac i l itate p reparat ion o f t he t ext p ages a nd c ross-reference among i lustrat ions ,

a l l

t he

i lustrat ions

f or

t hese

t wo

v o lumes

h ave

b een

g athered

t ogether a t t he e nd o f V o lume I . T he l i ne d raw ings a nd p hotograph s a re i n term ing led a s t he t ext d emands a nd h ave b een l i sted i n s ix s epa rate s er ies c orrespond ing t o t he s ix c hapters . B ecause o f t he ir s ize , t he Master U rban P lan a nd t he S ect iona l E levat ion D raw ings o f t he S urvey L ines h ave h ad t o b e p ut o n f ive f o ld ing p lates a t t he b ack o f t he s ect ion o f I lustrat ions . I n c onsequence t hey a re l i sted i n as epa rate s er ies , a s P la tes I -V .

The i lustrat ion n umbers f or e ach c hapter a re p re-

c eded b y t he Roman n umera l c hapter n u mber , a l low ing t he r eader t o p ick o ut more e as i ly t he i lustrat ion s r e levant t o p art icu la r s ect ions o r t op ics , a nd a t t he s ame t ime t o f o l low u p r eferences t o i lustrat ions f or o ther c hapters . Ih ave t r ied t o a rrange t he f igures a nd p hotog raphs i n ar at iona l , p rog ress ive o rder , a nd t h is o ccas iona l ly d iffers s l ight ly f rom t he o rder i n wh ich i lustra t ions a re c ited i n t he t ext .

Reg iona l maps , f or e xamp le , p recede s i te maps , wh ich i n t urn p recede a rea

p lans a nd p hotograph s o f i nd iv idua l f eatures a nd s tructures . g raphs t aken b y W i lson Myers p rov ide a nother e xamp le .

T he a er ia l p hoto-

T hese h ave b een k ept

t ogether a s au n it , p rog ress ing d own t he c oa stl ine f rom n orth t o s outh , a lthough t ext r eferences t o t he i mages a re s cattered t hroughout t he v o lu me .

The i l lustra-

t i ons f or e ach CAHEP e xcavat ion a rea , t oo , h ave b een k ept t ogether , e xcept f or s ome o f t he e a r ly p hotographs t aken b y t he CMS d ur ing work p r ior t o t he f ormat i on o f CAHEP .

The s ea c ond it ions a t Caesarea a nd t he c haracter o f t he s truc-

t ures a round t he s ubmerged b reakwaters a re n ot c onduc ive t o c lear a nd u sefu l p hotog raph ic i mages . A s ar esu lt , Ih ave i nc luded u nderwater p hotographs o n ly where t hey p rov ide i n format ion t hat c ou ld n ot b e p resented b etter b y p lans o r d raw ings . E ven s o , t he c la r ity o f s ome o f t hese p hotograph s i s n ot u p t o t he s tand ards o ne c an e xpect o f p hotograph s t aken o n l and .

Un less o therw ise i nd icated ,

t he p hotographs were t aken b y t he CAHEP c o-d irectors o r s taff p hotog raphers , a nd t he p lans a nd d raw ings were p repared b y CAHEP s taff a rch itects u nder t he s uperv is ion o f R .L . V ann ( for t he ir n ames s ee Append ix V .A ) . n ames , s ee t he L ist o f Contr ibut ing Authors ( p . x x i ) .

F or a bbrev iated

Desp ite d i l igent s earch ing , i t

h as n ot a lways b een p oss ib le t o a ttr ibute s ome o f t he e ar ly p hotographs o f t he s i te t o as pec if ic p hotographer .

We a po log ize f or a ny om iss ions a nd wou ld b e g lad t o

i n sert t he a ppropr iate c red its i n as ubsequent v o lume , o nce t hey a re b rought t o t he a ttent ion o f t he Genera l E d itor . [ J . P. 0 . ]

L is t o fI l lustrat ions

x I l lus tra t ions t o Chap ter I . 1 . 1

L ocat ion map o f Caesarea i n t he E astern Med iterranean .

I . 2

L ocat ion map o f a nc ient h a rbours i n t he L evant .

1 . 3

T opograph ic map : c oastl ine n orth o f C aesarea ( 1 km g r id ) [ Topograph ic S urvey o f I s rae l ] .

I . 4

T opograph ic a nd g eo log ica l f eatures n orth a nd e ast o f Caesarea .

1 . 5

T opograph ic map : a rea e ast o f Caesa rea ( 1 km g r id ) [ Topog raph ic S urvey o f I s rae l ] .

1 . 6

Anc ient t err itory o f Caesarea , w ith r oad s yste m .

I . 7

L ocat ion map : s uburban f eatures o f Caesarea ( f or k ey , s ee Append ix I LA ) .

I . 8

L ocat ion map : f eatures i n a nd n ea r Caesa rea , a nd e xcavat ions s ince 1 950 ( except CAHEP ) ( f or k ey , s ee Append ix I .A ) .

1 . 9

N orth B ay : a nc ient f eatures a nd e xcavat ion a reas .

I . 10

Harbour : l ocat ion map o f e xcavat ion a rea s .

I . 11

S outh B ay : a nc ient f eatures a nd e xcavat ion a reas .

1 . 12

Harbour a nd North B ay : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom s outh ( 1984 ) .

1 . 13

Harbour : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom NW ( 1984 ) .

1 . 14

Map : B osn ian Caesarea i n 1 930 .

1 . 15

Harbour a nd B osn ian v i l lage : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom e ast ( ea . 1 925) .

I . 16

Harbour : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom e ast ( 1984 ) .

1 . 17

Harbour : o b l ique a er ia l v iew w ith i nd icat ion o f p robab le ma jor f au lt l i nes .

I . 18

Map o f L evant i nd icat ing s i tes ment ioned i n S ect ion I .B .2 [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

I . 19

Caesarea : map i nd icat ing J EC M e xcavat ion f i e lds , g eo log ica l f eatures , a nd l ocat ion o f g eo log ica l c ross-sect ion [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

1 . 20

Ea st- West g eo log ica l c ross-sect ion t h rough l ate P l iocene t o R ecent s ed imenta ry s equence a t Caesarea [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

I . 21

Channe ls o f H igh-Leve l Aqueduct , l ook ing s outh t o b reak [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

1 . 22

Channe l o f L ow-Leve l Aqueduct , l ook ing n orth [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

1 . 23

S ed i mentary s equence o ver B yzant ine a nd e ar ly Mos lem s tructures s ou th

1 . 24

D eta i l o f 1 . 23 : h or izonta l l am inat ion i n s wamp s ed i ments [ D .N . , K .O .E ] .

1 . 25

Deta i l

1 . 26

Deta i l o f 1 . 23 : s he l l l enses w ith in p ost-Byzant ine s equence [ D .N . , K .O .E . 1 .

1 . 27

Deta i l o f

o f C rusader wa l ls [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] . o f

1 . 23 :

b urrows

s uggest ing

b ioturbat ion

o r

a erob ic

c ond it ions

[ D .N . , K .O .E . ] . 1 . 23 : s he l l

l enses w ith in

p ost-Byzant ine

s equence ;

d om inant

s equence ;

l ent icu lar

c oncave-downwa rd o r ientat ion [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] . 1 . 28

D eta i l o f I . 23 : s he l l l enses w ith in p ost-Byzant ine

l ayer o f i mbr icated f ragmented s he l ls a nd p ebb les [ D .N . , K .O .E .] . 1 . 29

Th ree s tages o f p ost-Byzant ine t ecton ic movement a cross c oa stl ine a t Caesarea :

A .

P re-movement .

B .

P ost-subs idence .

C .

P ost-rebound

[ D .N . , K .O .E . ] . 1 . 30

S ate l l ite i mage o f d une f i e lds s outh o f Caesa rea [ NASA ] .

I . 31

Aer ia l p hotog raph o f d une f i e lds a round Caesa rea [ Su rvey o f I s rae l ] .

1 . 32

Aer ia l p hotog raph o f d une f i e lds s outh o f S edot Yam [ Survey o f I s rae l ] .

I . 33

Aer ia l p hotog raph :

B yzant ine

b ath

b u i ld ing

( JEC M

L eve l a nd h igh-Leve l Aqueducts [ J .W . Myers ] .

E -F ie ld ) ,

a nd

L ow-

L ist o fI l lustrat ions

x i

1 . 34

Aer ia l p hotog raph : t erm inat ion o f a queducts n orth o f C rusader wal ls [ J .W .

1 . 35

Aer ia l p hotog raph : n orth g ate w ith t w in r ound t owers [ J .W . Myers ] .

1 . 36

Aer ia l p hotograph : n orth g ate t o A rea J [ J .W . Myers ] .

1 . 37

Aer ia l p hotograph : n orth C rusader wal l , Co lumn J etty , A rea L , A rea S

Myers ] .

[ J .W . Myers ] . 1 . 38

Aer ia l p hotograph : I nner B as in ( A rea I ) , modern b each , s outh C rusader wal l , J EC M C -F ie ld [ J .W . Myers ] .

1 . 39

Aer ia l p hotog raph : J EC M C -F ie ld , d unes , c oast o f S outh B ay [ J .W . Myers ] .

1 . 40

Aer ia l p hotograph : c oa st o f S outh B ay , P isc ina , B yzant ine wa l l , T heatre [ J .W . Myers ] .

1 . 41

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : e ast f ace [ Y .P . ] .

1 . 42

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : west f ace [ Y .P . ] .

1 . 43

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : b roken s outh e nd s how ing t wo c onstruct ion s tages

1 . 44

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : d eta il o f a rches s how ing t wo c onstruct ion s tages

1 . 45

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : K abbara marsh b y-pass [ Y .P . ] .

1 . 46

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : t r ip le p ipe l ine i n Kabbara marsh s ect ion [ Y .P . ] .

[ Y .P . ] . [ Y .P . ] .

I l lus tra t ions t o Chap ter I . I .1

North g ate w ith t w in r ound t owers : o b l ique a er ia l .

1 .2

North g ate : e ast t ower , f rom e ast .

1 .3

North g ate : b lock ing wal l b etween t owers .

1 .4

North g ate : c ity wa l l e ast o f e ast t ower , o uter f ace .

1 .5

North g ate : c ity wa l l e ast o f e ast t ower , i nner f ace .

1 .6

L ink 's s h ip S ea D iver a t t he h arbour o f Caesarea [ C .T . F r itsch ] .

1 .7

L ink 's p lan o f t he Herod ian h arbour ( r ed rawn b y CAHEP ) .

1 .8

Haro ld E dgerton a t Caesarea i n 1 963 . T o t he r ight , E . L inder , 0 . L eenh ardt .

1 .9 I .10

S ub-bottom p rof ile p r int-out , s eaward f rom s hore o f S outh B ay . S outhern B reakwater : d end r it ie p attern o f me lted l ead f ound a t d epth o f 8 m n ear l a ter CAHEP A rea K , 1 967 .

I .11

Map o f a nc ient h arbou r p roduced b y CMS f or I EC S urvey .

1 .12

R eefs o ff S edot Yam : a rrows i nd icate r ock-cut t anks .

1 .13

Rock-cut t ank i n r eef o ff S edot Yam .

1 .14

Co lumn J etty : p lan .

1 .15

Co lumn J etty : a er ia l v iew o f c entra l s ect ion f rom n orth .

A rrow i nd icates

a sh lar p latform . 1 .16

Co lumn J etty : c o lumns embedded i n b each-rock .

1 .17

Co lumn J etty : a sh lar p latform b eneath c o lumns .

1 .18

A rea I i : CMS p robe a ga inst q uay wa l l ( 1976 ) .

1 .19

CMS b athymetr ic map o f a nc ient h arbour a rea , w ith i nd icat ion o f f au lt l i nes 1 a nd 2 ( 1976 ) .

1 .20

C rusader wal l s how ing h igh p roport ion o f G lycymer is v io lacescens s he l ls i n mortar .

L ist o f I l lus tra t ions 1 .21

B yzant ine c eram ics a t s i te o f p oss ib le s h ipwreck o n s outhwest e dge o f

1 .22

I nundated a sh lar p latform n ortheast o f P ise ina .

S outhern B reakwater .

I l lus tra t ions t o Chap ter I I . I I .1

L ocat ion map : CAHEP e xcavat ion a reas , 1 977-87 .

1 1 .2

E xcavat ion a reas i n n orth a nd west p ort ion o f h a rbour , a nd S urvey L ine 1 7 .

1 1 .3

A reas A , B , C : p lan .

1 1 .4

A rea A : p lan .

1 1 .5

A rea A : l i ne o f b locks a rranged a s h eaders .

1 1 .6

A rea A : h eader b locks , d eta i l .

1 1 .7

A rea A : p lan o f p robes .

1 1 .8

A rea A : s ect ion a cross p robes , s how ing s trat igraphy .

1 1 .9

A rea B : p lan .

I I .10

A rea B : s tacked b locks a t e dge o f b reakwater .

I I .1 1

A rea B : p latform o f b locks .

1 1 .12

A rea C 1 : p lan o f e xcavat ion a rea .

1 1 .13

A rea C 1 : s ect ion a cross s outh e nd ( BL m 4 0 ) .

1 1 .14

A rea C 2 : s ect ion A -A .

1 1 .15

A rea C 2 : p lan o f e xcavat ion a rea .

1 1 .16

Harbour E ntrance Channe l : l ocat ion p lan s how ing A reas D , G , K .

1 1 .17

Harbour E ntrance Channe l : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom S E ( 1984 ) .

1 1 .18

A rea D : d raw ing o f west e nd o f Northern B reakwater .

1 1 .19

A rea D 1-D2 : g enera l p lan ( 1986 ) .

1 1 .20

A rea D : e ast-west s ect ion a cross c hanne l .

1 1 .21

A rea D : b lock w ith l apjo int a nd c lamp s ett ings .

1 1 .22

A rea D : d eta i l o f b lock w ith l apjo int a nd c lamp s ett ings .

1 1 .23

A rea D : l ead c lamp s ett ings f rom E ntrance C hanne l f i l l .

1 1 .24

A rea D 1 : e xcavat ion o f s and f i l l i n E ntrance Channe l .

1 1 .25

A rea D1 : r ema ins o f wooden p a l let b eneath k urkar b lock i n E ntrance Channe l ( arrows ) .

1 1 .26

A rea D 1: e roded B yzant ine c eram ics b e low r ubb le f i l l i n E ntrance C han-

1 1 .27

A rea D 1 : west b au lk o f p robe a t t i p o f S outhern B reakwater .

1 1 .28

A rea D 1 : d raw ing o f west b au lk o f p robe a t t ip o f S outhern B reakwater .

1 1 .29

A rea D 1 : B yzant ine amphora r est ing o n s tra tum o f c lay .

1 1 .30

A rea D1 : m iscel laneous c eram ics r est ing o n o r i ncorporated i nto s tra tum

1 1 .31

A rea D 1 , D 2 : p lan .

n e l .

o f c lay . 1 1 .32

A reas D 1 , D 2 : s ect ion B -B .

1 1 .33

A rea D 1 : s ect ion A -A .

1 1 .34

A rea D 2 : d ivers r emov ing r ubb le .

1 1 .35

A rea D 3 : p lan o f s ound ing .

1 1 .36

A rea D 3 : s ect ion A -A a cross s ound ing .

1 1 .37

A rea D 3 : n orth f ace o f s ound ing .

1 1 .38

S outhern B reakwater : l ocat ion p lan o f A reas E , F , N .

L is t o f I l lustrat ions 1 .39

x i i i

A rea E ia : n orth-sou th s ect ion .

1 1 .40

A rea E ib : n orth-south s ect ion .

1 1 .41

A rea E 2 : p lan .

1 1 .42

A rea E 2 : s ect ion A -A .

1 1 .43

A rea E 2 ( s outh ) : r ubb le a nd g rave l f oundat ion b e low S ubs id iary B reakwater .

1 1 .44

A rea F : p lan o f p avement b efore e xcavat ion .

1 1 .45

A rea F : s urface o f p avement .

1 1 .46

A rea F : p lan w ith s ound ings .

1 1 .47

A rea F : s ect ion a cross p ave ment w ith s ound ing .

1 1 .48

A rea F : n orth e dge o f p avement .

1 1 .49

A rea F : s and f i l l b e low b locks a t n orth e dge o f p avement .

1 1 .50

A rea G : p lan .

1 1 .51

A rea G : i sometr ic a ctua l s tate d raw ing .

1 1 .52

A rea G : n orth-south s ect ion .

1 1 .53

A rea G : n orthwest c orner o f f ormwork , f rom a bove .

1 1 .54

A rea G : n orthwest c orner o f f ormwork , f rom n orth .

1 1 .55

A rea G : n orthwest c orner o f f ormwork , a ctua l s tate d raw ing .

1 1 .56

A rea G : n orthwest c orner o f f ormwork , f rom a bove .

1 1 .57

A rea G : f ormwork a long west s ide o f b lock , f rom n orth , s how ing f i l l ing

1 1 .58

A rea G : f ormwork a long west s ide o f b lock , f rom n orth , f i l l ing mortar

mortar . r emoved . 1 1 .59

A rea G : h ypothet ica l r econstruct ion o f f ormwork f ram ing .

1 1 .60

A rea G : h o le l eft i n c oncrete b y h or izonta l f ra m ing b race .

1 1 .61

A rea G : r econstruct ion o f f ormwork a nd b lock i n p lace .

1 .62

A rea G : s outh f ace o f n orth b lock , f rom s outh .

1 1 .63

A rea G : s outhwest c orner o f n orth b lock , f ro m west .

1 1 .64

A rea H 1 : p lan a nd s ect ion .

1 1 .65

A rea H2 : p lan a nd s ect ion .

1 .66

A rea H 1 : d ivers c lear ing r ubb le .

1 1 .67

A rea s

1 1 .68

A rea s I i , 1 2 , 1 3 : a ctua l s tate p lan .

1 1 .69

A rea

p lan .

1 1 .70

A rea

s ect ion A -A .

1 1 .71

A rea

a xonometr ic d raw ing f rom SW .

1 1 .72

A rea I i : q uay , moor ing b lock , a nd p avement .

1 1 .73

A rea 1 i : v iew f rom n orth .

1 1 .74

A rea

f ace o f q uay w ith moor ing b lock .

1 1 .75

A rea

v iew f rom e a st .

1 1 .76

A rea

l ater wa l l a cross p avement , f ro m n orth .

1 .77

A rea

p robe b e low p avement , f ro m NW .

1 1 .78

A rea

p robe b e low p avement , Os trea s he l ls o n f ace o f q uay .

1 .79

A rea 1 2 : p lan .

1 1 .80

A rea 1 3 : p lan .

1 1 .81

A rea 1 3 : i nter ior o f v au lt , l ook ing west .

1 .82

A rea 1 3 : s outh w a l l o f v au lt , west e nd .

1 .83

A rea 1 3 : s outh w a l l o f v au lt , a ctua l s tate d raw ing .

1 .84

A rea 1 3 : e ast wa l l o f v au lt , a ctua l s tate d raw ing .

I i ,

1 2 , 1 3 : o b l ique a er ia l f rom w est .

x iv

L ist o fI lustrat ions

1 1 .85

N orth c ity wa l l , i n s ide f ace e ast o f e astern r ound t ower .

1 1 .86

A rea 1 3 : p robe I 3a ( south wa l l ) , p lan a nd s ect ion .

1 1 .87

A rea 1 3 : p robe I 3b ( north wa l l ) , p lan a nd s ect ion .

1 1 .88

A rea 1 3 : p robe I 3b , b ase o f n orth wa l l o n l eft .

1 1 .89

A rea 1 3 : p robe I 3a , b ase o f s outh wal l o n r igh t .

1 1 .90

A reas J , Y , a nd n orth c ity g ate : a er ia l p hotograph .

1 1 .91

A rea J : waves b reak ing o n r eefs west o f q uay ( a t a rrow) .

1 1 .92

A rea J : g enera l s i te p lan ( 1982 ) .

1 1 .93

A rea J : v iew o f q uay a nd a ssoc iated wa l ls a t l ow water , f ro m e a st .

1 1 .94

A rea J : v iew o f q uay wa l l , f rom NE .

1 1 .95

A rea J : d eta i l o f c entra l p ort ion o f q uay wal l , f rom west , s how ing s econd

1 1 .96

A rea J : a sh lar b lock s a bove h eader b lock s o f q uay .

1 1 .97

A rea J : a sh lar b locks a bove h eader b locks o f q uay , d eta il o f c lamp mark .

r ow o f h eaders s outh o f t he f i rst .

1 1 .98

A rea J : r ock-cut b as in , f rom n orth .

1 1 .99

A rea J : r ock-cut b as ins , p lan a nd s ect ion A -A .

I I .100

A rea J : r ock-cut b as ins , s ect ions B -B , C -C .

1 1 .10 1 A rea J : r ock-cut b as in , f rom s outh . 1 1 .102

A rea J : r ock-cut b as in , d oub le e nded j ar i n s i tu .

1 1 .103

A rea K : p lan .

1 1 .104

A rea K : E ast a nd West T owers , e leva t ion d raw ing f rom s outh .

1 1 .105

A rea K : a ctua l s tate d raw ing f rom NW .

1 1 .106

A rea K : g roove a nd h o le f rom f ormwork t i e b eams o f E ast T ower .

1 1 .107

A rea K : West T ower , f rom w est .

1 1 .108

A rea K : s outheast f ace o f West T ower .

1 1 .109

A reas L a nd S : p lan .

I I .1 10 A rea s La nd S : o b l ique a er ia l f rom NW . I I .11 1 A rea L ( l ater S 1) : p lan . 1 1 .112

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : n orth e dge o f p ier , b locks w ith d oveta i l c lamp s ett ing .

1 1 .113

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : p ier , f rom e ast .

1 1 .114

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : wa l ls a t b ase o f p ier , f rom e ast .

1 1 .115

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : l ocus 1 02 .

1 1 .116

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : b au lk A , d raw ing .

1 1 .1 17 A rea L ( l ater S 1) : n orth-south q uay wa l l ( W 2 1) , a nd l a ter s tructures t o t he e ast ; p lan , s ect ion , a nd e levat ion . 1 1 .118

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : n orth-south q uay wa l l ( W 2 1) , a nd l a ter s tructures t o t he

1 1 .119

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : n orth-south q uay wa l l , s outh e nd , a nd Co lumn J etty ,

1 1 .120

A rea s M a nd Q : r ema ins o f C rusader C itade l a nd k urkar h ead land , f ro m

e ast , v iew f rom west . f rom e ast . S E . 1 1 .12 1 A rea M : d eta i l o f C rusader v au lt ing w est o f C itade l . 1 1 .122

P lan o f modern s outhern b reakwater , w ith A rea s M a nd Q .

1 1 .123

A rea M : S outheast T ower , p lan a nd s ect ions A -A ' , B -B ' .

1 1 .124

A rea M : S outheast T ower , w est e levat ion .

1 1 .125

A rea M : s outh f ace o f S outheast T ower f rom west , w ith t ie b eam c o lu mns .

1 1 .126

A rea M : N ortheast T ower a nd moat , p lan .

L is t o f I l lustrat ions

x v

1 1 .127

A rea M : Northea st T ower a nd moat , n orth e levat ion a nd s ect ion o f s outh

1 1 .128

A rea M : N orthwest T ower a nd C itade l , f rom n orth .

1 1 .129

A rea M : N ortheast T ower f rom n orth .

1 1 .130

A rea M : C rusader Moat , p lan .

1 1 .131

A rea M : C rusader Moat , r econstruct ion p roposa l , p lan .

1 1 .132

A rea N 1 : p lan .

1 1 .133

A rea N 1 : s ect ions A -A , B -B .

1 1 .134

A rea N 1 : c lay l ayer .

1 1 .135

A rea P : o b l ique a er ia l o f P isc ina , f rom west .

1 1 .136

A rea P : p lan o f P isc ina .

1 1 .137

A rea P : s ect ions A -A , B -B , C -C a cross P isc ina .

1 1 .138

A rea P : P isc ina b as in , f rom e ast .

1 1 .139

A rea P : P isc ina b as in , i n ter ior p art it ion wa l l , f ro m s outh .

1 1 .140

A rea P : P isc ina b as in , n orth e dge .

1 1 .141

A rea P : P isc ina b as in , s outh e dge .

1 1 .142

A rea P : s outheast s lu ice , a xonometr ic o f i n tersect ion w ith P isc ina wa l l .

1 1 .143

A rea P : s outhea st s lu ice , s outh e xtens ion t o e dge o f p romontory , f ro m

1 1 .144

A rea P : n orthwest s lu ice , a xonometr ie .

1 1 .145

A rea P : n orthwest s lu ice , v iew f rom S E .

1 1 .146

A rea P : s outhwest s lu ice , a xonometr ic .

1 1 .147

A rea P : s outhwest s lu ice , v iew f rom NE .

1 1 .148

A rea P : v iew s outh a cross c entra l t ank f rom n orthwest s lu ice t o s outhwest

f ace .

n orth .

s l u ice . 1 1 .149

A rea P : P isc ina b as in , c entra l p ier , f rom s outh .

1 1 .150

A rea P : west s lu ice a nd b ypass , f rom west .

1 1 .151

A rea P : western t erm inat ion o f p romontory , w ith b as ins a nd wa l ls , f rom

I 1 .152

A rea P : western e nd , s outhern e ast-west p oo l , f rom e a st .

1 1 .153

A rea P : western e nd , n orth-south p oo l , f rom S E .

I H .154

: western e nd , s em i-c ircu lar r ock-cut wa l l . A rea P

1 1 .155

A rea Q lu ice a nd s lu ice g ates , v iew . : s

S E .

1 1 .156

A rea

I H .157

A rea

1 1 .158

A rea

1 1 .159

A rea

Q : Q : Q : Q : Q : Q :

s lu ice a nd s lu ice g ates , p lan . s lu ice a nd s lu ice g ates , s ect ion A -A . n orth f ace o f modern s outh b reakwater , f rom west . a sh la r q uay wa l l , d eta i l f rom e ast .

A rrows i nd icate v is ib le j o ints .

1 1 .160

A rea

1 1 .161

a sh lar q uay wa l l , p lan a nd s ect ion o f p robe .

A rea

1 1 .162

: m ixed s and a nd s he l l f i l l . A rea R

1 1 .163

: p A rea R lan a nd s ect ion .

1 1 .164

l ater S 2 ) : o b l ique a er ia l f rom s outh . A rea S (

1 H .165

A rea S ( l ater S 2 ) : o b l ique a er ia l f rom s outh , d eta i l .

1 1 .166

l ater S 2 ) : p lan . A rea S (

I 1 1 .167

A rea S ( l ater S 2 ) : s ect ion A -A , e ast f ace W 1 0 .

I 1 1 .168

A rea S ( l ater S 2 ) : s ect ion B -B , w est f ace W 1.

1 1 .169

2 : s ealeve l p latform , f rom n orth . A rea S

H 1 .170

2 ( east ) : p lan a nd s outh e levat ion . A rea S

1 1 .171

A rea S 2 ( east ) : W 1b efore e xcavat ion , f rom e ast .

a sh la r b locks n ea r s lu ice .

x v i

L ist o f I l lus trat ions

1 1 .172

A rea S 2 ( east ) : W 1a fter e xcavat ion , f rom w est .

1 1 .173

A rea S 2 ( east ) : s ound ing a long s outh f ace o f W 1 .

1 1 .174

A rea T 1 : Round T ower , p lan .

1 1 .175

A rea T 1 : Round T ower , s ect ion A -A a cross p robe .

1 1 .176

A rea T 1 : p robe d own o uter f ace o f t ower .

1 1 .177

A rea T 1 : o uter c ourse o f h eaders , v iew .

1 1 .178

A rea T 1 : b roken k u rkar b e low f oundat ion .

1 1 .179

A rea T 2 : p lan a nd e levat ion o f wa l l .

1 1 .180

A rea T 2 : e levat ion a nd s ect ions a t metres 2 6 a nd 5 2 .

1 1 .181

A rea T 2 : v iew o f wa l l f ro m NW .

1 1 .182

A rea Y : e xcavat ion o f s h ip w ith d redge .

1 1 .183

A rea Y : s urvey o f s h ip w ith meta l d etector .

1 1 .184

A rea Y : e xcavat ion o f s h ip b eneath r ecord ing g r id .

1 1 .185

A rea Y : s che mat ic p lan .

1 1 .186

A rea Y : f ra mes a nd h u l l e xposed .

1 1 .187

A rea Y : f rames , p lank ing , a nd f i l l b e low .

1 1 .188

A rea Y : p lank ing , d eta i l f rom a bove .

1 1 .189

A rea Y : p lank e dge w ith mort ices .

1 1 .190

A rea Y : g raff ito o n f rame .

1 1 .191

A rea Y : f ragment o f r ope .

1 1 .192

A rea Y : r e ma ins o f b o lt t h rough h u l l .

1 1 .193

A rea Y : f ragments o f l ead s heet ing a nd p ipe .

1 1 .194

Wood f ragments f ro m A rea D .

1 1 .195

S ect ion o f n orth s leeper b eam f ro m f ormwork i n A rea G .

1 1 .196

Wood f ragments f rom A rea G .

I l lus tra t ions t o Chap ter I V . I V .1

Harbour a nd S outh B ay : o b l ique a er ia l f rom NW .

I V .2

S outh B ay : v iew f rom C itade l .

I V .3

S outh B ay : b each-rock a long s outhea st s ect ion o f b each , f ro m s outh .

I V .4

Typ ica l e xamp le o f b reakwater s u rface ( near A rea D 3 ) .

I V .5

S urvey L ines : p lan .

I V .6

D ivers l ay ing S urvey L ine .

I V .7

D ivers r ecord ing e levat ions a long S urvey L ine .

I V .8

Concrete b locks o n S L n o . 3( m 5 0 ) , p lan .

I V .9

Concrete b locks o n S L n o . 3( m 5 0) , e ast e levat ion .

I V .10

Concrete b lock o n S L n o . 3( m 5 0 ) , a ctua l s tate d raw ing .

I V .11

Concrete b lock o n S L n o . 3( m 5 0 ) , v iew f rom a bove .

1 V .12

Concrete b lock o n S L n o . 3( m 5 0 ) , v iew f rom s ide .

I V .13

Concrete b lock o n S L n o . 3( m 5 0) , d eta i l o f t i e b eam n otch .

1 V .14

Concrete b lock o n S L n o . 3( m 7 0-85 ) , p lan .

I V .15

P latform a t s ea l eve l , s outh o f P isc ina .

I V .16

D ivers u s ing water j et-probe .

I V .17

D ivers u s ing p ortab le a ir j et-probe .

L ist o f I l lustrat ions

x v i i

I l lus tra t ions t o Chap ter V . V .1

D iv ing h eadquarters , f ro m west .

V .2

D iv ing h eadquarters a nd d ock ing a rea , f rom NW .

V .3

D iagram o f s tag ing b arges , e xcavat ion a reas , a ir s upp ly , a nd b oat t raff ic r outes [ S .B . I .

V .4

S tag ing b a rge a nchored n ear e xcavat ion a reas .

V .5

A ir c ontro l s tat ion o n s tag ing b arge .

V .6

P ortab le b arge , f ram ing d iag ra m [ S .B . ] .

V .7

D iagram o f a ir l if t a nd a ssoc iated h ookah s yste m i n u se [ S .B . ] .

V .8

D iagram o f a ir l ift y oke [ S .B . ] .

V .9

V iew o f a ir l ift y oke a t e xcavat ion a rea .

V .10

D ivers u s ing a ir l ift w ith f lex ib le n ozz le , a t A rea G .

V .11

D ivers u s ing c omb ined h ookah s ystem a nd a ir l ift .

V .12

D ivers u s ing a ir l ift w ith f lex ib le n ozz le . Note muzz le d es igned t o p revent c logg ing .

V .13

D iagram o f h ookah r egu lator d es ign [ S .B . ] .

V .14

D iagram o f a ir-supp ly f i ltrat ion s ystem [ S .B . ] .

V .15

D iver f i tt ing h ookah b reather h ose c onnect ion .

V .16

D redge a nd p u mp l oaded o n b oat f or t ransport .

V .17

D iagram o f d redge i n u se f or e xcavat ion i n s ha l low water N .B . ] .

V .18

D iagram o f d redge y oke [ S .B . ] .

V .19

CAHEP S hore T raff ic L og f orm .

V .20

CAHEP D iv ing S uperv isor 's L og f orm .

I l lus tra t ions t o Chap ter V I . V I .1

R econstruct ion o f t he Harbour o f Caesa rea [ Robert T er ingo . Courtesy o f Nat iona l Geograph ic S oc iety ] .

V I .2

Recon struct ion o f t he method o f p os it ion ing f ormwork a nd p our ing c onc rete i n A rea G [ Robert T er ingo . Courtesy o f Nat iona l Geograph ic S oc iety ] .

F o ld ing P la tes . Master U rban P lan o f Caesarea a nd i m med iate s uburbs . I

S urvey L ines 1 -4 : s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings ( C =c oncrete , K =k u rka r ) .

I I

S urvey L ines 5 -8 : s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings ( C =c oncrete , K =k urkar ) .

I V

S urvey L ines 9 -12 : s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings ( C =c oncrete , K =k urk ar ) .

V

S urvey L ines 1 3-17 : s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings ( C =c oncrete , K =k urk ar ) .

xv i i-

L IST OF ABBREV IAT IONS

A .C .

a fter Ch r ist

A J

Ant iqu itates J uda icae ( Jew ish Ant iqu it ies )

B J

B e it ur n J uda icu m ( Jew ish War )

BL

B asel ine

B .C .

b efore Ch r ist

B .P .

B efore t he P resent

CAHEP

C aesarea Anc ient Harbour E xcavat ion P ro ject

CDC

Caesarea Deve lopment Corporat ion

CMS

C entre f or Mar it i me S tud ies , Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa

D

d iameter

H

h e ight

h a

h ectare

I DAM

I s rae l Depa rtment o f Ant iqu it ies a nd Museu ms

I EC

I s rae l E lectr ic Company

I FUA

I s rae l F edera t ion f or Underwater Act iv it ies

I UES

I s rae l Undersea E xp lorat ion S oc iety

J EC M

J o int E xped it ion t o Caesarea Mar it i ma

L

l ength

m

metre

1 1

m icron

MSL

Mean S ea L eve l

NEH

Nat iona l E ndow ment f or t he Hu man it ies

PVC

p o lyv iny l idene c h lor ide

S CUBA

S e lf-Conta ined U nderwater B reath ing Appa ratus

S L

S urvey L ine

S SHRC

S oc ia l S c iences a nd Human it ies Resea rch Counc i l o f Canada

T h

t h ickness

W

w idth

L IST OF CONTR IBUT ING AUTHORS

S .B .

S teve B re itste in : C entre f or Mar it ime S tud ies , Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa .

K .O .E .

K .O . Emery : Woods Ho le O ceanograph ic I n st itu t ion , Wood s Ho le , MA .

M .F .

M ichae l F itzgera ld : I n st itute o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy , Co l lege S tat i on , TX .

N .C .F .

N icho las C . F lemm ing : I OS D eacon L abora tory , Worm ley , Goda lm ing , S urrey .

R .L .H .

R ober t L . Hoh lfe lder : D epartment o f H istory , U n ivers ity o f C o lorado , B ou lder , CO .

U .K-G .

Ude lgard K örber-Grohne : I n st itut f ü r B otan ik , Un ivers ität Hohenhe im , S tuttgart .

S .L-Y .

S imeha L ev-Yadun : A rchaeometry L aboratory , T e l Av iv U n ivers ity .

E .L .

E l isha L inder : C enter f or Ma r it ime S tud ies , U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa .

N .L .

N i l L iphseh itz : A rchaeometry L aboratory , T e l A v iv Un ivers ity .

D .N .

Dav id N eev : G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I s rae l , J erusa lem .

Y .N .

Yaacov N ir : G eo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l , J erusa lem .

J .P .O .

J ohn P eter O leson : D epartment o f C lass ics , U n ivers ity o f V ictor ia , V ictor ia , B .C .

Y .P .

Y ehuda P e leg : K ibbutz Maayan T zv i .

A .R .

Avner Raban : C enter f or Mar it i me S tud ies , Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa .

A .N .S .

And rew N . S herwood : D epartmen t o f A rt a nd A rchaeo logy , P r inceton U n ivers ity , P r inceton , NJ .

Y .T-K .

Yoss i T u r-Ka spa : C entre f or Ma r it ime S tud ies , Ha ifa .

R .L .V .

R obert L ind ley V ann : S choo l o f A rch itecture , Un ivers ity o f Mary land , C ol lege P a rk , MD .

Y .W .

Yoav Wa ize l : A rchaeometry L abora tory , T e l A v iv Un ivers ity .

FOREWORD

If ee l p r iv i leged i n w r it ing t he F oreword t o t h is v o lu me . I t s ma jor a uthor , A vner R aban , h as b een a ssoc iated w ith me f or t he l ast t h irty y ears a s ap artner i n c reat ing a nd d eve lop ing mar ine a rchaeo logy i n I s rae l .

I n s umm ing u p many y ears

o f h arbour e xp lorat ion a t Caesarea i n t h is v o lu me a nd p resent ing t he r esu lts o f t h is e laborate ly e xecuted r esea rch ,

R aban a nd h i s c o-authors h ave p roduced a

mode l f or t he s tudy o f a nc ient p orts o f t he Med iterranean . B e ing o ne o f t he l a rge st a nc ient h arbours i n s i ze a nd most a dvanced i n t echno log ica l i nnovat ions , Caes area 's h arbour p rov ides

u s

w ith d ata o n

most o f t he

p rob lems

a nd

p oss ib le

s o lut ions w ith wh ich h arbour b u ilders i n a nt iqu ity c oped d ur ing t he v a r ious s tages i n t he d eve lopment o f a rt if ic ia l ly c onstructed a nchorages i n t he s ea . Here ,

o ver a s pan o f

many y ears , s eamen , s h ipwr ights

a nd s tone

masons

e xchanged t he ir e xper ience a nd t echn ica l k now-how , l a ter t o b e t ransm itted t o t he h arbour e ng ineers who were i nv ited b y Herod t he G reat t o b u i ld h is p ort . Howe ver , u n l ike t he f avourab le n atura l c ond it ions f or a nchorage wh ich p reva i l a long most o f t he Med iterranean c oasts , t hese c raftsmen were c onfronted w ith t he s and a nd mud wh ich l eve l led t he s tretch o f s ome 4 00 km o f t he c oa st b etween t he N i le D e lta a nd L ebanon , f orm ing a s tra ight s horel ine w ith v ery f ew p rotected b ays o r l a rge r iver e stuar ies . S uch c ond it ions p osed a s er ious c ha l lenge t o t he

Ro man

a rch itects who were c om m iss ioned w ith t he t ask o f b u i ld ing a h arbour o f a magn it ude n ot k nown b efore . I t r equ ired i nnovat ions i n h a rbour c onstruct ion , wh ile i ncorporat ing t echn iques t hat h ad a lready b een i n u se f or g enerat ions . I n ac erta in way , modern r esearch a t Caesarea h as f o l lowed a s im ilar p attern . E xper ience a nd k now ledge a cqu ired f rom e ar l ier s tud ies o f t h is s i te a nd f rom t he e xcavat ions o f t he more a nc ient h arbours o f Akko , A th l it , a nd Dor were u t il ised b y t he p rofess iona l t eam wh ich wa s f ormed b y t he Center o f Mar it i me S tud ies . F urthermore , t he e xper imenta l e xcavat ions b y E . L ink , t he f i rst u se o f t he s ubb ottom p rof i ler f or mar ine a rchaeo logy b y H . E dgerton , a nd t he i n troduct ion o f h istor ica l c oastl ine s tud ies b ased o n t he c orre lat ion b etween a rchaeo logy a nd g eo logy i n h arbour r esearch b y N . F le m m ing , a l l c a rr ied o ut a t Caesarea , h ave a dvanced t he s tud ies o f t h is h arbour s i te . When l a ter a g roup o f e xperts r epresenti ng v ar ious u n ivers it ies a nd d ifferent d isc ip l ines j o ined i n t o c reate CAHEP , c o mp rehens ive h arbour r esearch r eached i t s matur ity . F our v o lumes , t he f i r s t o f wh ich i s h ereby i n troduced , w i l l d escr ibe t he monu menta l a rch itectura l a ch ieve ment i n i t s h istor ica l a nd c u ltura l s ett ing .

T he c o l laborat ive e fforts o f many p rofess iona ls

a nd l aymen a re r ef lected i n e very c hapter o f t h is v o lume a nd s erve a s a n e xamp le f or i nterna t iona l c oopera t ion b ased o n ac o m mon l ove o f t he s ea a nd t he mar it i me c iv i l izat ions i tp roduced .

[ E .L . ]

PREFACE

T h is i s t he f i rst o f ap ro jected s er ies o f f our v o lumes r eport ing t he r esu lts o f t he Caesarea Anc ient Harbour E xcavat ion P ro ject f rom

1 980 t hrough 1 985 . I t

i nc ludes a s we l l as um mary o f s ome s urvey a nd e xcavat ion t hat t ook p lace b efore t he f ormat ion o f CAHEP , a long w ith a ny r esu lts o f t he a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv ity i n t he y ears 1 986-88 t hat h ave a d irect b ea r ing o n i n terpretat ion o f t he f i rst f ive y ea rs o f CAHEP .research . V o lume I , t o a ppear i n 1 989 , w i l l b e e nt it led The F inds a nd t he S h ip .

I t w il l c oncern t he f inds r ecovered d ur ing 1 980-85 , a nd t he Roman

s h ip e xcavated c lose t o s hore n orth o f t he c i ty . V o lume I I , t entat ive ly e nt it led T he H is tory o f t he Harbours , w i l l a ssemb le a nd i n terpret i nformat ion c oncern ing t he h i stor ica l d eve lopment o f Caesa rea 's h arbours i n a nt iqu ity , a nd t he r e lat ions h ip b etween t he p ort a nd t he r est o f t he e astern Med iterranean wor ld . V o lume I V , t he f i na l v o lu me i n t h is f i rst s er ies o f r eports , w i l l b e e nt it led T he Or ig ins a nd D eve lopment o f t he Harbours .

I n i tt he f our c o-d irectors w i l l a ttempt a s ynthes is

o f a l l t he i nformat ion c omp iled i n t he f i rst t h ree v o lumes , r econstruct ing t he s t ructures a nd f unct ion o f t he h a rbours f rom t he He l len ist ic t h rough t he C rusader p er iods . Iam s erv ing a s t he g enera l e d itor o f t hese f our v o lumes , work ing t o e nsure c on t inu ity i n f ormat a nd s ty le , a nd t he e ffect ive o rgan izat ion o f s ub ject matter . T here w i l l b e as epa rate s ub-ed itor f or e ach o f t he f our v o lumes , u sua l ly t he p r inc ip le a uthor o r c ontr ibutor , whose r espons ib i l ity i t w i l l b e t o a ssemb le t he manus cr ip t a nd i lustrat ions a nd o rgan ize t hem i n ap re l im inary f ash ion b efore h and ing t hem o ver t o t he s er ies e d itor . F or V o lume Ii t i s A . Raban ; f or V o lume I , J .P . O leson ; f or V o lume I I , R .L . Hoh lfe lder ; f or V o lume I V , R .L . V ann . E ach v o lume w i l l b e s e lf-suff ic ient i n i t s i lustrat ions , b ib l iography , a nd o ther d ocumentary ma ter ia l , b ut V o lume I V , a s as ynthes is o f t he t he who le , w i l l i nc lude a s we l l a c omprehens ive b ib l iography o f modern works o n Caesarea a nd i t s h a rbours . Most o f t he r econstruct ion p lans a nd d raw ings w i l l b e h e ld f or t h is v o lume a s we l l . T he g rat itude o f t he f our c o-d irectors o f CAHEP t o t he i nd iv idua ls a nd i nst it u t ions t hat a ss isted w ith t he p ro ject 's f und ing a nd r esearch a re e xpressed i n t he A cknow ledg ments , a nd t he c haracter o f t he f und ing a nd o rgan izat ion o f CAHEP i s o ut l ined e ffect ive ly b y Raban i n S ect ion I I .A a nd Hoh lfe lder i n S ect ion V .A . I t w i l l b ecome o bv ious t o a nyone who r eads t h is r eport w ith c are t hat t he s i te i s a c omp lex o ne , i nvo lv ing a n e normous a rea , aw ide v ar iety o f s tructures a nd mater ia l s a bove a nd b e low t he waterl ine , a nd a l ong , e xc it ing p er iod o f h uman h istory . I n s uch c ircumstances i tw ou ld b e a rrogant a nd s e lf-de lud ing t o c la im t hat we h ad s o lved a l l t he myster ies o f Caesarea 's h arbour . F urthermore , i t i s n orma l , i ndeed h ea lthy - g iven t he c omp lex ity o f t he s i te - t hat t he f our c o-d irectors d o n ot a lways a gree o n t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he e v idence we h ave a l l h e lped t o r ecover . F or tunate ly , we a l l a gree o n t he i s sues o f ma jor i mportance t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he c onstruct ion a nd f unct ion o f t he h a rbours , b ut o ccas iona l ly i n t h is v o lume ,

P reface

x xv i

a nd i n t he t h ree t o f o l low , we w il l i nd icate t hat o ne o r more o f u s d isag ree w ith t he i nterpretat ion p resented i n t he t ext . I n c ases where o uts ide e xperts h ave c ont r ibuted a s ect ion o r c hapter t hat c onta ins i n terpretat ions a t o dds w ith t he c ons ensus

o f

t he

CAHEP

c o-d irectors ,

t he

s er ies

e d itor

w i l l

i nsert

a n ote

o f

c lar if icat ion , t o k eep t he r eader aware o f j ust if iab le d ifferences o f o p in ion .

I n

V o lume I V , we w il l p rov ide e xtens ive d iscuss ion o f s ome d iffer ing p os it ions c onc ern ing t he r econstruct ion a nd h istory o f t he h arbour , b oth o ur own a nd t hose o f s cho la rs o uts ide CAHEP . A s Avner Raban , t he o vera l l p ro ject d irector , n otes i n h is Acknow ledgments , t he f our c o-d irectors b rought t o t he p ro ject a d ivers ity o f s k i lls t hat t ogether made u s av ery e ffect ive t eam f or c a rry ing o ut t he c omp l icated t asks o f e xcavat ion a nd r esea rch a t t h is t ype o f s i te . Avner R aban , b oth a Pa lest in ian a rchaeo log ist a nd a n aut ica l h istor ian , b rought h is e xtens ive e xper ience w ith t he mater ia l c u lture o f t h is p a rt o f t he Med iterranean , i nc lud ing i nundated s i tes a nd s h ipw recks . Robert L . Hoh lfe lder , ah istor ian o f t he B yzant ine p er iod , c ontr ibuted a n i nt imate k now ledge o f t he c u lture o f t he e astern Med iterranean d ur ing t he t ime o f Caesarea 's g reatest p rosper ity . I n a dd it ion , h e h as p a rt ic ipated i n e xcavat ions a t t he

h arbou rs o f P opu lon ia , Ha l ie is ,

K ench rea i a nd Cosa .

Robert

L ind ley Vann

b rought a v a luab le c o mb inat ion o f t a lents a s b oth a h istor ian o f a nc ien t Med iterr anean a rch itecture a nd c ity-p lann ing a nd a n a rchaeo log ica l f ie ld a rch itect w ith l ong e xper ience a t S ard is a nd Carthage .

He h as s uperv ised o ur t eams o f a rch i-

t ects o n l and a nd i n t he s ea o ver t he y ears , a nd h as o verseen p repa rat ion o f t he p lans a nd r econstruct ions .

F or my own p a rt , a s ac lass ica l a rchaeo log is t w ith a

s pec ia l i nterest i n a nc ient t echno logy , p art icu lar ly h a rbour d es ign a nd h yd rau l ic c oncrete , t he e xcavat ion o f Caesa rea h as b een a s p lend id o pportun i ty . Ih ave e xcavated p rev ious ly i n t he a nc ient h a rbours o f Cosa , P yrg i , a nd P opu lon ia i n I ta ly . Neverthe less , e ven a we l l-rounded r esea rch g roup o f f our i nd iv idua l s c ou ld n ot h ope t o c ope b y i t se lf w ith a s i te l i ke t he h arbour o f Caesarea . The e xten s ive h e lp we h ave r ece ived f ro m o thers c an b e s een i n t he L ist o f Contr ibut ing Authors , wh ich c onta ins t he n a mes o f f ourteen o ther s cho la rs a nd t echn ic ian s . S ome o f t hese i nd iv idua ls p art ic ipated d irect ly i n t he CAHEP e xcavat ions , wh i le o thers a na lyzed o r i nterpreted mater ia l r ecovered i n t he e xcavat ion , o r s imp ly s hared w ith u s s ome o f t he ir e xpert ise g a ined i n t he c ou rse o f i ndependent r esearch i n a reas t hat o ver lap w ith t he o b ject ives o f CAHEP . f our c o-d irectors owe a g reat d ebt .

T o a l l o f t hese i nd iv iduals t he

T he i dent ity o f t he a uthor o r a uthors o f e ach

s ect ion i s i nd icated i n a bbrev iated f orm a t t he e nd ; ak ey i s g iven i n t he L ist o f Contr ibut ing Authors . E ach a uthor t akes r espons ib i l ity f or t he o p in ion s e xpressed i n h is o r h er s ect ion . Avner Raban ha s c ontr ibuted t he b u lk o f t he t ex t f or t h is v o lu me , b ut , a s h e n otes e lsewhere , h e h as n atura l ly made f ree u se o f t he r esearch a nd p ub l icat ions o f t he o ther t hree c o-d irectors .

A t t he s ame t ime , h e h as e xer-

c ised h is own u n ique ly v igorous p owers o f s ynthes is a nd r econstruct ion i n p repari ng t he t ext . Not a l l t he c o-d irectors n ecessar i ly a gree w ith a l l o f h is c onc lus ions . B ecause Raban h as b een e ngaged i n r esearch a t t he s i te o f Caesarea s ince t he m id-1970 's , t he n omenc lature f or s ome o f t he e xcavat ion a reas i n t he h a rbour t hat a ppea rs i n h is e ar ly r eports s omet imes d iffers f rom t hat l a ter a dapted b y CAHEP . Ih ave i nserted e d itor ia l c lar if icat ion wherever i ts eemed t hat c onfus ion was p os-

x xv i i

P reface

s ib le . Throughout , we h ave p ut t he n ames o f a l l d ist inct s tructures o r a reas w ith in t he h arbour , a nd o f a l l e xcavat ion a rea s , i n c ap ita l l etters ( e .g . S outhern B reakwater , Outer B as in , A rea F ) .

More g enera l r eferences a re i n l ower c ase . A l l d ates

n ot l abel led B .C . c an b e a ssu med t o b e

A .C .

( note

t hat ,

i n a ccordance

w ith

a rchaeo log ica l u sage , r eferences t o o ne p art icu lar y ea r a fter Ch r ist a re l abe l led A .D .) .

A l l measure ments a re mu lt ip les o r f ract ions o f a metre , u n less o therw ise

n oted , a nd a l l d epths a re b e low Mean S ea L eve l , u n less o therw ise n oted .

Occa-

s iona l ly , where mea surements o f s tructures n ow l ost a re q uoted f rom e ar ly B r it ish s urvey p ub l icat ions , d i mens ions a re g iven i n E ng l ish u n its , w ith c itat ion o f t he metr ic e qu iva lents i n p arentheses .

Un less s pec if ic c lar if icat ion i sg iven , a l l mu lt i-

p le measurements o f as tructure o r f ea ture a re g iven i n t he o rder l ength , w idth , a nd h e ight o r t h ickness .

F or q uest ions o f s ty le a nd f ormat we h ave f or t he most

p art f ol lowed T he Ch icago Manua / o f S ty le .

1 3th e d . ( Ch icago , 1 982) . Any n on-

s tandard a bbrev iat ions a re g iven i n t he L ist o f Abbrev iat ions .

I n s pe l l ing t he

n a mes o f G reek a uthors a nd t he ir works , w e h ave f o l lowed L idde l l , S cott , a nd J ones , G reek-Eng l ish L ex icon ( Oxford , 1 968 ) ; f or L at in a uthors , t he Oxford L at in D ict iona ry ( Oxford , 1 982 ) . F or a uthors n ot i n e ither o f t hese work s , a nd f or a bbrev iat ions o f modern r eference works , w e

h ave f o l lowed t he e ntr ies a nd l i st o f

a bbrev iat ions i n t he Oxford C lass ica l D ict ionary .

2 d e d . ( Oxford , 1 970) .

We h ave

made u se o f t he S oc ia l S c iences s ystem f or r eference c itat ion a nd b ib l iography , a s e xp la ined i n t he Ch icago Manua l o f S ty le c hapters 1 5-17 . Wherever p oss ib le , r efe rences h ave b een i ncorporated i n t he t ext r ather t han i n f ootnotes . B ecause o f t he l arge s ca le o f t he s i te , a nd t he g enera l ly l a rge amounts o f p art i cu late matter i n t he water , i t wa s o ften v ery d iff icu lt t o o bta in p hotographs o f o ur e xcavat ion a reas t hat wou ld b e c lear e nough f or u sefu l i nc lus ion i n ar eport o f t h is t ype .

A s ar esu lt , we h ave h ad t o r e ly o n p lans a nd d raw ings f or i lustrat ions

t o a much g reater e xtent t han i s u sua l f or r eports o f a rchaeo log ica l work o n l and , o r o n as h ipwreck l ocated i n d eep water . Wherever p oss ib le we h ave i nc luded p hot ographs a s we l l , e ven i ft he c lar ity o f t he i mage i sn ot o utstand ing . Ip repared c amera-ready c opy o f t h is b ook o n t he I B M Ma inframe c o mputer o f t he Un ivers ity o f V ictor ia , u s ing t he Water loo S cr ipt S yste m t o f ormat t ext f or p r int ing o n a X erox 2 700 L a ser P r inter . Most o f t he t ext was e ntered b y Ms . O r issa S te l , my r esearch a ss istant f or s evera l y ears . Iam v ery g ratefu l t o h er f or h er s k il lfu l a nd i n te l l igent a ss istance , wh ich made a d iff icu lt t ask much e as ier t han Ic ou ld h ave h oped . Iam a lso g ratefu l t o t he F acu lty Com m ittee o n R esearch a nd T rave l f or g rants t o s upport h er s a lary a nd my c o mput ing c osts .

Research a nd

e xcavat ion g rants a re a cknow ledged i n t he n ext s ect ion . [ J .P .0 . ]

ACKNO WLEDG MENTS

T h is v o lu me wou ld n ot b e p oss ib le w ithout t he c ontr ibut ion o f many i nst itut ions a nd i nd iv idua ls a l l o ver t he wor ld t hat t ook p a rt i n t he p lann ing a nd e xecut ion o f t he

f ie ld-work ,

i n p rocess ing a nd s tudy ing t he s c ient if ic

b r ing ing t he m t o as tage s u itab le f or p ub l icat ion .

d ata , a nd i n

I n t he f i rst p lace , Ie xpress my

t hanks t o t he t h ree c o-d irectors o f CAHEP d ur ing t he 1 980-1985 c ampa igns : R .L . Hoh lfe lder , J .P . .0 Ieson , a nd R .L . V ann . T he ir e nthus iasm a nd s upport were c ruc ia l t o t he s uccess o f t he p ro ject , a nd o ur work ing r e lat ionsh ip h as e vo lved i nto s ome v a lued f r iendsh ips .

A lthough we n atura l ly d id n ot a lways a gree o n p rocedures o r

t he i n terpretat ion o f d a ta , o ur r espect ive s cho lar ly s treng ths a nd f ie lds o f s pec ia li zat ion c omp le ment e ach o thers ' we l l , a nd we made a r e ma rkab ly s trong r esearch t eam . Av ery g reat r o le i n mak ing t h is e normous p ro ject a r ea l ity was p layed b y P rof essor E l isha L inder , t he f ounder o f t he I s rae l Undersea E xp lorat ion S oc iety , t he Center f or Mar it i me S tud ies , a nd t he G raduate D epart ment f or t he H istory o f Ma r it i me C iv i l izat ions a t t he U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa . P rofessor L inder was t he p ion eer o f t he i dea o f t he p ro ject a nd o f t he a ctua l r esearch i n t he e ar ly 1 960 's .

I t

was h is i nfect ious e nthus iasm a nd i nsp ir ing v is ion t hat f i rst b rough t t ogether s upp ort ing a genc ies a nd a cade m ic i n st itut ions f rom b oth s ides o f t he A t lant ic t o p urs ue t h is i n it iat ive . T he p ro ject was made p oss ib le b y f i nanc ia l s upport f rom a w ide v ar iety o f s ources .

F irst a nd f oremost , t he CAHEP c o-d irectors a re g reat ly i ndebted t o

Ba ron E d mond d e Rothsch i ld , who h a s b een a c onstant s upporter o f t he s tudy o f a nc ient Caesa rea s ince t he f i rst p ha se o f t he CMS r esearch i n t he e a r ly 1 970 's , a nd t o t he d irectors o f t he Caesarea F oundat ion , Rear Adm ira l Mordecha i L i mon a nd Mrs . S arah B aruch in . We a re a lso i ndebted t o t he Caesarea Deve lopment Corp ora t ion ( CDC ) , i t s f ormer d irector Mr . Ha i m Go ldenberg a nd i t s p resent o ne , Co m modore N imrod E she l , f or t he ir c onstant a ss istance a nd g eneros ity . T he CAHEP e xcava t ions wou ld n ot h ave t aken p lace w ithout g enerous f und ing f rom t he Nat iona l E ndowment f or t he Human it ies , S ea G rant , a nd t he Nat iona l Geograph ic S oc iety i n t he Un ited S tates ,

t he S oc ia l

S c iences a nd Human it ies

R esearch Counc i l o f Canada , a nd n umerous p r ivate d onors , among t hem J oan a nd R ichard J . S cheuer f rom N ew York , Maur ice Hatter f rom L ondon , a nd t he " Jew ish Navy ."

Ma jor f und ing a nd s upport wa s g iven t o CAHEP b y t he c o l laborat ing a ca-

d em ic i nst itut ions : t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , t hrough i t s Depart ment f or Mar it ime C iv i l izat ions a nd Center f or Mar it i me S tud ies ; t he Un ivers ity o f Co lorado ; t he Un ivers ity o f V ictor ia ; t he U n ivers ity o f Mary land ; a nd ( s ince 1 986 ) R utgers Un iv ers ity . O ther i nst itut ions a nd i nd iv idua ls who made o ur Caesarea s tudy f ea s ib le a re t he s taff o f t he CDC ; t he owners o f t he Harbour C itade l Restaurant , Dav id a nd

Acknow ledg ments

XXX

A r ie l Me ita l a nd M icha T zfan iah ; Mr . I t zhak A sher , t he owner o f t he Caesarea D iv ing Center a nd i t s b each , who was , a nd s t i l l i s , o ur h ost o n t he s i te ; t o t he f r iend ly a nd v ery h e lpfu l emp loyees a nd d irectors o f I s rae l Pa rk Author ity ; K ibb utz S edot Yam a nd i t s p rom inent p atron o f Caesarea 's p ast , Mr . Aharon Wegman ; a nd t he f ormer D irector o f t he I s rae l Department o f Ant iqu it ies , Mr . Av i E itan , a nd i t s Reg iona l S uperv isor t hrough 1 986 , Mr . A zr ie l Z iege l mann .

T he " Hapo 'e l"

Mar ine S port Center a t K ibbutz S edot Y a m was o ur h ost o ver t he y ears , ag enero us s upporter o f o ur work ing a nd r es ident ia l b ase , a nd CAHEP i s g ratefu l f or i t s c on stant f r iend l iness a nd g eneros ity . Over t he y ears , t he Center f or Mar it ime S tud ies a nd t he s taff o f i t s Ma r ine Workshop h ave c a rr ied much o f t he p ract ica l b urden o f mak ing t he p ro ject work : f rom l og ist ica l p lann ing t hrough t he t ask o f d es ign ing a nd b u i ld ing n ew t oo ls f or t he t ask , d own t o p rocess ing t he d ata , t ak ing c are o f t he f inds , a nd p repar ing i lust rat ions f or s c ient if ic r eports . We owe a g reat d eb t o f t hanks t o I tzhak D agan , t he CMS manager , a nd t he s ecretar ies Mrs . Rahe l P lonsky a nd Mrs . S hu l la L ivneh . Mrs . N ira Karmon p rov ided c onstant i nva luab le a ss istance .

Mr . P inhas P e led a nd

Mrs . Nehama Co lu mbus d id c onservat ion work , M iss Rahe l P o l lak a nd M iss Zaraza F r iedmann p rov ided d raw ings . T he t rue p ioneers o f t he e xcavat ion t echno logy t hat made s tudy o f as ub merged h arbour o f s uch s ca le p oss ib le a re Mr . S teven B re its te in , Mr . Yoss i T ur-Kaspa , a nd Mr . s hop .

Danny F r iedman o f t he CMS Mar ine Work-

Ia lso owe a g reat d eb t o f g rat itude t o my c o l leagues f ro m t he D epart ment

o f H istory o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions a t t he U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa who v o lunteered t he ir t ime a nd e nergy :

D r . M icha l A rtzy , D r . E hud S pan ier , D r . Yoss i Ma rt , Mrs .

S arah Arenson , a nd M iss R uth i Gertwagern , a nd t he ir s tudents . Many s c ient ists a ss isted CAHEP t hrough t he y ea rs b y v o lunteer ing a dv ice , c onsu ltat ion , a nd t he p rocess ing o f d ata ; P rofessor N icho las C . F le m m ing o f t he Nat iona l

Oceanograph ic

I nst itute

o f

G reat

B r ita in ,

D r .

Dav id

Neev

a nd

D r .

Ya 'akov N ir o f t he Mar ine D iv is ion o f t he Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l , a nd D r . A sher G ita i , o f t he I s rae l E lectr ic Company . F r iend ly , c o l leg ia l h e lp was g iven t o CAHEP b y t he workers , d ivers , a nd t echn ic ian s o f t he I s rae l Oceanograph ic a nd L i mno log ica l R esearch a nd t he Coasta l a nd Mar ine E ng ineer ing Research I nst itute i n t he T echn ion , I s rael I nst itute o f T echno logy . L aboratory a na lyses were c arr ied o ut b y D r . I s rae l Car m i o f t he We iz man I nst itute a t R ehovot a nd b y D r . N i 1 1 L iphsch itz o f t he A rcheo metr ic L abs o f T e l Av iv Un ivers ity . S pec ia l t hanks g o t o P rofessor Haro ld E dgerton o f t he Massachus etts I nst itute o f T echno logy , who made a l ong t r ip i n o rder t o c on tr ibute h i s u n ique h u man ity , e xpert ise , a nd s oph ist icated s ub-bottom p rof i ler t o o ur s tudy o f t he s ecrets h idden b e low t he s and . Th is v o lume wou ld n ot h ave b een p oss ib le w ithout t he e xce l lent p hotos o f M r . Harry Wadsworth , Mr . Mark L itt le , a nd Mr . B i l l Curtz inger . E ar l ier a rch itectura l p lans were made b y t he v o lunteer a rch itect M r . Gad i Kap lan , a nd l a ter b y D r . L ind ley V ann , CAHEP c o-d irector a nd p ro ject a rch itect , a nd h is s tudents f ro m t he S choo l o f A rch itecture a t t he Un ivers ity o f Mary land . O ther i l lustrat ive mater ia l a nd u pdated d ata were made a va i lab le b y t he a rch itect M iss Rob in Z iek , a nd b y M iss Z araza F r iedman a nd Mrs . N ira Ka rmon . T he o r ig ina l manuscr ip t was p roofr ead , f a ithfu l ly c orrected , a nd t yped b y Mrs . He len Dates o f Harvard Un ivers ity .

Acknow ledg ments

x xx i

The a uthor i s g ratefu l t o P rofessor F rank M . C ross a nd P rofessor L awrence S tager o f t he D epartment o f Near E astern L anguages a nd C iv i l izat ions , a nd t o Harvard Un ivers ity f or f ac i l itat ing t h is v o lume b y h ost ing h im a s av is it ing s cho lar i n t he ir i nst itut ion i n 1 987-88 , f or t he ir mora l a nd t echn ica l s upport , a nd t he ir f r iendsh ip o ver t he month s o f w r it ing t h is r eport .

P rofessor J ohn P . O leson o f t he

Un ivers ity o f V ictor ia , CAHEP c o-d irector a nd e d itor o f t h is v o lu me , h is a ss istant Ms . Or issa S te l , a nd Mr . And rew N . S herwood o f P r inceton Un ivers ity a re t he t rue f ina l e d itors o f t h is v o lume a nd t he p ersons who s pent many weeks work ing t o make i t p r intab le .

K ath i S herwood a l so a ss isted w ith t he e d it ing .

T he a uthors o f

t he v ar ious s ect ions o f t h is v o lu me t ake f u l l r espons ib i l ity f or t he c ontents , a nd f or t he t heor ies a nd c onc lus ions wh ich a re e xpressed t here in . Yet , t he t rue a uthors o f t h is r eport a re t he h undreds o f v o lunteers - s cho lars , l aymen , s tudents , b us inessmen a nd h ousew ives - f rom I s rae l , t he Un ited S tates , Canada ,

Austra l ia ,

t he Un ited K ingdom ,

F rance , Germany , Yugos lav ia ,

J apan ,

I ta ly , Sweden , a nd P eru , who l eft b eh ind e veryth ing e lse a nd p a id t he ir way t o c ontr ibute t he ir e nerg ies t o t h is p ro ject .

T hey a re t he f oundat ion o n wh ich t h is

r esearch i s b ased ( see t he L ist o f V o lunteers b e low , Append ix V .A ) .

T o a l l t hese

v o lunteers a nd b enefactors , a nd t o many o thers we c ou ld n ot ment ion b y n ame , t he f our CAHEP c o-d irectors d ed icate t h is r eport . [ A .R . 1

CHAPTER I : THE S ITE

I .A . Natura l F eatures : 1 . T opography a nd Geography . Caesarea i s l ocated o n t he s outhern p art o f t he e astern c oa st o f t he Med iterr anean ( 34 °5 3 .5 ' E ; 3 2 °3 0 .5 ' N . F igs . 1 . 1-2 ) .

T h is c oastl ine i s d eterm ined b y al ow

r i dge o f Quaternary , c arbonate-cemented q ua rtz s and stone k nown b y t he l oca l n ame k urkar .

T h is r ocky r idge i s t he s ke leta l f eature a long t he s tretch o f t he

c oa st f rom ' Ath l it , 2 3 km n orth o f Caesa rea , t o G iv 'at O lga , 6 km s outh o f Caes a rea . The s and stone r idge i s n ever h igher t han 1 0-15 m a bove MSL h ere , a nd i n many p laces i t h as b een a braded a nd d ownt i lted t o t he wave l eve l o r e ven b e low . T here a re s evera l w ide g aps i n t h is l ongshore r idge i nd icat ing p rotoh istor ic e stuari e s , s uch a s t he Naha l Hame 'arot g ap b etween N ewe Yam a nd Habon im , t he Naha l D a l iya g ap b etween Dor a nd T e l T ann in im ( Krokode i lonpo l is ) , wh ich i s c om mon t o N aha l Tann in im , a nd t he g ap o f Naha l Hadera , b etween K ibbutz S edot Yam a nd G iv 'at O lga . A long a l l t hese g aps , r es idua l r ocky r eefs r e ma in j ust o ff s hore , e ither a t s ea l eve l o r j ust b e low ( f igs . 1 . 3-5 ) . I n t hese g aps t he s ea t ransgressed t he g ene ra l l i ne o f t he r idge , c reat ing s andy b eaches a nd l agoona l r ecesses i n i t s l ee ( such a s a t T antura , n ear Dor , a nd j ust n orth o f Caesa rea ) , o r i n s hore i s lets ( such a s J az iret Na m i a nd J az irat e l Hama m ) . T hese s er ies o f i n s hore i s lets a re c haracteri s t ic o f t he n orth s ides o f e stuar ies n ow s i lted i n , s uch a s a t Newe Yam ( of Naha l Hame 'arot ) , Tanturah ( Naha l Da l iya ) , J az irat Hamam ( Naha l T ann in i m) , a nd S edot Y am ( Naha l Haderah ) . The s i te o f Caesarea i sl ocated o n ab etter p reserved p art o f t h is r idge , where as er ies o f i n lets c reate s andy b ays wh ich a re d iv ided b y r ocky h ead land s o r p romontor ies ( f igs . 1 . 6 , 1 2 ) . T hese b ays a re p art ly s eparated f rom t he o pen s ea b y a l most c ont inuous s ha l low r eefs . The p ro montor ies a re l ow ( 3-4 m a bove MSL ) a nd a re o ut l ined b y ar a ised a bras ive p la tform 1 .2-1 .5 m a bove MSL ( e .g . A rea J ) . T he s econd d om inant f eature a long t h is s egment o f t he c oast i s t he wavec arr ied a nd w ind-b lown s and . S andy b eaches a nd s and b ars a re f ound a t e very s ect i on o f t he s hore t hat h a s s ome p rotect ion f rom t he f u l l f etch o f t he s urge . The s and t hat r eaches t he s hore i s c arr ied b y t he p reva i l ing wester ly w ind s f arther i n land , wherever t here i s ag ap i n t he s andstone r idge o r t he r idge i s r e lat ive ly l ow . Th is p henomenon s eems t o b e o f f a ir ly r ecent d ate , s ince Roman a nd B yzant i ne s tructures a re f ound b ur ied u nder t he d unes o r t he s andy b eaches , b u i lt d irect ly o n more c onso l idated s ubstrata ( Sect ion I .A .2) . T hese s o i ls n ow b ur ied b y t he s and a re ma in ly r ed l oam o n h igher g round a nd o n t he r a ised , a braded p la tform a t t he f r inges o f t he s andstone r idge , a nd a l luv ia l d a rk b rown a nd h ydromorph ic g rey s o ils a t t he b a s in s b etween t he k urkar r idges . T hese l atter s o i ls r epresent a s tage when t he c oasta l p la in l ost i t s g rad ient a nd t he d ra inage p attern t apered o ff , t urn ing t he b a s in s i nto ma rshes ( Bar-Yoseph & N ir 1 976 : 1 15-17) . 1-

2

I .A .1: T opography a nd G eography A s econd s andstone r idge r uns p a ra l le l t o t he f i rst a bout 1 .2-1 .6 km f arther

i n land . I t i s much h igher t han t he western o ne , a lthough a t p resent i t i s a l most c o mp lete ly c overed b y s and d unes t hat r each e levat ions o f 3 0-35 m a bove MSL . T he ma in h ighway b etween Ha ifa a nd T e l Av iv was r ecent ly b u i lt a long t he l ee s ide o f t h is r idge ( f ig . 1 . 4 ) . I n a nc ient t imes t h is r idge b locked t he d ra inage o f s trea ms t hat r eached t he c oasta l p la in f rom t he h inter land , c aus ing t he b as in o n i t s

e ast

s ide

t o

b ecome

s easona l ly

i nunda ted

a nd

ma rshy

y ear-round .

These

marshes were i n p art d ra ined a rt if ic ia l ly when c uts were q uarr ied a cross t he r idge f or Naha l Da l iya a nd Naha l T ann in im ( Krokode i lon R iver ) ( N ir 1 959 ) . i ng t he Roman p er iod , t he a rt if ic ia l c hanne l c ut t hrough f or

L ater , d ur-

Naha l T ann in im

( Krokode i lon R iver ) was d am med , a nd a nother d am wa s b u i lt a bout 3 km t o t he n orth . These d a ms c aused t he f ormat ion o f a n a rt if ic ia l l ake t hat c overed a n a rea o f a bout 4 86 h a a long t he west s ide o f t he s outhern t ip o f Mount Carme l , b etween i t a nd t he ma in k urkar r idge . Th is l ake s upp l ied t he water f or t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct s erv ing Caesarea , a nd a s er ies o f water-m il ls b u i lt n ext t o , a nd p oss ib ly o n , t he d am ( Sect ion I .B .8 ; O leson 1 984b ) . S outh o f Mount Carme l 's s outhern t ip t here i s a t h ird s andstone r i dge , t he n orthernmost e dge o f wh ich i s a t T e l Mevorakh ( f igs . 1 . 4-5) . The r idge c ont inues s outhward u nder t he modern s ett lements o f B e it Hannanya , O r ' Aq iva , a nd Hadera . I t i s w ider a nd more s and-covered t han t he o ther t wo t o t he west , a nd i t s h ighest p eaks r each e levat ions o f 4 5-50 m a bove MSL .

E a st o f t h is r idge e xtend s a n a rea

c overed b y s and d unes , a bout 3 km w ide o n a n e a st-west a x is a nd o ver 4 km l ong ( f ig . 1 . 31) . These d unes a re h e ld i n o n t he e ast b y ar idge c overed b y r ed l oa m ( hamra ) o ver 2 km w ide i n s o me p laces , a nd r i s ing 4 0-50 m a bove MSL .

T he s et-

t l e ments o f B inyam ina a nd P ardes Hanna were b u il t o n i t . S t il l f urther e ast , a n a rea o f l ow h i l ls o f r ed l oam m ixed w ith a l luv ia l b rown s o il , w ith a n a verage w idth o f a bout 3 km , t ends ENE t o t he f oot o f t he l imestone h i l ls o f t he Menasheh r eg ion . T h is s ect ion o f t he c oasta l p la in s outh o f t he s outhe rn t ip o f Mount Carme l i s c a l led Northern S haron a nd i n a nt iqu ity f ormed Caes area 's h inter land ( f igs . 1 . 5-6 ) .

A t p resent , o ver h a lf o f t h is a rea i s c overed b y

s and d unes , b ut i n a nt iqu ity r ed l oam a nd a luv ia l s o i ls were s t il l e xposed o n t he s urface o ver most o f i t ( Sect ion I .A .2) . S ince t hen , u nt i l t he n ineteenth c entury , most o f t he h igher g round i n t h is a rea o f t he n orthern S haron wa s c overed b y o ak f orest , w ith s ome c arob p lanta t ions o n t he l ower g round n ea r t he c oas t ( Dar & App lebau m 1 973 ; f ig . 4 ) . The p ostg lac ia l r i se o f s ea l eve l a nd t he o bstructed d ra inage o f t he c oasta l p la in h ave c aused a r e lat ive ly h igh water-tab le a nd s ign if icant h ydrau l ic p ressure a round

Caesarea .

Th is p henomenon

p erm itted e xtens ive

e xp lo itat ion o f

f resh

water f or d omest ic u se a nd f or a g r icu lture , e ven when t he a queducts were o ut o f u se ( Porat 1 975 ) .

T he s trugg le b etween t he n atura l p rocess o f a ccu mu la t ing s and

d unes a nd h uman a tte mpts a t a gr icu lture was a c onstant o ne t hroughout t he h ist ory o f Caesa rea ( Re ifenberg 1 955 ; R im 1 950-51 ) . The n orth a nd n ortheast r eaches o f Caesa rea 's t err itory embraced t he s outhe rn t ip o f Mount Carme l , t he a rt if ic ia l l ake ( l ater k nown a s t he K abbara marsh ) , a nd t he c oasta l s tr ip f rom K rokode i lonpo l is ( Te l T ann in i m) t o t he c ity ( f ig . 1 . 7 ) . Th is c oasta l s tr ip wa s c hosen f or t he c ourse o f t he t wo a queducts a nd f or v a r ious

Chapter I : The S ite

3

f a r ms a nd v i l la s e ast o f t hem , b e low t he ma in k urkar r idge . F arther n orth , a long t he c oasta l p la in b etween Mount Carme l a nd t he s ea , t he marshy e stuary o f Naha l Da l iya ( Choresos R iver ) d e l ineated t he b order b etween t he t err itor ies o f Caesarea a nd Dor . To t he NE , t he sma l l a l luv ia l v a l leys o n t he e ast s ide o f Mount Ca rme l , t owa rd t he h i l l c ountry o f Manasseh , were a n a g r icu ltura l h inter land w ith v iney ards a nd f ru it o rchards . T he a bundant s pr ings i n t h is a rea f ed t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct ( Sect ion I .B .8 ) .

T he s outhern b oundary o f t he t err itory was marked b y

t he l ower c ourse o f t he B de l lopotamos R iver ( Naha l P o leg ) . B e ing l ocked i n b y s and d unes a nd marshy l ow g round , Caesarea was s i tuated away f rom t he ma in r oad s a nd l and t rade r outes , e xcept p erhaps f or a s um mer r oad wh ich f o l lowed t he c oasta l s andstone r idge , wh ich was h ard ly a ccess ib le d uri ng t he r a iny s eason d ue t o t he i nundated r iver e stuar ies ( f ig . 1 . 6 ) .

A b etter , p er-

e nn ia l r oad l ed d ue e a st t o e ither T e l B urgata ( Kb . T a l l a l B ure iq ) o r T e l Duda im , s ome 7 km i n land .

T here t h is r oad met t he ma in o ne t ha t f o l lowed t he f ooth il ls

a long t he e astern e dges o f t he S haron P la in .

S ix km f arther s outh a long t h is ma in

r oad was t he j unct ion w ith a r oad t o t he NE , t h rough t he I re 'on p assage t o L eg io a nd t he Great Va l ley . E ighteen km f arther s outh a long t h is ma in r oad was t he j unct ion w ith t he r oad t hat l ed e astward t o S ebast ia a nd Neapo l is ( Nab lus ) . B oth r oads l ed a cross t he h i l l l and o f t he i nter ior t owa rd t he n atura l c ross ing s o f t he J ordan a nd t hen u p t o t he Roya l R oad l ead ing NE t o Damascus a nd P a lmyra a nd s outh t o E dom a nd t o E i la o n t he Red S ea . [ A .R . ]

I .A Natura l F eatures : 2 . Geo logy a nd Geo morpho logy . [ Ed itor 's Co m ment :

R eaders w i l l n ote t hat s ome o f t he c onc lus ions p resented i n

t h is s ect ion d o n ot a g ree w ith t hose e xpressed e lsewhere i n t h is v o lu me , i n p art icu lar , t he e xtent o f t he mar ine t ransgress ion i n t he p ost-Byzant ine p hase . We h ave d ec ided t hat b oth s ides o f t he q uest ion s hou ld b e p resented i n t h is r eport , a nd we l eave t he c ho ice o f o p in ion u p t o t he r eader . W ith a l l d ue r espect t o t he a u thors o f t h is s ect ion , h owever , w e wou ld l i ke t o p o int o ut t hat i t s eems more d iff icu lt t o e xp la in t he s urv iva l i n r e lat ive ly g ood c ond it ion o f s tructures a long t he b each ( e .g . t he v au lts ) wh ich were i nundated g radua l ly b y t he s ea i n t h is r econstructed t ransg ress ion , t han t o e xp la in t he a ccu mu lat ion o f s he l l b eds a t ah igh l eve l o n a nd b eh ind t he d unes . The a uthors o f t h is s ect ion d iscuss o b ject ions t o t he ir t heor ies i n t he ir i mpress ive s u m mary s tudy ( Neev , B a lder , Emery 1 987 : 3 1-32 ; n ote a lso p . 1 02 ) .

J .P .0 . ]

I ntroduct ion .

T he e vo lut ion o f t he g eo log ica l s tructure a t Caesarea a nd i t s

t ecton ic h istory d ur ing t he Ho locene were d iscussed b y N eev e t a l .

1

( 1978 ) .

1

One

We a re i ndebted t o o ur h ost o rgan iza t ions , t he Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l a nd t he Wood s Ho le Oceanograph ic I n st itut ion ( espec ia l ly i t s Ocean I ndustry P rog ra m) . We t hank D r . Y . P orath ( Depart ment o f Ant iqu it ies , Govern ment o f I s rae l ) , D r . A . Raban a nd Y . T ur-Caspa ( Ha ifa Un ivers ity ) , P rof . E . F le ischer ( Hebrew Un ivers ity ) , a nd P rof . I . Ro l ( Te l Av iv Un ivers ity ) f or i nformat ion a nd d iscuss ions . We a lso t hank o ur c o l leagues o f t he Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l , Mrs . B . K atz f or e d it ing t he manuscr ipt , Mrs . C . A laf i f or t yp ing , a nd Mr . S . L ev i f or d raft ing t he f igures .

4

I .A .2 : Geo logy

o f

t he ir s pec if ic c onc lus ions , n ame ly o ccurrence o f ap ost-Ro man o sc i l latory t ec-

t on ic move ment , p rovoked a c ontroversy . T he mechan ism a nd o r ig in o f t hat movement , a s we l l a s ar ev iew a nd d iscuss ion o f t he c ontrad ictory c oncepts , a re d isc ussed b y Neev e t a l .

( 1987 : 9 7-102 ) . S ince t hen , s evera l r e levant n ew d ata h ave

b een n oted a nd a na lyzed t hat c orroborate t he o r ig ina l c onc lus ion .

I t i s t he p ur-

p ose o f t h is a rt ic le t o d iscuss t he m a nd t o p ortray a more c omprehens ive t ecton ic h istory o f Caesarea d ur ing t he p ost-Ro man p er iod , p receded b y as hort r ev iew o f s ome o f t he p rob lems a s b ackg round i nformat ion . A s tructura l h igh a t Caesa rea i s a t t he j unct ion o f t hree t ecton ic e lements : ( a ) an orthea st-southwest t rend ing f o lded s tructure t hat f ormed a fter E ar ly C retac eous ( and p erhaps e ven b efore t hen ) a nd f o ld ing a ct iv ity c ont inued u nt i l l ate P le istocene ;

( b ) an orth-northeast t rend ing p ost-Jurass ic/pre-Cretaceous n orma l

f au lt t hat r ough ly c orresponds w ith t he Recent c oastl ine a s we l l a s w ith t he p resent c oasta l f au lt s yste m ;

( c ) t he O r 'Ak iva e a st-west ( t ransverse ) t rend ing

f au lt ( or g raben ) ( Gv irtzman & K lang 1 981 ; N eev d cG reenf ie ld 1 981) .

R e juvenated

a ct iv it ies d ur ing t he Recent a long t hese t h ree t ecton ic e le ments h ave p roduced a t i lted f au lt b lock t hat i su p l ifted i n t he n orth ( at t he Caesa rea h arbour ) a nd d ips t o t he s outh . S im i la r s tructura l f eatures o f a na logous o r ig in a lso f ormed a t o ther s i tes a long t he c oa st o f I s rae l , s uch a s a t Akhz iv h a rbour ( Neev e t a l .

1 987 : 3 9 ) .

Th ree f au lts p ara l le l t o t he c oa st a re p ostu lated a long t he l i ttora l z one o ff Caesarea ( Neev e t a l .

1 978 : f ig . 6 ) . Two o f t hese f au lts ( t he t wo n earest t he

c oa stl ine , f igs . 1 . 17 , 2 0 , 1 .19 ) were i dent if ied o n t he b as is o f o n s hore a nd o ff s hore s tud ies t hat i nc luded d eta i led s trat ig raph ie a na lyses o f b oreho les ( i nc lud ing p rec ise e levat ions o f t he P l iocene-P le istocene b oundary ) a nd d eta i led u nderwater a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 ) . Cumu lat ive t hrows d ur ing t he

Ho locene a cross t hese t wo f au lts t ota l n ear ly 2 0 m w ith in a d istance o f a bout 4 00 m . The Herod ian h arbour s ubs ided a bout 6 m a cross t he e asternmost ( F1) f au lt , t hat c orresponds w ith a s ubmar ine c l iff a long t he western ma rg in o f t he a braded t errace ( f ig . I . 29A ) . T h is p ost-Roman f au lt ing o ccu rred i n t wo p hases : o ne d ur ing B yzant ine t imes , a nd t he o ther s ince t hen ( perhaps d ur ing Mame luke t imes , o r j ust af ew h und red y ea rs a go ) . Dur ing b oth o f t hese t ecton ic p ha ses t he d ownth rown b lock , o n wh ich t he Herod ian h arbour i s s i tua ted , s ubs ided , whereas t he u pthrown b lock was s ub jected t o o sc il latory ( downward f o l lowed b y u pward ) move ments . The mechan ism a nd o r ig in o f t he o sc i l latory move ments were d iscussed b y Neev e t a l . ( 1987 : 9 7-99 ) . B oth p hases o f f au lt ing a re b e l ieved t o b e a ccompan ied b y r enewa l o f mass ive s upp l ies o f q uartz-sand f ro m t he N i le R iver . The n et amount o f v ert ic a l s h ift a cross t he s econd f au lt ( F2 , f igs . 1 . 17 , 2 0 , 1 .19 ) i s a bout 1 3 m , most o f wh ich o ccu rred i n p re-Roman t imes , p robab ly d ur ing t he I r on Age . A t h ird o ff s hore f au lt ( beyond t he western l im it o f f ig . 1 . 20 ) was i dent if ied o n t he b as is o f s ha l low-penetrat ion s e ism ic p rof i les a nd g eomorph ic c ons iderat ions . The

B yzant ine Phase .

A v ert ica l t ecton ic

move ment

a t

Caesarea d ur ing

B yzant ine t imes i si nferred f ro m t he a na lys is o f t wo s ets o f d ata : ( a ) Changes i n g rad ients a nd e levat ions o f t he water-supp ly s yste m t o Caes area , n ame ly t he H igh-Leve l a nd L ow-Leve l a queducts a t t he n orth o f t he c ity d ur ing L ate

Roman ,

B yzant ine ,

a nd E ar ly

Mos lem

t imes . T hese c hanges were

d educed o n t he b as is o f d ata f rom R e ifenberg ( 1950-51 ) , Negev ( 1964 ) , O lam i a nd

Chapter 1 : The S ite

5

P e leg ( 1977 ) , a nd N ir ( 1985 ) a s we l l a s o ur own o bservat ions . A s s hown b e low , i t i s s uggested t hat d ur ing t he B yzant ine p er iod t he u pth rown b lock , e ast o f t he c oasta l f au lt , t ecton ica l ly s ubs ided b y 2 .5 m a nd t hen was u p l ifted a ga in b y t he s ame amount . ( b ) S h ipwrecks , a s we l l a s a n a dd it iona l b reakwater ( Raban e t a l .

r ampart b u i lt o n t op o f t he R o man

1 976 ; Raban 1 985c ) . T hese d ata i nd icate t hat t he h ar-

b our ( i .e . , t he d ownthrown b lock ) s ubs ided t w ice s ince i t was b u i lt ; o nce d ur ing t he B yzant ine p er iod a nd o nce a ga in a t al a ter d ate . S ubs idence d ur ing e ach o f t hese p ha ses amounted t o a pprox i mate ly 3 m . D ur ing Ro man a nd B yzant ine t imes t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct c arr ied f resh water t o Caesarea f ro m t he s outhea stern f lank o f Mount Carme l ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 6 , p l . I ,n o . 1 ) . Upon a pproach ing Caesarea f rom t he n orth , a t e xact ly t he p o int where t he O r 'Ak iva

e ast-west

t ransverse

f au lt

i n tersects

t he

c oastl ine ,

t he

c oast-

p ara l le l s egment o f t hat a queduct a brupt ly t erm inates ( f igs . 1 . 20 , 3 4 ) . N ir ( 1985 ) c onc luded t hat mar ine a bras ion o f t he s egment s outh o f t hat p o int i ncreased b ecause o f an ew wave-d iffract ion p attern i nduced b y c onstruct ion o f t he Herod ian Harbor . However , t he c orrespondence o f t hat p o int w ith t he i ntersect ion o f t he O r 'Ak iva a nd t he c oasta l f au lts s uggests i nvo lve ment o f at ecton ic f actor a s we l l . A t i t s p o int o f t erm inat ion , t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct c onta ins t hree s eparate c hannel s ( f ig . 1 . 20 : A , B , a nd C ) .

Channe l A , t he e a stern o ne , wa s b u i lt b y K ing

Herod d ur ing t he l ate f i rst c entury B .C . Channe l B wa s c on structed a nd a ttached t o Channe l A a long i t s west s ide d ur ing Hadr ian 's r e ign t o d oub le t he water s upp ly t o t he c ity a s we l l a s t o s upport a nd r epa ir d a mages t o Channe l A c aused b y sma l l t ecton ic move ments o r e arth c ompact ion p rocesses . S ubsequent ly , b oth c hanne ls were r epeated ly f i l led w ith l ayers o f r ubb le c e mented w ith mortar t o r a ise t he ir l eve l . The much sma l ler Channe l C( hav ing o n ly 1 0% t he c apac ity o f A a nd B ) t hen was

b u i lt o n t op o f t he r ubb le-f i l led Channe l B , s o t hat t he c u mu lat ive r i se i n

l eve l r eached 2 .5 m . T he s ame s equence o f e vents i s n oted f a rther s outh , a t t he n orthern e ntrance t o R oman Caesarea , where a sma l l r e l ic o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct was f ound . T he r epeated e fforts w ith in s uch a s hort t ime ( th ird t o s ixth c entur ies A .C . ) t o r a ise t he l eve l o f t hat a queduct b y 2 .5 m a long i t s c oasta l s egment s uggest t he e ffects o f at ecton ic s ubs idence p rocess t hat d isturbed t he s upp ly o f water t o Caesarea . Apparent ly , t hese t roub les c u lm inated d ur ing t he s ixth c entury ( i n t he r e ign o f J ust in ian ) when , a ccord ing t o t he Chr ist ian w r iter Chor ic ius o f Gaza , " the Caesa rea a queduct . . . , b ecause o f n eg l igence , n o l onger a l lowed f ree p assage o f t he r unn ing water . . .(a lthough ) t he s pr ings c ont inued t o f low ." ( quoted i n R e ifenberg 1 950-51 : 2 7 ) . T he a bove i n terpretat ion i s i n a gree ment w ith o ne o f t he r at iona les s uggested b y N ir ( 1985 : 1 87 ) f or t he r a is ing o f t he a queduct 's l eve l b y 2 .5 m : n ame ly , t he t ecton ic s ubs idence o f p a rt o f t he c ourse o f t he a queduct . On t he o ther h and , i t i s i n a pparent d isagree ment w ith a n o bservat ion made b y R im ( 1950-51 : 3 5 ) . He c o mp uted t he s lope o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct b etween t he f oot o f Mount Carme l a nd t he c oastl ine , f ound i tt o b e v ery l ow ( 1 :10 ,000 ) , a nd c onc luded t hat t here h ad b een p ract ica l ly n o s ub s idence o f t he s horel ine o r a ny o ther v ert ica l t ecton ic movement o f t he c oasta l z one d ur ing t he t he p ast t wo m il lenn ia . The c ontrad ict ion b etween h is c onc lus ion a nd o urs may b e r eso lved i f we a ssu me t he f o l lowi ng :

( a ) R im 's d ata r efers j ust t o t he u pth rown b lock ( the o nland a rea ) , s o t hat

6

I .A .2 : Geo logy

t here s hou ld b e n o c onf l ict w ith t he s ubs idence o f t he d ownth rown ( o ff s hore ) b lock a s i mp l ied f rom t he o ff s hore d ata ( the Herod ian Ha rbor ; s ee b e low ) ; ( b ) t he s ubs idence p art o f t he B yzant ine o sc il latory t ecton ic p hase was f o l lowed b y a r ebound movement t hat t ecton ica l ly l i fted t he b lock a ga in i n t he l ate s i xth c ent ury . Consequent ly , i t r eached i t s o r ig ina l s tructura l e levat ion a nd e ven s l ight ly a bove i t ( at l east a long i t s western r im - s ee f i g . I . 29C a nd Neev e t a l .

1 978 ) .

The i mp l ied r ange o f t hat o sc i l latory movement i st hus 2 .5 m . The L ow-Leve l Aqueduct f o l lows t he c oastl ine a nd f or most o f i t s c ourse r uns p ara l le l t o t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct , a bout 2 00 m e a st o f i t( f igs . 1 . 8 , n o . 7 , 1 . 22) . I tc arr ied a l arge amount ( 2500 m 3/ hr ) o f water t o Caesarea f rom t he K rokode i lon R iver l ocated a bout 5 km N -NE o f t he h arbour . T he d ate o f i t s c onstruct ion i ss t il l n ot c o mp lete ly s ett led .

F o l low ing i nd irect i nd icat ions , s uch a s a rch itectura l c om-

p ar isons , R e ifenberg ( 1950-51 ) c on jectured t ha t i t was b u i lt d ur ing t he t h ird c ent ury A .C . , whereas O lam i a nd P e leg ( 1977 ) a nd O leson ( 1984b ) b e l ieve i t was b u i lt d ur ing t he f ourth c entury .

We s uggest t hat t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct was b u i lt

d ur ing t he s ixth o r e ar ly s eventh c entury t o r ep lace t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct t hat b y t hen was n ot f unct ion ing a nd a pparent ly c ou ld n o l onger b e r epa ired d ue t o r epeated d amages c aused b y t he o sc il latory movement . T he f o l low ing d ata a re r e le vant t o t he c hrono logy o f t h is a queduct : c at ion wal ls o f B yzant ine

( a ) T he Mos lems p enetrated t he f ort if i-

Caesa rea i n 6 40

t hrough t he

L ow-Leve l

Aqueduct

( Re ifenberg 1 950-51: 2 9 , q uot ing A l-Ba ladar i a nd Yakut ) , s o b y t hen t hat a queduct was a lready i n e x istence . ( b ) Accord ing t o t he t enth-century Mos lem g eographer Muqqadas i , Caesa rea o f h is t ime was a b eaut ifu l a nd f lour ish ing t own , b ut i t s d r ink ing water was d rawn f rom we l ls a nd c isterns l ocated most ly i n t he s wamps e ast o f t he c ity ( c ited i n R e ifenberg 1 950-51 : 2 9 ) .

Th is i mp l ies t hat b y t hen t he

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct , wh ich c arr ied f resh water , n o l onger f unct ioned . ( c ) The e leventh c entury P ers ian w r iter Nas iri-Khusrau p ra ises C aesarea a s " a f ine c ity w ith r unn ing waters . . .and w ith f ounta ins t hat g ush o ut w ith in t he c ity" ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51: 2 9-30) .

A s ar e lat ive ly h igh d ynam ic h ead was n eeded t o o perate t he

f ounta ins , t he i mp l icat ion i s t hat a t t hat t ime s ome a queduct , p oss ib ly t he L owL eve l Aqueduct , was s t il l f unct ion ing . The f o l low ing d ata i mp ly t hat t he Herod ian h arbour ( l ocated o n t he d ownt hrown b lock ; f igs . 1 . 20 , 2 9A-B ) , g radua l ly s ubs ided s omet i me b etween t he t h ird a nd s ixth c entur ies .

( a ) S eventeen s h ipwrecks w ere f ound o n t op o f t he b reak-

water , r ang ing i n a ges f rom t he t h ird/fou rth t o t he f i fth c entur ies ( Raban e t a l . 1 976 : 5 1 ; Raban 1 985e : 1 58 ) .

( b ) A c omp la int was made i n a n e ar ly s ixth-century

l etter b y t he t heo log ian P rocop ius o f Gaza t o t he Emperor Anastas ius r egard ing t he p oor c ond it ion o f t he h arbou r o f Caesarea ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 94 n . 2 0 ) . Apparent ly t he b reakwaters n o l onger k ept o ut t he waves .

( c ) An a dd it iona l r am-

p art was b u i lt o n t op o f t he Herod ian b reakwater t o i mprove i t s f unct ion ing . The c rest o f t hat r ampart i s n ow a f ew metres b e low s ea l eve l . " Be ing p ost-5th c ent ury A .D . t he r ampart m ight we l l b e p art o f t he B yzant ine Caesar Anastas ius 's e ffort t o r epa ir t he S ebastos a l ready i n r u ins" ( Raban 1 985 : 1 58 ) . A s t he t op o f t he n ow s ubmerged r ampart o r ig ina l ly p rotruded c lose t o 2 m a bove s ea l eve l ( f ig . 1 . 20) , i tc an b e a ssumed t hat i th as s ubs ided a f ew metres s i nce t hen t hrough t ect on ic a ct ion . I t i s t herefore i mp l ied t hat t he 6 m o f t ecton ic s ubs idence o f t he d ownthrown b lock ( see I n troduct ion ) o ccurred i n t wo p hases s ince Herod ian t imes : 2 .5 m d ur ing B yzant ine t imes a nd 3 -3 .5 m a fterward .

Chapter I : The S ite

7

Dur ing R oman a nd B yzant ine t imes Caesarea went t hrough t hree ma jor p er io ds o f c onstruct ion a ct iv ity .

T he f i rst t ook p lace d ur ing t he r e ign o f Herod t he

G reat , when t he h arbour a nd t he i n frastructure o f t he c ity were b u i lt ( f irst c ent ury B .C . ) .

T he s econd s tage t ook p lace d ur ing L ate Roman o r E a r ly B yzant ine

t imes ( th ird o r f ourth c entury ) . T he t h ird s tage o ccurred d ur ing L ate B yzant ine t imes ( l ate s ixth c entury ) , when a d rama t ic r i se i n b u i ld ing a ct iv ity a nd s treet r epa ir i s i mp l ied b y a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ( Vann 1 983b ) . We s uggest t hat t he s econd s tage f o l lowed a v ery d estruct ive e vent d ur ing wh ich most o f t he Ro man c ity was v irtua l ly d estroyed ( Bu l l & T oombs 1 972) . T hat e vent may c orrespond w ith t he f i rst ( downward ) move ment o f t he B yzant ine o sc i l latory p ha se . The t h ird s tage o f c on struct ion a nd r epa irs f o l lowed t he l ast ( upward ) move ment o f t hat o sc i l latory p hase - r ebound o f t he u pthrown b lock . Accord ing ly , t he e nt ire d urat ion o f t he B yzant ine o sc i l latory p hase i se st imated t o h ave b een a bout 3 00 y ears . T he o ccurrence o f a n o sc i l latory movement d u r ing B yzant ine t imes i s n ot l imi ted t o Caesarea ( map , f ig . 1 . 18 ) . S im ilar i nd icat ions s uggest d own a nd u p movements i n t he r ange o f 4m a cross t he c oastl ine o f Yavneh Yam s outh o f T e l Av iv , s omet i me b etween L a te Roman a nd L ate B yzant ine t imes ( Neev e t a l .

1 987 :

6 5-66 ) . I nd icat ion s s uggest ing a n o sc i l latory movement t hat r anged t o a bout 8 m were n oted a t t wo s i tes o n t he c oasta l c l iff a t T e l A shqe lon ( Neev : i n p reparat ion ) . These t wo s i tes a re a dd it iona l t o t ha t d escr ibed b y Neev e t a l .

( 1987 : 7 3-75) a long

t he s ame s egment o f c oastl ine b ut s evera l h undred metres f arther n orth . The d ate o f t he l atter ( whether B yzant ine o r Ma me luke ian ) s t i l l i s u nc lea r . Another e vent o f t he s a me d ate i s d escr ibed b y L ewy e t a l .

( 1986 ) f ro m t he Akhz iv-

Nahar iya c oasta l a rea n ear t he I s rae l-Lebanon b order ( s ee a lso Neev e t a l .

1 987 :

3 9-41) . P irazzo l i ( 1988 ) r eported e v idence f or s udden v ert ica l d isp lacements a cross s evera l c oasts i n t he n orthea stern p art o f t he E astern Med iterranean d ur ing t he f i fth a nd s ixth c entur ies ( but most ly a round A .D . 4 50) . He c a l led t h is p hase " The E ar ly B yzant ine T ecton ic P aroxysm" a nd c orre lated i t w ith s evera l g reat e a rthq uakes i n t he E astern Med iterranean d ur ing t he p er iod f rom t he m idd le o f t he f ourth c entury t o t he m idd le o f t he s ixth c entury . T he movements i nc luded most ly emergence o f t he l and ( up t o + 10 m ) b ut s ome e xamp les o f s ubmergence ( t o 4 .5 m ) a lso were ment ioned . N everthe less , o sc i l latory t ype o f move ments were n ot n oted i n h is a rt ic le . T hese t ecton ic p aroxysms a re a scr ibed b y P irazzo l i t o as ubduct iont h rust movement o f t he I on ian c rust u nder t he He l len ic A rc t hat c aused a s udden n arrow ing o f t he E astern Med iterranean S ea , a nd a lso t o n ecessary r ead just ments o f v ar ious b locks o f t he l i thosphere . T h is mechan ism i s s im i la r t o t hat s uggested b y Neev e t a l .

( 1987 : 9 9 ) t o e xp la in o sc i l latory movements a long t he c oasts o f

I s rae l . Two P os t-Byzant ine P hases ( Ear ly Mos le m a nd ! da me luke ) . v ert ica l

d ifferent ia l

t ecton ic

move ments

a cross

t he

c oast

P ost-Byzant ine

o f

Caesarea

a re

i nferred most ly f rom s ed i mento log ica l e v idence . A s uccess ion o f man-made s truct ures d eve loped w ithout i n terrupt ion a s a n u rban c o mp lex i n Caesarea d ur ing t he p er iod b etween He l len ist ic a nd E ar ly Mos lem t imes ( for a bout 1 000 y ears ) . T hat c onstruct ion p er iod t erm inated r ather a brupt ly when t he s ea t ransgressed t he c oasta l

z one ,

a nd

a t

l ea st

t he

s egment

s outh

o f

t he

C rusader

f ortress

was

o n lapped b y a s equence o f l agoona l a nd s wa mp s ed i ments a f ew metres t h ick .

8

I .A .2 : Geo logy

S uch a c hange o f r eg i men c ou ld h ave o ccurred o n ly b ecause o f

t ecton ic s ubs i-

d ence o f t he u pthrown b lock , a nd t ransg ress ion o f t he s ea . Apparent ly , t he t ransg ress ive r eg i men p reva i led f or s evera l h undred y ears , a lthough w ith s ome f luctuat ions .

I t t erm inated when

t he c oasta l

z one g radua l ly

was u p l ifted

a ga in a nd

r eturned t o i t s p re-movement s tructura l e levat ion s omet ime a fter t he e nd o f C rus ader r u le . The p resence o f s wamps d ur ing t he e ar ly modern p er iod a long t he t opog raph ic t rough p ara l le l t o t he c oast s outh o f t he C ru sader f ortress o f Caesarea wa s i nd ic ated b y N eev e t a l .

( 1978 : 5 6-60 ) . T hat t rough i s n ow a bout 1 0 m a bove MSL

( f igs . 1 . 8 , 1 9 , p l . I :F ie ld s C , K , L , M ) .

I ti ss epa rated f rom t he s ea b y ar idge 1 5 m

a bove MSL t hat e xtends s outhward a s f ar a s t he t heatre ( Vann

1 983b : f i g . 2 ) .

L arge E ar ly Ro man t o B yzant ine p ub l ic s tructures were e xcavated b y B u l l a nd T oo mbs ( 1972 ) a t t he n orthwestern e nd o f t ha t r idge . The t ops o f t hese r e l ics a re e xposed n ow a t a bout 1 0 m a bove MSL , where t hey a re o n lapped b y al ayer o f b each o r d une s ands a f ew metres t h ick ( Bul l 1 973a-b , 1 974 ) . P a tches o f l oose s hel l l enses u p t o 0 .20 m t h ick l oca l ly c over t he s andy a pexes o f t hat r idge . Tha t s andy u n it i nterf ingers e astward w ith s andy c lay s ed iments o f l agoona l o r s wamp o r ig in , a nd w ith s he l l l enses ( most ly G lycymer is v io lacescens ) .

I t was a rgued b y Neev e t

a l . ( 1978 ) t hat u nder p resent p hys iog raph ic c ond it ions s wa mp e nv ironments c ou ld n ot h ave p reva i led a long t he c oast-pa rale l t rough .

A s wamp j ust a f ew t ens o f

metres e ast o f t he c oastl ine wou ld n ot h o ld water a t a n e leva t ion o f 1 0 m a bove MSL , where t he s ubso i l ( conta in ing t he r u ins o f t he Roman t o Byzant ine s t ruct ures ) i s v ery p ermeab le d own t o p resent

s ea l eve l .

We a ssume t hat when t hese

s wamps f i rst f ormed , t he b ase l eve l o f e ros ion h ad t o b e a pprec iab ly h igher t han i t i st oday a nd t hat t he water o f t he s wamp was i n h ydrau l ic e qu i l ibr iu m w ith t ha t o f t he n earby s ea . S ince

1 978 ,

a rchaeo log ica l

i nvest igat ions

h ave

b een

e xpanded

w ith in

t he

t rough a bout 1 00 m f arther e ast o f t he c oa sta l r idge , where a n e xtens ive c omp lex o f B yzant ine s tructures t opped b y e ar ly Mos le m o nes wa s e xcavated a nd s tud ied ( Jo int E xped it ion F ie ld s C , K , L , a nd M ; V ann 1 983b : f ig . 1 ; o ur f igs . I . 8 , 1 9 ) . E lev at ions o f t hese B yzant ine t o E ar ly Mos lem r e l ict s tructures i n F ie lds C a nd K r ange f ro m a bout 6 t o 8m a bove MSL .

T he r espect ive t h ickness o f t he o ver ly ing

s wa mp a nd s he l l-bed s equence , t herefore , r anges f rom 4 t o 2m . F resh o utcrops e xposed b y t he e xcavat ion e nab led u s t o b etter o bserve d eta i ls o f s ed i mentary s tructures a nd t extures w ith in t he o ver ly ing s ed imentary s equence .

A s s tated

a bove , most o f t h is s equence c ons ists o f l ent icu la r s he l ls , r ounded a nd a ngu la r p ott ery s herds , a nd r ubb le , i n terbedded w ith in s andy c lay l ayers .

Two p rom inent

b ands o f more u n iform d a rk g rey-brown s andy c lay d epos its , e ach 0 .20 t o 0 .40 m t h ick , o ccur a t a bout t he m idd le o f t he o utcrop a nd n ea r i t s t op ( f ig . I . 23) . T races o f h or izonta l l am inat ion a s we l l a s b urrowers ' t unne ls ( f igs . 1 . 24-25 ) a re w ith in t hese t wo b and s , i nd icat ing a n a lternat ion o f s tagnant a nd b ioturbated e nv ironments . These t wo b ands a re

a ssumed t o h ave b een d epos ited w ith in l ow-energy

l agoona l o r s wamp e nv ironments t hat were

i n h ydrau l ic

e qu i l ibr ium

n earby s ea . Occas iona l ly , t hese s wamps d r ied o ut c omp lete ly , e nab l ing

w ith t he r estr icted

h u man a ct iv it ies . T h is i s i nd icated b y t he p resence o f ah or izonta l l ayer o f n eat ly c arved b u i ld ing s tones w ith in t he l ower s wamp b ed ( f ig . 1 . 23 ) .

Chapter I : The S ite

9

T he i nterbedd ing o f s he l l l enses a nd s wa mp b eds w ith in t he p ost-Byzant ine s ed imentary s equence s uggests a pprec iab le c hanges i n e nv ironments o f d epos it ion . Most s he l ls a re o r iented w ith t he ir c oncave s urface d ownwa rd a nd a re d ense ly p acked w ith o cca s iona l " nest l ing t extures" ( see Neev e t a l . 1 987 : 3 1) . S ome c ha ins o f n est led s hel ls f orm

c ircu lar p atterns , a nd e lsewhere weak b edd ing i s p resent

( f igs . 1 . 26-27 ) . Sma l ler l enses o f b roken s he l ls a nd g ranu l

e s w ith i mbr icated p at-

t erns a lso a re i n terbedded w ith in t he s equence ( f ig . 1 . 28 ) . A l l o f t hese f eatures i mp ly t he a ct iv ity o f s trong a nd p ers istent c urrents d ur ing d epos it ion o f t he s hel l b ed s . The d istr ibut ion p attern o f t hese s he l l b eds s uggests t he ir g enet ic r e lat ions h ip t o t he n earby s horel ine . T he s he l l a ccumu lat ions a re w ith in a nd a long t he c oa st-pa ra l le l t rough b etween t he C rusader f ortress a nd t he Ro man t heatre ( f ig . 1 . 8 ) . T hey b ecome r arer e a stwa rd a nd d isappear c omp lete ly a bout 3 00 m e ast o f t he c oastl ine . Mass ive o ccurrences o f t he s he l ls w ith in t he p ost-Byzant ine s equence s upport t he ir n atura l ma r ine ( beach ) o r ig in . T he r at io o f s he l ls t o t he o ther c oa rse d etr ita l c omponents w ith in t hat s ed i mentary s equence i s e st imated t o r ange b etween o ne q ua rter a nd o ne h a lf . S uch a l a rge a nd d ense c oncentrat ion o f s he l ls may b e c omp ared w ith t hat f ound n or th o f T e l Dor ( Neev e t a l . 1 973 ; N eev e t a l .

1 987 ) . A t

t he Dor s i te , h owever , w e l l-ce mented b each-rock l ayers d om inate t he l ower p art o f t he s he l l-bed s equence . A t p resent t hese l ayers a re s i tuated b oth a bove a nd b e low t he h igh-t ide l eve l . The p resence o f t he b each-rock f ac ies a t Dor c orrobor ates o ur i nterpretat ion o f t he n atura l b each o r ig in o f t he o ver ly ing u nce mented p art o f t h is s he l l-bed s equence a nd t hereby i nd irect ly a lso s upports o ur c onc lus ion o f an atura l b each e nv ironment f or t he u nee mented s he l l b ed s a t Caesarea . Doubts h ave b een e xpressed r espect ing t he o r ig in o f t he Caesarea s he l l b eds , a nd a lternat ive mechan isms h ave b een o ffered t o e xp la in t he ir p resence a t s uch a h igh e levat ion a bove MSL . F or e xamp le , ah uman mechan ism was s uggested b y Y . P orath ( persona l c o m mun icat ion ) i nvo lv ing a n E ar ly Mos le m d redg ing o perat ion a t t he b otto m o f t he h arbour a t Caesarea , f o l low ing wh ich t he s he l ls were a rt if ic ia l ly d u mped a long t he t rough o f F ie lds C , K , a nd f a rther t o t he s outh ( f ig . 1 . 8 ) .

How-

e ver , s uch a h ypothes is i s n ot r ea l ist ic , a s n o a pprec iab le a ccumu lat ions o f s he l ls were n oted d ur ing t he s ubmar ine a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions t hat were c a rr ied o ut a t t he b otto m o f t he n earby Herod ian h arbour ( A . Raban , p ersona l c om mun icat i on ) . Another , c ontrad ictory h ypothes is a long t he s ame l i nes s tates t hat t he s he l ls c ou ld h ave b een a rt if ic ia l ly b rough t t o t hat p lace a s ar aw mater ia l t o b e m ixed w ith morta r f or b u i ld ing p urposes ( A . Raban , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) . T h is p oss ib i l ity a lso s hou ld b e r u led o ut b ecause , i n t he f i rst p lace , n o c e ment was f ound a ttached t o t he s he l ls i n t he p ost-Byzant ine s equence . F urthermore , a t e qu iva lent s i tes s uch a s t he C rusader f ortress o f A shqe lon , d is integra ted s he l ls f e l l a nd a ccumu lated a t t he f oot o f t he s outhern wa l l . I n a dd it ion , t he u se o f s he l ls w ith c onc rete a nd c e ment b y R omans a nd B yzant ines a s ab u i ld ing mater ia l f or h ouse a nd r oad c onstruct ion i s n ot ment ioned i n t he d eta i led r ev iew o f c onstruct ion t echn iques a t Caesarea made b y V ann ( 1983b ) , ar ev iew b ased u pon e xam inat ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l a nd s tudy o f r e levant a nc ient t echn ica l a uthors s uch a s V itruv iu s . T he s pec if ic s ed imentary f ac ies w ith in t he 2 -4 m t h ick p ost-Byzant ine s ed imentary s equence i nd ica tes t hat i t was d epos ited a nd a ccu mu lated b y n atura l

1 0

1 .A .2 : Geo logy

b each a nd s wa mp p rocesses a nd i s n ot t he p roduct o f a n

i nstantaneous c ata-

s troph ic e vent s uch a s at sunam i . I n o ther words , t h is c oa st-para l le l t rough w as t ransg ressed b y t he s ea a nd r ema ined s ubmerged f or a r e lat ive ly l ong t ime . A s a r esu lt , t he e nv iron ments o f d epos it ion f luctuated f rom o pen b each t o l agoon a nd s wa mp .

Cons ider ing

t he

p ostu lated

v ert ica l

d imens ions

o f

t hat

t ransgress ion

( 10-15 m ) a nd i t s d urat ion ( severa l t ens t o af ew h und red y ears ) , a s we l l a s t he e st i mated r ange o f e ustat ic s ea l eve l c hange d ur ing t he p a st 1 500 y ears ( l ess t han 1m ) , we s uggest t hat t h is c hange i n t he l and/sea r e lat ionsh ip i s r e la ted t o a n o sc i l latory t ecton ic movement r ather t han t o o ther f actors . T he f o l low ing d iscuss ion i s a n a ttempt t o f urther c lar ify a nd d ec ipher t he n ature a nd t im ing o f t he p ost-Byzant ine t ecton ic h istory a t Caesa rea . T he s uccess ion o f Roman , B yzant ine , a nd E a r ly Mos lem

man-made s tructures wa s t rans-

g ressed b y t he s ea s omet i me d ur ing t he s eventh o r n inth c entur ies . Re l ics o f E ar ly Mos lem s tructures t hat a lso a re i n terbedded w ith in t he o ver ly ing s ed i menta ry s equence

may

i nd icate

t emporary

r egress ions .

Most

p ottery

s herds

s equence a re E ar ly Mos le m i n a ge , o r s eventh t o n inth c entur ies ( I .

i n

t hat

R o l , p ersona l

c o m mun icat ion ) , a l though s ome med ieva l o nes a l so were a lso n oted . C o ins o f v a r io us a ges , t he y oungest f rom C rusader t imes ( twe lfth c entury ) , were f ound w ith in t he s equence . B u l l a nd T oombs ( 1972 ) s tated t hat t he a rea o f F ie ld C was a c emetery d ur ing C rusader a nd Mos lem t imes . S o me o f t he Mos lem g raves c ou ld b e d ated t o t he E ar ly Mos lem p er iod b y t he K uf ic s cr ipt c arved o n t he ir t o mbstones ( Y .

P orath ,

p ersona l

Mos lem

c om mun icat ion ) .

T he

a ges o f o thers

may

r ange

f ro m

E ar ly

t hrough Ma me luke t o B osn ian ( Mos lems s ett led b y t he T urks d ur ing t he n ineteenth c entury ) .

I t i ss urpr is ing t hat n o ment ion wa s made o f t he p resence o r a bsence o f

t ombstones o n t he r eported C rusader g raves a t Caesarea , a l though t hey a re a bund ant a t t he we l l-preserved a nd o rgan ized C rusader c e metery a t A th l it , 2 5 km n orth o f Caesarea . Moreover , we s uspect t hat s ome o f t he f ew c omp lete h u man s ke letons a nd most o f t he many d isa rt icu lated b ones s cattered w ith in t he p ostB yzant ine s ed imentary s equence i n F ie ld C w ere c a rr ied t o t he ir p resent p lace o f b ur ia l b y t he s ame n atura l a quat ic p rocesses t hat t ransported a nd b ur ied t he o ther c oarse d etr ita l c omponents o f t hat s equence ( she l ls , p ebb les , a nd r ubb le ) . I n e xami n ing a c o mp lete B yzant ine

s ke leton

t hat

s ed imentary s equence

i s h or izonta l ly i n

F ie ld

C ,

i n terbedded

Neev

d id

n ot

w ith in

t he

p ost-

n ot ice a ny

r e l ict

f eatures o r o ther s igns t hat c ou ld t est ify t o t he e x istence o f a man-made g rave , s uch a s v ert ica l c ontacts o f t he d ug wa l ls o r v ert ica l ly o r iented p latel ike s tones t hat u sua l ly mark l im its o f g raves i n Mos lem c e meter ies . Moreover , f eeb le b edd ing was n oted b oth a bove a nd b e low a s we l l a s a cross t he h or izonta l l im its o f t he c o mp lete s ke leton . S upport f or t he a bove i n terpretat ion m ight b e f ound i n a f ew e xpress ions i nc luded w ith in t hree d ifferent s entences e xtrac ted f rom a Hebrew p oem w r itten b y a n a nonymous a uthor s omet i me b etween t he m id-e igh th a nd m id-ten th c entur ies ( Zu lay 1 936 : 1 58 ; P rof . E . F le ischer , p ersona l c o m mun icat ion ) :

"Mu lt itudes

d rowned v io lent ly , t hose dwe l lers i n t he S hefe la [ coasta l l ow lands o f I s rae l] a nd i n t he S haron V a l ley . . . .

A c urrent a ppeared . . . , s trangers w ere s tormed a ngr ily . . . .

Women a nd c h i ld ren were d rowned , a long w ith p reachers o f t he B ib le a nd M ishn ah . . . ." T hese c i tat ions may r ef lect a d isastrous e vent t hat o ccurred s omet ime

Chapter I : The S ite

1

d ur ing t he E ar ly Mos lem p er iod a long t he c oasta l b e lt o f t he S haron P la in . Caes area i s i n t he n orthern p art o f t hat p la in .

S ha lem ( 1956 ) c ons idered t he h orrors

d escr ibed i n t he p oem t o b e r e lated t o t he e arthquake a nd t sunam i o f 7 46 . Howe ver , a s e xp la ined a bove , t he f ac ies o f s ed iments i nvo lved i n t he p ost-Byzant ine s equence s uggest t hat t he water b ody f rom wh ich t hey were d epos ited was n ot a t sunam i , b ut h ad t o b e a ssoc iated w ith a r e lat ive ly l ong-term t ransgress ion o f t he s ea . The c itat ions a lso c orrobora te t he i n terpretat ion t ha t t he s ke leton s a nd b ones c ou ld h ave b een b rought t o t he ir p resent p laces o f b ur ia l b y t ransgress ive c urr ents . The f ac ies d istr ibu t ion w ith in t he l ower h a lf o f t he e a r ly modern s ed i mentary s equence ( f ig . 1 . 23) r epresents a f u l l s ed imentary c yc le t hat s ta rted w ith a h ighe nergy e nv iron ment ( turb id ites c o mposed o f s he l ls a nd r ubb le ) a nd e nded w ith a l ow-energy e nv iron ment ( swa mp d epos its ) . T h is s equence i mp l ies a d eepen ing a nd as hoa l ing o f t he s ea o r at ransg ress ion a nd r egress ion c aused b y at ecton ic o sc i ll atory move ment . T he u pper h a lf o f t he s equence i s ar ep l ica o f t he l ower o ne , a nother c yc le o f s he l l s a nd s wamp d epos its t hat r epresents a s econd c yc le o f t ransg ress ion-regress ion o r a nother o sc i l latory move ment a fter C rusader t imes . I t i s s pecu lated t hat t he p eaks o f t hese t wo p ost-Byzant ine o sc i l latory movements c ou ld h ave o ccurred d ur ing t he s eventh t o n inth c entur ies a nd d ur ing t he f ourteenth c entury , r espect ive ly . T here a re p ract ical ly n o Mos le m d ocuments l eft f rom t he s eventh t o n inth c entur ies t hat t est ify t o c iv i l o r n atura l a ct iv it ies a long t he c oasta l z one o f I s rae l d ur ing t hat p er iod ( 1 . R o l , p ersona l c o m mun icat ion ) . Moreover , d ur ing t he t enth c entury t hat r eg ion , a nd e spec ial ly t he h a rbours a t Acco a nd A shqe lon , u nderwent a n i n tens ive p hase o f b u i ld ing a nd r econstruct ion , wh ich i s r e lated b y F renke l ( i n p ress ) t o af lorescence o f e conom ic a nd t rad ing t ies i n t he e astern Med iterranean . T h is p hase a lso c ou ld h ave r esu lted f rom a t ime o f t ecton ic q u iet . T he s econd p er iod f o l lowed t he i ntent iona l d estruct ion o f v ita l i nsta l lat ions c arr ied o ut b y t he Ma me luke s u ltans B aybars a nd a l-A shraf a long t he c oa sta l z one o f Pa lest ine a s ad efens ive mea sure a ga inst a nother C rusader i nvas ion ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51) .

N everthe less , t wo p hys ica l c hanges o ccurred a fter t he

e nd o f t he B yzant ine p er iod : f ormat ion o f ag reat s wamp j ust e ast o f Caesarea , a nd i ntens if icat ion o f t he

i n land s and-dune e ncroachment p rocess ( Re ifenberg

1 950-51 : 3 1) . These c hanges a re b e l ieved t o b e d ue t o n atura l p rocesses a nd s hou ld n ot b e r e lated t o t he man-made d estruct ive o perat ions a long t he c oasta l z one ( see a lso Neev e t a l .

1 987 ) . S evera l d evasta t ing e arthquakes d ur ing t he s ame p er iod

( ear ly f ourteenth c entury ) a round t he e astern Med iterranean f i t we l l w ith o ur i nterpretat ion . P oss ib ly t he t wo p ost-Byzant ine o sc i l latory movements c onst ituted a mu lt ip le t ype o f t ecton ic p ha se t h rough wh ich t he c oasta l z one t ecton ica l ly f luctuated d ownward a nd u pward s evera l t imes . S uch a s cenar io i s a na logous t o t wo o sc i l lat ory movements a long t he P ac if ic c oast o f J apan d ur ing t he p ast 1 00 y ears . That i nterpretat ion i s b ased o n t he a na lys is o f c ont inuous t ida l r ecords ( Thatcher 1 985 ; s ee a lso Neev e t a l .

1 987 : 9 9 ) , wh ich r evea led l and move ments t hat l asted 3 0

y ears a nd h ad amp l itudes o f 2m . T he a na logy f rom J apan p roves t ha t o sc i l latory t ecton ic move ments a re n ot j ust a n i mag inary c onstruct b ut c ont inue t o o ccur a t p resent . The t ecton ic mode l s uggested b y Neev e t a l .

( 1987 ) t o e xp la in t he o r ig in

a nd mechan ism o f t he o sc i l latory t ype o f movement a lso a grees w ith t hat s ugg ested b y T hatcher . T he c o m mon d eno m inator o f t he t wo t ecton ic mode ls i s t he

1 2

1 .A .2 : Geo logy

d ownwarp ing o f c ont inenta l marg ins a fter c o l l is ion w ith o cean ic c rusts ( d irect c o ll i s ion o ff J apan a nd o b l ique c o l l is ion o ff I s rae l ) a nd r esu ltant i sostat ic u p l ift o f t he c ont inents . T he magn itude o f t he p ost-Byzant ine o sc il la tory movements a t Caesarea h ad t o b e a pprec iab ly l arger t han t hat o f t he B yzant ine . T he t ota l amount o f d i sp lacement a cross t he c oasta l f au lt ( F1 o f f ig . 1 . 20 ) a fter t he E ar ly Ro man p er iod i s a bout 6 m ( s ee I n troduct ion ) . T he n et amount o f s ubs idence o f t he Herod ian h arb our ( on t he d ownthrown s ide ) d ur ing t he B yzant ine p hase i s 2 .5 m . T herefore t he s ubs idence d ur ing t he p ost-Byzant ine mu lt ip le p ha se i s 3 .5 m . Neverthe less , t he v ert ica l d i mens ion o f t he o sc i l latory move ment d ur ing t hat p hase i s p ostu lated t o r ange b etween 1 0 a nd 1 5 m . T he i mp l ied d iscrepancy c an b e b r idged u nder t he a ssu mp t ion t hat t he d ownth rown b lock p a rt ic ipated i n t he d ownward move ment o f t he u pth rown b lock t hroughout t he f i rst s tage o f t he o sc il latory movement . Howe ver ,

d ur ing t he r ebound s tage t he d ownthrown b lock o n t he way u pwa rd l agged

b eh ind t he u pth rown o ne b y 3t o 3 .5 m . T he n et amount o f t ota l d isp lace ment s ince Ro man t imes t herefore wa s 6m ( f ig . 1 . 29 ) .

S uch a mechan ism i s s omewhat

more c omp l icated t han t hat d escr ibed b y Neev e t a l . ( 1987 : f ig . 3 5 ) , b ut i t i s i mp l ied f rom

t he f acts .

I t a lso a g rees b etter w ith t he s cenar io d escr ibed

b y

T hatcher ( 1985 ) f or t he a na logous move ment a cross t he c oa st o f J apan .

Co m ments o n t he I l lus trat ions . F ig . 1 . 18 . R eg iona l map . Note t he l im its o f t he a dm in istrat ive d istr icts a long t he c oast : Carme l , S haron , a nd P leshet ( Yehudah ) . F ig . 1 . 19 . I ndex map : s i tes a t a nd n ear Caesa rea d iscussed i n t ext ( after Neev e t a l .

1 978 : f ig . 2 ) . Note l ocat ions o f F ie lds C , K , L , a nd M , a s wel l a s t he p o int o f

a brupt t erm inat ion o f t he H igh a nd L ow-Leve l Aqueducts . F ig . 1 . 20 . T ransverse e ast-west g eo log ica l c ross-sect ion t hrough t he l a te P l ioc ene t o R ecent s ed i mentary s equence a t C aesarea . T he s ect ion e xtends f rom west o f t he s unken Herod ian b reakwater t o e ast o f t he C rusader c ity wa l l ( after Neev e t a l .

1 978 : f ig . 1 0 ) . T he p re-Roman ( F2 ) a nd p ost-Ro man ( F1 ) f au lts were i dent i-

f ied ( 13 a nd 6 m t h rows , r espect ive ly ) f rom p rec ise a ge a na lys is o f s trat ig raph ie c ontacts i n d r i l l ing a nd p resent e levat ions o f t he n ow s ubmerged man-made s truct ures ( breakwater , f loor , a nd s lu ice ) . B y p erm iss ion o f I s rae l J ourna l o f E arthS c iences , J erusa lem . F ig . 1 . 21 .

T he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct . A s outhward v iew f ro m i t s t op n ear t he

p o int o f i t s a brupt t erm inat ion d ue t o t he c omb ined e ffects o f s ea a bras ion a nd o f r e juvenated t ecton ic move ments .

A t t hat p o int t he c oasta l a nd Or 'Ak iva f au lts

c ross e ach o ther . Aqueduct C ( 10 % o f t he j o int c apac ity o f A +B ) was b u i lt o n t op o f Aqueduct B . B oth A a nd B were s equent ia l ly f i l led w ith l ayers o f r ubb le a nd c e ment t o r a ise t he ir l eve l b y 2 .5 m . F ig . 1 . 22 .

T he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct . An orthward v iew o f t he c hanne l , v au lted

o ver t o a vo id c logg ing b y t he e ncroach ing s and o f t he c oasta l d unes ) .

P hoto-

g raphed f rom a p o int a bout 2 00 m e ast o f t he p ho to s tat ion f or f ig . 1 . 21 . I t was b u i lt i n t he s ixth c entu ry t o r ep lace t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct ( seen o n t he l eft a s ac oast-para l le l f eature ) f o l low ing d a mages c aused b y t he B yzant ine o sc i l latory t ecton ic move ment .

C hapter 1 : The S ite

1 3

F ig . 1 . 23 . A 2 -4 m t h ick s ed imentary s equence o ver ly ing B yzant ine a nd e ar ly Mos lem s tructures a bout 1 00 m e ast o f t he c oastl ine . T he p resence o f mass ive s hel l l enses w ith n est led p ack ing s tructures , a s we l l a s t he i n terbedded s wamp s edi ments ( a l ower o ne n ea r t he m idd le p art o f t he s equence a nd a n u pper o ne n ear i t s t op ) , i nd icates t he p reva lence o f mar inelagoona l e nv iron ments , t hereby t he s ucc ess ive o ccurrence o f s ubs idence-transg ress ion-up l ift e vents . T he E ar ly Mos le m s tructu re w ith in t he m id-sequence s wamp b ed ( see a l so f ig . 1 . 24 ) s uggests c o mp lete d es iccat ion o f t hat s wamp . Two s uccess ive t ecton ic o sc i l lat ions a re i mp l ied . Twe lfth-century c o ins f ound w ith in t he u pper p art o f t he s equence s upport t he p ost-Crusader a ge o f t he l atter o sc i l lat ion . F ig . 1 . 24 . D eta i l o f f ig . 1 . 23 .

Swamp s ed iments .

Hor izonta l l am inat ion w ith in

t he m id-sequence s wamp l ayer s uggest ing s tagnant c ond it ions . F ig . 1 . 25 . D eta il o f f ig . 1 . 23 . Swamp s ed i ments .

B urrowers ' t unne ls , i nd icat ing

b ioturbat ion o r a erob ic c ond it ions i n t he s ame b ed a s f ig . 1 . 24 . F ig . 1 . 26 . S he l l l enses w ith in t he p ost-Byzant ine s ed imentary s equence i nd icati ng a n atura l mar ine ( beach ) e nv ironment o f d epos it ion ( s ee a lso Neev e t a l . , 1 987 , p . 2 9-35 ) .

Nest led p ack ing o f s he ll s .

F ig . 1 . 27 .

S hel l l enses w ith in t he p ost-Byzant ine s ed i mentary s equence i nd i-

c at ing a n atu ra l mar ine ( beach ) e nv ironment o f d epos it ion ( see a lso Neev e t a l . , 1 987 , p . 2 9-35 ) . F ig . 1 . 28 .

Dom inant c oncave-downward o r ientat ion .

S he l l l enses w ith in t he p ost-Byzant ine s ed i menta ry s equence i nd i-

c at ing a n atu ra l mar ine ( beach ) e nv ironment o f d epos it ion ( see a l so Neev e t a l . , 1 987 ,

P .

2 9-35 ) . A l ent icu la r l ayer o f i mbr icated f ragmented s hel ls a nd p ebb les .

F ig . 1 . 29 .

S ketch d iagrams o f t he t h ree s tages o f p ost-Byzant ine t ecton ic

o sc i l latory move ment a cross t he c oastl ine a t Caesarea ( south o f t he h arbour ) .

A .

A p re-move ment s tage . T he t op o f t he r epa ired b reakwater ( by a dd ing a r a mpart o n i t s t op ) i s a rb itra r i ly marked a t 2m a bove MSL . T he c oasta l f au lt ( F1 ) s epar ates t he

h arbour

a nd

t he

Roman-Byzant ine/Ear ly

Mos lem

c ity .

B .

A p ost-

s ubs idence s tage . B oth t he u pthrown a nd t he d ownthrown b locks s ubs ided 1 0-15 m . Ab erml ike s and b ody a ccu mu lated o n t op o f t he R o man-Byzant ine c oasta l s truct ures , wherea s l agoona l s ed i ments were d epos ited a long t he t rough f arther e a st . Most ly s and a nd d ebr is a ccumu lated o ff s hore , o n t op o f t he d ownthrown s ide o f t he f au lt .

C . Ap ost-rebound move ment s tage . B oth t he u p thrown a nd d ownthrown

b locks were

u p l ifted

t ecton ica l ly

a ga in ;

t he

f i rst

o ne

r eturned

t o

i t s

p re-

s ubs idence s tructu ra l e levat ion , whereas t he d ownthrown b lock l agged a nd s tab il i zed 3 .5 m b e low i t s p re-osc i l latory movement s tructura l e levat ion . [ D .N . , K .O .E . ]

I .A . Natura l F ea tures : 3 . Tecton ics a nd S ea Leve ls . I ntroduct ion .

Dur ing t he w inter o f 1 976 , wh i le s tudy ing t he a rchaeo log ica l

e v idence f or c oasta l t ecton ic movements a nd e ustat ie s ea l eve l c han es i n I s rae l , I v is ited a bout 3 5 s i tes o n t he c oa st , a nd c omp i led d ata o n o ver 6 0 .L S ince many

2 Iam d eep ly i ndebted t o t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , t he Depart ment o f t he H istory o f Ma r it ime C iv i l isat ions , a nd p art icu lar ly t o E l isha L inder , f or e nab l ing me t o

1 4

1 .A .3 : T ecton ics a nd S ea Leve ls

s i tes c onta ined more t han o ne d atab le a rchaeo log ica l h or izon , t he p otent ia l n u mb er o f s i tes a va i lab le t o t he s tudy was 1 39 . However , s ince many s i tes h ad n ot y et b een e xcavated , o r t he l evel s were n ot c onven ient ly c lose t o t he waterl ine , q uant i tat ive d ata r e lat ing t o t he s ea l eve l wa s o n ly o bta ined a t 4 2 d atab le l eve ls l ocated a t 2 5 d ifferent s i tes .

Dur ing J anuary 1 976 I was i nvo lved w ith Avner

Raban a nd S tephen B re itste in i n d raft ing t he work p rogram me f or t he r esea rch o n s ea l eve l c hanges l ater c arr ied o ut f or t he I EC ( a r ev ised v ers ion i sp resen ted h ere i n S ect ion I .B .2 ) . T he s urvey u lt i mated ly c arr ied o ut was r e l iab le a nd i mpart ia l , a nd t he mapp ing a nd r eport ing o f t he d ata v ery t horough . N everthe less , t he d educt ions i n t h is r eport c oncern ing c hanges i n s ea l eve l were made p ure ly f rom t he p o int o f v iew o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , w ithout a ny s pecu lat ion a s t o c ause . The p urpose o f t he p resent n ote i s t o c om ment o n t he p oss ib le i mp l icat ions o f t he d ata f ro m Caesarea , a nd t o r e late t hese t o t he b roader p icture o bta ined b y l ess d eta i led s urveys a t many o ther s i tes . T he a rgument w i l l b e d eve loped b y d iscuss ing ( a ) t he d istr ibut ion o f r ecent t ecton ics a nd e u stat ic c hanges i n t he Med iterranean , ( b ) t he n ature o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o n t he Med iterranean c oast o f I s rae l , a nd ( c ) t he d ata g athered b y t he CMS a t Caesa rea . The Med iterranean Context .

T he s hore o f t he Med iterranean i s t ecton ica l ly

u nstab le d ue t o t he c ont inu ing r e lat ive p late mot ions b etween A fr ica a nd E ura s ia . The d egree o f v ert ica l t ecton ic move ment a t a p o int o n t he

c oa st i s c lose ly

r e lated t o t he d istance o f t hat p o int f rom z ones o f c rusta l c onvergence o r s ubduet ion . S ince t he p r inc ipa l p late ma rg in e xtends a long t he c oa st o f A lger ia , t hrough S ic i ly a nd I ta ly a nd t hen p asses v ia

mu lt ip le s ma l ler p late

b oundar ies i n

t he

Aegean , T urkey , a nd n ear Cyprus , t hese a re t he r eg ions o f max i mum v ert ica l movement .

P late b oundar ies i n t he r eg ion o f S ina i , t he L evant S ea , a nd t he Med i-

t erranean c oast o f I s rae l a re s t il l as ub ject o f u ncerta inty . No a tte mpt w il l b e made i n t h is p aper t o d iscu ss t he p os it ion o f s uch b oundar ies . Any o p in ions c oncern ing v ert ica l t ecton ic move ments must a l so t ake i nto a ccount t he p oss ib le e ustat ic move ments o f s ea l eve l o ver t he s a me p er iod . S ince l and movements d ue t o t ecton ic , i s ostat ie , o r h ydroisostat ic c auses c an b e o f a v ery b road n ature , w ith u n iform c omponents e xtend ing o ver h und reds o r t housands o f k i lometres , i t i s n ot g enera l ly p oss ib le t o t ake a s ea l eve l c urve f rom o ne p art o f t he wor ld a nd a pp ly i t t o a nother r eg ion w ith a n a ccuracy o f b etter t han a metre o r s o . Certa in ly a ny p roposed " wor ld e usta t ic s ea l eve l c urve" f or t he l ast 5 ,000 y ea rs wou ld h ave t o b e r egarded a s t he a verage o f a n e normous v ar iety o f u nknown e rrors a s s oon a s o ne t r ies t o d ef ine i tw ith a n a ccuracy o f b etter t han ± 1 m . Thus t he o n ly v a l id a pproach i s t o a ssume t hat , o ver a n a rea o f s tudy , t he c o mp onent o f r e lat ive v ert ica l

move ments wh ich i s u n iform ly t ime-dependent a nd

s ynchronous a t e very s i te , i s t he e ustat ic f actor . T he c omponents o f r e lat ive v ert i ca l movement a t e ach s i te wh ich a re l ocat ion-dependent s hou ld t hen b e o f t ect on ic , i s ostat ic , o r c ompact ion o r ig in . I n t he l a st a na lys is , h owever , i t must b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he s ynchronous c omponent o ver s evera l h und red k i lo metres

v is it I s rae l b etween October 1 975 a nd F ebruary 1 976 i n o rder t o s tudy a rchaeol og ica l s i tes o n t he s horel ine . T h is d iscuss ion wou ld h ave b een i mposs ib le w itho ut t he e xper ience g a ined d ur ing t h is v is it . Iam a lso d eep ly i ndebted t o Avner R aban a nd o ther me mbers o f t h is d epartment , a nd f ormer me mbers o f t he I DES f or s har ing w ith me d ur ing t hat v is it t he r esu lts o f t he ir d eta i led f i e ldwork a t Caesarea a nd o ther s i tes . W ithout t he ir a ss istance my r esearch wou ld h ave b een v ery d iff icu lt .

Chapter I :T he S ite

1 5

may i t se lf b e p art ly o f t ecton ic o r i s ostat ic o r ig in . App ly ing t hese p r inc ip les t o t he Med iterranean , ac urve r epresent ing t he u n if orm c omponent a t a l l k nown a rchaeo log ica l s i tes ( about 3 00 ) f or wh ich s ea l eve l d ata h ave b een d eterm ined c an b e d er ived . B ecause o f t he r e lat ive ly smal l n umber o f d ata p o ints i n a ny o ne r eg ion i n a ny o ne t ime p er iod , t he c u rve h a s t o b e smoothed t o g ive o sc il lat ions w ith a p er iod o f 5 00-1 ,000 y ears . T he r esu lt ing c urve i nd icates t hat t he " eustat ic" c urve s o-generated d oes n ot d epa rt f rom p resent s ea l eve l b y more t han 0 . 5 metres a t a ny t ime i n t he l ast 4 ,000 y ears . I n c ontrast , t here i s c ons iderab le e v idence t hat t he e ustat ic s ea l eve l p robab ly d epa rted o ccas iona l ly a s much a s 1 -2 m f rom t he p resent s ea l eve l f or p er iods o f af ew h undred y ea rs . T o b e s ure , i t i sv ery d iff icu lt t o o bta in s uff ic ient d ata f rom e very c entury a nd e very c oasta l a rea t o c onstruct a s tat ist ica l ly s ound c urve a t t h is l eve l o f d eta i l . T he a reas f ar r emoved f ro m p late b oundar ies , E a stern S pa in , S outhern F rance , t he Gu lf o f S id ra , most o f Cyrena ica , t he s outh c oast o f T urkey f rom Anta lya t o I s kenderun ,

a nd

Northern

Cyprus ,

s how

n o

v ert ica l

d isp lacement

r e lat ive

t o

p resent s ea l eve l g reater t han 0 .5 m , smoothed t o a5 00 y ear p er iod ic ity , o ver t he l ast 2 -4 ,000 y ears .

Certa in a reas o f d e lta ic c ompact ion o r i sostat ic l oad ing a re o f

c ourse l oca l e xcept ions . I n t he a ct ive a reas o f p late b oundary movement a nd/or v o lcan ism , v ert ica l movements a ppea r t o b e o f t he o rder o f 1 0% o f t he r ate o f h or izonta l c onvergence . T hat i s , h or izonta l c onvergence i s o f t he o rder o f 0 .02 m/year , wh i le v ert ica l e arth movements a re o f t he o rder o f 0 .002 m/yea r . V ert ica l e arth move ments a re p robab ly a ssoc iated w ith t ransverse f au lts s uch a s t he Anat o l ian f au lt i n Northern T urkey , b ut i n suff ic ient d ata a re a va i lab le o n t h is a rea . V ert ica l move ments may b e u p o r d own , d epend ing o n t he r esponse o f t he r eg iona l g eo log ica l s tructure t o t he c ompress ion , f oreshorten ing , o r s ubduct ion p roduced b y p late c onvergence . I n t he S outh Aegean a rea t he c rust s ee ms t o r espond a s more o r l ess r ig id t i lt ing b lock s , w ith t yp ica l h or izonta l d imens ions o f a bout 1 50 x 7 5 km . T he most r ap id r ate o f movement d etected s o f ar i s u p l ift o f t he s outhwest c orner o f C rete a t ar ate o f 4 .9 m/thousand y ears , w ith i n term itt ent move ments a t a pprox imate ly e very 1 50 y ears . T here i ss ome e v idence , t hough u nchecked , t hat p arts o f t he A lban ian c oast may b e u p l ifted a t t he s ame r ate . T h is r ate i sc ompa rab le w ith f i gures f rom t he I ndones ian a rc , a nd T a iwan , where r ates o f t he o rder o f 1 0 m/thousand y ears h ave b een r eported . T here i sn o e v idence a nywhere f rom t he p arts o f t he Med iterranean c oa st wh ich h ave s o f ar b een e xam ined f or r ates o f move ment a s h igh a s 1 0 m/thousand y ears , n or f or s i ng le s e ism ic e vents o f t he magn itude o f r ecent e vents i n A la ska . H istor ica l i nvest igat ions o f r eports o f e arthquakes b y N .N . Ambraseys s uggest t hat t he s e ism ic ity o f t he E aste rn Med iterranean h as v ar ied s l ight ly a bout a mean l eve l o f a ct iv ity v ery s im ilar t o t hat o bserved a t p resent . T he v a r ia t ion s eems t o b e r eg iona l , w ith a l ternat ion b etween r eg ions , r ather t han a l arge s ca le c hange o f t ota l s e ism ic ity . T hus a ny c ons iderat ion o f t he t ecton ic s tab i l ity o r i n stab i l ity o f t he Med iterr anean c oast o f I s rae l s hou ld b e c arr ied o ut i n t h is c ontext . A lthough t he p resence o f p late b oundar ies o ff s hore h as n ot y et b een c lea r ly d ocumented , t he n earness o f t he Dead S ea R ift s uggests t hat t he c oast must b e c ons idered a s ap otent ia l ly a ct ive z one . On t h is b as is a lone , we s hou ld b e p repared t o f ind e v idence o f v ert i-

1 6

1 .A .3 : T ecton ics a nd S ea L eve ls

c a l c hanges o f t he o rder o f 2 .0 m p er m i l len iu m a t s ome s i tes , e ither u p o r d own . Many s i tes s hou ld b e d isp laced b y a bout 0 .5 m , a nd o ne o r t wo p erhaps b y a s much a s 3 -5 .0 m . D iscuss ion o f s tab i l ity o r i n stab i l ity s hou ld b e s een a s r e lat ive t o t h is t ype o f a ct iv ity o n ac oast wh ich i s w ith in 1 00 km o r s o o f ap late b oundary wh ich may c onta in a c o mponent o f c onvergent o r d ivergent movement . I n a dd it ion , t he z one o f i n tersect ion o f t he Ha ifa-Q ishon G raben w ith t he c oast wou ld b e e xpected t o b e a n a rea o f h igher a ct iv ity t han t he a verage f or t he c oast a s a who le . Nature o r Archaeo log ica l Ev idence o n t he Med iterranean Coas t o f I srae l . A rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins o f t e l ls , h ouses , r oads , a nd h arbour c onstruct ions o ccur a l l a long t he Med iterranean c oast o f I s rae l . T he e ar l iest r e ma ins a re h ouse wa l l s a nd a rtefacts f ro m t he

Neo l ith ic a nd Cha lco l ith ic p er iods , a bout

7 ,000-3 ,000 B .C .

These r ema ins d ate f ro m a p er iod when t he wor ld s ea l eve l was s t i l l r i s ing a fter t he l a st I ce Age , a nd t herefore may b e f ound s evera l metres u nderwater w ithout n ecessar i ly i mp ly ing a ny t ecton ic a ct iv ity . A lthough r afts o r c anoes were c ert a in ly u sed i n t h is p er iod , t here i sn o e v idence a t a l l f or a ny c oasta l s tructures o r h arbours , a nd a l l t he k nown r e ma ins must b e p resumed t o h ave b een h ouses o n d ry l and , s ome d istance b ack f ro m t he o r ig ina l waterl ine . F or t he B ronze Age p er iod , 3 ,000-1 ,200 B .C . , t here a re 3 2 t e l ls c lose t o t he s hore . The r e ma rkab le p o int a bout t h is d istr ibut ion i s t hat t here a re s o many t el ls o n t he p resent waterl ine , b ut n o e v idence o f a ny t e l l b e ing s ign if icant ly s ubmerged , o r e ven h igh ly e roded . Where a t e l l i s o n as harp p romontory , s uch a s Yavne Yam o r T e l l Nam i , t here h as b een s ome e ros ion a round t he c l iffs o f t he p ro montory , b ut n owhere d o we f ind t he r e ma ins o f at e l l s ubmerged b y 5m o r r i si ng a s a n e roded i s land 1 00 m o ff s hore . A t most B ronze Age s i tes , e .g . Nahar iya , T e l l M icha l , o r T e l l R idan , t here i s n ot e nough e v idence t o e stab l ish t he o r ig ina l s ea l eve l w ith in ± 2 .0 metres , b ut w ith in t h is l im it i t s ee ms b road ly t rue t hat t he p resent s horel ine must b e v ery c lose , b oth v ert ica l ly a nd h or izonta l ly , t o i t s l ocat ion i n t he B ronze Age .

T he o n ly e xcept ion t o t h is g enera l isa t ion i sf or t he r eg ion

b etween M ikhmoret a nd Yavne Yam , f or wh ich t here a re p ract ica l ly n o d ata . I n v iew o f t he h igh c l iffs o n t h is p a rt o f t he c oast , i t s ee ms r easonaab le t o s uppose t hat t here h as b een c ons iderab le e ros ion . A f ew B ronze Age s i tes , s uch a s A th l it a nd T e l l Nam i , p rov ide s ea l eve l i nd icat ions w ith a n a ccuracy b etter t han ± 1 .0 m . I n t he s tat ist ica l a na lys is t hat f ol lows , t he B ronze Age s i tes i n g enera l a re t reated a s h av ing a n e rror o f ± 1 .0 m , b ut i t must b e u nderstood t hat t he r ange o f e rror i s p robab ly ± 2 m a t many s i tes .

F or a l l l a ter p er iods t here i st he e v idence o f h a rbour

s tructures , f i sh t anks , a nd b u i ld ings c lose t o t he water , a nd s o me o f t hese p rov ide e st i mates o f r e lat ive s ea l eve l c hange t o a n a ccuracy o f ± 0 .20 m . T he d ata f ro m t he s i tes f or wh ich t here w ere a ccurate d ates a nd i nd icat ions o f s ea l eve l were s um ma r ised a nd a na lyzed t o s how t he f requency o f v ert ica l d isp lacement o f d ifferent magn itudes a nd t he d istr ibut ion o f t he s i tes o f d i fferent magn itudes o f d isp lacement

a long t he c oast . T h is a na lys is

i gnored t he l arger

amp l itude o f movement n ow p resumed t o h ave o ccurred a t Dor ( see b e low ) , a nd t he f u l l r ange o f movement n ow p resumed t o h ave o ccurred a t Caesa rea .

T he e v i-

d ence o bta ined f rom a l l t he s i tes h as t o b e i n terpreted o n t he a ssu mpt ion t hat t here h ave b een e ustat ic o sc i l lat ions o f t he o rder o f ± 1 .0 m a s we l l a s t ecton ic movements d ur ing t he l a st 4 ,000 y ea rs . Ar igorous s tat ist ica l s o lut ion o f t h is p robl em i sb e ing c arr ied o ut , b ut a n a pprox imatee s o lut ion , i gnor ing s hort-term e ustas-

Chapter I : The S ite

1 7

t i e c hanges i n t he l ast 4 ,000 y ears ( per iods o f l ess t han a f ew h undred y ea rs ) c an a lready b e p resented . I t must b e s tressed t hat a l l t he d ata o bta ined r efer s tr ict ly t o t he n ear s hore z one ( w ith in ± 100 m h or izonta l ly o f t he p resent waterl ine ) , a nd t hat n o i mp l icat ions c an b e d educed f ro m t h is w ith a bso lute c erta inty f or p o ints f urther i n land o r o ff s hore .

T h is i s d ue t o t he e xtreme ly l i near n ature o f t he

c oast , wh ich makes i t i mposs ib le t o c onstruct c ontoured s u rfaces w ith a ny g radat i on o r t rends i n t he E ast-West d irect ion . P robab i l ity h istog rams o f t he e rror o f t he d isp lacement e st imate f or e ach s i te a nd d atab le a ccurate l eve l were c onstructed . T he r esu lt ing d ata i nc lude t he e v id ence f or s ub mergence a t Caesarea a nd u p l ift a t Dor . S i tes were p lotted o n ak i lometre g r id f rom T e l l R idam t o Rosh Han iqra . F or e ach c hrono log ica l p er iod , t he s i tes were p lotted l i near ly a long t he c oast , s how ing t he u pper a nd l ower l im its o f t he p robab il ity e st imate f or t he o r ig ina l l eve l o f t he s i te r e lat ive t o p resent s ea l eve l . The c u mu lat ive d ata f or e ach t ime z one w ere s um med u p t o s how t he r ange , mean , a nd mode o f a l l t he e st i mates . T he c umu lat ive d ata f or t he C rusader a nd R o man p er iods were b i moda l , i n b oth c ases d ue t o t he s ubs idence a t Caesarea . T h is d isp lay o f t he d ata s howed c lear ly a c lose c orre lat ion o f a nc ient a nd modern s ea l eve l ( to w ith in ± 1 .0 m ) f or t he g reat ma jor ity o f s i tes a fter t he E ar ly B ronze Age . A lthough t here a re sma l l r e lat ive d isp lace ments b etween s i tes o f t he s ame a ge , t hese a re , w ith t he e xcept ion o f Akko , Dor a nd Caesarea , a l l l ess t han 1 .0 m . T hus t he c oast a s a who le a ppears t o b e c ons iderab ly more s tab le t han p red icted a bove . The i nstab i l ity f rom Caesarea t o Akko w i l l b e d iscussed b e low . The mean o r mode o f t he l eve l o f a l l s i tes o f t he s ame p er iod may b e t aken a s t he b est a va ilab le e st i mate o f t he e ustat ic s ea l eve l a t t hat t ime . T he a ccumul ated d ata f or e ach t ime z one were p lotted a s at ime s er ies . T he mean , mode a nd v ert ica l r ange o f e rror o f t wo s tandard d ev iat ions were p lotted a t t he c entre o f e ach t ime z one .

The s i tes f or wh ich p art icu la r ly a ccurate o bservat ions o f s ea

l eve l c ou ld b e made h ave h ad t he ir r ead ings c orrected f or t he s tate o f t he t ide a t t he t ime o f o bservat ion . The Neo l ith ic a nd Cha lco l ith ic s i tes s tud ied were n ot n ecessar i ly o r ig ina l ly f ounded o n t he c oast , b ut t hey d o i nd icate t hat t he r e lat ive s ea l eve l must h ave b een l ower t han t he s i tes a t t hat d ate . Typ ica l e st imates f or t he e ustat ic s ea l eve l a t 8 ,000 B .C . a re a bout 50 m , a nd 10 m a t 5 ,000 B .C . Consequent ly , t he most p robab le s ea l eve l c urve f or I s rae l i s f ar b e low t he e ar ly s i tes l ocated i n t h is s tudy . S horel ine s i tes o f t he Neo l ith ic p robab ly were l ocated o n t he k urka r r idges n ow o ff s hore a nd s ubmerged .

I t i sg enera l ly a ssu med t hat t he wor ld e ustat ic s ea

l eve l r eached t o w ith in 1 m o f i t s p resent g eo id a t a bout 3 ,000 B .C . Thus t he E ar ly B ronze Age d a ta a nd t he d ata f or a l l s ubsequent p er iods s hou ld r evea l t he f ine s tructure o f b oth t ecton ic a nd e ustat ic c hanges . F rom

t he

E ar ly B ronze Age

o nwards t here i s n o marked t rend , e xcept t ha t t he mean l eve l o f s i tes , i nc lud ing p robab il ity we ight ings , i sc ons istent ly 0 .5-1 .0 m b e low p resent s ea l eve l , wh i le i n s ix o f t he e ight p er iods f or wh ich d ata e x ist t he moda l n umber o f s i tes a ctua l ly p lots o n p resent s ea l eve l .

T he c ons istent d iscrepancy b etween t he

mean a nd

mode i s p robab ly d ue t o t he f act t hat i t i s much e as ier t o d etect a s l igh t s ubmerg ence t han a s l ight u p l ift .

A s ign if icant n umber o f s i tes i dent if ied a s z ero d is-

p lacement p robab ly s hou ld b e c lass if ied a s h av ing a n u p l ift o f 0 .2-0 .4 m . Th is wou ld r a ise t he v a lue o f t he mean t owards p resent s ea l eve l , wh i le s carce ly a lter-

1 8

I .A .3 : T ecton ics a nd S ea L eve ls

i ng t he mode .

T h is o bservat ion i s v a l id , n otw ithstand ing t he f act t hat t here a re a

n u mber o f s l ight ly s ubmerged s i tes ( a t d epth s o f a round 0 .5 m ) b etween Akko a nd R osh Han iqra . Overa l l , t here i s as l ight s tat ist ica l i nd icat ion t hat t he r e lat ive s ea l eve l o n t he Med iterranean c oa st o f I s rae l h as b een 0 .5 m l ower t hroughout most o f t he l ast 4 ,000 y ears . T h is may b e d ue t o e ither e usta t ic o r t ecton ic c auses . I ft ecton ic , i t wou ld i mp ly a s ubs idence o f t he l and b y 0 .5 m i n t he l ast 1 ,000 y ears , w ith s tab i l ity f or t he p reced ing 3 ,000 y ears ,

wh ich s eems

u n l ike ly .

I n d iscuss ing t he

s econdary i mp l icat ions o f r e lat ive v ert ica l d isp lacements o f t he o rder o f 0 .5 m , t he o n ly g enera l c onc lus ion t hat c an b e d rawn i s t hat t he c oast h as w ith in t h is l im it b een r e ma rkab ly s tab le f or 4 ,000 y ears , w ith t he e xcept ion o f t he z one f rom Caesarea t o Akko . Three a no ma lous s i tes d isturb t he s imp le p icture p resented a bove , a nd i t i s n otab le t hat t he o n ly c lea r ly d e monstrated v ert ica l move ments o f 1 .0 m o r more a re f ro m Caesarea t o Akko i nc lus ive . T hese move ments a re a l l w ith in t he 5 0 km s tretch o f c oa st f rom 1 5 km n orth o f Cape Carme l t o 3 5 km s outh .

T h is a ssoc ia-

t ion o f max i mu m v ert ica l d isturbance w ith t he Carme l-Q ishon G raben may b e t hought p red ictab le , b ut t he p ecu l iar f act i s t hat s ubs idence i s n ot f ound f or t he a rchaeo log ica l s i tes o n t he a l luv iu m w ith in t he g raben , t hat i s f rom Ha ifa t o t he N eaman . Nor i su p l ift f ound o n e ither s ide o f t he g raben . T he s ubs idence o bserved a t Akko may b e d ue t o i t s c loseness t o t he g raben a x is , o r t o t he s tra in-release p henomena b etween e vents o f s e ism ic u p l ift . S uch a lternat ions o f u p l ift a nd s ubs id ence may p erhaps b e c orre lated w ith t he f act t hat C rusader mater ia l s a t Akko a ppear t o b e s ubmerged more t han P hoen ic ian . However , t he e vents s outh o f t he Carme l a ppea r t o b e c ons iderab ly

more

a ct ive t han t hose t o t he n orth , a l though A th l it s ee ms a lmost c omp lete ly s tab le . T he s o mewhat s urpr is ing p icture i s t hus t hat t he s outhern marg in o f t he Q ishon G raben i t se lf a nd t he Ca rme l Mass if b oth a ppea r t o b e s tab le , wh i le v ert ica l d isp lacement i s man ifested v igorous ly o n ly a t Dor a nd Caesarea . The e v idence f rom Dor i sd iff icu lt t o i n terpret , b ut s uggests s ubs idence o f t he o rder o f 1 .25 m s omet ime b etween 1 00 B .C . a nd 1 00 A .D . , f o l lowed b y u p l ift o f a bout 1 .0 m . Aga in , r eversa l o f movements o f t h is k ind a re c ompa t ib le w ith i n term ittent s e ism ic a nd a se ism ie e vents o n a ct ive f au lts . Ana lys is o f t he d ata f rom Caesarea . Caesarea i t se lf i s t he most c omp lex s i te . P r ior t o 1 975 , an umber o f s urveys h ad p roduced c ontrad ictory c onc lus ions p roposi ng t hat t he s i te wa s e ither u nd isp laced , s ubmerged b y a s much a s 1 0 m , o r e ven u p l ifted . A lthough E l isha L inder , A vner Raban , a nd o ther members o f t he I UES a nd CMS c erta in ly h ad more e xper ience w ith t he s i te t han a ny o ther g roup , t hey were u nab le t o u ndertake a c ons istent s urvey o f s uff ic ient d eta i l t o p rov ide a u n if y ing e xp lanat ion f or t he c onf l ict ing o bservat ions u nt i l c omm iss ioned b y t he I EC t o p rov ide s uch i nformat ion . T he d ata p resented i n t h is r eport e ffect ive ly r eso lved most o f t he o utstand ing p rob lems , a nd t he f o l low ing n otes a re a c o m mentary o n i t . F or a f u l l d escr ipt ion o f t he f eatures ment ioned h ere , s ee t he r ev ised v ers ion o f t he r eport i n S ect ion I .B .3 a nd t he r e levant s ect ions o f t he d escr ipt ion o f t he CAHEP r esearch ( l ocat ion map : f ig .

I I .1 , p l . I ) .

Chapter I : The S ite

1 9

The P isc ina ( f ish t ank ) a t t he s outh e nd o f t he s i te ( CAHEP A rea P , S ect ion I I .M ) , s urveyed b y t he p resent w r iter a ss isted b y s tudents f rom t he Department o f t he H istory o f Mar it i me C iv i l isat ions a t t he U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa , i nd icates a v ery c lose c orre la t ion w ith p resent s ea l eve l . Due t o t ida l a nd s easona l c yc les o f l oca l s ea l eve l ,

v ert ica l r ock s urfaces a re l i ke ly t o b e d isso lved i n to

t wo

s o lut ion

n otches a pprox i mate ly 0 .15 m a bove a nd b e low MSL . T here a re g roups o f n otches a round t he P isc ina u p t o ah e igh t o f 0 .40 m a bove p resent MSL , s uggest ing a p oss ib le u p l ift o f 0 .15-0 .25 m s ince R oman t imes . The l arge S lu ice c ut i n to t he r ock west o f t he C rusade l C itade l ( C AHEP A rea Q , S ect ion I I .0 ) c orre lates w ith modern s ea l eve l t o w ith in ± 0 .5 m , a lso i nd icat ing a n a l most u nchanged r e lat ive s ea l eve l s i nce Roman t imes . The l eve ls o f t he C rus ader Co lumn J etty a nd t he R oman Quay a t t he n orth o f t he I ntermed iate B as in ( CAHEP A rea L , S ect ion I I .K ) , a nd t he s lope o f t he s ewer o ut let n orth o f t he c ity a nd o f t he a queducts ( Sect ion I .B .8 ) , a l i nd icate m in i ma l c hange o f s ea l eve l ( to w ith in ± 0 .5 m ) .

I n s p ite o f t he f requent r epa irs t o t he a queducts , t he ir p rec ise

g rad ients s ee m t o i nd icate n o n et c hange o f t he s horel ine r e lat ive t o t he water s ources s ince t he ir c onstruct ion ( but s ee t he d iscuss ion i n S ect ion I .A .2) . The o n ly d iscrepancy w ith t hese i nd icat ion s o f t he s tab i l ity o f t he s hore l i ne i s t he C rusader wal l l y ing i n 1 -2 m o f water a t t he b ack o f t he modern h a rbour b as in ( CAHEP A rea T 2 , S ect ion I .R .2 ) .

T h is wa l l was e xam ined v ery b r ief ly b y t he

p resent a uthor i n J u ly 1 974 , who a t t hat t ime s uggested t hat t he c haracter o f t he s i te i nd icated mu lt ip le move ments . R ecent i nvest igat ions h ave s hown t hat t h is wa l l s lopes f rom a d epth o f a bout 0 .6-0 .7 m a t i t s n orthern e nd t o a bout 1 .5 m a t t he s outhern e nd . T he c ourses o f s tonework a lso a re c urved a long t he s lope . T h is i mp l ies s o me f orm o f l oca l c ompact ion o r s lump ing wh ich may a ccount f or t he s ubs idence o f t h is wal l i n r e lat ion t o t he n ea rby s horel ine i nd icators wh ich a re n ot d isp laced . There i s aS unken P ave ment ( CAHEP A rea F , S ect ion I I .E ) t hat c ons ists o f a r egu lar c ourse o f b lock s o n ag rave l f oundat ion , w ith t he u pper s urface a t ad epth o f 4 .9 m . Whether t h is s tructure wa s i n tended a s ad ry work ing s urface a d jacent t o t he water , o r t he f loor o f af l ooded t ank , i ta ppears t o h ave b een b u i lt w ith in ± 0 .5 m o f t he a nc ient s ea l eve l , wh ich wou ld t hen h ave b een b etween 4 .4-5 .4 m b e low p resent MSL . There a re s evera l l ong s tretches o f l arge k urkar b locks a rranged a s h eaders , p oss ib ly t he f ram ing wa l l o f t he Herod ian q uay a long t he i n s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( CAHEP A reas A , B , C , S ect ion I I .B ) . T h is q uay was p robab ly b u i lt w ith i t s f oundat ions i n t he water , b ut s i nce i t s l owest c ourses a re a t l ea st a s d eep a s 6 .4 m , t h is i sc ons istent w ith a r e lat ive c hange o f l and-sea l eve l o f t he o rder o f 4 t o 5 m .

I f t he s tone-grave l c ontact i sa t t he o r ig ina l f oot ing o f t he q uay , t hen

t he a nc ient s ea l eve l must h ave b een a bout 3 -4 m b e low t he p resent o ne , i n o rder t o a l low s h ips t o d ock a long s ide . I f t he s tone-grave l c ontact i s t he f oundat ion o f a r oad o r f loor c lose t o t he water , t hen t he s ea l eve l must h ave b een a bout 5 m l ower t han a t p resent . A t t he s i te o f CAHEP 's A rea A t here a re r ows o f b locks i n ah eader a rrangment , p robab ly i n s i tu , w ith t he ir f oundat ions a t ad epth o f 5 .4-5 .8 m , a nd a p avement n earby a t a bou t 3 .8-4 .2 m . T he p ave ment s urface may h ave s ubs ided f rom a

2 0

I .A .3 : T ecton ics a nd S ea Leve ls

h igher l eve l . T aken t ogether , t hese t wo f eatures p rov ide a b racket f rom u pper s urf ace o f q uay t o f oot ing o f q uay wa l l ( both p resumed ) o f o n ly 1 .2 t o 2 .0 m . T h is i s t he a bso lute b are m in imum d epth t hat wou ld h ave a l lowed v esse ls t o d ock a nd u n load , a nd wou ld i mp ly a s ea l eve l a t 4 .8 m b e low t he p resent o ne .

However , i f i t

i s p resumed t hat t he u pper p avement h a s s uffered l oca l s ubs idence , t hen t he a nc ient s ea l eve l wou ld h ave b een 4 .0-4 .5 m l ower t han a t p resent . Conc lus ions .

T he o r ig ina l s usp ic ion t ha t t he s i te o f Caesarea c onta ined s ea

l eve l i nd icators r esu lt ing f ro m mu lt ip le movements h as b een amp ly c onf irmed . The d iscont inu ity o n e ither s ide o f a n a pprox imate ly n orth-south l i ne a bout 1 50 m o ff s hore i s d emonstrated b y t he d ata g athered b y t he CMS a nd CAHEP .

The

n ature o f t h is d iscont inu ity i su nknown , b ut t o t he s horeward o f i t most i nd icators a re w ith in 0 .5 m o f p resent s ea l eve l , wh i le s eaward o f i t , i nd icators a re a l l c o mp at ib le w ith a s . ea l eve l a t 4 .5-5 .0 m b e low p resent MSL .

T he r e lat ive s ubmer-

g ence o f t he o ff s hore s egment o f t he h arbour c ou ld b e a ttr ibuted t o a ny o ne o f t he f o l low ing c auses : ( 1 ) c ompact ion o r s lu mp ing o f u nconso l idated mater ia l , e ither u nder n orma l c ond it ions , o r d ue t o t he f l u id isat ion o f s ome u nder lyi ng b ed i n a n e arthquake ; ( 2 ) d ifferent ia l s ubs idence d ue t o t he f act t hat t he i nner p a rt o f t he c ity i s b u i lt o n t he k urkar b ed-rock wh i le t he o uter p art i s b u i lt o n u nconso l idated s ed iments ; ( 3 ) p resence o f al oca l f au lt i n tersect ing t he s i te ; ( 4 ) p resence o f a ma jor f au lt p a ra l le l t o t he c oa st i ntersect ing t he s i te . Cause ( 1 ) i su n l ike ly t o o perate i n n orma l u nd isturbed c ond it ions o n a ccount o f t he e xtreme ly l ow g rad ient o f t he s ea f loor . On t he o ther h and , t he d isturbance o r f lu id isat ion o f s o me b ed o f s and o r c lay i n a n e arthquake i s n ot s o u n l ike ly . On t he a ssu mpt ion t hat t he C rusader wa l l i n A rea T 2 i s a lso b u i lt i n to t he h arbour b as in where k urkar i sa bsent , s ubs idence t here may h ave b een c aused b y as im i lar e vent a t al ater d ate . S uch a mechan ism i sp ure ly s pecu la t ive , a nd wou ld h ave t o b e v eri f ied b y d eta i led e v idence c oncern ing t he u nder ly ing b eds , p erhaps o n t he b as is o f b ore h o les . Whatever t he b a s ic r eason f or s ubs idence , i t i sp oss ib le t hat t he s tructures o n k urkar b ed-rock h ave s ubs ided l ess t han t hose o n u nconso l idated mater ia l . A p hen o menon n oted a bove a s c au se ( 2 ) .

T h is i so n ly l i ke ly t o h ave o ccurred i f t he c lay

o r s oft l ayers a re n ot s o d eep a s t o u nder l ie t he k u rkar a lso . Aga in , c heck ing w ith b ore h o les wou ld i nd icate whether t h is h ypothes is i sr easonab le . Causes ( 3 ) a nd ( 4 ) a re t he k ind o f p roposa ls t hat a rouse s usp ic ion , s ince i t s ee ms i nherent ly i mprobab le t hat a ny p art icu lar o utcrop o f af au lt p la in s hou ld i n tersect s uch a sma l l a rea a s ap art icu lar c ity .

However , t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd

g eo log ica l d ata h ave d emonstrated t hat t here i s ad i scont inu ity a cross t he s i te , s o s uch a n e xp lanat ion b ecomes p oss ib le . S evera l f eatures , h owever , make i t d iff icu lt t o g ive a c lear a nswer . T he s ubs idence o f t he C rusader wa l l i n A rea T 2 c lear ly i nd icates a t l ea st t wo p hases o f movement :

t he f i rst t o s ubmerge t he S outhern

B reakwater b y ac erta in amount b efore t he t h ird t o f ourth c entu r ies A .D . , t he s econd t o s ubmerge t he C rusader wa l l s omet ime a fter t he e leventh c entury . T hese t wo ( or more ) movements c ou ld b e s uccess ive move ments o n t he s ame n on-p lanar f au lt s urface , d ist inct movements o n t wo q u ite d ifferent f au lt s urfaces wh ich a re c lose t ogether o r i n tersect ing , o r t he r esu lts o f s uccess ive move ments o n t wo o r

Chapter I :T he S ite

2 1

more i ntersect ing f au lt s urfaces wh ich were a l l a ct ivated o n e ach o cca s ion . I n a ny c ase , t he l ack o f d amage t o t he a queducts , a nd t he p rec ise a d justment t o p resent s ea l eve l o f t he P isc ina , s ee m t o p rec lude a ny l arge s ca le v ert ica l move ment o f t he s horel ine f o l lowed b y r eturn t o t he p resent s ea l eve l . I t wou ld b e q u ite c o mp at ib le w ith t he p resent e v idence f or o ne f au lt o f s uch a s ystem t o i n tersect t he c oastl ine a t q u ite a s teep a ng le . A lthough e arthquakes a nd f au lt ing may h ave b een t he t r igger f or s ub s idence , i ti ss t i l l a ttract ive t o p ostu late s uch a p rocess i n a ssoc iat ion w ith t he p o ints made i n 1a nd 2 a bove . Cause ( 4 ) s uggest ing t he p resence o f a ma jor n orth-south f au lt a long t he s horel ine i s n ot s upported b y t he s tat ist ica l e v idence f ro m o ther a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . The e v idence s uggests t hat Caesarea i s a n e xcept iona l s i te o n t he c oa st o f I s rae l i n t erms o f i t s magn itude o f v ert ica l d isp lacement . I f i t i s p roposed t hat a c oasta l f au lt o r s ystem o f f au lts i s p resent i n t he o ff s hore z one , t hen o ther e v id ence

must

b e. p roduced ,

s ince

t he

a rchaeo log ica l e v idence

i s n ot

a pp l icab le

e xcept r ight o n t he s horel ine . T hat i s t o s ay , t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i n g ene ra l n e ither c onf irms n or d en ies a n o ff s hore f au lt ;

i ti ss imp ly i r re levant . On ly i n

t he e ase o f Caesarea i s t here a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or a v ert ica l d iscont inu ity a t a bout 1 50 m o ff s hore , a nd t hat d iscont inu ity o f 4 .5-50 m may o r may n ot b e d ue t o f au lt ing . S u m mary . T he a uthor c onc ludes t hat t here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or v ert ica l t ecton ic movements o f more t han 2 -3 m a nywhere o n t he p resent Med it erranean s horel ine o f I s rae l w ith in a d istance o f 1 00 m o r s o o n s hore a nd o ff s hore , w ith in t he l ast 4 ,000 y ears . However , a t Caesarea t here i s amp le e v idence t hat t here h as b een s ubs idence o f t he o rder o f 5m s ince t he l ate f i rst c entury B .C . , o ff s hore o f al i ne wh ich i sa pprox i mate ly 1 50 m f rom t he p resent s hore . The s horel ine a t Caesarea i s i t se lf u nd isp laced . A t many s i tes w ith in 4 0 km o f t he Q ishon G raben t here i s e v idence o f i r regu lar v ert ica l movements o f t he o rder o f 0 .5 m d ur ing t he l ast 3 ,000 y ears , a nd e v idence f or s ubmergence o f 2m a t Akko i n t he l ast 1 ,000 y ea rs . [ N .C .F . ]

I .A . Na tura l Features : 4 . B eaches a nd Dunes . Now t he c ity i s l ocated i n P hoen ic ia , o n t he s ea-route t o E gypt b etween J oppa a nd D ora . T hese a re sma l l t owns o n t he s ea-shore a nd a re p oor h a rbours b ecause t he s outhwest w ind b eats o n t he m a nd a lways d redges s and f rom t he s ea u pon t he s hore , a nd t hus d oes n ot p erm it a smooth l and ing .

( Josephus AJ 1 5 .333 )

The Caesarea b eaches a re l ocated o n t he n orthern s ect ion o f t he c entra l I s rae l i Med iterranean c oast , a nd b e long t o t he e dge o f t he N i le l i ttora l c e 1 1 . 3 Th is c e l l e xtends f ro m t he t wo o ut lets o f t he N i le R iver a t Rosetta ( Ra sh id ) a nd Da mi e tta ( Du myat ) t o t he S ina i a nd I s rae l i c oasts u p t o Akko ( Acre ) , at ota l d istance o f a bout 6 50 km ( Emery & Neev 1 960 ; S hukr i & P h i l ip 1 960 ; N ir 1 980 ; I nman &

3 Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank M iss Ka ren B . L ev ine a nd M iss C . Gotessman f or t he c r it ic a l r ead ing o f t he manuscr ipt , a nd D r . Avner R aban f or d iscuss ions o n s and s upp ly t o t he I srae l i b eaches .

2 2

I .A .4 : B eaches a nd D unes

J enk ins 1 984 ) . T he p r inc ipa l l oad o f t he N i le water a verages 1 20-160 t on/yr a nd i s c o mposed ma in ly o f f i ne s ed iments : s i lts a nd c lays , w ith a c oarse f ract ion ( i .e . s and s izes ) e st imated b y N ir ( 1984 ) t o b e o n t he o rder o f o n ly 2%-10 % , whereas S i ma ika ( 1970) g ives a much h igher f igure ( 30 % ) f or t he c oarse f ract ion c ontent . N ir ( 1984 ) e st imates t hat , o f t h is s and , a pprox i mate ly 7 0% i s d epos ited o ff t he s hores o f t he d e lta , s o me 2 0% o r more i s d epos ited o ff S ina i , a nd o n ly 5 -10 % r eaches I s rae l ( 350-700 ,000 m 3/ year ) .

B ecause o f t he c hange i n t he d irect ion o f

t he s horel ine , t here i s av ery p ronounced d ecrease i n t he l ongshore s and t ransport f rom s outh t o n orth . I n Hadera a nd Caesarea , where t he ma in wave-fronts a re a l most p ara l le l t o t he s horel ine , t he e st i mated n orther ly n et t ransport o f s and i s o n ly 8 0 ,000-100 ,000 m 3 / year ( Sauzy e t a l .

1 974 ; Manou j ian & M ign iot 1 975 ; I n man

& J enk ins 1 984 ) . Add it iona l s and i s d er ived f rom t he n earby e roded k urkar c l iffs wh ich s upp ly a bout 5 0 ,000 m 3/ year f or t he e nt ire 1 10 km s tretch o f c oasta l c l iff ( N ir 1 973 ) . S and s upp ly f rom l oca l s ources s uch a s r ivers ( "wad is" ) i s v ery l im ited , s ince t he I s rae l i h inter land o f t he Med iterranean watershed i s c o mposed most ly o f c arbonates s uch a s l imestones a nd d o lom ites , whereas s ome s andstones a re f ound i n t he s outhern watershed o f t he Med iterranean . f ine s ed i ment :

T hese r ivers i n g enera l t ransport

most ly e roded s o i ls wh ich a re d epos ited i n t he d eep s ea .

The s ands d er ived f rom t he N i le a re c omposed p r imar i ly o f q ua rtz a cco mpan ied b y m inute q uant it ies o f h eavy m inera ls . T hese s and s a re c haracter ized b y v ery l ow c arbonate c ontent ( E mery & N eev 1 960 ; S hukr i 8 c P h i l ip 1 960 ; N ir 1 973 , 1 982b , 1 985 ) . Most o f t he c a lc ium c arbonate f ound i n t he mar ine , b each a nd d une s ed iments o r ig inates f rom l oca l s ources : b roken s hel l mater ia l i sf ound i n t he s he lf a nd b each s ed iments , wh i le t he d unes a l so c onta in s he l ls o f l and s na i ls ( most ly He l ice l la s p .) .

T he mean g ra in s ize o f t he Caesa rea b eaches i s l ess t han 2 00

j i

( f ine-gra ined s and ; Emery & Neev 1 960 ; N ir 1 985 ) a nd s o i sg iven t o e asy t ransport b y t he w ind . S and Dunes .

T he c oasts o f t he N i le l i ttora l c e l l a re c ha racter ized b y d une-

s and f i e lds q u ite s ign if icant i n s i ze :

t hose o f t he n orthern De lta , n orthern S ina i ,

a nd I s rae l . T he l argest o f t hese i s t he n orthern S ina i s and f ie ld c over ing a bout • 9 000 km 2 ( Nu . 1 984 ) . I s rae l h as o n ly 3 60 km 2 o f c oasta l s and d unes , c oncentrated a long t he Gaza a nd P leshet p la ins ( f ig . 1 . 30 ) . The I s rae l i s and f ie ld i s d irect ly c onn ected t o t he h uge n orthern S ina i s and f i e lds a nd i s d iv ided i nto sma l ler s ect ions b y t he d ifferent r iver o ut lets t o t he s ea . N orth o f T e l Av iv , where t he c oasta l k urk ar c l iff b locks t he s and f rom e astward a eo l ian t ransport , t he d une f i e lds a re sma l ler , l ess s pread o ut , a nd a re i s o lated f rom e ach o ther b y t he l oca l k urkar r idges . The most n orthern s and f ie ld b e long ing t o t he N i le l i ttora l c e l l i s f ound a t Ha ifa B ay a nd a cts a s a" s ink" f or t he " extra" s ands r each ing t he e dge o f t h is l i ttor a l s ystem . Most o f t hese s and f ie lds a re c onnected t o r i ver mouths wh ich f orm a g ap i n t he c oa sta l k urka r c l iff , t hus e nab l ing t he s and t o b e b lown i n land f ro m t e mpora ry a ccumu lat ions o n t he b eaches , o r t o b e b lown b ackwa rds f rom t he d unes t o t he b each . T he Caesarea d une-sand f i e ld ( f igs . 1 . 30-31) i sf ound S SW o f Mount C arme l a nd i st he l argest f ound n orth o f T e l Av iv , c over ing a n a rea o f a bout 2 0 km 2.T h is f igu re d oes n ot i nc lude a reas p resent ly u sed f or a gr icu lture o r c overed w ith n atura l

Chapter I : The S ite

2 3

v egetat ion , a l l o f wh ich a re s urrounded b y t he d unes . T he s outhern s ect ion o f t he d unes s tretches a bout 6 km i n land f rom t he p resent s horel ine , where t here i s q u ite a b it o f s and a ccumu lat ion a s c ompared t o t he n orthern s ect ion , wh ich o n ly e xtend s 2 -3 km i n land . I t s a dvance ment h ere was b locked b y t he c ourse o f t he Naha l ' Ada a nd p erhaps b y t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct .

T h is a queduct was p er iod i-

c a l ly c overed b y s and d ur ing i t s 2 000 y ear h istory , t herefore a ct ing a s a n o bstac le t o t he e astwa rd s and t ransport ( A . R aban , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) . The Caesarea s and f ie ld i s f ar l a rger t han t he P o leg s and f i e ld 2 5 km t o t he s outh , wh ich c overs o n ly a bout 6 km 2 .The Caesarea s and f ie ld was s tud ied f or i t s e conom ic p otent ia l b y S h i lon i a nd S hahar ( 1964 ) , S h i lon i a nd B ogoch ( 1971) a nd S udr i e t a l .

( 1973 ) ,

who e st i mate t he e nt ire s and v o lume t o b e i n t he o rder o f 6 0 m il l ion m 3 . A lthough t he b reakwaters o f t he g reat Herod ian h arbour t hat p rotrude s ome 4 50 m f ro m t he o r ig ina l s horel ine a re l ocated where t he n et n orther ly l ongshore t ransport i s r e lat ive ly sma l l , t hey a re c ons idered t o h ave h ad a n e normous e ffect o n b oth s and t ransport a nd c oa sta l e ros ion . T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he h uge s truct ure d a m med t he n orther ly t ransport o f s and , t hus c aus ing t he a ccumu lat ion s outh o f t he h arbour o f s and wh ich was t hen w ind-b lown i n land , f orm ing o r a dd ing t o t he l arge Caesarea s and f ie ld . North o f t he h arbour , t he c o mb inat ion o f s and d ef ic it a nd wave d iffract ion e nergy f ro m t he e dges o f t he b reakwaters c aused e normous c oasta l e ros ion a nd d amage . One s uch e xamp le i s t he d estruct ion o f as ect ion o f t he s outhern e nd o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct ( I n man 1 974 ; N ir 1 981, 1 985) . H is tory o f t he Caesarea Dune F ie ld .

T he e normous q uant ity o f s and f ound i n

t he Caesarea s and f ie ld ( ca . 6 0 m il l ion m 3 )r esu lts f rom t wo s eparate p rocesses , o ne n a tura l a nd t he o ther a rt if ic ia l . I n t he f i rst p lace , t he n atura l t opography f ost ers t he s i tuat ion . T he C aesarea r eg ion i sl ocated n orth o f t he 1 10 km l ong c oasta l k urkar c l iff o f t he S ha ron , ac l iff t hat a cts a s an atura l b arr ier t o e astward ( i .e . , i n land ) a eo l ian s and t ran sport . B ecause o f t he r eg ion 's r e lat ive ly l ow r e l ief , t here i s t he p otent ia l f or e a sy s and t ransport t o a nd f rom t he h inter land . Out o f t he a nnua l a verage n et o f a bout 10 ,000 m 3 o f s and t hat i s w ind-b lown o nto t he s and d unes o f I s rae l f ro m h er Med iterranean b eaches ( N ir , f orthcom ing ) , a n a verage o f a bout 1 0 ,000 m 3 o f s and h as b een d epos ited i n t he Caesarea d une f ie lds a nnua l ly o ver t he l a st 6 000 y ears . Th is d epos it ion p robab ly s tarted a fter t he s ea r eached i t s c urrent l eve l a nd t he s horel ine s tab i l ized a t i t s p resent l ocat ion . Accord ing t o f ie ld e v idence e lsewhere a long t he c oasta l p la in o f I s rae l , t here h ave b een p er iods v ary ing b etween e xtre me ly l ow t o v ery h igh s and a ccu mu lat ion i n t he d unes , i nd icat ing p er iod s o f al ow r ate o f s upp ly f rom t he N i le R iver ( Neev e t a l . 1 978) .

Another r eason f or t hese d ifferences i n s and s upp ly t o t he d unes m igh t b e a

r esu lt o f t he l ong r ange c hanges i n s easona l weather t hat r esu lt i n h igher o r l ower p otent ia l wave-energy f or t he n et n orther ly l ongshore s and t ransport . A s ar esu lt , v ary ing v o lumes o f s and were t ransported a long t he s hore , i n terfer ing w ith t he a quat ic e qu i l ibr iu m" o f t he c oa sta l s and o n t he s ha l low s he lf a nd i t s " aeo l ian e qu i l ibr ium" i n t he d une f ie lds . T he p oss ib i l ity o f s and t ransport f rom t he d unes t o t he b eaches a nd t o t he s ha l low s he lf , i n t h is r eg ion b y t he l oca l e aster ly w inds ( the f amous , v ery s trong S harq iyas ) , m ight a lso r esu lt i n an on-un iform s yste m o f s and d epos it ion , r ef lected l ater a s s ed i menta ry " pu lses ."

2 4

I .A .4 : B eaches a nd D unes S econd ly , t he a rt if ic ia l a ccumu lat ion o f s and s i s ar esu lt o f t he b lockage o f

t he n orther ly l ongshore s and t ransport b y t he ma in b reakwater o f Herod 's h arbour . T he t ecton ic s ubs idence o f t he h arbour t hat h ad p robab ly b egun b y a t l east t he t h ird c entury was i n t he o rder o f 4 -5 m ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 ) . Th is p heno menon

p robab ly d ecreased t he e ffect o f t he d am m ing t o ac erta in d egree , b ut t here i s n o d oubt t hat e ven t he s ubmerged b reakwater p layed a ma jor r o le i n t he d am m ing o f s ands i n l ater h istor ica l p er iods . Va r ious h istor ica l s ources r ef lect a nd d escr ibe t he t opograph ica l c ond it ions a round Caesa rea . The Caesarea s and f i e lds were a lready ment ioned i n t he T a l mud ( fourth t o f i fth c entury ) : " . . .and C aesarea , t he d aughter o f E do m wh ich s i ts i n t he s and s" ( Meg i /a , 6 a ) . Mukaddas i ( 1886 : 1 74 ) , i n h is d eta i led d escr ipt ion o f P a lest ine a t t he e nd o f t he t enth c entury , p ra ises Caesarea a nd i t s v ar ious p roducts , ment i on ing among o ther t h ings t hat wh i le i n t hat r eg ion t hey t ravel led " . . .over t he s and t hat i s o f t he k ind a foresa id , c a l led Mekkah s and ." A lbert o f Aachen ( 1879 : 4 60 ; Haza rd 1 975 ) , t rave l l ing i n t he r eg ion a t t he e nd o f t he e leventh c entury , d escr ibes t he marsh f ound t o t he n orth o f t he c ity . P orat ( 1975 ) d escr ibes med ie va l Caesarea 's g ardens , l ocated s outh o f t he c ity . T hey were d ug i n to t he s and a l most t o g round-water l eve l i n t he n inth t o t enth c entur ies , a nd l a ter , d ur ing t he m id-th irteenth c entury t hey were d eserted a nd g radua l ly c overed b y s and b lown i n f rom t he n earby b eaches . W il l iam o f T yre i n t he t we lth c entury d escr ibes t he h igh q ua l ity o f Caesarea 's s and a s ar aw mater ia l f amous i n t he c lear-g lass i ndustry ( Ashkenas i 1 931 ) . Accord ing t o N ir ( 1981 , 1 985 ) , t he s and d unes a lready p a rt ia l ly c overed s ect ions o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct n ear t he s hore d u r ing i t s o perat iona l p er iod ( i .e . , n ot l ater t han 1 264 ) .

L ater P ococke ( 1745 : 4 51) , i n d escr ib ing t he t wo

a queducts , r eports : " Th is a queduct , a s we l l a s t he o ther , i s a l most b ur ied i n t he s and ." The Napo leon ic m iss ions ' maps o f t he N ear E ast ( Jacot in 1 822 ) , t hough n ot p art icu lar ly d eta i led f or t h is r eg ion , s how s ome s and a nd s ome s chemat ic p lots o f t he a g r icu ltura l a reas e a st o f t he r u ined c ity . Aer ia l p hotographs o f t he m id-1940 's s how t hat t he c entra l p art o f t he Caes a rea d une f ie ld was c overed b y q u ite d ense v egetat ion , b oth n atura l a nd c u lt iv ated . Accord ing t o r ecent h istor ica l s ources , t here h ave b een l arge c u lt ivated a rea s a round Caesarea , i nc lud ing b oth s and d une a gr icu lture o f mawas i t ype ( f ig . 1 . 32) u s ing t he s ha l low g round-water t ab le , a nd a gr icu lture d ependent o n a n o uts ide water s ource s upp l ied b y t he a queducts . There c an b e n o d oubt t hat i n t he p ost-destruct ion p er iod ( i .e . , ma in ly a fter 1 264 ; R im 1 949 , 1 950-1 ; Re ifenberg 1 950 ) , t he ma in d une b ody g radua l ly e xpanded t o c over l a rge p arts o f t he c u lt ivated r eg ions . Aer ia l p hotog raphs o f t h is r eg ion s how t he b a rren a reas o f t he s outhwest , e a st , a nd n orthwest s ect ions o f t h is s and f ie ld . I t a ppea rs a s i f t he d unes i n t he s outhwest a nd e ast r eg ions a re r e lat ive ly y oung a nd were d epos ited o n t he o ld c u lt ivated r eg ions t o t he SW , a nd o n t he k urk ar a nd h amra t erra in i n t he e astern s ector . S u m mary . The Caesarea b archano id s and f ie ld i st he l a rgest c oa sta l s and b ody f ound n orth o f T e l Av iv , c over ing a n a rea o f 2 0 km 2 . T he s and o r ig inates f rom t he l oad o f s ed i ments b rough t b y t he N i le , a nd t hen t ransported f rom t he N i le d e lta b eaches t o t he I s rae l i b eaches b y means o f waves a nd waveinduced l ongshore c urr ents . The s and f ie ld e x isted a lready i n h istor ica l p er iods , a nd t here i s n o d oubt

Chapter I :T he S ite

2 5

t hat Caesa rea Mar it ima was c onstructed a t l east i n p art o n as and f ie ld . I t s ee ms t hat d ur ing t he p er iods when Caesarea was i nhab ited , t he a dvancement o f t he s and d unes was c ontro l led , wh i le i n p er iods o f d eso lat ion t hese d unes a dvanced f ree ly a nd g radua l ly c overed b oth a gr icu ltura l a nd metropo l itan a reas . T he ma in b reakwater o f t he Herod ian h a rbour p layed a r o le i n t he b lock ing o f t he n orther ly l ongshore s and t ransport , t hereby i ncrea s ing t he f ree s and a va i lab le f or b each-bu i ld ing s outh o f t he h arbour . T h is s and wa s l ater c arr ied i n land b y t he p reva i l ing w inds . T he n orthern s ide o f t he h arbour , i n c ontra st , s uffered f rom s and s tarvat ion , a nd t he c oast a nd i t s i n sta l lat ions were d amaged b y e ros ion o f t he b each .

The most o bv ious e xamp le i st he s outhern t ip o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct ,

wh ich n eeded p ermanent p rotect ion a nd/or r epa irs . T here i s n o d oub t t hat t he e nv iron ment o f Caesa rea , i t s h arbour , g ardens , water-supp ly s y stems a nd o ther i n sta l lat ions , were a l l a ffected b y t h is s and f ie ld , b oth b efore a nd a fter t he c i ty 's d estruct ion .

[ Y .N . ]

I . The S ite : B . Man- Made F ea tures . T he f o l low ing s urvey p rov ides a b r ief d escr ipt ion o f a l l ma jor a rch itectura l r ema ins , p lus o thers wh ich w ere s een a nd r eported b y e ar ly v is itors t o t he s i te b ut n ow n o l onger e x ist . T h is s ect ion a lso i nc ludes ment ion o f many f ragmenta ry s tructures b oth o n l and a nd u nderwater t ha t h ave b een e xcavated w ith in t he p ast t h irty y ears , a lthough a more c o mprehens ive r ev iew o f t he e ar ly e xped it ions w il l b e s um mar ized e lsewhere ( Chap . I ) .

F ina l ly , ment ion i s made o f o ther b u i ld ings

k nown f rom l i terary o r e p igraph ic r eferences wh ich , a s y et , r ema in u nd iscovered .

I .B . Man- Made F eatures : 1 .S tra ton 's T ower . The e ar l iest s ett le ment o n t he s i te wa s S traton 's T ower , e stab l ished b y t he k ing o f S idon a s o ne o f as er ies o f t rade s tat ions a nd a nchorages a long t he L evant ine c oast ( f ig . 1 . 2 ) . The e xact l ocat ion a nd c onf igurat ion o f t h is f i rst t own h ave r ema ined a n e n igma , b ut s evera l d iscover ies d ur ing t he p a st t h irty y ea rs h ave s hed s ome l i ght o n t he p rob lem ( s ee e sp . Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 2 5-54) . I n 1 956 Av i-Yonah o pened a t rench a pprox imate ly 1 00 m s outh o f t he t wo r ound t owers o f t he i nner f ort if icat ion wa l l ( Av i-Yonah 1 956a : 2 60) ( f igs . 1 . 8 , n o . 1 7 , 1 . 35-36 ) . He l len ist ic p ottery was r ecovered , b ut n ot w ith in a n a rch itectura l c ontext . S ix y ears l ater Av i-Yonah r eturned w ith N egev t o e xcavate f ive a rea s , t h ree o f wh ich p roduced Hel len ist ic p ottery . I n t he e ase o f s tratu m 1o f A rea A , t he c era m ic e v idence was f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith f ragmentary wa l l r e ma ins ( Av i-Yonah & Negev 1 963a : 1 46-8 ) . A rea D , a ma ss ive t rench mea sur ing 1 0 x5 0 m , r evea led t he c orner o f a l arge Hel len ist ic h ouse .

T he d atab le mater ia l s uggested t hat t h is s tructure was

a bandoned i n t he s econd c entury B .C . , p erhaps a fter t he c onquest o f A lexander J annaeus . The a rea o f t he e ar ly h arbor wa s f i rst e xcavated b y N egev a t t he b ase o f a mass ive p latform w ith in t he C rusader f ort if icat ions ( Negev 1 961 : 8 1-3) ( p l . I ,n o .

2 6

I .B .1: S traton 's T ower

2 0-24 ) . D igg ing a t t he f oot o f al ong n orth-south wa l l u ncovered i n t hat p rev ious c a mpa ign , t he C enter f or Mar it i me S tud ies u ncovered a h or izonta l e ros ion n otch a nd a ssoc iated ma r ine i ncrustat ion , c onf irm ing t he l ocat ion o f t he I nner Harbor ( Raban e t a l . 1 976 : 3 6-38 ) . T he l ower l evel s w ere o ccup ied b y b u i ld ings o f p ostHerod ian d ate , s uggest ing t hat o n ly i n al ater p er iod h ad t h is p ort ion o f t he h arbor b een s i lted i n , mak ing s pace a va i lab le f or n ew c onstruct ion .

Cont inued e xcava-

t ions i n t he s ame l ocat ion ( Area I i ) b y CAHEP d ur ing t he 1 983 a nd 1 984 s easons u ncovered a moor ing s tone i n s i tu ( Raban 1 983 : 2 63 ; Hoh lfe lder 1 988 : 8 -10 ; S ect ion I I .H .1 ) . Another a rch itectura l f eature a ssoc iated w ith t h is h arbor i s t he R ound T ower ( CAHEP 's A rea T ; S ect ion I I .R ) l ocated b y CMS d ivers i n 1 976 ( Raban & L inder 1 976 : 2 41-3) . T he b ase , 1 3 m i n d iameter , a t p resent l ocated 2 0 m o ffshore i n a bout 1 .5 m o f water , i ss im i lar i n s ize t o t he t wo r ound t owers o f t he i nner f ort if icat ion c ircu it a t Caesa rea ( s ee b e low ) a nd t o s ecu re ly d ated He l len ist ic t owers a t S amar ia ( Crowfoot 1 942 : 2 4-27) a nd T e l Akko ( Dothan 1 976 : 4 0-1) .

T he t ower

may h ave b een a l i ghthouse a nd g ua rd t ower t hat o ver looked t he h a rbor e ntrance t o t he s outh a nd e nc losed t he b as in o f at yp ica l He l len ist ic 1 imen k le istos ( fort if i ed h arbor ) ( Lehmann Hart leben 1 923 : 6 5-74 ; B lackman 1 982 : 1 94-96 ) . A s econd h arbor o r a nchorage h as b een l ocated i n e xcavat ions b y CAHEP i n A rea J , 4 00 m n orth o f t he f i rst h arbor , b etween t he much l ater c oncrete s ea wa l ls a nd s ynagogue r ema ins ( Sect ion M.O .

B locks a t t he waterl ine s et i n a

h eader p attern a re p robab ly p art o f al oad ing d ock s im i la r t o t hose o f P hoen ic ian d ate a t A th l it a nd Akko . T h is f eature i s a ssumed t o b e o f He l len ist ic d ate , b ased u pon t he d iscovery t here o f t he g reatest c oncentrat ion o f p ottery f rom t he t h ird t o s econd c entur ies B .C . y et f ound a t t he s i te .

T he l arge n u mber o f c igar-shaped

j ars a ssoc iated w ith t he s torage a nd s h ipp ing o f p ick led f i sh u ncovered i n A rea J s uggested c om merc ia l o r i ndustr ia l a ct iv ity . There i s n o r eference i n J osephus t o f ort if icat ion wa l ls f or e ither S traton 's T ower o r Caesarea , y et we k now o f t he ir e x istence d ur ing t he He l len ist ic p er iod t h rough Rabb in ic s ources ( Lev ine 1 975a : 1 1) a nd a ssume t hat , a lthough t he c ity i s d escr ibed b y J osephus a s b e ing i n ad i lap idated s ta te ( BJ 1 .408 ) , e ar l ier wa l ls c ou ld h ave b een r epa ired a nd emp loyed b y Herod f or a p ort ion o f h is n ew c ity . The t w in t owers a nd t he ir a ssoc iated i nner c ircu it o f f ort if icat ion wa l ls ment ioned a bove h ave b een d ated t o v ar ious p er iods b y t he s cho lars work ing a t t he s i te ( s ee d iscuss ion , S ect ions I .A .5 , H .3 , R .1) .

I n t he l ate 1 950 's a nd e ar ly 1 960 's I ta l ian e xcava-

t ors r eported g lass , p ottery , a nd c o ins d at ing t o t he f i rst c entury B .C . a nd c ited a rch itectura l p ara l le ls t o s upport t he ir s uggest ion t hat t he c ircu it wa l ls a nd t owe rs were Herod ian ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 2 51-2 , 2 82ff . ) . L ev ine , o n t he o ther h and , p o inted o ut s evera l p rob lems w ith t he a ttr ibut ion a nd s uggested a n e a r l ier , He l leni s t ic d ate ( Lev ine 1 975a : 1 0-11) . T he t wo t owers ,

1 2 m i n d iameter a nd 1 4 m

a part , a re o f ap erfect s i ze a nd i n t he c orrect p os it ion t o h ave f ormed a c ity g ate ( f ig . 1 . 35 ) .

V irtua l ly t he s ame d i mens ions a ppear o n t he r ound t ower f ram ing t he

west g ate o f S a mar ia ( Crowfoot 1 942-58 : 4 0 ) . L ev ine c ont inued b y p o int ing o ut t hat t he p lan o f t he t owers a nd t he i ndented t race p attern ment ioned b y P h i lo o f B yzant iu m ( W inter

1 971:

16-19 ) ,

c entury B .C . f ort if ica t ions .

w ere c ommon

f eatures

i n f ourth

a nd t h ird-

F ina l ly , h e a rgued , i f t he c ircu it was o f Herod ian

d ate , i t d ef ined a v ery s ma l l c ity a nd l eft c erta in ma jor s tructures , n otab ly t he

Chapter I : The S ite t heatre

2 7

a nd amph itheatre ,

o uts ide

t he

c ity .

S ubsequent

e xcavat ions

n ea r

t he

p o lygona l t ower a nd s tretch o f wa l l t o t he e ast h ave l ed t he J o int E xped it ion t o s upport t he e ar l ier , H erod ian d ate . T he b as is i s a s trat if ied d epos it o f p ottery f rom t he e ast ( exter ior ) s ide o f t he c ity wa l l ( B lake ly 1 984 ) . T he CAHEP e xcavat ors , o n t he o ther h and , ma inta in t hat a l t hree r ound t owers were p art o f t he s ame He l len ist ic f ort if icat ion s yste m , p robab ly r eused b y Herod d ur ing h is b u i ld ing c a mpa ign . An a dd it iona l s tretch o f t hat He l len ist ic wa l l h a s b een i dent if ied i n CAHEP 's A rea 1 3 ( f igs . 1 1 .82-84 ) . T he l argest o f as er ies o f v au lts - d iscussed b e low a s p art o f t he mass ive Herod ian T e mp le P latform ( Sect ion I .H .3) - wa s i nvest igated i n 1 984 a nd c lear ly d emonstrated t o h ave b een b u i lt i n a t l east t h ree p ha ses . The s outh a nd e ast wa ll s a re o f as im i la r p attern o f masonry : as er ies o f s tretchers a lternates w ith p a irs o f h eaders . T he n orth wa l l i s o f t wo p ha ses , s et o n s l ight ly d ifferent o r ientat ions , a nd b u i lt o f d ifferent s ized mater ia ls . T he n orthern f ort if ic at ion wal l i m med iate ly e ast o f t he t w in r ound t owers s hows t he s ame s ty le o f

ma sonry a s t he s outh a nd e ast wa l ls o f t he v au lt , a nd t he p ottery a ssoc iated w ith t hese wal ls - wh ich o n ly l ater a re u sed t o s upport a Herod ian v au lt - i s c lear ly He l len ist ic . A s ar esu lt o f t he p a st f ew d ecades o f f ie ld-work , t he e ar ly t own b eg ins t o emerge a s a c oasta l s ett le ment f ocused a bout i t s t wo h arbours .

T he s outhern

a nchorage was p robab ly t he s quare o r r ectangu lar I nner B as in l oca ted b y CAHEP 's e xcavat ions ( Area 1 ,S ect ion I I .H ) , a nd t he R ound T ower n earby ( Area T 2 , S ect ion I I .R .2 ) may h ave s erved a s a n o bservat ion t ower o r l i gh thouse o ver look ing i t s e ntrance . I t may , i n f act , h ave b een t he c oasta l f eature k nown a s S traton 's T ower . I f n ot , o ne m ight l ook f or s uch a s tructure t o t he s outh , a long t he r ocky p ro mont ory t hat Herod was l a ter t o i ncorporate i n to h is S outhern B reakwater . The wa l ls o f t he t own were p owerfu l ly b u i lt i n t he t rad it ion o f He l len ist ic f ort if icat ions , a nd i t s n orth g ate i s ag ood e xamp le o f as ame t ype k nown f ro m s i tes o f as im i lar p er iod . L itt le more c an b e a dded o ther t han t he f ragmenta ry r e ma ins o f d omest ic a nd c o m merc ia l a rea s t hat h ave b een s uggested b y t he a ssoc iated c eram ic e v id ence . C lear ly , much more o f t he e a r ly c ity r ema ins t o b e u ncovered . [ R .L .V . ]

I .B . Man- Made F eatures : 2 . Herod ian Caesa rea . Desp ite t he mass ive s ca le o f Herod 's b u i ld ing p rogram me a t Caesa rea v ery l i tt l e

r ema ins v is ib le f rom

t he l ate f i rst c entury B .C .

r esea rch o n t he c ity i n Ho lu m e t a l . ( 1988 :

5 5-106 ) .

T here

i s a s u m mary o f

The s uccess o f Caesarea a s a

c ity e nsured t hat c ont inuous b u i ld ing wou ld c over o r p erhaps e ven e rad icate much o f i t s e ar l ier h istory .

F or e xamp le , a ccord ing t o J osephus , Herod b u i lt a c ity w ith

ag r id o f s treets . T h is g r id p resumab ly d eve loped f rom t he o r ig ina l He l len ist ic a l ignments , a lthough n o s treet h a s b een e xcavated t o i t s Herod ian l eve l ( Vann : 1 983b ) . N u merous s treets , u ncovered b y b oth t he J o int E xped it ion a nd CAHEP , a nd o thers r ecorded f rom t he s tudy o f a er ia l p hotographs , s uggest a c omprehens ive c ity p lan ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 6 ) ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51 ; Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 8 3 , 1 30 , 1 63 ) . The work ing h ypo thes is among s cho la rs e xcavat ing a t Caesarea i s t hat e vent ua l ly t h is g r id w i l l b e d ated t o t he Herod ian b u i ld ing p rog ram .

2 8

I .B .2 : Herod ian Caesarea The f ocus o f Herod 's c ity p lanners a nd CAHEP 's r esearch p rogram me h as b een

S ebastos , t he h arbour o f Caesarea Ma r it ima . D escr ipt ions b y J osephus p rov ide a n e xce l lent e ye-w itness a ccount o f t he p ort 7 0 y ears a fter t he d ed icat ion o f t he c ity , a nd t he p a ssages h ave b een v a luab le f or t he p resent g roup o f r esearchers i n i nterpret ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ( AJ 1 5 .331-41 ; B . I I .A ) .

1 .408-14 ; s ee Append ix

On ly a sma l l p ort ion o f t h is g rand c o mp lex h as r ema ined a bove wa ter :

t he

e astern e nd o f t he S outhern B reakwater . T he r ema ins o f b oth b reakwaters a re c lear ly v is ib le f rom t he a ir a nd c an e ven b e s een f rom t he r oof o f t he c itade l r est aurant o n ac a lm d ay . P erhaps t he o n ly o r ig ina l f eature p reserved o f t h is c ont inuou s ly emp loyed S outhern B reakwater i s t he s lu ice c ut i n to t he western e xtre m ity o f t he k urkar h ead land t hat f ormed i t s b ase ( CAHEP A rea Q ; S ect ion I I .0 ) .

B eneath t he s ur-

f ace , s evera l o ther p arts o f t he h a rbor c an b e e as i ly i dent if ied . The E ntrance Channe l i sl ocated o n t he n orthwest s ide , wh i le n ea rby were t he t owers ment ioned b y J osephus : t wo s tand ing t o t he s tarboard o f as h ip e nter ing t he h arbour , a nd o ne t o p ort . These t owers s upported a s er ies o f s ix c o lumns t hat i n t urn c arr ied monumenta l s cu lpture . T he f oundat ion o f t he s ing le t ower i sj ust n orth o f t he e xtreme n orthwest c orner o f t he Northern B reakwater , where r e ma ins were d iscovered o f t he wooden f ormwork i n to wh ich t he c oncrete h ad b een p oured ( Vann 1 983 ; O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 97-99 ) . F ina l ly , t he c asua l d iver o r s norke ler s w imm ing a long t he l i ne o f t he Northern B reakwater c an e as i ly r ecogn ize t he r ema ins a s man-made a nd c an l ocate a t i t s western e nd - f lank ing t he a nc ient e ntrance - a t u mb le o f h uge c oncrete b locks ( CAHEP 's A rea D ) t hat a re t he r ema ins o f as ubstant ia l b u i ld ing wh ich c o l lapsed a s t he h arbor f e l l i n to d isrepa ir . T he s ame s w i m mer wou ld n ot b e a b le t o r ecogn ize a s much o f t he o r ig ina l b reakwater t o t he s outh a nd west , where p reva i l ing s eas h ave c aused more d amage . Yet t here t oo , t he c asua l v is itor m ight r ecogn ize a n e ven l arger h eap o f h uge c oncrete b locks , i n o ne p lace r each ing w ith in 2 m o f t he s urface . Th is c o l lapsed s tructure was t he l argest i n t he h arbor a nd i s c ons idered t o h ave b een t he l i ghthouse , a lthough n one i s s pec if ica l ly ment ioned b y J osephus . I nstead , t he d escr ipt ion s peaks o f ap a ir o f b reakwaters 2 00 m w ide , i t s c entra l s p ine f ormed b y a wa l l p unctuated w ith t owers .

The i nner p or-

t ion was o ccup ied d ock ing s pace a nd wa rehou ses wh i le t he o uter p art wa s t he b reakwater p roper . J osephus n otes t hat t he t a l lest o f t he s er ies o f t owers was n a med D rus ion i n memory o f Augustus 's s on . A lthough t he many wa rehouses a nd a ssoc iated b u i ld ings t hat o nce s tood o n t he b reakwaters a re i r retr ievab ly l ost , s evera l o f t he v au lted h orrea h ave b een d iscove red o n l and a nd p art ia l ly e xcavated b y t he J o int E xped it ion ( Sect ion I .A .6 ; ( p l . I , n o . 3 3) . T hese h uge , a sh lar-vau lted s torerooms were c onstructed a long t he s horel i ne s outh o f t he a rt if ic ia l h arbor a nd were p art o f t he e xpanded p ort f ac i l ity o f S ebastos . T he ir p reservat ion h as b een d ue i n p art t o t he s and d unes t hey h ave h e lped s tab i l ize a long t he b each . A lthough a t l ea st 2 0 v au lts h ave b een r ecorded , n o c oherent p lan o f t he ir f u l l e xtent c an b e p rov ided u nt i l f urther i nvest igat ion h as b een c arr ied o ut ( Bu l l , K rentz , S torv ik 1 986 ) .

T hree o f t he v au lted c hambers

t hat h ave b een r ecorded f ace west , t oward t he S ou th B ay , a nd e ven t hough t hey a re o f d ifferent s izes , t he c o mp lex m ight b e r econ structed a long t he l i nes o f a s im i lar s et o f warehouses o n t he e astern b reakwater a t L ept is Magna i n North A fr ica .

Th is s er ies o f warehouses wa s f aced b y ap ort ico ( Bartoce in i 1 958 :

1 23) .

Chapter I : The S ite

2 9

The a rrange ment o f h orrea a t Caesarea , h owever , wa s more e xtens ive .

A t l east

f ive o ther v au lted r ooms f aced n orth a nd s outh o nto d ecu man i ( ea st-west c ross s treets ) l ead ing t o t he p ort , wh i le o thers f aced e ast o nto a p ara l le l c ardo ( norths outh s treet ) ( Bu l l , K rentz , S torv ick 1 986 : 4 1 ) . No s trat igraph ic e v idence c an p rov ide a d ate f or t he o r ig ina l c onstruct ion o f t he v au lts , b ut a n e nterpr ise o f s uch s ca le p resu mab ly b e longed t o t he Herod ian p er iod , when t he ma r it ime t raff ic - o r a t l ea st t he a nt ic ipat ion o f i t - was g reatest . E xcavat ion i n t he c ha mbers p rod uced l arge n umbers o f amphora s . A t al ater d ate , i n t he t h ird c entury , o ne o f t he warehouses was r e mode led a s aT e mp le o f M ithras ( Sect ion 1 .A .6 , b e low ) . Among t he most i mportant b u i ld ings o f t he c ity was a t e mp le d ed icated t o t he c u lt o f R o me a nd t he d e if ied emperor Augustus , d escr ibed b y J osephus a s s tand ing o n a n em inence o ver look ing t he h arbour ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 0 , p l . I ,n o . 2 0 ) .

That t e mp le

h as d isappeared , b ut a v au lted p latform n ow s i tuated i n t he c entre o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ions i su sual ly i dent if ied a s i t s b ase . CAHEP A rea Ii s l ocated i n f ront o f a nd b eneath t h is v au lted p latform . I n 1 873 t he s i te was r eferred t o a s a "mound ," a nd o ccup ied b y l ate s tructures , wh ich were d emo l ished i n t urn w ith in t he n ext d ecade b y ag roup o f B osn ian s ett lers who a rr ived a t Caesa rea ( Conder & K itchner 1 882 : 1 8 ) . The f i rst e xcavat ions - p art o f t he P ark S erv ice 's p rogra m m me t o r estore p art o f t he s i te - r evea led a s er ies o f d eep f oundat ions t o t he n orth a nd a v au lted s ubstructure t o t he s outh ( Negev 1 963b : 7 28 ) . T he E ar ly Ro man p ottery f ound t hroughout t he a ssoc iated s trata e stab l ished a Herod ian d a te f or i t s c ons truct ion . Two f urther ma jor p ub l ic b u i ld ings ment ioned b y J osephus were t he t heatre a nd amph itheatre . He c onfuses t he ir l ocat ions a nd p laces t he l atter s outh o f t he h arbour , d escr ib ing i t a s i dea l ly s i tuated f or a v iew o f t he s ea ( AJ 1 5 .341 ) .

I n

f act , i t i s t he t heatre t hat i s i n t he s outhern p a rt o f t he c ity , o n al ow b luff f ro m wh ich i t c o m mands a n e xce l lent p anorama o ver t he Med iterranean ( f ig . 1 . 40 , p l . I , n o . 3 9 ) .

The t heatre a t C aesarea i so ne o f t he f ew p ub l ic b u i ld ings o f t he c ity t hat

h as b een i dent if ied a nd c omp lete ly e xcavated ( Frova e t a h 1 965 ) . T he s e lect ion o f t h is p a rt icu lar b u i ld ing f or t horough i nvest igat ion wa s b a sed , i n p art , o n ar efere nce i n J osephus e stab l ish ing i t a s o ne o f t he o r ig ina l s tructures o f t he Herod ian b u i ld ing p rogram me a nd t hus a s o ne o f t he e ar l iest R o man t heatres i n t he E ast . The b u i ld ing i sn oted f or t he f amous s er ies o f p a inted f loors wh ich d ate t hroughout t he

e a r ly

Ro man

p er iod ( A lbr icc i

1 966 ) .

e ntrances p rov ided i n t he s econd c entury .

T he

s tage

was

r ebu ilt

a nd

v au lted

Much o f t he a rch itectura l d ecorat ion

n ow v is ib le , i nc lud ing a p or t icus p os t s caenam a nd t he s caena d ate f rom t he t h ird c entury , a nd a c o l i mbetra , o r p oo l , was a dded i n t he n ext c entury f or t he p resent at ion o f p opu la r water s hows . B ut among t he n umerous r epa irs c arr ied o ut o ver t he f our o r f ive c entur ies o f s erv ice , t he most i mportant f or a rchaeo log ists was t he r euse o f a n i nscr ibed b lock ment ion ing P ont ius P i late a nd h is d ed icat ion o f a b u i ld ing f or t he i mper ia l c u lt o f T iber ius ( Deg rass i 1 964 ) . T he t heatre c ont inued t o f unct ion t hroughout L ate Ant iqu ity a nd wa s c losed o n ly i n t he s eventh c entury , when a B yzant ine f ortress was b u i lt a d jacent t o i t . T oday , t he s eat ing a rea h as b een p art ia l ly r estored , e nab l ing v is itors t o t he s i te o nce more t o w itness l i ve p erf ormances i n a magn if icen t Herod ian s ett ing . Much l ess c an b e s een o f t he amph itheatre , a t as i te o n t he o ther s ide o f t he c ity ( p l . 1 , n o . 1 1) .

A lthough i t s o ut l ine i s e as i ly r ecogn ized f ro m t he a ir , o n ly a

3 0

I .B .2 : Herod ian Caesarea

s l ight r i se i n t he f i e lds i nd icates t he b ur ied r ema ins o f i t s f oundat ions .

I t s Hero-

d ian d ate i se stab l ished b y ar eference i n J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .341) d escr ib ing t he d ed ic atory g ames . The b u i ld ing was p robab ly t he s i te o f b loody s pectac les d ur ing t he r e ign o f T itus , a t t he c lose o f t he f i rst J ew ish r ebe l l ion a ga inst t he Romans ( Josep hus , B . I 7 .31 ,37-8 ) .

Ch r ist ian ma rtyrs met t he ir d eath s i n t h is s ame a rena d ur ing

t he p ersecut ions o f D ioc let ian ( Euseb ius , De mar tyr ibus P a laest inae 6 .3 , 7 .4 , 8 .2) . The amph itheatre r ema ins c o mp lete ly u nexcavated a nd t he d ate o f i t s o r ig ina l c onstruct ion u ncerta in . The t h ird ma jor b u i ld ing n eeded f or p ub l ic e nterta in ment i n a ny R o man c i ty was t he c ircus , a nd t he r ema ins o f al arge o ne c an b e s een a t Caesarea . A lthough we k now t hat h orse r aces were a p art o f t he f est iv it ies d ur ing t he d ed icat ion o f Herod 's n ew c ity , o nce a ga in t here i s n o e v idence f or t he e x istence o f t he p resent s tructure b efore t he s econd c entury ( Hu mphrey 1 986 : 4 89-90) ( p l . I ,n o . 5 8 ) .

T he

b u i ld ing mea sures a bout 8 0 x3 20 m - a n a verage s ize f or s uch r acecourses . I n t he c entre o f t he t rack a re r ema ins o f monu ments t hat o nce d ecorated t he s p ina , t he c entra l l ong itud ina l b arr ier wa l l . S evera l l a rge b locks o f r ed A swan g ran ite a re a l l t hat r e ma ins o f t he t urn ing p ost ( meta ) , a nd a h uge o be l isk . A lthough s evera l a tte mpts were made t o c ut t he s tones i n to sma l ler p ieces f or e as ier t ransport , t hey r ema in i n t he c entre o f t he r acetrack . The h ippodrome was u sed t hrough t he f i fth c entury , a s i t i s ment ioned i n t he S a ma r itan u pr is ing o f 4 84 ( Procop ius , D e a ed if ic i is 5 .7 .5-9 ) . The

l ast

ma jor s tructure i dent if ied a s p art o f t he Herod ian

b u ild ing p ro-

g ra m me i s t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct e nter ing t he c i ty f rom t he n orth ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 6 -7 , p l . 1 ,n o . 1 ) .

T he g racefu l a rcade s tretch ing 8 km d own t he b each i s t he most

i mpress ive a nd f am i l iar monument o f t he a nc ient c ity a nd o ne o f t he b est p res erved Roman a queducts i n t he e astern p rov inces . T he a queduct p resents a n umber o f c omp l icated p rob lems . F irst , J osephus makes n o ment ion o f a water s ystem , a lthough t h is om iss ion c erta in ly d oes n ot p rec lude i t s e x istence . E ven t hough c i ti es o f t h is s ize c ou ld s urv ive w ithout g rand mun ic ipa l a queducts , i t i s d iff icu lt t o b e l ieve t hat , g iven t he c ha l lenge o f b u i ld ing a n ew , s howcase c ity , a s u itab le water s ystem wou ld n ot b e p art o f t he master p lan .

F urthermore , Herod h ad b u i lt

water s yste ms f or o ther c it ies , i nc lud ing a n a queduct i n L aod icea a nd b aths a nd a f ounta in a t A sca lon ( B . I 1 .21 .11) . I nvest igat ion o f t he a queduct h as s hown t hat t h ree s eparate c hannels were c arr ied o n t wo a d jacent a rcades w ith a rches o f s l igh t ly d ifferent s pans . The p rese nce o f e xter ior s tr ing c ourses o n b oth t he e ast a nd west s ides o f t he e astern a rcade i nd icate t hat i t was b u i lt f i rst a nd wa s d es igned t o f unct ion b y i t se lf .

T he

s ource o f t h is e ar ly water s ystem was t he s pr ings n ear t he f oot o f t he Carme l r ange , a bout 2 5 km NE o f t he c ity ( f ig . 1 . 4 ) . A s econd a queduct b r idge was a dded l ater , p resu mab ly i n t he e ar ly s econd c entury b y t roops s tat ioned i n J udaea d ur ing t he B ar K ochba r evo lt ( f ig . 1 . 43 ) . S evera l i nscr ipt ions c an s t i l l b e s een o n t he west f ace o f t he l atter b ranch , i nc ludi ng o ne n am ing t he L eg io V I F errata ( V i lney 1 928a-b ) .

T hree a dd it iona l i nscr ip-

t ions h ave b een p ub l ished more r ecent ly ( Hamburger 1 959 : 1 88-90 ; 7 84 ;

L ifsh itz 1 963 :

Negev 1 964 : 2 37-49 , 1 972 : 5 2-3 ) . I ts eems p laus ib le t hat a n ew water s ource

wou ld b e a ssoc iated w ith Hadr ian , p rov id ing t he water n ecessa ry f or t he l arge

Chapter I :T he S ite

3 1

s tand ing a rmy a nd a t t he s ame t ime a ppropr iate t o h is i mage a s ar estorer o f c iti es . A c ase m ight a lso b e made f or c onstruct ion o f o ne b ranch b y V espas ian d ur ing t he f i rst r evo lt , when a S amar itan c hron ic le s tates t hat t he c om mander d am med a r iver a nd g athered i t s waters f or t ransport i n to t he c ity ( Neubauer 1 868 : 4 02) . The s ource o f wa ter f or t he s econd c hanne l o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct was a lso f ro m t he s pr ings a t t he f oot o f Mount Carme l , b ut a dd it iona l s pr ings 1 5 km e a st o f t he c ity were a l so t apped a nd t he water j o ined w ith t he o r ig ina l s ources . P art o f t he water c hanne l i n t he l a tter s yste m wa s c ut t hrough t he mounta in . [ R .L .V . ]

I .B . Man- Made Features : 3 . P os t Herod ian Caesarea . The P ost-Herod ian p er iod i n Caesarea e xtends f ro m t he r emova l o f Herod 's s on , A rche laus , i n A .D . 6t hrough s ix c entur ies o f Roman a nd B yzant ine r u le u nt i l t he S assan ian a nd A rab i nva s ions o f t he e ar ly s eventh c entury . a nd c o mp lex .

A lthough t he

e ar l ier

Roman p hase

r e ma ins

T he p er iod i s l ong r e lat ive ly

u nknown

t h rough e xcavat ion , s ome s tructures a re k nown f rom l i terary o r e p ig raph ic r efere nces . Archaeo log ica l r esea rch h a s , o n t he o ther h and , s hed more l i ght o n t he l ater c entur ies , a s s cho lars i n tent u pon d iscover ing t he o r ig ins o f Herod 's c ity h ave f ound i tn ecessary t o u ncover t he s urpr is ing ly p rosperous l ater h istory o f Caesarea ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 07-200) . Pub l ic B u i ld ings .

I f we a ccept t he

a ccounts p rov ided b y J osephus ,

Herod

p lanned a nd b u i lt a c i ty f i l led w ith a l l t he a rch itectura l amen it ies n ecessary f or R o man u rban l i fe . B ut o ne o f t he ma jor s tructures f or p ub l ic e nterta inment d ur ing t he Roman e ra , t he h ippodrome , s eems t o h ave b een c onstructed d ur ing t he p ostHerod ian e ra ( p l . I ,n o . 5 8 ) .

A lthough we k now t hat r aces were h e ld i n c on junct ion

w ith t he f oundat ion o f t he c ity , sma l l-sca le e xcavat ions i n 1 974 a nd 1 976 h ave l ed Hu mphrey t o d ate t he b u i ld ing n o e ar l ier t han t he s econd c entury A .C . , p erhaps a ssoc iated w ith t he l oca l b u i ld ing p rog rams o f Hadr ian ( Humph rey 1 974 ; Hu mphrey 1 975 ; R i ley 1 975 ; Humph rey 1 986 : 4 47-91 ) . T he Caesa rea h ippodro me i s o r iented NNE-SS W , i t s r ounded e nd t o t he s outh a nd i t s s tart ing g ates , o r c arceres , t o t he n orth . The r acetrack i s4 50 x 9 0 m , a bout t he a verage s ize o f t hose i n t he e astern p rov inces .

T he h uge b locks o f r ed g ran ite t hat c an s t il l b e s een i n af ie ld n ow

w ith in t he r acecourse were p arts o f a n o be l isk a nd t he t wo t urn ing p osts , t he meta p r i ma a nd t he meta s ecunda , p a rt o f t he d ecorat ion o f t he s p ina , o r c entra l s p ine . Another l arge b lock o f t he s ame mater ia l n ow l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater w as c a rr ied t o t he h arbour a rea f or t ransport e lsewhere , s omet i me i n t he e ar ly modern p er iod . I t c an b e s een embedded i n a modern c onc rete s lab o uts ide t he l oca l d ive s hop . T h is s tone , measur ing 1 .95 x 1 .92 x 0 .95 m , h as a s er ies o f f our c utt ings o n i t s t op a nd m ight h ave s erved a s t he b ase o f o ne o f t hese monuments . Another b u i ld ing f or p ub l ic e nterta inment t hat h a s y et t o b e l ocated was t he o deu m . Accord ing t o Ma la las ( Chronograph ia 1 0 .338 ; N iebuhr 1 831 ) , i t was b u i lt b y V espa s ian w ith in t he s tructure o f a n o lder s ynagogue :

" And o ut o f t he J ew ish

s po i l , t h is s ame V espa s ian e ven b u i lt i n Caesa rea o f P a lest ine a v ery l arge o deu m a t ag reat d istance f rom t he t hea tre , a nd a s ynagogue o f t he J ews was f ormer ly o n

3 2

I .B .3 : P os t-Herod ian Caesarea

t h is s i te ." The

t ext d oes

n ot

make

c lear

whether t he

e a r l ier

s tructure

was

d estroyed o r s imp ly r eused f or a n ew p urpose . T h is a dapt ive r euse wou ld h ave b een al og ica l s o lut ion f or t wo b u i ld ings w ith s uch s im i lar a rch itectu ra l p rogra ms . B oth t he o deu m a nd s ynagogue were d es igned t o p rov ide a sse mb ly s pace f or c rowds a nd h ad p lans s im i lar t o t he e a r l ier meet ing h a l ls o f G reek a rch itectu re ( McDona ld 1 943 ; L awrence 1 973 : 2 74-79 ) . T he o deum a t Caesarea was u sed f or mus ica l c onc erts , a nd a s al ecture h a l l , l aw c ourt , a nd p opu lar a sse mb ly . E very Ro man t own was wel l s upp l ied w ith a v ar iety o f p ub l ic a nd p r iva te b aths , a nd Caesarea wou ld h ave b een n o e xcept ion , e ven t hough t he f i rst s pec if ic r eference t o ab ath d ates t o t he m idd le o f t he s econd c entury ( Ma la las , Chronog raph ia 1 1 .367 ) . P ub l ic b aths were u sua l ly among t he l argest s tructures i n t he c ity a nd c an b e r ecogn ized t oday a s b e ing among t he most p rom inent r u ins o n as i te . E xa mp les o f l arge v au lted r oo ms c an b e s een i n t he t wo ma jor t hermae o f Gera sa ( Krae l ing 1 938 : 2 3-24 ) o r t he sma l ler c omp lex a t Ham mat Gader ( H irschfe ld & S o lar 1 981) . A s urvey o f b ath r e ma ins i n o ther p rov inces s uch a s A s ia M inor o r North A fr ica s how a l arger n umber o f s tand ing r ema ins , b ut t h is d egree o f p reserv at ion i s d ue i n l arge p art t o t he f act t hat t he v au lt ing wa s b u i lt i n c oncrete o r mortared r ubb le r ather t han t he a sh la r ma sonry more c o m mon i n P a lest ine a nd S yr ia . I fe ar l ier b ath b u i ld ings i n Caesarea were b u i lt o f c ut s tone , i t i sv ery l i ke ly t hat t hose b aths were d ismant led a t s o me t ime d ur ing t he l i fe o f t he c ity a nd t he mater ial s r eused i n o ther s tructures . T he f act t ha t n o l arge b ath h as b een f ound i n t he c ity i s n o s urpr ise , c ons ider ing t he f act t hat t he l ocat ion o f t he a gora i t se lf i s s t i l l u nknown . There a re s evera l

l i terary r eferences t o

b aths

i n t he c ity ,

i nc lud ing

t he

f ourth-century " Baths o f Corne l ius" ment ioned i n t he I t inerar iu m B urd iga lense a nd t hose c o l lected b y L ev ine ( 1975a : 3 7 ) c oncern ing t he r o le o f t he b aths i n t he J ewi sh c o m mun ity . The o n ly b aths f ound t o d ate i n Caesarea a re t hose p art ia l ly e xcav ated i n 1 976 a nd 1 978 i n F ie ld E o f t he J EC M , l ocated i n t he n orthern s ubu rbs ( f ig . 1 . 33 , p l . I ,n o . 4 ) . i an M iss ion .

T hey h ad b een i dent if ied a s a Ch r ist ian c hape l b y t he I ta l-

An e xce l lent s er ies o f d raw ings was c omp leted b y Ken Sm ith , t hen a

s tudent i n t he S choo l o f A rch itecture a t t he U n ivers ity o f Mary land , b ut t he s truct ure h as r ema ined u npub l ished ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 82-84 , f igs . 1 09 , 1 34-35 ) . The b aths a re v ery sma l l . T he c ircu lar f r ig idar ium i s l ocated o n t he s outh s ide o f t he c omp lex , a nd t he s erv ice c ourt , p raefurn ium ( fu rnace ) , a nd e a ldar ium ( hot b aths ) - t rad it iona l ly l ocated o n t he s outh o r s outhwest s ide o f ab ath i n o rder t o c ol lect a s much a fternoon h eat a s p oss ib le - a re l ocated a t t he n orth c orner . The h ea ted r oo ms a nd t he med ium t e mperature t ep idar ium a re t iny , l ess t han 2 m w ide f or t he d omed c a ldar iu m .

The e xter ior o f t he s tructure i s n ot c omp lete ly e xca-

v ated , b ut i t a ppears t hat t he e ntrance was f rom t he n orth . S evera l o ther r oo ms d ecorated w ith f loors o f o pus s ect i le h ave b een c leared i n t he s outheast a nd s outhwest c orners , b ut o thers h ave r e ma ined u nexcavated . I n v iew o f t he ir s ca le , t he b aths were n o d oubt p r ivate r ather t han p ub l ic . A lthough t he b u i ld ing i s l ocated i n a n a rea n orth o f t he c ity k nown t o h ave l arge v i l las , t he c omp lex i s p robab ly n ot d es igned f or t he u se o f as ing le h ouseho ld b ut i n stead m igh t h ave s erved s evera l . Two f eatures s uggest t h is i n terpretat ion . F irst , al a rge p isc ina , o r f i sh t ank , i n t he n orthea st c orner s eems t o h ave t oo sma l l as urface a rea t o p roper ly a erate t he v o lu me o f water i t c onta ined .

T hus t he t ank may h ave s erved a s as torage p oo l

Chapter I : The S ite

3 3

f or f i sh t hat were t o b e c ooked a nd s erved t o t he b athers , r ather t han a s ab reedi ng p oo l . S econd , t he l a tr ine l ocated o n t he west s ide o f t he b u i ld ing i s t oo l arge f or u se b y as ing le h ou seho ld . A s p rov inc ia l c ap ita l o f J udaea , Caesa rea was t he a dm in istrat ive b ase o f t he l oca l Ro man g overnor . We k now a bout s evera l o f t hese men a nd s o meth ing o f t he b u i ld ings t hat t hey u sed . T he g overnors o f t he n ew p rov ince p robab ly o ccup ied Herod 's p a lace i m med iate ly a fter a nnexat ion i n A .D . 6 . , b ecause we h ear t hat i n 5 8 , a fter h av ing b een a rrested b y t he R oman o ff ic ia l i n c harge o f t he c ity o f J erus a lem , P au l was b rough t t o Caesarea f or t r ia l b efore t he p rov inc ia l g overnor , t he r igh t o f a Ro man c it izen .

Acts 2 1-25 d escr ibe t he e vents a nd t he l ong p er iod o f

i ncarcerat ion d ur ing wh ich t ime P au l wa s k ept i n c u stody b y t he g overnor , Anton ius F e l ix , " at h is h eadquarters i n Herod 's p a lace ." T he n a mes O f o ther Roman o ff ic ia ls a re k nown f rom t he s o-ca l led " Honor if ic E sp lanade" d iscovered b y J EC M i n F ie ld C s outh o f t he I nner Harbour ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 5 , p l . I ,n o . 2 9 ) a nd b u i lt d irect ly a bove s evera l o f Herod 's v au lted h orrea ( Bu l l 1 982 : 3 4 ; B u l l , K rentz , a nd S torv ick

1 986 : 3 6 ) . T he s tructure i s a c o lonnaded ,

U -shaped , marb le-paved h a l l b u i lt a round a c ou rt w ith i t s o pen s ide t o t he west o ver look ing t he s ea .

W ith in t he r oom , e xcavators f ound a s er ies o f s hort c o lumns

i nscr ibed w ith t he n a mes o f p rocurators o f t he t h ird c entury , a pparent ly b ases t hat l i ned t he wa l ls a nd s upported s tatues o f t he men n a med . F ie ld C o f t he J EC M e xposed what a ppears t o h ave b een a l arge a dm in istrat i ve c o mp lex , i nc lud ing a n a rch ives b u i ld ing f i rst d iscovered b y Negev a nd l ater c leared b y t he J o int E xped it ion ( p l . I ,n o . 3 0 ) . T he b u i ld ing i sr ectangu la r , measuri ng 1 5 x1 9 m , w ith s even r ooms a rranged a bout a c entra l h a l l ( Ho lu m e t a l . 1 988 : 1 69 , f ig . 1 21) . T he e ntrance wa s f rom t he west , o ff o ne o f t he ma jor s treets o f t he c i ty , ac o lonnaded d ecumanus l ead ing f rom t he g enera l a rea o f t he t heatre n orth t owa rd t he I nner Harbor B as in a nd T e mp le o f R o me a nd Augustus . E ach r oom was p aved , most w ith mosa ic p ane ls t hat o ften i nc luded a n i nscr ipt ion . T he t exts o f t he mosa ic i nscr ipt ions i dent if ied t he b u i ld ing a s o ne u sed b y t he g overnor 's t ax s erv ice : o ne p ane l q uoted a v erse f rom

R o mans

1 3 :3 , " I f y ou wou ld n ot f ear

a uthor ity , d o g ood a nd y ou w il l r ece ive p ra ise f or i t ." Another r oom w ith in t he s ame c omp lex was d ecorated w ith p erhaps t he f inest mosa ic f ound t hus f ar a t t he s i te ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 70-71 , f igs . 1 22 , 1 24 ) . Two o f t he f our p erson if icat ions o f t he s easons t hat were s et i nto t he c orners o f t he p ave ment h ave b een p reserved : "W inter" a nd " Spr ing ." B oth f o l low c lass ica l mode ls a nd a ppear t o h ave b een p roducts o f a n a te l ier o f a rt ists f ro m t he c ap ita l i n C onstant inop le .

They h ave b een t entat ive ly d ated t o t he E ar ly o r M idd le B yzan-

t i ne p er iod ( A .C . 3 30-550 ) . Nearby , i n A rea 2 6 , t here was a sma l l , c entra l ized s tructure w ith f our s teps ( or b enches ) a long i t s west , n orth a nd s outh s ides . The J EC M h as s uggested t ha t t h is a rea s erved a s a meet ing h a l l , p erhaps a sma l l b oul euter ion , a nd t hat i t d ates t o t he ir P hase 7 ( Ro man , 1 0 B .C . t o A .D . 3 30) ( Bu l l , K rentz , a nd S torv ick 1 986 : 3 6-38 , f ig . 6 ) . D ur ing t he f o l low ing p hase , ac rosswa l l was a dded a nd a sma l l f ounta in i n sta l led . T he r esu lt ing n y mphaeum was r ich ly d ecorated w ith c o lourfu l f rescoes . One o f t he l atest a dd it ions t o t he c o mp lex i n F ie ld C wa s t he l a rge a pse b u i lt i n t he

L ate

B yzant ine

p er iod

( A .C .

5 50-640 )

( p l .

I , n o .

2 8 ) .

The

f oundat ion

3 4

I .B .3 : P ost-Herod ian Caesarea

t renches f or i tc ut t hrough a f ine mosa ic p ave ment o f t he M idd le B yzant ine p hase . A lthough i t i s n ot c lea r whether o r n ot t he r oom a ssoc iated w ith t h is a pse was e ver c o mp leted , i t s o r ientat ion a nd s ize a re s im i lar t o a ud ience h a l ls f rom o ther p rov inc ia l p a laces i n t he l ate Roman p er iod ( Ho lum , p ersona l c o m mun icat ion ) . The v ar ious s tructures f ound i n t h is a rea - t he " Honor if ic E sp lanade ," a n a rch ives b u i ld ing , t he s uperb ly d ecorated " Room o f t he F our S ea son s Mosa ics ," t he s o-ca l led meet ing r oo m a nd l ater n ymphaeum , a s wel l a s a n i nco mp lete a ud ience h a l l - wou ld a l l h ave b een i n tegra l p arts o f t he a dm in istra t ive c enter o f ap rov inc ia l g overnor . Another r o le t hat a ppears t o h ave b een s erved b y t he g overnor 's a dm in istrat ive c enter was t hat o f ap r ison , f or P au l was i ncarcerated h ere f or t wo y ears wh i le awa it ing h is j ourney t o R o me ( Acts 2 4 : 2 7) . S evera l o ther p ub l ic s tructures o f t he R o man p er iod a re k nown f rom l i terary r eferences . A t etrapy lon ment ioned b y t he a uthor o f t he E xpos ito was " . . .fa mous e verywhere , i ti s au n ique a nd marve lous s igh t ," ( Rouge 1 966 : 1 60 ) . The s ame monument f igured p ro m inent ly i n r abb in ic s ou rces , wh ich d ef ine t he p ort ion o f t he c ity e a st o f t he t etrapy lon a s i mpure b ecause o f t he p resence o f g raves i n t he v ic in ity ( M idrash Oho l o t 1 8 .9 ) . A f our-way a rch o f t h is t ype was o ften s i tuated a t t he

i ntersect ion

o f

t he

p r inc ipa l

s treets o f

Roman

a lthough t he ir l ocat ions were n ot a lways c entra l .

c it ies

i n

t he

Near

E ast ,

T here a re t wo t etrapy la i n Ger-

a sa a long t he d ecumanus max imus , b oth w ith in t he o r ig ina l c ity wa l ls , wh ile a t L ept is Magna t he a rch i sl ocated i n t he n ewer , s outhern p ort ion o f t he t own . T he l ocat ion

o f

t he

Caesa rea

t etrapy lon

was p robab ly

a long

t he

c ard° max i mus ,

b etween t he f oru m a nd e ast g ate . I f t he s tory o f Rabb i Ak iba 's b u r ia l i n ac ave n ear t hat monu ment i s c orrect , i t s p os it ion m ight b e s ought c loser t o t he e astern e dge o f t he c ity ( M idrash M ish le 9 .18 ) . Another l oca l monument , at r iumpha l a rch , i s k nown f ro m f our marb le f ragments . An i nscr ipt ion o n t he m r efers t o ag rant b y A lexander S everus r a is ing Caes a rea t o t he r ank o f metropo l is ( Abe l & B arro is 1 931 : 2 94-95 ) . The d i scovery o f t hese b locks i n t he v ic in ity o f t he h ippodrome , n ear t he e astern e ntrance t o t he c ity , s uggests t hat t he t etrapy lon a nd t he a rch o f A lexander S everus m ight b e t he s ame monu ment . A t h ird s tructure a ssoc iated w ith t h is p art o f t he c i ty i s ment i oned i n t he B ourgos i nscr ipt ion ( s ee b e low ) . Re l ig ious B u i ld ings .

S evera l ma jor r e l ig ious s tructures a re k nown f ro m t he

Ro man a nd B yzant ine p er iod i n Caesarea . E useb ius ( Mar tyrs

o r Palestine

i mp l ies t hat t he c ity h ad s evera l p agan s anctua r ies when h e s tates :

4 .8 )

" Throughout

t he who le c ity o f Caesarea b y o rder o f t he g overnor , h era lds were c a l l ing u p men a nd women a nd c h i ldren , t oo , t o t he t emp les o f t he i do ls . . . ." The most p ro m inent t emp le o f t he c ity was t hat b u i lt b y Herod i n h onor o f Rome a nd Augustus . F rom i t s e levated p os it ion o n ar a ised p od ium , i tc o mmanded v iews o f t he h arbor o n o ne s ide , p resu mab ly t he f oru m o n a nother , a nd c erta in ly wou ld h ave b een v i s ib le f rom many p arts o f t he c ity ( f ig . V I .1 , p l . I ,n o . 2 0 ) . There were a lso t e mp les d ed icated t o T iber ius a nd Hadr ian i n t he c ity , b ut t he ir l ocat ions r ema in u nknown . T he e x istence o f aT iber ieu m was d i scovered b y t he I ta l ians d ur ing t he ir e xcavat ions i n t he R oman t heatre ( Deg rass i 1 964 : 5 9-65 ) . An i nscr ipt ion r eused f or a r epa ir o f t he t heatre s teps s tated t hat a t emp le h ad b een d ed icated t o T iber ius b y P ont ius P i late , p refect o f J udaea . T here h as b een

Chapter I :T he S ite

3 5

s ome d ebate a bout whether t he t erm T iber ieu m r eferred t o at emp le o r , a s was t he e ase when Herod d ed icated t he Caesareum a nd Agr ippeum i n h is p a laces i n J erusa le m a nd J er icho , t hey were w ings o r s pec if ic r ooms n a med i n h onor o f Augustus a nd Marcu s Ag r ippa . D esp ite t he f act t hat T ac itus ( Anna les 5 .2 .1) , S uet on ius ( T iber ius 2 6 .1 ) , a nd D io ( 58 .2 .1) a l l r eport t hat T iber ius r efu sed d e if icat ion , t emp les , s hr ines , a nd a l tars i n h is h onor h ave b een f ound i n Cyprus , A s ia , a nd A fr ica ( Lev ine 1 975a : 2 0 ) . F rova h as s uggested t hat t he t erm T iber ieum r efers t o ap ort ico o r p laza a nd h as i dent if ied i t w ith t he r e ma ins o f ac o lonnaded c ourt b eh ind t he s tage b u i ld ing ( Frova 1 961 : 4 34 ) . L ev ine , o n t he o ther h and , a rgues t hat , s ince o ther t emp les were d ed icated t o T iber ius d esp ite h is o b ject ions , t here a ppears t o b e n o r eason n ot t o i dent ify t he T iber ieum w ith a s h r ine o r t e mp le . L ev ine i s i n a gree ment w ith F rova t hat t he i nscr ibed b lock h ad n ot b een c a rr ied t oo f ar f rom i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion i n o rder t o b e r eused i n t he t heatre r epa irs . He p o ints o ut t hat i n L ept is Magna t here was a sma l l t emp le d ed icated t o t he i mper ia l f am i ly b u i lt i n t he c o lonnaded p ort icus p ost s caenam o f t he t heatre ( Hanson 1 959 : 9 5 ) . L ev ine p ostu lates t hat sma l l r ectangu lar f oundat ions i n t he v ic in ity o f t he p ort ico m ight b e t hose o f t he T iber ieu m a nd c ont inues b y s uggest ing t hat c ons truct ion o f t h is s h r ine o r t emp le a nd t he d ed icat ion o f g o lden s h ie lds t o h im i n J erusa le m were b oth a ttempts t o w in f avor w ith t he emperor a fter t he f a l l o f S e janus , whose o pen h ost i l ity t o t he J ews was s ha red b y P i late ( Lev ine 1 975a : 2 1) . The

s econd

i mper ia l

t e mp le

k nown

f rom

e p igraph ica l

e v idence

wa s

t he

Hadr ianeu m . A s ixth -century i n scr ipt ion s tated t hat , d ur ing t he t enure o f F lav ius E ue lp id ius , t he s teps o f t he T e mp le o f Had r ian were r epa ired ( Germer-Durand 1 895 : 7 5-76 ; E l is & Murray 1 896 : 8 7-88 ; Mou lton 1 919-20 : 8 6-90 ; L ev ine 1 975a : 2 1) . A lthough t he t emp le h a s n ot y et b een l ocated , a c o lossa l p orphy ry s tatue i dent if ied a s Hadr ian b y Av i-Yonah m ight h ave o r ig ina l ly s tood i n t he b u i ld ing ( Av i-Yonah 1 970 : 2 07-8 ) .

T h is t e mp le , a long w ith a nother d ed icated t o t he s ame

emperor i n T iber ias , was p robab ly b u i lt d ur ing o ne o f h is v is its t o P a lest ine , e ither 1 30/1 o r 1 33/4 ( St inespr ing 1 939 : 3 60-65 ; Weber 1 907 : 2 40-45 ) . A t s ome p o int i n t he t h ird c entury , o ne o f t he v au lted c hambers o f Herod 's warehouse d istr ict f ac ing t he S outh B ay was r emode l led i nto a t emp le f or t he c u lt o f M ithras ( p l . I ,n os . 3 1 , 3 3 ) .

T he r oom was 2 1 x5m w ith a c lea rance o f 4 .5 m

b eneath t he v au lt ( Bu l l 1 978a ) . B enches ( W 1 .5 m ) l i ned t he f lank wa l ls , a nd s eve ra l f eatu res , among t hem a n a l tar , were f ound a t t he e a stern e nd . I dent if icat ion o f t he r oom a s a M ithraeum was made c erta in b y d iscovery o f a sma l l ma rb le meda l l ion d ep ict ing t he t rad it iona l s acr if ice ( Bu l l 1 972a ; Ho lum e t a h 1 988 : 1 52 , f ig . 1 08) .

S cenes f rom t he l i fe o f M ith ras h ave b een i dent if ied i n t he p oor ly p re-

s erved wa l l p a int ings o n t he s outh wa l l . T he f ocus o f aM ith raeu m was i t s c entra l i n ter ior c hamber , wh ich wa s u sua l ly a l ong v au lted r oom w ith l i tt le o r n o f enestrat i on o ther t han i t s e ntrance . T he s paces f ound i n t he v au lted s ubstructures o f l arge b u i ld ings were i dea l , a nd t he sma l l s i ze o f M ithraea n o d oubt r ef lected a p reference f or sma l l c ongregat ions . O ther p agan c u lts a s we l l p robab ly h ad t e mp les i n Caesarea .

A we l l-preserved

s tatue o f E phes ian A rtem is f ound b y t he I t a l ians i n t he t heatre e xcavat ions m ight h ave b een a c u lt f igure f or h er own s h r ine o r t e mp le ( Frova 1 962d ) . Ac o in o f Cara ca l la m inted e ar ly i n t he t h ird c entury s hows t he c i ty g oddess T yche s tand ing i n h er t emp le ( Kad man 1 957 : 10 , n o . 6 6 ) . T he Egypt ian g ods S erap is a nd I s is a lso a ppear f requent ly o n c o ins o f t he c ity ( Lev ine 1 975b : 2 2-23 ) .

3 6

I .B .3 : P os t-Herod ian C aesarea One o f t he f i rst ma jor d iscover ies b y t he r es idents o f k ibbutz S edot Y am was

af ourth-century s ynagogue l ocated i n t he n orthwestern s ector o f t he c ity , j ust n orth o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ions ( Av i-Yonah 1 956a : 2 60-61 , i de m 1 960 ; Av iYonah & Negev 1 963 : 1 46-48 ) . T he s tructure mea sures 9 x 1 8 m a nd was o r iented t o t he s outh , w ith i t s e ntrance o n t he e ast ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 1 8 , p l . 1 ,n o . 1 0) . D esp ite t he f ragmenta ry c ond it ion o f t he s ynagogue , e nough r ema ined o f i t s d ecorat ion t o o ffer s ome i dea o f i t s o r ig ina l a ppearance . Mosa ic p ave ments a nd marb le f ragments o f c ap ita ls a nd c orn ices w ere u ncovered b y Av i-Yonah , a long w ith p ieces o f a marb le p laque c onta in ing a p art ia l l i st o f t he t wenty -four p r iest ly c ourses ( Av iYonah 1 962 : 1 37-39 ) . T he s i te h as a v ery l ong b u i ld ing h istory : T here was a H e l leni s t ic s tructure b eneath , a nd a lterat ions l ater i n t he s ixth o r s eventh c entury . Unfortunate ly t he s ynagogue was n ever f u l ly p ub l ished , b ut b oth t he J o int E xped it ion a nd CAHEP h ave r ecent le c leared p ort ions o f t he s i te , a nd a dd it iona l e xcav at ion h as o ccu rred n earby i n CAHEP A rea J . S evera l

Chr ist ian s tructures ,

i nc lud ing t he

( ment ioned i n P eregr inat io S antae P au lae .

h omes

o f

Corne l ius

a nd P h i l ip

L ev ine 1 975a : 4 5 ) , ac hurch o f P roco-

p ius ( Ma la las , Chronograph ia 1 4 . 9 3-4 ) , a nd c hape ls o f Corne l ius a nd t he V irg in Mary ( Lev ine 1 975a : 4 5 ) a re a lso k nown f rom l i tera ry r eferences b ut h ave n ever b een l ocated . L ikew ise , t he f amous l i brary o f O r ig in a nd E useb ius h as y et t o b e f ound . No ma jor c hurch h as b een l ocated i n t he c ity . T he sma l l c ross p a inted i n o ne o f t he h eated r ooms o f t he b ath n orth o f t he c ity was i n terpreted b y t he I ta li ans who f i rst s tud ied i ta s e v idence o f a Chr ist ian c hape l . P erhaps a t al a ter d ate t he s tructu re d id s erve t hat p urpose , b ut i t wa s o bv iou s ly o r ig ina l ly d es igned a s a b ath . A l a rge s tructure d ecorated b y a mosa ic f i l led w ith meda l l ions wa s l ocated o n ah i l ltop i n t he s a me v ic in ity . T he b u i ld ing was f i rst i dent if ied a s ac hurch , b ut f i rm e v idence f or t hat i nterpretat ion i sl ack ing . E le ments o f t he Urban P lan .

E v idence f or a lterat ions t o t he s treet s yste m

d ur ing t he p ost-Herod ian p er iod a ppeared i n t he a rea b etween t he C rusader c ity a nd t heatre d ur ing t he

1 979 s eason o f e xcavat ion b y t he J EC M

( Vann

1 983b ;

W ie mken & Ho lu m 1 981) . T he o b ject ive o f t hat y ea r was t o t race o ne o f as er ies o f n orth-south d ecuman i p rev ious ly d iscovered i n F ie ld C , a nd a s er ies o f s ondages t o t he e ast i n a n a ttempt t o u ncover t he s er ies o f e a st-west c ard ines .

A s er ies o f

p robes i n F ie lds C , K , L , a nd M ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 6 ) s uccessfu l ly r evea led t he p attern o f s treets i nc lud ing o ne i n F ie ld M t hat d ated n o e a r l ier t han t he f ourth c entury . T he r esu lts o f t hat s eason s uggest t hat t he e adastrat ion o f t he c ity was a l tered s omewhat b y t he i nc lus ion o f a dd it iona l s treets , b ut i n ap attern c ons istent w ith t he o r ientat ion o f s treets i n t he o r ig ina l g r id . Another a lterat ion i n t he s treet p att ern a ppears i n t he " Byzant ine E sp lanade" ( Ye iv in 1 955 ; 1 957 ; B u l l 1 982 ) . The c ont inued p rosper ity o f t he c ity u p u nt i l i t s f a l l t o t he A rabs i n t he e ar ly s eventh c entury h as b een c onv inc ing ly d emonstrated b y c urrent e xcavat ions b oth o n l and a nd u nderwater . The p r inc ipa l a dd it ion t o Caesarea d ur ing t h is p er iod was an ew a nd much l onger c ircu it o f f ort if icat ion wa l l s t hat e xtended t he p rotected a rea o f t he c ity i n a much e n larged s em i-c irc le measur ing a bout 1 .6 km N -S a nd 0 .9 km E -W ( p l . I ,n o . 6 ) .

T he l i ne o f t h is l ater wa l l was ment ioned b y e ar ly t rav-

e lers ( New man 1 864 : 3 40) a nd r ecorded f or t he f i rst t ime b y t he P a lest ine S urvey i n 1 873 ( Conder & K itchener 1 882 : 1 4 ) .

R e ifenberg a ss igned i t a n e a r ly R o man

d ate , f i rst q uest ioned b y Av i-Yonah , who s uggested t he t h ird c entury ( Re ifenberg

Chapter 1 : The S ite

3 7

1 950-51: p ls . i x , x v i ; Av i-Yonah 1 957b : 8 0 ) . T he I ta l ian M iss ion c onf irmed t he l ater d ate i n as er ies o f p robes a long t he c ircu it ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 :

4 5-53 ) .

T he s outh g ate o f t h is l ate c ity wa l l was d iscovered i n 1 986 d ur ing e xpans ion o f

t he k ibbutz

t i le f actory .

N e ither t he e a st

n or t he n orth g ates

h ave

b een

l ocated , b ut t he d iscovery o f t he B owwos i n scr ip t ion n ear t he h ippodrome h as b een a ssoc iated w ith t he s i te o f t he e ast e ntrance i n to t he c ity ( Lev ine 1 975a : 3 9-40 ) . S chwabe s uggested t hat t he t ower ment ioned i n t he t ext was b u i lt a long t he r oad t o p rov ide p rotect ion i n c ase o f a ttack ( 1950b ) .

L ifsch itz a ssumed t hat t he t ower

was a d jacent t o t he B yzant ine wa l l a nd s uggested t hat i t was c onstructed when t he f ort if icat ion c ircu it was b u i lt ( L ifsch itz 1 961 : 1 24-25 ) . Af ortress i n t he s outhe rn p art o f t he c ity i s a lso d ated t o t he B yzant ine p er iod . T he I ta l ian t ea m p art i a l ly c leared t hese wa l ls d ur ing t he ir e xcavat ion o f t he t heatre , b ut a c o mp lete p lan o f t he a rea i sl ack ing ( f ig . 1 . 40 , p l . I ,n o . 4 0 ) . A s econd c hanne l wa s a dded t o t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct , p resu mab ly i n t he e ar ly s econd c entury b y t roops s tat ioned i n J udaea d ur ing t he B ar Kochba r evo lt ( f igs . 1 . 43-44 , p l . I ,n o . 1 ) .

S evera l i n scr ipt ions c an s t i l l b e s een o n t he west f ace

o f t he l atter b ranch , i nc lud ing o ne n am ing t he V I L eg io F errata ( V i lney 1 928 ) . Th ree a dd it iona l i n scr ipt ions h ave b een p ub l ished more r ecent ly ( Hamburger 1 959 : 1 88-90 ; L ifsh itz 1 963 : 7 83 ; Negev 1 964 : 2 37-49 , 1 972 : 5 2-3 ) . a ssoc iate t he e n larged water s upp ly w ith Had r ian :

I t s eems p laus ib le t o

i tp rov ided t he water n ecessa ry

f or t he l arge s tand ing a rmy a nd a t t he s a me t ime was a ppropr iate t o h is i mage a s ar estorer o f c it ies . A c ase m ight a lso b e made f or c onstruct ion o f o ne b ranch b y V espa s ian d ur ing t he f i rst J ew ish r evo lt . A S amar itan c hron ic le s tates t hat a t t h is t ime t he c o m mander d am med a r iver a nd g athered i t s waters f or t ransport i nto t he c ity ( Neubauer 1 868 : 4 02 ) . T he s ource o f water f or t he s econd c hanne l o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct was a l so t he s pr ings a t t he f oot o f Mount Carme l , b ut a dd it i ona l s pr ings 1 5 km e ast o f t he c ity were a lso t apped a nd t he water a dded t o t he o r ig ina l s ources ( f ig . 1 . 4 ) .

P art o f t he water c hanne l i n t he l atter s yste m was c ut

t h rough t he mounta in ( Sect ion 1 .B .8 ) . Another a dd it ion t o t he i nfrastructure o f t he l a te c ity , a nd t he f ina l a dd it ion t o t he a nc ient water s yste m , was a n ew a queduct t hat b rought water f rom t he Z erqa R iver 5 km n orth o f t he c ity , where i t was c o l lected b eh ind a n ew d am ( f igs . 1 . 4 , 2 2) .

An i ndustr ia l a rea n ear t he d am h as b een s tud ied s evera l t imes , b ut l i tt le

h as b een p ub l ished b es ides O leson 1 984b . Water c o l lected b eh ind t he d a m was c arr i ed i n a n o pen r ock-cut c hanne l f or 1 .5 km .

F ro m a p o int 3 .5 km n orth o f t he c ity

t h is s ystem was e nc losed w ith in a c ont inuous r ubb le v au lt .

Water f rom t he L ow-

L eve l Aqueduct was n ot o f t he s ame q ua l ity a s t hat f ro m t he s pr ings o f Mount Carme l a nd was p robab ly a lways a pp l ied t o u ses o ther t han d r ink ing . The s ystem i s d ated t o t he t h ird o r f ourth c entu ry b y L ev ine ( 1975a : 3 6 ) a nd O leson ( 1984b ) o n t he b as is o f i t s c onstruct ion . I R .L .V . 1

I .B . Man- Made F eatures : 4 . E ar ly Arab Caesa rea . Caesarea f e l l t o A rab a rm ies c om manded b y Mu 'aw iya , t he f ounder o f t he Umayyad d ynasty o f c a l iphs , i n 6 40 o r 6 41 , a fter s evera l d ecades o f u nrest i n P a l-

3 8

I .B .4 : E ar ly A rab C aesarea

e st ine t hat h ad s een P ers ian i nva s ions , B yzant ine r econquest , a nd f ina l ly Arab i nvas ions . V ery f ew r e ma ins o f t he e a r ly A rab p er iod a re p reserved o n t he s i te . T he c ity was r efort if ied a s ac oasta l s tat ion , b ut l i terary s ources a nd t he r esu lts o f r ecent J EC M e xcavat ions c onf irm t hat t here wa s s evere d epopu lat ion o f t he c ity a nd i t s t err itory i n t he y ears f o l low ing t he A rab v ictory ( s ee Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 2 01-16 ) .

S evera l v is itors t o Caesa rea d ur ing t hat p er iod h ave l eft d escr ip-

t i ons . A l- Muqaddas i , an at ive o f P a lest ine w rote :

" On t he c oast o f t he G reek s ea ,

t here i s n o c ity more b eaut ifu l , n or more f i l led w ith g ood t h ings : p lenty h as i t s we l l-spr ing h ere , a nd u sefu l p roducts a re o n e very h and . I t s l ands a re e xce l lent , a nd i t s f ru its d e l ic ious ;

t he t own i sa l so f amous f or i t s b uffa lo- m i lk a nd i t s wh ite

b read . T o g uard t he c ity t here i sa n i mpregnab le f ortress , w ith a we l l-founded wa l l e nc irc l ing i t . The d r ink ing water o f t he i nhab itants i s d rawn f ro m we l ls a nd c iste rns . I t s G reat Mosque i s v ery b eaut ifu l ."

( Le S trange 1 892 : 5 5 ) . Th is p assage

i mp l ies t hat b oth t he H igh-Leve l a nd L ow-Leve l Aqueducts were o ut o f s erv ice d ur ing t he l ate t enth c entury , b ut i t l eaves o ne w ith t he i mpress ion t hat t he t own r ema ined p rosperous . The P ers ian t rave ler Nas iri-Khusrau p rov ides a d escr ipt ion o f A rab C aesarea i n 1 047 .

He d escr ibes i t a s " . . .a f ine c ity w ith r unn ing waters a nd p a lm-gardens ,

a nd o range a nd c itron t rees .

I t s wa l ls a re s trong , a nd i t h as a n i r on g a te . There

a re f ounta ins t hat g ush o ut w ith in t he c ity . T he G reat Mosque i s ab eaut ifu l e d ifi ce .

S eated i n i t s c ourtyard , o ne may e n joy a v iew o f t he s ea wh ich i se xceed ing ly

p leasant ."

( Le S trange 1 893 : 2 0 ) . B oth a ccounts ment ion t he p owerfu l f ortress

p rotect ing t he c ity a nd t he a bundance o f water . R e ifenberg ( 1950-51 : 2 9-30) h as s uggested t ha t t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct was r epa ired i n t he t enth c entury , a nd R aban b e l ieves t hat p art o f t he " runn ing water" ment ioned s erved a g arden c omp lex s outh o f t he c ity ( persona l c o m mun icat ion ) . I t s ee ms l i ke ly t hat t he a queduct wa s s t i l l i n u se d ur ing t he t we lfth c entury , s ince t he l ake c reated b y i t s d ams was ment ioned b y aC rusader a ccount ( Röhr icht 1 887 : 2 09 , 2 47) a nd i r r igated g a rdens n oted b y W i l l iam o f Tyre ( Propst 1 927 : 1 4) a nd J acques d e V itry ( S tewart 1 896 : 4 -5 ) . E ven i f R e ifenberg i s c orrect i n a ssum ing t hat t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct was r eopened i n t he t enth c entury , d u r ing most o f t h is p er iod t he c ity wa s l im ited t o water a va i lab le f rom we l ls d ug w ith in t he c ity . L ikew ise , w ithout t he a bundance o f water o ffered b y t he a queducts , s ewers a nd d ra ins f e l l i nto d isrepa ir , a nd i t was n ecessa ry t o e xcavate r efuse p its a nd c ess poo ls . Raban b e l ieves t hat t he g arden s ment ioned a bove a re t hose l ocated among t he s and d unes s outh o f t he c ity ( persona l c om mun icat ion ) .

R ectangu la r p lots a re e as-

i l y i dent if iab le h ere f rom t he a ir ( f ig . 1 . 32 ) , a nd t hey h ave b een i nterpreted b y s ome a s a n e xtens ion o f t he u rban g r id o f Caesarea 's s treets ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51 ; K edar & Z iv 1 964 ) . T he g ardens were d ug i n to t he s and d ur ing t he n inth a nd t enth c entur ies a nd f e l l i n to d isrepa ir d ur ing t he m id-th irteenth c entury ( Porat 1 975 ) . These f ie lds a re v ery s im i lar t o t he muwatz i c u lt ivat ion c urrent ly f ound i n t he Gaza S tr ip . L oose s and i s r e moved a nd p i led i n to embank ments s urround ing t he e xposed s o i l . I n o rder t o s tab i l ize t he i nd iv idua l p lots , t he s and i s c overed w ith p a lm f ronds i n modern Gaza . T he a bundance o f p otsherds i n t he d unes s outh o f Caesarea s uggests t hat r efuse h eaps o f waste mater ia l m ight h ave b een t ransp orted h ere i n a nt iqu ity a nd l a id o ver t he s and embankments t o s tab i l ize t hem .

Chapter I :T he S ite

3 9

T he b roken p ottery m ight h ave c o me f rom t he v ic in ity o f t he p ort , where i t wou ld h ave b een n ecessa ry t o d i scard t he l arge n umbers o f d amaged c onta iners o r c ont a iners t hat w ere empt ied a fter b e ing b rought a shore .

A s im i lar r efuse a rea i n

R o me c an s t i l l b e s een i n Monte T estacc io j ust s outh o f t he Avent ine H i l l where a n a rt if ic ia l mound o f b roken amphora s t i l l s tand s a l most 5 0 m h igh . Raban h as a l so s uggested ( persona l c o m mun icat ion ) t hat water f rom t he L ow L eve l Aqueduct w as c arr ied a round t he c i ty o n t he t op o f t he B yzant ine C ity Wa l l . T h is t heory h as n ot y et b een c onf irmed b y a rchaeo log ica l d ata . Negev r eported a c ont inu ity o f b u i ld ing t echn iques f rom t he L ate B yzant ine t o t he E ar ly Arab P er iod , e spec ia l ly i n t he e xcavat ions j ust west o f t he Herod ian T emp le P latform ( Sect ion I .A .4 ) .

When A rabs f i rst a rr ived a t Caesa rea , t hey n o

d oubt f ound much o f t he c ity i n tact , mak ing o n ly s imp le r epa irs n ecessary i n o rder t o r euse e x ist ing s tructures . I ti sa lso c lea r t hat l oca l a rt isans , i ft hey s urv ived t he i n it ia l c onquest o f t he c i ty , were a l lowed t o r ema in .

I n o ther words , a t t he b eg in-

n ing o f t he A rab p er iod i n Caesa rea , t he n ew n omad ic p opu lat ion , wh ich a rr ived w ithout a t rad it ion o f u rban l i fe o r monumenta l a rch itecture , n o d oubt r eused e x ist ing b u i ld ings a nd h ad a t t he ir d isposa l t he s k il ls o f l oca l c raftsmen . An e xa mp le o f t h is c ont inu ity i st he u se o f mosa ic p ave ments t h roughout t he A rab p er iod . F loors o f t he e ighth a nd n inth c entur ies r ese mb le t hose o f t he L ate B yzant ine p er iod , wh i le d ur ing t he t enth c entury o ne f i nds a c o mb inat ion o f mosa ic a nd o pus s ect i le p ave ments . E xamp les o f t hese f loors w ere f ound i n N egev 's t rench west o f t he T emp le P od iu m ( CAHEP 's A rea I ) a s we l l a s t he more r ecent e xcavat ions i n A rea Z ( Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 988 ) . A lthough much o f t he a nc ient c ity f e l l i n to d isrep a ir d ur ing t he f our a nd a h a lf c entur ies o f A rab r u le b efore t he C rusades , o lder b u i ld ings must h ave c ont inued t o s erve c onte mporary n eeds , a nd , when n ecessary , n ew s tructures were p robab ly b u i lt f rom t he s po il s o f t he a nc ient c ity . The f ort if icat ion wa l ls o f A rab Caesa rea h ave n ot b een p reserved , b ut t he d isc overy o f t he e ar ly A rab c e metery i n F ie ld C o f J EC M s uggests t hat t he s outh w a l l o f t he c i ty was f ur ther n orth , p erhaps i n t he s ame p os it ion where t he l ater C rusader wa l l wa s b u i lt . E xcavat ions b y N egev f or t he N at iona l P ark S erv ice ( Sect ion I .A .4 ) , t hose o f L ev ine a nd N etzer f or t he Hebrew U n ivers ity ( Sect ion I .A .3) , a nd t hose o f CAHEP h ave u ncovered s evera l i ndustr ia l a rea s w ith o i l v ats a nd g ra in b ins i n A rea S ( Sect i on I I .Q ) a nd A rea I( Sect ion I I .H ) . S ix o f t hese v ats ( 1 .2 x 1 .5 m ) were d iscove red b y Netzer a nd L ev ine a nd c leared b y CAHEP i n 1 986 . T he wa l ls a re f aced w ith a sh lar b locks a nd t he f l oors p aved w ith sma l l wh ite t esserae . E ach o f t hese f l oors h as a c ircu la r d epress ion t hat m ight h ave s erved a s as ett l ing b a s in f or a l i qu id s uch a s o l ive o i l , o r t he c o l lect ion o f mo isture i n ag ra in b in . Ceram ic e v id ence s uggested a d ate i n t he e ighth c entury . Another a rea o f i ndustr ia l a ct iv ity d ur ing t he e ar ly A rab p er iod was w ith in t he v au lted

s ubstructures

wh ich

s upported

t he

Herod ian

T e mp le

P od ium

( Sect ion

I I .H .3 ) . E xcavat ions b y N egev u ncovered a l oca l meta l workshop w ith in t he c ha mb er ( Negev 1 968 : 6 8 ) . S evera l metres t o t he s outh , CAHEP e xcavated a s er ies o f f i ve v au lts i n A rea Z d ur ing t he 1 987 s ea son ( Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 988 ) . Two o ther v au lts were c leared a bout t wenty y ears a go a nd c urrent ly s erve a s t our ist s hops . T he r oo ms o pen t o t he s outh a nd e a st a nd a re c lear ly n ot p art o f t he p ara l le l r ows

4 0

I .B .4 : E ar ly A rab C aesarea

o f much l ater Herod ian v au lts t o t he n orth . T he c hambers were much smal ler t han t he Herod ian r ooms , a verag ing 3 x 4 m , w ith a max i mum c learance o f 2 .6 b eneath t he i n trados o f t he v au lt .

m

T hey were b u i lt o f a sh la r masonry . E xcavat ion

i n t hse v au lts d ur ing t he 1 987 s eason r evea led t ha t t he r ooms h ad b een a bandoned a nd f i l led w ith d ebr is b efore t he f a l l o f t he c ity t o t he C rusaders i n 101 .

R ubb ish

a bove t he f loor c ons isted most ly o f n inth- a nd t enth-century p ottery . L ate B yzant ine mosa ics 1 m b eneath t he f l oor h ad b een c ut t h rough b y c isterns i n u se d ur ing t he t ime t hese v au lts were o ccup ied . [ R .L .V . ]

I .B . Man- Made Features : 5 . Med ieva l Caesarea . T he C rusader c onquest o f Caesarea b egan w ith t he a rr iva l o f a rm ies u nder t he c o m mand o f Godfrey o f B ou i l lon a nd o thers i n t he s pr ing o f 1 099 . b r ief ly t o e xact t r ibute b efore c ont inu ing o n t o J erusa lem .

They s topped

Desp ite t h is t reaty

w ith t he l oca l em ir , K ing B a ldw in I o f J erusa lem r eturned t o Caesarea i n 1 101 a nd ,

w ith t he a ss istance o f t he Genoese f l eet f rom

Acre ,

b es ieged t he c ity .

O rchards i n t he s urround ing t err itory were c ut d own a nd h uge c atapu lts emp loyed t o a ttack t he f ort if icat ions . A lthough t he l oca l i nhab itants t ook r efuge i n t he G rea t

Mosque ,

t hey were s um mar i ly s laughtered b y t he v ictor ious Ch r ist ians ,

a ccord ing t o t he e ye w itness a ccount o f F u lcher o f C hartres ( Ryan 1 969 : 1 54-55) . T he most s ubstant ia l r ema ins o f C rusader Caesarea a re t he mass ive f ort if icat ion wa l ls c onstructed b y L ou is I X i n 1 251 , s ome f ourteen y ears b efore t he f ina l A rab c onquest ( for t h is p er iod , s ee Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 2 17-36 ) . The e nt ire c ircu it o f l and wa l ls was p art ia l ly r estored a nd t he moat c leared o f d ebr is f rom 1 960 t o 1 962 u nder t he d irect ion o f Av i Yonah ( Sect ion I .A .4 ) , b ut t he western s ea wa l ls h ave c omp lete ly d isappea red . D ifferent s tages o f c onstruct ion v is ib le i n t he f ort if icat ions m ight d a te b ack t o t he e ar l ier A rab wa l ls . Unfortuna te ly , t he c ity w as t aken b y b oth s ides o n s eve ra l d ifferent o ccas ions . S a lah e d-D in c aptured C aesarea w ithout a f igh t i n 1 187 , b ut t he c ity was r etaken f our y ears l ater d ur ing t he march o f R ichard t he L ionHearted f ro m Acre t o J affa . A l-Mu 'azzam o f D amascus a ttacked Caesa rea i n 1 219 .

A g arr ison h e ld o ut i n c itade l b ut , d esp ite a ss istance f ro m t he G enoese

s h ips f ro m Acre , t he C rusaders f ound i t n ecessary t o e vacua te t he c ity . Mos le m s o ld iers e ntered t he c itade l a nd d estroyed t he b u i ld ings i ns ide . Once a ga in t he c ity was r ecaptured , a nd i n 1 228 t he wa l ls were r ebu i lt b y German p i lgr ims d u r ing t he c rusade o f F reder ick I Hohenstaufen . T he f ina l c ircu it o f wa l ls a t Caesarea wa s 6 50 x 2 75 m , e nc los ing a f ort if ied t own o f 1 2 .2 h a ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 0) .

A s p a rt o f i t s t h irteenth-century a dd it ions o f

r amparts a nd moat , t he e xter ior was p rov ided w ith a b attered g lac is 8 m h igh t hat c arr ied a l ess s ubstant ia l wa l l a bove w ith l oopho les f or t he d efenders . T hese wa l ls were c onstructed o f r ough r ubb le f aced w ith a sh lar masonry , a nd s urrounded b y a d ry moat 7 m w ide a nd a masonry c ountersearp .

Gates o n t he n orth , s outh , a nd

e ast s ides g ave a ccess f rom t imber b r idges c ross ing t he moat . E ach o f t hese g ates was e ntered t hrough a l arge , r ibbed v au lted h a l l c omp lete w ith o ver look ing b a lcon ies f or g uards , p la tforms f or w inches t hat o pera ted d raw b r idges , a nd p ortcu l l is s lots t o s ecure t he g ates .

C hapter 1 : The S ite

4 1

T he means o f a ccess o n t he west f ro m t he d irect ion o f t he h a rbour h as d isapp ea red . The E ast Gate was r econstructed i n t he e ar ly 1 960 's ( p l . I , n o . 1 4 ) , t he N orth Gate h as b een s tud ied more r ecent ly d ur ing t he 1 986 s ea son ( Ho lu m e t a l . 1 988 : 2 30-31) , a nd t he S outh Gate wa s n ever c omp lete ly f i n ished ( p l . I ,n o . 2 6 ) .

A

s econd g ate o n t he n orth s i de o f t he c ity was l ocated 4 5 m west o f t he f i rst . The l a rge masonry p ier t hat s upported i t s b r idge s uggests t hat t he Northwest Gate , u n l ike t he o ther t h ree p edestr ian g ates , was d es igned f or h eav ier whee led t raff ic . T he C rusader C itade l o f C aesarea was b u i lt b y J ean d e B r ienne o n t he r e ma ins o f H erod 's S outhern B reakwa ter a nd s eparated f rom t he r ema inder o f t he c ity b y a w et moat 2 0 m w ide . T he r ema ins o f s evera l t owers a nd t he c itade l 's d on jon a re d i scussed i n S ect ion I I .L . S evera l s treets a nd h ouses o f t he C rusader p er iod h ave b een e xcavated i m med ia te ly i ns ide t he E ast Gate ( p l . I , n o .

1 6 ) .

One s treet l ead ing f rom t he g ate

t owa rd t he h arbor i sp aved w ith l arge b locks o f ma rb le r eused f rom e ar l ier R o man a nd B yzant ine b u i ld ings . Two n orth-south s treets c an b e i dent if ied , i nc lud ing o ne s panned b y as er ies o f a rches s et a ga inst t he e ast wa l l o f t he C rusader c ity wa l l . Wh i le t hese p o inted a rches were c haracter ist ic o f med ieva l E urope , t he i dea o f c over ing t he s treet was more f am i l iar i n t he e astern Med iterranean . T he Cathedra l o f Caesarea r ema ined u nf in ished o n t he p latform o f Herod 's g reat t e mp le , a lready o ccup ied b y t he A rab p er iod mosque ( f ig . 1 . 38 , p l . I ,n o . 1 3 ) . T he c hurch ( 24 x 2 7 m ) h ad a c entra l n ave ( W 7 .45 m ) a nd s ide a is les ( W 5 .50 m ) , e ach t erm inat ing o n t he e ast w ith a s em i-c ircu lar a pse .

Construct ion e v ident ly

h a l ted when t he n orth f lank c o l lapsed i n to t he l ower v au lts o f t he Herod ian p latf orm , a nd t he c hurch was n ever c omp leted ( Negev 1 967 : 8 2-84 ) . As econd c hurch , i dent if ied b y B enven ist i ( 1970 : 1 45 ) a s t hat o f S t . L awrence , was s een b y Conder a nd d escr ibed i n s ome d eta i l ( Conder & K itchner 1 882 : 2 7-8 ) . T h is c hurch s tood o n t he h igher g round o ver look ing t he sma l l modern h arbour , a bout 1 30 m s outh o f t he n orth wa l l o f t he C rusader c ity . T he r e ma ins i nc luded t wo b ays 6 m w ide w ith wa l ls s tand ing 4 m h igh . A rch itectura l d eta i ls i nc lud ing a s tr ing c ourse , c orbe ls a nd r ibbed v au lt ing were s t i l l i n p lace . A d oor i n t he n orth wa l l was s panned b y a f lattened p o inted a rch . Conder n oted t hat t he ma sonry r ese mb led t hat o f t he c ity wa l l .

Another s tructure o f C rusader d ate 1 10 m e ast o f

t he c hurch o f S t . L awrence h as n ot b een i dent if ied b ut was measured a nd d rawn b y CAHEP a rch itects d ur ing t he 1 986 s ea son ( p l . I , n o . 1 3 ) .

I t mea sures 9 x 1 5 m ,

w ith wa l ls s tand ing t o ah e ight o f 7m . T he h arbour o f t he c ity was much sma l ler d ur ing t he C rusader p er iod . o f T yre s tates t ha t , " Th is

c i ty h as

W il l ia m

g reat a dvantages , b ut i s w ithout a h arbour ."

T he a nchorage was d ef ined o n t he s outh s ide b y t he r ema in ing p ort ion o f t he Herod ian S outhern B reakwater , t hen t he l ocat ion o f t he C rusader C itade l . On t he e ast , as ubmerged wa l l w ith in t he modern h arbour h as b een i n terpreted b y R aban a s t he s ea wa l l d ur ing t he C rusader p er iod ( Sect ion I I .R .2) . T here a re t wo s ect ions o f wa l l a t b ear ings o f 2 03 d eg rees a nd 1 85 d egrees b u i lt w ith r eu sed a sh la r b locks w ith d oveta i l c lamp c utt ing s c haracter ist ic o f t he Herod ian p er iod . I dent if icat ion o f t he n orth s ide i s more d iff icu lt . I ft he Co lumn J etty ( f ig . 1 .14 , p l . I ,n o . 5 1) was o f C rusader d ate , t he h arbour wa s a l most 1 20 x 1 50 m . B ut i f t he Co lu mn J etty was o f al ater , e ighteenth-century d ate a nd b u i lt b y J azzar P a sha o f Akko , t hen

4 2

I .B .5 : Med ieva l C aesarea

t he s ize o f t he C rusader h arbour a ppears t o b e much sma l ler a nd t herefore i n a ccordance w ith t he c ontemporary d escr ip t ions . F ina l ly , C rusader b ur ia ls h ave b een l ocated o uts ide t he c ity wal ls i n F ie ld C o f t he JEC M ( Bul l , K rentz , S torv ick 1 986 : 4 2-43 ) a nd f urther t o t he S E , i n t he m idst o f med ieva l o rchards , were t he r e ma ins o f t he h ippodrome . The o be l isk a nd meta s tones t hat r e ma ined s tand ing a long t he c entra l s p ina were t hen k nown a s " S t . P eter 's F inger" a nd " The Cand lest icks o f o ur L ord ." [ R .L .V . ]

I .B . Man- Made F eatures : 6 . B osn ian Caesarea . Caesarea

was

a bandoned

a fter

1 265

when

t he

Mame luke

s u ltan

B aybars

d efeated t he l ast C rusader f orce t o o ccupy t he c ity . S evera l d ecades l ater , i n 1 291 , a l l r ema in ing f ort if icat ions were d estroyed t o p revent t he E uropeans f rom r eturn ing . P i lgr ims v is it ing s hr ines i n t he Ho ly L and c ont inued t o v is it t he s i te a s t hey t rave led f ro m Akko t o J erusa lem , b ut a s top a t Caesa rea i nvo lved a s ign if ic ant d etour i n to t he s wamps t hat s urrounded t he c ity . R eports f rom t he f ourt eenth t o n ineteenth c entury d escr ibe Caesarea e i ther a s o ccup ied b y o n ly a f ew p eop le o r a s at ota l ly a bandoned c ity . A d ramat ic c hange a nd t he b eg inn ing o f an ew t own o ccurred a t Caesa rea i n 1 882

w ith t he a rr iva l o f a g roup o f B osn ian i mm igrants ( Ho lu m e t a l .

1 988 :

2 37-41 ) . O l iphant c o mp la ined i n " Notes a nd News" o f t he 1 884 P a les t ine E xp lorat ion Quarter ly t hat i t was f ortunate a t horough s urvey h ad b een made r ecent ly b y Conder , b ecau se t he s i te was a bout t o b e b u i lt o ver b y " . . .popu lat ions w h ich h ave n o o ther t han a s uperst it ious i n terest i n o ld monuments ." T he B osn ians f l ed t o t he O tto man Emp ire f ro m B osn ia a nd Herzegov ina a fter Austr ian i nvas ions a nd c ame t o P a lest ine , where a n e xtens ive t ract o f l and was g ranted t hem b y S u ltan Abdu l Ham id I . T he n ew s ett lers were S lays ,

many o f whom s poke n o T urk ish ,

b ut

b ecau se t hey were Mos lem t hey f ound i tn ecessary t o e scape t he Chr ist ian r u le o f Austr ia i n t hose p rov inces t hat were t ransferred t o h er i n t he T reaty o f B er l in a t t he e nd o f t he R usso-Turk ish War . B y 1 884 a b road s treet h ad b een l a id o ut f rom t he S outh Gate o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ions l ead ing i n to t he h eart o f t he med ieva l t own .

O l iphant r eported t hat

t wenty h ouses h ad b een b u i lt i n t he f ew months p r ior t o h is v is it . These were b u i lt o n ac ouryard p lan a nd c onstructed o f t he r eused b locks a bundant ly a va i lab le o n t he s i te . Two o f t he h ouses were t h ree s tor ies h igh . T he p itched r oofs were c ove red w ith r ed t i le , g iv ing a E uropean a ppearance t o t he n ew v i l lage . A n a d jacent t ract o f l and was g iven t o t he B osn ians f or c u lt ivat ion , b order ing a nother r eserved f or C ircass ian em ig rants f rom B u lgar ia . E v ident ly , c ond it ions were n ot a lways f avorab le a t t he s i te , f or t wo y ea rs l ater i t i sr eported t hat Caesarea " . . .has b een w ith in t he l a st month a bandoned b y a l l t he B osn ian c o lon ists o n a ccount o f i t s d ead ly c l i mate" ( O l iphant 1 886 : 1 2 ) . T he c l i mat ic p rob lems a ppear t o h ave b een s easona l . Two y ears l a ter t he t own was p opu lated b y f orty-f ive B osn ian f am i l ies , mak ing n ecessary a s urvey o f p rope rty w ith in t he o ld c ity wa l ls . A s ketch b y S chumacher i n 1 886 f o l lowed t he p lan

Chapter I :T he S ite

4 3

o f ag overnment-appo inted s urveyor who l a id o ut t he r estored t own i n s eventyf ive l ots , f orty-f ive o f wh ich were o ccup ied a t t he t ime . Add it iona l r oads were p lanned , s o t hat f ina l ly t here were t o b e f our n orth-south s treets a nd f our e astwest . The p r inc ipa l n o rth-south s treet , ment ioned a bove , e xtended f ro m t he C rus ader S outh Gate , t he J affa Gate , a nd a fter t wo s l ight s h ifts o f d irect ion , e x ited t he t own a t t he C rusader N orthea st Gate , o r t he T antura Gate . A mosque was i dent if ied a fter t he f i r st s h ift i n t he s treet a x is . ' T he s econd s h ift o ccurred a t t he u n ident if ied C rusader s tructure ment ioned a bove ( p . 4 1) . T he o ther t hree s treets were t o b e l a id o ut i n a more o rder ly f ash ion . T he e astern s treet i ss hown p a ra l le l t o t he Crusader e ast wal l , e xtend ing f or p ract ical ly t he f u l l e xtent o f t he Med ie va l t own . As econd s treet was t o h ave b een b etween t hese t wo , e xtend ing SW-NE a nd p ara l le l t o t he o r ig ina l s treet . A fter a s h ift i n d irect ion a t t he i ntersect ion where t he Mun ic ipa l ity B u i ld ing i s i dent if ied , i t c ont inued p ara l le l t o t he e ast s treet a nd e a stern C ru sader Wa l l . T h is t h ird s treet c rossed t he r e ma ins o f t he C rusader Ca thedra l j ust west o f t he t r ip le a pses . T he f ourth a nd l a st n orth-south s treet r an a bove t he b each f rom t he a rea d es ignated a s t he S uk , o r ma rket , a nd c ont inued p ast t he Custo ms House t oward t he h igher g round t o t he n orth b eyond t he i nd icat ion o f r u ins wh ich a ppear t o b e i n t he l oca t ion where

Conder h ad

d escr ibed t he North Church ( Conder & K itchner 1 882 : 2 7-8 ) . T he p r inc ipa l e ast-west s treet e xtended f rom t he h arbour a cross t he v i l lage i n t he d irect ion o f t he ma jor r oad l ead ing i n land . T h is s treet d id n ot e x it t hough t he C rusader E ast Gate wh ich s tood j ust t o t he n orth a nd a t t he t ime was s imp ly l abe led "Anc ient V au lt ."

T he s econd e ast-west s treet f o l lowed t he l i ne o f t he

s outh wa l l a nd e xtended f rom t he v ic in ity o f t he J affa Gate w est t oward t he New Government B u i ld ing o n t he s i te o f t he C rusader C itade l i m med iate ly e a st t o t he l im it o f t he med ieva l t own . T he Kahn was s hown j ust i n s ide t he g ate , a nd t he r ema ins o f t he C rusader Cathedra l were j ust n orth o f t he s treet a s i t c l imbed t he i nc l ine t oward t he e ast . A t h ird e ast-west s treet o n ly t wo " b lock s" l ong wa s t o b e l a id o ut a t t he p o int o f t he C rusader s tructure i n t he n orth c entra l p art o f t he s i te . A f ina l s treet a ppeared t o b e p ara l le l a nd j ust i ns ide t he n orth C rusader wa l l . A l ater s urvey o f u nknown d ate p repa red f or t he B r it ish d ur ing t he Mandate p er iod i nd icates t hat t he master p lan f or r estored Caesa rea was n ot a lways f o ll owed ( f igs . 1 . 14-15 ) . T he p r inc ipa l mosque , wh ich r e ma ins t he most i mpress ive B osn ian s tructure s t i l l s tand ing , wa s b u i lt a t t he s outheast c orner o f t he h arbour . The s treet t hat was d rawn b y S chu macher a bove t he b each was l a id o ut i nstead o n t he western s ide o f t he mosque . A s er ies o f sma l l h ouses t hat were a l igned a long t hat s treet n orth o f t he mosque h ave more r ecent ly b een u sed a s t our ist s hops . I f t he s treet c ont inued n orth , i t was o n ly a s a meander ing p ath t hat f o l lowed t he h igh g round a bove t he C o lumn J etty a nd t he p os it ion o f t he modern t went ieth c ent ury b reakwater . The o r ig ina l s treet f ro m t he J affa Gate t o t he T antura Ga te a ppears o n t he B r it ish p lan a long p ract ica l ly t he s ame r oute a s S chumacher r ecorded . I t s p os it ion a ppears t o h ave f o l lowed a l i ne v ery c lose t o t hat o f t he modern f ence wh ich e nc loses t he N egev e xcavat ions west o f Herod 's T e mp le p latform . T he mosque was a pparent ly n ever b u i lt a long t h is s treet , b ut a nother was l ocated o n o ne o f t he b ast ions o f t he C rusader s outh wa l l n ea r t he l oca l s choo l . L ikew ise , t he e ast-west s treet wh ich i n tersected t h is o ne a t t he l arge C rusader b u i ld ing i n t he n orth c en-

4 4

I .B .6 : B osn ian Caesarea

t ra l p art o f t own was n ot b u i lt , a nd t he n orthernmost s treet i n s ide t he C ru sader wa l l was n ever f in ished b ut a ppears a s a meander ing p ath l ead ing b ack t o h ouses t hat o ccup ied t he n orth b ast ions . T he l ater B r it ish p lan s hows s evera l a dd it iona l p lots l a id o ut n orth o f t he C rusader wa l l , b ut n o h ouses w ere b u i lt t here .

T he

o r ig ina l n orth-south t horoughfare c ont inued n orth o n t he h igh g round a bove t he b each , a long t he s ame a pprox imate p ath a s t he modern d irt r oad wh ich l eads p ast A rea J ( Sect ion I I . I ) i n t he d irect ion o f t he t wo r ound t owers e xcavated b y F rova ( Sect ion I .A .5 ) . T he a rea b etween t he r oad a nd b each s erved a s t he l oca l Mos le m c e metery . F igu re 1 . 14 s hows t hat t he n ext n orth-south s treet c ross ing t he h igh g round a nd t he C rusader Cathedra l was l a id o ut a s S chu macher h ad i nd icated b ut i t was n ever c omp leted t o t he n orth wa l l . T he f ina l s treet t o b e l a id o ut p ara l le l t o t he e astern wa l l was n ever b u i lt , a l though s evera l h ouses were c onstructed o n i t s b ast ions . Al arge o pen s pace was r eserved a s t he S uk j ust i n s ide t he J affa Gate a nd f aci ng t he Mosque , a pprox i mate ly i n t he s ame a rea t hat n ow s erves a s t he h ea rt o f t he modern Nat iona l P a rk . A s ing le l ong b u i ld ing c onta in ing t he l oca l b akery f aced t he o pen market a long i t s n orthern l im it . Two o f t he n orth-south s treets d ef ined t he e ast a nd west s ides o f t he S uk .

Another l arge s tructure , b u i lt b etween t h is

o pen market p laza a nd t he c itade l , was r eserved p r ima r i ly a s warehouses a nd work s pace f or l oca l f i shermen . T he e a stern e nd o f t he b u i ld ing , n ow t he h eadqua rters o f t he CDC , o r ig ina l ly h oused a g rocery owned a nd o perated b y t he f ather o f E kre m Akurga l , t he f a mous T urk ish a rchaeo log ist . Most h ouses were b u i lt a long t he e ar l iest n orth-south s treet , o n t he h igher g round o f t he Herod ian T emp le P latf orm , a nd o n t he b a st ions p rotrud ing f rom t he C rusader f ort if icat ion wa l l . T he O ttomans b u i lt a p o l ice s tat ion o n t he r u ins o f t he C rusader C itade l i n t he e ar ly 1 880 's when t he n ew s ett lers a rr ived a t Caesarea .

B efore c onstruct ion was

p oss ib le , h owever , i t wa s n ecessary t o r emove t he c ons iderab le r ema ins o f t hose Med ieva l f ort if icat ions t hat h ad b een t he most p rom inent f eature o f t he s i te a nd t hat h ad a ttracted t he a ttent ion o f most v is itors who c hoose t o i l lustrate t he ir d escr ipt ions o f Caesarea ( Vann ,

f orthco m ing ) . S chumacher r eports t hat " Many

o kes o f p owder were n ecessary t o d estroy t h is r emarkab le monu ment . . ." ( Schumacher 1 888 : 1 35 ) . The n ew s tructure c onta ined w ater r eservo irs a nd a p r ison i n t he p reserved l ower l eve ls o f C rusader r ooms . W ith t he l oss o f t h is t err itory i n t he F irst Wor ld War , t he Tu rks a bandoned t he s i te t o t he B osn ians . The c itade l s t ruct ure wa s v acant b y 1 919 , when i t was a cqu ired b y t he e ng ineer V i lbouseh itz who was i n Caesarea s eek ing t o e stab l ish a n o l ive o i l f actory . L ater , i n t he e ar ly 1 920 's , Rosh a nd Haefe l i s tayed h ere d ur ing t he ir v is its t o t he s i te . [ R .L .V . ]

I .B . Man- Made F eatures : 7 . Mode r n Caesarea . The d eve lopment o f modern Caesarea d ates b ack t o t he l ate n ineteen th a nd e ar ly t went ieth c entur ies when B aron E dmund d e R othsch i ld a qu ired much o f t he l and b etween t he K rokode i lon R iver n orth o f t he s i te a nd t he Hadera R iver t o t he s outh . Al and c ompany f ounded b y t he B aron b ough t much o f t he B osn ian p roperty b efore t he l ast members o f t hat c om mun ity f l ed i n 1 948 . Meanwh i le , ag roup o f

Chapter 1 : The S ite

4 5

t wenty German J ew ish i mm ig rants a rr ived i n Caesa rea f rom Ha ifa i n 1 940 , s ett ing u p c amp i n t ents n ear t he i nner h arbour b each . K ibbutz S edot Yam ( "F ie ld s o f t he S ea" ) wa s l ater s h ifted f rom t he h arbour t o t he s and d unes s outh o f t he y et u nd isc overed Roman T heatre ( p l . I ,n o . 5 9 ) , a s what h ad b een o r ig ina l ly a f i sh ing e conomy d ivers if ied i n to a g r icu lture a nd , l ater ,

t he

manufacture o f f urn iture a nd

c eram ic t i le . Much o f t he i n format ion a bout t he f i rst d ays o f t he k ibbutz h as b een g athered b y S ch i ler ( 1981) a nd Wegman ( 1981) . T he G reek O rthodox C hurch a lso a cqu ired l and o n t he a nc ient s i te , a nd t he l ast r e ma ins o f i t s mona stery c an s t i l l b e s een o n t he l ow h i l l n orth o f t he h ippod rome . T he sma l l s ing le a rch o n t he modern r oad l ead ing p ast t he h ippodrome ( p l . I ,n o . 3 8 ) wa s b u i lt b y o ne o f t he monks o f t hat monastery , a nd a s l ate a s t he m idt went ieth c entury t here w as a sma l l c hurch w ith in t he B osn ian v i l lage , n ear t he r ema ins o f t he o ld C rusader C athedra l . A fter t he Wa r o f I ndependence a nd t he e stab l ishment o f t he S tate o f I s rae l , t he h o ld ings o f t he Rothsch i ld l and c ompany were g iven t o t he s tate a nd t he CDC was c reated t o o rgan ize t he f uture o f t he s i te .

A modern r es ident ia l s ubd iv is ion

h as b een d eve loped NE o f t he a nc ient c ity , a s we l l a s al uxury h ote l w ith t he o n ly g o lf c ourse i n t he c ountry .

Another , l ess f orma l , f ac i l ity i s t he b each r esort s outh

o f t he k ibbutz . T he h ea rt o f t he a nc ient c ity t oday i s t he r ebu i lt C rusader C ity , wh ich i s n ow u nder t he c ontro l o f t he Nat iona l P arks Author ity .

Th is a rea was

e xcavated a nd p a rt ia l ly r estored f rom 1 960-1962 . S o me o f t he r e ma in ing B osn ian h ou ses were r e moved f rom t he C rusader wa l l a nd i t s b ast ions d ur ing t hose y ea rs , b ut o thers c ont inue t o b e u sed i n o ne way o r a nother a s t our ist f ac i l it ies t oday . Much o f t he d eve lopment o f Caesarea i n t he p ast f ew d ecades h as t aken p lace w ith t our is m i n m ind . T he R o man T heatre h a s b een e xcavated a nd r ebu i lt o nce a ga in t o p rov ide p ub l ic p erformances d ur ing t he s u m mer s eason . W ith in t he wa l ls o f t he C rusader c ity , s evera l s hops a nd r estaurants h ave b een o pened i n t he f ormer B osn ian s hops a nd h ouses ; q ue ( f ig . 1 . 16 ) .

o ne u nfortunate ly o ccup ies t he f ormer G reat Mos-

Another r estaurant , s et o n t he f i rst b ast ion a long t he s outh wa l l

j ust e ast o f t he o ld J affa G ate , i s b u i lt i nto t he f ormer B osn ian s choo l a nd a s eco nd mosque . T here i s a lso a s cu lptor 's s tud io i n s o me o f t he r ecent ly e xcavated v au lts o f Arab d ate s outh o f t he Herod ian T emp le P latform . W ith in t he f ormer B osn ian c o m merc ia l s tructure o n t he Herod ian S outhern B reakwa ter o ne c an n ow f ind a d ive s hop a nd s cu lptor 's s tud io a t t he west e nd , ab each c lub a nd t our ist s hop i n t he c enter , a nd a t t he e ast e nd , where t he g rocery s tore o nce s erved t he n eeds o f B osn ian Caesarea , o ne n ow f inds a j ewe lry s tore o n t he g round f l oor a nd t he o ff ices o f t he CDC u psta irs . T he h arbor o f Caesarea i n i t s p resent c onf igurat ion d ates t o t he 1 950 's , when an ew western b reakwa ter wa s c onstructed i n o rder t o p rov ide s u itab le a nchorage f or t he f i sh ing f l eet b a sed t here ( f ig . 1 . 13 ) .

A lthough t he k ibbutz i s n o l onger i n

t he f i sh ing b us iness , s evera l A rab f i shermen k eep b oats i n t he h arbour . A s econd b reakwater was b u i lt t o t he n orth i n t he 1 960 's i n a nt ic ipat ion o f c onstruct ion o f a y acht b a s in ( f ig . 1 . 37 , p l . I ,n o . 5 3) .

T he most r ecent a nd most i mpos ing s tructure

i n t he e nv irons o f t he c i ty i s t he h uge p ower p lant b u i lt f or I EC s outh o f t he s i te , f or wh ich Ha ifa Un ivers ity a nd t he CMS c arr ied o ut t he ir f i rst u nderwater i nvest ig at ions .

4 6

I .B .7 : Modern Caesarea T he most r ecent c onstruct ion i n t he Caesarea h a rbour i s o n t he Herod ian

S outhern

B reakwater

i m med iate ly

w est

o f

t he

Caesa rea

C itade l

Restaurant ,

where t he f ounda t ions o f an ew f i sh ma rket w ere p oured i n t he s um mer o f 1 988 . S a lvage e xcavat ion i n t h is a rea was d iscussed a bove i n S ect ion I I .L . The f uture o f t he Nat iona l P a rk , t he a rchaeo log ica l s i te , t he v ic in ity o f S edot Ya m w i l l c ont inue t o r evo lve , i n p art , a round t he f ame o f t he a nc ient c ity a nd i t s a b i l ity t o d raw l oca l a nd f ore ign v is itors . An e xce l lent c o l lect ion o f l oca l a rt ifacts h as b een s aved , c arefu l ly s tud ied , a nd d isp layed i n a sma l l museum o n t he k ibbutz ( Wegman 1 981 ) , a nd f or s evera l y ears t he p oss ib i l ity o f b u i ld ing a n ew a nd l arger f ac i l ity more c entra l ly l ocated t o t he a nc ient s i te h as b een d iscussed .

F ro m 1 988

u nt i l 1 990 a ma jor mu seum e xh ib it ion e nt it led " K ing Herod 's D ream : Caesarea o n t he S ea ," w il l b e t our ing t he Un ited S tates a nd Canada ( Ho lu m e t a l . 1 988 ) . I t i s h oped t hat many o f t he mode ls , g raph ics , a nd a rt ifacts t hat h ave b een g athered f or t h is s how w i l l a t s omet ime i n t he n ear f uture b e h oused i n an ew museu m o n t he s i te . [ R .L .V . ]

I .B . Man- Made F eatures : 8 . Water-Supp ly S ys tem . Caesarea was f ounded a t at ime when a s upp ly o f r unn ing water h ad b ecome a must f or a t own o f a ny i mportance . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence s hows t hat i n t he Ro man a nd B yzant ine p er iod a l most a l l t he t owns i n I s rae l were s upp l ied w ith water b y a n a queduct . L iterary s ources u sua l ly p ra ise Caesarea f or i t s b ount ifu l s upp ly o f f low ing water , b ut s o me s ources t el l u s t hat water was o bta ined f ro m we l ls a nd c isterns , as ign t hat t he f unct ion ing o f t he a queducts was i n terrupted a t t imes d ur ing t he h istory o f t he t own . On ly o ne l i terary s ource - t he s ixth-century S oph ist Chor ic ius o f Gaza - ment ions a ny b u i ld ing o r r epa ir a ct iv ity o n t he a qued ucts ( 1929 : 4 4-49 , 6 0-62 , O rat io

L audat io A rat i e t S tephan i ) .

E ven J osephus ,

o ur b est s ource o n t he f ound ing o f Caesarea , i s d i sappo int ing i n t h is r espect . I n h is d escr ipt ion o f t he many amen it ies o f

Caesarea i n h is t ime

1 5 .331-41) , t here i s n o ment ion o f a n a queduct .

( IV

1 .408-16 ,

AJ

P erhaps J osephu s t akes i t f or

g ranted t hat t he e x istence o f a n a queduct i s i mp l ied b y h is d escr ipt ion o f t he i ngen ious a nd e laborate s ewer s ystem o f C aesarea .

The water s ystem d eve loped

i n s tages a nd u nderwent s evera l c hanges d ur ing i t s h istory . i n t he ir S urvey

o rWestern Palestine

Conder a nd K itchener

( 1882 : 1 8-23 ) f i rst u sed t he t erms " H igh-Leve l

Aqueduct" a nd " Low-Leve l Aqueduct" f or t he t wo ma jor s tructu res , e ach o f wh ich b rought water f rom a d ifferent s ou rce .

T he s ystem h as s ince b een t he s ub ject o f

s evera l s tud ies , most r ecent ly O lam i a nd P e leg 1 977 , a nd L ev ine 1 975a ( pp . 3 0-36 ) . The H igh-Leve l Aqueduc ts .

T he f i rst s tage wa s t he b u i ld ing o f as ing le c han-

n e l wh ich b rought t o Caesarea t he water o f ag roup o f s pr ings l ocated e a st o f t he Carme l r ange n ea r K far S hum i ( f igs . 1 . 4 , 7 ) .

A t t he b eg inn ing o f i t s c ourse , t he

c hanne l was b u ilt o n ac ont inuous wa l l , b ut f urther o n , where t he c hanne l h ad t o r i se h igher a bove t he g round , i t wa s c arr ied o n as er ies o f a rches b u i lt o f s ands tone b locks . T he c ondu it i t se lf wa s l i ned w ith h ydrau l ic mortar . The a rches were c apped b y ac ont inuous , h or izonta l c orn ice ( f ig . 1 . 41 ) .

A fter s k irt ing t he s outhern

e nd o f t he Carme l r ange , t he a queduct t urns d ue west , c ross ing t he s wamp .

K abbara

Chapter I: The Site

47

About 1 km from the coast the channel penetrates a sandstone ridge by means of a tunnel about 400 m long. Only one of the putei, shafts sunk for the excavation and maintenance of the tunnel, is known today. The square vertical shaft, which is encircled by a rock-cut stair, narrows as it descends. At the end of the tunnel, the aqueduct turns to the SW, and upon reaching the coast, it turns south, straight to the city. Just north of the city, the sea has destroyed about 500 m of the aqueduct. (figs. 1.21, 34). All traces of it disappear inside the city walls, so nothing is known about the distribution system. It seems that this first stage was built by Herod or the early Roman procurators. Some 130 years later, at the time of the Bar Kochba revolt during the reign of Hadrian, a second branch was built (figs. 1.43-44). Eight inscriptions mentioning Hadrian and various legions attest to the time of its construction (Vilnay 1928a, 1928b; Broshi 1936; Negev 1964; Barag 1964; Olami & Ringel 1975). The single inscription written in Greek belongs to a later period in the history of Caesarea (Hamburger 1959). That these inscriptions refer to the building of the branch and not merely to repairs is especially clear from an inscription of the Tenth Legion, found only in 1973 (Olami & Ringel 1975: 148). Here the word fecit, meaning "made," is used. In order to bring more water to the city, an underground collection and con­ duction system was built. This system exploited a group of springs in the upper reaches of the Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), located in the eastern foothills of the Carmel (fig. 1.4). The 6.5 km long tunnel is hewn in soft limestone without any support or lining. Access shafts have been found in those parts of the tunnel which have been explored, connecting the tunnel with the surface about every 40 m. This design is in accord with Vitruvius' recommendation (8.6.3). The best pre­ served and most accessible part of the underground system is not in the valley of Nahal Tanninim proper, but in one of its tributaries, Nahal Snunit. The subterra­ nean channel here seems to be a branch contributing to the main channel in Nahal Tanninim. An access shaft (pu.teus) descends obliquely to the tunnel, 6.8 m below the sur­ face. This sloping shaft, incorporating 27 rock-cut steps, is 1.0-1.3 m wide, 2 m high, and meets the water tunnel at a right angle. The tunnel itself is 0.65 m wide and varies in height from 0.8 to 1.5 m. Tool marks on the walls reveal that the tunnel was cut outward in both directions from the shaft. Small lamp niches were cut into the rock near the ceiling, always to the right of the diggers. At this point the tunnel is accessible for 44 m in one direction and 100 m in the other. Two putei can be seen in the longer section, blocked from above. Only seven open shafts are known, but they indicate the course of the system. Farther on, the aqueduct skirts the plain as an open channel on ground level and joins the earlier aqueduct at the southern end of the Carmel. From here it is built as a perfect architectural replica of the first channel, joined to its right (north or west) side. At any of the cuts it can be seen that the new channel has an ashlar facing only on the outside, and that the stone and mortar filling hides the continuous cornice of the first branch. The new branch was wider and deeper than the first.

4 8

I .B .8 : Water S upp ly Dur ing more t han t we lve c entur ies o f u se t h is s yste m n atura l ly u nderwent

r epa irs a nd c hanges . T he weak s pot o f t he s ystem w as t he c ross ing o f t he K abbara s wa mp , s ince t he p iers s upport ing t he a rches t ended t o s i nk i nto t he u nstab le g round . A t s o me t ime a b ypass was b u i lt a round t he worst p a rt o f t he s wa mp . Th is b ypass s erved o n ly t he f i rst , o r Herod ian , b ranch . I t i so f ad ifferent c onstruct ion a nd a ppea rs t o b e long t o t he B yzant ine p er iod ( f ig . 1 . 45 ) . The c orn ice i s s qua re , t he c hanne l i s b u i lt o f a sh lars r ather t han t he c oncrete o f t he o r ig ina l d es ign , a nd t he a rch itectu re u nder l ines t he h or izonta l l i nes .

The s econd , Had r ian ic b ranch c ont in-

u ed a s b efore , s tra ight t hrough t he s wamp . T he s t ructure h ere i s ap atchwork o f r epa irs , r e inforce ment , a nd r econstruct ion . E xcept f or t he b ypass , t here were n o r emarkab le c hanges i n t he e a r l ier c hann e l . Contrary t o r ecom mended p ract ice , b oth c hanne ls s eem o r ig inal ly t o h ave b een o pen a t t he t op . E v ident ly o n ly a t al ater s tage , when t he d unes n ear t he s ea p i led u p a nd b egan t o c over t he a queduct , wa s t he f i rst c hanne l r oofed . T h is was e xecuted b y e rect ing p a irs o f s tones o n t he s hou lders o f t he c hanne l , l ean ing t ogether l i ke a g ab le . E very f ew metres a l ong s tone s lab , l a id f rom o ne s hou lder t o t he o ther l i ke a t i e b eam , c ountered t he o utwa rd t hrust o f t he p a ir o f s tones . Th is c over ing was a dded o n t op o f t he smooth p laster o n t he c hanne l s hou lders . The l ater c hanne l u nderwent t wo d ist inct c hanges . Th ree c lay p ipe l ines were i nsta l led i n t he p ort ion t hat c rosses t he s wa mp ( f ig . 1 . 46 ) .

I tc an b e a ssumed t hat

t h is was d one a fter r epea ted f a i lures o f t he f oundat ions c aused t he c hanne l t o s ink , s p i l l ing water o ut a t t he l ow s pots . I t was d ec ided t o c ross t he t roub le s pot w ith a p ressure p ipe l ine , t he p ipes l a id o n t he b ottom o f t he c hanne l a nd embedded i n mortar . The f low i n t hese p ipes was o n ly a bout t en p ercent o f t he f low i n t he o r ig ina l c hanne l . I n a t l east t hree p laces i n t he p ipe l ines we f i nd p a irs o f e lbow-bends p o int ing u pward s . T he d ev ices were b u i lt a bout 1 00 m a part i n ap erfect ly s tra igh t a nd l eve l p art o f t he p ipe l ine . T hese b ends i nd icate t he c onstruct ion o f d ev ices t o r e l ieve a ir a nd water p ressure , p erhaps t he c o l l iv iar ia ment ioned b y V itruv ius ( 8 .6 .6 ) .

A B yzant ine d ate f or t he c onstruct ion o f t he p ipe l ine i ss uggested more b y

t he g enera l c ontext o f t h is work i n t he h istory o f t he t own a nd i t s waterworks t han b y a ny t ang ib le e v idence . L ater o n , t he s econd o r Had r ian ic c hanne l wa s c omp lete ly b locked b y c rude masonry a nd a sma l l , p oor ly-bu i lt c hanne l was c onstructed o n t op o f t h is ( f ig . 1 . 21 , C ) . I t r eached Caesarea a t al eve l 2 .5 m h igher t han t he o r ig ina l c hanne l . I ts ee ms t hat t h is sma l l , h igh c hanne l wa s c onstructed i n t he C rusader p er iod , when Caes area was a sma l l t own s i tuated h igh o n t he r u ins o f e a r l ier t owns ( but c ompare t he i nterpretat ion b y N eev a nd Emery i n S ect ion I .A .2 ) . There i s n o e v idence t hat t he f i rst o r Herod ian b ranch h ad c eased t o f unct ion a t t h is t ime . The S lope a nd F low-Capac ity o f t he Var ious B ranches .

Measuremen t o f t he

p resent c ond it ion o f t he c hanne ls r evea l as ign if icant s ink ing o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct i n t he s wamp a rea . T hose s ect ions o f t he s tructure b u i lt

o n s tab le

g round s how a f a l l o f 0 .16 m i n 1 km , o r 0 .016 p ercent . Assum ing t hat t h is f a l l i s c onstant , t he max imu m f low-capac it ies wou ld b e : F irst ( Herod ian ) c hanne l : 2 58 l i tres/second , S econd ( Hadr ian ic ) c hanne l : 4 53 l i tres/second , Th ird ( Crusader ) c hanne l : 6 0 l i tres/second .

Chapter I : The S ite

4 9

T he c apac ity o f t he t hree c lay p ipes , t ak ing i n to a ccount t he h ead a va i lab le a t t he l eve l o f t he s upp ly c hanne l , was o n ly 4 1 l i tres/second . The L ow-Leve l Aqueduct .

T he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct e xp lo ited a l l t he t opo-

g raph ica l ly s u itab le s pr ings n ear Caesarea , b ut i ts ee ms t hat w ith t he e xpans ion o f t he c ity i n t he B yzant ine p er iod , d e mand s t i l l e xceeded s upp ly .

There i s a n amp le

s upp ly o f water q u ite n ear t he t own p rov ided b y t he many s pr ings o f t he Kabbara s wa mp , b ut t he ir l eve l i s o n ly 3 .0-3 .5 m a bove s ea l eve l , t oo l ow t o b e c onducted t o Caesa rea b y g rav ity f l ow . T he a nc ient e ng ineers r a ised t he l eve l o f t he p oo led water a rt if ic ia l ly b y b u ild ing a 2 00 m l ong d am a t t he p o int where t he K rokode i lon R iver p asses t hrough a g ap i n t he s andstone r idge a nd a nother , 9 00 m l ong , a cross t he c oasta l p la in t o t he n orth , f orm ing a n a rt if ic ia l l ake o f a bout 4 800 h a ( see O les on 1 984b ) ( f ig . 1 . 4 ) . T he w ater o f t he l ake r ose t o a pprox i mate ly 6 .5 m a bove s ea l evel , a l low ing i t t o b e c onducted t o C aesarea b y ac hanne l o n ly 5 km l ong . I t s b eg inn ing was c ut i n t he r ock , a nd f a rther o n , when i t r eached t he s and d unes , i t was b u i lt a s ac hanne l o f c oa rse masonry r oofed w ith a b arre l v au lt ( f ig . 1 . 22 ) . A sma l l e xp loratory e xcavat ion u nder t he f oundat ions o f t he a queduct n ear t he p resent t erm inat ion o f t he c hanne l r evea led f ourth-centu ry p otsherds ( R . Bu l l , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) .

B etween c orners , t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct i s b u i lt i n

p erfect ly s tra ight s ect ion s . I n c ontrast , t he c hanne l o f t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct i s f a r f rom s tra ight .

I f i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he B yzant ine b u i lders were f am i l iar

w ith Roman b u i ld ing t echn ique y et d id n ot a tta in t he s ame d egree o f p erfect ion a nd c are i n t he ir work , t hen t he g enera l ly l ow s tandard o f f i n ish o f t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct s uggests a B yzant ine d ate f or i t s c onstruct ion . A c era m ic p ipe l ine b rought water f rom t he Herod ian c hanne l t o t he f i fth c ent ury " Chr ist ian B u ild ing" a nd o n i t s way c rossed t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 93-303 ) ( f ig . 1 . 7 , p l . I ,n o . 2 , 4 ) .

T h is p ipe l ine p roves t hat a t t he t ime

t h is b u ild ing was c onstructed a t l east t hese t wo a queduct c hanne ls were i n o perat i on . The c hanne l o f t he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct wa s b u i lt w ithout a ny s lope . A t a l l p o ints where t he f loor o f t he c hanne l was s urveyed , i t wa s 5 .5 m a bove MSL .

B ut

i t s amp le c ross-sect ion a nd r e lat ive ly s hort l eng th n everthe less a l lowed a f low o f 7 10 l i tres/second . The s tudy o f t he water s upp ly o f Caesarea c an s erve t wo p urposes .

F irst , i t

c an make a q u ite i mportant c ontr ibut ion t o t he h istory o f t echno logy o f water s upp ly . S econd , t he s tudy c an p rov ide c lues t o t he h istory o f t he t own a nd c orrobor ate e v idence f rom o ther s ources . [ Y .P . ]

APPEND IX I .A : JOSEPHUS ' DESC R IPT ION OF S EBASTOS .

I ntroduct ion .

T he h istor ian J osephus , who was b orn a round A .D . 3 7/8 , p ub-

l i shed a h istory o f t he J ew ish War b etween 7 5 a nd 7 9 a nd a h istory o f t he J ew ish p eop le i n 9 3/4 . B oth t hese works c onta in a d eta i led d escr ipt ion o f t he c ity o f Caes area a nd i t s h arbour , S eba stos . D esp ite c erta in i nev itab le i naccurac ies ( O leson 1 988 ; O leson e t a l . 1 984 ) , t he d ata c onta ined i n t hese d escr ipt ions h ave b een o f t he g reatest v a lue i n a ss ist ing t he r econstruct ion o f t he l ayout a nd a ppearance o f t he h arbour i n t he F lav ian p er iod . T he p a ssages a re q uoted h ere i n e x tenso t o i ntroduce t he r eader t o t he d escr ipt ions , a nd t o a vo id c onstant l eng thy q uotat ion o f t he p assages i n t he t ext . T he t rans lat ion h as b een p repared b y J .P . O leson o n t he b as is o f t he G reek t ext i n t he L oeb e d it ions o f T hackeray ( 1927 : 1 92-96 ) f or t he J ew ish War ( or B e l lum J uda icum , a s i t i s u sua l ly c i ted i n s cho lar ly l i terature ; a bbv .

B J ) , a nd Marcus a nd W ikgren ( 1963 : 1 58-64 ) f or t he J ew ish Ant iqu it ies ( or

Ant iqu itates J uda icae , a bbv .

AJ ) .

T rans l iterat ions o f s ome o f

t he

i mportant

G reek v ocabu la ry h ave b een l eft i n f or t hose s ect ions t hat d ea l w ith t he d es ign a nd c onstruct ion o f t he h arbour p roper .

J osephus ' G reek i s v ery i d iosyncrat ic , s o

i ti sn ot a lways p oss ib le t o r ender t he t ext l i tera l ly i n to E ng l ish .

The Caesar men-

t ioned i n t he t ext i st he emperor Augustus .

J ew ish War 1 .408-414 . ( 408) He [ Herod ] n ot iced a s ett le ment o n t he c oast - i t was c a l led S traton 's T ower ( Stratönos p yrgos ) - wh ich , a lthough much d ecayed , b ecause o f i t s f avorab le l ocat ion was c apab le o f b enef itt ing f rom h is g eneros ity .

He r ebu i lt t he who le

c ity i n wh ite marb le ( l eukö l i thö ) , a nd d ecorated i t w ith t he most s p lend id p a laces , r evea l ing h ere i n p art icu la r h is n atura l magn if icence . ( 409 ) F or t he who le c oastl i ne b etween Dor a nd J oppa , m idway b etween wh ich t he c ity l i es , h appened t o l ack ah arbour , s o t hat e very s h ip c oast ing a long P hoen ic ia t owards Egypt h ad t o r ide o ut s outhwest h ead w inds r id ing a t a nchor i n t he o pen s ea . E ven when t h is w ind b lows g ent ly , s uch g rea t waves a re s t irred u p a ga inst t he r eefs t hat t he b ackwash o f t he s urge makes t he s ea w i ld f ar o ff s hore . ( 410 ) B ut t he K ing , t hrough a g reat o ut lay o f money a nd s usta ined b y h is amb it ion , c onquered n atu re a nd b u i lt a h arb our ( l i mena ) l arger t han t he P iraeus , e ncompass ing d eep-water s ubs id iary a nchora ges w ith in i t( en d e L o is mucho is a utou b athe is h ormous h eterous ) . ( 411) A lthough t he l ocat ion was g enera l ly u nfavorab le , h e c ontended w ith t he d iff icu lt ies s o we l l t hat t he s treng th o f t he c onstruct ion ( do meseös ) c ou ld n ot b e o vercome b y t he s ea , a nd i t s b eauty s ee med f in ished o ff w ithout i mped i ment . Hav ing c a lcu lated t he r e lat ive s ize o f t he h arbour ( l i men ) a s we h ave s tated , h e l et d own s tone b locks ( l ithous ) i n to t he s ea t o ad epth o f 2 0 f atho ms ( ca . 3 7 m ) . Most o f t he m were 5 0 f eet l ong , 9h igh , a nd 1 0 w ide ( 15 .25 x 2 .7 x 3 .05 m ) , s ome e ven l arger .

( 412) When t he s ubmar ine f oundat ion ( hypha /on ) was f in ished , h e t hen

51-

5 2

Append ix I .A

l a id o ut t he mo le ( te ichos ) a bove s ea l eve l , 2 00 f eet a cross ( 61 .0 m ) . O f t h is , a 1 00-foot p ort ion was b u i lt o ut t o b reak t he f orce o f t he waves , a nd c onsequent ly was c a l led t he b reakwater ( prokum ia ) . T he r est s upported t he s tone wa l l ( te ichos ) t hat e nc irc led t he h arbour . A t i n terva ls a long i t were g reat t owers ( pyrgo is ) , t he t a l lest a nd most magn if icent o f wh ich was n amed D rus ion , a fter t he s tepson o f Caesar . ( 413) There were n u merous v au lted c hambers ( psa l ides ) f or

t he r ecept ion

( kataga 0 ) o f t hose e nter ing t he h arbour , a nd t he who le c urv ing s tructure i n f ront o f t hem was a w ide p ro menade f or t hose who d ise mbarked . T he e ntrance c hanne l ( e isp lous ) f aced n orth , f or i n t h is r eg ion t he n orth w ind a lways b r ings t he c lea rest s k ies .

A t t he h arbour e ntrance ( s toma tos ) t here w ere c o lossa l s tatues , t hree o n

e ither s ide , s et u p o n c o lumns . A mass ive ly-bu i lt t ower ( pyrgos ) s upported t he c o lumns o n t he p ort s ide o f b oats e nter ing t he h arbour ; t hose o n t he s tarboard s ide were s upported b y t wo u pr ight b locks o f s tone y oked t ogether ( sunezeugmeno i ) , h igher t han t he t ower o n t he o ther s ide . ( 414 ) T here were b u i ld ings r ight n ext t o t he h arbour a lso b u i lt o f wh ite marb le , a nd t he p assageways o f t he c ity r an s tra ight t owa rds i t , l a id o ut a t e qua l i nterva ls . On a h i l l d irect ly o ppos ite t he h a rbour e ntrance c hanne l ( s tomatos ) s tood t he t emp le o f Caesar [ Rome a nd Augustus , e d . ] , s et a part b y i t s s ca le a nd b eauty .

I n i t t here was a c o lossa l s tatue o f Caesa r , n ot i n fer ior t o t he Z eus a t

O lymp ia o n wh ich i t was mode l led , a nd o ne o f t he Goddess R o ma j ust l i ke t hat o f Hera a t A rgos .

He d ed icated t he c ity t o t he p rov ince , t he h a rbour t o t he men who

s a i led i n t hese waters , a nd t he h onour o f t he f oundat ion t o Caesar : h e c onseq uent ly n amed i t Caesarea .

J ew ish Ant iqu it ies 1 5 .331-41 . ( 331) Not ic ing a p lace o n t he c oa stl ine v ery s u itab le f or t he f oundat ion o f a c ity - f ormer ly c a l led S traton 's T ower - h e u ndertook a magn if icent p ro ject ( d iag raph ) a nd b u i lt t he who le c ity n ot a ny o ld way b ut w ith s tructures o f wh ite marb le , a dorn ing i t a s we l l w ith v ery c ost ly p a laces a nd c iv ic b u i ld ings . ( 332) B ut t he g reatest p ro ject a nd t hat wh ich r equ ired t he most e ffort was a h arbour p rotected f rom t he waves ( ak lus tö l imen i ) , e qua l t o t he P iraeus i n s ize , w ith q uays ( katagög as ) a nd s econdary a nchorages ( deuterous h uphormous ) i n s ide .

The r e markab le

t h ing a bout t he c onstruct ion was t hat h e d id n ot h ave a ny l oca l s upp l ies s u itab le f or s o g reat a p ro ject , b ut i t was b rought t o c omp let ion w ith mater ia ls i mported a t e normous e xpense . ( 333) Now t h is c ity i s s i tuated i n P hoen ic ia , o n t he c oast ing r oute d own t o Egypt , h a lfway b etween Dor a nd J oppa .

T hese a re t wo l i tt le t owns d irect ly o n t he

c oastl ine , p oor moor ing p laces ( dusorma ) , s ince t hey l i e o pen t o t he s outhwest w ind , wh ich c onstant ly s weeps s and u p f rom t he s ea b otto m o n t o t he s hore a nd t hus d oes n ot o ffer a smooth l and ing ( katagögän o u me i l ich ion ) . merchants must r ide u nstead i ly a t a nchor o ff s hore .

Most o f t he t ime

( 334 ) T o c orrect t h is d raw-

b ack i n t he t opography , h e l a id o ut a c ircu lar h a rbour ( I cuk lon t ou l imenos ) o n a s ca le s uff ic ient t o a l low l arge f leets t o l i e a t a nchor c lose t o s hore , a nd l et d own e normous b locks o f s tone ( l ithous ) t o ad epth o f 2 0 f athoms ( ca . 3 7 m ) .

52-

Most were

Chapter I : The S ite

5 3

5 0 f eet l ong , n ot l ess t han 1 8 f eet w ide , a nd 9 f eet h igh ( 15 .25 x 5 .49 x 2 .7 m ) . ( 335) T he s tructure ( endomes is ) wh ich h e t h rew u p a s ab arr ier a ga inst t he s ea was 2 00 f eet w ide . Ha lf o f t h is o pposed t he b reak ing waves , ward ing o ff t he s urge b reak ing t here o n a l l s ides .

Consequent ly i t wa s c a l led a b reakwater ( pro l cu mat ia .

T h is i st he manuscr ipt r ead ing . T he e d itors o f t h is e d it ion p refer t o u se p roku m ia ) . ( 336) T he r est c ompr ised a s tone wa l l ( te ichos ) s et a t i n terva ls w ith t owers ( pyrg o is ) , t he t a l lest o f wh ich , q u ite a b eaut ifu l t h ing , was c a l led D rusus - t ak ing i t s n ame f rom

D rusus , t he s tepson o f Caesa r who d ied y oung .

( 337 ) A s er ies o f

v au lted c ha mbers ( psa l ides ) was b u i lt i n to i t f or t he r ecep t ion ( katagöga i ) o f s a i lo rs , a nd i n f ront o f t hem a w ide , c urv ing q uay ( abobas is ) e nc irc led t he who le h arb our , v ery p leasant f or t hose who w ished t o s tro l l a round . T he e ntrance ( e isp lous ) o r mouth ( s to ma ) was b u i lt t owards t he n orth , f or t h is w ind b r ings t he c learest s k ies .

( 338 ) The f oundat ion ( bas is ) o f t he who le e nc irc l ing wa l l o n t he p ort s ide o f

t hose s a i l ing i n to t he h arbour was a t ower ( pyrgos ) b u i lt u p o n ab road b a se t o w ithstand t he water f i rm ly , wh i le o n t he s tarboard s ide were t wo g rea t s tone b locks ( Utho i ) , t a l ler t han t he t ower o n t he o ppos ite s ide , u pr ight a nd y oked t ogether ( sunezeugmeno i ) . ( 339 ) A c ont inuous l i ne o f b u i ld ings f in ished o ff w ith h igh ly p o l ished s tone f ormed a c irc le a round t he h arbour , a nd i n t he ir m idst was a l ow h i l l c arry ing a t emp le o f Caesar v is ib le f rom a far t o t hose s a i l ing t owards t he h arbour . I t c ont a ined i mages o f b oth t he Goddess R o ma a nd o f Caesar .

T he c ity i t se lf i s c a l led

Caesarea a nd i s v ery b eaut ifu l b oth f or i t s mater ial s a nd i t s f i n ish . ( 340 ) B ut t he u nderground c ondu its ( hypono mo i ) a nd s ewers ( l aura i ) r ece ived n o l ess a ttent ion t han t he s tructures b u i lt a bove t he m .

S ome o f t he d ra ins l ed i n to t he h arbour a nd

i n to t he s ea a t r egu lar i n terva ls , a nd o ne t ran sverse b ranch c onnected t hem a l l , s o t hat r a inwater a nd t he waste water o f t he i nhab itants was a l l c a rr ied o ff e as ily t ogether .

And whenever t he s ea wa s d r iven i n f rom o ff s hore , i t wou ld f low

t h rough t he n etwork a nd p u rge t he who le c ity o f i t s f i lth . ( 341) Herod a lso s et u p i n t he c ity a s tone t heatre , a nd s outh o f t he h a rbour a nd s et b ack f rom t he s hore , a n amph itheatre c apab le o f a ccom modat ing a l arge c rowd o f p eop le , c onven ient ly l ocated f or a v iew o ver t he s ea . Now t he c ity was c o mp leted i n s uch a f ash ion i n t he s pace o f 1 2 y ears , s ince t he k ing d id n ot t i re o f t he p ro ject , a nd h is f inanc ia l r esources were s uff ic ient .

53-

CHAPTER I : LAND AND SEA EXCAVAT ION BEFORE CAHEP

1 .A : S u m mary o f L and E xcavat ion : 1 .I ntroduct ion . A lthough f or o ver 7 00 y ea rs Caesarea wa s t he l a rgest a nd p robab ly t he most i mportant u rban c entre i n P a lest ine , a nd a lthough i t s p rec ise l ocat ion was n ever l ost , n o s er ious a ttempts were made t o u nearth t he r e mnants o f h er magn if icent p ast u nt i l t he s econd h a lf o f o ur c entury . J osephus d evoted a l ong a nd d eta i led d escr ipt ion t o t he b u i ld ing o f t he c ity b y Herod t he G reat , s pec ify ing v a r ious p ubl i c s tructures , a rch itectura l c omp lexes , a nd monuments o f e ng ineer ing , a long w ith t he ir

r e lat ive

r ecent ly ,

l ocat ion

w ith in

t he

c ity

( B . I

1 .408-415 ;

AJ

1 5 .331-341 ) .

Unt i l

most s cho lars w rote monog raphs a bout t he c ity 's a nc ient t opography

w ithout s tudy ing t he p hys ica l r ema ins a t Caesa rea i n c on junct ion w ith J osephus ' w r it ing ( e .g . Haefe l i 1 923 ) .

E ven t oday ,

more t han 3 0 y ears a fter l arge-sca le

e xcavat ions b egan , o n ly a f ew i so lated monuments f rom Herod ian Caesarea h ave b een

t h rough ly e xcava ted a nd s tud ied .

T he

a rchaeo log ist 's s pade

h as n ot

y et

t ouched o ver 9 0% o f t he s i te w ith in t he c ity wa lls . One r eason f or t h is n eg lect may b e t he v ery s ize o f t he s i te , wh ich i s s o b ig t hat i t s p roper e xcava t ion i s au n ique ly d emand ing p ro ject wh ich o n ly n at iona l o r i nternat iona l a genc ies h ave t he e xpert ise a nd f inanc ia l r esources t o u ndertake . Caesarea , a l though o f p r ime h istor ica l s ign if icance t o Chr ist ian a nd J ew ish h ist ory , a nd t he s ett lement o f E retz I s rae l , c ou ld n ever c ompete w ith t he r enowned b ib l ica l s i tes o f J erusa lem ,

more

Meg iddo ( Armageddon ) , o r e ven J er icho .

Another r eason m ight b e t hat t he c i ty s evera l t imes e ndured d estruct ions more c omp lete a nd t horough t han t hose s uffered b y o ther a nc ient c it ies i n I s rae l . Dur ing t he l a st 3 0 y ears i th a s b ecome a pparent f rom t he r e lat ive ly m inor p ort ion o f Caes a rea e xcavated t ha t t he o r ig ina l c ity b u i lt b y Herod was a ltered r ad ica l ly i n t he l ater Ro man p er iod , d ur ing t he B yzant ine e ra , a nd a t l east o nce more d ur ing t he E ar ly Arab p er iod . Mus l im d ocu mentat ion o f t he e xtent o f t he d estruct ion o f t he C rusader c ity b y t he Mame lukes i n 1 265 s eems t o r ing t rue ( R inge l 1 975 : 1 73 , n . 4 7) . Yet e ven t h is was n ot t he l a st d estruct ion o f t he s i te . T hroughout t he e ighte enth , n ineteenth a nd e ar ly t went ieth c entur ies Caesarea wa s a ma jor s ource o f b u i ld ing mater ia ls f or n ew ly r ebu i lt c oa sta l c i t ies s uch a s Akko , J affa , a nd e ven A lexand r ia i n E gypt ( Sch i ler 1 981a : 6 9-72 ) . F urther a rch itectura l mater ia l was c arr ied o ff a nd u sed a s s ources f or l ime o r b u i ld ing s tones f or t he B r it ish m i l itary c amps n earby ( Wegman 1 981 : 1 05 ) . I n t he a bsence o f d ata f ro m a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions , t he f eatures o f t he a nc ient t opography o f Caesarea were f i rst d ef ined b y s urface s urveys o f t he s i te a nd i t s v is ib le f eatures , a nd t he ir r esu lts c ompared w ith l i terary s ources . P ococke was t he f i rst t o d o s o i n r e lat ive ly modern t imes , i n 1 737 ( Pococke 1 745 : 5 7-60) .

55-

5 6

H .A .1 : I ntroduct ion

A fter h im , t he ma in c ontr ibut ions were t hose o f Guer in ( 1875 : 3 21-39 ) , a nd o f Conder a nd K itchener f or t he S urvey o f Western P a les t ine ( 1882 : 1 3-29 , 3 4 , 4 0-43 , 6 6-68 ) . I n t he t went ieth c entury , f i rst t he German p r iest Haefe l i ( 1923) a nd t hen t he I s rae l i

g eographer

Re ifenberg

( 1950-51)

w rote

s tud ies

o n

Caesarea 's

a nc ient

t opography . A lthough b oth v is ited i t s evera l t imes , R e ifenberg wa s t he f i rst t o p resent a n a ccurate p icture o f t he e nt ire s i te . I n 1 975 , t wo n ew monog raphs i ncorp orated r ecent d ata f rom

a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions i nto t he ir h istor ica l a nd

t opograph ica l s tud ies o f Caesarea : L ev ine 1 975a , a nd R inge l 1 975 . L ev ine a lso l ater c omp i led a t horough s urvey o f t he a rchaeo log ica l work d one i n Caesa rea u p t o t he 1 980 's ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 3 -14 ) b ut om itted t he i mportant monog raph o f A . Negev , p erhaps b ecause i t was w r itten f or t he g enera l p ub l ic ( Negev 1 967) . T h is monograph i nc luded i nva luab le i n format ion a bout Negev 's own e xcavat ions a t Caesarea , s o me o f wh ich i s n ot t o b e f ound e lsewhere . O f t he v ar ious f u l l-sca le a rchaeo log ica l

e xcavat ions

t hat

were

c onducted

i n Caesarea

s ince

t he

e ar ly

1 960 's , o n ly t wo f ina l r eports h ave a ppeared . T he f i rst i s t he v o lu me p ub l ished b y t he I ta l ian M iss ion ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 ) , wh ich d ea ls ma in ly w ith a rch itectura l

r ema ins . S cu lpture a nd sma l l f i nds s uch a s p ottery a nd c o ins a re p resented o n ly a s n eeded t o e stab l ish a d atab le s trat igraphy f or t he monuments . The s econd i s t he p ub l icat ion o f t he e xcavat ions o f Hebrew Un ivers ity d ur ing t he s easons o f 1 975 , 1 976 , a nd 1 979 ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 ) .

T hese t wo s tud ies a re o f c ons iderab le

i mportance f or t he s tra t ig raphy o f t he o ccupat ion l eve ls o f t he c oasta l a rea o f Caesarea d ur ing t he l ater R oman , B yzant ine , a nd E a r ly A rab p er iods . T hey d o n ot , h owever , d ea l w ith a ny ma jor p ub l ic b u i ld ings o r w ith t he p rob le m o f a nc ient Caes area 's t opography . [ A .R . ]

S u m mary o f Land Excavation : 2 . Ear ly Mandate a nd I srae l i Excava t ions . The f i rst t rue a rchaeo log ica l d ig i n Caesarea , a s o pposed t o t he c hance r ecove ry o f f inds d ur ing s urface s urveys , t he s a lvage o f b u i ld ing mater ia ls , o r p low ing , was made b y J . O ry f or t he Depa rtment o f Ant iqu it ies o f B r it ish Mandate P a lest ine . Th is e xcavat ion was l ocated n ear t he s hore n orth o f t he C rusader c ity ( f ig . I . 8 , n o . 1 8 , p l . I ,n o . 1 0 ) , a t as i te where p art o f a mosa ic f loor h ad b een e xposed b y t he w inter r a ins o f

1 933 ( Negev 1 967 : 6 5 ) . T he mosa ic c onta ined a G reek

i nscr ipt ion t hat p robab ly r e lated i t t o aJ ew ish p ub l ic b u i ld ing , p oss ib ly a s ynag ogue . I n 1 945 t he f loor wa s u nea rthed a nd c arefu l ly s tud ied ( Schwabe 1 950a ) . T he i nscr ipt ion o n t he mosa ic was a d ed icat ion : aq uotat ion f rom t he B ib le p lus t he Hebrew word S ha lom . I n 1 951 , t hree y ears a fter t he f ound ing o f t he S tate o f I s rae l , t he c hance d isc overy o f t he u pper p art o f al arge s ta tue i n K ibbutz S edot Yam 's f ie ld e ast o f t he C rusader c ity l ed t o ar escue e xcavat ion . T h is was l a ter e xpanded t o af ul l-sca le d ig b y t he I s rae l i Department o f Ant iqu it ies . I tc ont inued f or t hree s easons ( Ye iv in 1 955 ) u nder t he d irect ion o f S . Ye iv in , t he d irector o f t he I s rae l Depa rtment o f Ant iqu it ies a t t hat t ime .

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

5 7

T he e xcavat ions e xposed a w ide , wel l-paved s treet o f t he B yzant ine e ra , r unn ing o n an orth-south a x is , f lanked b y s hops o n b oth s ides ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 1 9 , p l . I ,n o . 3 4 ) .

T owards t he s outh t he s treet d escended t h rough a w ide s ta ircase t o a n o pen

p ub l ic c ourt . A round t h is c ourt t here were b ases f or v ar ious i mper ia l s tatues . Two s uch s tatues o ver 3 m h igh were f ound o n e i ther s ide o f t he c o lonnaded s treet e ntrance a t t he n orth e nd o f t he c ourt . T he western s tatue , o f wh ite marb le , d ep icted a s eated ma le d e ity , d ated t o t he l ate t h ird o r e a r ly f ourth c entury .

The

e astern was a lso a s eated ma le , f u l ly d ressed w ith a t oga a nd t un ic . I t i s o f E gypt ian p orphyry a nd i s c ons idered t o b e as econd-century s tatue o f Had r ian . The m iss ing h ead a nd l imbs m igh t h ave b een c a rved f rom a nother t ype o f s tone . B oth s tatues , l i ke most o f t he a rch itectura l me mbers , a re r eused Roman e le ments t hat were i nsta l led a long t he s treet a nd t he c ourt d ur ing t he s ixth c entury ( Av i-Yonah 1 970 ) . The d ate f or t he s treet a nd t he c ourt i s i nd icated b y a mosa ic i nscr ipt ion a t t he b a se o f t he S ta ircase . Wh i le t he s treet a nd t he a d jacent s hops were p aved w ith mosa ic f loors , t he c ourt w as p aved w ith v a r ious marb le s labs t hat h ad b een s a lv aged f rom e ar l ier Ro man s tructures a nd monuments . [ A .R . ]

H .A . S u m ma ry o f L and E xcavat ion : 3 . Hebrew Un ivers ity . I n 1 956 , as hort s eason o f e xcavat ion was c a rr ied o ut b y t he Department o f A rchaeo logy o f t he Hebrew Un ivers ity i n J erusa le m . Th is wa s s ponsored b y t he L ou is M . Rab inow itz F und f or t he E xcavat ion o f Anc ient S ynagogues , a nd d irected b y M . Av i-Yonah , w ith t he a ss istance o f A .

Negev . T he e xcavat ion t ook p lace a t

t he s pot where a Cor inth ian c ap ita l d ecorated w ith a s even-branch c and lest ick ( the J ew ish Menorah ) h ad b een f ound s ome t ime e ar l ier ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 1 8 , p l . I ,n o . 1 0 ) , c lose t o t he s i te where O ry h ad e xcavated t he mosa ic f loor o n t he s hore n orth o f t he C rusader c ity . An a rea a bout 3 0 x2 0 m was e xcavated a nd i n s o me p laces r eached v irg in s o i l 7m b e low t he s urface . T he e xcavators e xposed f i ve o ccupat ion l eve ls f ro m t he He l len ist ic t h rough t he E ar ly A rab p er iods . E ven f ourth-centu ry B .C . P ers ian p ott ery a ppeared , a nd f ounda t ions b e long ing t o S traton 's T ower , t he s ett lement wh ich p receded Caesarea o n t h is s i te ( Av i-Yonah 1 956a :

2 60) . T he Herod ian p er iod was

r epresented b y f oundat ion s f or l arge p ub l ic b u i ld ings . These were r eused i n t he f ourth c entury f or a l arger s tructure w ith in wh ich many a rch itectura l me mbers d ecorated w ith J ew ish s ymbo ls were f ound . Dur ing t he s ixth c entury , t he e ar l ier s tructures were c overed b y an ew b u i ld ing w ith mosa ic f l oors , o ne i nc lud ing a d edi catory i nscr ipt ion i n G reek : " Bery l lus a rch is [ynagogus? ] a nd a dm in istrator , s on o f I utos , made t he p ave ment work o f t he t r ic l in ium o ut o f h is own money ." Th is b u i ld ing wa s d estroyed b y f i re a nd w as r ebu i lt s oon a fter t he Mus l im o ccupat ion , a bout t he m id-seventh c en tury . I n t he s um mer o f 1 962 t he Department o f A rchaeo logy o f t he Hebrew Un ivers i ty i n J erusa le m r esumed a nd e xpanded t he ir f ie ld-work o f 1 956 . They c o l labor a ted w ith a t eam f ro m t he S outhern T heo log ica l S em inary ( E isenberg Museum) o f L ou isv i l le , Kentucky , h eaded b y P rof . J . V ardman , a nd were a ss isted b y f und ing f rom t he I s rae l Nat iona l P a rks A uthor ity ( at t hat t ime s t i l l c a l led t he Depart ment

5 8

I .A .3 : Hebrew Un ivers ity E xcavat ions

f or t he I mprove ment o f L andscap ing a nd R estorat ion o f H istor ica l S i tes o f t he O ff ice o f t he P r i me M in ister ) . P rof . M . e xcavat ions , a ss isted b y A .

Av i-Yonah wa s a ga in d irector o f t he

Negev . F our a reas were d es ignated f or t he s eason , a l

i n t he v ic in ity o f t he 1 956 e xcavat ions . I n Area A t he e ar l ier e xcavat ions w ere c leaned a nd e xtended . F ive s trata were i dent if ied a nd more c omp lete p lans o f t he b u i ld ings were d rawn f or e ach s tratu m . S tratum I ,i nc lud ing a sh la r wa l ls o f h eaders o n r ubb le f oundat ions , was d ated b y i mported G reek , E ast G reek , a nd l oca l He l len ist ic p ottery t o t he s econd c entury B .C . I n S tratum I , t he l arge Herod ian w a l ls were c leared t o al eve l 1 .4 m a bove MSL .

There were f ive c ourses o f we l l-dressed s tones , l a id i n a l ternat ing

c ourses o f h eaders a nd s tretchers , a ssoc iated w ith t yp ica l l ate-f irst-century B .C . p ottery a nd s o me Hel len ist ic wares . S tratum I I c ons isted o f as econdary u se o f t he Herod ian b u ild ings , d ur ing wh ich p art o f i t was c onverted i nto a l a rge p last ered p oo l t hat r ema ined i n u se a fter t he f ourth c entury . S tratum I V was d ated b efore 3 55 b y ah orde o f o ver 3 700 c o ins . F ragments o f al a mp d ecorated w ith a menorah a nd a p iece o f a marb le p laque w ith p art o f aJ ew ish " Pr iest ly Order" i nscr ipt ion m ight b e long t o t he f i fth-centu ry s ynagogue ( Av i-Yonah 1 962) .

S tra-

t um V i nc luded t he s t il l l a ter s ynagogue o f t he B yzant ine p er iod . I n A rea B , a B yzant ine h ouse w ith mosa ic p av ing was c lea red . T he mosa ic d ep icted t wo p a irs o f s anda ls . I n A rea C o n ly a f ew E a r ly A rab t ombs were f ound , c ut d own i n to a l eve l t hat y ie lded s ome Hel len ist ic p ottery . A t rench 5 0 m l ong a nd 1 0 m w ide w as l a id o ut i n A rea D , e ast o f t he s ynag ogue . I n t he e a stern s ide o f t he t rench a l arge , r obbed-out a sh lar s tructure was f ound . On ly o ne c orner r ema ined i n s i tu , c overed b y ah eap o f b roken p ottery o f Hel len ist ic d ate , i nc lud ing s tamped h and les o f C oan , Cn id ian a nd Rhod ian w ine amphoras . T he s tructure h ad b een b u i lt i n c ourses o f a lternat ing p a irs o f h eaders a nd s tretchers . I t was r obbed o ut b y Herod 's masons wh i le t hey were b u i ld ing Caes area . A t t hat t ime t he p ottery wa s d umped a s we l l . T hese r e ma ins c overed a p ort ion o f t he t own o f S traton 's T ower ( Negev 1 967 : 1 2-13 ) , a bandoned when i t was t aken o ver b y A lexander J annaeus a round 1 00 B .C . The e xcavators a lso n ot iced a ma ss ive wa l l b y t he s ea west o f t he s ynagogue w h ich t hey t hought "m ight b e p art o f t he mo le o f t he h arbour o f S traton 's T ower" ( Av i-Yonah & Negev 1 963d : 1 48 ) . E xcavat ions b y t he Hebrew Un ivers ity r esumed a t Caesarea i n 1 975 , d irected b y L . L ev ine a nd E . Netzer a nd u nder t he a usp ices o f t he I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy . The ma in a reas f or e xcava t ion were s e lected a ccord ing t o t he s pec ia l i n terests o f e ach o f t he d irectors :

L ev ine , who h ad w r itten h i s d isserta t ion o n t he h istory o f

Caesarea u nder R oman r u le ( 1975b ) a nd l ater p ub l ished a monograph o n Ro man Caesarea ( 1975a ) , was l ook ing f or t he s outhern p art o f t he J ew ish s uburb a nd t he

f amou s Maradata S ynagogue . He a lso w ished t o e luc idate a p assage i n a nc ient J ew ish t exts r eferr ing t o t he e x istence o f t wo s epa rate s ynagogues i n Caesarea ( J . S anhedr in X , 1 , 2 8a ; J . S habbat V I , 2 , 8 a ) . A t l east o ne o f t hese was o n t he s hore ( Josephus , AJ 1 4 .258 ; s ee L ev ine 1 975a : 4 0-45 ) . W ith t h is i n m ind , a n a rea w ith in t he C rusader c ity o n t he h igh g round j ust n orth o f t he p resent b each was s e lected ( f igs . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 1 , 1 1 .109 , p l . I ,n o . 6 2) .

T he c ho ice o f s i te was r e inforced b y t he

c asua l s urface f ind o f ac o lumn d rum w ith a n i nc ised Hebrew i nscr ipt ion .

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

5 9

Netzer , who was s tudy ing t he r oya l w inter p a laces o f t he Hasmonaean k ings a nd o f Herod a t J er icho a nd a t Herod ion ( Netzer 1 977) , h oped t o f ind a s im ilar p a lace w ith a s w imm ing p oo l o n t he l eve led p ro montory west o f t he t heatre o f Caesarea , o n t he S outh B ay ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 9 , p l .

I , n o . 4 1) . F o l low ing J osephus '

d escr ipt ion

i n t he

o f t he r oya l

p a lace

b u i lt

b y

Herod

c ity ( AJ

1 5 .331) ,

a nd

i ntr igued b y t he i dea t hat t he s i te o f t he r ock-cut p oo l was k nown b y t he l oca ls a s " C leopatra 's B aths" , h e s e lected i t f or t horough , c a refu l e xcavat ion . T he f ie ld work wa s s tarted i n October 1 975 a nd c ont inued f or a s econd s ea son d ur ing Apr i l 1 976 . A t h ird s eason was c arr ied o ut i n 1 979 , b ut o n ly w ith in t he C rusader c ity . A t t hat t ime f our a dd it iona l t renches were e xcavated i n t he a rea s outhea st o f t he ma in t rench ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 1 , P lan 2 ) . T h is a dd it iona l d ig wa s c arr ied o ut a t t he i n it iat ive o f t he Caesarea D eve lopment Co . i n o rder t o c heck t he b ur ied s trata b efore b u i ld ing o n t he l and , s o i t s r esu lts a re n ot i nc luded i n t he a bovement ioned f ina l r eport . T he b u i ld ing p ro ject

u l t imate ly was v etoed

b y

I s rae l

Depart ment o f Ant iqu it ies a nd s he lved . The e xcava t ions a t t he ma in a rea w ith in t he C rusader c ity h ave e xposed a bout 1 000 m 2 ,a s a1 0 m w ide f i e ld e xtend ing a s f ar a s 7 0 m i n land ( east ) o f t he a ctua l s horel ine . F our s trata were i dent if ied a nd t horough ly s tud ied . S tratum I : S parse r ema ins o f t he C rusader p er iod w ith n o s trat ig raph ic o r a rch itectura l c ontext . S tratum I :

Th is c onta ined t he we l l-preserved a rch itectura l r ema ins o f what

s ee ms t o h ave b een a h ab itat ion q ua rter . I t h ad t wo p hases i n t he e ar l ier a nd l ater p arts o f t he t enth c entury ( the e nd o f t he Abba s id a nd t he e ar ly F at im id p er iods ) . I n b oth p hases t he wa ll s were b u i lt o f sma l l a sh lar b locks o f k urkar , a nd t he p avements made o f s im i la r s labs . S tratum I I :

T h is l eve l wa s s im i lar t o t he e ar l ier S tratum I , b ut i nc luded

s tructures o f l esser q ua l ity . Dur ing t h is p er iod t he f ormer r oad s ystem b ecame d ere l ict a nd was c overed w ith b u i ld ings . Many we l ls a nd c isterns t hat were s t i l l i n u se i n t he l ater s tages were d ug d ur ing t h is p hase , i nd icat ing t hat t he a queduct f eed ing a c entra l water s upp ly h ad a lready b roken d own . T he d ate s uggested f or t h is s tratum r uns f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh th t o t he t enth c entury . S tratum I V :

T h is c ons isted ma in ly o f aw ide , w e l l-paved s treet r unn ing a long

t he n orth s ide o f t he e xcavated a rea t oward t he s ea . S outh a nd west o f i t were t he s o l id wa l ls o f a l arge r ectangu la r c o mp lex , p oss ib ly a p ub l ic warehouse o r a n i mportant a dm in istrat ive c entre . T h is p hase s eems t o h ave b een s hort , w ith in t he l ater B yzant ine e ra . E ar l ier b u i ld ing s tages w ere b are ly e xposed d ur ing t he e xcav at ions . Yet a q uay b u i lt o f a sh la r b locks a rranged a s h eaders was n oted i n t he water t o t he west a nd s urveyed ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 5 0-52 , P lans 3 , 1 1 , i l . 7 3 ; s ee a lso Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 3 2-33 , P lan 1 0 , i l . 2 4 ) . Near t he waterl ine t o t he

s outh , as er ies o f w ide a sh lar wa l ls o f t he R oman a nd B yzant ine p er iods were s urv eyed a nd p art ia l ly e xcavated . B etween t wo n orth-south wa l ls , t here were s ix s i los l i ned w ith a sh lar p av ing s labs a nd f loored w ith mosa ic . T hese s i los a re t entat ive ly d ated t o t he l a te B yzant ine o r E ar ly A rab p er iod ( S tratum I I o r I V ) . T hey were i ncorporated w ith in t he wa l ls o f a n e ar l ier p hase ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 5 8-63 ; P lan 1 4 , i l ls . 9 1 , 9 2 ; s ee a lso R aban & S t ieg l itz 1 987 ; a nd b e low , S ect ion I I .Q ) .

6 0

I .A .3 : Hebrew Un ivers ity E xcavat ions T he e xcavat ions a t t he p romontory west o f t he t heatre w ere c arr ied o ut o n ly

d ur ing t he 1 976 s eason a nd were d irected b y E . Netzer w ith t he a ss istance o f Z . Ma 'oz . I n a dd it ion t o s urvey ing t he c entra l p oo l a nd t he a d jacent wal ls a nd r ockc ut f eatures , t he e xcavat ion r evea led f our r ooms o n t he s outh s ide o f t he p ro mont ory a nd r e-exposed mosa ic f l oors i n t hree r ooms e ast o f t he p oo l . The mosa ics h ad b een k nown s ince 1 960 , when L ink 's d ivers c leared t hem w ith waterjets a nd s urveyed a nd p ub l ished t he m ( F l inder 1 976a : 7 9-80 ) . T he f ina l r eport o f t h is e xcav at ion s uggests t entat ive ly t hat t he c omp lex wa s b u i lt i n it ia l ly a s ap a lace w ith a f resh water s w im m ing p oo l a t i t s c entre , a nd t hat i n t he l a ter Roman p er iod i t was r emode l led a s as a lt-water f i sh t ank ( Netzer , i n N etzer & L ev ine 1 986 : 1 58-60 , 1 76-77 ) .

I t was t he f i rst t ime a c arefu l ly c ontro l led s trat igraph ie e xcavat ion was

c arr ied o ut , b ut r egrettab ly t he d ata p resented b y N etzer c oncern ing t he d epth o f t he p oo l 's r ocky f loor , a nd t he a rrange ment o f t he f i l l ing a nd d ra in ing c hanne ls d isagree w ith F l inder 's r eport a nd t he CAHEP s urveys ( see S ect ion I I .N ) . [ A .R . ]

I .A . S u m mary o f L and E xcavat ion : 4 . Nat iona l Park S erv ice . S cho lars o f t he Hebrew U n ivers ity were a lso r espons ib le f or o ne o f t he most e xtens ive e xcavat ions s o f ar u ndertaken i n Caesarea .

Dur ing t he y ears 1 960-62 ,

A . Negev d irected a l arge-sca le p ro ject o f s urvey , c lear ing , a nd r estorat ion o f t he f ort if icat ions a nd o ther ma in f eatures o f t he C rusader c ity o f Caesa rea i n o rder t o d eve lop t he s i te a s a Nat iona l P ark a nd t our ist d est inat ion .

U s ing mechan ica l

s hove ls a nd manua l l abour , t he e nt ire c ircumference o f t he wal l a nd t he moat i n f ront o f i t were c lea red . A c a refu l s urvey made d ur ing t h is work r evea led t hat t he c ity wa l l was b u i lt b efore t he f ina l C rusader p ro ject d irected b y K ing L ou is I X ( the P ious ) o f F rance d ur ing h is s tay i n C aesarea ( 1251-52 ) . T he o r ig ina l p lan o f t he f ort if icat ions was r eestab l ished , a nd i t s e a stern g ate was r estored u p t o a p o int a bove t he f loor o f i t s s econd s torey . I ns ide t he C rusader c ity a s treet was c leared a nd r econstructed , l ead ing f rom t he e astern g ate t o t he s outhea st c orner t ower o f t he f ort if icat ion wa l l . Another s treet , p aved w ith r eused Roman a nd B yzant ine a rch itectura l members o f marb le a nd p orphyry , was a lso c leared . On t op o f t he mound f ac ing t he s ea o n t he s outh s ide o f t he C rusader c ity , t he wa l l s tubs o f t he t hree a pses o f t he C rusader c athed ra l were c leared a nd r estored . A fter e xposure o f t he o r ig ina l p av ing o f t he c hurch , i t b ecame a pparent t hat t he r oof h ad n ever b een c omp leted , a nd t hat t he s tructure h ad c o l lapsed i nto a s er ies o f l a rge v au lts ( f ig . 1 1 .67 ) .

E xcavat ion a long t he t he western f ace p robed t he

n orthern f lank o f t h is p od ium , e xpos ing mass ive f oundat ions w ith n iches f or s tatu es , a nd r emnants o f p a inted s tucco . Th is c omp lex v ery l i ke ly s hou ld b e a ssoc iated w ith t he t e mp le b u i lt b y H erod ( AJ 1 5 .337 ) . A t t he s outhern e nd o f t he w estern f ace o f t he mound , as er ies o f s ix l arge v au lts wa s f ound . T he s outhernmost v au lt was u ncovered i ntact a nd p a rt ia l ly c leared ( Negev 1 960b ; 1 963b ) . Th is c ha mber ( 21 x 7x 1 3 m ) was b u i lt i n t he Herod ian p er iod a nd m ight h ave b een d es igned ( with t he n e ighbour ing v au lts ) t o s erve a s ap od ium f or Herod 's t e mp le o f Rome a nd Augustus . A t t he s a me t ime , t hey were o pen t owa rd t he H erod ian I nner Harbour a nd c ou ld a lso h ave b een u sed a s warehouses ( Negev 1 967 : 2 2-25 ) .

Chapter I : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

6 1

E xcavat ion o f t he l ow g round i n f ront o f t he v au lt e xposed s torage b ins , c iste rns , mosa ic f loors , a nd d we l l ings o f t he L ate B yzant ine a nd E ar ly A rab p er iod s . T he a bsence o f a ny e ar l ier s tructures b eneath s uggest t ha t a t l ea st d ur ing Herod 's t ime a nd t he L ate Ro man p er iod t h is a rea was p art o f t he b a s in o f t he i nner h arb our . A mass ive s tone p latform o ver

1 0

m w ide was e xposed a bout h a lf-way

b etween t he v au lts o n t he s outh a nd t he t e mp le p od ium o n t he n orth . T h is s truct ure p rotrudes west o f t he mound a nd was i n terpreted b y t he e xcavator a s aq uay f or t he Herod ian I nner Harbour ( Negev 1 967 : 2 7-30 ) ( l ater CAHEP A rea I i ) . An i mpress ive B yzant ine c omp lex was d iscovered s outh o f t he C rusader c ity , c ons ist ing o f as er ies o f r ooms w ith mosa ic f l oors s urround ing a n ice ly p aved c ourt w ith a n a pse a nd a c upo la o n i t s west s ide . On t he b a s is o f Romans 1 3 :3 a nd t he d iscovery o f as tatue o f S t . Chr istopher , t he e xcavator h as s uggested t hat t h is c omp lex m igh t .b e " the r ema ins o f t he f amous l i bra ry o f O r igen , l ater u sed b y E useb ius" ( Negev 1 960a : 2 2 ) ( f ig .

1 . 8 , n o . 2 5 ) .

A s p a rt o f t he o vera l l r estorat ion work u ndertaken b y t he Department o f L andscape , I mprove ment a nd Conservat ion o f H istor ic Monu ments , Negev c leared 3 00 m o f t he H igh-Leve l A queduct a long t he s ea-coast t o t he n orth . A s er ies o f a rches was e xcavated t o t he ir b ase l eve l , a nd t he t wo a d jacent c hanne ls were s tud ied t o

c la r ify t he ir r e lat ive

c hrono logy a nd

v ar ious s tages o f

u se .

L at in

i nscr ipt ions f ound o n marb le p laques b u i lt i n to t he s tructures r ecord c onstruct ion work c arr ied o ut b y s evera l m i l itary u n its d ur ing Hadr ian 's r e ign ( Negev 1 964 ) . The H igh-Leve l a nd L ow-Leve l Aqueducts were t horough ly s urveyed u p t o t he ir water s ources ( O lam i & P e leg 1 977 ) , a nd a dd it iona l i n scr ibed p laques were f ound a long t he ir c ourse ( Ha mburger 1 959 ; O la m i & R inge l 1 975 ) . T o t he s outh o f Caes a rea , we l l-def ined r ectangu lar h o l lows , c overed b y s and d unes b ut v is ib le i n a er ia l p hotog raphs ( f ig . 1 . 32 ) , were i n terpreted a s t he s treets o f n e ighborhoods d eserted a fter t he Mus l im o ccupat ion o r a fter t he n eg lect o f t he a queducts wh ich s upp l ied water f or i r r igat ion ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51 ; Kedar & Z iv 1 964 ) . L ater f ie ld s urvey a nd t r ia l e xcavat ions , h owever , h ave p roven t hat t hese r ectangu la r h o l lows a re t he t yp ica l A rab d une-c lea red g ardens c o m mon e ven t oday i n t he Gaza S tr ip , k nown a s muwatz i ( Porat 1 975) . Many o ther i nd iv idua l s tructures h ave b een f ound , s urveyed a nd e xcavated b y I s rae l i a rchaeo log ists i n C aesarea a nd i t s v ic in ity o ver t he y ears . Most o f t hese s i tes were a cc ident ly d iscovered d ur ing l and r ec lamat ion , b u i ld ing , o r a g r icu ltura l work . Most o f t he s i tes t ha t were d iscovered i n t he f ie ld s o f K ibbutz S edot Ya m were p roper ly r ecorded a nd s a lvaged b ecause o f t he d i l igence o f Mr . A . Wegman . S o me a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins d iscovered d ur ing work c arr ied o ut b y t he Caesarea D eve lopment

Company were

s tud ied

b y

t he

r eg iona l

i nspector

o f

t he

I s rae l

Department o f Ant iqu it ies , Mr . A . S iege lman . Among s uch s i tes was a mosa ic d eco rated w ith w i ld b irds , p robab ly f rom a B yzant ine Church ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 1 2 ) . mosa ic o f i t s c entra l n ave ( 13 .5

m x 1 1 .5 m ) t here a re

1 20

On t he

meda l l ions w ith

d ep ict ions o f a n i ma ls , ( bea r , l i on , e lephant ) , f lowers , a nd b ird s ( Ye iv in 1 957 : 2 60 ; Ovad iah

1 970 : 4 9-95 ) .

A nother B yzant ine mosa ic a nd s ome b roken s a rcophag i

were f ound NE o f t he h ippodrome ( Wegman 1 950 ) ( f ig . 1 . 7 , n o . 1 1 ) . [ A .R . ]

6 2

I .A .4 : Nat iona l P ark S erv ice E xcavat ions

H .A . S um mary o r L and Excavat ion : 5 . I ta l ian E xped it ion . F or f i ve s easons ( 1959-1963 ) t he I ta l ian A rchaeo log ica l M iss ion o f t he I s t ituto L ombardo d i S c ienze e L ettere d i M i lano , e xcavated i n Caesarea u nder t he d irect i on o f A . F rova . T he ir ma in p ro ject wa s e xposure a nd s tudy o f t he c ity 's a nc ient t heatre , ment ioned b y J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .341) , a l though i ts eems t hat h e c onfused i t w ith t he amph itheatre ( Lev ine 1 975a : 2 4 , n . 1 61) . T he l ocat ion o f t h is monu ment h ad a lready b een i dent if ied i n t he n ineteenth c entury b y t he s urveyors o f t he B r iti s h Western P a lest ine S urvey ( Conder & K itchener 1 882 :

1 5-17 ) . T he e nt ire s truc-

t ure o f t he t heatre a long w ith i t s s urround ings w ere c arefu l ly c leared a nd p a rt ia l ly r estored ( f igs . 1 . 8 , n os . 2 8 , 3 0 , 1 . 40 , p l . I ,n os . 3 9-40 ) . The I ta l ians h ave d eterm ined t hat t he t heatre was o r ig ina l ly b u i lt a t t he t ime o f Herod o n ar ather modest s ca le , w ith a c apac ity o f n o more t han 4 000 s pectat ors . No ma rb le wa s u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he c avea o r t he p av ing o f t he o rchestra . I nstead , ap laster f loor was p a inted t o i m itate t he a ppearance o f c o lo urfu l marb le s labs . T h is f l oor o f t he o rchestra was r enewed a nd r epa inted f req uent ly , a nd t he I ta l ian a rcheo log ists r ecorded 1 4 s uch s uper i mposed f loors . S ome r emarkab le a rch itectura l f ragments o f marb le , f ound i n t he l ater f i l l , s ee m t o b e long t o t hat i n it ia l p hase . An i n scr ipt ion , a lso f rom t h is f i rst p hase , wa s i ncorpor ated i n t he s econdary u se o f al ater s ta irca se o n t he n orthern e nd o f t he c avea o n t he o rchestra l eve l ; i t ment ions P ont ius P i late a nd a s acred p rec inct c a l led T iberi eum ( Frova 1 961b : 1 96 ) . O f t he o r ig ina l c avea , o n ly t he c entra l p art o f t he l ower f i ve r ows o f s eats was f ound , a nd p art o f ad ra inage s ystem b e low t he f l oor . I n t he s econd p hase , af i l l o f morta red r ubb le was l a id o n t he e ar l ier s eats , c overed b y c areful ly c ut s labs o f s tone t hat h ave b een p reserved t o ah e ight o f t h irteen r ows o f s eats . S t il l l ater , t he e nt ire p raec inct io was r emoved a nd r ep laced w ith s eats o f mortared r ubb le . F rom t he a ngu lar v au lted c orr idor s ix r ad ia l p assages l ed t o t he p raec inct io .

These e ntrance f loors were p aved w ith mosa ic . O f t he s u m ma c avea

n ot much h as b een p reserved , a nd i ts eems a s i ft he e nt ire u pper s tructure , a s w e l l a s most o f t he s caena , h ad c o l lapsed i n l a te a nt iqu ity a nd i t s a rch itectura l memb ers a nd a sh lar b locks e xtens ive ly r obbed . The i ma c avea c ons isted o f s ix c une i d e l im ited b y s even s ta ircases . s um ma c avea h ad i n i t s l ast p hase a t l east s even c une i .

T he

Dur ing t he s econd p hase ,

t wo i mpos ing a rched p arado i were a dded o n b oth s ides o f t he c avea , l ead ing t o t he o rchestra . T hey were b locked w ith v ert ica l ma rb le s labs s o met i me i n t he l a te t h ird o r e ar ly f ourth c entury when t he o rches tra a nd t wo p roscaen ia were r ebu i lt t o s erve a s ac o l i mbetra , f or water g ames . The o rchestra , wh ich h ad a d ia meter o f a bou t 3 0 m , was p aved w ith marb le s labs s o met i me i n t he p ost-Herod ian p er iod . T he s tage ( p roscaen iu m ) was a bout 7 m w ide a nd r a ised 1 m a bove g round l eve l ; i t u sed a s er ies o f c o lu mns a nd v au lted h yposcaen iu m a s ab a se . I t s f acade was d ecorated b y as er ies o f a lternat ing s qua re a nd s em i-c ircu lar n iches , p aved w ith c o loured ma rb le s labs . A c ache o f a pprox imate ly 1 00 o i l l a mps o f t he d oub le-spouted Herod ian t ype wa s f ound a ssoc iated w ith i t . T he t heatre i t se lf was c losed o n t he w est b y as cene b u i ld ing w ith i t s s caenae f r ons , wh ich p robab ly r eached t he h e ight o f t he c avea a nd , a s t yp ica l o f R o man p ract ice , h ad a l arge s em ic ircu lar e xedra i n t he c entre f lanked b y sma l ler s quare o nes o n e ither s ide . L itt le o f t hat s tructure r ema ined , a nd n one o f t he s tat-

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

6 3

u es t hat most l i ke ly o nce d ecorated i t . S ome e v idence l ed t he e xcavator t o b e l ieve t hat t he o r ig ina l Herod ian s caenae f rons was o f t he He l len ist ic t ype , w ith a s qua re c entra l n iche f l anked b y s em ic ircu lar o nes ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 5 7-234 ) .

B eh ind t he

s cene b u ild ing , t he I t a l ians e xposed t he f oundat ions o f as em ic ircu lar s tructure e nc los ing t he a rea t o t he west . On t he b as is o f V itruv ius 5 .9 t hey c on s idered i t t o b e at h ird-century a dd it ion wh ich s erved t he s pectators a s ar efuge f ro m t he s un o r s udden r a in-storms ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 1 55-59 ) .

Wh ile e xcavat ing t he e nv irons o f t he t heatre , t he I t a l ian M iss ion e xposed a B yzant ine f ort if icat ion w a l l e xtend ing f rom t he n orthern s ide o f t he c avea west t owa rd t he s ea-shore ( f igs . 1 . 8 , n o . 3 0 , 1 . 40 ) .

Two c ircu lar t owers b u ilt i nto t he

wa l l f aced n orth t oward t he c ity . I ts eems , t herefore , t hat d ur ing t he l ater Byzant i ne e ra , t he mound o f t he t heatre wa s u sed a s af ort if ied s trongho ld , s urrounded b y a mass ive wa l l a nd t owers . T hese were i ncorporated i n to t he s outhwestern t erm inat ion o f t he s em ic ircu lar e nce inte t hat p rotected t he e nt ire c ity o n i t s l andward s ide .

F urther e xcavat ions c arr ied o ut b y t he I ta l ians a long

t he

e astern

s ect ion o f t h is u rban wal y ie lded d ata d at ing i t s ecu re ly t o t he B yzant ine p er iod . North o f t he n orth s ide o f t hat wa l l a nd e a st o f t he a queduct , t hey d iscovered a B yzant ine b u i ld ing i n terpreted a s a Chr ist ian c hape l ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 2 93-95 ) ( f igs . 1 . 7 , n o . 9 , 1 . 33 , p l . I ,n o . 4 ) . One o f t he most s urpr is ing d iscover ies o f t he I t a l ian M iss ion was a f ort if icat ion wa l l w ith t wo r ound a nd o ne p o lygona l t ower , e xtend ing e a st f rom t he s hore h a lfway b etween t he n orth C rusader wa l l a nd t he n orthwest e nd o f t he B yzant ine e nce inte ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 47-92 ) ( f igs . 1 . 8 , n o . 1 6 , 1 . 35 , 1 .1-5 , p l . 1 ,n o . 9 ) .

The

e astern r ound t ower wa s p reserved t o ah e ight o f o ver 3 m , wh i le t he western h ad b een n ear ly d estroyed b y t he s ea .

On t he b as is o f c eram ics a nd t he s ty le o f t he

d ressed a sh la rs , t he t wo r ound t owers were d ated t o t he Herod ian p er iod , t he o r igi na l p hase o f t he wa l l . R ea l iz ing t hat t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct was b u i lt o n t op o f t hat wa l l , t ak ing p art o f t he e a stern r ound t ower o ut o f u se a s af ort if icat ion l i ne , t hey c ons idered t he wa ter s upp ly t o b e al ater a dd it ion , t hough p robab ly s t i l l Hero d ian i n d ate ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 74-75 , 2 80-83 ) . T he wa l l a nd t he t owers were

r ebu ilt d ur ing t he s econd c entury , a t wh ich t ime t he e ntrance b etween t he r ound t owers

was b locked ( f ig .

1 .3 ) .

E xcavat ions a long t he s outh s ide o f

t he

wa l l

e xposed a l ater B yzant ine p aved s treet r unn ing o n t op o f t h is b lock ing wa l l . Another s treet d at ing t o t he o r ig ina l p hase o f t he wa l l was u nearthed p ara l le l t o i t s i nner f ace . I t was l i ned o n t he s outh b y t wo l arge r ectangu lar b u i ld ings .

The

d ate a nd f unct ion o f t he wal l h ave b een q uest ioned b y s evera l s cho lars i n r ecent y ears ( Lev ine 1 975a : 9 -13 ; R inge l 1 975 : 7 5-77 ; R o l ler 1 983 ; B lake ly 1 984 ; Raban 1 987) a nd w i l l b e d iscussed b e low i n S ect ions 1 1 .H .3 a nd R .1. [ A .R . ]

H .A . S u m mary o f L and E xcavat ion : 6 . J o int E xped it ion t o Caesarea Mar it i ma . Over t he y ears s ince t he c reat ion o f t he S tate o f I s rae l , v ar ious n at iona l a nd f ore ign e xped it ions h ave c onducted l and e xcavat ions a t Caesarea Mar it i ma ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 ; Negev 1 967 ; L ev ine & N etzer 1 986 ) . T he a rchaeo log ica l t eam w ith

t he most s usta ined r ecord o f f i e ld-work a t t he s i te i st he J o int E xped it ion t o Cae-

6 4

I .A .6 : J o int E xped it ion

s area Mar it i ma ( JEC M ) , f ormed i n 1 971 b y P rofessor R obert J . B u l l o f D rew Un iv ers ity t o c ont inue t he e xcavat ions b egun i n 1 959 b y t he I t a l ian A rchaeo log ica l M iss ion .

Th is c onsort ium o f u n ivers it ies , c o l leges a nd s em inar ies h a s c onducted

s um mer e xcavat ions i n term ittent ly f rom i t s f oundat ion u nt i l 1 987 , t he l ast s eason o f f ie ld-work d irected b y P rofessor B u l l .

Dur ing i t s l i fe , t he me mbersh ip h as f luc-

t uated . Twenty-four d ifferent i n st itut ions h ave p art ic ipated f or a t l east o ne s eas on o f e xcavat ion .

J EC M h as a fforded h undreds o f v o lunteers o pportun it ies t o

e xper ience a rchaeo log ica l d iscovery . A g enera l a na lys is o f t he J EC M f ie ld-work was p ub l ished i n 1 982 ( Bu l l 1 982 ) .

F ina l r eports a re n ow i n p reparat ion .

The J o int E xped it ion c oncentrated i t s e fforts o n s evera l a reas o f t he c ity , a l l o uts ide t he C rusader f ort if icat ions . F or t he l ocat ion o f t hese e xcavat ion a reas , s ee f ig . 1 . 8 , n os . 9 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 5-27 , p l . I ) . S evera l s easons o f e xcavat ion were c onducted NE o f t he u rban c ore o f Caesarea a t t he s i te f i rst i dent if ied b y t he I ta li an t eam a s a Ch r ist ian b apt istry ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 2 93-95 ) ( JEC M 's F ie ld E ; f ig . 1 . 7 , n o . 9 , p l . I ,n o . 4 ) .

T he J EC M i nvest igat ion r evea led t hat t he s tructure was i n

f act a sma l l b ut e legant b ath a nd f i sh-tank ( p isc ine ) , p resumab ly p art o f as ea s ide v i l la o f t he s ixth c entury ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 82-85 ) . W ith in t he c onf ines o f t he B yzant ine c ity w al ls , ma jor i nvest igat ions were u ndertaken b y J EC M i n s evera l a rea s . T he J o int E xped it ion u ncovered s o me He ll en ist ic a nd B yzant ine r e ma ins i n i t s F ie ld G ( Bu l l e t a l . 1 985 ) ; e xcavated a s egment o f af ort if icat ion s ystem , a nd a ss igned t he c i ty wa l l a t t hat l ocat ion t o t he Herod ian P er iod ( B lake ly 1 984 ; Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 7 9-82) ; p rov ided a p re l im ina ry s urvey o f t he amph itheatre ( Rol ler 1 982a ) ; c onducted s ondages i n t he s outhern s ect ion o f t he h ippod ro me ( Humphrey 1 975) ; a nd e xp lored s ect ions o f t he Byzant i ne e sp lanade . S outh o f t h is l ate r oad , a marb le T yche p erson ify ing t he c ity was u ncovered i n 1 972 . L ater , a sma l ler f igure was f ound , as tevedore p robab ly r epres ent ing S ebastos , t he h arbour c o mp lex . T h is g roup i s t he s ing le most i mportant a rt ifact r ecovered b y J EC M t o d ate ( Gersh it 1 984 ; Wenn ing 1 986 ) . The ma jor c oncentrat ion o f J EC M 's e ffort h as b een o n t he a rea t o t he s outh o f t he C rusader e nce inte a nd n orth o f t he t heatre ( JEC M 's F ie ld C ) . I n t h is s ect ion o f t he c ity , marked b y al i ne o f l arge s and d unes p a ra l le l t o t he s hore , e xtens ive e xcavat ions h ave o ccurred e very s ea son o f J EC M 's f ie ld-work . An o ff ic ia l r es id ence f ro m t he B yzant ine e ra c omp lete w ith a n a rch ives r epos itory was u ncove red , p erhaps t he g overnor 's p a lace , a s we l l a s a warehouse c omp lex t hat f ronted t he b ay ( W ie mken & Ho lu m 1 981 ; B u l l 1 982 ; B u l l e t a l . 1 986 ) . One o f t hese h orrea was e xcavated . B u i lt d ur ing t he Herod ian e ra , i t s erved many p urposes o ver t he c entur ies i t was i n u se . I t s most i mportant r o le w as a s a M ithraeum d ur ing t he R o man e ra ( Hopfe & L ease 1 975 ; B u l l 1 978a ; B lake ly 1 987 ; Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 48-53 ) .

Th is e xcavat ion h as p rov ided e v idence f or e xtens ive r ebu i ld ing o f t h is

p art o f t he c ity d ur ing t he s ixth c entury , a s we l l a s s ome c hanges i n t he c ity p lan ( W iemken & Ho lum 1 981 ; V ann 1 983b ) . S urpr is ing ly , l i tt le o f Herod 's c ity h a s b een r evea led t hus f ar . To d ate , t he ma jor c ontr ibut ion o f J EC M h as b een t o e nhance o ur u nderstandi ng o f B yzant ine Caesarea . I t s e xcavat ions t h roughout t he c i ty h ave u ncovered s igns o f we l l-be ing a nd g rowth t h rough t o t he c om ing o f t he A rabs i n 6 40 a nd i t s s ubsequent c ontract ion ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 2 03-6 ) . A s ap ort , Caesa rea 's e conom ic

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

6 5

a ct iv it ies h ad a n i n ternat iona l f l avour t hroughout t h is p er iod . J EC M 's a rchaeo log ic a l d ata p o int t o az en ith o f p opu lat ion a nd p rosper ity b eg inn ing i n t he s ixth c ent ury , c ontrary t o v iews o nce h e ld b y s cho la rs ( Lev ine 1 975b : 1 35-36 ) . J EC M c onducted o ne s hort s ea son o f u nderwater e xcavat ions i n 1 978 ( Hoh lf e lder & O leson 1 980 ; S ect ion I .B .5 ) . T h is i n it iat ive wa s a ssu med b y CAHEP a fter i t s c reat ion i n 1 980 . A t t h is mo ment , t he f utu re o f J EC M i s u ncerta in , f o l low ing t he r et ire ment o f P rofessor B u l l a s f ie ld d irector . [ R .L .H . ]

I LB : Underwa ter S urvey a nd E xcavat ion : 1 . L ink Exped it ion . E dw in A . L ink , a n Amer ican i nventor , e ng ineer , a nd o ceanographer , i s w ide ly r e me mbered a s t he c reator o f t he f i rst s ubmers ib le d ecompress ion c hamber a nd v ar ious o ther ma r ine r esea rch t oo ls s uch a s h ab itats a nd sma l l r esearch s ubmar ines ( M .C . L ink 1 973 ; Wa l l is 1 980 ) .4 B efore h is d eath i n 1 981 , h e h ad c ontr ibuted a s much a s a ny i nd iv idua l t o b u i ld ing t he d iv ing s ystems t hat wou ld s upport man 's e xp lorat ion s b eneath t he s ea . H is a ccomp l ishments i n t he f i e ld o f mar ine a rchaeo logy , h owever , a re l ess f am i l iar , b ut t hey l oo m l a rge i n t he d eve lopment o f t h is d isc ip l ine a nd p art icu la r ly i n t he h istory o f u nderwater i nvest iga t ions a t Caesarea . A s ar esu lt , i t s ee ms a ppropr iate t o p rov ide s ome d eta i l o n t he b ackground a nd o rgan izat ion o f t he L ink e xped it ion . L ink b egan h is u nderwater i nvest igat ions a t P ort R oya l , J ama ica i n 1 956 .

Th is

p ort c ity h ad b een d estroyed b y av io lent e arthquake i n 1 692 t hat s ent a bout t wot h irds o f t he s ett le ment i n to t he s ea a long w ith s o me 2 0 ,000 o f i t s i nhab itants . U s ing a c onverted s h r i mp b oat c al led t he S ea D iver a s h is b ase , L ink h ad c a rr ied o ut a n a rchaeo log ica l i nvest igat ion o n t h is d rowned s i te d ur ing t he s u m mer o f t hat y ear w ith t he c o-opera t ion o f t he J ama ican g overnment . Work ing u nder a dverse c ond it ions c aused b y a mud l ayer c over ing t he s i te t hat c louded t he water whene ver i t was d isturbed , h is t eam u ncovered n umerous i mportant a rt ifacts , i nc lud ing a n e xtens ive c o l lect ion o f g lass b ott les . L ink wa s u rged t o r eturn a ga in f or a nother s eason o f work ( M .C . L ink 1 973) . He h ad a lso b een a pproached b y t he Amer icaI srae l S oc iety a nd t he I s rae l i Depart ment o f Ant iqu it ies t hat s ame s pr ing t o e xp lore a nother s ubmerged p ort , Caesarea Ma r it ima . S hort ly a fter c omp let ing h is f i e ld-work a t P ort Roya l , L ink a nd h is w ife Mar ion f l ew t o I s rae l t o d ive o n t h is s i te a nd o ther p oss ib le l ocat ions f or u nderwater i nvest iga t ions . He s pent t hree d ays o f e xp lorat ion a t Caesarea i n 1 956 , f o l lowed b y d iscuss ions w ith v a r ious I s rae l i a rchaeo log ists a bout t he p oss ib i l-

4

Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank M rs . Mar ion C . L ink , D r . Cha r les T . F r itsch , Mr . Aaron Wegman , D r . E l isha L inder , a nd Mr . Mussa Cohen f or t he ir h e lp i n p repar ing t h is r eport . T he ir memor ies o f t he e xped it ion o f 1 960 p rov ided mater ia l s imp ly n ot a va i lab le a nywhere e lse . Iam p art icu la r ly i n Mrs . L ink 's d ebt . S he r ece ived me g rac ious ly i n L ink P ort , F lor ida i n 1 984 , a nswered my many q uest ions p at ient ly a nd c o mp le te ly , t hought o f p ert inent t h ings I h ad f orgotten t o a sk , a nd t hen p rov ided r e levant s ect ions o f h er p ersona l , u npub l ished d iary f o r t he s um mer o f 1 960 a nd o ther u npub l ished mater ia l . Ic ou ld n ot h ave w r itten t h is r eport w ithout h er h e lp . P ort ions o f t h is c hapter w il l b e p ub l ished i n my a rt ic le , " A P ioneer o f Underwater A rchaeo logy : E dw in A . L ink a t Caesarea Mar it i ma ," i n D eutsche Hydrograph ische Z e itschr ift .

6 6 i ty

I .B .1: L ink E xped it ion o f

c onduct ing

t hat

c ountry 's

f i rst

l arge-sca le

u nderwater

a rchaeo log ica l

p ro ject . H is i mag inat ion h ad b een i gn ited b y what h e h ad s een o n h is f ew d ives . A t t he t erm inus o f o ne o f t he b reakwaters h e h ad d iscovered mam moth s tones t hat h ad b een f astened t ogether b y i r on c lamps s et i n l ead . He t hought t hey m ight h ave b een t he r ema ins o f t he s ix c o lossa l s tatues t hat t he J osephus s a id h ad a dorned t he h arbou r 's e ntrance ( BJ 1 .408-414 ; AJ 1 5 .331-41) . H e a lso d iscovered a s arcophagus l i d ,

n umerous

who le

a nd

f ragmenta ry

amphoras ,

a nc ient

b a l la st

s tones ,

a nd

a nchors o f a l l v intages l odged i n t he b reakwaters ( L ink 1 956 ) . T here i s e ven a n a pocrypha l s tory t hat h e s aw a s tatue 's h and r each ing f orth f ro m t he h arbou r b ott om ( Char les T . F r itsch , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) . The t re mendous s i ze o f t he s ubmerged a rea , t he s ca le o f t he p ro ject , t he t echn ica l p rob lems i t p resented , a nd t he e ncouragement o f h is I s rae l i c o l leagues a fforded L ink a n i r res ist ib le c ha l lenge . He l eft I s rae l e ar ly i n October d eterm ined t o p roceed w ith t he s earch f or Herod 's h arbour b eneath t he s ea . One t h ing L ink h ad d ec ided , h owever , was t ha t h is wooden t rawler wa s n ot s uff ic ient f or e ither t he d emands o f a t rans-At lant ic c ross ing o r t he p rob le ms p osed b y e xcavat ion a t Caesarea . H e p roceeded t o b u i ld S ea D iver I , a2 8 m s tee lh u l l v esse l f eatur ing s tate o f t he a rt e xcavat ion , n av igat ion , a nd c o m mun icat ions e qu ipment , a long w ith a 5 .5 m a ux i l ia ry c ru iser , Reef D iver , t hat wou ld s i t i n d avi t s o n t he s tern . H is n ew s h ip was t he f i rst r esea rch s h ip d es igned s pec if ica l ly f or u nderwater a rchaeo log ica l e xp lorat ion . Th ree y ea rs a fter t he f i rst p re l im ina ry s ketches , t he n ew v esse l u ndertook h er ma iden v oyage . A fter S ea D iver was l aunched a t as h ipya rd i n Qu incy , Massachus ets , s he s a i led f rom B oston i n Apr i l 1 959 t o P ort R oya l t o c ont inue t he i nvest igat ions t hat L ink h ad s tarted t hree y ears e a r l ier . I t wa s ag ood s um mer , o ne t hat e nab led L ink t o r ef ine h is e xcavat ion t echn iques a nd l earn what h is n ew s h ip c ou ld d o . He r etu rned t o M iam i w ith S ea D iver f or t he w inter , t o c a rry o ut t he f ina l c hanges a nd r ef itt ing n eeded f or t he t r ip t o I s rae l i n t he s pr ing . L ink d eparted f or I s rae l f rom P uerto R ico o n 1 1

May 1 960 a nd a rr ived i n

G ibra ltar o n 2 7 May a fter a c a lm a nd r out ine c ross ing . On 1 J une , S ea D iver l eft f or t he e astern Med iterranean . Rough s eas a nd g a le-force w inds h it t he s h ip t he n ext d ay . A f i re , b roken e qu ipment , a nd a r ange o f s torm-re lated d iff icu lt ies made t he n ext f ew d ays a s c ha l leng ing a s t he A t lant ic c ross ing h ad b een r out ine . On 1 2 J une S ea D iver r eached Ha ifa ; t hree d ays l ater L ink s a i led h is s h ip t o Caesarea a nd moored i n t he sma l l f i sh ing h arbour t hat s t il l e x ists t oday am idst t he r u ins o f t he f ar g reater a nc ient o ne . He was a nx ious t o b eg in . L ink 's sma l l t eam ( the n umber f luctuated , b ut was a bout 1 2 o n a ny g iven d ay ) i nc luded o n ly amateur a rchaeo log ists : t he s h ip 's c rew , U .S . Navy d ivers , ad octor , s evera l v o lunteers f rom t he U .S . , a nd l ater v ar ious I s rae l i d ivers i nc lud ing Mussa Cohen a nd D r . E l isha L inder , who wou ld l ater f ound t he C enter f or Mar it i me S tudi es a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa . N ot a n a rchaeo log ist h i mse lf , L ink h ad a sked D rs . Char les T . F r itsch o f P r inceton T heo log ica l S em inary a nd I m manue l B en-Dor o f Emory Un ivers ity t o s erve a s p ro ject d irectors .

T hey j o ined h im a t Caesarea .

R eg rettab ly , n e ither man wa s ad iver . A lthough

L ink

e nv is ioned

s evera l

s easons o f e xp lorat ion

a t

Caesarea ,

h e

e xpected r esu lts i m med iate ly ; i n r etrospect , f a r t oo q u ick ly . H is g oa ls t hat s u m-

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

6 7

mer i nc luded p repa r ing a map o f t he u nderwater r e ma ins u s ing u nderwater s urvey a nd a er ia l p hotographs , r ecover ing t he s arcophagu s h e h ad s een i n 1 956 ( wh ich , i nc identa l ly , h e c ou ld n ever f ind a ga in ) l i ft ing t he c o lossa l s tatues a t t he e ntrance o f t he h arbour ( for wh ich p urpose h e h ad e qu ipped S ea D iver w ith a s ix t on l i ft ) , r ecover ing a s many a rt ifacts a s p oss ib le , a nd d eterm in ing why t he h a rbour f ac i l it i es o f Caesa rea h ad f a l len i n to t he s ea . I t was a n amb it ious a genda , b ut L ink was a man a ccusto med t o s uccess o n ag rand s ca le a nd t o v iew ing c ha l lenges a s o b ject i ves n ot y et a ch ieved . Unfortunate ly

n ature

d id

n ot

c o-operate

w ith

h is

Caesarea

s chedu le .

A lthough L ink h ad c a refu l ly s e lected t he s um mer s eason f or h is e xp lorat ions t o t ake max i mu m a dvantage o f c a lm s ea c ond it ions i n t h is p art o f t he Med iterranean , i n r ea l ity h e h ad m issed t he b est s ea son b y a month . What f o l lowed was a s er ies o f e vents t hat wou ld h ave b een i mposs ib le t o a nt ic ipate . S a i l ing i n a nd o ut o f t he sma l l h a rbour p roved t o b e v ery h aza rdous , a nd moori ng i n t h is a nchorage was e ven more d angerous . On S unday , 1 9 J une , when t he c rew was a shore , h eavy s eas r o l led i n f ro m a n o ff-shore s torm . Waves c rashed o ver t he b reakwater t hat d ef ines t he p resent h arbour a nd t hreatened S ea D iver . L ink p ressed i n to s erv ice v ar ious o vern igh t g uests who h ad c o me t o e n joy a r e laxi ng e ven ing i n e legant c ircu mstances . W ith t h is a d h oc c rew h e worked d esperate ly t o k eep t he s h ip f rom s ma sh ing i n to t he c oncrete p ier . L ines k ept b reak ing d ur ing av ery l ong n ight . W ithout h is r egu lar s taff , L ink c ou ld n ot a ttempt t o r un t o t he s afety o f t he o pen s ea .

S ea D iver d id n ot f ounder t hat n ight , b ut s he wa s d a m-

a ged . The n ext d ay , w ith t he f orecast f or c ont inu ing h igh s ea s , h e d ec ided t o s a i l . T h is f l ight t o s afety was t he f i rst o f t h ree t hat S ea D iver wou ld make f rom t he s i te t hat s um mer b ecause o f a dverse weather . H is p lace o f r efuge wa s Ha ifa , s ince t here were n o o ther h a rbours n earby . I t was t h is v ery l ack o f n atura l h arbours a long t h is s ect ion o f t he L evant ine c oa st t hat h ad l ed Herod t he G reat t o b u i ld t he p ort o f Caesarea i n t he f i rst p lace . When L ink r eturned t o Caesarea t wo d ays l ater , a fter t he s torm h ad a bated , h e d ec ided t o a nchor o ut i n t he o pen s ea t o a vo id t he h azards p osed b y t he f i sh ing h arbour . A lthough t h is l ocat ion s o lved o ne s et o f p rob le ms , i t a fforded n ew o nes . T he s andy b ottom d id n ot p erm it f i rm p urchase f or h is a nchors . He h ad d iff icu lty p revent ing h is a nchor l i nes f rom d ragg ing .

S evera l t imes t he s h ip was i n d anger o f

r unn ing a ground o n o ff-shore i s lets . H e a lso h ad t roub le t ransport ing p eop le t o a nd f rom s hore o n t he Reef D iver i n t he c onstant h igh s eas . I n f act , o n o ne o cca s ion t h is b oat smashed i n to t he l a rger s h ip a nd t ore a h o le i n i t s s ide , o ccas ion ing a nother r etreat t o I la ifa . T he h eavy waves t ook a n a dd it iona l t o l l . A l l t he wh ile t he e xped it ion wa s a t C aesarea , s eas ickness was c o m mon among e ven t he s eas oned h ands ( L ink 1 973 ) . L ink g rapp led w ith o ther p rob lems a s we l l , a s h is e xped it ion wa ited t o b eg in i t s work . J ust b efore h i s d eparture t o I s rae l , h e h ad l earned t hat h e h ad d iabetes . H e s trugg led t hroughout t h is s um mer t o f ind t he r ight d osage o f h is v ar ious med ic at ions b ut n ever s eemed t o a ch ieve t he a ppropr iate b a lance . T here were a lso s er ious c lashes w ith members o f h is Amer ican c rew . P ersona l ity d ifferences , m isu nderstand ings , a nd g enera l ly l ow mora le c aused b y d iff icu lt s ea c ond it ions a nd

6 8

I .B .1: L ink E xped it ion

t he i nab i l ity t o c arry o ut t he e xped it ion 's o b ject ives a dded t o h is c oncerns . S evera l c rew me mbers were f ina l ly d ischarged i n S epte mber . Mar ion L ink w r ites i n h er d iary o f h is g row ing f at igue a nd f rustrat ion w ith t he e nd less d e lays a nd mount ing p rob lems .

D iv ing

i n J une

was e xtreme ly

l im ited .

I n f act , n oth ing r ea l ly

was

a cco mp l ished . E ar ly i n J u ly , L ink d ec ided t o a bandon Caesa rea u nt i l l ate August , when t he s eas m ight b e b etter , a nd t o e xp lore s evera l a lternat ive s i tes i n t he S ea o f Ga l i lee wh ich h e h ad s een d ur ing h i s 1 956 t r ip . T he Reef D iver wa s h au led f ro m Ha ifa t o s erve a s t he r esea rch v esse l f or e xp lorat ions o n t h is i n land l ake t ha t f ro m h is r ecent e xper ience a t Caesarea must h ave s eemed b lessed ly c a lm . He b egan work i m med iate ly a nd s oon d iscovered a s h ipwreck t hat y ie lded a c ache o f c ook ing p ots f rom t he f i rst c entury A .C . Near t he b ib l ica l s i te o f Magda la t he e xped it ion f ound a s tructure u nder c a . 5m o f w ater t hat a ppeared t o h ave b een a n a rea f or d ry ing n ets when t he l eve l o f t he s ea h ad b een much l ower . A fter s ix weeks , L ink d ec ided t o t ry Caesarea o nce a ga in . On 6 Augu st S ea D iver r eturned t o t he s i te a nd a nchored n ea r t he a nc ient h arbour e ntrance ( f ig . 1 .6 ) .

Heavy s eas r eappeared . F or f ive d ays s ome e xcavat ion was a ttempted n ear

t he l a rge b locks a t t he t erm inus o f t he Northern B reakwater , b ut t here w ere many t echn ica l p rob lems . On o ne o cca s ion t he a ir l ift b ur ied i t se lf i n t he s and .

B efore

work c ou ld r esu me , t he p r i mary u nderwater d igg ing t oo l i t se lf h ad t o b e r escued b y e xcavat ion ! L ink was a lso p lagued b y t he o ther p rob le ms t yp ica l o f e xcavat ions i n s ha l low water o n a n o pen c oast . I n t he h eavy s eas s o c om mon a t Caesarea , work ing i n c a . 5 -6 m o f water o ver t he r u ins n ear t he a nc ient e ntrance i s e xtre me ly d i ff icu lt . There i s u sua l ly a d angerous s urge o n t he o cean f l oor . V is ib i l ity q u ick ly d eter ior ates , a s wave a ct ion d isturbs t he b ottom . I n a dd it ion , t renches d ug o ne d ay w il l b e f i l led b y t he n ext morn ing . I n r etrospect , a nd c ompared t o t he c ha l lenges o f Caesarea , P ort Roya l must h ave s eemed t o L ink t o h ave b een a n i dea l s i te . On 1 1 August S ea D iver l eft Caesarea o nce a ga in a nd r eturned t o Ha ifa . Nature h ad won a nother r ound . The f ina l e ffort t o a ch ieve s ome o f t he g oal s o f t he s u m mer b egan o n 1S ept ember . The weather f ina l ly c o-operated a nd t he e xcavat ions , n ow c onducted t o a l arge d eg ree b y I s rae l i v o lunteers , p roceeded smooth ly . a t t he e nd o f t he month ,

When h eavy s ea s r eturned

1 0 d ays o f d iv ing h ad b een p oss ib le a nd c ons iderab le

i nformat ion h ad b een r etr ieved f or a na lys is b y t he t ops ide a rchaeo log ists b efore S ea D iver s et s a i l f or Ha ifa f or t he l ast t ime o n 2O ctober . B efore c om ment ing o n t he r esu lts o f t h is e xcavat ion , i t i s i mportant t o r est ate t he o bv ious . S ince F r itsch a nd B en-Dor , t he p ro ject a rchaeo log ists , were n ot t he mse lves d ivers , t hey n ever h ad a c hance t o v i s it t he e xcavat ion s i tes u nder t he ir s uperv is ion o r t o s ee a ny a rt ifacts i n s i tu b efore t he ir r ecovery . A n a na logy f or t h is awkward s i tuat ion wou ld b e t hat o f a c h ief s c ient ist

i n c harge

o f a

r esearch l aboratory wh ich h e c ou ld n ever v is it . Moreover , s ince L ink 's d ivers were n ot t ra ined i n a rchaeo logy , t he ir o n-s ite

i n terpretat ion o f d ata c ou ld o n ly

b e

t reated w ith t he g reatest c aut ion . A lthough t he t ota l d iv ing t ime o n t he s i te was e xtreme ly l im ited ( l ess t han t wo weeks t ota l ) , s ome p arts o f L ink 's amb it ious r esearch d es ign were r ea l ized . I t h as b een d iff icu lt , h owever , t o a ssess t h is e xped it ion p roper ly , f or p ub l icat ion o f

Chapter L T : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

6 9

t he f ie ld-work was l im ited t o o ne b r ief r eport i n B ib l ica l A rchaeo log ist ( Fr itsch & B en-Dor 1 961 ) , ap opu lar s tory i n L ife magaz ine ( MaeLe ish 1 961 ) , as hort r eport t o t he Amer ican P h i losoph ica l S oc iety ( Fr itsch 1 961 ) , a nd a n a bstract ( Ben-Dor 1 961 : 1 86 ) .

L ink a lso p repared s evera l s hort p apers t hat w ere n ever p ub l ished , p resent-

i ng s l ight ly d ifferent , g enera l v ers ions o f t he s um mer 's f ie ld-work . One o f t he most i mportant a nd l a st ing r esu lts o f h is work was t o e stab l ish p rec ise ly t he l ocat ion o f S ebastos , t he h a rbour o f Caesa rea d iscussed i n d eta i l b y J osephus . A s r ecent ly a s t en y ears b efore L ink 's e xped it ion , i t h ad b een i ncorr ect ly p laced i n t he b ay i m med iate ly t o t he s outh ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51 ) . Work ing w ith a er ia l p hotographs s upp le mented b y d ivers ' s urveys , L ink was a b le t o c ons truct a b as ic p lan o f t he s ub merged r ema ins ( f ig . 1 .7 ) .

A lthough i ncomp lete i n

most r espects , i t c onf irmed i n ag enera l way t he d escr ipt ion o f t he h arbour p rov ided b y J osephus a nd e stab l ished t he v erac ity o f t h is a nc ient a ccount . Detractors o f t h is h istor ian 's e xeges is o n Caesarea , i nc lud ing W . T ho mson , who a c entury b efore

h ad c a l led J osephus ' a ccount

a n

e xamp le

o f " grand i loquent

h yperbo le"

( Thomson 1 862 ) , h ad f inal ly b een s t il led . F urther , h e was a b le t o d emonstrate t hat SCUBA d ivers h ad a n i mportant r o le t o p lay i n t he e xp lorat ion o f s ubmerged a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . o f L ink 's e xped it ion h ad b een a tte mpted b efore .

Noth ing o n t he s ca le

Moreover , w ith t he a ppearance

o f S ea D iver , ar esearch v esse l c onstructed s pec if ica l ly f or u nderwater a rchaeo lo gy a nd f i tted w ith t he most modern e qu ipment , en ew c hapter i n t h is d isc ip l ine h ad b egun . I n t h is r espect , L ink 's e xped it ion wou ld b ecome a mode l f or t hose who f o l lowed . He a lso h e ightened i n terest i n Caesarea . F r itsch a nd B en-Dor n oted i n t he ir a rt ic le t hat o ne o f t he e xped it ion 's o b ject ives wa s t o " . . .spark a n e xtens ive l ands i de e xcavat ion o f t h is i mportant s i te" ( Fr itsch & B en-Dor 1 961 ) . T h is s tatement , o f c ourse , f a i led t o r ecogn ize t he i mportant f i e ld-work t hen i n p rogress a t t he s i te b y t he I ta l ian M iss ion , t he Hebrew Un ivers ity , a nd t he Nat iona l P arks Author ity . Notw ithstand ing , i t wa s p rophet ic . I n t he 1 970 's a nd 1 980 's ma jor p ro jects c ond ucted b y JECM , CAHEP , a nd t he Hebrew U n ivers ity h ave i ncreased d ramat ica l ly o ur

k now ledge

o f

t h is

i mportant

s i te

( Raban

1 985b ) .

Caesarea

Mar it i ma

h as

r ece ived i t s p roper r ecogn it ion a s o ne o f t he ma jor s eaports a nd c osmopo l itan c iti e s o f t he a nc ient wor ld ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 ) . These g enera l a ccomp l ishments s tand a s p os it ive ,

l ast ing a ch ieve ments o f

L ink 's p ioneer u nderwater e xp lorat ions . T he s pec if ic r esu lts o f h is e xped it ion , h owever , h ave b een s uperseded b y s ubsequent r esearch b y CAHEP ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 ; Hoh lfe lder 1 988 ) . F or e xamp le , when work ing n ear t he h arbour 's E ntrance Channe l , L ink 's d ivers u ncovered a n ear ly c omp lete amphora o f t he s econd c entury A .C . b eneath a l arge wooden b eam . F r itsch a nd B en-Dor s uggested t hat t h is a rt if act , i n t h is p a rt icu lar c ontext , p rov ided e v idence f or a n e arthquake t hat h ad d eva stated Caesarea a t s ome p o int i n t he s econd c entury . T hey went o n t o p os it t hat i n A .D . 1 30 , b u i ld ings l i ke t he o ne o f wh ich t h is b eam was a n a rch itectura l me mb er h ad b een s wept i n to t he s ea d ur ing t h is n atura l d isa ster a nd t hat t he h a rbour

o f Herod was d estroyed a t t hat t ime ( Fr itsch & B en-Dor 1 961 ) . Th is h ypothes is , h owever , c an n o l onger b e s usta ined . T he e arthquake , wh ich i n f act was d ated t o 1 28 , i s ment ioned o n ly i n o ne a nc ient s ou rce , s o i t s v ery e x is-

7 0

I .B .1: L ink E xped it ion

t ence i s q uest ionab le .

F urther , i t may n ot e ven h ave s truck Caesa rea Mar it i ma .

No i ncontrovert ib le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o n l and o r i n t he s ea h as b een u ncove red b y a ny s ubsequent e xcavat ion t o s upport t he F r itsch/Ben-Dor d isaster t heory . S econd ly , t he a nc ient r eference F r itsch c i ted a s e v idence , S t . J erome 's g loss o f t he Chron ikon o f E useb ius ( M igne 1 844-79 , 2 7 : 4 68 ) emp loys a s tanda rd , f ormul a ic p hrase t o d escr ibe t he e arthquake : " N icopo l is e t Caesarea t errae motu c onc id erunt ." Ma r it ima

E ven i f t he Caesarea t o wh ich J erome r efers i n t h is n ote i s C aesarea - a nd t hat i s u n l ike ly , s ince e lsewhere i n h is g losses h e u sua l ly s pec if i-

c a l ly i dent if ies t h is p ort b y i t s f u l l a nc ient n ame o f Caesarea P a laest inae ( M igne 1 844-79 , 2 7 : 4 82 ) - o ne c ou ld i nfer v ery l i tt le f rom t h is s tock a ccount . I t wou ld b e p art icu la r ly i l-adv ised t o a ttempt t o a ssess t he n a tura l d amage v is ited o n t he s i te f rom s uch a t enuous s ource , a lthough s ome s cho la rs h ave t r ied t o d o s o ( Am iran 1 950-51 ; 1 952) . Aga inst t he F r itsch/Ben-Dor t hes is o f t he H erod ian h arbour 's d estruct ion i n 1 28 s tands a mass ive b ody o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata c o mp i led b y CAHEP s ince 1 980 , a long w ith c op ious t extua l a nd h istor ica l e v idence f or t he c ont inued u se o f t hese f ac i l it ies we l l i n to t he s eventh c entury t oo e xtens ive t o d iscuss i n t h is c ontext ( e .g . Hoh lfe lder 1 985 ) . One c an n ow s ay w ith c omp lete c onf idence t ha t t he ir r eport o f t he h arbour 's d em ise was p rematu re . I t must b e r e membered , h owever , t hat n e ither p ro ject a rchaeo log ist v is ited t he e xcavat ion s i te where t he amphora h ad b een r ecovered . I f e ither man h ad , h is a na lys is m ight h ave b een more c aut ious . E xcava t ing i n t he s ame a rea where L ink 's d ivers made t he ir f ind , CAHEP e xp lorers u ncovered b eams t hat were p a rt o f t he c oncrete f ormwork u sed i n t he h arbour 's o r ig ina l c onstruct ion l ate i n t he f i rst c ent u ry B .C . , a nd a wooden p a lette b eneath a l arge s tone t ha t was d ropped i n to t he s ea d ur ing a l ater , B yzant ine r epa ir i n t he l a te f i f th o r e a r ly s ixth c entury . E ither o f t hese f i nds m ight h ave b een what L ink 's d ivers h ad s een . B oth CAHEP 's d iscove r ies were d ated n ot o n ly b y t he ir a rt ifactua l a ssoc iat ions b ut a lso b y c arbon-14 a na lys is , s ometh ing t hat was n ot d one w ith t he L ink b eam ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 ; b e low , Append ix I I .B ) . T he L ink e xped it ion a lso d iscovered a sma l l meda l l ion o r t oken c o mposed o f a s i lverlead a l loy , i dent if ied a t t hat t ime a nd s ubsequent ly b y v ar ious s cho lars , a s d ep ict ing t he h arbour o f Caesarea a t i t s i naugurat ion ( Oestre icher

1 962 ) . The

o bverse f eatu red a r i ver-god ; t he r everse a s cene o f ah arbour e ntrance f l anked b y c o lossa l s tatues a nd w ith t he G reek l etters

KA i n t he u pper r ight f ie ld . T h is sma l l

o b ject , a bout wh ich L ink o nce s a id , " That l i tt le t h ing c ost u s a bout $ 100 ,000 .

I

g uess i t 's worth i t " ( MacLe ish 1 961) , was i dent if ied a s ac o m memorat ive p iece i s sued a t t he p ort 's d ed icat ion i n 1 0/9 B .C . I ti sf ar more l i ke ly , h owever , t hat t he l ead t oken was s truck

i n A lexandr ia , p erhaps i n t he r e ign o f

Anton inus

P ius

( 138-161 ) w ith n o p art icu lar r eference t o Caesarea . L ink 's a ssessment o f h is l i ttl est , b ut most e xpens ive , a rt ifact m igh t b e ab i t d ifferent t oday . E ven t hough t he s pec if ic r esu lts o f L ink 's f i e ld-work h ave n ot b een s usta ined b y t he l ater u nderwater e xp lorat ion d irect ly s pawned b y h is r esearch , o ne c annot d im in ish h is g enera l c ontr ibut ions t o an ew f i e ld o f s cho lar ly r esearch . A t rue p ion eer s tr ikes a p ath f or o thers t o f o l low . L ink d id t hat a t Caesarea e ven t hough h e c hose n ever t o r eturn t o c ont inue h is s earch f or t he c o lossa l s tatues . H e was b y

Chapter I : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

7 1

n atu re a n i mpat ient man , n ot s u ited f or a nyth ing o ther t han i m med iate s uccess i n h is e ndeavors . I n t h is r egard , h is c o m ment o n t he meda l l ion i sr evea l ing . T oo l i tt le was a cco mp l ished a t t oo g reat a c ost o f money a nd t ime . A lthough t he d iff icu lt n atura l o bstac les p osed b y t h is p art icu lar s i te a nd t he d e mands o f ad isc ip l ine t hat r a re ly p rov ides d ra ma t ic r esu lts u l t imate ly d iscouraged L ink f rom c ont inued e xcav at ions t here o r e lsewhere , t he s c ient if ic c om mun ity c an b e t hankfu l t hat h e c ont inued

t o

d evote

h is

c ons iderab le

e nerg ies

a nd

g en ius

t o

o ther

a spects

o f

o ceanog raph ic r esearch . I n o ne o f t he ir u npub l ished p apers , E dw in a nd Mar ion L ink o ffered t he f o l lowi ng s um mat ion o n t he ir work a t Caesa rea : Th is r e lat ive ly b r ief f oray i n to t he p oss ib i l it ies wh ich l i e b eneath t he s andy b ottom a t C aesarea r eaff irmed o ur b e l ief t hat g iven t he t ime , e qu ipment a nd c ooperat ive weather t he h arbour wou ld u ndoubted ly y ie ld a f i ne c ross s ect ion o f h istor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l . I t a lso i nd icated s uch a n amb it ious p ro ject w i l l n ever b e c a rr ied o ut d ue t o t he p roh ib it ive c ost made n ecessa ry b y a dverse s ea c ond it ions . E dw in L ink h ad many t a lents . B ut a s t he l ast l i ne o f t he a bove q uotat ion p roves , h e wa s n ot t ota l ly p rophet ic . F or t h is m inor c h ink i n h is a rsena l o f t a lents , CAHEP i sg ratefu l . [ R .L .H . ]

I .B . Underwa ter S urvey a nd E xcavat ion : 2 . I srae l Undersea Exp lora t ion S oc iety . The L ink E xped it ion t o Caesarea wa s t he s tart ing p o int f or y ears o f u nderwat er r esea rch c arr ied o ut b y t he I s rae l U ndersea E xp lorat ion S oc iety ( IUES ) .

Qua l i-

f ied I s rae l i n avy d ivers who h ad b een r e lea sed f ro m t he ir r egu lar s erv ice were o rgan ized a nd e ncouraged b y E l isha L inder . T hey s tarted a n ew t ype o f u nderwater c areer b y d iv ing a s v o lunteers f or L ink 's p ro ject . F rom t hat t ime o n t hey worked o n weekends , h o l iday s a nd , when i t was n ecessary , t ook a f ew d ays o r weeks f ro m t he ir r egu la r o ccupat ions . T hey t aught s cho lars a nd l ay men t o d ive a nd j o ined t he m

i n

v ar ious

u nderwater

e xp lorat ion

p ro jects .

Caesarea ,

wh ich

was

b e ing

d eve loped i n t he 1 960 's a s a ma jor t our ist s i te , wa s t he b est p lace f or t ra in ing n ew d ivers a nd f or t est ing e xper imenta l method s o f u nderwater s urvey . I n 1 964 t he f i rst c om merc ia l d iv ing c entre a long t he Med iterranean c oast o f I s rae l was e stabl i shed w ith in t he a nc ient wa l ls o f Caesa rea , a s aj o int p ro ject o f B aron E . d e Roth sch i ld ( who owned t he a rea o f t he r u ined c ity ) a nd t he d iv ing i nstructors o f I UE S . I n Apr i l , 1 963 , t he f i rst i n ternat iona l c o l laborat ive r esearch was c arr ied o ut b y I UES i n c o l labora t ion w ith P rof . H . E dgerton o f M . I .T .

a nd h is a ss istant , D r .

O l iv ier L eenhardt o f t he Oceanograph ic Mu seum o f Monaco ( f ig . 1 .8 ) . was

i n it iated

t hrough c ontacts

made

a t

t he

F irst

I n ternat iona l

T he p ro ject

Cong ress f or

Underwater S c iences , h e ld i n Monaco t wo y ears p rev ious ly . T he g oa l was e xecut ion o f as urvey o f s tructures a nd w recks b ur ied u nder t he s andy s ea-f loor t hrough t he u se o f E dgerton 's r ecent i nvent ion , t he "Mud P enetrator" . T h is d ev ice was a l ow f requency e cho s ounder ( 12 KHz ) wh ich c ou ld p lot s ub-bottom f eatures . T he n ew d ev ice wa s t hen e xper imenta l , a nd i t s u se i n Caesarea wa s t he f i rst a ttempt

7 2

I .B .2 : I UES S urvey

t o t ry i t o n ap ure ly a rchaeo log ica l m iss ion , a s as tage i n al arger p ro ject s pons ored b y t he N at iona l Geograph ic S oc iety . U s ing a s ma l l motor b oat t hat was p os it ioned f ro m t he s hore b y ap a ir o f t heodo l ites , t he " Mud P enetrator" wa s o perated i n t he a rea o f t he s unken Herod ian b reakwater t ha t h ad b een s urveyed t hree y ears e ar l ier b y t he L ink E xped it ion . T he s ub-bottom s urvey wa s f o l lowed b y v isua l e xam inat ion c arr ied o ut b y t he I UES d ivers .

S ix " targets o f a bnorma l r eso lut ion"

were p lotted b y t he s yste m a nd i n terpreted b y 0 . L eenhardt a s man-made f eatures b ur ied u nder t he s and ( f ig . 1 .9 ) . Unfortunate ly t here was n o a dequate a ir l ift o n s i te f or p roper ly e xpos ing a l l t hese t argets , s o o n ly t he t wo s ha l lower s i tes were d ug ; t hese t urned o ut t o b e b roken amphoras . T he most i n terest ing t a rget r ecorded b y t he r e mote s ens ing s urv ey s eemed t o b e ab ur ied wa l l s ome 5 m w ide a nd a bout 5 0 m l ong , r unn ing s outh f rom t he e xterna l ( s outh ) e dge o f t he S outhern B reakwater , n ear i t s b a se ( L inder & L eenhardt 1 964 : 4 9-50 , f ig . 1 ) .

Though i t was r eported ly c overed b y o n ly a metre

o f s and , t he d ivers c ou ld n ot f ind i t . More i nformat ive were t he s er ies o f s urvey d ives t hat t he I UES v o lunteers c arr ied o ut a long t he c ou rse o f t he s unken b reakwa ter . T hese s urveys c ont inued d ur ing t he f o l low ing y ea rs u nder t he d irect ion o f E . L inder , w ith t he p urpose o f g ather ing d ata a bout t he c auses f or t he s ubmergence o f t he h arbou r . T hese s urv eys h ave n ever b een p ub l ished , b ut t here i s a n i n terest ing s u m ma ry o f t hem i n t he f o l low ing l etter , s ent b y E . L inder t o D . N eev , a ma r ine g eo log ist o f t he I s rae l Geo log ica l S urvey : Our r epet it ive d ives w ith in t he a nc ient h arbour e nab le u s t o c o me t o t he f o l low ing c onc lus ion s : a . T he c oastl ine f or t he R o man e ra was a t l east 1 50-200 m f art her west o f t he p resent o ne . T h is c an b e d educed f rom : ( 1 ) R e mn ants o f a nc ient c onstruct ions , B yzant ine a nd C rusader , wh ich a re n ow c overed b y s ea water s o me 5 0-100 m i n to t he s ea , west o f t he B osn ian M ina ret . ( i) T he g reat d istance o f t he Herod ian h a rbour e ntrance f rom t he p resent s hore , L ink 's s uppos it ion , i s b acked b y o ur s u rveys . B y t he way , i t i s p robab le t hat t he e ntrance was e ven f art her o ut , n orthwest o f t he s i te p o inted o ut b y L ink . Our d ivers h ave f ound t wo h igh r ocky o utcrops p rotrud ing , a lmost c overed b y s and n ow , wh ich m ight b e t he e ntrance 's t owers . b . T he e ntrance t o t he a nc ient h arbour i s n ow s ome 3 50-400 metres west o f t he t ip o f t he n orthern C rusader wa l l wh ich i s c ut b y t he s ea . T he f arthest p art o f t he s em i-c ircu lar b reakwater f rom t he p resent s hore i s more t han 4 50 m . C ons ider ing t hat f ac t , t he water b as in o f Herod 's h a rbour s ee ms t o b e i m mense , g reater t han t hat o f a ny o ther R o man h a rbour k nown t o u s . One may r eca l l t hat t h is was n ot a h arbour t hat was d ug o n l and , s uch a s O st ia , b ut was a rt if ic ia l ly b u i lt i n o pen waters . S o , Ip resu me t hat i n a nt iqu ity , i t s water b as in was much sma l ler , maybe o n ly t he w estern most p art o f t he p resent o ne . c . S o me o f t he s tone b locks o n t he s ea-f loor a long t he n orth a nd n orthwest l i nes o f t he s unken b reakwaters a re r emnants o f a rt if ic ia l s tructures . B locks were c arefu l ly l a id , a nd n ot s imp ly h eaped s tones j ett isoned i n to t he water , t o c reate a b ase f or more c onso l idated a bove-water s tructures . J osephus t e l ls u s a bout s tones t hat were t h rown i nto t he water i n l a rge q uant it ies a nd t o ag reat d epth b ut what we n ow s ee u nderwater a re i n s i tu a sh lar b locks o f we l lla id c ourses , r emnants o f what s eems t o h ave b een v ert ica l wa l ls , a nd t hat a t ad epth o f 8 -10 metres ! d . E ven i f we s uppose t hat t he a nc ient b reakwater wa s b u ilt o n a b ase o f p i led-up s tones , i t i ss t i l l h ard t o b e l ieve t hat what we h ave h ere wa s b u i lt b y t he Romans i n a n u nderwater b u i ld ing t echn ique . S o , t hese a sh lar b locks 4 x 3 m a nd more must h ave b een l a id d ur ing t he Roman e ra i n much s ha l lower water , a nd o n ly l ater , r ecent n atur a l g eo log ica l p rocesses h ave c aused t he a dd it iona l s ubmergence o f

Chapter I : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

7 3

t he western p art o f t he h a rbour . B eyond t hat , f or h eaven 's s ake , why wou ld Herod 's e ng ineers c hoose t o b u i ld s uch a d eep-water h arb our . F or t he merchantmen o f t hose d ays , 3 -4 metres o f water d epth wou ld b e more t han e nough . I am s end ing y ou s ome p hotos we t ook a t ad epth o f 8 -10 m . Note t he v ert ica l b lock w ith t he c ross g roove o n i t s u pper p art , wh ich t eaches u s t he c lamp ing t echn ique o f l arge b locks u nder t he water i n a nt iqu ity . C ou ld y ou i mag ine l ay ing s uch l a rge a sh lar b locks a t s uch a d epth w ithout t he h e lp o f d ivers s uch a s o urs? e . Due n orth o f t he s unken h arbour a t Caesarea , o ppos ite my k ibbutz ( Ma lagan M icha te l ) t here a re t hose i s les k nown a s Hayon im I s land . I ' ve a lready e xpressed t o y ou i n t he p ast my i dea t hat t hese o ff-shore r eefs w ere o r ig ina l ly t errestr ia l f ormat ions . E xcavat ions t hat I ' ve d one o n t he i s land u nearthed a l arge s tructure , a mosa ic f loor , a nd v ar ious g la ss a nd p ottery s herds i n a s er ies o f r oo ms b e long ing t o o ne B yzant ine c o mp lex . Th is l etter d escr ibes t he b a s ic d ata

c o l lected

u p

t o

1 964 ,

when

a nother

a tte mpt was made t o a ttract f ore ign s cho lars t o a n i n ternat iona l c o l laborat ive r esearch p ro ject a t Caesa rea . D r . J oseph S haw o f t he Un ivers ity o f T oronto , who was work ing a t t hat t ime o n P rof .

S cranton 's e xcavat ion o f t he L ate Ro man h ar-

b our a t Kenehrea i ( Shaw 1 967 ) , a nd A . F l inder , ad iv ing a rch itect f ro m L ondon who wa s t hen v ery a ct ive i n h e lp ing t o c reate t he B r it ish S ub-Aqua C lub , were i nv ited b y L inder t o s pend a week s urvey ing t he h a rbour a t Caesarea , a ss isted b y t he v o lunteer d ivers o f I UES ( F l inder 1 985b : 2 4-28 ) . A lthough a d eta i led p ro ject p rogra m me was made , t he c ourse o f e vents s ent e verybody e lsewhere . S haw went b ack t o t ake o ver t he u nderwater work a t K ench rea i , a nd L inder , w ith t he I UES , F l inder , a nd a t ea m o f B r it ish d ivers , wa s b usy f or t he n ext t hree y ears a t t he P hoen ic ian h arbours o f A th l it ( L inder 1 967 ) a nd Akko ( L inder 8 c Raban 1 966 ) . The p ro ject o f b u ild ing a modern b reakwa ter o n t op o f t he a nc ient o ne i n Akko made t hat s i te a much

more u rgent

t a sk .

I n t he

1 966 s ea son a t

Akko t he

P roton-

Magnetometer , an ew t ype o f r emote-sens ing d ev ice wh ich c ou ld t race f errous o b jects o n o r b e low

t he s ea-f loor ,

was

u sed e xper imenta l ly . Th is d ev ice

was

b rought b y T . Ha l l , a n e ng ineer f rom Oxford Un ivers ity , who a l so u sed i t f or a f ew d ays t o s urvey t he s ea-bottom a round t he s unken h arbour a t Caesarea ( Ha l l 1 966) . Wh i le

t he

ma in

e fforts

o f

I UES

were

d iverted

t o

o ther

s i tes ,

Caesarea

r ema ined t he b est l ocat ion f or c asua l s urveys a nd f or t ra in ing n ew members a nd i n troduc ing t hem t o t he s tudy o f s ubmerged s tructures . Among v ar ious d iscover ies made d ur ing t hese s urveys , o ne o f s pec ia l i mportance was t he o bservat ion o f l ead p udd les i n s i tu o n t he s ea-bottom a t ad epth o f o ver 8 m , embedded i n t he f oot o f what i s d escr ibed a s af a l len t ower o n t he west s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( f ig . I .10) . I n t he y ea rs 1 968-1969 Raban , t hen a n u ndergraduate s tudent o f a rchaeo logy a t t he Hebrew Un ivers ity , i n it iated r enewed s urveys a t Caesarea f or v er if icat ion a nd c o mp let ion o f t he d ata c o l lected t o t hat d ate a s p art o f ar esearch p aper o n Ro man h arbours i n t he L evant . Du r ing t hat s urvey , as unken p latform was l ocated s ome 5 0 m west o f t he t ip o f t he modern mo le , a nd a g enera l p lan o f t he h a rbour was d rawn u p , b as ica l ly f ol low ing e ar l ier o nes p repared b y Y . A lon i f or I UES . These e a r l ier p lans s uggest a n i nner b as in a nd f lu sh ing c hanne ls a cross t he b ase o f t he ma in b reakwater ( f ig . I .11 ) . Dur ing t he f o l low ing y ears ( 1969-1973 ) i t wa s t he n ew p otent ia l o f t he Red S ea t hat a ttracted t he a ttent ion o f I UES . Wh i le E . L inder , w ith H . E dgerton , A .

7 4

I .B .2 : I UE S S urvey

F l inder , a nd s o me E ng l ish v o lunteers f rom t he B r it ish S ub-Aqua C lub were c arryi ng o ut u nderwater r esearch a t J es ira t F a ra 'un j ust s outh o f E i lat ( F l inder 1 977 , 1 985b : 4 2-82) , o ther t eams were s urvey ing t he c oasts o f S ina i a nd i t s c oasta l waters a nd e xcavated t hree A rab w recks ( Raban 1 973 , 1 975 ) .

Caesarea r ema ined

an earby s i te f or t ra in ing d ivers a nd f or c asua l d iv ing v is its , i ncreas ing ly s o f o ll ow ing t he e stab l ish ment o f t he Center f or Mar it ime S tud ies a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa i n 1 972 , f o l lowed a y ear l ater b y t he i naugurat ion o f t he g raduate Department f or t he H istory o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions . [ A .R . ]

H .B . Underwa ter S urvey a nd Excavat ion : 3 . CMS S urvey f or I srae l E lectr ic Co . A f u l l-sca le , s ystemat ic s u rvey o f t he h arbour c o mp lex a t Caesa rea was c ons idered a ga in b y t he CMS a fter t he 1 973 war .

N . C . F le m m ing o f t he I nst itute f or

Oceanog raph ic S c iences a t Warm ley , E ng land a nd D . Neev o f t he I s rae l Geo log ica l S urvey , b egan r esearch r e lat ing t o t he ir i n terest i n we l l-documented d ata a bout s ub merged a rch itectura l f eatures , d es igned t o s upport t he ir o ngo ing i nvest igat ion o f t he r ecent g eo log ica l h istory o f t he c oa stl ine ( F le m m ing 1 972 ; Neev e t a l . 1 973) . I n t he e a r ly s um mer o f 1 974 , F lem m ing v i s ited t he CMS a nd was s hown s ome o f t he s ubmerged f eatures a t Caesarea k nown t h rough p rev ious s urveys , among t he m a r ecent ly s urveyed wa l l a t ad epth o f 1 .0-1 .5 m i n t he s ha l low water w ith in t he p resent a nchorage b a s in .

A y ea r l a ter , i n t he f a l l o f 1 975 , t he I s rae l

E lectr ic Company ( IEC) e stab l ished a p ro ject t o s tudy v ar ious a spects c oncern ing ap ro jected n uc lear p ower s tat ion . I t wa s o bv ious t hat t he s i te f or s uch a p lant i n I s rae l must b e a long t he s ea-shore , s ince a r eactor 's a nnua l d e mand f or c oo l ing water i s 2 0 t imes g reater t han t he e nt ire n at iona l r eserves o f f resh water .

S ea-

water s eemed t o o ffer t he o n ly s o lut ion . Y et t he s e lect ion o f as ea-shore s i te p rec ip itated a n a rgu ment among g eo log ists c oncern ing t he t ecton ic s tab i l ity o f t he Med iterranean s horel ine o f I s rae l ( Mazor 1 974 ; N eev 1 974 ) . I n o rder t o b r ing i n n ew a nd more c onc lus ive d ata f or s ett l ing t h is i s sue , t he I EC a pproached t he CMS a nd a sked i t t o c arry o ut a n u nderwater s urvey a t Caes area , p lott ing s ubmerged a nd o ffset man-made o r n atura l f eatures . S ince F le mm ing wa s a t

t he

t ime

a v is it ing p rofessor a t t he

D epart ment o f

H istory o f

Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions , i t was a g reed t hat A . R aban wou ld h ead t he s tudy a s a ma r ine a rchaeo log ist wh i le F lem m ing wou ld s erve a s c onsu ltant g eo log ist . By t hen F le m m ing h ad a lready e xpressed h is i dea t hat t he c oast wa s t ecton ica l ly s tab le . Neev r epresented t he Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l ( Neev e t a l . 1 978 ) . The CMS s urvey h ad t o b e c o mp leted i n t ime f or s ubm iss ion o f af ina l r eport t o I EC b y 1J une 1 976 . I n o rder t o a ccomp l ish t he p roposed r esearch p lan , a l most e very c a lm d ay d ur ing t he e ar ly months o f 1 976 w as u sed f or work ing i n t he s ea , i n ac o mb ined e ffort b y t he e nt ire t echn ica l s taff o f CMS , v o lunteer d ivers o f t he I UES , s tudents o f t he Department o f H istory o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions , a nd s ome p rofess iona l c ontractors . T he f i na l r eport wa s s ubm itted b y 1 5 May . Not

a l l

o f

t he

f i fteen

a ss ign ments

w ith in

t he

CMS p ro ject

were

p ure ly

a rchaeo log ica l i n n ature . B io log ica l a nd g eo morpho log ica l a spects were c on s idered p art o f t he c harter t o e stab l ish a d ata b ase f or t ecton ic s tudy o f t he s i te . E ng i-

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

7 5

n eer ing a nd a rchaeo logy were means f or t hat s tudy a nd n ot g oa ls i n t hemse lves , y et , a n a rchaeo log ica l b ias wa s q u ite n atura l . T he a ss ignments were : 1 .A d eta i led a nd a ccurate b athymetr ic s urvey o f t he s eab ottom i n a nd a round t he h arbour u s ing a l ow f requency e cho s ounder , t o p roduce a b athymetr ic map a nd a n o b l ique c omputer ized v iew o f i t s t opog raphy . 2 . P lotted s ect ions o f t he s ub-botto m u s ing t he "Mud P enetrat or" . 3 . E xcavat ion o f a t l ea st f i ve s ect ions o f t he s ea-f loor i n a n a tte mp t t o e xpose t he f oundat ions o f v ar ious s ubmerged man-made s tructu res . 4 . D eta iled p lans f or t wo 3 0 m l ong s ect ions o f t he i nner s ide o f t he ma in b reakwater , t o i nc lude d eta i ls o f t he c onstruct ion t echn ique a nd t he means o f b ind ing t he i nd iv idua l b locks . 5 . S urvey o f t he v ar ious a bras ion p latforms n ear t he h arbour t o measure t he p resent e levat ion o f e ach i n c ompar ison w ith t he o r ig in a l e levat ion . 6 . Carefu l s urvey o f t he Northern B reakwater f or a ny i nd icat ion o f av ert ica l f au lt a cross i t , o r e v idence f or s ubmergence o f i t s t ip . 7 . S tudy o f t he n ow s ubmerged c ross-wa l l i n t he i nner b ay t o e stab l ish i t s d ate o f c onstruct ion a nd t o d eterm ine whether i t was b u i lt o n l and o r i n t he water . 8 . S u rvey a nd t r ia l e xcavat ion o f t he s ubmerged p ro ject ion s outhwest o f t he p romontory a nd t he b a se o f t he S outhern B reakwater i n o rder t o e stab l ish i t s c haracter , whether n atura l o r a rt if ic ia l . 9 . A b iotop ic s earch i n d eeper wa ter a nd o n d ry l and f or r e mn ants o f o rgan isms t yp ica l o f t he i ntert ida l z one . 1 0 . T r ia l e xcavat ion a t t he f oot o f t he p od iu m , e xtend ing b e low t he f oundat ion o f t he e a r l iest s tructures , t o l ook f or t he I nner B as in o f t he Herod ian h arbour a nd i t s wa terleve l i n r e lat ion t o t he p resent o ne . 1 1 . Documented s urvey o f c oa sta l s tructures n ear t he p resent waterl ine , a nd a s tudy o f t he ir d ates a nd c onstruct ion t echn iques , i n o rder t o e stab l ish a d ata b ase f or a t ypo logy o f d ated b u i ld ing t echn iques i n Caesa rea . 1 2 . S urvey o f t he a bras ive s he lves s outh o f t he h arbour , a t t he P ise ina a nd K ibbutz S edot Yam , p lott ing t he ir l evel s a nd d at ing t he q uarr ies a nd s tructures o n t he m . 1 3 . T rac ing t opograph ic d iscrepanc ies o n t he s ea-botto m n orth a nd s outh o f Caesarea , b y as er ies o f "Mud P enetrator" s ect ions o n a e ast-west a x is . 1 4 . S urvey o f t he v a r ious man-made s tructures a nd q ua rr ies a t K rokode i lonpo l is a nd Ha 'yon im i s lands , o ff Ma 'agan M ichae l , i n o rder t o l ook f or d iscrepanc ies w ith t he p resent s ea l eve l . 1 5 . D iver s urvey o f t he s ea-bottom a d jacent t o t hese s i tes , t o l ook f or p oss ib le s ubmerged man-made s tructu res a nd o ffset g eo logi ca l f eatures . Hav ing a lmost n o b udget l im itat ion s , t he CMS p ro ject h ad a t i t s d isposa l t he who le r ange o f t echno logy a va i lab le a t t hat t ime i n I s rae l . Advanced e cho s ounde rs a nd c o mputer ized , d ata p rocessed maps , m in i-rangers f or p inpo int ing l ocat ions i n t he s ea a nd t he e xact c ourse o f s urvey ing b oats , ar ap id e xcavat ing b laster ( a l arge d iameter k nee wh ich i sl owered b eh ind t he p rope l lor o f at ug-boat , t o d ivert d ownward t he c urren t c reated b y ar otat ing p rope l lor a nd u sed t o r e move t he s and a nd e xpose t he b ur ied s tructures u nderneath ) , a ir l ifts , h ookahs - a l l were e ither b u i lt , r ented , o r b ough t f or t he p ro ject . t he f ina l r eport ( Raban e t a l .

A s u m ma ry o f t he r esu lts a s d escr ibed i n

1 976 : 2 7-58 ) i sp resented h ere f or t he f i rst t ime i n

E ng l ish . [ Ed itor ia l n ote :

i n o rder t o i n tegrate t h is r eport a t l ea st p art ial ly i nto t he

n arrat ive o f t he CAHEP e xcavat ions , t he t ext h as b een c hanged s l ight ly i n af ew p laces t o t ake a ccount o f s ome o f t he l ater d iscover ies , a nd n ote i s made o f t he CAHEP t erm ino logy f or t he e xcavat ion a reas .

I n a dd it ion , i n o rder t o a vo id d up l i-

7 6

1 .B .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC

c at ion , most o f t he i lustrat ions f or t h is s ect ion h ave b een p laced w ith t he i lust rat ions o f t he r e levant CAHEP e xcavat ion o r s urvey a rea i n Chapters I I a nd I V , a nd a re k eyed i n to b oth d iscuss ions . L ocat ion r eferences f or t he most p art r efer t o t he master p lan ( f ig . I I .1 ) .

J .P .0 . 1

The Na tura l T opography o f t he Sea-Botto m . ( a ) Rocky b ottom , c omposed o f k urkar ( carbonate c e mented q uartz s and stone ) , i s e xposed i n most a rea s o n t he n orthea st a nd n orth p art o f t he h arbou r .

These

e xposures a re f ound o n ly o n t he s ea-bottom e a st o f t he mer id iona l l i ne o f t he western t ips o f t he a bras ive p latforms f ound a t s ea l eve l . North o f t he C rusader c ity , s ubmerged r av ines c aused b y t he r ip-current a re d om inant t opograph ic f eat ures ; t hey a re r are s outh o f i t s n orth wa l l . T he max imu m d epth o f t he r ocky b ott om

i s l ess t han 5 m ; west o f i t t here i s a d rop o f s evera l

s easona l ly c overed b y wave-carr ied s and .

metres , a n a rea

A l most t he e nt ire r ocky b ottom w ith in

t he p er i meter o f t he C rusader c ity i s n ow c overed b y b u i ld ing d ebr is a nd a sh lar b lock s e roded f rom s tructures o n s hore , s ome o f w h ich a re we l l a gg lomera ted a nd a braded t o f orm a bra s ive p latforms r ese mb l ing b each-rock . T he western e xtre m it i es a re c overed w ith a h eavy l ayer o f b u i ld ing mater ia l , d isgu is ing t he o r ig ina l l ayout o f t he f oundat ion o f t he Herod ian b reakwaters . About 3 0 m west o f t he t i p o f t he k urkar p romontory , a t t he b ase o f t he S outhern B reakwater where t he Herod ian f l ush ing c hanne l a nd t he s lu ice g ate a re l ocated , t here a re s ome t i lted a nd s ubmerged r ocky p lates wh ich s ee m t o b e p art o f a n o ld a bras ive s he lf ( CAHEP A rea Q ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 .19 , n o . 8 ) .

A t t h is p o int t oo ,

t he t rans it ion f rom t he r ocky f eatures t o t he a rt if ic ia l s tructure o f t he

ma in

S outhern B reakwater i s c overed b y h uge d isp laced b locks o f b u i ld ing s tones a nd c hunks f a l len f rom t he t ip o f t he p romontory . T here a re f ew r ocky e xposures i n t he b ay t o t he s outh o f t he h arbour , b etween t he C itade l a nd t he P isc ina , b ut n umerous o utcrops o f b u ild ing mater ia ls c e mented b y n atura l c oncret ions ( f ig . 1 . 11 ) .

These f orm t opograph ic s ha l lows s eparated b y

s andy h o l lows , s ome o f wh ich a re o ver 7 m d eep . ( b ) S andy b ottom o ccurs w ith in t he p resent a nchorage , w ith a p a rt icu lar ly h eavy a ccumu lat ion o f s and a t i t s c entre ( f igs . 1 . 12 , 1 .19 ) .

T h is b ar c hanges s ea-

s ona l ly a nd s o met i mes r i ses t o w ith in 1 m o f s ea l eve l . T here i s a r ip-current c hanne l a long i t s s outh a nd s outhwestern s ides , wh ich i s 6 -8 m w ide a long t he modern q uay . There , t he western s ide o f t he s and b ar s lopes s teep ly t o ad epth o f o ver 6 m . A t r ia l t rench t hat was made t here w ith t he " b last ing k nee" r evea led t h in , i nterbedded v a rves o f g ypsu m a t ad epth o f 4 .6-4 .8 m . B e low , a t ad epth o f j ust o ver 5 .6 m , t here was a s tratum o f g rey c lay m ixed w ith r ubb le a nd p ottery , r est ing o n b rown , s ter i le c lay a t ad epth o f 6 .2 m . s um

L aboratory a na lys is o f t he gyp-

made b y t he I s rae l Geo log ica l S urvey c a lcu lated i t s d ate t o b e

b etween

3 400-3900 B .P . Y et t he u nder ly ing c lay i nc luded p ottery s herds o f more r ecent p er iods t hat m ight h ave b een b rought t here b y t he r ip-current t rench a t al ater d ate . West o f t he mer id iona l l i ne o f t he a bras ive s he lves , t he s ea-bottom i s s andy e verywhere , e xcept f or t hose a rea s c overed b y t he s tructure o f t he b reakwaters a nd b y a ssoc iated man-made d ebr is .

T he d epth o f t he s andy s ea f loor i s 6 -8 m

w ith in t he s unken h a rbour a nd o ver 9 m f a rther w est .

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

7 7

I n c erta in s i tes , wherever t he t opography o f t he s unken s tructures c aused r ipc urrents t o d ig c hannels , t here a re d eeper h o l lows e xpos ing l ayers o f r ubb le m ixed w ith l a rge q uant it ies o f b roken amphoras a t d epths o f 7 .5 t o 8m . A t s i tes w ith in t he s ubmerged h arbour b as in , where t he " b la st ing k nee 's" water f l ow c leared o ff t he s and , t here was a s ubstratum o f f ine c lay c overed b y al ayer o f r ubb le a nd f lat p ebb les . L ink 's e xped it ion e xposed s uch a l ayer o f s ter i le c lay a t t he h arbour 's E ntrance Channe l u nder 9 m o f water a nd s and , a nd c ons idered i t t o b e t he o r ig in a l s ea-bottom o n wh ich t he h arbour was b u i lt ( Fr itsch & B en-Dor 1 961: 5 5) . Man-made F eatures n ear S ea L eve l . ( a ) Rock-cut i nsta l lat ions o f at ype t hat i nd icate a ct iv it ies c lose t o s ea l eve l w ere i nvest igated : a nd r ock-cut

e .g .

p isc inae , f lush ing c hannels , q uarr ies f or b u i ld ing s tones ,

f oundat ion t renches . T he b a s ic c oncept

u sed

i n s urvey ing t hese

i n sta l lat ions i s t hat s uch s tructures must h ave h ad t he ir s urround ing e dge a t l east af ew c ent i metres a bove t he h ighest t ide . T h is b as ic c oncept a nd t he s e lect ion o f r e levant i nsta l lat ions were made i n c on su ltat ion w ith F le m m ing a nd t he d ata f or s im ilar Roman f ac i l it ies i n I ta ly ( Schm iedt 1 972) . There i s af l ush ing c hanne l w ith a s lu ice g ate a t t he s outhwest t i p o f t he p romontory , n ear t he b a se o f t he ma in Herod ian b reakwater ( CAHEP A rea Q ; f igs . I 1 .1 , 1 .19 , n o . 8 ) .

A lthough most o f t he c hanne l 's c ourse wa s f i l led i n ( probab ly b y

t he C rusaders ) a nd i s n ow c overed b y a modern c oncrete s lab , i t s o r ig ina l f unct ion s ee ms t o h ave b een t o f l ush t he e nc losed h arbour b as in b y a l low ing t he t hrough p assage o f s ea-water . I n o rder t o s ecure a c ontro l led i n f low , t he b a se o f t he c hann e l must h ave b een j ust a bove t he h ighest s pr ing t ides , w ith t he s lu ice g ates b locki ng a n e xtra i nf low o f s i lt d ur ing s tormy d ays ( us ing s ect ions o f t he c hanne l b etween t he s lu ices t o t rap t he s i lt ) .

P ara l le ls a re k nown f ro m S idon ( H . F rost

1 973) a nd o ther Roman h arbours ( B lackman 1 973 : 1 72 ) . T he p resent e levat ion o f t he c hanne l i s a bout r igh t f or f lush ing t he h arbour b as in , o r s l ight ly t oo l ow . I f i t was o r ig ina l ly u sed a s af eed ing c hanne l f or a f i sh-tank , i t s p resent e levat ion i s t oo h igh b y 0 .20-0 .30 m . The P isc ina , o ften r eferred t o i n p opu la r l i terature a s " Cleopatra 's B ath s ," ( CAHEP Area P ) i s ap oo l f ed a nd d ra ined b y ac omp lex o f r ock-cut c hanne ls , o r igi na l ly s urrounded b y v ar ious b u i ld ings .

I t i sl ocated o n a sma l l p romontory west o f

t he Roman t heatre i n al ocat ion n ow e xposed t o t he mar ine e le ments a nd a ffected b y waves most o f t he y ea r ( f igs . I . 11 , 4 0 ) . B oth F l inder a nd Netzer , who s tud ied t h is c o mp lex p r ior t o t he CAHEP c ampa igns , p roposed t hat i t wa s ac oherent u n it b u i lt t o a master p lan ( Netzer 1 976 ; F l inder 1 976a ) .

Cons ider ing t he v ar ious f eed-

i ng c hanne ls a nd t he p oo l a s as ing le u n it , i t i si mportant t o n ote t hat t here i s o n ly o ne s o lut ion n otch i n t he p oo l , a bout 0 .10 m a bove t he p resent s ea l eve l . T he s urf ace o f t he t r i m med b ed-rock a round t he p oo l i s 0 .20-0 .25 m a bove t hat n otch a nd i t s r ocky b ottom i s 0 .80-0 .90 m b e low i t ( f ig . 1 1 .148 ) . T he n otch i s a t t he max imum p oss ib le water c apac ity o f t he p oo l , a t t he s ame e levat ion a s t he b ase o f t he o pen ing t o t he r ock-cut o ver-f low c hanne l o n t he west e nd . I f o ne c ons iders t he f act t hat t he waterleve l i n t he p oo l s hou ld h ave b een s o mewhat h igher t han t he s ea l eve l i n o rder t o p erm it water c ircu la t ion , t hat n otch s uggests a s ea l eve l much l i ke t he p resent o ne d ur ing t he t ime t he p oo l was u sed , whether a s as w i mm ing p oo l d ur ing t he Herod ian p er iod ( Netzer ) o r a s af i sh-ra is ing t ank i n t he t h ird t o f ourth c entur ies ( F l inder ) . F le m m ing , h owever , s uggests a n u p l ift o f t he p oo l b y a s much a s 0 .25 m s ince a nt iqu ity ( F le m m ing e t a l .

1 978 : 6 3 , f ig . 9 ) .

7 8

1 .1 3 .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC T he c utt ings o ff S edot Yam c o mpr ise t wo r ectangu lar b as ins o n t he V -shaped

r eef o pen ing westward f rom i t s p o int o n t he s andy b each o f t he k ibbutz ( f igs . 1 .12-13 , p l . I ) . T here a re t h ree l eve ls o f a bras ive s he lves . T he p oo ls were c ut o n t he l owest o ne , wh ich i s a bout 0 .30-0 .40 m b e low t he p resent s he lf . The e dges o f t he p ool s a re a t l east 0 .10 m b e low water d ur ing l ow t ide . Cons ider ing t he ir p robab le f unct ion a s f i sh-tanks , t he s ea l eve l must h ave b een a t l east h a lf a metre l ower when t hey were i n u se . A lthough we h ave n o way o f d at ing t hese p oo ls , p ara l le l e levat ions f or s im i lar s tructures a t Dor a nd A th l it s uggest a med ieva l d ate ( Raban 1 983d ) . ( b ) F oundat ion c ourses o f s tone wa l ls a t t he waterl ine were g iven s pec ia l a ttent ion .

E a r l ier s urveys o f CMS a nd I UES a t Caesa rea a nd o ther c oa sta l s i tes

h ave p roved t hat t he a nc ients u sed a s pec ia l t echn ique t o b u i ld t he l ower p ort ions o f v ert ica l s tone wa l ls wh ich were v u lnerab le t o w ave a ct ion . These s ect ions were u sua l ly d ifferent f ro m t hose o f o ther c ontemporary t errestr ia l wa l ls , o r e ven t hose p arts o f i nundated wa l ls wh ich w ere a bove t he waterl ine . The ma jor d amage t o t he l ower z one a t waterleve l wa s c aused b y t he s uck ing e ffect o f r etreat ing water , wh ich c an t ea r o ff i nd iv idua l b locks f rom t he ir p lace w ith in t he wa l l . I n o rder t o a vo id t h is p henomenon , a nc ient b u i lders u sed b locks i ncorpora ted d eep ly w ith in t he wa l l a nd a sse mb led t ight ly e nough w ith n e ighbour ing members t o c ause max i mu m d rag . E xamp les o f s uch wa l ls a re k nown f rom P hoen ic ian q uays a s e ar ly a s t he n inth c entury B .C . ( Bra idwood 1 940 : 2 01 ) : l ong , s l im , c areful ly-cut a sh lar b locks l a id i n t ight c ourses o f h eaders . T he e ff ic iency a nd d urab il ity o f t hat t echn ique made P hoen ic ian s ea-wa ll s t he f orerunners o f He l len ist ic f ort if icat ions , a s s een a t S amar ia a nd Akko . S o , as ystemat ic s u rvey o f d atab le wa ll s n ea r t he waterl ine t hat h ave s uch a c omponent i n t he ir s tructura l t echn ique m ight i nd ic ate t he p rox im ity a nd r e lat ive e levat ion o f t he s ea a t t he t ime t hey were b u i lt . Among s uch wa l ls a re t he most i mportant r e mnants a t t he s outheastern s ide o f t he h a rbour , t hose o f t he C rusader C itade l o n t he p romontory ( CAHEP A rea M ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 22 ) .

T h is C itade l was b u i lt d ur ing t he f i rst h a lf o f t he t h irteenth c en-

t ury a nd wa s d estroyed i n 1 265 a long w ith r est o f t he c ity a nd i t s f ort if icat ions . The C rusaders h ad r e-used R o man c o lumns o f marb le a nd g ran ite a s r e inforc ing c ross-beams w ith in t he ir f ort if icat ions t h roughout Caesarea ( a s i n A shke lon ) . Yet , i n s ome c ases , t he f oundat ion c ourse o f af ort if icat ion wa l l wa s c o mposed e xc lus ive ly o f s uch c o lumns , l a id n ext t o e ach o ther i n af ash ion r ese mb l ing t he c oursi ng o f P hoen ic ian s ea-wa l ls . T h is i st he c ase a t t he b ase o f t he s outheastern t ower o f t he h a rbour 's c itade l , where r egu la r a sh lars were r ep laced b y ac ourse o f c o lumns l a id h or izontal ly when n ear t he water ( f ig . 1 1 .125 ) . The s ame t echn ique was u sed o n t he o ther s ide o f t he c itade l , f ac ing t he i nner b ay , where t he b a se c ourse o f t he n orthwestern t ower wa s a l so b u i lt o n ly o f c o lumns ( f ig . 1 1 .129 ) . T he e levat ion o f s ome o f t hese c o lu mn c ourses s uggests a s ea l eve l f or t he t h irteenth c ent ury s omewhat b e low t he p resent o ne , s ince t he c o lumns a t t he s outh s ide o f t he c itade l a re i ncorporated i n to t he e x ist ing a bras ive s he lf ( f ig . 1 1 .125) . T he C itade l s ee ms t o h ave b een b u i lt wh i le t he s ea wa s a t l ea st 0 .30-0 .50 m l ower t han a t p resent . The a sh lar q uay a t t he n ortheast s ide o f t he h arbour ( CAHEP A rea L ; f igs . 1 .19 , n o . 1 0 , 1 1 .1) i s l ocated b etween t he Co lumn J etty t o i t s s outh a nd t he mode rn q uay t o i t s n orth . T h is s tructure i s a bout 1 5 m l ong a nd 6 -7 m w ide , a nd h as

Chapter I : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

7 9

b een p reserved t o ah e ight o f o n ly t wo c ourses o f a sh lar h eaders ( f ig . 1 1 .113 ) . The s tructure i s n ow p a rt ia l ly d estroyed a nd m igh t h ave b een h igher a nd l onger i n i t s o r ig ina l f orm . T he g reat w idth , a nd t he t ype o f mar ine c onstruct ion o f mass ive a sh lar c o mponents , i nd icate t ha t i t was most p robab ly a q uay o r aj etty w ith in t he R o man h arbour c omp lex ( Lev ine & Netzer 1 986 : 5 0-52 , n . 7 3 ) . T he d epth o f t he water a round t hat p ier i sn ow j ust o ver 0 .5 m , a nd a lthough t he s urround ing a bras ion p latform i s c o mposed o f c oncreted d ebr is a nd n ot b ed-rock , i t i s s t il l v ery h ard t o r econstruct t he d epth o f water n eeded f or mar ine v esse ls t o moor n ext t o i t u n less t he s ea l eve l wa s h igher t han t he p resent o ne b y 1m o r more . The s ame r econstruct ion o f a h igher s ea l eve l c an b e d educed f ro m t he l arge c hunk o f b each-rock embedded o n t op o f t he p ier 's t i p . T h is f eature was s a mp led b y t he g eo log ists o f t he I s rae l G eo log ica l S urvey ( Bak ler a nd T home ) , who s tate i t was made o f a ragon ite , t yp ica l f or a n i n tert ida l z one . The Co lumn J etty , j ust s outh o f t he a sh lar q uay ( f igs . 1 .14-15 , p l . I ,n o . 5 1 ) i s a v ery p ro m inent f eature i n t he h a rbour o f Caesarea a nd was d escr ibed a nd d ep icted i n t he n ineteenth c entury ( Drake 1 873 ; S chumacher 1 888 ) . I t e xtends 7 5 m west o f t he s hore , j ust b e low s ea l eve l .

A t i t s western t ip t he c o lumns were

l a id i n ad ifferent o r ientat ion , a nd t he c ont inuat ion o f t he j etty t owa rd t he S SW n ow l i es we l l b e low s ea l eve l . T he manner i n wh ich t he c o lumns were l a id r ese mb les t he C rusader s ea-wa l ls d escr ibed a bove , s o i t i s v ery t e mpt ing t o r e late t h is j etty t o t he C ru sader c i ty ( R inge l 1 975 : 1 71) . Yet , i t i s a t l east p oss ib le t hat i t was b u i lt b y J azzar P asha l a te i n t he e ighteenth c entury i n o rder t o f ac i l itate t rans-sh ipment o f b u i ld ing mater ia ls f ro m Caesa rea t o Akko ( Abe l 1 914 : 5 88 ) . Th is p oss ib i l ity i s , h owever , l ess p robab le i n v iew o f t he i ncorporat ion w ith in t he j etty o f a n a sh la r-bu i lt f loor n ear t he p o int where i t b ends , n ow u nder 0 .20-0 .30 m o f water ( f ig . 1 .17) . I td oes n ot s ee m l i ke ly t hat t he Tu rk ish g overnor o f Akko c ou ld h ave b u i lt a j etty s o c arefu l ly j ust f or a p lunder ing p ro ject . Moreover , t he s ubmerg ence o f t h is f loor matches t he e st imated s ea l eve l f or t he t h irteenth c entury o f 0 .50 m b e low p resent s ea l eve l , a s a ttested a t t he C ru sader C itade l . T he f urther s ubmergence a nd d ownwa rd t i pp ing o f t he s outhwest c ont inuat ion o f t he j etty i s p robab ly d ue t o u ndertrench ing a nd s lump ing wh ich t ook p lace w ith in t he i nner b ay i n ap ost-Crusader e ra ( F lem m ing e t a l .

1 978 : 6 2 , F ig . 8 ) .

The a sh lar c ourses b e low t he n orth f ace o f t he modern p ier ( CAHEP A rea Q ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 58 ) h ave b een e roded d own t o t he h igh-t ide l eve l a nd c an b e s een b e low t he n orth f ace o f t he modern c oncrete s lab . T hough c overed b y mar ine i ncrustat ion , i nd iv idua l a sh lar b locks c an b e d ist ingu ished , l a id a s h eaders ( f ig . 1 1 .159 ) .

I n

p laces t hese h eaders a re l a id a bove what s eems t o b e n atura l r ock , 1 .2 m b e low t he p resent s ea l eve l . T h is ma sonry s ee ms t o b e p a rt o f t he i nner f ace o f t he b ase o f t he Herod ian b reakwater , a nd o n i t t here i s ab a se c ourse o f r e-u sed c o lumns f rom t he western e xtrem ity o f t he C rusader Ha rbour C itade l . S im i lar a sh lar h eade rs o f l arger s ize c an s t i l l b e s een i n s i tu o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he modern p ier ( f ig . 1 1 .161) .

S trat igraph ica l ly , t hese a sh lar h eaders o n b oth s ides o f t he p ro mon-

t ory a re c lear ly p re-Crusader i n d ate , p robab ly a s e a r ly a s t he o r ig ina l Herod ian h arbour c o mp lex . T he ir p resent e levat ion

i n r e lat ion t o t he modern s ea l eve l

s ee ms t o b e much t he s ame a s t he ir o r ig ina l o ne . T hese d ata c orrespond w ith o ther f ind ings whk 'h d ocumen t t he s ea l eve l o f t he Herod ian e ra t o b e much t he s a me a s t he p resent o ne .

8 0

I .B .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC The a sh la r wa l l a t t he n orthea stern s hore o f t he i nner b ay ( CAHEP A rea S ;

f igs . I 1 .1 , 1 64-66 ) was s tud ied b y B loch i n t he l ate f i ft ies ( B loch 1 965 ) .

I th as b een

p reserved t o ah e ight o f t hree t o f our c ourses a nd t here a re b oreho les o f ma r ine L ithophagae o n i t s t op , s o me 1 .2 m a bove t he p resent s ea l eve l .

T h is t op c ourse

was b u i lt o f a sh lars b ound b y mo lten l ead p oured a round c lamps s et i n to d oveta i ls haped g rooves , s t il l s een o n t he t op f ace o f t he w a l l ( f igs . 1 1 .171-72 ) . B ased o n p ara l le ls o f s im i lar l ead-c la mped d oveta i l g rooves f ro m t he Herod ian e ra , B loch r econstructed a p ost-Herod ian s ea l eve l a lmost 1 m h igher t han t he p resent MSL ( B loch 1 965 : 1 5-16 ) . T he western c ont inuat ion o f t hat wa l l h as a s o mewhat d iffere nt o r ientat ion a nd s ee ms t o h ave b een b u i lt i n a l ater p er iod , f rom r e-used R o man b locks . When t he b ase o f t he wa l l wa s c lea red a nd e xposed b y r emova l o f t he s urr ound ing d ebr is , . i r on b a r c lamps were f ound i n p lace , b e low p resent s ea l eve l . S ince s uch i r on c lamps o ccu r i n t he C rusader wals a t Akko a nd t he h arbou r c itad e l i n Caesarea , t he ir s ubmerged l ocat ion a t t he b ase o f t h is wa l l i s a nother i nd ic at ion f or a s ea l eve l a t l east 0 .5 m l ower d ur ing t he t h irteenth c entury . ( c ) S umm ing u p t he d ata f rom t he r ock-cut a nd b u i lt s tructu res a t t he waterl i ne i n Caesarea , i ts ee ms t hat a l l d ata i nd icate a f a ir ly s tab le g round s urface d uri ng 2 000 y ears o f sma l l c hanges o f s ea l eve l , p robab ly o f e ustat ic c haracter . I t l ooks a s i f t he s ea l eve l d ur ing t he Roman e ra was h igher t han t he p resent MSL b y 0 .30-0 .50 m a nd m ight h ave b een a s h igh a s 0 .80-1 .00 m a bove MSL t oward t he e nd o f t he B yzant ine p er iod , o r s oon a fter . T he s ea l eve l was c lear ly l ower t han t he p resent MSL d ur ing t he t h irteenth c entury b y 0 .40-0 .70 m . T hese e ustat ic c hanges c orrespond w ith t he g enera l e ustat ic t rend s k nown f rom s i tes e lsewhere a round t he e astern Med iterranean ( B loch 1 965 ) . T here i s n o e v idence f or a ny l oca l d isc repanc ies a long t he s horel ine o f Caesarea . Excava t ions o n Land . I t was s uggested t hat e v idence f or t he r e lat ive s tab i l ity o f t he s hore a t Caes a rea s ince t he Herod ian e ra m ight b e o bta ined b y p ursu ing Negev 's e xcavat ions a t t he f oot o f t he p od iu m o n t he I nner B as in , c lea red i n 1 961-1962 ( Negev 1 967 : 2 7-30 ;

CAHEP

A rea 1 , f igs .

I I .1 ,

6 7 ) .

Negev h imse lf ,

when a dv ised o f

t he

p ro ject , r eca l led r each ing what s ee med t o h im t o b e mar ine d epos its a t t he l ow g round j ust west o f t he p rotrud ing s tructure h e h ad d es ignated a s t he p ier o f a R o man i nner h arbour ( Negev 1 975 : 2 74 ) . A s i te was s e lected f or a l im ited s ondage 2m s quare n ext t o t he western most a nd l owest v i s ib le s tructure a t t he f oot o f t hat " Roman P ier" . I t wa s al i ne o f a sh la r s labs o f wh ite l imestone t hat l ook l i ke a l ower s ta ir o r e dge o f aq uay , a nd t he t r ia l d ig wa s c a rr ied w est a nd a d jacent t o i t ( f ig . 1 .18 ) . T he e xcavat ion was c arr ied o ut manua l ly d ur ing t he wettest month o f t he y ear , a l l t hrough t he s econd h a lf o f March 1 976 . T he t op o f t he a sh lar c ourse i s 1 .65 m a bove MSL a nd g round-water was r eached a t 1 .2 m a bove MSL .

F urther

d igg ing n ecess itated c ont inuou s p u mp ing o f t he t he g round-water a nd t he c lea r ing o f m ixed g rave l , s herds , a nd r ubb le wh ich were a l ready c oncreted t ogether b y t he water-born c a lc ium c arbonate . A t a n e levat ion o f 0 .60-0 .30 m a bove MSL a h or iz onta l n otch wa s o bserved a long t he e astern b au lk , b e low t he s ta ir . T he n otch was f ound t o b e c overed w ith i n tert ida l mar ine f auna , Dendrophorae c l iy thome lae . L ower , f rom a bout 0 .20 m a bove MSL a nd d own , t he s urface o f t he wa l l was f ound t o b e c overed w ith s he l ls o f Os trea , a mo l lusc t ha t l i ves b e low t he l ow t ide , c on-

Chapter H : Excavat ion b efore CAHEP

8 1

s tant ly c overed w ith s ea-water . A t 0 .05-0 .10 m a bove MSL t here was a f loor , o r l ayer o f l arge a sh la r b locks l a id r ough ly n ext t o e ach o ther ( f ig . 1 1 .73 ) .

T he v ert i-

c a l wa l l a t t he e astern b au lk may r epresent t he e dge o f aq uay o f a n i nner h arbour o f e ar ly Roman o r e ven Herod ian d ate , a nd i t s n otch a nd f auna l r ema ins d ocu ment as ea l eve l a bout 0 .20-0 .30 m h igher t han t he p resent o ne f or t hat p er iod .

I t a lso

p roves t hat a t t hat t ime t he s ea was a bout 1 00 m f arther i n land , i n what m ight h ave b een t he Herod ian I nner B a s in t o wh ich J osephus may a l lude ( AJ 1 5 .332 ) . Underwater S urvey a nd E xcavat ion . T he u nderwater work was t he ma in c o mponent i n t he I EC p ro ject , a lso t he c ost l iest a nd most d emand ing o ne . T he f act t hat i t h ad t o b e c arr ied o ut d u r ing t he

w inter

months

r ad ica l ly l im ited

t he

n u mber o f

p oss ib le

d iv ing

d ays

a nd

i ncrea sed t he o dds a ga inst g ood v is ib i l ity i n t he water a nd f or amp le d ocumentat ion b y p hotographs . A l most 2 00 d ives were c a rr ied o ut w ith in 2 8 d iv ing d ays . E ach d ive wa s s u m med u p b y ad eta i led d iv ing r eport f i l led o ut b y t he d ivers a nd t h rough r ecords o n PVC d raw ing b oards t hat were c op ied i m med iate ly b y t he a rch itect , G . Kap lan . P o ints i n t he s ea were p lotted b y i n terpo lat ion o f d ata f ro m t h ree t heodo l ites s tat ioned o n r eference p o ints o n l and . T he s u rvey a nd c o l lect ion o f d ata f or t he 1 :1000 g enera l map wa s d one b y t he c iv i l e ng ineer E . S ivan a nd t he s urveyor Y . S to ler .

E . Ad ler wa s r espons ib le f or t he b iotop ic a nd g eomorpho log ic

s u rvey , a nd Y . T ur-Kaspa wa s i n c harge o f t he t echn ica l a spects o f t he u nderwater s urvey a nd t he e xcavat ion g ea r . T r ia l p robes o n t he s ea-f loor were c a rr ied o ut b y a" b last ing k nee" a nd a 4 inch d iameter a ir l ift ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 , a ppend ix a :

5 9-61) . V ert ica l measure ments u nderwater were t aken b y c omb ined u se o f a metre t ape a nd b ubb le h ose , a nd t he d epth was e stab l ished b y t hree i ndependent c ap il lary d epth-gauges , w ith r eference t o t he e xact t ime o f t he d ay i n wh ich t he measu rement was t aken . On s hore , M . F roe l ich was i n c ha rge o f r ead ing t he waterleve l e very 3 0 m inutes t hrough t he d ay , p lus wave h e igh t , l ength a nd d irect ion . The w ind was a lso measured e very h our , a nd a l l t hese d ata were matched w ith t he r ecords o f t he mar iog raph a nd t he meteoro log ic s tat ion a t t he p ort o f Ha ifa f or c a l ibrat ion o f a ccurate MSL . The i n terpo lated MSL was u sed a s t he b as is f or t he maps a nd p lans a cco mpany ing t he f ina l r eport . The s ub merged man-made s tructures t hat were s urveyed a nd p art ia l ly c leared were r eferred t o i n t he f ina l r eport o n ly when r e levant t o e stab l ish ing a ccurate c a l ibrat ion o f s ubmergence . ( a ) A S unken Pavemen t ( CAHEP A rea F ; f igs . 1 .19 , n o . 2 , I I .1 , 4 5 ) o f r egu lar k urkar s labs was n oted a bout 5 0 m west o f t he n orthern t i p o f t he modern s outhern b reakwater . I t i s ar ectangu lar s tructure wh ich wa s d iscovered i n e ar l ier s urveys o f I UES a nd was s tud ied i n 1 973 b y t wo s tudents f rom t he Hebrew Un ivers ity , S . Wachsmann a nd T . B en-Tzvee . T he f loor t i lts f ro m a d epth o f 4 .90 m a t t he n orthwest s ide o f i t s p reserved s urface t oward t he s outheast , where i t s s urface i s a t a d epth o f 5 .05 m .

I t wa s c onstructed o f a sh la r s labs w ith mean d i mens ions o f

0 .45-0 .50 m x 0 .90-1 .05 m . The h e ight o f t he s labs r anged b etween 0 .23-0 .27 m . T he f loor wa s l a id o n ac ush ion o f p ebb les a nd smal r ubb le , w ith p ure s and u ndern eath . Wh ile t he n orthern a nd e astern e dges o f t he s urface a re c lea r ly d ef ined , t he o ther s ides a re c overed w ith i ncrusted r ubb le a nd c oncreted d ebr is . Fa rther s outh ,

8 2

L I .B .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC

n ext t o t he i nner f ace o f t he ma in b reakwater , t he r ip-current h as u ndertrenched t he f a l len s tructures , s o i t i sn ow i mposs ib le t o f i nd o ut whether t here was o r ig in al ly a ny a rch itectura l c onnect ion b etween t he f loor a nd t he b reakwater . I t s ee ms a s i f t he f loor c ont inues a t l east 6 m f a rther t o t he west , b ut t he c over ing d ebr is makes i t d iff icu lt t o a scerta in t he a ctua l d i men s ions . T he s labs were l a id w ithout a ny c ement o r o ther b ind ing , r ough ly j o ined o n t he western s ide a nd more t ight ly i ncrusted o n t he e astern p a rt o f t he f loor ( f ig . 1 1 .44 ) . T r ia l t renches were made w ith a n a ir l ift i n t wo s i tes a long t he e dges o f t he f loor i n o rder t o d eterm ine i t s b ase . S o me p otsherds t hat w ere f ound i n t he s and b e low t he f loor were t oo e roded t o b e d ated . I t s eems a s i f t hey p enetrated t h rough g aps b etween t he s labs a fter t he f loor was a lready s ubmerged . A c ourse o f l ong a sh la r h eaders was f ound a d jacent t o t he f loor o n i t s e ast s ide , a t ad epth o f 5 .6 m . T h is c ourse may h ave s erved a s t he r eta in ing wa l l f or t he f i l l a bove wh ich t he " f loor" s erved a s t he t opp ing p avement . b locks a re 1 .9-2 .0 x 0 .55-0 .60 x 0 .45-0 .50 m

T he l ong a sh lar

t yp ica l d i mens ions f or P hoen ic ian

a nd Hel len ist ic ma r ine wa l ls , a nd f or t hose o f t he Roman P ier d escr ibed a bove . There a re n o r e ma ins i n t he v ic in ity o f t he f loor t o i nd icate t hat i t s erved a s a b ase f or a s uperstructure . T he f act t hat i t s c omponents a re s t i l l more o r l ess i n t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ions d esp ite h av ing b een e xposed t o t he s urge o ver many c entur ies , i nd icates c arefu l c onstruct ion t hat c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een c arr ied o ut u nder 5m o f water . I t i s v ery l i ke ly t hat t he p latform was p a rt o f as econdary q uay o r p ier , a nd wa s o r ig ina l ly we l l a bove t he water . I n t hat c a se , i t s p resent e levat ion d ocu ments a s ubmergence o f a bout 5 -6 m . T he f act t hat t he f loor i s s t i l l c lose t o h or izonta l s peaks a ga inst t he p oss ib le e xp lanat ion o f s ubmergence b y s lump ing , f lu id izat ion , o r u ndertrench ing ( but s ee F lem m ing e t a l .

1 978 : 7 8-79 ) . T he p rox i m-

i ty o f t he f loor t o o ther f eatures o f t he a nc ient h arbour wh ich a re s t i l l i n much t he ir o r ig ina l e levat ion , s uch a s t he q uay a nd t he f lush ing c hanne l o n t he western t i p o f t he p romontory , i nd icates t hat i t s s ubmergence wa s g radua l r ather t han c atastroph ic . Th is i st he o n ly way t he f loor c ou ld ma inta in i t s p resent i n tact s tate , a lthough g eo log ica l c ores s uggest i ti sa d jacent t o af au lt ( Neev e t a l .

1 978 ) .

( b ) The Northern B reakwater ( CAHEP A rea H ; f ig . I I .1 , p l . I , n o . 5 5 ) was s hown

i n p re l im inary s urveys t o l ack a ny v i s ib le ,

a rch itectura l ly we l l-def ined

s tructures wh ich were s t i l l i n tact . T he western t ip i s t he more i nterest ing p art o f t he b reakwater . L ink 's e xped it ion c arr ied o ut u nderwater e xcavat ion s i n t h is a rea , a nd t hough t hey went d own 3 m b e low t he s andy b ottom , n o i ntact s tructure was d iscovered . Yet t he d ebr is i s we l l d ef ined a nd r eta ins more o r l ess t he o r ig ina l r ectangu lar l ayout o f t he b reakwater . T he s tructure i s c omposed o f sma l l s tone r ubb le , e xcept t he westernmost 3 0-40 m o f i t s s outhwest p a rt , n ext t o t he i nner s ide o f t he e ntrance , where a f a l len a nd d ownwa rd-t i lted ma ss o f h uge r ectangu lar b locks c overs e veryth ing .

T he t op o f t h is ma ss i s n ow u nder l ess t han 2 m o f

water a nd i t s f oot ing i s s unk i n t he s andy b ottom o f t he e ntrance , a t ad epth o f o ver 7 m . T he b locks a re u p t o 7 .0 x 1 .0 x 1 . 2 m i n s ize , a nd most o f t hem t i lt d own t oward t he west a nd NW . T he r est o f t he b reakwater i sr ather e ven i n s hape , s lop ing g radua l ly d ownward t o t he n orth , b ut w ith a s teep s lope o f sma l l r ubb le ( 50 °60 °)o n i t s s outh s ide . T he s andy s ea-botto m a long t he b reakwater i s u nder 4 -6 m o f water a t t he e ast a nd 7 .4 m n ext t o i t s t ip a t t he west . N ear t he b reakwater 's b ase t here i s ag radua l t rans it ion f rom a westward s lop ing b ed-rock t o r ubb le r a m-

Chapter I : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

8 3

p art a bout 1 5-20 m west o f t he p resent a bras ive s he lf ( f or CAHEP r esearch i n t h is a rea , s ee S ect ion I V .C , S urvey L ine n o . 1 2) . A lthough n o d irect e v idence was f ound f or t he r ate o f s ub mergence o f t he Northern B reakwater , t he f act t hat i t s b ase i s n ow a t l east 1 m h igher t han t hat o f t he S outhern B reakwater m ight i nd icate u neven s ubs idence o f t he s ea-f loor .

T he o ther n otab le f act i s t hat t he u pper s ur-

f ace o f t he Northern B reakwater l i es a t n ea r ly t he s a me d epth n ear i t s b a se a s a t i t s t ip . S o , a ny s ubmergence must h ave b een g radua l a nd r ather e ven o n a n e astwest a x is . The t ota l a bsence o f a ny r emnants o f a sh lar b locks , o r v ert ica l f eatures a long t he i nner s ide o f t h is b reakwater m ight i nd icate t hat i t wa s n ever u sed a s a q uay a nd n o t ranssh ipment o f g oods wa s b e ing c arr ied o ut o n i t . ( c ) The i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( CAHEP A reas A , B , C ; f igs . I I .1 , 3 ) was t he f ocus o f most o f t he CMS u nderwater work f or t he I EC , p a rt icul ar ly t he s outhwest s ect ion . T h is i s ah uge s tructure , w ith i t s b ase a t t he s outhwest

s ide

o f

t he

modern

mo le

( a s

a w estward

c ont inuat ion

o f

t he

r ocky

p romontory ) , e xtend ing w est f or o ver 3 00 m a nd t hen b end ing g radua l ly t oward t he n orth f or a nother 3 00 m .

I t s e nt ire o r ig ina l l ength was p robab ly j u st u nder 7 00 m ,

a nd t he w idth o f i t s d ebr is r anges f rom a m in imu m o f j ust o ver 2 0 m a t i t s s outhe astern b ase t o o ver 2 00 m ( on t he west-east a x is ) c lose t o i t s n orthern t ip . The p resent d epth o f t he water n ext t o i t i s 7 -9 m o uts ide a nd 6 -8 m i ns ide . Wh i le i n s ome p laces t he d ebr is o f t he b reakwater i s c overed b y s and , i n o ther p laces n earby t he r e ma ins o f f a l len s tructures a re a s h igh a s 6m a bove t he s eabed . Most o f t he s urface o f t he d ebr is i s c overed n ow w ith s evera l c ent imetres o f ma r ine i ncrustat ion .

One must b reak t h is o rganogen ic c oat ing i n o rder t o b e a b le t o s tudy

t he c haracter o f t he s tructura l c omponents a nd t he t ypes o f b u ild ing mater ia ls t hat were u sed f or c onstruct ing t he b reakwater . The e nt ire p ro ject was i n it iated b y t he d iscovery o f l ead p udd les o n t he b a se o f o ne f a l len s tructure a t t he n orthea st p ort ion o f t hat b reakwater 1 2 y ea rs e arl i er ( l ater CAHEP A rea D ; f ig . I .10 ) .

Yet n o l ead p our ings were t raced d ur ing t h is

s urvey , n or a ny o ther c la mps f ound s t i l l i n s i tu .

T he magn itude a nd v ar iab i l ity o f

t he d ebr is s uppressed a ny a ttempt t o c arry o ut a f u l l-sca le , d eta i led s urvey o f t he e nt ire b reakwater . C onsu lt ing t he d ata f rom s urveys made t here d ur ing t he p rev io us 1 5 y ears , a nd a fter c a rry ing o ut a p re l im inary v isua l s urvey , t he s tudy c ont inu ed i n s e lected s i tes t hat s eemed t o b e more s ign if icant f or t he c entra l i s sue o f t he p ro ject . I n a dd it ion t o ad eta i led s urvey o f t hese s i tes , f our t r ia l t renches were e xcavated w ith t he " b la st ing k nee" t o e xpose f oundat ion l eve ls . A sh lar s tructures a t t he i nner s ide o f t he b reakwater , w ith in i t s c urve , a re v ery p rom inent a nd c over a l a rge a rea ( f igs . 1 1 .3 , 5 ) .

T hese a re a l so t he o n ly

a rch itectura l f eatures t hat s eem t o r eta in more o r l ess t he ir o r ig ina l l ayout . Over ad istance o f a bout 2 00 m a long t he i nner e dge o f t he western h a lf o f t he b reakwater , o n l ow g round a t t he f oot o f t i lted c oncrete b locks , t here a re s egments o f a sh lar c ourses o f l ong h eaders c arefu l ly c ut f rom k urkar r ock o f p r ime q ua l ity . The ir a verage d i mens ions a re 1 .80 x 0 .70 x 0 .60 m , w ith v a r iat ions u p t o 1 0% . Wh i le a t t he s outh s ide t here a re t hree t o f our r ows o f a sh lar h eaders , t h is t ype o f c ours ing b ecomes more s egmented a nd l ess f requent t oward t he n orthern p a rt o f t he b reakwater . T here , t he a sh lar h eaders b eco me a s ing le , d iscont inuous c ourse wh ich i s c overed i n p laces b y s and o r h eaps o f r ubb le . I n p laces , t he e xposure o f t he a sh la rs c aused e xtreme e ros ion b y t he s h ift ing s and , a nd s o me b locks h ave l ost

8 4

I .B .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC

n ea r ly h a lf o f t he ir o r ig ina l v o lu me . Most o f t he a sh lar s labs a re c overed w ith o rganogen ic c oat ing , y et n owhere h as t hat i ncrusta t ion b ound t wo o r more s labs . Th is f act a nd t he r e lat ive p os it ion o f s ome o f t he b locks w ith in t he c ourses s ugg est t hat t he p resent l ocat ion i so ffset f rom t he o r ig ina l o ne . Yet , t he f act i s t hat i n most p laces t he s labs a re s t i l l l eve l a nd p ara l le l t o e ach o ther . S o , i t i s most i mprobab le t o a ssume t hat t hey f e l l o r e ven s lumped f rom a h igher p o int w ith in t he c o mp lex . On ly a t t he s outh e nd , where f our r ows o f a sh la rs a re l a id n ow i n a t i lted p os it ion , o ne m igh t r econstruct a n o r ig ina l s tage when t hey were o n t op o f e ach o ther , b efore t he u ndertrench ing c urrent d ragged t he l ower c ourses away a nd s pread t he e nt ire s tructure . T h is a sh lar c ou rse d i sappears t oward t he s outhwest c urve o f t he b reakwater b enea th k urkar r ubb le . On t he u pper s urface o f t he r ubb le n earby , t here c an b e s een t wo t ypes o f h uge b lock s . S o me a re e longa ted i n s hape ( 3 .50-12 .1 x 1 .2 x 1 .0 m ) a nd s eem t o b e q uarr ied f ro m r ock . O thers , made o f c oncrete , a re more r egu lar i n s i ze : 3 -4 m o n as ide a nd 2 .5-3 .0 m h igh . A l most a l l t he b locks o f t he s econd t ype a re n ow t i lted a nd s ee m t o h ave s h ifted f rom t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ion s . On t he s u rface o f s ome o f t hese b locks t here a re c rossed g rooves l eft b y d ecomposed wooden b eams b ind ing t he f ra mes w ith in wh ich t he c oncrete was p oured ( cf . B artocc in i 1 958 : 1 20 , f ig . 3 5 ) .

The c ourses o f a sh lar h eaders a re l a id o n al ayer o f p ebb les a t ad epth o f

6 .10-6 .70 m , s o t hat t he s urface o f t he s labs i s a t 5 .3-6 .0 m b e low MSL . I f o ne c ons iders t hese c ourses t o b e t he b a se c ourses f or a v ert ica l q uay , s uch a s i n L ept i s Magna ( Ba rtocc in i 1 958 : 1 25 , f ig . 3 3 ) a nd K ench rea i ( Shaw 1 967 , p l . 6 1 :2 ) , t he o r ig ina l d epth wou ld h ave b een 2 t o 3m a t most , a nd a t ota l s umbergence o f 4m i s ar easonab le d educt ion . ( d ) The S ubs id iary B reakwater o n t he s outheast s ide o f t he ma in b reakwater i s as unken r ampart o f d ebr is t hat s p l its i n to t wo p ara l le l l i nes ( CAHEP A rea E ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 . 13 ) . The ma in o ne f orms t he b reakwater i t se lf , wh i le t he o ther s ect ion s ome 2 0 m t o t he s outh i s much n a rrower . I t i s a bout 5 -6 m w ide a t i t s b a se a nd t apers t o l ess t han 3 m a t i t s t ip , 2 -3 m h igher .

T he h ighest c rest o f t h is wa l l i s a t a

d epth o f o n ly 3 .8 m o f water a nd i t i s b u i lt o f a l ternat ing s eg ments o f a sh la rs , much l i ke t hose o n t he i nner s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater , a nd r ubb le c ong lo me rated w ith c ement . A t r ia l t rench w ith t he " b last ing k nee" e xposed f our t o f ive c ourses r ough ly l a id o n aw ider b ase o f r ubb le , a t 6 .8 m b e low MSL . B e low t he b ase t here i s ar egu lar c ush ion o f p ebb les . The f unct ion o f t h is S ubs id iary B reakwater may h ave b een a n a dd it iona l p rot ect ion a ga inst t he s outhwest w inter s torms . I t may h ave b roken t he f orce o f t he s u rge b efore i t h it t he ma in s tructure , wh ich c on ta ined g oods s tored f or t ranss h ipment .

I n a ny c ase , t he e levat ion o f i t s b ase r esemb les t hat o f t he ma in b reak-

water , s o b oth d emonstrate t he s ame d eg ree o f s ubs idence . ( e ) The S outh B ay i s a n o pen b ody o f water f ramed b y t he p romontory o f t he C rusader C itade l t o t he n orth a nd t he f lattened p romontory o f t he P isc ina t o t he s outh ( f igs . 1 . 11 , I V .2 ; f or CAHEP s urvey , s ee S ect ion I V .B ) .

I t was c ons idered t o

b e t he s i te o f t he Herod ian h a rbour u nt i l L ink i dent if ied t he r ea l o ne i n 1 960 ( see e .g . , P ococke 1 745 , I : 5 8-60 ; Haefe l l 1 923 : 1 5 ; Re ifenberg 1 950-1 : 2 4 ) . Yet , t he s er ies o f v au lted magaz ines t ha t was d iscovered a long t he s hore o f t h is b ay ( Bu l l 1 973Ev

2 60-62 ) a nd wh ich

m ight h ave b een b u i lt a l ready d ur ing t he

Herod ian

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

8 5

p er iod , r ev ived i n terest i n t he i dea t hat t here was a s econdary a nchorage i n t hat b ay c onte mporary w ith t he ma in o ne t o t he n orth , o r r ep lac ing i t i n s ome p ostHerod ian d ate .

T he r eefs t hat s po i l t he b ay a nd make i t u nnav igab le a re a ctua l ly

i n p a rt r ecent ly c ong lomerated d ebr is t hat v ery p robab ly was n ot t here i n a nt iq u ity . A b road t aper ing p ro ject ion p o int ing SW a t t he s outh s ide o f t he C rusader C itade l i s n ow we l l b e low t he waves , p rotrud ing 1 .5-2 .5 m a bove t he s urround ing s andy f loor . I t i s a bout 1 50 m l ong a nd a l most 8 0 m w ide a t i t s b ase . The "Mud P enetrator" s urvey o f 1 963 s uggested t hat t h is f eature m ight b e t he mo le o f a l ater h arbour wh ich r ep laced t he s ubs id ia ry Herod ian o ne ( L inder & L eenhardt 1 964 ) . I t a lso s eemed t o i nd icate t hat t here was a wa l l 5m w ide r unn ing b etween t h is p ro ject ion a nd t he Herod ian S outhern B reakwater , n ow b ur ied u nder t he s and . An e xtens ive t r ia l t rench w ith t he " b last ing k nee" was made i n o rder t o e xpose t hat wa l l , b ut n oth ing wa s f ound i n t he s and . I t was a l so d iff icu lt t o l ea rn much a bout t he c haracter ist ics o f t he p ro ject ion . T hough i t s s urface s ee ms t o b e c o mp r ised o f h eaps o f sma l l r ounded r ubb le , e veryth ing i s c oated w ith a t h ick l ayer o f an on-organ ic c arbonate s ubstance t hat d isgu ises a ny d eta i ls . S ince t h is c over ing o f c a lc if ied s ed i ment i s a bsent f arther n orth ,

i t c annot b e o rgan ic

i n o r ig in .

A lthough i t s c hem ica l c ompos it ion was n ot p roper ly s tud ied , i t i sp oss ib le t hat t he s ubstance c omes f ro m t he t i le f actory o f K ibbutz S edot Yam t hat empt ies i t s s ewa ge i nto t he n e ighbour ing b ay t o t he s outh . T h is muddy p o l lut ion b eco mes a pparent whenever t here i s as outhwestern w ind a nd n orthern c urrent .

D ur ing s uch d ays ,

t he v is ib i l ity u nderwater i sa l most n i l . ( f ) The e ntrance t o t he Herod ian h arbour ( CAHEP A rea D ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 6-17 ) i s as pec ia l a rch itectura l u n it , b oth v ery i mpress ive a nd v ery d iff icu lt t o s tudy p rope r ly . The magn itude o f t he f a l len b locks a nd t he v ert ica l e xtent o f t he d ebr is n ecess itate t he u se o f s pec ia l h eavy-duty g ea r . L ink 's d ivers e xcavated t he e astern s ide o f t he e ntrance , a nd t he e nt ire a rea was s urveyed b y t he I UES d ivers . The d epth o f t he s ea-f loor i n t he e ntrance was 8 m d ur ing t he s u rvey , b ut o ther r eports g ive d iverse d epths b etween 8 .4 t o 6 .7 m , s ince t he q uant ity o f s and i n t he c hanne l c hanges s easona l ly . T he t op o f t he n ea rby b locks o n t he e ast s ide r ose t o ad epth o f l ess t han 1 .5 m . S im i la r f igures a re v a l id f or t he h uge b locks p i led u p o n t he S outhern B reakwater , a bou t 8 0 m NW o f t he E ntrance Channe l . I t i sl i ke ly t hat t he h eap o f b locks b y t he e ntrance r epresents what was o nce a v ery p rom inent a nd ma ss ive t ower . Whether i t i s t he D rus ion ment ioned b y J osep hus ( AJ 1 5 .336 ) a s t he most magn if icent s tructure o n t he mo le , o r al i ghthouse ( Lev ine 1 975a : 1 6 ) , o r p erhaps b oth t ogether , i t i s i mposs ib le t o t e l l w ithout f urt her s tudy . Another i n terest ing f eature o f t he Herod ian h arbou r wh ich J osephus r eferred t o ( AJ 1 5 .339 ; s ee Append ix LA ) a re t wo t owers o uts ide t he e ntrance , t o t he r ight o f t hose s a i l ing i n ( CAHEP A rea K ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 6 ) . c lear ly d ist ingu ished i n a er ia l p hotographs ( f ig .

The ir r e ma ins c an b e

1 1 .17) . T hey a re t wo a d jacent

b locks s ome 1 0 m o ff t he t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwater , w ith s qua re b ases o f a bout 8 x 8 m . T he a d jacent s ea-f loor i s a t ad epth o f 7 .6-7 .8 m , a nd t he t ops o f t hese b locks a re u nder l e ss t han 3 m o f water .

I n c lear ing o ff t he mar ine g rowth

i t b ecame a pparent t hat t hey a re a rt if ic ia l s tructures . I n s evera l p laces a round t he ir s ides t here a re h or izonta l g rooves 1 .5 m a bove e ach o ther , wh ich a re t he i mpr ints o f wooden f ram ing b ea ms .

O r ig ina l ly , t hese masses p ro jected a bove t he

8 6

L I .B .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC

water , s o t hey a re a g ood i nd icat ion f or a s ubmergence o f s evera l metres , e ven i f t he ir s uperstructure h as b een s tr ipped . ( g ) Recons truct ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater 's o r ig ina l v o lu me was a c omp l ic ated u ndertak ing . A t t he s tart , s ome s tat ist ics c oncern ing t he p resent v o lu me o f t he ma in b reakwa ter were c omp i led u s ing t he e chograms o f t he s onar s u rvey ( f ig . 1 .19 ) . I t i s e asy t o r econstruct t he a rea o f t he c ross-sect ion o f t he ma in b reakwater b y t hese means .

T he e chograms i nc luded o ver 2 0 s uch s ect ions , a nd D r . Z .

B en Avraham o f We isman I nst itute c a l ibrated 1 5 s ect ions a nd c a lcu lated t he s ect iona l a rea o f t he b reakwa ter d ebr is i n s qua re metres .

C ount ing a long t he S outh-

e rn B reakwater f rom n orth t o s outh t he c a lcu lated a rea o f d ebr is i n t he s ect ion s i s a s f o l lows :

1 . 1 73 .8 m 2

6 .

1 19 .6 m 2

1 1 .

6 8 .2 m 2

2 .

1 94 .2 m 2

7 . 1 35 .6 m 2

1 2 .

5 8 .5 m 2

3 .

1 94 .1 m 2

8 . 1 81 .1 m 2

1 3 . 4 8 .8 m 2

4 .

1 87 .8 m 2

9 . 1 23 .8 m 2

1 4 .

3 5 .0 m 2

5 .

1 87 .4 m 2

1 0 . 1 40 .1 m 2

1 5 .

3 3 .8 m 2

S ect ions 1 -5 : a vg . w id th o f d ebr is , 1 33 m ; a vg . d epth o f s ea-f loor , 8 .1 m . S ect ions 6 -10 : a vg . w idth o f d ebr is , 10 m ; a vg . d epth o f s ea-f loor , 8 .5 m . S ect ions 1 1-15 : a vg . w idth o f d ebr is , 8 7 .5 m ; a vg . d epth o f s ea-f loor , 7 .0 m .

The a verage i s 1 10 .8 m 2 o f d ebr is o ver 1 10 m w id th , a t ad epth o f 7 .9 m . These f igures a re n ot e xact , b ecause i n s ome s ect ions i t i so bv ious t hat t he d ebr is i s n ow p art ial ly c overed b y 1 -2 m o f s and . S o , i t i s r easonab le t o a dd t o t he s ect ions a s much a s i sn eeded f or a b ase a t 8 .2 m o f water o n t he i nner e nd a nd 9 -10 m t o t he e xterna l o ne . I n t hat c a se t he max imum a rea f or t he b est p reserved s ect ion wou ld b e j ust b e low 3 00 m 2 . Accord ing t o J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .336-7 ; s ee Append ix I .A ) , t he b reakwater h ad a n o r ig ina l w idth o f o ver 6 3 m . T he i nner q uay s hou ld h ave b een a bout 1 m a bove t he water , a nd t he a ctua l p ro menade s omewhat h igher ( cf . L ept is Magna , B artocc in i 1 958 : f ig . 3 3) . I ts ee ms a s i ft he s ide o f t he q uay was a v ert ica l wal l .

A t t he b ack

o f t he p romenade were v au lted magaz ines a nd b eh ind t hem a c rest wa l l w ith t owe rs a t i n terva ls .

T he e xterna l h a lf o f t he b reakwater was a l so h igh e nough a bove

t he water t o b lock t he s trongest w inter waves f rom h itt ing t he wa l l a nd s p lash ing t he s torage a rea w ith in . S o , a n a verage h e igh t o f a bout 3 m a bove t he waterleve l f or t he e nt ire s ect ion o f " 200 f eet" ( 63 m ) ment ioned b y J osephus f or t he p art v is ib le i n h is t ime , w il l b e a modera te e st i mat ion ( i n L ept is Magna i t i s more ) . Ca lcul at ing t he o r ig :na l d epth o f t he s ea-bottom t o h ave b een 3 .0 m b e low MSL i ns ide t he b reakwater , a nd 4 m o uts ide , we g et a f igure o f j ust b e low 4 00 m 2 f or t he s ect ion a rea o f t he o r ig ina l i n tact s tructure . T h is f igure c orresponds w ith t he p resent • o ne o f 3 00 m 2 i f we c ons ider t he p lunder ing o f t he b etter a sh lar b locks f rom t he s uperstructure a nd t he v o lume o f mortar t hat h as d eco mposed a nd b een c arr ied away b y t he s ea . These f igures a re much more r easonab le t han t he c ross-sect ion o f o ver 7 00 m 2 n ecessary i f r econstruct ing t he b reakwater t o s ea l eve l f rom i t s p resent d epth . E ven a pa rt f ro m t he o ther d ata c ited , t h is s tat ist ica l e xerc ise s uggests a v ert ica l

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

8 7

s ubmergence o f t he b reakwater a nd t he s ea-f loor o f a bout 5 m s ince t he t ime t he h arbou r was b u i lt . ( h ) The d ate o f t he h arbour 's s ubs idence c an b e t entat ive ly c a lcu lated t hrough a rchaeo log ica l d ata .

D ur ing t he s urvey o f t he S outhern B reakwater , t wo s h ip-

w reck s i tes were l ocated o n t op o f t he s tructure 's d ebr is . I n e ach e a se , p i les o f b roken amphoras c e mented b y mar ine i ncrustat ion o ccur a bove t he h igher c o mpon ents o f c o l lapsed s tructures ( f ig . 1 .21) .

T here i sn o d oubt t hat t hey were d umped

t here l ong a fter t he d estruct ion a nd s ubmergence o f t he b reakwater . One p i le i s a bout 2 0 m west o f t he a sh la r c ourses o f t he q uay ( CAHEP A rea A ) a nd t he o ther i ss ome 5 0 m n orth o f t he f i rst .

T hey a re b oth a t ad epth o f a bout 4 m b e low MSL

a nd c an b e d a ted t o t he l ate t h ird o r e a r ly f ourth c entury o n t he b as is o f c era m ic p ara l lels . T he p i les o f b roken amphoras r epresent w reckage s i tes o f merchant men t hat a tte mpted t o c ome t o t he s hore u naware o f t he e x istence o r e xtent o f a s unken s tructure u nderneath . One wou ld a ssume t ha t a t t hat t ime t he d egree o f s ub mergence was j ust e nough f or t he d ebr is t o b e we l l h idden b e low t he waves ( probab ly n o more t han 1 m o r s o ) . A s im i lar p icture was d ep icted t wo o r t hree c entur ies l ater b y P rocop ius o f Gaza , when d escr ib ing t he p oor s tate o f t he h arb ou r b efore t he Emperor Anasta s ius t ook measu res t o r estore i t ( Lev ine 1 975a : 1 8 ) . The g reat Herod ian h arbou r may h ave b egun t o f a l l i n to d isrepa ir s oon a fter i t s c o mp let ion b ecause i t was t oo b ig a nd t oo e xpens ive t o ma inta in , o r t he s ubs id ence o f t he s ea-f loor may h ave b egun v ery e ar ly ( or b oth ) .

There i s , h owever , n o

r ea l h istor ica l d ocu mentat ion f or t he c la im t hat t he h a rbour was d estroyed b y a n e arthquake i n A .D . 1 30 ( Fr itsch & B en-Dor 1 961 : 5 5 ) . Caesarea c ont inued t o t h r ive a s t he most i mportant e cono m ic c entre o f t he c ountry t hroughout t he R o man e ra ; p erhaps t he l ess s he ltered a nchorage i n t he S outh B ay was s uff ic ient b y i t se lf . ( i ) The s ubmerged wa l l i n t he i nner b ay ( CAHEP A rea T 2 ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 79 ) was k nown s ince t he e ar ly s urveys o f W ES i n Caesarea . Dur ing t he p ro ject i t was c aref u l ly r ecorded a nd t wo t r ia l s ound ings were made a long i t s e astern f ace ( f ig . 1 1 .180 ) .

I t i s al ong , n arrow s tructure b u i lt o f sma l l a sh la r b locks , r unn ing s outh

a cross t he b ay f ro m a p o int j ust west o f t he wal l w ith i ron c lamps d escr ibed a bove ( i n CAHEP A rea S ) .

T he e a stern f ace o f t he wa l l i s p reserved t o a max i mu m

h e ight o f f our c ourses , e ach e a . 0 .30-0 .40 m . T he t op c ourse was b u i lt o f a sh lar h eaders ( 0 .70 x 0 .22 x 0 .28 m ) ; s o me s tones h ave a d oub le w idth o f 0 .45 m , a nd i n t wo e ases t hey a re r ep laced b y l ong s tretchers . S tretchers f requent ly c o mpr ise t he f i fth a nd s ixth c ou rses t hat h ave b een p reserved o n ly a t t he s outhern p art o f t he wa l l . The wa l l t i lts westwa rd a t 2 0 030 0 a nd i t s s urface i s c overed w ith r ubb le o n t he west s ide . Yet i t i s c lear t hat i t s o r ig ina l w id th e xceeded 2 .6 m . T he s urvey h as f o l lowed t he c ourse o f t he wa l l f or o ver 8 0 m a nd r evea led t hat i t s s outhern t h ird i s n ow s ubmerged b y 0 .50-0 .60

m more t han t he n orthern p art . A p robe

r evea led t hat t he f oundat ion c ourse was b u i lt w ithout a ny b ind ing mortar , d irect ly o n as andy b ase .

I n t he s and t here was a m ixture o f c lay , s h ing le , a nd s eaworn

p otsherds o f Ro man a nd B yzant ine d ate . N ext t o t he we l l-preserved s outhern p ort ion , t he e xcavat ion e xposed a more o r l ess h or izonta l s o lut ion n otch a t t he b ase o f t he t h ird c ourse , u nder 1 .2-1 .4 m o f water . F rom a t ypo log ica l s urvey o f o ther b u i ld ings i n Caesarea , i t i s c lear t hat t h is wa l l i sn ot e ar l ier t han t he B yzant ine e ra a nd m ight h ave b een b u i lt much l ater , b y t he C rusaders . F rom i t s g enera l o r ientat ion t owa rd t he l ee s ide o f t he C rusader

8 8

I .B .3 : CMS S urvey f or I EC

moat t hat s eparated t he h arbour c itade l f ro m t he r est o f t he c ity , o ne may p red ict t hat t h is wa l l wa s e ither a n i nner q uay o r p art o f t he med ieva l s ea-wa l l .

A lthough

t here a re n ot s uff ic ient d ata f or e stab l ish ing t he a ccura te d ate a nd f unct ion o f t he s tructure , i t i s o bv ious t hat i tu nderwent d ifferent r ates o f t i lt ing a nd s ubs idence a long i t s l ength .

The s ubs idence was a bout 0 .60 m a t i t s n orth e nd a nd 1 .4 m a t

p o ints 8 0 m f arther s outh .

Compa rat ive d ata f rom o ther p o ints i n t he h arbour

a bout e ustat ic c hanges i n s ea l eve l s uggest t hat a B yzant ine d ate wou ld a dd s ome 0 .60 t o 0 .80 m t o t he p resent f igures . I n a ny c ase t here i s n o a pparent c onnect ion b etween t he p roposed s ubmergence o f t h is wa l l a nd t hat o f t he p arts o f t he Herod ian h arbour west o f t he a bra s ive s he lves . T hey s ee m t o d iffer i n d ate , c haracter , a nd r ate o f c hange . Conc lus ions .

T he a rchaeo log ica l d ata f ro m t he l and s i te , t he waterl ine , a nd

s ub me7ged a reas t ogether p resent a p icture o f s tab i l ity f or a l l p o ints e a st o f t he western t ips o f t he p resent a bras ive s he lves , e xcept i n t he c ase o f t he s ubmerged wa l l a t t he e ast s ide o f t he i nner b ay .

West o f t he s he lves t he s ea-f loor s lopes

westward a nd i t s d epth i ncreases f rom 4 o r 5m t o 6o r 8m b e low MSL o ver a d ist ance o f 3 0-40 m ( co mpared t o t he o vera l l g rad ient o f 1% t o 4% f or t he s andy b ott om e lsewhere a long t he c oast ) . T he h arbour e ntrance i s c lea r ly v is ib le e ven when p art ia l ly d isgu ised b y h eavy d epos its o f s h ift ing s and .

The f oundat ions o f b oth

ma in b reakwaters o f t he e ar ly h arbour h appened t o b e a long t h is l i ne , a nd t hey h ave s ubs ided b y a t l east 4 t o 5m . T h is c onc lus ion i sb ased o n a rchaeo log ica l d ata o n ly , w ithout a ppea l t o g eomorpho log ica l o r g eo log ica l i nterpretat ion ( for t hat , s ee Neev e t a l .

1 978 ) . E ven t he a ssumpt ion t hat t he s ub mergence was g radua l

r ather t han c ata stroph ic i sb a sed o n t he p reservat ion o f t he S unken P ave ment a nd t he p resent r egu lar s urface o f t he Northern B reakwa ter . F urther s tudy may p rove o therw ise . No e v idence wa s f ound f or c ont inued s ubs idence o f t he western s egment . S ince a t l east t he t ime o f P ococke 's v is it i n 1 738 , n o a dd it iona l f eatures h ave d isappeared b e low t he waves . Neev 's c la im ( s ee S ect ion I .A .2 ) t hat d epos it ions o f s eaborne G lyeymer is v io lac eseens s he l ls a bove B yzant ine a nd Mame luke d ebr is , a t e levat ions o f 1 0 m a nd more a bove t he p resent s ea l eve l , t est ify t ha t t he e nt ire c oast was d ownfo lded t o b e low s ea l eve l i n o ur m i l lenn ium , i se as i ly r efuted b y t he c ons iderat ion t hat t hese s he l ls were u sed a bundant ly t hrough t he a ges f or t he b edd ing f i l l o f f loors a nd a s a n a dm ixture t o c ement ing s ubstances . I n s ome p arts o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ions wa l ls t hese s hel ls a re o ver 1 0% o f t he t ota l v o lume ( f ig . 1 .20 ) . t ion ,

The d estruc-

p lunder ing a nd d eco mpos it ion p rocesses o f t hese s tructures e nab led

t he

e lements t o c arry t he l eftovers t o an atura l d epos it i n a ny e levat ion . I t i s d iff icu lt t o e stab l ish h ow f a r a long t he c oast t h is p heno menon o f s ubmerged s ea-f loor g oes . S o f ar we k now o f n o o ther a nc ient man-made s tructures i n t h is r eg ion t hat were b u i lt a c ons iderab le d istance f rom t he s hore i nto t he o pen s ea . O ther d ata m ight b e p rov ided b y t opograph ic a nd g eomorpho log ica l s urveys i nvo lv ing b ore h o les a nd c or ings i n t he s ea a nd o n l and , a s we l l a s p rof i les o f t he i n s hore s ea-f loor w ith t he "Mud P enetrator" o r s ub-bottom p rof i lers . The s urvey o f o ffset b iotops h ave s hown o n ly t hat b io log ists a re n ot c onf ident i n t he ir d educt ions . The o n ly o ther p laces t hat were s u rveyed d ur ing t h is s tudy were t he g roup o f r ocky i s lets o ff t he s hore o f Ma 'agan M ichae l a nd t he s ea-bottom west o f t he h ead land o f K rokode ilonpo l is .

Chapter I : Excavat ion b efore CAHEP

8 9

On Hayon im I s land o ff Ma 'agan M ichae l ( f ig . 1 . 3) t here a re r emnants o f q uarr ies a nd Byzant ine s tructures . O f p art icu la r i n terest i s aq uarry t hat wa s r e-cut i n o rder t o make a f i sh-tank . T he f i sh-tank i s c onnected t o as upp ly o f s ea-water t h rough a r ock-cut t unne l , l ead ing t o ar est ing c hamber , a nd f rom i t , t h rough a c hanne l c ontro l led b y s lu ice g ates . The e nt ire c o mp lex c ou ld h ave b een o perated t hrough t he y ear i ft he s ea l eve l was 0 .50-0 .60 m h igher t han a t p resent . T he s ame f igures a pp ly t o as econd f i sht ank o n t he o ther s ide o f t he i s land . I ts ee ms t hat t he i s land , wh ich i s ar emnant o f t he s ame c oasta l r idge o n wh ich K rokode i lonpo l is a nd Caesarea a re l ocated , k ept i t s r e la t ive e levat ion a t l ea st s ince t he B yzant ine e ra . Yet , o n t he r ocky s eab ottom s o me 2 0 m west o f t he i s land t here i s at opograph ic d rop o f a bout 2 m . Wh i le t he b ed-rock i si ntact e ast o f i t( at a d epth o f 3 .6-3 .8 m ) , t o t he west i tc ons i sts o f s cattered p i les o f b roken c hunk s , a nd , f arther away , sma l ler a nd r ounder r ubb le ( at a d epth o f 5 .8-6 .3 m ) . S uch a d rop may o r may n ot r epresent t he s ame n atura l e vent a s i n Caesarea , s ome 7 km f arther s outh . The s urvey a t K rokode i lonpo l is was l ess i nformat ive c oncern ing f au lt ing . h ead land h as u ndergone e xtens ive e ros ion s ince a nt iqu ity a nd

The

many B yzant ine

mosa ic f loors a nd c isterns a re n ow e xposed a nd h ang o ver t he e dge o f t he c l iff . There i s aw ide p latform a nd a bras ive s he lf west o f t he c l iff wh ich i n p laces i s c overed w ith b each-rock j ust a bove p resent s ea l eve l . T here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l o r o ther e v idence f or a ny v ert ica l o ffset i n t he h istor ica l e ra . F arther west , i n t he s ea , t he h ead land c ont inues t owa rd t he NW a s ar ocky e xposure o n t he s ea-botto m ( f ig . 1 . 7 , n o . 5 ) .

T here a re t wo h ol lows n earby o n i t s n orth s ide p art ial ly f i l led b y

s and , a nd t he e dge o f t he r ocky e xposure i sc overed b y ar ampa rt o f r ubb le a long t he e nt ire n orth a nd n orthwest s ides .

Y et n o a pparent t opog raph ic d rop-off was

d etected . To b e s ure , t h is s urvey was n ot t horough e nough d ue t o b ad weather a nd l im ited t ime , s o a dd it iona l e fforts m ight y ie ld more a ccurate d ata . [ A .R . ]

H .B . Underwa ter S urvey a nd E xcavat ion : 4 . CMS F ie ld Workshops . Dur ing t he e ar ly s um mers o f 1 978-1980 , t h ree workshops were c onducted b y t he t echn ica l s taff o f t he Center f or Mar it ime S tud ies f or t he g raduate s tudents o f t he Depart ment o f t he H istory o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa .

These workshops were d irected b y Raban a s ap a rt o f t he o n-go ing p ro ject

t o s tudy t he s ubmerged h arbours a t Caesa rea . T he s tudents , who were t ra ined i n t he t echn iques o f u nderwater s urvey , e xcavat ion , a nd d ocumentat ion were j o ined b y v o lunteers f ro m I UES a nd , i n 1 979 , b y s evera l s cho lars a nd s tudents f ro m a broad ,

a s

a f i rst

s tep

t owards

e stab l ish ing

t he

i n ternat iona l

c onsort iu m

o f

CAHEP i n 1 980 . J .P . O leson r epresented t he f ore ign c o l laborators d ur ing t he 1 979 f ie ld-workshop , a ss isted b y A .N . S herwood . Dur ing t he r e lat ive ly s hort s easons , t h ree ma in f eatures were s tud ied : t he Round T ower i n t he i nner h arbour , t he " Inner Quay" o f t he S outhern B reakwater , a nd t he Co lumn J etty . The b ase o f t he Round T ower ( CAHEP A rea T 1 ; f igs . I I .1 , 1 74 ) was f ound i n 1 978 , s ubmerged i n j ust o ver 1 m o f water , a bout 2 0-30 m f rom t he p ub l ic b each w ith in t he C rusader c ity a nd s ome d istance n orth o f t he p ro montory t hat p rotects

9 0

1.. B .4 : CMS F ie ld Workshops

t he i nner b ay f rom t he s outh ( Raban & L inder 1 978 :

2 43 ) . T he t ower i sa bout 1 3 m

i n d ia meter , i t s c ircu lar wa l l b u i lt o f l ong , s l im b locks o r iented r ad ia l ly a s h eaders ( avg . 1 .5 x 0 .50 x 0 .60 m ) . Two c ourses o f t hese b locks were o bserved a bove t he s andy b otto m , t he t op s urface o f t he u pper o ne a t ad epth o f 0 .7 m b e low MSL o n i t s e astern s ide a nd 0 .9 m o n t he western s ide .

I n s ide t he t ower t here wa s ap ave-

ment o f a sh lar s labs j ust o ver 2 m w ide , r unn ing a round t he e nt ire c ircumference . T h is wa s r evetted o n i t s i nner c ircumference b y ac ircu lar c ourse o f n arrow b locks f orm ing a c irc le a bout 5 m i n d iameter . T he l eve l o f t he p avement c orresponded more o r l ess w ith t he u pper s urface o f t he l ower f ac ing c ourse o f h eaders . A t t he n orth s ide o f t he t ower , t he f ac ing c ourse i s r ep laced b y r emnants o f b ond ing c ourses t hat j o ined t he t ower t o a wa l l l ess t han 5 m w ide . I t i s a lso p oss ib le t o r econstruct a t t hat p o int a c orner o f as l i m mer wa l l wh ich was o r ig ina l ly i ncorpor ated w ith t he t ower . I n t hat c ase , t he t ower w ou ld b e a t i t s s outhwestern c orner . There i s ac lose r esemb lance i n c onstruct ion a nd s ize b etween t h is t ower a nd t he t wo r ound t owers e xcavated i n t he e a r ly 1 960 's o n t he s hore n orth o f t he C rusader c ity ( f ig . I .1 ; S ect ion I .A .5) . Dur ing t he f ie ld-work o f t he f o l low ing y ear ( 1979 ) , at r ia l t rench was d ug n ext t o t he western s ide o f t he t ower . A n arrow s pace b etween t he s ide o f t he t ower a nd a n ea rby p i le o f l arge a sh lar b locks wa s c leared t o a bout 1 m b e low t he s eab ottom .

Two more c ourses o f r ad ia l lyla id h eaders were e xposed . A t l ea st t hree

b locks w ith in t he s econd a nd t h ird c ourses p roved t o h ave b een r e-used , s ince smooth p laster c ou ld b e s een o n o ne o f t he ir l onger s ides , a s i f t hey o nce f ormed p art o f t he f ace o f ap la stered wa l l . T he s im i la r r euse o f a sh la r b locks w ith p last ered f aces i n ac ourse o f h eaders was n oted a t A rea E i n Akko i n 1 973 , i n af ort if i cat ion wa l l d ated t o t he s econd c entury B .C . ( M . Dothan 1 976 : 4 0-41 ) . Most o f t he p otsherds t hat were f ound i n t he c leared a rea were h eav i ly worn p ieces o f L ate Roman a nd B yzant ine v esse ls , b ut t here were a lso s o me b etterp reserved p ieces o f "Megar ian" b ow ls a nd E a stern S ig i l lata A t ypes , wh ich m ight a ttest a L ate He l len ist ic d ate . The I nner Quay a long t he S outhern B reakwater ( CAHEP Areas A , B , C ) was r e-surveyed a nd r e-drawn d ur ing t h is c ampa ign , w ith c arefu l u se o f t he b ubb leh ose f or a n a ccurate e levat ion f or e ach b lock . T he c ourses l ay a t d ifferent d epths , b etween 7 .1 m a nd 4 .9 m b e low MSL . I t was a l so n ot iced t hat t he s ha l lower p ort ions were a ssoc iated w ith a bundant r ubb le a nd f a l len d ebr is , wh i le t he d eeper p ort ions were u sua l ly i n h o l lows w ith s and f i l l .

A l ower c ourse o f b locks was

d etected o n ly f or t hree s hort s egments o f t he 1 50 m s urveyed . I n t wo o f t hese p laces t he t op c ourse i s r ather d eep , u nder more t han 6 .5 m o f water , wh ile i n t he t h ird p lace t he t op c ourse i sa t ad epth o f o n ly 5 .0 m . Dur ing t he 1 979 workshop t h is s urvey wa s r epeated o nce more a s a n e xerc ise f or n ew s tudents . T h is t ime t he s urvey a lso i nc luded o ther f ragmentary c ourses o f a sh lar h eaders wh ich r an p ara l le l o r a t ar ight a ng le t o t he I nner Quay , a d jacent t o i t , o r a s f ar a s 1 0 m f arther west .

I t was a lso o bserved t hat t he ma in p art o f t he

q uay e xtends a bout 1 20 m o n an orth-south a x is , wh i le a n a dd it iona l 3 5 m s ect ion o n i t s n orth d iverged i n o r ientat ion b y 1 5° t oward t he e ast , a nd a s ect ion a t t he s outh d iverged 6 0° t o t he e ast , f o l low ing t he c onf igurat ion o f t he s outhern p art o f t he b reakwater ( f ig .

1 1 .3 ) . A t r ia l t rench was d ug a t ap o int a bout h a lf-way a long

Chapter I : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

9 1

t he f eatu re . T he s urface o f t he a sh lar c ourse a t t hat p o int i s n ow u nder 6 .2 m o f w ater . T here i sa nother c ourse b e low t hat o ne , b u i lt o f t h inner s labs a nd s omewhat l e ss wel l p reserved . I t w as f ound o n ab ed o f r ubb le a nd p ebb les a t 6 .8 m b e low MSL . B e low t hat , a t 7 . 2 m , t here i s s and . Waterjet p robes were e xecuted i n t h is s andy b ottom , a nd t he meta l p ipe h i t al ayer o f r ubb le o r p ebb les 3 m d eeper a t 1.2-11.7 m b e low MSL : t h is may b e t he o r ig ina l b ase f or t he b reakwater . The Co lumn J etty a t t he n orth s ide o f t he I n termed iate B a s in ( f ig . 1 .14 ) was s urveyed , a nd e very c o lumn was measu red a nd d rawn .

T he b ase o f t hat s tructure

i sj ust west o f t he p resent s horel ine , a nd t he e asternmost s ect ion i n s i tu i s n ow a bout 3 0 m west o f wha t s eems t o b e t he r e mnant o f at ower w ith in t he C rusader s ea-wa l l . T he l a rgest c o lumns a re o ver 5 .7 m l ong , w ith a d iameter o f a bout 0 .65 m a t t he t h icker e nd . T he a verage l eng th o f t he 5 .35-5 .50 m , w ith 0 .60 m d iameters .

more

c omp lete

c o lu mns

i s

I n t hree p laces t he g ap b etween t he t wo

g roups o f c o lumns i s p aved w ith a sh lar s l abs l y ing a t ad epth o f 0 .30-0 .40 m o f water . One s ect ion o f p avement i s 4 .35 m w ide , f i l l ing a g ap o f 3 .8 m , a nd i s b u i lt o f r ectangu lar s labs f rom 1 .10-1 .40 m l ong a nd 0 .80-0 .90 m w ide ( f ig . 1 .17 ) . The d raw ing o f t he s ubmerged s outhwestern p ort ion was c omp leted b y t he s tud ents i n 1 979 . I n s ome p laces b each-rock wa s f ound p a rt ia l ly c over ing t he c o lumns o r i ncorporated a round a nd b etween c o lumns . T h is f act m ight i nd icate t hat a t o ne t ime s ince t he j etty wa s b u i lt , t here was a s andy b each c over ing i t s e a stern e nd . I t must a lso h ave b een b u i lt l ong e nough b efore t he p resent t o a l low t hese g radua l c hanges t o t ake p lace .

T h is c ons iderat ion , a nd t he q ua l ity o f t he p aved s ect ions ,

makes a ttr ibut ion o f t he j etty t o t he C rusaders more l i ke ly t han t o J azzar P a sha . T he e levat ion o f t he p avement a nd o f t he a braded d ebr is o n wh ich t he j etty was l a id f i ts a s ea l eve l l ower t han t he p resent o ne b y a t l ea st 0 .60-0 .70 m . A s econd workshop was c arr ied o ut f or a l onger p er iod i n 1 979 , a nd o n al arger s ca le . Two a i r l ifts , ad redge , a nd a waterjet p robe w ere u sed , a nd t he s tudents p ract iced p lott ing p o ints o f r eference i n t he water w ith t heodo l ites . S evera l a dd it i ona l r esearch a rea s w ere a dded t o t hose i dent if ied i n 1 978 . T he a rea a round s evera l s ea-wa l ls n ea r t he s ynagogue o n t he s hore n orth o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ion s wa s d es ignated a s A rea J ( CAHEP A rea J ; f igs . I I .1 , 9 2 , p l . I ,n o . 5 7 ) .

T he s ynagogue a nd i t s s urround ing a rea h ad b een e xcavated b y

M . Av i-Yonah a nd A . N egev i n t he m id-f ift ies a nd e ar ly s i xt ies . A lthough n ever f u l ly p ub l ished , r eference was made i n t he ir p re l im ina ry r eport ( Av i-Yonah & N egev 1 963 : 1 48 ) t o a wa l l i n t he s ea , p oss ib ly a mo le o f t he He l len ist ic t own o f S traton 's T ower . T h is s uggest ion , a nd t he f act t hat t h is a rea i sj u st SW o f t he f ort i f icat ion wa l l a nd t wo r ound t owers e xcavated b y t he I t a l ian M iss ion d rew o ur a ttent ion t o t h is a rea .

I n f act , t here i s as er ies o f wa l ls o f v ar ious p er iods a nd

t ypes o f c onstruct ion a t t he waterl ine NW o f t he s ynagogue , a long t he s outh e dge o f what i sn ow a v ery s ha l low i n let o pen t o t he s ea t owa rd t he n orth a nd p rotected f rom i t s s urge b y as er ies o f r ocky r eefs t o t he west . I n a nt iqu ity , b efore t h is b ody o f water was s i lted u p b y wave-carr ied b u i ld ing d ebr is a nd t he r eefs a ffected b y e ros ion , i t m ight h ave b een a n atura l ly we l l-protected h aven , l arge a nd d eep e nough f or s ma l l merchant a nd m i l itary s h ips t o moor s afe ly i n i t . The l ast wa l l t o b e b u i lt i n t he water i s as tructure o ver 4 .3 m w ide , i t s p res erved u pper s urface a t 1 .4 m a bove MSL . I t i s c omposed o f ac oncrete made o f

9 2

H .B .4 : CMS F ie ld Workshops

mortar m ixed w ith sma l l p ieces o f r ubb le a nd a l arge q uant ity o f p otsherds . Wh ile most o f i th as n ow d eco mposed a nd b een c arr ied o ff b y t he waves , t h ree s egments a re s t i l l i ntact . Over 6 m o f t he l argest s ect ion i ss t i l l i n s i tu o n ar ocky s he lf ( f ig . 1 1 .93) .

Another ( shorter ) s egment i sa lso i n s i tu j ust e ast o f t he e astern e nd o f t he

e ar l ier s tructures , 1 5

m n orth o f t he western c orner o f t he s ynagogue .

S ome

r ema ins o f wooden f ormwork were f ound embedded i n t he b each-rock a t i t s s outh f ace s ome 0 .30 m b e low p resent MSL .

T he l atest d atab le p otsherds w ith in t he

c oncrete s tructure a nd t he c arbon-14 d ate o f a wooden p lank f ro m t he f ormwork ( ca . 1 430 B .P . )

d ate t he s tructu re t o t he s ixth o r e a r ly s eventh c entury .

P oss ib ly

t he s ea was h igher a t t he t ime a nd t he s tructure wa s n eeded b y t he a d jacent J ewi sh q uarter a s ap rotect ive measure a ga inst t he waves . A f ew metres west o f t h is s egment o f wa l l t here i s a nother wh ich h as b een d is lodged n orthward i n to t he water b y t he waves .

B etween t hese t wo s egments ,

o n t he ir l ee , a re a s er ies o f a sh lar wal ls , mosa ic f loor , a nd r ubb le f il , r e mnants o f a t l east f our s uper i mposed b u i ld ing p ha ses , f rom t he b ed-rock a t 0 .30 m t o 2 .35 m a bove MSL . A c oup le o f metres west o f t h is d ebr is t here a re s cattered r ema ins o f ac ourse o f a sh lar b locks ( 1 .50 x 0 .80 x 0 .50 m ) . S ix b locks a re l a id o n b ed-rock t hat r ese mb les a n u p l ifted a bras ive s he lf , s uper imposed o n al ower p ave ment . The u pper e dges o f t he b locks c arry d oveta i l g rooves f or c lamps ; t hese r ecesses a re s t i l l i n l i ne w ith e ach o ther , i nd icat ing t hat t h is r e mnant i s a t i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion ( f igs . 1 1 .96-97 ) .

F arther west a nd a l most 2 m f arther n orth t here

i s a nother

c ourse , a t al ower l eve l a nd o n t he s ame o r ientat ion . I t i s b u i lt o f sma l ler b locks wh ich were l a id i n ar andom o rder o f h eaders a nd s tretchers . On ly a s tretch o f a bout 8 m o f t he n orth f ace o f t h is s tructure s urv ives , a nd i t t erm inates a t t he west i n what m ight h ave b een a c orner t urn ing s outh . T h is c ourse r uns a t t he f oot o f t he r ocky s he lf a nd i n p laces i ti s u nder la id b y a n a dd it iona l c ourse o f t he s ame t ype . I t s s urv iv ing e astern p art o ver l ies a n a sh la r p ave ment . Th ree o f t he e x ist ing b locks w ith in t hat c ourse r eta in d oveta i l g rooves s im i lar t o t hat o n t he o ther , more mass ive o ne . T h is s im i lar ity a nd t he c o m mon o r ientat ion m ight i nd icate t hat b oth c ourses were o r ig ina l ly o f t he s a me s tructure .

T he p avement wh ich i so ver-

l a id b y t hese c ourses i s n ow a pprox i mate ly a t waterleve l , 0 .16 m b e low MSL o n t he west e nd , a nd 0 .12 m a bove a t t he e a sternmost e x ist ing e nd , 1 8 m away . The s eaward e dge o f t h is p ave ment was made o f l ong , s l im h eaders o f u nequa l d i mens ions ( 0 .80-2 .10 x 0 .40-0 .70 m ) t hat g ive t he i mpress ion o f ac urved q uay ( f ig . 1 1 .95) . There i s n o d oubt t hat t h is q uay was i n u se b efore t he a sh lar b locks w ith d oveta i l c lamps were l a id a nd t hat i t p re-dates t he o ver ly ing s tructu re . S ince d oveta i l c lamps a t Caesa rea a re t yp ica l o f Herod ian s tructu res t he q uay m ight we l l b e d ated t o ap re-Herod ian p hase . Dur ing a s hort t ra in ing s ess ion f or t he s tudents o f t he Department f or t he H ist ory o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions i n 1 980 , j ust b efore t he f i rst CAHEP s eason , at r ia l e xcavat ion wa s c arr ied o ut u nder t he s uperv is ion o f

M . A rtzy , a t t he f oot o f t he

q uay n ext t o i t s e ast e nd . T he d ebr is i n t he water was c leared b y h and a nd a d redge , a nd a n a dd it iona l t wo c ourses o f h eaders were e xposed , t o at ota l d epth o f 1 .2 m b e low p resent MSL .

T hough t he s ea-botto m a t t h is p o int s ee ms t o b e b each-

r ock r ather t han t he u sua l k urkar , i t m ight we l l p reserve t he o r ig ina l d epth o f t he water n ext t o t h is s ide o f t he q uay when i t was b u i lt . T he p otsherds f ound d ur ing t he e xcavat ion were a l l b ad ly e roded b y t he waves a nd u nstrat if ied ; t hey d ate t o a l l p er iods f rom t he He l len ist ic t o B yzant ine .

Chapter

E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

9 3

As econd s urvey f or s h ipwreck r e ma ins o n t op o f t he S outhern B reakwater was c arr ied o ut , a s ac o mp lement t o t he 1 976 e ffort . T he i dea was t o t ra in s tudents ' e yes i n i dent ify ing h eaps o f b a l last s tones , wh ich a re c o mposed o f d ense m inera ls a nd s haped d ifferent ly t han b u i ld ing s tones , a nd s p i l ls o f b roken p ieces o f c argo : r oof t i les , amphoras , o r o ther p ottery v essels . T he s u rvey was c arr ied o ut b y sma l l t eams o f d ivers s tart ing f rom a p o int o n t he b reakwater wh ich wa s ma rked w ith a b uoy . When t hey c a me u pon s o meth ing t hat a ppeared t o b e t he s i te o f aw reck , t he d ivers t ied a n umbered b uoy t o t he s ea-bottom n earby . D ur ing t h is s urvey , s even n ew w reck s i tes were t raced , i nc lud ing o ne n ea r t he b ase o f t he Northern B reakwater a nd t wo o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater . One s uch s i te o n t he i nner p art o f t he S outhern B reakwater i s c o mp osed o n ly o f b asa lt b a l last s tones wh ich were c a refu l ly c ut t o ar egu lar s hape : a r ectang le t he l ong s ides o f wh ich were c oncave (0 .59 x 0 .42 x 0 .24 m ) . p le r ecovered i n .1 984 f rom A rea N 1 w i l l b e p ub l ished i n V o lume I . h ave f ac i l itated s h ift ing o r l ash ing t he b locks .

An e xa m-

The s hape may

T hree o ther s i tes were c o mposed

e nt ire ly o f h eaps o f r ounded b a l last s tones o f f i ne-gra ined b asa lt . None o f t hese t h ree s i tes y ie lded a ny s ecure ly d ated p otsherds i n ac lear c ontext . The o ther f our s i tes c o mpr ised most ly b roken p ottery , t hree w ith amphoras a nd o ne w ith r oof t i les . The l ast i sp ost-Ant ique i n d ate , f or t he t ype o f t i le , n ow h eav i ly i ncrusted i n t he u pper d ebr is o f t he s tructure o f t he S outhern B reakwater , i s f ound i n u se f rom A .D . 1 500 . O f t he t h ree amphora g roups , t hat o n t op o f t he n orthea stern s ide o f

t he

Northern

B reakwa ter

m ight

b e

d ated

t o

t he

E a r ly

B yzant ine

p er iod .

Another , a t t he s outhwestern s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater , i s c lear ly o f l ater B yzant ine d ate , a nd t he l ast , f ound o n t he western c urve o f t he S outhern B reakwater , i s c omposed o f amphoras t yp ica l o f t he l ate t h ird o r e ar ly f ourth c entury ( f ig . 1 .21) . The s o-ca l led S ubs id iary B reakwater a t t he f oot o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( CAHEP A rea E ; f ig . 1 1 .1 , p l . I ,n o . 4 6 ) , f i rst s urveyed i n 1 976 , was s urveyed a ga in i n 1 980 . The f i rst g oa l was t o t ry t o f ind o ut i f i t s tem med f rom a c o m mon b ase w ith t he ma in b reakwater , a s t he a er ia l p hotog raphs s ee m t o i nd icate . I t was f ound t hat e xposed b ed-rock o n t he s ea-f loor c ont inued t o a pprox i mate ly 2 0 m west o f t he t ip o f t he p resent p romontory , where i t d isappeared u nder p i les o f f a l len b u i ld ing b locks a nd f ragments o f k urkar p lates . T o t he SW , t he r ocky b otto m was f urrowed b y r ip-currents a nd c overed w ith b roken k urkar . A t ad istance o f a pprox i mate ly 3 0 m i n t hat d irect ion , t he e dge o f t he b ed-rock i s c overed b y s and , a t ad epth o f a bout 5 m . T he r ock/sand marg in i s i ncreas ing ly c overed w ith r ubb le t oward t he west , a nd a t ap o int a bout 1 0 m e ast o f t he mer id ian l i ne o f t he S unken P avement ( C AHEP A rea F ) i t c lea r ly h as b ecome a man-made wa l l , t he e asternmost d ist ingu ishab le p ort ion o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater . T he s outhern s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter i sd ist ingu ished i n t hat a rea b y as teep e dge o f h uge b rok en masses o f c oncreted b u i ld ing mater ia l . T h is e dge i s p ara l le l t o t he c ourse o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater ( 278 °)s o me 2 2 m t o t he s outh . A t t h is e a stern s egment , t he c rest o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater i s a t ad epth o f 4 .3-5 .1 m o f water a nd i s l ess t han 3 m w ide . F a rther west i t was f ound d eep ly embedded a nd a l most c ove red b y wave-ca rr ied s and . T he S unken P ave ment w as f ound i t se lf t o b e a l most t ota l ly c overed b y s and , y et r ecent h igh s eas h ad c leared t he s and f ro m t he s ea-bottom e ast o f t he f loor .

9 4

L I .B .4 : CMS F ie ld Work shops

T here , t he e ast-west c ourse o f a sh lar h eaders f i rst n ot iced i n 1 976 w as f u l ly e xposed ( see S ect ion I I .E ) . O f t he 1 3 b locks v is ib le , o n ly s ix were i n ac ompact g roup , a t t he western e nd . Most o f t he b locks a re n ow b ad ly e roded b y t he s ea , a nd t he e nt ire c ourse i s t i lted , u ndercut , a nd c on s iderab ly d isturbed . T he b locks s ee m o r ig ina l ly t o h ave b een t he s ame s hape a nd s ize a s t he h eaders o f t he p ier o n t he n ortheast s hore b y t he c o lu mn j etty ( 2 .00-2 .20 x 0 .50-0 .60 x 0 .60-0 .70 m ) . T he t op o f t he b etter-preserved a nd more e ven s egment o f t he f eature i s a t p resent a t a d epth o f 5 .8 m . I t i sb ased o n al ayer o f sma l l r ubb le a nd p ebb les , a bove a l ayer o f s and m ixed w ith b ad ly e roded p otsherds . S o i ts eems a s i ft he e nt ire a rea h as b een r e-exposed many t imes s ince b e ing s ubmerged , a nd n o mean ing fu l s trat igraphy h as b een p reserved . T o t he s outh were s cattered b locks o f e ven l arger s izes ( 2 .4-3 .2 x 1 .2 x 1 .0 m ) t hat may o r may n ot o r ig ina l ly h ave b een c omponents o f t he s ame s tructure . Next t o t hese b locks , t o t he west , j ust s t ick ing o ut t he s and , a re h uge b locks o f ma rb le c oated w ith b rown mar ine a lgae . T hese marb le b locks m ight o nce h ave b een a rch it ectura l p a rts o f s ome s uperstructure o n t he mo le , a s t he

t emp les a t

L ept is

Magna , o r ar emnant o f ac argo c arr ied t o t he h a rbour d ur ing t he p lunder ing a ct ivi t ies o f t he l ate e ighteenth a nd e ar ly n ineteenth c entur ies . T he s ubmerged wa l l w ith in t he I nner B ay ( CAHEP A rea T 2 ) , s tud ied i n it ia l ly d ur ing 1 976 , was more e xtens ive ly s u rveyed a nd e xcavated d ur ing t he 1 979 s eason ( s ee S ect ion I I .R .2 ) .

R ubb le a nd d ebr is were c leared away t o e xpose i t s s outhern

c ont inuat ion . T hen s quare meta l g r ids were l a id a long i t s c ourse t o a l low d eta i led t h ree-d i mens iona l mea surements o f s ect ions 2 x 2 m e ach .

A 5 6 m s ect ion o f t he

e astern f ace o f t he wa l l was s urveyed . T h is s ect ion h as b een p reserved t o ah e ight o f s evera l c ourses a bove t he p resent s ea-f loor a nd wa s f ound t o b e t i lted t o t he west a nd s outh .

I t s l ong a x is i s o r iented t o 2 07 °,b ut t he l ast , b etter-preserved

s outhern s egment o f a bout 4 2 m h as a n o r ienta t ion o f 1 86 °.Th is a dd it iona l s egment i sp reserved t o j ust b e low t he l eve l o f t he p resent s ea-bottom , i n a lmost 2 m o f water . T r ia l e xcavat ions r evea led l ower c ourses u nderneath , a nd i n o ne p lace t he f oundat ion was e xposed , s how ing i t t o h ave b een l a id a t ad epth o f 2 .6 m , o n a t h in l ayer o f g rave l m ixed w ith p ottery s herds a nd d ecomposed k urkar f ro m i t s b edd ing t rench , wh ich i s n ow a t 2 .87 m b e low MSL . The b ase o f t he s ou thern s egment was e xcavated f or i t s e nt ire w idth . T he w idth o f t he s tructure h ere i s4 .8 m : e ach f ace was b u i lt o f sma l l a sh la r b locks c onta in ing a m ixed f i l l o f b locks , r ubb le , a nd a f ew r eused Roman c o lumn d rums . Ad jacent t o t he west s ide o f t he s outhern e nd o f t he wa l l t here a re r e mnants o f at ower 1 2 m s qua re . I t s s tate o f p reservat i on makes i td iff icu lt t o e stab l ish a ccurate ly t he o r ig ina l d i mens ions a nd p lan .

A

l ong c o lumn p ro jects n orth f or o ver 5 m f rom t he t ower 's n orthea st c orner , a nd a f ew l arge a sh la r b locks h ave t umb led f ro m i t s s outhwest c orner . The g enera l l ayo ut , h owever , s uggests t hat t he t ower was i ncorporated i n to t he west s i de o f t he s outh t erm inat ion o f t he b road wa l l o r r ampa rt . T he t ower f aces t he t ower o n t he n ortheast s ide o f t he moat t hat s eparated t he C rusader Harbour C itade l f ro m t he r est o f t he f ort if ied c ity , a cross a n o pen ing a bout 5 0 m w ide . I t i s s t i l l n ot c lear whether t he r a mpart a d jacent t o t he s quare t ower was a p ier , s ea-wa l l , o r f ort if ic at ion a long t he med ieva l water f ront , o r p erhaps a c o mb ined s tructure w ith more t han o ne f unct ion . A lthough t here i s n o d oub t t hat t he s ea c ame a l l t he way u p t o i t s west f ace , i t i sn ot e asy t o t e l l whether t he a rea o n i t s e a st s ide was i nundated

Chapter

E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

9 5

a t t he t ime o f t he C rusaders . West o f t he n orthern h a lf o f t he wa l l , p ara l le l t o i t s c ourses , t here a re s evera l i r regu lar c lusters o f c o lumn d rums embedded i n to c onc reted b lock s o f r ubb le , o r l a id c lose a nd p ara l le l t o e ach o ther . More c o lu mns a re s pread n earby . I t l ooks a s i f t hese a re r emnants o f t he western f ace o f t he r amp art , wh ich was b u i lt a t i t s b ase o f c ourses o f r e-u sed c o lu mns , a s e l sewhere a t Caesarea f or C rusader s ea-wa l ls . I f t h is i s t he c a se , t he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he s outhern s ect ion was o ver 1 0 m , o f wh ich p oss ib ly t he western 2 -3 m s erved a s t he b ase f or t he f ort if icat ion wa l l . The CMS s urvey o f t he S outh B ay i nc luded t wo ma in o b ject ives : t o s tudy t he s ub merged p ro ject ion SW o f t he C rusader C itade l , a nd t o l ea rn a bout t he s ubmerged f eatures o f t he s outh p romontory - n orth a nd NW o f t he P isc ina . T he s horeward e nd o f t he s ubmerged p ro ject ion ( p l . I ,n o . 0 ) , l i ke most o f t he s ea-f loor a t t he b ottom o f t he n orth p art o f t he S outh B ay , t urned o ut t o b e c o mp osed o f r ubb le p i led we l l a bove t he s andy s ea-f loor ( cf . S ect ion I V .B ) .

A lthough

n o c ourses o f a ctua l s tructures were t raced , i t i s p oss ib le t hat t h is s p i l l o f r ubb le was i ntent iona l ly d umped i n a nt iqu ity . T he g reater v is ib le p ort ion o f t he p ro jecti on , h owever , _ ons ists o f e roded b ed-rock . T he b est p ara l lel s a re t hose f rom Kene hrea i ( Shaw 1 967 ) a nd P hasae l is ( B lackman 1 973 ) , where t he moor ing a rea f or merchant ment i n t he R oman e ra was p art ia l ly p rotected b y a rt if ic ia l r ampa rts o f s im ilar c haracter . T hese a re f ar more p rom inent , h owever , t han t he f eature a t Caesarea , a nd t he h eavy mar ine i ncrustat ion makes i t d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t he d eta ils

o f

t he

i nd iv idua l

c omponents

h ere .

T he

s p il l ,

o r

b ed-rock

p ro ject ion ,

e xtends f a rther west t han t he westernmost t i ps o f n atura l r ocky o utcrops a nd b eh ind what i sa l most c erta in ly a r e lat ive ly r ecent f au lt l i ne . A t t he o ther s ide o f t he b ay , n ea r t he P ise ina , t here a re a lso r e mnants o f r ubb le a t t he b ase o f t he n orthwest t i p o f t he n atura l p romontory . Y et t he s hape a nd v o lu me o f t he s p i l l a re n ot s ign if icant e nough t o i nd icate a nother a rt if ic ia l p rotect i ve f eature f or t he a nchorage i n t he S outh B ay . I t may h ave b een d eep ly c overed i n t he s andy b otto m o r s wept away b y w inter s torms ; i n a ny c ase n ot much r ubb le n ow p ro jects a bove t he s ea b ed . An i nterest ing a nd s urpr is ing f eature b y t h is p ro montory i sa n a rea p aved w ith a sh lar b lock s a t ad epth o f 1 .5 m i n ap ocket b etween t wo a bra s ive p latforms ( f ig . 1 .22 , p l . 1 ,n o . 4 3 ) . T he p av ing s labs a re f a ir ly r egu lar i n s i ze ( 1 .0-1 .9 x 0 .5-0 .4 r n ) a nd c over a n i r regu lar a rea o f a bout 7 x 5 m . T he f act t hat a l most a l l t he s labs a re n ow f lat o n t he s ea-f loor a nd t he e nt ire f loor i s f a ir ly c oherent makes i t u n l ike ly t hat t he e nt ire p ave ment s l ipped f rom a much h igher l eve l .

T he s labs r est a l most

d irect ly o n t he r ocky b ottom a nd a re p a rt ia l ly c overed b y s and . T he l ocat ion i s s uch t hat e ven i n r e lat ive ly moderate s ea s t he s urge i ss trong , s o n o s herds o f p ott ery o r o ther sma l l f inds a re t o b e f ound w ith in t he o r ig ina l c ontext o f t he p avement . Dur ing t he s urvey i n t he S outh B ay , a t ra in ing s ess ion was c arr ied o ut t o i n struct s tudents i n t he u se o f t he waterjet p robe t o t race s ub-botto m s trat igrap hy o n s andy s ea-f loors . T hrough t he 1 979 workshop f i ve s er ies o f s uch p rob ings were c a rr ied o ut , u nder t he i n struct ion o f Y . T ur-Kaspa , w ith in t he b as in o f t he a nc ient h arbour a nd a t t he S outh B ay . T he d ata g athered i n s uch p robes i s u sefu l f or a ttest ing t he l ocat ion a nd e levat ion o f s and-covered a rch itectura l o r g eo log-

9 6

I .B .4 : CMS F ie ld Workshops

i ca l f eatures , c lay l ayers w ith in s he ltered h arbour b a s ins , a nd p reh istor ic s trata p redat ing t he p resent ly i nundated a reas o f i n s hore w aters ( s ee S ect ion I V .E ) . S o me i mportant d ata were r ecovered i n t hese p robes .

A lthough t he p robes

e ncountered a t h in l ayer o f c lay a t ad epth o f a bout 8 .1 m b e low MSL o ver a l most t he who le a rea o f t he n ow s ubmerged b as in o f t he Herod ian h arbour , s uch a l ayer i s m iss ing i n t he i m med iate v ic in ity o f t he i nner e dge o f t he S outhern B reakwater . S ince t hat l ayer p robab ly r epresents a s t i l l water d epos it ion o f s ed i ments w ith in a we l l-protected h a rbour b a s in , t here may h ave b een a r ip-current i n it iated b y t he f lush ing c hanne l t hat f lowed a long t he b ases o f t he q uays a t t he c ircumference o f t hat b as in , s weep ing away t he f ine p art ic les o f c lay . A s er ies o f p robes t hat r an westward f rom j ust o uts ide t he t ip o f t he modern b reakwater t raced what s eems t o b e ar ocky b ottom a t a bout 7 .2-7 .6 m b e low MSL f or a d istance o f 4 0-60 m west o f t he modern b reakwater , d ropp ing t o ad epth o f 1 0 .8-11 .3 m b e low MSL 2 0-30 m f urther west . F a rther o n , t he p robes r eached a l ayer o f s h ing le a nd p ebb les a t ad epth o f 1-12 m . T hese d ata b ack t he t heory o f af au lt l i ne a nd m ight s uggest i t s a ctua l l ocat ion . P robes t hat were c arr ied o ut a long t he s andy h ol low b etween t he S outhern B reakwater a nd t he p a ral le l S ubs id iary B reakwater went d own t o o ver 8 m b e low t he

s ea-f loor

w ithout

e ncounter ing

a ny th ing b ut s and

( but

c f .

t he

r esu lts

o f

CAHEP S urvey L ine n o . 2 : m 4 0-82 ; S ect ion I V .C ) . T hese t wo s tructures a ppare nt ly h ad n o c o m mon f oundat ion .

On ly a t t he e astern e dge o f t he s andy h o l low d id

t he p robe r each a l ayer o f e i ther sma l l r ubb le o r p ebb les a t ad epth o f 4 .2 m b e low t he s and , a t at ota l d epth o f 8 .3 m b e low MSL . A s er ies o f 1 7 p robes was c arr ied o ut l ater i n t he s um mer o f 1 979 , a s ap repar at ion f or t he f i rst CAHEP s eason , a long a l i ne r unn ing S E o f t he t ip o f t he s ubmerged p ro ject ion

a t

t he

n orthwest s ide

o f t he

S outh

B ay

( see

a bove ) .

The

p rob ings were d one t owa rd t he c entre o f t he b ay , u p t o t he p o int where t here i s a n o utcrop o f c oncreted d ebr is o n t he s ea f loor . What s eems t o b e r ocky f l oor ( or wel l-concreted d ebr is ) was r eached i n e very c ase a t d epths ( f rom n orth t o s outh ) o f 5 .2 , 6 .1 , 6 .3 , 8 .2 , 8 .4 , 8 .8 , 9 .3 , 9 .5 , 8 .7 , 7 .1 , 6 .8 , 8 .7 , 7 .0 , 7 .1 , 6 .5 , 6 .4 , a nd 5 .9 m b e low MSL . T hese p robes were s paced a t i n terva ls o f a bout 1 0 m , a long t hat l i ne . The d ata f or t he d epth o f t he c on so l idated s ea-f loor a t t hat a rea , wh ich i s n ow o n ly 3 -4 m d eep , i nd icate t hat t here was a p otent ia l d epth f or moor ing merchants h ips d ur ing t he t ime i n a nt iqu ity t ha t p redates t he p roposed 5 m s ubs idence o f t he s ea-f loor . [ A .R . ]

I .B . Underwa ter S urvey a nd Excavat ion : 5 . J o int E xped it ion Underwater S urvey . F rom t he 2 8th o f May t o t he 2 1st o f J une , 1 978 , at eam o f t hree i nvest igators c onducted a p re l im inary s urvey o f u nderwater a nd c oasta l r ema ins a t Caesarea . Th is e ffort was p a rt o f t he a rchaeo log ica l c ampa ign o f J EC M ( Sect ion I .A .6) . Dur ing t he l ast week o f t hat s hort s eason , a n a er ia l p hotograph ic s urvey o f t he c oastl ine a nd mar it ime s tructures was a lso c a rr ied o ut f rom a t ethered a erodyn am ic b a l loon o perated b y P rofessor a nd Mrs . J . W i lson Myers , a ff i l iated a t t hat t ime w ith M ich igan S tate Un ivers ity ( f igs . 1 . 33-40) .

Chapter H : E xcavat ion b efore CAHEP

9 7

J EC M u p t o t hat p o int h ad b een c oncerned e xc lus ive ly w ith l and e xcavat ions . B ut r ecent d iscover ies o f h orrea o r warehouses i n J EC M 's C F ie ld , o n t he c oast i m med iate ly s outh o f t he Outer B as in o f S ebastos , h ad h e ightened i n terest i n l earn ing more a bout ma r it ime s tructures o n s hore , o bscured b y ar ecent c oasta l r oad , o r i n t he water , a nd h ow t hey may h ave s erved t hese i n sta l lat ions ( W iemken & Ho lum 1 981 ) .

L and s urveys a long t he c a . 5 00 m o f c oa st f rom t he Outer B as in

i n t he n orth t o t he P isc ina i n t he s outh h ad p roduced n o c onc lus ive e v idence f or a n a nc ient q uay f ront ing t hese s torage f ac i l it ies , a lthough s ome s uch l oad ing p latf orm wa s a ssumed t o h ave e x isted t o a ccom modate e asy u se o f t he warehouses . I t was t hought t hat s uch a s tructure wa s t o b e f ound i n t he s ea . The p r i mary a rea o f a rchaeo log ica l c oncern wa s t he s ect ion o f t he c oast c a l led t he S outhern o r S outh B ay b y J EC M i nvest igators , a lthough t he r est o f t he s ub merged h arbour f ac i l it ies were e xam ined a s c arefu l ly a s l im ited t ime a nd r esources p ermi tted . The t eam c ons isted o f t wo a rchaeo log ists , R .L . Hoh lfe lder a nd J .P . O leson , a nd a n u nderwater p hotographer , H . Wadsworth , t hen o f Denver , C o lorado . These t hree i nd iv idua ls d ove t ogether f or s afety r easons a nd t o i ncrease t he a rea t hat c ou ld b e s u rveyed d ur ing e ach d ive . T he t ea m c onducted i t s u nderwater i nvest igat ions p r i ma r ily t h rough a s er ies o f s hore d ives ,

a lthough a b oat

was

r ented f rom n earby K ibbu tz S edot Yam f or work i n d eeper waters . Notes were t aken o n t he c haracter o f b ottom c ond it ions a nd s tructures e ncountered ; s amp les o f

b ed-rock

a nd

b u i ld ing

mater ia ls

were

c o l lected ;

a nd

r e levant

d ata

were

r ecorded o n a map o f t he s ubmerged a rea s t hat h ad b een e xam ined . A t t he s ame t ime , as urvey o f c oasta l l and i n sta l lat ions was u ndertaken o n f oot , w ith s im i lar r ecord ing p rocedures f o l lowed . About 1 00 h ours o f u nderwater e xp lorat ion were a cco mp l ished b y t he t eam . T he l and c o mponent o f t he s u rvey r ece ived e qua l a ttent ion . I n v iew o f t he f act t hat p re l im inary e xp lorat ion h ad b een c a rr ied o ut p rev io us ly b y L ink , t he CMS , a nd t he I UES , t he J ECM t eam s ought o n ly t o e xpand p rev ious work a nd t o p repare a r ecord o f e xtant r ema ins b oth o n l and a nd i n t he s ea t hat were a ssoc iated w ith t he a nc ient h a rbour f ac i l it ies .

I n a dd it ion , a ma jor g oa l

was t o i dent ify z ones o f a rchaeo log ica l c oncern where e xcavat ions m ight s o lve c erta in t opograph ica l , g eophys ica l , a nd c h rono log ica l p rob le ms . T hese o b ject ives w ere a cco mp l ished a nd were p ub l ished b y Hoh lfe lder a nd O leson ( 1980 ) o n b eha lf o f t he J o int E xped it ion . Th is 1 978 s eason o f u nderwater work wa s t he o n ly o ne s ponsored b y J EC M , a nd i t was s horter t han h ad b een p lanned . A s r equ ired b y I s rae l i l aw , J EC M h ad s ought a r enewa l o f i t s l i cense t o c ont inue i t s e xcavat ions a t Caesarea t hrough a l etter s ub m itted t o t he I s rae l i Depa rtment o f Ant iqu it ies a nd Museums ( IDAM ) . I t h ad a rr ived a t I DA M l a te i n t he s pr ing o f 1 978 wh i le t he t hen d irector o f t h is a gency , Avraham E itan , wa s a broad . I n h is l e tter , P rofessor B ul l a sked p erm iss ion t o b eg in s ome n ew p ro jects a s we l l a s t o c ont inue t hose i n p rogress . One n ew e ffort was t o b e t he u nderwater s urvey d iscussed a bove . He h ad made h is r equest u naware o f t he e xc lus ive l i cense a lready i s sued t o t he U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa t o c ond uct a l l mar ine i nves igat ions a t Caesarea . Neverthe less , h e was g iven t e mpora ry a pprova l b y I DA M o ff ic ia ls t o b eg in h is f ie ld s ea son a s o ut l ined i n h is l etter , w ith

9 8

1 .8 .5 : J o in t E xped it ion UW S urvey

f ina l o ff ic ia l a pprova l w ithhe ld u nt i l h is a pp l icat ion c ou ld b e f or ma l ly r ev iewed b y t he Archaeo log ica l Counc i l o f I s rae l . H is s pec if ic r equest f or p er m iss ion t o e ngage i n u nderwater e xp lorat ions went u nnot iced a t t hat t ime . When Avraham E itan r eturned a nd e xam ined t he JEC M r enewa l a pp l icat ion , h e r ea l ized t hat i t c onta ined a r equest t o c onduct u nderwater f ie ld-work a lready a ss igned t o t he U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa . He i m med iate ly n ot if ied P rofessor B u l l o f t h is c onf l ict a nd a sked t hat a ny J EC M u nderwater w ork i n p rogress b e s topped i m med iate ly . P rofessors Hoh lfe lder a nd O leson e nded t he ir f i e ld-work a nd o pened n egot iat ions w ith E . L inder a nd A . Raban o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , a long w ith R .J . Bu l l , t o r eso lve t h is awkward s i tuat ion a nd t o s ee i f a n e xpanded e ffort t o e xp lore Caesarea 's h arbours wa s p oss ib le t hrough a l a rger , i nternat iona l e ffort u nder t he a eg is o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa . T hese d iscuss ions e ventua l ly l ed t o t he c reat ion o f CAHEP . Hoh lfe lder a nd O leson l eft J ECM t o b eco me c o-d irectors o f t he n ew o rgan izat ion . R eg rettab ly , c o-operat ion b etween J EC M a nd CAHEP o n i s sues o f c o m mon c oncerns h as n ot b een s usta ined . [ R .L .H . ]

APPEND IX I LA : B IBL IOGRAPH ICAL L IST OF S ITES AND S TRUCTURES ON LAND AT OR NEAR CAESAREA .

Th is l i st i nc ludes l and s i tes t hat were s tud ied a nd a t l east p a rt ia l ly e xcavated w ith in t he c ontext o f Caesa rea a nd S traton 's T ower , f rom n orth t o s outh , a nd w ith in i t f rom e ast t o west . T he e ntry n umbers a re k eyed i n to t he maps r eprod uced a s f igs . 1 . 7-8 .

1 .

Water S ources o f t he

H igh-Leve l

Aqueduct :

Conder & K itchener

1 888 :

1 8-23 ; D rake 1 873 : 1 05-110 ; Guer in , I , 1 875 : 3 04 ; O l iphant 1 886 ; O la m i & P e leg 1 977 . 2 .

Water S ource o ft he L ow-Leve l Aqueduct :

Conder & K itchener 1 888 :

S chu macher 1 887 : 8 0 ; T homson 1 880-86 : 4 97 ; Re ifenberg 1 950-51 :

1 6-20 ;

2 9 ; Av it-

s ur 1 971 ; O lam i & P e leg 1 977 : 1 35-37 ; O leson 1 984b . 3 .

Theatre a t Kh irbet S hum i ( M i 'amas ) : 1 5 ; Conder & K itchener 1 888 :

D rake 1 873 : 1 10 ; Conder 1 873 ; 1 874 :

4 3 ; Mü l inen 1 908 : 3 20-22 ; L ange & B urk itt

1 920 . 4 .

Necropo l is a t T e l Mevora ld i :

5 .

K rokode i lonpo l is :

Ga rstang 1 924 ; Guy 1 924 ; Rosh 1 964 : 3 0 ; Av i-

Yonah 1 967 . Conder & K itchener

1 888 :

1 3 ,

2 9 ;

S chumacher

1 887 :

7 8-84 ; S iege l man & Yanke lev itch 1 981 ; O leson 1 984b . 6 .

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct a nd i t s I nscr ip t ions :

T homson 1 880-86 : 4 92-98 ; Conder

& K itchener 1 888 I : 2 0-23 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 6 8 ; Mü l inen 1 908 : 3 20-22 ; V i lnay 1 928a , 1 928b ; B rosh i 1 936 ; Hambu rger 1 959 ; B a rag 1 964 , N egev 1 964 , 1 966c , 1 972 ; F rova e t a l .

1 965 : 3 0-36 ; R inge l 1 975 : 5 9-73 ; O lam i & R inge l 1 975 ; O lam i &

P e leg 1 973 ; 1 977 ; B u l l 1 975b : 2 7 ; N ir 1 985 . 7 .

L ow-Leve l Aqueduct :

Conder & K itchener 1 888 :

1 8-19 ; S chumacher 1 887 :

9 0 ; Re ifenberg 1 950-1 : 2 0 ; 1 955 : 7 2-73 ; K edar & Z iv 1 964 ; F rova e t a l .

1 965 :

3 0-36 , 2 93-303 ; N egev 1 967 : 3 8-42 ; R inge l 1 975 : 6 5-66 ; O lam i & P e leg 1 973 ; 1 977 : 1 35-37 . 8 .

B yzant ine V i l la w ith Mosa ic F loor :

9 .

B yzant ine B ath a nd Chape l :

S iege l man 1 973 ; 1 974 .

1 0 .

B yzant ine V i l la w ith P isc ina : E de lste in 1 975 ; B u l l 1 976 : 2 3 ; 1 978b : 2 7 .

1 1 .

S arcophagus :

1 2 .

" B ird Mosa ic :"

F rova 1 964a ; F rova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 93-304 ; B u l l

1 975b . S iege l man 1 974 , 1 983 . Y e iv in 1 957 : 2 60 ; Rosh 1 964 : 1 9 ; Ovad iah 1 970 : 4 4-45 ; New-

man 1 971 ; S p iro 1 981 ; Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 81-82 . 1 3 .

S ewer T unne l o n t he Nor th S hore :

D rake 1 873 : 1 08 ; B u l l 1 972b : 1 4 ; B u l l &

T oo mbs 1 972 : 1 80 . 1 4 .

B yzant ine

E as tern

C ity

1 962a : 4 15 ; F rova e t a l .

Gate :

S chwabe

1 950b ;

1 965 : 4 5-53 , 2 47-49 .

99 -

App lebaum

1 954 ;

F rova

1 00 1 5 .

Append ix I LA H ippodrome : Conder & K itchener 1 888 : L ifsh itz 1 957 ; B ul l 1 973a :

I : 1 7 ; K n igh t 1 920 ; J erem ias 1 931 ;

2 62 ; 1 973b : 8 ; 1 974 : 1 4 ; H umphrey 1 974 , 1 975 ,

1 986 ; R i ley 1 975 . 1 6 .

E ar ly Nor th Wa l l :

F rova 1 959 : 1 4-16 ; F rova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 47-92 ; 1 963a : 2 0 ;

N egev 1 975 : 2 71-73 ; L ev ine 1 975a : 9 -13 ; R inge l 1 975 : 7 5-78 ; B ul l 1 976 : 2 3 ; 1 978b : 2 7 ; B lake ly 1 984 ; R aban 1 985c : 1 70-73 ; 1 987 . 1 7 .

F ie ld G o f t he J o int E xped it ion :

B u l l 1 976 : 2 3 ; 1 978b : 2 7 ; 1 984 : 1 6 ; Ro l ler

1 982a , 1 983 . 1 8 .

S ynagogue a nd " S traton 's T ower :" S chwabe 1 950a ; A v i-Yonah 1 956a-b , 1 957 , 1 962 , 1 964 ; Av i-Yonah & N egev 1 963a ; N egev 1 967 : 5 -14 ; 1 975 : 2 70-74 ; L evi ne 1 975a :

4 0-45 ; Raban 1 981b : 2 93 ; 1 983e : 2 8-29 ; 1 987 ; R ol ler 1 983 ; Hoh l-

f e lder 1 983a ; O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 3 01-302 . 1 9 .

B yzant ine Cour t a nd S tatues :

Ye iv in 1 950-1 , 1 952 , 1 955 , 1 957 ; Av i-Yonah

1 970 ; D ipr ock 1 971 ; B u l l 1 971 , 1 972b : 1 3 ; 1 973a : 2 60-61 ; 1 974 : 2 80-81 ; 1 976 : 5 9 ; B u l l &T oomb s 1 972 ; T oomb s 1 978 ; V ann 1 983b . 2 0 .

C rusader C ity Wa l l a nd E as t G ate :

N egev 1 960a , 1 960b , 1 966a , 1 967 : 7 1-87 ;

1 975 : 2 82-85 ; B enven ist i 1 970 : 1 35-45 ; R inge l 1 975 : 1 70-72 . 2 1 .

L ev ine a nd Netzer E xcavat ions i ns ide t he C rusader C ity :

N etzer & L ev ine

1 976 ; L ev ine 1 978 ; N etzer 1 982 ; L ev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 1 6-148 ; Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 987 . 2 2 .

T emp le P od ium , C rusader Ca thedra l , a nd H erod ian V au lt :

N egev 1 960b ,

1 963b , 1 966b , 1 967 : 2 1-27 ; 1 975 : 2 73-74 ; L evy 1 964 ; R osh 1 964 : 1 3-15 ; Raban 1 985e : 1 69-73 ; 1 987 . 2 3 .

I nner Harbour B as in : Negev 1 961 , 1 963b , 1 966a -b , 1 967 : 2 7-30 ; Raban e t a l . 1 976 : 3 6-38 ; O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 99-300 ; R aban 1 985e : 1 66-69 ; 1 987 .

2 4 .

Harbour C itade l : S chumacher 1 888 : 1 34-37 ; N egev 1 967 : 7 7-81 ; O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 3 02-34 ; Raban 1 985e : 1 65 .

2 5 .

B yzant ine " Arch ive B u i ld ing : " 1 963b : 7 30-31 ; 1 967 :

N egev 1 960b : 2 2 ; 1 961 : 8 3 ; 1 962 : 4 14-15 ;

5 1-65 ; B u l l & T oomb s 1 972 : 1 79 ; B u l l 1 973a , 1 974 ,

1 975b , 1 976 , 1 982 ; We imken & Ho lum 1 981 : 2 7-30 . 2 6 .

B yzant ine S treet G r id i n F ie ld C o f t he J o in t E xped it ion :

B ul l 1 976 , 1 977 ,

1 978a-b , 1 982 , 1 984 ; We imken & H o lum 1 981 ; S p iro 1 981 ; V ann 1 983b . 2 7 .

M ithraeum a nd H orrea : B ul l 1 973a , 1 974 , 1 975b , 1 978a , 1 982 , 1 984 ; Ho l land 1 971-72 , 1 972 , 1 972-73 ; H op fe & L en se 1 975 : 2 -10 ; V ann 1 983b .

2 8 .

R oman T heatre :

A lbr iec i 1 962 ; F rova : 1 959 ,

1 961a-b ,

1 962a-f ,

1 964a-b , 1 970 ; Ca lder in i 1 963 ; Degrass i 1 964 ; F rova e t a l .

1 963a-e ,

1 965 : 5 7-234 ;

V o lkman 1 968 : N egev 1 969 ; R inge l 1 975 : 4 7-51 ; P lommer 1 983 . 2 9 .

P isc ina ( "C leopatra 's B aths " ) :

Raban e t a l . 1 976 : 3 1 ; F l inder 1 976a , 1 985a ;

N etzer & L ev ine 1 976 : 2 1 ; L ev ine 1 978 ; L ev ine & Netzer 1 986 : 1 49-77 . 3 0 .

B yzant ine F or tress a nd S outhern C ity Wa l l : 1 963e ; F rova e t a l .

F rova 1 959 ,

1 962e ,

1 963a ,

1 965 : 2 29-35 ; P e leg & R e ich 1 985 .

3 1 .

S outheas t Necropo l is :

3 2 .

C aesarea 's " Gardens : "

A lt 1 924 ; L ifsh itz 1 961 , 1 964b , 1 965 , 1 967 ; P orat

1 965 . R e ifenberg 1 955 : 8 2-83 ; K eda r & Z iv 1 964 ; P rausn itz

1 971 , 1 973 ; P orat 1 975 . [ A .R . ]

CHAPTER I I : THE CAHEP EXCAVAT IONS

! ILA . I ntroduct ion : Evo lut ion o r t he P roject , 1 980-87 . The Caesarea Anc ient Harbou r E xcava t ion P ro ject was e stab l ished i n s evera l s tages a nd h as g one t h rough v ar ious c hanges o f c o-d irectorsh ip a nd i nst itut iona l p art ic ipat ion o v .er t he y ears . A s n oted a bove , t he Centre f or Mar it i me S tud ies ( C MS ) a nd t he I s rae l Undersea E xp lorat ion ( IUES ) S oc iety were a ct ive i n s u rveyi ng , s tudy ing , a nd d iv ing a t t he s i te a l most e very y ear s ince t he L ink e xped it ion o f 1 960 . T hese a ct iv it ies c u lm inated i n t he t hree-month s tudy c arr ied o ut f or t he I s rae l E lectr ic Company ( I EC ) d ur ing t he e ar ly p art o f 1 976 . t he

e xpert ise

a nd

e xper ience

o f

mar ine

g eo log ists ,

F or t he f i rst t ime ,

o ceanographers ,

a nd

t he

t ra ined d ivers o f t he I UES were c omb ined w ith a dequate f und ing . Th is o pportun ity e nab led t he CMS t o u ndertake a n i n terd isc ip l ina ry s tudy c omb in ing o ceanography , g eo logy , a rchaeo logy , a nd h i story .

B e ing o ne o f t he f i rst p ro jects o f i t s t ype i n

I s rae l , t h is s tudy s uffered many s etbacks , b ut t he d ata a cqu ired f ro m i t s erved a s as o l id b ase f or f urther r esearch . I t was n atura l t hat t he u nf in ished t ask o f r ecordi ng a l l t he

a va i lab le

a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins

w ith in

t he s unken h a rbour wou ld

s pawn c ont inued s tudy b eyond t he p a rameters s et b y t he I EC .

I n s ubsequent y ears

t he CMS c ont inued t he p ro ject o n a much more modest s ca le , w ith t he s ame s taff , b ut d epend ing more o n s tudents o f t he Department f or Ma r it i me C iv i l izat ions a nd l ess o n I UES v o lunteers . T hese a nnua l workshops were c a rr ied o n u nt i l 1 981 , when t hey were i ncorporated i n to t he CAHEP s ea sons . I t was f rustrat ing , a fter t he l a rge-sca le s tart o f 1 976 a nd t he f i rst r ea l a pprec iat ion o f t he magn itude a nd s oph ist icat ion o f t he mar ine s i te , t o h ave t o g o b ack t o t he l im ited p ace o f sma l l-sca le a nd p oor ly-funded r esearch . I n r esponse , L inder c ontacted t he B aron E dmond d e R oth sch i ld , t h rough whom t he I UES h ad e stabl i shed a d iv ing c entre a t C aesarea i n 1 965 , a nd t he " Caesa rea F oundat ion" s tarted s upport ing t he s tudy o f Caesa rea 's a nc ient h arbours . Annua l c ontr ibut ions h ave c ont inued s ince 1 978 . T h is was a g ood s tart a nd s ound b ase f or c arry ing o n t he r esea rch e very y ear , b ut t he p ro ject wa s o f l im ited s ca le a nd d epended o n l oca l v o lunteers a nd s tudents w ho c om muted d a i ly f rom

t he ir h omes , b r ing ing t he ir

mea ls w ith t he m . T he CMS t eam a pproached t he d irectors o f t he J o int E xped it ion t o Caesarea Mar it ima ( JECM ) , wh ich h ad b een d igg ing s evera l l and s i tes a t Caesarea s ince 1 971 , w ith a p roposa l t o c reate a c o l laborat ive u nderwater p ro ject . A lthough t he b eg inn ing s ee med p rom is ing , b y t he e nd o f t wo y ea rs n oth ing h ad mater ia l ized . I n 1 978 , t wo s c ient ists o f t he J EC M were d e legated b y i t s d irector t o c a rry o ut a n u nderwater s urvey a round t he s unken h a rbour o f Caesarea ( s ee S ect ion I .B .5 ) , a nd a pp l icat ion was made t o t he Department o f Ant iqu it ies f or a p erm it . A lthough t h is

101-

1 02

1 1 .A : Evo lut ion o f CAHEP

i n it ia l ly c aused a c onf l ict w ith t he CMS t ea m , t he e xper ience o f t h is s urvey a nd s ubsequent d iscuss ions i n it iated a l ong l ast ing c o l laborat ion a nd am icab le s c ient i f ic p artnersh ip t hat e vo lved i nto CAHEP . Dur ing 1 979 t he CMS a nd t he Un ivers ity o f Co lorado j o ined t o f orm CAHEP , d irected b y A . Raban , w ith R . L . Hoh lfe lder a s ac o-d irector . Hoh lfe lder s ubseq uent ly a pp l ied t o t he Nat iona l E ndowment f or t he Hu man it ies a nd t he Nat iona l Geograph ic S oc iety f or f inanc ia l s upport . B oth a genc ies h ave s upported CAHEP i nterm ittent ly s ince i t s f oundat ion . Dur ing t he CMS workshop o f 1 979 , J .P . O leson p art ic ipated i n t he f ie ld-work , a long w ith h is g raduate s tudent , A .N .

S herwood .

The f o l low ing y ear was t he f i rst o ff ic ia l s eason o f CAHEP . O leson c ou ld n ot p art i c ipate t hat y ear , s o Hoh lfe lder c ame a s c o-d irector w ith h is own t eam a nd t he i nst itut iona l c o l laborat ion o f t he Un ivers ity o f C o lorado a t B ou lder . T he s eason l asted f ro m May 2 2 u nt i l J u ly 4 , a nd f or t he f i rst t ime t here was a work ing b arge o ver t he e xcavat ion s i te . The b u lk o f t he s ta ff a nd d iv ing v o lunteers were s t i l l I s rae l is , who c om muted h o me e very d ay . However , t he Caesarea Deve lop ment Co mpany ( CDC ) d onated t wo r ooms a t t he s i te i n wh ich s o me o f t he v o lunteers r es ided . T h is s eason was a lso t he f i rst t o make u se o f t he Caesarea D iv ing Centre a s i t s work b a se a nd a s t he s torage p lace f or t he d iv ing a nd work ing g ear , a nd t o c ontract w ith t he Ha rbour C itade l Restaurant f or a p leasant d in ing p lace a nd a c ont inuous s ource o f p ract ica l a ss istance .

T he Amer ican , Canad ian , a nd I s rae l i

t ea ms were worked i nto a s ing le r esearch u n it . The s eason o f 1 981 wa s t he f i rst l arge-sca le e xped it ion , w ith a l a rge g roup o f v o lunteers f ro m a broad t hat l i ved i n as he lter b u i lt o n t he g rass b y t he b each n ear t he s i te . O leson j o ined a s c o-d irector , w ith h is u n ivers ity c ol laborat ing i n CAHEP o n a n i n st itut iona l b as is , a nd b rought a t hree-yea r g rant f rom t he S oc ia l S c iences a nd Hu man it ies R esearch Counc i l o f Canada . R .L . V ann , f rom t he S choo l o f A rch it ecture o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ma ry land a t Co l lege P ark , c ame w ith t hree o f h i s g raduate s tudents a nd worked a s t he a rch itect o f b oth t he J o int E xped it ion a nd CAHEP . H is work t h is s eason wa s f unded b y t he Nat iona l E ndowment f or t he Hu man it ies .

T h is g roup r edrew a nd c oord inated a l l t he p rev ious p lans , maps , a nd

s urvey d ata o f CMS a nd CAHEP w ith t hose o f t he l and s urvey . The f ore ign v o lunt eers s tayed f our week s ( May 2 3-June 2 0 ) , b ut t he s ea son c ont inued u nt i l J u ly 1 0 , w ith t he f ina l weeks s erv ing a s a CMS work shop f or t he s tudents o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , t he v o lunteers o f l UES , a nd t he I s rae l F ederat ion f or Underwater Act iv it i es ( IFUA ) . The 1 982 s eason was o n a n e ven l arger s ca le . I t was d iv ided i nto t wo s ess ions o f t h ree weeks e ach ( w ith a week o f p reparat ion a head o f t ime ) f rom May 2 3 t o J u ly 2 . R .L . V ann j o ined a s t he a rch itect o f CAHEP a nd a s a n a dd it iona l c od irector w ith h is s choo l c o l laborat ing o n a n i n st itut iona l b a s is . The p r im it ive r es id ent ia l f ac i l it ies o n t he b each were a bandoned i n f avour o f t he d orm itor ies o f Hapo 'e l S port Center a t t he s outh e nd o f K ibbutz S edot Yam , l i v ing q uarters t hat t urned o ut t o b e v ery a greeab le f or y ears t o c ome . T he s ea son wa s e xtre me ly p rod uct ive d ue t o t he a typ ica l ly c a lm s ea a nd t h in s and d epos its . The 1 983 s eason l a sted f rom May 2 2 t o J u ly 1 . T h is was t he f i rst s eason o f CAHEP

t o

i ncorporate

l and

e xcavat ions ,

u s ing

t he

v o lunteer

d ivers

o n

l and

b etween d ives a nd d ur ing r ough s eas . E xcavat ion was b egun o f p a rts o f t he I nner

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 03

Ba s in a nd t he a rch itectura l r e ma ins r e levant t o t he e ar l ier p ort o f S traton 's T ower . The s c ient if ic s taff was e xpanded b y t he a rr iva l o f S . S idebotham o f t he Un ivers ity o f De laware , W .M . Mu rray f rom t he Un ivers ity o f S outh F lor ida a t T ampa , a nd T . H il lard o f t he New E ng land U n ivers ity o f Austra l ia . Du r ing t he l ast week o f t he f i e ld s ea son

CAHEP h osted t he

F irst

I nternat iona l

Workshop

o n

Anc ient Med iterranean Ha rbours t hat b rought t ogether o ver 3 0 s cho lars f rom a l l o ver t he wor ld f or l ectures , f ie ld t r ips , a nd d iscuss ions ( s ee Raban 1 985b ) . The 1 984 s eason i nvo lved t he s ame t eam , f ac i l it ies , a nd s ponsorsh ips . I t l asted f rom May 2 0 t o J une 3 0 , b ut s uffered b ad weather d ur ing i t s s econd h a lf . The l and d ig p rogressed a s ar esu lt :

s ign if icant p ort ions o f t he I nner B as in were e xposed ,

a nd t r ia l t renches were l a id o ut i n t he G reat V au lt o f t he Herod ian t e mp le p od ium . The p resence o f B i l l C urts inger , ap hotog rapher f or Nat iona l Geograph ic , c ontr ibu ted much t o t he v isua l d ocumentat ion o f t he p ro ject , i nc lud ing a v ery i mportant s er ies o f a er ia l p hotog raphs .

T h is s eason t erm inated t he i n it ia l f ive-year c o l labo-

r at ion o f CAHEP , a nd i t was d ec ided t o t ake a y ear o ff f or s tudy o f t he mater ia l f ound , b efore r esum ing f i e ld-work . T he month o f J une 1 985 was d evoted t o as tudy s ea son f or t he c o-d irectors o f CAHEP , A .N . S herwood a nd S . S idebotham ( who were work ing o n s ome o f t he c eram ics ) , a nd M . F itzgera ld ( who worked o n t he d ata a nd f inds r ecovered f ro m t he Roman w reck a t A rea Y ) .

T h is t ime was d evoted t o d iscuss ions a nd d iv ing s ur-

v eys , a im ing t o c lar ify amb iguous i s sues a nd s ett l ing s o me o f t he d ifferences among t he c o-d irectors i n i n terpretat ion o f d ata .

E ventua l ly , t he c haracter o f t he

f ina l p ub l icat ion was f ixed a nd r espons ib i l ity wa s a greed u pon f or t he v ar ious p arts o f t he wr itten r eports . CAHEP c hanged s omewhat a fter 1 985 . A n ew f ive-year p rog ra m me i s u nder way w ith f u l l-sca le u nderwater work s chedu led f or o n ly e very s econd y ear ( 1986 , 1 988 , 1 990 ) . J .P . O leson a nd t he Un ivers ity o f V ictor ia w ithdrew f rom a ct ive f ie ld-work a t t h is s tage t o c oncentrate o n p ub l icat ion a nd o ther r esearch p ro jects . The l and s ide o f t he p ro ject h as e xpanded , w ith R .R .

S t ieg l itz o f Rutgers Un iver-

s i ty a t Newark j o in ing a s c o-d irector o n a n i n st itut iona l b as is . K . Ho lu m , o f t he Un ivers ity o f Mary land 's D epartment o f H istory a nd t he Center o f Med iterranean A rchaeo logy , i s h e lp ing t o d irect t he l and work , i n a dd it ion t o t he r e ma in ing c od irectors o f t he e ar l ier s tage o f CAHEP . The 1 986 s eason o f CAHEP wa s c arr ied o ut b etween May 1 8 a nd J u ly 7 a nd was a ffected b y t he n eed t o h e lp t he mov ie t eam o f t he Nat iona l Geograph ic S oc ie ty i n t he p ro ject o f d ocument ing t he l and a nd t he u nderwater work w ith v ideo c ameras . S tormy d ays d ur ing t he l atter p a rt o f t he s eason c ut s hort most o f t he u nderwater work . T he a rea s e xcavated i n t he water were Di , D3 , D 4 , C3 a nd Y , J 3 , S i a nd S 2 , o n t he s horel ine . S o me r e levant d ata a re d escr ibed b e low i n t he s ect ions o n A rea C a nd Y ( Sect ions I I .A a nd S ) . The 1 987 s eason o f CAHEP wa s f ocused ma in ly o n l and e xcavat ion , w ith l imi t ed u nderwater work c arr ied o ut b y t he CMS t ea m a nd s tudents o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa . I t l asted f rom J une 7 t o J u ly 1 7 . T he a reas e xcavated i n t he s ea were A reas A2 , C 4-05 , D5 , H 3-H4 , a nd R 2 . On l and t he work was ma in ly i n t wo med ie va l s i tes : A reas M4 a nd Z , b ut a l so i n A reas L a nd J 3 .

1 1 .A : E vo lut ion o f CAHEP

1 04

A s h as b een n oted i n t he Acknow ledgments t o t h is v o lu me , t he f o l low ing t ext i s i n g enera l a f actua l d escr ipt ion o f t he p hys ica l d ata o f CAHEP 's e xcavat ions a nd f ie ld s urveys .

E ven t he i lustrat ive p art i s o n ly a s e xtens ive a s i s n ecessa ry

f or a c lear u nderstand ing o f t he n a rrat ion .

A s n oted i n t he P reface , t he water

c ond it ions a nd t he s ca le o f t he s i te h ave n ecess ita ted r e l iance more o n p lans a nd d raw ings t han o n p hotographs . U nder most work ing c ond it ions a t Caesarea p hotog raphs o f a reas o r o b jects more t han 2 m d istant f rom t he c amera t ended t o b e t o f uzzy t o a l low s at isfactory r eproduct ion w ith t he p r int ing t echn iques a va i lab le t o u s .

A lthough t h is r eport i s f ocused o n CAHEP f ie ld-work u p t o t he e nd o f 1 984 ,

s ome d ata g athered e a r l ier b y CMS a nd a c erta in amount o f c r it ica l a dd it iona l i nformat ion p rov ided b y l a ter r esearch h ave b een t aken i n to c ons iderat ion where n ecessary . T h is i s t he c ase i n p art icu lar f or A reas D3 , C2 , 1 3 , L , a nd S , where e xcavat ions d ur ing 1 986 a nd 1 987 h ave y ie lded more i nformat ion a nd h e lped s upp lement i nformat ion wh ich h ad b een g athered p rev ious ly . [ A .R . ]

I I .B . Areas A , B , C : I nner E dge

o rthe Southern Breakwater.

T he most p rom inent f eature a long t he i nner ( eastern ) s ide o f t he m id-port ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater i s al ong c ourse o f l arge a sh lar s labs l a id i n ah eader f ormat ion f or a d istance o f a bout

1 65 m . CAHEP A reas A a nd B a re l ocated

t oward t he s outh e nd o f t h is f eature ; A rea C i sa t i t s n orth e nd ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 ) .

Th is

f eature , o r a t l east p arts o f i t , wa s f i rst n ot iced b y t he d ivers o f L ink 's e xped it ion i n 1 960 , who m istook i tf or a s er ies o f c o lumns ( f ig . 1 1 .5) .

I t was l ater i n terpreted

a s a n I nner Quay b y t he d ivers o f I UES , who i nvest igated i t d ur ing t he m id-1960 's , a nd i t was s urveyed a nd d rawn b y CMS i n 1 976 ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 4 5-47 ) a nd

a ga in d ur ing a 1 979 workshop . I n 1 980 , t he f i rst s eason o f CAHEP , s evera l a reas a long t h is f eature were s e lected f or e xcavat ion , w ith t he a im o f f ind ing o ut whether t here were a dd it iona l c ourses u nderneath , o r what s ort o f f oundat ion t here was , a nd h ow t he s tructure was r e lated t o t he o r ig ina l l ayout o f t he b reakwa ter . A s t he o n ly f eature i n t h is a rea o f t he h arbour t hat s eemed t o b e more o r l e ss i ntact a nd i n s i tu , i t was t hought t hat t h is a rea m ight y ie ld s ome d atab le f inds i n a n u nd isturbed s tra t ig raph ic c ontext . T he e xcavat ions b egan a t t wo a d jacent l ocat ions a t t he s outh e nd o f t he l i ne ( Areas A a nd B ) , w ith t he n ew ly-bu i lt o perat ions b arge moored a l most d irect ly a bove . The f i rst t hree d ays o f J une were u sed f or i nsta l l ing t he b arge a nd t he a ir-supp ly h oses , a nd t he a ctua l e xcavat ion c om menced o n J une 5 , a f ter t he d es ignated a rea s h ad b een p roper ly s urveyed a nd marked . T he work i n b oth a reas was c arr ied o ut s imu ltaneous ly u nt i l J une 1 2 , d ur ing wh ich A rea A was e xcavated w ith a 4 inch a ir l ift a nd B w ith o ne o f 6 inch d iameter . Dur ing t h is t ime a t eam o f d iv ing d raftsmen , l ed b y t he v o lunteer a rch itect G . Kap lan , r edrew t he e xcavated a rea s s tone b y s tone a nd c omp leted t he c orrect ions o f t he g enera l p lan f or t he e nt ire c ourse . R .L . Hoh lfe lder was i n c ha rge o f t he w ork i n A rea B , a ss isted b y Y . Tur-Kaspa , a nd W . Murray was r espons ib le f or t he work i n A rea A , u nder t he g u id ance o f Hoh lfe lder .

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 05

On J une 2 0 , t he a ir l ifts , t he a ir s upp ly , a nd t he b a rge were s h ifted a bout 1 20 m n orthward , t o t he v ic in ity o f A rea C . T he n ext d ay t h is a rea was marked w ith r opes , a nd t he e xcavat ions r esumed o n t he 2 2nd w ith a 4 inch a ir l ift . The f o l lowi ng d ay t he 6 inch a ir l ift wa s i n sta l led i n a n a d jacent a rea , d es ignated a s C 2 , a t t he v ery n orth e nd o f t he a sh lar c ourse . T he e xcavat ion s i n b oth a reas c ont inued u nt i l t he e nd o f t he month w ith Raban i n c harge , a ss isted b y W . Murray . T he c ourse o f b locks t hat was t ermed t he I nner Quay i s v is ib le a t t he c oncave p art o f t he S outhern B reakwater , j ust n orth o f t he p o int where i t b ends f rom a n orthwest t o an orther ly d irect ion ( f ig . 1 1 .1 ) . T h is p o int i s n ea r a n a rea o f t he b reakwater t hat s lopes t oward t he h arbour b a s in a nd i s s urrounded o n i t s o uter f ace b y ah igher mound o f b ad ly e roded a nd t u mb led c oncrete b locks . There , d uri ng 1 976 , as er ies o f a t l ea st f our a d jacent c ourses o f a sh lar h eaders wa s r ecorded ( Sect ion 1 . 113 a bove ; Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 4 6 ) . A rea B 1 i s a bout 1 5 m n orth o f t h is

f eature a nd B 2 i s 6m f rom i t s s outhwest e dge , t o t he west o f t he v ery s outh e nd o f t he b asel ine , a nd what wa s d es ignated a s t he I nner Quay ( f ig . 1 1 .9 ) .

The b ase-

l i ne ( BL ) , af ixed r ope ma rked e very metre t o at ota l l ength o f 1 65 m , h ad b een i nsta l led d ur ing t he e ar l ier p art o f t he s eason . T he z ero p o int a t i t s n orth e nd was f ixed b eyond t he n orthern most v is ib le s lab o f t he q uay , c ont inued a t ad irect ion o f 2 03 ° f or 3 5 m , t hen a t 1 88 ° f or a n a dd it iona l 1 30 m , t erm inat ing a t a rea B 2 . The a sh lar s labs a long t h is l i ne were o f a lmost s tanda rd d i mens ions o f 1 .8 x 0 .7 x 0 .6 m , a nd a l l were c ut o f k urkar r ock . S ome s egments were s o e xtens ive ly c oated w ith mar ine o rganogen ic i ncrustat ion t hat t hey were h a rd ly d ist ingu ishab le . I n s ome p laces ( BL m 8 5-105 ) t he a dd it iona l c e mented s p i l l o f sma l l r ubb le made i t v irtua l ly i mposs ib le t o d raw i nd iv idua l b lock s . Many s labs were a braded b y wave c arr ied s and o r b roken i n to t wo o r more p arts , s o t he ir d i men s ions were much r educed . A lthough most o f t he b locks a re h or izonta l , t he u pper s urface o f t he c ourse s lumps g radua l ly t oward t he s outh . I tl i es a t ad epth o f 4 .95 m b e low MSL a t BL m 0( Area C2 ) , 5 .88 m a t m 3 0 ( Area C 1 ) , 6 .82 m a t m 8 6 , 7 .20 m a t m 1 25 , 7 .50 m a t m 1 45 ( Area A ) , 7 .92 m a t m 1 60 ( Area B 1 ) , a nd 6 .91 m a t m 1 65 ( Area B 2 ) . I t s eems a s i f t he a dd it iona l s ubmergence wa s ag radua l o ne a nd c aused b y u ndert rench ing a nd s lu mp ing o f t hese s egments a fter t he o r ig ina l b edd ing o f r ubb le was c arr ied away b y t he waves a nd t he u nder ly ing s and was e xposed t o t he o pen water . A s urvey t hat was c a rr ied o ut d ur ing t he 1 987 s eason t raced s evera l a dd it iona l s egments o f s im i la r c ourses o f b locks , s ome f urther e ast o f t he n orthern p a rt o f t he q uay ( at A rea C ) a nd o thers west o f A rea A . T he t ota l w idth o f t h is p aved p latform d id n ot e xceed 8 -9 m , a nd s o me g roups o f s labs f urther t owa rd t he Harb our Ba s in ( as a t BL m 4 5-52 , m 1 02-105 , m 1 45-160 ) h ave v ery p robab ly s lumped o ut o f p os it ion o r b een d ragged o ff b y t he s ea . I n a t l east t hree p laces t here a re s er ies o f a sh lars o r iented i n ad irect ion p erpend icu lar t o t he ma in c ourse : t wo i n A rea C a nd a t l ea st o ne a t BL m 1 27 ( f igs . 1 1 .3 , 1 2 ) . I n many s ect ions t here a re c lear ly t wo o r t hree p ara l le l c ourses , a nd t hough t he ir p resent a rrangement a t t he v ery s outheast e nd m ight i nd icate t hat t hey were o r ig ina l ly o n t op o f e ach o ther , i n o ther c a ses , s uch a s A rea s A , B 1, a nd C , i t i s q u ite o bv ious t hat t hey b e long t o t he s ame s urface .

F or s ome s ect ions a cross t he I nner Quay a nd t he a d jacent

b reakwater c ore , s ee S ect ion I V .C : S urvey L ines n os . 4 , 5 , a nd 7 .

1 06

A reas A -C Area A .

A s quare g r id 1 0 m o n as ide was l a id o ut o n a n E -W , N -S magnet ic

c ompass o r ientat ion ( dev iat ing a bout 2 d egrees e ast o f t rue n orth ) , a long BL m 1 40-150 w ith i t s n ortheast a nd s outheast c orners 1 . 0 m e a st o f t he l i ne ( f ig . 1 1 .4 ) . S evera l p robes t hat h ad b een c arr ied o ut i n t h is a rea e ar l ier i n t he s eason r evea led as tratum o f sma l l r ubb le 0 .3-0 .6 m t h ick , s i tuated a bove s and wh ich e xtended t o a d epth o f a t l ea st 2 m .

T he d es ignated s qua re c overed a g ent ly s lop ing a rea , w ith

s cattered s labs o n a n i ncrusted s p i l l o f smal l r ubb le ( D 0 .2-0 .4 m ) a t ad epth o f 6 .4 m a t t he west s ide o f t he s quare a nd 7 .3 m a t i t s e astern e dge . E ast o f t he s quare a nd n ext t o i t o n as andy f loor , t here a re a dd it iona l c urved c ourses o f a sh lar b lock s , a rched t oward t he e a st a nd c omposed o f 1 1 h eaders s et c lose t ogether ( f igs . 1 1 .5-6) .

T he ma in c ourse , n ext t o i to n t he west , i s c omposed o f p oor ly p re-

s erved a sh lars , s o me a braded d own t o l ess t han a t h ird o f t he ir p ro jected o r ig ina l v o lu me a nd p art ia l ly t i lted , w ith t he ir e astern e nd s b ur ied i n t he s and a nd r ubb le . S o me s cattered b locks l ay a t t he n orth a nd s outh s ides o f t he s quare , a nd a f ew a t t he west e dge , j ust a t t he f oot o f t he s teep r i se o f h eaped , c oncreted r ubb le , a bout 1 .5-1 .8 m a bove t he g enera l l eve l o f t he s quared p latform . I n o rder t o f ac i l itate a n a ccurate mapp ing o f e very s tone w ith in t he s quare , t he p er imeter o f t he g r id wa s marked i n metres .

A 1 0 m measur ing t ape wa s t hen

a ttached t o t he e ast a nd west s ides o f t he p er imeter a nd f i l l was r emoved b y 1m i ncre ments f ro m t he s outh t o t he n orth , wh i le a d raftsman s urveyed a nd r ecorded t he v ar ious b locks a long i t . D ue t o p oor v is ib i l ity a nd a s trong s urge , i t t ook t wo t eams o f t hree d ivers f our d ives o f o ver o ne h ou r e ach t o a ccomp l ish t h is s urvey . The f i rst e xcavat ion was c arr ied o ut a long t he e a stern s ide o f t he s quare , f rom i t s s outhea st c orner : at rench 5 .2 m l ong was e xcavated a long t he e astern v is ib le e dge o f t he s labs c o mpr is ing t he ma in c ourse o f t he q uay . T he t rench went d own 0 .4 m b e low t he b ases o f s ix b locks , r evea l ing t hat t hey were r est ing o n s and a nd o cca s iona l p i les o f sma l l r ubb le a nd p ebb les . Deepen ing t he t rench e xposed a f urther s tratum o f g rey ish s and w ith s o me c lay a nd many G lycymer is v io lacesc e ns s he l ls u nder 0 .3-0 .5 m o f s and . I t c onta ined many amphora s herds s o a braded a s t o b e u ndatab le , e xcept o ne c ombed L a te Roman p iece a nd t he l ower p art o f what s ee ms t o b e a n E ar ly B yzant ine j ug let . B e low t h is l ayer , s ome 0 .3 m d eeper a t a d epth o f 8 .05 m b e low MSL , t here wa s at h in b ut v ery marked l ayer o f c ompact c lay , w ith n o s he l ls o r p ottery .

B eneath , a t ad epth o f 8 .2 m , s ter i le s and w ith

s ome c oarse p art ic les b ut n o s he l ls o r p otsherds wa s t raced t o ad epth o f 8 .6 m b e low MSL . I n v iew o f t he a bsence o f f oundat ions u nderneath t h is c ourse , t he p resence o f a braded , l ate p ottery , a nd t he p rox im ity o f t he c lay l ayer t hat m ight p resent t he o r ig ina l f loor o f t he Herod ian Harbour B as in ,

i t i s r easonab le

t o

a ssu me t hat t h is s egment o f t he s o-ca l led I nner Quay i s n ot a t i t s o r ig ina l p lace b ut h a s f a l len o r s lu mped d own a nd i nward f rom i t s p os it ion o n t he b reakwater . T he n ext t rench wa s c ut a long t he n orth s ide o f t he s quare , f rom a bout 1 m west o f t he n orthea st c orner ( the west e dge o f t he o ffset ma in c ourse o f t he j etty ) a l l t he way t o t he n orthwest c orner , n ext t o t he f oot o f t he p i le o f c oncrete b locks ( f ig . 1 1 .7 ) . T he a verage w idth o f t he t rench w as 0 .7-0 .8 m , a nd t he e nt ire e xcav ated a rea was j ust o ver 7 m s quare . A t t he e a stern p a rt o f t he t rench t he f o l low ing s trat igraphy was e stab l ished ( t he f igures a re d epths b e low MSL ) ( f ig . 1 .8 ) :

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions A . B . C . D .

1 07

7 .7 t o 7 .9 m : r egu lar b otto m s and , s ome s he l ls a nd a f ew s hape less p o tsherds . 7 .9 t o 8 .1 m : g rey s and w ith many s he ll s , p ebb les a nd a braded p otsherds , most ly b ody s herds o f R o man amphoras . 8 .1 t o 8 .25 m : c ompact g rey c lay w ith n o s he l ls a nd s ome p ott ery . T h is l ayer e xtends w estward a nd t apers o ff a t ap o int 5 .4 m west o f t he n ortheast c orner o f t he s quare . 8 .25 t o 10 .00 m : v ery u n iform g rey s and w ith s ome d ark i nc lus ions , w ithout a ny p ottery a nd o n ly a f ew s he l ls . The max imu m d epth wa s r eached i n t wo d eep p robes w ith t he a ir l ift .

The western p art o f t he t rench wa s d ug b y h and r emova l o f t he l ower e xtent i on o f t he s teep s p i l l o f wha t s ee ms t o b e t he v ery b ody o f t he b reakwater 's mass . B e low t here was a c ompact mass o f r ubb le t o ad epth o f 7 .6 m b e low MSL . Undern eath

t here

wa s

n oth ing

b ut

t he

s ame

f i ne

g rey ish

s and ,

w ith s o me

l i ghter

i n terbeds a nd n o p otsherd s a t a l l . T h is v irg in s ubstratum was t raced d own a s f ar a s t he p robes c ou ld b e c ont inued . Two waterjet p robes were d one a t t hat s ect ion , a nd t he meta l p ipe w en t d own 5 m ( t o at ota l o f 1 2 .3 m b e low MSL ) t h rough s and w ithout h itt ing a ny more c onso l idated l ayers ( f ig . 1 1 .7) . T he a bsence o f t he c lay l ayer a t t he western p art o f t he s quare a nd i t s c o inc id ing w ith a s uper i mposed b etter-preserved l ayer o f c ompact r ubb le , m igh t i nd icate t hat t h is i s t he o r ig ina l i nner l i ne o f t he b reakwater . I n t hat c a se , o ne

m ight s uppose t hat t he e nt ire

s outhern s egment o f t he q uay i s n ow o ffset o ver 5 m e astward a nd o ver 1 .5 m d eeper t han i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion ( s ee A rea C , b e low ) . Yet , t he a l most h or izonta l p resent p os it ion o f a l l t he s labs a nd t he c lose r ese mb lance a nd p rox im ity o f most o f t he b locks w ith in t he c ourse s eem t o c ontrad ict d isp lacement o f s uch a magn it ude . F o l low ing J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .337 ) , av ert ica l wa l l s hou ld f ace t he i nner s ide o f t he mo le , f ac i l itat ing t rans-sh ipment o f g oods f rom moored v esse ls t o t he s torage v au lts o n t he q uay .

T he a sh lar h eader c ourses may a ctua l ly b e r emnants o f s uch a

v ert ica l wa l l , a s many p ara l le ls s uggest f rom n e ighbour ing P hoen ic ian h a rbours s uch a s A th l it , Akko , Ty re , a nd S idon ( s ee R aban 1 985b : 3 0-40 ) . T he o n ly r easona b le l ocat ion f or t he b a se o f s uch a v ert ica l wa l l i n A rea A i s e ither a t t he f oot o f t he r ubb le l edge , s ome 4 .5 m west o f t he n ortheast c orner o f t he s quare , o r o n t op o f i t , a bout 1 .4 m f a rther b ack . T h is s uggest ion i s b a sed o n t he p resumpt ion t hat t he c lay l ayer c an o n ly r epresent t he s ed i ment s unk o n t he b as in f l oor d ur ing t he t ime t he h arbour was s t i l l i n tact ( s ee S ect ion I I .M ) . Cons ider ing most o f t he e x isti ng h eader b locks a s c omponents i n s uch a p roposed v ert ica l q uay , i t i s p oss ib le t o a ttr ibute s labs o f p ara l le l c ourse o r t hose s cattered n earby a s members o f t he p aved s urface o f s uch a q uay , o r ig ina l ly o n t op o f r ubb le f i l l . W ith s uch a t heoret ica l r econstruct ion i n m ind , we c ounted t he n u mber o f s urv iv ing b locks a long t he e nt ire ma in c ourse a nd t he a d jacent o nes t hat s ee med o r igi na l ly t o s te m f rom i t . T hen , r econstruct ing t he m in imu m r equ ired d epth o f water t o s uch a wa l l a s 2m , a nd a dd ing a nother 0 .5 m a s am in i mum h e ight o f t he wa l l a bove t he water , t here a re 6 00-800 b locks m iss ing f rom t he p resent v ic in ity o f t he ma in c ourse . S urvey ing t he a rch itectura l r ema ins o f t he l and s i te d ur ing t he CMS p ro ject o f 1 976 , we s ea rched l a ter s tructures a round t he h arbour , l ook ing f or t hese m iss ing b locks i n s econdary u se . D ur ing t hat s urvey , a bout 1 80 b locks r ese mb l ing i n d i mens ions a nd s hape t hose f rom t he I nner Quay were d etected , most ly a t t he l owest a bove-water c ourses o f t he n orthern a nd s outhern f aces o f t he C rusader Harbour C itade l ( f igs . 1 1 .128-29 ) . Cons ider ing t he l ower s ea l eve l r econstructed

1 08

I I .B : Areas A-C

f or t he Med ieva l e ra ( s ee S ect ions 1 .A .2-3 ) a nd t he l im ited r esources o f t he C rus aders , who a lways s ought r e-used b u i ld ing ma ter ia l ( a s i ss o c lear ly v is ib le f or t he c ase o f t he c o lumn d rums ) , i t i sv ery t empt ing t o a ttr ibute t he p lunder ing o f t hese p roposed m iss ing c o mponents o f t he I nner Quay t o t h is l ate s tage i n t he h istory o f Caesarea . Area B .

Two a d jacent e xcavat ion a reas were d es ignated a t t he s outhernmost

p o int o f t he I nner Quay , a t t he b est p reserved a nd l argest a rea o f c lose-set c ours es o f a sh lar h eaders ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 , 9 , 1) .

T he s urvey a nd p lans o f 1 976 s uggested

t hat i n t h is s pec if ic l ocat ion t he a sh lar s tructures w ere a t ah igher e levat ion t han i n t he a rea f arther n orth , a nd c loser t o t he c oncrete b locks o n t he c rest o f t he b reakwater . I t was t herefore e st i mated t hat a t t h is l ocat ion t he l ayers b e low t he b locks m igh t h ave k ept t he ir o r ig ina l s trat igraphy a nd v o lu me . T oward t he SW , t he p i led c oncrete b locks r i se t o a bout 3 m b e low MSL , a nd s ome l a rge , t ipped c hunks o f c oncrete a bout 3 x 3 x 1 .6 m c over t he e dges o f t he p aved a rea o n i t s s ou thwest a nd n orthwest s ides . Two p a irs o f l arger t han u sua l r ectangu lar b locks o f k urkar ( 2 .2 x 1 .1 x 0 .9 m ) l i e west ( s o mewhat h igher ) a nd e ast ( on t he s and ) o f t he s outhe rn p art o f t he p aved a rea , a nd t hree s t i l l l arger b locks ( 2 .6 x 1 .5 x 1 .2 m ) l i e n orth o f i t , s eparat ing t he g roup o f a sh la r s labs f rom t he s outhern e nd o f t he I nner Quay ( f ig . I I .10 ) . T he o r ig ina l p lan , made i n 1 976 , wa s c orrected d ur ing t he May 1 980 CMS workshop .

Dur ing t h is work , al i ne was f i xed a round a r ectangu la r p er-

i meter a t t he n orth p art o f t he p ave ment . I t was 6 .5 m l ong o n t he c ourse o f t he B ase L ine ( i ts n ortheast c orner a t BL m 1 65 ) a nd 3 m w ide . T h is a rea was d es ign ated a s B 2 , wh i le B 1 was marked b y al i ne f i xed p erpend icu lar t o t he Base L ine a t BL m 1 60 , e xtend ing t owa rd t he e ast f or 1 0 m . A rea B 1 i nc ludes a l i ne o f t hree a sh lars ; t he f i rst t wo r est o n r ubb le a nd t he t h ird o n as andy b ottom a t ad epth o f 8 .2 m . T he t o ta l d istance f ro m t he B a se L ine t o t he f arthest e dge o f t he t h ird b lock wa s 8 .7 m . The e xcavat ion wa s c arr ied o ut a s as er ies o f p robes a long t hat l i ne , b etween t he b locks . T he f i rst p robe was d ug a t t he f i rst metre e a st o f BL m 1 60 o n t he s outh s ide o f t he t he mark ing l i ne . T he t ops o f t he t wo n e ighbour ing b locks o f t he ma in c ourse were a t ad epth o f 7 .85 m , a nd i n o rder t o e xpose t he ir b ase , s o me 0 .60 m d eeper , at h in l ayer o f sma l l r ubb le ( D 0 .1-0 .2 m ) was r e moved , t hen a bout 0 .20 m o f wave-carr ied s and . B eneath , t here was a l ayer o f g rey ish s and m ixed w ith g rave l a nd c oncentrat ions o f s ea-she l ls ( most ly G lycymer is v io lacescens ) . The s econd p robe was made 3 m f arther d own t he l i ne . Here t oo , u nder a s h ifted s urface l ayer o f a bout 0 .20 m o f s and m ixed w ith s ome r ubb le a nd l arge p ebb les , t he s ame s ubstratu m o f g rave l a nd s he l l was f ound t o e xtend b e low a nd u nderneath t he b ases o f t he a sh lar b locks . A f ew a braded p otsherds a t t hat u nder ly ing l eve l i nd icate t hat t h is p art o f t he a sh lar s tructure i so ffset f ro m i t s o r ig ina l p lace . The t h ird p robe was made n ext t o t he n orth s i de o f t he l ast b locks a nd t he mark ing l i ne , a t ad epth o f 8 .2 m b e low MSL . The b ase o f t he b lock was e xposed a t ad epth o f 8 .8 m , b ur ied i n r ecent ly s h ifted s and w ith n o p ottery . A t ad epth o f 9 .1 m t he s and t urned g reyer a nd c oarser , w ith a sma l l amount o f g rave l . No c lay l ayer was d etected a t ad epth o f 1 0 .2 m . A waterjet p robe s ee med t o h i t a nd g o t h rough a l ayer o f g rave l a t ad epth o f 1 2 .3 m b e low MSL . No p otsherds were f ound i n t he s econd a nd t h ird p robes .

Chapter 1 . 1 1 : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 09

T he d epth a t wh ich t he s labs n ow l i e a nd t he a bsence o f u nder ly ing c lay o r o ther s tab le s ed i ments i nd icate t ha t t h is p a rt o f t he s ea-bottom h as u ndergone r epeated t rench ing b y c urrents a nd i t s s trat igraphy h a s b een b ad ly d isturbed . A rea B 2 ( f ig . 1 1 .3) was s urveyed b y t he s ame method o f t r ia l p robes . h igher a rea , t he c ompact s urface

i s c omposed o f r ubb le i ncrusted

I n t h is

w ith s ome

a braded p otsherds a nd sma l l c hunks o f mortar . T h is u pper l ayer wa s l oosened manu a l ly w ith p icks a nd c leared b efore t he a ir l ift went i n to e ffect ive u se . T he f i rst p robe wa s made j ust i n s ide t he w estern e dge o f t he d es igna ted a rea , a t ag ap b etween t he p av ing s labs t o t he s outh a nd o ne o f t he t hree l arge b locks t o t he n orth .

The s urface o f t he r ubb le a t t hat p o int i s a t a t ad epth o f 5 .8 m b e low

MSL , w ith t he f ace o f t he p avement a t 5 .2 m a nd t he t op o f t he b lock t o t he n orth a t 4 .7 m . A t ad epth o f 6 .2-6 .3 m t he r ubb le wa s l ess c ompacted , m ixed w ith g rave l , a nd u nder la id b y g rey s and m ixed w ith q uant it ies o f s he ll s , b ut n o p ots herds . Deeper , t he s and b ecame more u n iform a nd c onta ined f ewer s he l ls . T he p robe went d own t o ad epth o f 7m b e low MSL w ithout a ny c hange o f s ed i ments a nd n o p ottery o r o ther a rt ifacts . T he a ir l ift was t hen r ep laced b y a waterjet t hat went 3 m d eeper i n to t he s and w ithout e ncounter ing a ny a pparent l ayers o f c lay o r g rave l o n i t s way . The n earby p avement l i es o n a bout 0 .3 m o f r ubb le , w ith t he s and a nd s hel ls u nderneath . T he s ame s trat igraphy was f ound i n t he t h ird p robe , j ust NW o f t he s outhwest c orner o f t he p er imeter . T he s econd p robe was made o n s omewhat h igher g round , west o f t he westernmost v is ib le a sh lar s labs . T he s urface o f t he r ubb le a t t hat p o int i s a t ad epth o f 5 .1 m b e low MSL , a nd t he t op o f t he n e ighbour ing s labs i sa bout 0 .5 m s ha l lower . T he p robe h ad t o b e d iscont inued a fter t wo d ays o f e fforts t o c lear t he r ubb le b y h and . A p it a l most 1 m d eep wa s d ug , b ut a s i t wa s c ont inued , t he r ubb le b ecame l arger a nd more t ight ly p acked . E ventua l ly , t he t ops o f l arge , s qua re t i lted b locks were r evea led . E very a ttempt t o p enetrate t h is l eve l w ith t he waterjet f a i led . I t i s p robab le t hat t he s i te o f t h is s econd p robe a t A rea B 2 c onst itutes t he c entra l ma ss o f t he b reakwater . T he t h ird p robe , ap i t 1 . 4 m d eep , was d ug h a lf-way a long t he e astern s ide o f t he p er imeter , b etween t wo b locks o f t he e astern c ourse o f t he p ave ment . The s ea-bottom a t t h is s pot i sc o mposed o f r ubb le a t ad epth o f 5 .8 m b e low MSL , w ith t he t op o f t he n e ighbour ing s labs a t 5 .2 m . T he p av ing s labs ( or c ourse o f a sh lars ) a re l a id o n t he r ubb le ( D 0 .2-0 .3 m ) wh ich c overs a s ubstratum o f g rave l a nd s he l ls . T he f o l low ing s trat igraphy wa s r evea led a t t hat p robe ( the f igures r epres ent d epth b e low MSL ) : 5 .8 t o 6 .2 m : r ubb le , c o mpacted a nd w ith n o p otsherds . 6 .2 t o 6 .4 m : s he l ls a nd g rave l m ixed w ith c oarse g rey s and , n o p ottery . 6 .4 t o 7 .2 m : l i gh t g rey s and w ith s ome wh iter i nc lus ions , af ew p ieces o f b roken s he l ls , n o p ottery o r o ther man-made a rt ifact . A waterjet p robe a t t he b ottom o f t he t rench w ent d own more t han 3 m . A t a d epth o f 8 .3 m b e low MSL i tf ound s o me c lay o r more c lay ish s and , a nd b eneath i t , c lean wh ite s and . T he d ata g a ined b y t he A rea B p robes d id n ot a dd much n ew i nformat ion t o t hat r ecovered f rom A rea A , y et i t t ended t o c onf irm s evera l e ar l ier , t entat ive c onc lus ions :

1 10

1 1 .B : A reas A -C 1 . T he a sh lar s labs o f t he p ave ment were o r ig ina l ly l a id o n ac ush ion ing l ayer

o f r ubb le . T h is i s a ttested i n t he s ha l lower p robe s i tes where n o i n trus ive p ots herds were f ound ( B2 : p robes 1 , 2 , 3 ) . 2 . The western most p art o f t he p ave ment i s a ctua l ly o n t he b reakwater ( B2 : 2 ) , a nd a lthough n ot n ecessar i ly i n s i tu , g ives s ome i nd icat ion s f or i t s r e lat ive e lev at ion w ith in t he s ubs ided ma ss . 3 . The s egments o f t he a sh la r c ourses t hat a re most i n tact l i e a l most d irect ly o n s and a nd s he l ls . T hese r ecurr ing c ircumstances , e spec ia l ly f or t hose p ort ions wh ich a re n ow i n l ess t han 6 m o f water , may i nd icate t hat t here was s and f i l l a l most t o s ea l eve l t h is f ar f rom t he s horel ine a l ready a t t he t ime t he b reakwater was b u i lt .

E ven t he a ssumpt ion t hat a l l t he a sh la r c ourses a re r e ma inders o f s ome

p ost-Herod ian a tte mpt t o r econstruct t he b reakwater d oes n ot f i t t he f act t hat t here a re n ow p otsherds i n t he s ubstrata o f t hese s labs . 4 . T he a bsence o f u nder ly ing c lay i n t hree ( and maybe a l l ) t he B 2 p robes m ight i nd icate t hat t he a rea was w ith in t he o r ig ina l o ut l ine o f t he b reakwater mass a nd t he v a r ious a sh la r c ourses were n ot c arr ied away a s f ar a s t he h arbour 's f l oor . Area C . The o b ject ives o f t he p robes a t A rea C , n ext t o t he n orthern p art o f t he l i ne o f t he I nner Quay ( f igs . I 1 .1 , 3 ) , were b a s ica l ly t he s a me a s f or t hose i n A reas A a nd B : t o u nderstand t he c ompos it ion o f t he i nner s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater . Answers were s ough t f or t he f o l low ing s er ies o f q uest ions :

Why d oes

t he o r ientat ion o f t he c ourse o f b locks c hange f or t he l a st 3 5 m t o t he n orth? A re t here u nder ly ing c ourses b e low t he o ne v is ib le o n t he s ea-f loor? I f n ot , w hat k ind o f s ubstrata a re t here a t as egment t hat s ee ms more i ntact a nd much f ar ther west o f t he b order b etween t he b reakwater s p i l l a nd t he s andy b otto m o f t he s ub merged h arbour b as in?

What i s t he c haracter o f t he e ven a nd l eve l led a rea west o f t he

ma in c ourse , t oward t he h igh p i le o f c oncrete b locks , a nd what was t he o r ig ina l f unct ion o f t he a dd it iona l c ourses o f a sh la r s l abs o n t hat p latform? D oes

t he

u nder ly ing c lay e x ist a lso n ext t o t he n orthern p art o f t he q uay a s ab enchmark f or t he f loor o f t he o r ig ina l h arbour , a nd i f i td oes , h ow f ar w est b e low t he d ebr is d oes i tc ont inue? Why d o t he a sh lar b locks d isappea r 1 00 m s hort o f t he n orthern t ip o f t he b reakwa ter , a nd where m ight a c ont inuat ion b e s ought? F ie ld r esearch d irected a t a nswer ing t hese q uest ions wa s p lanned f or t he l ater s tage o f t he 1 980 s eason , b ut i t h ad t o b e c ut s hort a nd l eft i nco mp lete d ue t o r ough s eas d ur ing t he t h ird w eek o f J une .

E xcavat ion was , h owever , u ndertaken

a ga in d ur ing t he 1 986 a nd 1 987 CAHEP s ea sons , a nd t he r esu lts o f t h is l a ter work a re t aken i nto c on s idera t ion h ere .

Neverthe less , s ome q uest ions r ema in , a nd s ome

o f t he a nswers a re t entat ive . A rea C1 i s as quare 1 0 m o n as ide ( f ig . 1 1 .12 ) I t s e astern p er imeter was marked b y t he B ase L ine , wh i le t he s outhern a nd n orthern l im its were d e l im ited b y l i nes i nsta l led p erpend icu lar t o i t , l ead ing w est f rom BL m 3 0 a nd BL m 4 0 . Two t renches were t hen d ug a long t he i nner s ide o f e ach l i ne a s f ar west a s t he b ase o f t he h igher l edge o f b locks a nd c ompacted r ubb le . The s outhern t rench wa s d ug a long t he s tretch o f t hree c onsecut ive b locks o f t hree p ara l le l c ourses o f a sh lar h eaders , f or 6 .6 m westward ( f ig . 1.13 ) .

T he f ace o f t hese s labs i s e xtens ive ly

a braded , a nd t hey s ee m t o b e l ack ing a s much a s 0 .10 m o f t he ir o r ig ina l h e ight . A t p resent , t hey c ompose a l eve l p ave ment 5 .8-5 .9 m b e low MSL . The t hree b locks a long t he n orth s ide o f t he t rench measure ( f rom e ast t o west ) 1 .8 x 0 .7 x 0 .6 m ,

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 11

2 .1 x 0 .7 x 0 .5-0 .3 m , 2 . 15 x 0 .7-0 .5 x 0 .4-0 .3 m . E ast o f t hese c ourses t here i s a s p il l o f l oose r ubb le , g radual ly s lop ing e astward ( 6 .3 m b e low MSL a t 1 0 m e ast o f BL m 4 0) .

West o f t he western c ourse t here i s as and-f il led h o l low 2 .7 m w ide , a t

t he f oot o f t he c oncrete b lock s , a t ad epth o f 5 .9 m b e low MSL . B e low t he c ut s tone b locks a nd t he s and ( sect ion , f ig . 1 1 .13 ) t here i s al ayer o f r ubb le :

ma in ly a ngu lar f ragments u p t o 0 .5 m i n l eng th a nd 0 .3 m i n w idth , o n ly

0 .2-0 .3 m t h ick u nder t he e astern a sh lar c ourse a nd a s much a s 0 .6 m u nder t he s andy p atch o n t he w est . Under t he b ase o f t he c oncrete b lock w ith a h e ight o f a bout 2 .5 m ( i ts c rest a t 3 .6 m b e low MSL a nd i t s b ase a t 6 .1-6 .3 m ) , t he s ubstrat um i s c o mposed most ly o f much l arger p ieces o f l imestone r ubb le , w ith s ome f rag ments a s l a rge a s 0 .9 x 0 .4 m . T he p robe went b e low t h is l ayer a s f ar a s 1 .7 m u nder t he c oncrete b lock , where i t was s topped b y what s eemed t o b e e ither t he s i de o f ah uge a sh la r b lock o r af urther mass o f c oncrete . F rom t hat p o int , a t a d epth o f 6 .6 m b e low MSL , t hree p ieces o f p ottery o f t he L ate He l len ist ic p er iod were r ecovered : t he l ower p art o f as p ind le-shaped j ug let , af ragment o f ag lossy r ed E astern S ig i l lata b ow l , a nd a t i ny p iece o f a mou ld-made ( "Megar ian" ) b owl . B e low t he 6 .6 m d epth t here was a 0 .15 m t h ick l ayer o f c oarse s and c onta ini ng n u merous s hel ls a nd s ome g rave l .

Underneath t h is t here was u n iform g rey ish

s and w ith a f ew b roken s he l ls a nd n o p otsherds . A t ad epth o f 7 .1 m b e low MSL t here were i n terbedded l ayers o f c oarser s and a nd p ebb les . B eyond t he a sh lar c ourses , n ex t t o t he c oncrete b lock , t he t rench wa s d eepened f or 1 m ( to 8 m b e low MSL ) , t hrough t he s ame f i ne , l i ght g rey s and . The o ther t rench , a long t he n orth s ect ion o f t he p er imeter , e xtended 4 .6 m w est o f BL m 3 0 .

F arther west t here was a m ix o f s p i l led r ubb le a nd t i lted b locks

t hat wou ld h ave n ecess itated much manua l work i n c lear ing . On t he n orth , j ust o uts ide t he d es ignated g r id , t here wa s ac ourse o f f our a sh la r h eaders o n a n e astwest l i ne , p erpend icu lar t o t he ma in c ourse . n er t han t hose o f t he I nner Quay .

T hese b locks were b roader b ut t h in-

T he b est p reserved e xamp le i s 2 .2 x 1 .05 x 0 .35

m , i t s u pper s urface a t ad epth o f 5 .7 m . T he a rea n ext t o t h is c ourse , t o t he s outh a nd west o f t he b locks o ffset f rom t he ma in c ourse , i si n p a rt o ccup ied b y ah o l low where s ome o f t he r ubb le f i l l h as b een l ost a nd r ep laced b y wave-carr ied s and . B eneath t he s and , t he s t rat igraphy was t he s ame a s i n t he t rench f arther s outh , a t t he o ther e nd o f t he p er imeter .

N o s econd u nder ly ing c ourse was t o b e t raced

a nywhere i n t he a rea , a nd n o a rt ifacts were f ound b e low t he l ayer o f s he l ls ( that i s , b e low t he d epth o f 6 .8 m ) . A rea C 2 ( f igs . 1 1 .3 , 1 4-15 ) s tradd led t he B ase L ine j ust s outh o f t he 0 mark , e xtend ing 8 m e ast a nd 4 m west o f i t . A t p resent , t he l ast o ffset b locks o f t he I nner Quay n ext t o BL m 0 a re i n l ess t han 5 m o f water a nd a re s urrounded b y h eaps o f r ubb le a nd p a r t ia l ly d ecomposed c oncrete b locks . T h is u neven s urface c ont inues a bout 6 .0 m f arther e ast t o a bout 5 m e ast o f BL m 0 . A t t hat p o int t here i s al arge s tone b lock ( 2 .2 x 0 .8 x 0 .7 m ) t i lted s teep ly e a stward t oward t he s andy s ea-f loor , w ith s ome o ther b locks u nderneath . T he h igher e dge o f t he t i lted b lock i sa t ad epth o f 3 .9 m , t he s and s urface a t 5 .2 m . I n o rder t o d eterm ine whether t h is f eature f ormed p art o f av ert ica l wa l l o f a sh lar h eaders , i t was d ec ided t o p robe t he l ower p art o f t h is b lock a nd e xpose t he u nder ly ing s tructures ( f ig . 1 1 .14 ) .

As econd a sh lar b lock o r iented o n an orth-south

1 12

1 1 .B : A reas A-C

a x is was s oon e xposed 0 .5 m t o t he e ast , w ith i t s u pper s urface a t 5 .3 m b e low MSL a nd i t s b ase a t 6 .1 m . I t i s al a rge a sh lar ( 2 .1 x 1 . 1 x0 .8 m ) f ound l y ing h or iz onta l ly i n t he s and . W iden ing t he p robe s outhward , a nother b lock was r ecovered , t i lted s omewhat d own a nd away f rom t he t rench . T he n orthern , h igher e nd o f t hat b lock , j ust b e low t he s and , h ad r ounded e dges a nd a r ecessed f ace o n o ne s ide . A h o le ( D 0 .3 m ) wa s s unk a bout 1 .2 m i n t he c entre o f t h is r ecessed f ace . S ince i t i s n ow f i l led w ith n atura l ly c oncreted s he l ls a nd p ebb les , i t wa s i mposs ib le t o d eterm ine whether i t c ont inued t hrough t o t he o ther s ide , wh ich was s t i l l b ur ied .

Th is

a sh lar was c leared t o ad epth o f 1 .5 m b e low t he s andy s ea-f loor , a nd o ver 3 m o f i t were e xposed ( i t i s 1 .2 x 1 .5 m ) . U nfortunate ly , b ad s ea c ond it ions f orced a band onment o f t he t rench .

T here i s n o d oub t t hat n one o f t he t hree a sh lars i s i n i t s

o r ig ina l p os it ion a nd t hat t hey h ave a l l f a l len f rom

a c onstruct ion o n h igher

g round . A s f or t he u n ique ly s haped , h a lf-bur ied s l ab , i t m ight b e al ong moor ing s tone , o nce i neärporated w ith in t he v ert ica l f ace o f t he I nner Quay , l i ke t he o ne f ound l ater i n t he I nner B as in ( Sect ion I I .H .1) o r ac omponent i n t he b ase o f a t ower s im i lar t o t hose c ompr is ing t he d ebr is o n t he t ip o f t he Northern B reakwater ( Sect ion I I .C .1 , a nd Raban 1 981b , f i g .

1) .

E xcava t ion b e low t he u pper

b lock a nd t he s econd o ne i n t he s and , made i t c lear t hat t here was n e ither a ny u nder ly ing c ourse o f b locks a t t h is p o int n or a ny r ubb le c ush ion a s i n t he a reas d escr ibed a bove . T he f i l l i s c omposed o f s and a l l t he way t o t he b ottom o f t he p robe , f rom a d epth o f 5 .1-5 .2 m t o 7 .1 m a nd more ( t he waterjet p robe w ent 3 m f a rther t h rough a l i ght y e l low s and o n ly ) . The f i rst metre o f f i l l was c o mposed o f we l l s orted , d ifferent t ypes o f s and : f rom a d epth o f 5 .2 m a t t he s urface t o 5 .4 m , t here wa s r ecent wave-ca rr ied s and . A t t hat d epth t here was a 0 .05 m l ayer o f s he l ls a nd s ome a braded p otsherds . B e low s ome 0 .10 m o f u nder ly ing g rey ish s and a t ad epth o f 5 .7 m , t here wa s a ga in at h in , b ut v ery d ist inct ive b lack l ayer ( Th 0 .02-0 .03 m ) , c omposed o f p art ia l ly c arbon ized t w igs a nd t i ny c h ips o f wood . B e low t hat l ayer t he s and i sf iner , c hangi ng a ga in t o ac oarser t ype w ith s h ing le a nd s he l ls a t ad epth o f 6 .1 m b e low MSL . B eneath t h is , t here were a lternat ing l ayers o f l i ght y e l low a nd g rey s and w ith f ew s he l ls a nd n o a rt ifacts . B e low a d epth o f 6 .4 m t he s and s eemed t o b e more y e ll ow ish a l l t he way t o t he b ottom o f t he p robe . The d ata g athered f rom t he l im ited e xcavat ion a nd t he many p robes a long t he I nner Quay f ac ing t he i n s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater c an b e s um mar ized a s f o l lows : a . The ma in f eature i s c omposed o f v ar ious s egments o f c ourses o f a sh lar b locks , a l l a rranged a s h eaders . S ome o f t he b locks h ave b een p u l led f rom t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ions , o thers h ave s ubs ided t h rough t he f lu id izat ion o f t he u nder ly ing s and .

T hese c ourses a re c o mposed o f t wo t ypes o f b locks : t he f i rst , a lmost e qua l

i n h e ight a nd w idth , i s f ound a long t he e dge o f t he f eature t ermed t he I nner Quay a nd may h ave b een u sed i n t he f ace o f t he q uay a s ar eta in ing wa l l .

The s econd i s

t h inner a nd b roader , l i ke p av ing s labs , a nd p robab ly s tems f ro m t he p av ing o f t he p ro menade h e ld b y t he r eta in ing wa l l . b . T he a sh lar p av ing was l a id o n ac ush ion o f r ubb le , a bove s and f i l l , t he t h ickn ess o f t hese l ayers p robab ly r epresent ing t he d ep th o f t he s ea a t t he t ime o f c ons truct ion .

I n most p laces , t he b u lk o f t h is f i l l h as b een d iss ipated b y t he a ct ion o f

t he s ea s ince t he d e lap idat ion o f t he r eta in ing wa l l .

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 13

c . There a re n o i nd icat ions o f t he e xact c onf igurat ion o f t he I nner Quay o r t he manner o f i t s c onstruct ion . I t i s u n l ike ly b ut a t l east p oss ib le t hat i t s b a se was b u i lt o f n ow-deco mposed c oncrete b locks , t opped b y o ne o r t wo c ourses o f a sh lar h eaders . There a re n o i nd icat ions o f a d jacent s econdary q uays o r j ett ies a long t he i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater w ith in t he 1 65 m marked b y t he b asel ine . d . There i s n o a rch itectura l , s trat ig raph ica l , o r c eram ic e v idence f or l ater b u i ld ing a ttempts d ur ing t he p ost-Herod ian p er iod .

[ A .R . ]

I I .C . Area D : E ntrance Channe l a nd Head o f Nor thern B reakwater . I I .C . Area D : 1 . Head o f t he Nor thern B reakwater . I n i t s l arger s ense , A rea D c ons ists o f t he E ntrance Channe l t o t he Herod ian h arbour a nd t he n earby s eab ottom , n ow c overed w ith t he d ebr is o f t he n ortheast e dge o f t he S outhern B reakwater a nd t he h ead o f t he N orthern B reakwater ( f igs . I I .1 , 1 6-18 ) .

I n t he o r ig ina l

t erm ino logy , A rea D was t he c o l lapsed p i le o f h uge , r ectangu la r k urkar b locks a bove a nd o ff t he western t ip o f t he Northern B reakwater , s tud ied most ly d ur ing t he 1 980 CAHEP s eason ( f ig . 1 1 .18 ) . T here a re t h ree s ub-a rea s ( f ig . 1 1 .19 ) :

A rea

D 1 i s t he f loor o f t he E ntrance Channe l i t se lf , e xcavated d ur ing 1 981 a nd 1 982 . A rea D 2 i s at rench c ut t hrough t he s lop ing d ebr is o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he e ntrance , e xcavated d ur ing t he 1 982-1983 s easons . A rea D 3 i s t he t op o f t he r ubb le p latform a t t he n orthern e dge o f t he s p il l o f t he S outhern B reakwater , 3 0 m west o f Area D2 , e xcavated d ur ing t he 1 984 a nd 1 986 s easons . S ince t he t h ree s ub-areas a re d escr ibed a nd d iscussed i n t he f o l low ing s ect ion , t h is s ect ion d ea l s o n ly w ith t he h ead o f t he Northern B reakwater a nd t he g enera l i s sue o f t he E ntrance Channe l o f t he H erod ian h arbour . T he western t i p o f t he Northern B reakwater c an b e c lear ly d ist ingu ished f ro m t he a ir ( f ig . 1 1 .17) o r ah igh v iewpo int o n t he s hore , a nd i t was o r ig ina l ly t raced i n 1 860 b y t he s urveyors o f t he a nchorages o f P a lest ine ( Manse l l 1 863 ) . T he c onf igur at ion o f t h is f eature a s s een f rom t he a ir i nc ludes t wo a d jacent e le ments : as em ic ircu lar p i le o f h uge b locks r i s ing t o l ess t han 2 m b e low t he waves , a nd a d eeper a rea o f d ebr is n ext t o i t t o t he n orth , p ro ject ing b eyond t he o therw ise s tra ight e ast-west l i ne o f t he n orthern e dge o f t he b reakwater . T h is s econd f eature ( Area G ; f igs . 1 1 .1 , 1 6 ) i sd escr ibed b e low ( Sect ion 1 1 .F ) . T he p i le o f b locks i n A rea D h as ac rescent s hape w ith e nds t aper ing e astward a long b oth e dges o f t he b reakwater . I t s w idest p art i s t he s outhern t h ird , d ue e a st o f t he n arrowest p assage i n t he e ntrance . A t t h is p o int s evera l c rown ing b locks g ive i t at ota l h e ight o f o ver 6 m ( f ig . 1 1 .18) .

Th is i s t he o n ly s ect ion o f t he N orthern B reakwater t hat i s n ot c ov-

e red w ith sma l l r ubb le , a nd i t s d ebr is i sn ow h igher t han t he r est b y 2 -3 m . A lthough t he o r ig ina l l ayout o f t he s tructure t o wh ich t h is p i le b e longs c an n o l onger b e d eterm ined , i t must h ave b een a mass ive o ne , u ndoubted ly a d om inant f eature among t he b reakwa ter 's u pper s tructures .

T he b locks a re o ver 5 .5 m l ong

a nd a l most 2 m o n as ide , a nd were o r ig ina l ly l a id s ide b y s ide a s h eaders ( f ig . 1 1 .18 ) .

T he f ace o f t he b est-preserved s ect ion i sn ow a t ad epth o f 3 .8 m , b ut h ere

t oo t he b locks a re s o mewhat s haken a part a nd t i lted westward . T he b locks g rouped a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he c rest o f t he p i le h ave f a l len s o me d istance a nd c lear ly

14

1 1 .C : Area D

h ave t w isted o ff t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ions . D iscount ing t he p oss ib i l ity t hat t hey were c arr ied u p b y t he waves d ur ing o r a fter t he ir s ubmergence , t he ir p resent s ha l low p os it ion ( f ro m a d epth o f 1 .5 m b e low MSL o n t he e a st t o 3 .3 m a t t he western u pper f ace o f t he s ame b lock ) i nd icates a n o r ig ina l e levat ion o f a t l east 3 -4 m a bove t he a nc ient s ea l eve l . T he ma in s ect ion o f t he t u mb led s tructure e xtends a bout 2 0 m f rom n orth t o s outh a nd o ver 1 2 m e ast t o west . T here a re b as ica l ly t hree c ourses o f h eaders , a lthough a t p resent i t i s i mposs ib le t o t e l l whether t he c ourses were c omposed o f b locks o f u n iform d i mens ions o r i f t here was s ome k ind o f i nter lock ing a rrangement o f b locks o f d ifferent l eng ths . A t p resent , many b locks a re b roken a nd t he ir o r ig ina l l ength u nknown . T he l owest s er ies o f b lock s p ro jects o ut f arther t han t he b locks a bove , v ery p robab ly d ue t o t he c omb ined e ffects o f wave a ct ion , t ecton ic s ubmergence , a nd t he f lu id izat ion o f t he s ubstratum . T he b locks o f t h is s er ies a re p art ia l ly o r e nt ire ly b ur ied u nder t he s andy s ea-bottom o f t he E ntrance Channe l . The d eepest p o int t o wh ich t hese b locks h ave t u mb led i s a t p resent a bout 8 m b e low MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .20 , p l . I V , S L 1 2 ) . S ome o f t he b locks o f t h is s er ies h ave a d ist inct ive s hape ( f igs .

1 1 .21-22 ) . A t

o ne e nd , p robab ly t he e nd t hat o r ig ina l ly f aced w est t owa rds t he e ntrance , s evera l b locks were p rov ided w ith a f lat , r ecessed f ace e xtend ing t he who le w idth o f t he b lock . A t t he c entre o f t he r ecessed f ace , ad eep r ound h o l low ( D 0 .4 m ) was c arved . O leson ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 2 95 ) p ropo sed t hat t hese were h a lflap j o ints

i n tended t o h e lp t he b locks i n ter lock a s a s tab le b reakwater h ead .

A fter t he

c rusty l ayer o f mar ine g rowth w as r emoved f rom s ome o f t he b lock s d ur ing t he s urvey o f t he 1 980 CAHEP s eason , t wo a dd it iona l f eatures were e xposed . F irst , a g roove was t raced a cross t he b ase o f t he t r im med p a rt . S econd , as er ies o f f our c utt ings f or i r on C -c lamps was o bserved , t wo o n e ach e dge o f t he s ame s ide o f a b lock . S ome o f t hese c utt ings s t i l l c arr ied t he l ead c a st ing p oured a round t he c lamps t o h o ld t he m i n p lace . T hese c a st ings l ook l i ke r ectangu lar s ockets , p res erv ing t he f orm o f t he i ron c lamps t hat h ave c orroded away ( f ig . 1 1 .23 ) . T he d i mens ion s o f t he c la mps a nd t he i n terva ls b etween t he m s ee m t o h ave v a r ied f rom b lock t o b lock . T hose b locks wh ich s eem t o h ave r eta ined t he ir o r ig ina l l ength v ary f rom 4 .5 m t o 5 .5 m .

T he ir s ect ions s ee m , h owever , t o b e q u ite s tan-

d ard : 1 .25 x 1 .25 m . A l l t he b locks were c ut f rom t he l oca l k urka r . On s ome b locks , t he r ecessed f ace o f t he l apjo int i so r iented t oward t he s ame s ide a s t he c lamp h o les ; o n o thers i t i s t urned 9 0 d eg rees .

T he c lamps were t raced o n ly o n

t h is t ype o f b lock o r o n b roken c hunks t hat , j udg ing f rom t he ir p resent p os it ion s , a re v ery l i ke ly f ragments o f s uch b locks . I t may b e t hat c lamp g rooves c ou ld b e t raced o n o ther b locks w ith n o v is ib le r ema ins a fter s yste mat ic r emova l o f t he ma r ine i ncrustat ion . G rooves f or c lamps a re q u ite c om mon i n v a r ious b u i ld ings a t Caesarea a ttr ibu ted t o t he Herod ian p er iod , whether i n t he T heatre ( Frova e t a l . ( Sect ion

Raban 1 983b : 2 50 , f ig .

2 0 ) , o r A rea S ( Sect ion I I .Q ) .

1 965) , A rea J T hey c an b e

s een a s we l l o n t he p re-Herod ian wa l l a t t he s outh s ide o f t he G reat V au lt i n A rea 1 3 ( Sect ion I I .H .3 ) . T he t echn ique h as a l ong t rad it ion i n G reek c onstruct ion , a nd i t was a lso u sed i n v ar ious s tructures o f t he Neron ian a nd t he S everan h a rbours o f L ept is Magna ( Hartocc in i 1 958 : 2 0 , f ig . 4 ) . Caesarea , h owever , i s t he o n ly s i te where s uch c la mps may h ave b een i n sta l led u nder water ,

i n o rder t o b ind t he

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 15

e xterna l b locks a t t he h ead o f t he Northern B reakwater . A lthough i t i s p oss ib le , j udg ing f rom t he ir p resent p os it ion , t hat t he mo lten meta l i n s ome o f t he l eadf i l led c la mp s ockets wa s p oured i n to g rooves wh ich were t hen a bove s ea l eve l , t he l ead p our ings o n t he w est s ide o f t he b reakwater a re n ow i n a l most 8 m o f water . T hey may h ave b een i n stal led i n as tructure wh ich was o r ig ina l ly b u i lt b e low t he waterleve l , b y means o f c offer-dams . The f unct ion o f t he r ecessed f ace a t t he t i p o f e very s econd o r t h ird b lock o f t he western c ourse i s f ar f rom o bv ious , a nd n o c lose p a ra l le ls a re k nown f ro m o ther Roman p orts .

A l though O leson a ssumes t hey s erved a s l apjo ints , o ther

e xp lanat ions c an b e p roposed .

I f a l l t he h o l lowed r ecesses a re r econstructed a s

o r ig ina l ly f ac ing u pward s , o ne m ight s uggest t hat t hey were s ockets f or b o l lards , e i ther f or moor ing t ug-boats o r f or t e mporar i ly t ether ing o r g u id ing a pproach ing s h ips ( B lackman 1 982 : 2 03-4 , n . 1 00 ) .

I f t he h o l lows a re r econstructed i n ah or i-

z onta l o r ientat ion , o ne c ou ld r estore a n a nchor ing d ev ice f or f i x ing a wooden g angway o r s ta ircase l ead ing d own t o t he waterl ine , a s i t i s d ep icted i n t he f amous Tor lon ia r e l ief . Another p oss ib le f unct ion m ight h ave b een t o r ece ive a nd a nchor a wooden f ramework f or a l arge w ind lass o r as im i lar mechan ism f or p u l li ng a c ha in u sed f or c los ing t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l o vern ight o r i n t ime o f war .

No a ctua l d ev ices f or s uch p urposes , h owever , h ave e ver b een f ound i n a ny

o f t he c om merc ia l h arbours o f t he R oman e ra . T he d ev ice r econstructed b y J ames on f or Ha l ie is ( Jameson 1 969 : 3 35-37 , f ig . 7 ) h as r ecent ly b een c ha l lenged ( Frost 1 985 ; B lack man 1 982 : 1 94-96 ) . Whatever t he ir f unct ion , i t i s r e markab le t hat t he R o man e ng ineers f e lt t he n eed f or a dd it iona l means o f b ind ing o n s uch h uge b locks , wh ich we igh o ver 2 0 t ons e ach a nd were h e ld t ight ly i n p lace n ot o n ly b y mass ive i r on c lamps , b ut a l so b y f r ict ion a ga inst t he a d jo in ing b locks o ver a n a rea o f a bout 1 3 s qua re metres . T h is r eact ion s uggests s ome f unct ion t hat i mposed c ons iderab le d rag a nd s tress u pon t hese b locks . [ A .R . , J .P .0 . 1

H I .C .2 . A rea D 1-D2 : Harbour E ntrance Channe l .

A t

p resent ,

t he h a rbour

E ntrance Channe l i s af unne l-shaped p assage w ith a s andy f loor , f ra med o n t he e xter ior b y A reas G a nd K , o n t he i nter ior b y A reas H 2 a nd R , a nd s tradd led a t i t s n arrowest p o int a bou t m idway t hrough t he c hanne l b y A rea D ( f igs . 1 1 .16 ,

1 9 ) .

T he a ppa rent s hape a nd w idth o f t he c hanne l a s s een i n a er ia l p hotographs c hanges f rom y ear t o y ear d epend ing o n t he t ransport o f s and b y w inter s torms .

B ecause

o f t he l ow r e l ief a nd g ent le s lope o f t he r ubb le f orm ing t he p resent t erm inat ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater , e ven a r e la t ive ly s l ight c hange i n t he d epth o f s and i n t he c hanne l c hanges i t s a pparent o ut l ine s ign if icant ly a t t h is p o int .

I n 1 982 t he

s urface o f t he s and was 7 .6 m b e low s ea l eve l . The l oca t ion o f t he E ntrance Channe l h as n ever b een i n d oubt s ince i dent if icat ion o f t he h arbour i t se lf :

i t i s c lear ly v is ib le a nd c orresponds i n l ocat ion t o t he

c hanne l d escr ibed b y J osephus ( BJ 1 .413 ; AJ 1 5 .337 ; s ee Append ix I .A ) .

T he e xact

d i mens ions a nd c onstruct ion o f t he o r ig ina l Herod ian e ntrance , h owever , a re more d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine .

T he e ast s ide o f t he c hanne l s ee ms s t i l l t o r eta in a pprox i-

mate ly i t s o r ig ina l c onf igurat ion , a l though s o me o f t he r ubb le b erm a round t he

16

1 1 .C : A rea D

b locks i n A rea G h a s b een d estroyed a nd t he b locks f orm ing t he t erm inat ion o f t he Northern B reakwater h ave t u mb led f rom t he ir s tructura l p os it ions . B ecause o f t he ma ss ive d i mens ions a nd t he c arefu l r e inforce ment o f t he mater ia ls u sed a t t hese l ocat ions , t he b locks h ave n ot t rave l led f ar , i f t hey h ave moved a t a l l . A s ar esu lt , t he p rof i le o f t he r ema ins o f t he t i p o f t he N orthern B reakwa ter i s s t il l s teep a nd e asy t o t race . T he i m med iate ly a d jacent p ort ion o f t he c hanne l , t oo , a l though f i l led w ith s and , i s more o r l ess u nencumbered b y l a ter d ebr is :

o ne l a rge b lock h as

s l ipped o ff t he Northern B reakwater i n to t he c hanne l a t t he s outh e nd o f A rea D 1 ( f igs . 1 1 .19 , 3 1 ) , a nd a nother a t t he n orth e nd o f t he a rea may h ave b een d ropped t here d ur ing r enovat ion o f t he h a rbour i n t he r e ign o f Anastas ius ( f ig . 1 1 .25 ; s ee b e low ) . I t i st he d eterm inat ion o f t he l ocat ion o f t he west s ide o f t he c hanne l t hat h as c aused d iff icu lty a nd s t i l l r ema ins p rob le mat ic a fter e ight y ea rs o f e xcavat ion a nd s urvey . T he u ncerta inty s te ms f rom t he e xposed p os it ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater a nd t he c onsequent movement o f i t s s uperstructure a nd c ore a fter t he s ubmergence a nd d ecay o f t he o uter p ort ion . S ince s torms g enera l ly a pproach t he h arbour f ro m t he SW , t he movement o f b u i ld ing mater ia ls o f sma l ler d i mens ions h as t ended t o b e t owards t he NE . T he p resent l ow , s lop ing p rof i le o f t he t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwater a d jacent t o t he e ntrance may b e t he r esu lt o f t h is p heno me non .

N o l arge b locks o f c oncrete o r k urka r a re p resent ly v is ib le

h ere ,

o n ly

r ounded p ieces o f c oncrete o r k u rka r r ubb le , c a . 0 .15-0 .40 m i n d iameter .

Th is

d epos it wa s p robed w ith a t rench i n A rea D 2 ( see b e low ) . E normous b lock s o f k urk ar a nd c oncrete a re v is ib le o n ly 3 0 m west o f t he p resent c hanne l , a nd a p robe was made i n t h is a rea ( Area D 3 ) t o i nvest igate t he c haracter o f t he s tructure ( see b e low ) .

Another h ypothes is , t hat t he r ubb le i n t he c hanne l i s f i l l d umped t here

i ntent iona l ly d ur ing r estorat ion o f t he h a rbour i n t he l ate f i fth c entury , h as b een p roposed b y Raban ( s ee S ect ion V I .G) . E xcavat ion o f t he s andy f i l l i n t he c hanne l w ith a ir l ifts was b egun i n 1 980 , i n a n a ttempt t o r evea l t he s tructura l d es ign o f t he h ead o f t he Northern B reakwater ( f ig . 1 1 .24 ) . The L ink e xped it ion h ad c arr ied o ut s ome p rob ing i n t h is s ame a rea i n 1 960 ( Sect ion I .B .1) .

R e mova l o f t he l oose wh ite s and q u ick ly e xposed t he l arge

k urkar b locks o f t he b reakwater h ead , a nd i t was h oped t hat t he o r ig ina l c hanne l f loor wou ld b e s ha l low e nough t o a l low r e lat ive ly q u ick i dent if icat ion .

I n 1 980 a nd

1 981 , h owever , o n ly a f ew sma l l , i so lated b locks o f k urkar a nd a l a rge q uant ity o f wave-worn s herds a nd s cattered sma l l f inds a ppeared i n t he l oose f i l l , a long w ith t wo l arge k urkar b locks p ro ject ing o ut i n to t he c hanne l f ro m t he f ace o f t he Northern B reakwater . T he l arger o f t he t wo , wh ich f orms t he s outhern b oundary o f A rea D 1 , i s a pprox i mate ly t he s ame s ize a s t he l a rge b locks o f t he b reakwater h ead ( 3 .2 x 1 .6 x 1 .2 m ) a nd p robab ly h as f a l len f rom i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion , c om ing t o r est o n t op o f al ayer c omposed o f r ubb le a nd w orn p otsherds t umb led o ff t he S outhern B reakwater .

A s omewhat sma l ler k urka r b lock a t t he n orth e nd o f A rea

D 1 ( ea . 2 .0 x 1 .2 x 1 .3 m ) a lso l ay o n t he r ubb le s p il l . S evera l t imbers ( ca .

0 .15 m

s q .) l ay c rushed b eneath i t i n ar egu lar p attern n ot u n l ike a l i ft ing f rame o r p a l let ( f ig . 1 1 .25 ) . S ince t he t imbers y ie lded a c arbon-14 d ate o f 1 470±50 B .P . ( 462-562 A .C .) , t he b lock may h ave b een d ropped h ere d ur ing t he r econstruct ion o f t he h arb our c arr ied o ut b y t he emperor Anastas ius ( 491-518 ) ( Append ix I I .B , n o . 1 ; a lso Carm i 1 987) .

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 17

T he i dent if iab le c eram ics f rom t he s and f i l l d ated f ro m t he f i rst t o t he s eve nth c entur ies a nd i nc luded amphoras , u t i l itar ian ware , l amps , a nd t erra s ig i l lata . T he t rench a lso y ie lded b ronze f i sh-hooks , c osmet ic i n struments , s p ikes , n a i ls , a nd v esse l h and les , n umerous l ead f i sh ing a nd n et we ights , a nd a L ate Roman i nscr ibed r ing , t he o ne p iece o f g o ld j ewe lery f ound i n t he e nt ire s er ies o f CAHEP c a mp a igns .

The u n iform c ha racter o f t he s and f i l l a nd t he u nstrat if ied a rrange ment o f

t he f inds ( i nc lud ing t he d iscovery o f at enn is s hoe a nd a modern i n scr ibed r oof t i le a t ad epth o f 1 .5 m b e low t he s urface ) s how t ha t a l l o f t he u pper f i l l i s as econd ary d epos it . I n 1 982 , f urther e xcavat ion wa s c arr ied o ut i n t he c hanne l w ith t he a id o f f iberg lass s heet ing . Th is w as a nchored i n s uch a way a s t o h o ld b ack t he f lu id ized s and f i l l a nd a l low d eeper p enetrat ion o f t he s ed iments . Cont inuous e fforts w ith s evera l a ir l ifts l a id b are a n i r regu lar , s lop ing s tratum ( Th c a . 1m ) o f c oncrete a nd k urkar r ubb le wa shed o ff t he b ody o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

Th is s tratu m

o ver lay a s er ies o f i r regu la r s trata a nd l enses o f s and a nd p ebb les 0 .9 m t h ick t hat c onta ined s he l l a nd wood f ragments a nd a r ich d epos it o f wave-worn p ottery d ati ng f rom t he e a r ly Emp ire t o t he B yzant ine p er iod ( f igs . 1 1 .27-28 ) .

T he worn c har-

a cter o f t he p ottery f ound j ust b e low t he r ubb le s hows t hat i tt oo , l i ke t he p ottery f ound i n t he s and f i l l o f t he c hanne l , h ad s pent s ome p er iod o f t ime i n move ment a long t he h arbour f loor b efore b e ing c overed b y r ubb le s wept o ff t he S outhern B reakwater ( f ig . 1 1 .26 ) . T he o r ig ina l c hanne l f loor wa s f i na l ly r eached a fter s evera l weeks o f i n tens ive e xcavat ion .

I t c ons isted o f a we l l-marked s tratum o f v ery f ine , v iscous g rey c lay

i ncorporat ing l enses o f g rey s and . T h is s tratum v ar ied i n t h ickness f rom c a . 1 .0 m t o 0 .25 m a nd s loped f rom 1 0 .5 t o 1 1 .0 m b e low MSL . I t l ay d irect ly o n f ine , c lear wh ite s and , wh ich p resumab ly ma rked t he o r ig ina l s ea-botto m , s ince e xcavat ion 0 .4 m i nto i td id n ot y ie ld a ny f urther s trata o r c u ltura l mater ia l s .

The u pper s ur-

f ace o f t he c lay was e xposed o ver a n a rea a pprox imate ly 2 .0 m s quare , r evea l ing a l arge n umber o f i n tact o r n ear ly c omp lete p ottery v esse ls d at ing f or t he most p art f rom t he l ate f i rst c entury B .C . Herod ian

t ype

l a mp ,

i mported f ro m I t a ly :

l oca l

t h rough t he s econd c entury A .C . , i nc lud ing a

c oa rse

wares , a nd amphoras ( f igs . 1 1 .29-30) . i n d a te .

wa res ,

amphoras ,

a nd

a v a r iety

o f

wa res

s tamped t erra s ig i l lata , v o lute l amps , k itchen a nd c oa rse One g roup o f r idged amphoras i s B yzant ine

We l l-preserved p ieces o f r ope , m isce l laneous b its o f worked wood , a nd a n

i ntact wooden s heave b lock a lso were r ecovered , a long w ith a b ronze a ryba l los , b ronze s p ikes , a nd l ead s heet ing a nd f i sh ing w e ights ( O leson ma ter ia l w i l l b e p ub l ished i n V o lume I .

1 983a ) .

A l l

t h is

S ome o f t h is c u ltu ra l mater ia l h ad s unk

i nto t he c lay , wh i le o ther p ieces - t he p oss ib ly B yzant ine c eram ics i n p a rt icu lar - l ay o n t he u pper s urface . V irtua l ly a l l t he c eram ics h ad b een s ta ined a l i ght g rey b y t he a ssoc iated s ed iment , b ut t he mechan ica l p ropert ies o f t he c lay h ad s aved t he m f rom b e ing b roken , d ispersed , a nd w orn b y t he a ct ion o f waves a nd c urrents .

U nfortunate ly , t he i n tersect ion o f t h is l ayer w ith t he h eads o f t he t wo

b reakwaters c ou ld n ot b e t raced : t o t he e a st t he s tratum d isappea red b eneath t he l arge b locks f a l len f ro m t he N orthern B reakwater a nd t o t he west b eneath t he r ubb le t hat h as r o l led o ff t he S outhern B reakwater . I t i s c lear t hat t h is s tratu m c an b e a ssoc iated w ith t he f i rst t wo c entur ies o f h arbour u se . The f ine p art ic les o f wh ich t he c lay i s c omposed d iffer marked ly

18

1 1 .C : Area D

f rom t he c r isp , wh ite q uartz s and f orm ing t he s ea-botto m , a nd t hey may s te m f rom b u i ld ing a ct iv it ies a nd d redge-and-f i l l o perat ions c onnected w ith t he c ons truct ion o f S eba stos . E xcavat ion o r c lear ing o f t he I nner B as in , f or e xa mp le , wou ld h ave i nvo lved t he r emova l o f P le istocene s o ils a nd s ed i ments , s o me o f wh ich m ight we l l h ave b een c arr ied e l sewhere i n t he h arbour b a s in i n s uspens ion a nd t hen d epos ited .

A t Dor a nd o ther s i tes f a rther s outh a long t he c oast o f I s rae l ,

c lays s im i la r t o t hat f ound i n s econda ry d epos it ion a t Caesarea ( but more c ompact a nd l i ghter i n c o lour ) h ave b een i dent if ied a s l agoona l d epos its f ormed b eh ind f oss i l ized P le istocene s and d unes n ow s ubmerged j ust o ff s hore ( Raban & Ga l i l i 1 985 : 3 31-32 ) .

Certa in ly , t he s ame c lay l ayer was o bserved a t Caesa rea i n A reas E 2 ,

H i, a nd N 2 , a t al eve l o f c a . 8 .0 m b e low MSL ( Sect ions I .D , G , M ; f i g . 1 1 .134 ) . The c lay may a lso b e t he p roduct o f h a rbour p o l lut ion a ssoc iated w ith mar it ime t rade , n earby c raft a ct iv it ies , a nd g enera l h u man o ccupat ion .

I n t erms o f s ed i-

mento logy , t he v ery f ine p art ic les c ompos ing t he c lay c ou ld o n ly h ave c ome t o r est i n a n a rea o f m in ima l k inet ic e nergy .

T he p resent l oca t ion o f t he c lay i ns ide

t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l a nd w ith in t he O uter B as in i nd icates t ha t i t o r ig in ated s omewhere i ns ide t he h arbour a t at ime when t he b reakwaters s t il l p rov ided ac a lm a nchorage .

Whatever i t s s ource , c a lcu lat ion o f t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween

t he l eve l o f t he c lay , t he s tructura l r e ma ins o f t he s unken h arbour , a nd p resent s ea l eve l p rov ides i nva luab le i n format ion o n t he o r ig ina l c onf igurat ion o f S ebastos a nd t he p rocess o f i t s d estruct ion . I n 1 982 a s econd t rench wa s l a id o ut i n a n a rea t ermed A rea D2 , e xtend ing west f rom t he s outh e nd o f t he p it e xcavated i n t he E ntrance Channe l a t A rea D i ( f igs . 1 1 .31-32) .

I t was 2 m w ide a t t he s urface a nd e xtended west u p t he s lop ing

f ace o f t he r ubb le s p i l l .

T he o b ject ive o f t h is d iff icu lt e xcavat ion wa s d eter m ina-

t ion o f t he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he h a rbour c hanne l t hrough i so lat ion o f t he s truct ura l t erm inat ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

I t was a ssumed t hat t h is f eature ,

l i ke t he h ead o f t he Northern B reakwater , wou ld h ave b een c onstructed o f l arge , r egu lar b locks o f k urkar o r c oncrete . T he d i mens ions o f t hese b locks may n ot h ave b een a s c o lossa l a s t hose o f t he b locks a cross t he c hanne l , s ince t he h ead o f t he S outhern B reakwater f aced e ast , away f rom t he f u l l f orce o f t he s ea , a nd t he a rrangements f or b ond ing may n ot h ave b een a s e laborate . Neverthe less , f ram ing t he c hanne l p roper ly must s t i l l h ave i nvo lved s ign if icant f orethought a nd e ffort . The

n atura l ly c oncreted r ubb le was l oosened w ith c rowbars a nd p ickaxes ,

c leaned w ith a ir l ifts , a nd r emoved b y h and i n s teps d own t o c a . 1 0 .0 m b e low MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .34 ) . c lay .

I t was u nder la id b y s trat if ied , i n terbedded s and , s he ll s , p ebb les , a nd

P rogress was v ery d iff icu lt a nd s low , b ut b y t he e nd o f t he f i rst s eason t he

t rench r eached 1 0 m e ast o f i t s i n tersect ion w ith A rea D i. I n 1 984 e xcavat ion w ith a r educed t eam e xtended t he t rench 3 m f urther . T he work y ie lded o n ly n ega t ive r esu lts :

a lthough sma l l k urkar b lock s ( ca . 0 .8 x 0 .3 x 0 .3 m ) a ppeared o cca-

s ional ly i n t he o therw ise u nd ifferent iated s p i l l o f k u rka r r ubb le ( D c a . 0 . 15-0 .3 m ) , t hey were a lways s porad ic , u nconnected w ith a ny c oherent s tructure .

T he v ery

meager s herd mater ia l was h eav i ly a braded b y t he s ea a nd i ncrusted w ith mar ine g rowth t hat s eems t o h ave f ormed i n a nt iqu ity . T he r esu lt o f t h is e normous e ffort was d eterm inat ion t ha t t he c hanne l o f t he Herod ian h arbour must h ave b een a t l east 2 0 m w ide .

T h is f igure r epresents t he s um o f t he 1 3 m l ength o f t he t rench

i n A rea D2 , t he 5 .5 m d istance f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he t rench t o t he f oot o f t he

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 19

Northern B reakwater , a nd a n a l lowance o f 1 .5 m f or t u mb le i n f ront o f t he o r ig in a l f ace o f t he b reakwater a t t h is p o int .

F ortunate ly , f urther i nformat ion o n t he

w idth o f t he E ntrance C hanne l was c ontr ibuted b y t he p robe i n A rea D 3 . [ J .P .O . ]

1 1 .C .3 . A rea D3 : P robe f or Wes t Wa l l o f E ntrance Channe l .

Wh i le a w idth o f

2 0 m wou ld p robab ly h ave b een s uff ic ient t o a low n av igat ion i n to t he o uter b as in o f S ebastos , i n many c ond it ions s uch a d i mens ion wou ld h ave made e ntry a nd e x it h azardous f or t he l arger , s a i l-powered c raft u sed f or l ong-d istance t rade . T he t ypi ca l o ar-powered warsh ip o f t he p er iod , t he r e-worked Roman t r ireme , wou ld h ave r equ ired a c hanne l o f a t l ea st 2 0 m , e ven a l low ing o n ly 5 m c learance o n e ither s ide o f t he s weeps o f o a rs ( Casson 1 971 : 1 41 ; L ande ls 1 978 : 1 45) . T he l arger warc raft , s uch a s t he t etrere is a nd p entere is , wou ld h ave n eeded e ven more r oo m . I n a ny c ase , t he f igure o f 2 0 m r epresents o n ly a m in i mum , a nd t he s u rface o f t he S outhern B reakwater west o f t he t erm inat ion o f A rea D 2 wa s s earched c a ref u l ly f or a ny i nd icat ion o f ab reakwater h ead o r o ther s ubstant ia l s tructure . A long al i ne p ro jected f rom t he t rench , t he b reakwater p resented o n ly a f eature less s urf ace o f r ubb le , b roken o cca s iona l ly b y sma l l r eefs f ormed t hrough t he n atura l c onc ret ion o f t he k urkar r ubb le t hat c onst itutes t he b u lk o f t he b reakwater 's c ore . La rge k urkar a nd c oncrete b locks were o bserved o n ly f arther t oward t he o uter f ace o f t he B reakwater . T hose c losest t o t he p resent c hanne l p ro ject f ro m t he r ubb le s urface a pprox imate ly 2 7 m NN W o f t he t erm inat ion o f t he t rench i n Area D2 .

I n 1 984 , as pot was s e lected f or e xcavat ion a t t he f oot o f al arge c oncrete

b lock ( 4 .3 x 3 .5 x 1 .8 m ) a nd g iven t he d es ignat ion A rea D 3 ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 5 ) .

Th is

r epresents t he e astern e xten s ion o f a f ie ld o f s cattered c onstruct ion mater ia ls e xtend ing n orth a nd west t o t he e normous b locks f orm ing t he o uter f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

T h is a rea h ad t he f urther r ecom mendat ion o f l y ing a l most

o n l i ne w ith t he wa l l o f t he I nner Quay i dent if ied i n A reas A , B , a nd C . A rea D3 c ons isted o f as andy p ocket f ramed b y t he l arge c oncrete b lock o n t he west ( upper s urface a t 4 .1 m b e low MSL ) a nd s evera l i r regu lar f rag ments o f c oncrete a nd k urka r b locks o n t he n orth a nd s outh ( ca . 1 .5-2 .0 x 1 .0 x 0 .5-1 .0 m ) . C lear ing o f t he s and w ith a n a ir l ift r evea led t hat t he c oncrete b lock l ay o n as urf ace c ush ion o f r ubb le 0 .20 m t h ick a t 5 .2 m b e low MSL . T he f o l low ing s trata were e ncountered b eneath i t( f igures r epresent d epth b e low MSL ) ( f igs . 1 1 .36-37) : 5 .2 t o 5 .6 m : g rey ish s and w ith s ome l oose r ubb le . 5 .6 t o 5 .8 m : m ixed g rave l , s he l ls , a nd k urkar l u mps i n s and . 6 .1 t o 8 .6 m : s trata o f we l l-sorted s and a nd g rave l , a nd t hree l enses o f t w igs a nd wood c h ips , a t d epths o f 6 .6 , 6 .8 , a nd 7 .4 m . 8 .3 t o 8 .6 m : s and b eco mes wh ite , w ith c oarser p a rt ic les a nd s he l ls . S herds were o bserved o n ly i n t h is l ast s tratu m o f g rave l :

s ome u n ident if iab le

amphora b ody s herds a nd a f ragment o f ar ed-g loss b ow l . Raban ( 1985b : 1 55-58 ) h as i n terpreted t h is p ocket o f s and a s p art o f ac o mp art ment b u i lt i n to t he b ody o f t he b reakwater d ur ing i t s i n it ia l c onstruct ion a nd d es igned t o b e f i l led b y t he n atura l

move ment o f s and a long t he s ea-bottom .

Whether t h is i n terpretat ion i s c orrect o r n ot ( s ee t he d iscuss ion i n V o l . I V ) , t he p robe i n A rea D 3 d id n ot p rov ide a ny c onc lus ive e v idence f or t he p resence o f a

1 20

1 1 .C : A rea D

h arbour c hanne l a t t h is p o int . On t he o ne h and , t he p robe d id n ot e ncounter t he r ubb le s p i l l c haracter ist ic o f t he t rench i n A rea D 2 , b ut o n t he o ther , i t a l so was n ot p oss ib le t o e xtend t he p robe d eep e nough i n t he s h ift ing s and t o v er ify t he p resence o f t he s tratu m o f c lay f ound i n A rea D1 .

F urthermore , t he l arge b locks

v is ib le o n t he s urface o f t he b reakwater a round t he p robe d id n ot c onnect w ith a ny s tructure wh ich c ou ld b e i dent if ied a s t he west f ace o f t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l . Had t he h ead o f t he S outhern B reakwater b een i dent if ied h ere , i t wou ld h ave f ramed a c hanne l a pprox imate ly 6 0 m w ide .

I n c ontrast t o t he m in i mum f i gure o f

2 0 m p roposed a bove , wh ich a ppea rs b are ly s uff ic ient , t h is d i mens ion s eems e xcess ive .

Wh i le

s uch a w ide

c hanne l wou ld

h ave

a l lowed t he f ree

a nd

r e lat ive ly

u ncongested p assage o f mar it i me t raff ic i n to a nd o ut o f t he h a rbour b as in , i t wou ld a lso h ave , made t he h ead o f t he Northern B reakwater , t he q uays a long t he i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater , a nd t he g enera l a nchorage w ith in t he b as in v u lnerab le t o s torms f rom t he NW . A s J osephus n otes ( BJ 1 .413 ; AJ 1 5 .337 ; s ee Append ix I .A ) , t he n orth w ind b rought t he f a irest w ea ther i n t h is r eg ion , b ut t here a re e xcept ions . E ven i n a west o r west-northwest w ind waves c ou ld h ave c ur led a round t he t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwater t o b reak d irect ly a ga inst t he f ace o f t he n orthern o ne , a nd t he ir r ef lux wou ld h ave c ont inued o n t o d isturb t he Outer B as in .

S uch a w ide e ntrance wou ld a lso h ave made s i ltat ion a g reater p rob lem , b y

a l low ing s torm waves t o s weep s and i n to t he h arbou r b as in a nd b y mak ing i t more d iff icu lt f or a ny s low c leans ing c urrents s et u p b y s lu ices t hrough t he S outhern B reakwater t o c arry s ed i ment o ut t he c hanne l . A n a rrower c hanne l wou ld t end t o s peed u p t he c urrent a t t h is c r it ica l p o int a nd t hu s ma inta in t he p roper d epth a t t he e ntrance .

One a rgument i n f avor o f s uch a w ide c hanne l i s t hat a t ower o r

t owers wou ld t hen s tand i m med iate ly o uts ide a nd i n l i ne w ith e ach o f i t s f aces . The t ower i n A rea G c an n ow b e s een t o l i ne u p w ith t he

e ast f ace o f t he

e ntrance . I f t he t owers i n A rea K were l ocated i n l i ne w ith t he west f ace , t hey may h ave b een d es igned t o b reak t he f orce o f waves j ust o uts ide t he E ntrance Channe l , b oth t o p rotect t he b reakwaters a nd t o h e lp c ontro l s i ltat ion a t t h is p o int .

Reso lut ion o f t h is p rob le m i s i mportant , b ut u nfortunate ly t he p resent

s er ies o f e xcavat ions h as n ot b een a b le t o d ocument t he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he Hero d ian h arbour c hanne l ( for f urther d iscuss ion , s ee S ect ion V I .D-E ) . [ J .P .0 . ]

I L I .D . Area E : S ubs id iary B reakwater . There i s a wel l-def ined wal l b u i lt o f k urka r b locks a nd r ubb le a nd i ncorporati ng a f ew l arge masses o f c oncrete t hat b ranches o ff f rom t he s outhern f ace o f t he

ma in b ody o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter c lose t o i t s e ast e nd . I t i s a lways

c lear ly v is ib le i n a er ia l p hotographs ( f igs . 1 . 13 , 1 1 .38 ) . T h is f eature e xtends f or c a . 1 30 m i n as tra ight l i ne t o t he NW , f ina l ly t aper ing o ut i n s evera l sma ll h eaps o f r ubb le .

The l eve l u pper s urface , a t ad epth o f 6m b e low MSL , v ar ies f rom 4 t o 8

m i n w idth a nd u sua l ly r i ses 1 t o 2m a bove t he s urround ing s and .

The t op 1 m o f

t he n orth a nd s outh f ace , c omposed o f i r regu lar masses o f k urkar c a . 1 -1 .5 m i n d iameter , i s r egu lar a nd n ear ly v ert ica l , b ut t he l ower p ort ions , c ons ist ing o f

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 21

sma l ler p ieces o f k urkar r ubb le ( D 0 .5-0 .8 m ) , s pread o utward t o at ota l w idth o f 1 0 t o 1 4 m , d epend ing o n t he l ocat ion . I ti s u n l ike ly t hat t h is w a l l i sa n a cc identa l f eature c reated b y t he d estruct ion t h rough wave a ct ion o f ap ort ion o f t he ma in S outhern B reakwater . T he m iss ing s egment i s t oo l a rge , t he d epth o f s ter i le s and o n t he i ns ide t oo g reat , a nd t he r esu lt ing p attern t oo r egu lar t o b e t he r esu lt o f s uch a p rocess .

F urthermore , s ec-

t ions a cross t he ma in b reakwater i n t h is a rea s how t he s ame p atterns o f mater ia ls a nd c onstruct ion t hat a re f ound f arther a long i t s l ength : i ti s ag reat h eap o f t u mb led k urkar r ubb le f aced o n t he i n s ide b y k u rka r b lock s a nd o n t he o uts ide b y c onc rete b locks ( Sect ion I V .C : S urvey L ines n os . 1a nd 2 ) . I f t h is

f eature

i s i n f act

a n

i n tent iona l

c onstruct ion ,

i t may

h ave

b een

d es igned t o s erve a s aS ubs id iary B reakwater c aus ing waves t o b reak s o me d ist ance away f rom t he ma in o ne .

T he wa l l wou ld n ot h ave h ad t o b e a t s ea l eve l t o

c ause s we l ls t o c rest a nd b reak , d iss ipat ing s ome o f t he ir e nergy , s o i t s r e lat ive ly l ow r e l ief a nd f l imsy s tructure a re n ot i mped iments t o s uch a f unct ion .

B y t he ir

v ery d es ign , r ubb le-mound b reakwaters o f t he t ype u sed e l sewhere i n t he Med iterr anean i n a nt iqu ity b r ing a bout t h is s ame " prematu re" b reak ing o f waves , a nd t he p r inc ip le i ss t il l a pp l ied i n h arbour d es ign t oday ( Qu inn 1 961 : 1 53-54 , 2 05 ; Corn ick 1 959 : 1 16 , 1 18-22 ) .

I n o rder t o e xp lore t h is h ypothes is , e xcavat ion a nd water- a nd

a irjet p robes were c arr ied o ut a round t he S ubs id iary B reakwater i n 1 980 a nd 1 983 . A rea E 1.

The work i n 1 980 was c entred a round t he westernmost p o int o f t he

f eatu re v is ib le t hat s eason , t ermed A rea E 1 ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 8 ) .

Two l ocat ions were

s e lected a long t he western p art o f t he f eatu re . T he f i rst , A rea E ia was l ocated 1 05 m west o f t he b ase o f t h is f eatu re , where i t d iverges f rom t he S outhern B reakwater . The s econd , A rea E ib , was l a id o ut 1 0 m e ast o f A rea E ia . A rea E ia wa s e xcavated o n ly a t t he i nner , n orthern s ide o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater , a t ap o int where i t s f eatures s eemed t o b e more c oherent a nd b etter p reserved t han a t n earby p o ints ( f ig . 1 1 .39 ) .

A t t hat s pot , t he f eature h a s af lat-

t ened c rest a t ad epth o f c a . 5 .8 m , a nd a t ota l v is ib le w idth o f 3 .6 m . I t s s outh s ide s l opes s teep ly , a l most v ert ica l ly , a nd i sp a rt ia l ly b ur ied i n t he s and 1 m b e low i t s c rest . The n orthern f ace l acks i t s u pper p art , b ut t he r est s eems t o b e b u i lt o f r ough ly c ut k urkar b locks ( avg . 0 .8 x 0 .6 x 0 .3 m ) . T he s tones f a l len f ro m t he u pper p ar t a re n ow s cattered o n ab ed o f s and a t ad epth o f 7 .2 m b e low MSL , 1m b e low t he p resent l eve l o f t he s ea-botto m . T he b ase c ourse o f k urkar b locks wa s l a id o n t op o f what may h ave b een a c oncrete b lock , a t ad epth o f 7 .6 m . T he p robe e ncountered a t h in l ayer o f p ebb les a nd c hunks o f k urkar a t ad epth o f 8 .5 m . B eneath were f ound f ragments o f weathe red c oncrete m ixed w ith q uant it ies o f s and . A t i t s b ase t he s tructure s ee ms t o h ave b een

more t han 6 m w ide .

A rea E ib was a t rench e xcavated a cross t he S ubs id iary B reakwater f rom n orth t o s outh , 1 0 m e a st o f t he f i rst p robe ( f ig . 1 1 .40 ) .

B ecause o f av ery h eavy s urge

r esu lt ing f rom p oor weather , i t wa s d iff icu lt t o k eep t he t rench c lear o f s po i l , a nd i t p roved i mposs ib le t o r each t he b a se o f t he b reakwater o n t he e xter ior . On t he n orth s ide , al ayer o f r ubb le a nd p ebb les l ay o n c lear s and a t ad epth o f 8 .5 m b e low MSL .

F ragments o f t wo Herod ian-type l amps were f ound h ere , a long w ith

1 22

1 1 .D : Area E

t hree f ragments o f E astern S ig i l lata A ware v essels . S trange ly , t he w idth o f t he b reakwater i t se lf was n o more t han 3 m a t t h is p o int , a l though t he s lop ing d ebr is o f t he d ecay ing u pper p ort ion h as s p il led o ut 3 m b eyond t he n orth f ace . Area E 2 .

A p o int 7 0 m west o f t he b ase o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater , where

t he wa l l was e as i ly v is ib le a nd s eemed b est p reserved o r most c oherent , was s urv eyed , l abel led a s A rea E 2 , a nd e xcava ted i n 1 983 . T renches a pprox imate ly 5 m w ide were marked o ff o n e ither s ide o f t he v is ib le p ort ion o f t he wa l l , a pprox imate ly 7 .5 m w ide a t t h is p o int a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s eason ( f igs . 1 1 .38 , 4 1) . The m idpo int o f t he wa l l i s 5 .0 m b e low MSL .

T he western e dge o f t he n orthern

t rench wa s d ef ined b y al arge c oncrete b lock ( ca . 3x2x 1 .2 m ) , t he e astern b y s evera l l arge , i r regu lar p ieces o f k urkar ( 1 .5-3 x 0 .5-0 .8 m ) . S ince a l l o f t hese b locks r est o n s and , s cattered c hunks o f k urkar , a nd s eaworn s herds , t hey must h ave m igrated h ere f rom s omewhere e lse , p oss ib ly f rom t he s outh o ff t he c rest o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater .

T he s urface o ver a nd a round t he s outhern t rench was

o ccup ied o n ly b y sma l l , s cattered c hunks o f k urkar .

A s e xcavat ion o f t he s and was

c arr ied o ut w ith a ir l ifts d own e ach f ace o f t he wa l l w ith in t he marked b oundar ies , t he a d jacent s and n atura l ly t ended t o f low i nwa rd t oward t he i ntake p ipes .

On t he

n orth s ide o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater t he p resence o f t he c oncrete a nd k urkar b locks h e lped t o i nh ib it t h is movement , b ut o n i t s s outh f ace t he s tructure u lt imate ly f ormed o ne s ide o f as em ic ircu lar e xcavat ion p it w ith s teep ly s l op ing s ides , a pprox i mate ly 4 m i n d iameter . R e mova l o f t he l oose s urface r ubb le a nd s urround ing s and r evea led t hat t he u pper s urface o f t he b reakwater , a pprox i mate ly t he t op 1 .0 m , was b u i l t o f i r regul ar , e roded k urkar b locks r ang ing f rom 1 1 .41) .

0 .30 t o 1 .2 m i n max i mum l ength ( f ig .

There was n o s ign o f mortar o r c oncrete i n t h is s tratum , a nd n o i dent if ia-

b le c ours ing o f t he s tones . I m med iate ly b e low was a l ayer 0 .40 m t h ick o f sma l l , wave-worn k urkar r ubb le ( D c a . 0 .1 m ) i nc lud ing o ccas iona l r ounded l umps o f t he c ha racter ist ic b lue-green Herod ian mortar ( f igs . 1 1 .42-43 ) .

The l u mps o f mortar

p robab ly r epresent d ebr is f ro m t he c onstruct ion o f t he l a rge c oncrete b locks o n t he a d jacent o uter f ace o f t he ma in b reakwater , e ither s p il l t hat l odged i n t he s tructure u nt i l h ard a nd r o l led i n to t he f oundat ion o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater d ur ing i t s c onstruct ion , o r c hunks b roken o r t r im med o ff t he l arge b locks , t ransp orted a cross t he s ea-bottom i n t he s ame f ash ion .

T he o uter e dge o f t h is l ayer

a nd t he s urround ing s and were f i l led w ith wave-worn p ottery , b ody s herds .

most ly amphora

Th is d epos it c ont inued b eneath t he a d jacent l arge c oncrete b lock o n

t he west a nd t he k urkar masses o n t he e a st o f t he n orthern t rench . T here was s ign if icant ly l ess p ottery a long t he more e xposed s outhern f ace o f t he s tructure , b ut i t s c haracter a nd d epos it ion were t he s a me . T he l owest s tructura l d epos it l ay d irect ly o n t he v irg in s and o f t he s ea-bottom a t 8 .05 m b e low MSL . I tc ons isted o f a1 .10 m t h ick s tratum o f sma l l k urka r p ebb les a nd t he d ark s and p roduced b y t he d ecompos it ion o f k urkar ( f ig . 1.43 ) . S ince t h is t ype o f mater ia l i s v ery d ifferent f ro m t he wh ite q uartz s and o f t he o r ig ina l s ea-bottom h ere a nd e lsewhere i n t he h a rbour , i t p robab ly i nd icates c onstruct ion a ct iv ity .

I n v iew o f t he p resence o f wave-worn c hunks o f mortar i n t he l eve l

a bove , t h is l owest s tratum may b e c omposed o f t he sma l lest t ype o f d ebr is g enera ted b y t he d u mp ing o f k urkar r ubb le f or t he f oundat ion o r c ore o f t he ma in b reakwater . Wave a ct ion a round t he n ew s tructure wou ld h ave r educed i t f urther

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 23

i n s ize , a nd s pread t he l ayer s eaward , wh i le s ort ing t he p art ic les b y d ens ity a nd s i ze . The d epth o f t he o r ig ina l s ea-f loor h ere c orresponds w ith t hat f ound i n A reas D 1 , H1 , a nd N 2 . I n p lan , t he p resent r e ma ins o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater , i ft ota l ly c leared o f s and , wou ld u ndoubted ly h ave a v ery r agged o ut l ine . The l ayer o f d ark k urkar s and e xtended n orth a nd s outh b eyond t he l im its o f o ur t renches , wh i le t he l ayer o f r ubb le a bove i ts eemed t o s lope o utward f rom t he o uter f ace o f t he c ourses o f e roded b lock s a t t he c rest o f t he f eature . s truct ion

o f

t he

s tructure ,

o ther

S ome o f t h is mater ia l h ad t umb led b efore c onmater ia l

h a s

b een

e roded

a nd

m ixed

more

r ecent ly , d ur ing i t s d ecay . I n i t s p resent d isturbed c ond it ion , e ven t he s ubstant ia l k urkar b lock s f orm ing t he ma in b ody o f t he wa l l h ave n ot k ept t he ir o r ig ina l p os it i on . I t may we l l b e t ha t , ow ing t o i t s e xposed p os it ion , a nd i n d efau lt o f r out ine ma intenance , most o f t he u pper p ort ion o f t he o r ig ina l s tructu re h as b een l ost . B locks o f c onven ient d imens ions may a lso h ave b een r e moved d u r ing t he n inet eenth c entury f or l oca l r eu se o r e xport t o Akko . T he l a rge c oncrete b lock a d jac ent t o t he n orthern e dge o f t he wal l i n A rea E 2 i s more o f ap uzz le . I t i s u n l ike ly t hat s uch a l a rge b lock c ou ld h ave g radua l ly m igrated 3 0 m s eaward f rom t he ma in b reakwater o ver t he c entur ies , b ut n o o ther c oncrete b locks o f s im i lar d i mens ions a re v is ib le a t p resent a long t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater .

T hey may b e t here , o f

c ourse , a nd a re n ow o bscured b y t he t h ick mar ine i ncrustat ion o r t umb led r ubb le a nd b locks . T he i nc lus ion o f l arge c oncrete b locks o f t h is t ype a t r egu la r i n terva ls a long t he s tructure wou ld h ave h e lped t o a nchor t he sma l ler k urkar b locks a nd p revent t ota l d is integrat ion o f t he b reakwater a t t imes o f p art icu lar s tress . A ir-Jet P robes . T he waterjet p robes c a rr ied o ut a round t he t ip o f t he S ubs idi ary B reakwater i n 1 980 were p erfunctory i n c haracter , i n tended mere ly t o p rov ide a p re l im inary i nd icat ion o f t he s ub-bottom a round A rea E l . I n 1 982 , h owever , t he f ina l 3 0 m o f S urvey L ine n o . 1( SL 1 ) a nd t he f ina l 2 0 m o f S urvey L ine n o . 2 ( SL 2 ) c rossed t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater c lose t o i t s b ase a nd a t A rea E 1 , r espect i ve ly ( Sect ion I V .C ) .

Where t he l i nes p a ssed o ver s and , a irjet p robes were u sed

t o p lot t he c onf igurat ion o f t he s ub-bottom . A long t he f ina l s tretch o f S L 1 , t he o ut l ines o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater were c lear , s tand ing a bout 1 .0 m a bove a f ie ld o f s cattered k urka r r ubb le t hat s loped g radua l ly u p t oward s t he c ore o f t he s tructure .

On t he s outh , s and c overed what s eemed t o b e ac ont inuat ion o f t he

r ubb le s p i l l . P rob ing a t t h is p o int r evea led a ma rked 1 m d rop-off 8 m s outh o f t he v is ib le n orth f ace , a t t he i n terface w ith t he s and , a nd a g radua l , i r regu lar s lope b eyond .

The s lope r eached a d epth o f 2 .0 m ( the l im it o f t he p robe 's r each ) 1 0 m

b eyond t he d rop-off . T he w ide s pread o f t he r ubb le d oes n ot n ecessar i ly i nd icate t he o r ig ina l d i mens ions o f t he s tructure . T he c ore o f t he wa l l , o r ig ina l ly c o mposed o f b locks , h a s b roken a nd b een s cattered , c over ing t he o r ig ina l s lop ing f oundat ion c ush ion o f sma l l r ubb le w ith a t h in l ayer o f l arger f ragments . T h is s tratum c annot b e p enetrated b y t he p robe a nd c onsequent ly g ives t he i mpress ion o f as o l id mass . A t t he p o int where S L 2c rossed i t , t he v is ib le p ort ion o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater was o n ly 3 m a cross , a nd t he s ub-bottom p rof ile d id n ot p rov ide a ny c lear i nd icat ion o f t he o r ig ina l d i mens ions a t t hat p o int . T here was , h owever , a0 .7 m d rop-off w ith in 1 .0 m o f b oth v is ib le f aces , a nd a f urther 0 .9 m d ec l ine o ver t he n ext 5 m t o t he s outh , wh ich may i nd icate a n o r ig ina l w idth o f 8o r 9m f or t he wa l l .

North o f t he wa l l , t he s ub-bottom p rof i le f luctuated b etween 1 .0 a nd 1 .7 m

1 24

1 1 .D : A rea E

b e low t he p resent b otto m u nt i l i t s loped u pward t o meet t he o uter f ace o f t he ma in b reakwater . I n 1 983 a irjet p robes were c arr ied o ut f rom A rea E 1 a long t he l ong itud ina l a x is o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater f or 3 0 m b eyond t he p o int where i t d isappeared b elow t he s and .

P robes t aken a t 1 .0 m i n terva ls r evea led t hat t he s tructure c on-

t inued a long t he s ame o r ientat ion , a pprox imate ly 1 t o 1 .6 m b e low t he p resent s urface . B etween metre marks 1 4 a nd 2 4 t he s tructure was a ctua l ly v is ib le a s p i les o f r ubb le o n t he s urface .

T he d epth measure ments b e low o r a bove t he s ea-botto m

were t he f o l low ing , g iven a t 1m i nterva ls : 1 .0 , 1 .1 , 1 .2 , 1 .2 , 1 .5 , 1 .1 , 1 .2 , 1 .5 , 1 . 1 , 1 .3 ( 10 m ma rk ) ; 1 .2 , 0 .7 , 0 .6 , + 0 .1 , + 0 .2 , + 0 .2 , + 0 .3 , + 0 .2 , + 0 .2 , + 0 .2 ( 20 m mark ) ; + 0 .2 , + 0 .2 , + 0 .1 , + 0 .1 , 0 .7 , 0 .3 , 1 . 1 , 1 .2 , 1 .2 , 1 . 7 ( 30 m ma rk ) . A t t he 1 0 a nd 2 0 m ma rks , p robe l i nes 2 0 m l ong were l a id o ut p erpend icu la r t o t he ma in l i ne , e xtend ing 1 0 m t o e ither s ide . P robes a t 1m i n terva ls a long t hese l i nes r evea led a s p i l l o f r ubb le s lop ing g ent ly d ownwa rd t o ad epth o f more t han 2 m o ver t he 1 0 m i nterva l o n e ither s ide .

T he f o l low ing f igu res g ive t he d epth

b e low t he s urface o f t he s and a t 1m i n terva ls : No f 1 0 m ma rk : 1 .2 , 1 . 1 , 1 .5 , 1 .5 , 1 .75 , > 2 .0 , 1 .9 , > 2 .0 , > 2 .0 , > 2 .0 m . So f 1 0 m ma rk : 0 .8 , 1 .6 , 1 .2 , 1 . 1 , 1 .4 , 1 .5 , 1 . 75 , 1 .6 , 1 .6 , 2 .0 m . No f 2 0 m ma rk : 0 .4 , 0 .6 , 1 .0 , 0 .8 , 0 .8 , 0 .8 , 1 . 0 , 0 .75 , 1 .6 , > 2 .0 m . So f 2 0 m mark : + 0 .2 , + 0 .1 , 0 .7 , 1 .0 , 1 .0 , 1 .4 , 1 . 5 , 1 .5 , 2 .0 , > 2 .0 m . The g enera l c ons istency i n t he d epth o f t he f ea ture o ver t he 3 0 m s tretch s a mp led , s uggests t hat i t may e xtend a l most a s f a r a s t he ma in b ody o f t he b reakwater , s ome

7 0

m b eyond t he

e nd o f o ur s urvey l i ne .

N everthe less , a sma l l

o pen ing s o mewhere a long t he c ou rse o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater wou ld make s ense , s ince i t wou ld h ave a l lowed f or t he e scape o f water f rom t he waves t hat b roke o ver i t .

I t i s p art icu lar ly i mportant t o n ote t ha t t he p robes t o t he n orth o f

t he 1 0 m a nd 2 0 m marks e ncountered d epths o f s and g reater t han 2 m a t t he ir o uter e nd s .

T h is c ircumstance s uggests o nce a ga in t hat t here i sn o s tructura l c on-

n ect ion b etween t he S ubs id iary a nd S outhern B reakwaters o ther t han a t t he ir b ase . U .P .O . ]

1 1 .E . Area F : S unken Pave ment . Th is f eature i s l ocated n ear t he s outhea st s ide o f t he h a rbour 's Outer B as in ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 8 ) . I t i s as ect ion o f p avement b u i lt o f k urkar s labs o f a pprox i ma te ly s tandard s ize ( ca . 1 .05 x 0 .50 x 0 .45 m ) , l a id w ith n o a pparent means o f b ind ing s uch a s mortar , c e ment , o r c lamps . T he p av ing i s l ocated a bout 5 0 m d ue west o f t he t ip o f t he modern q uay , a nd i t s u pper s u rface i sn ow a t ad epth o f a bou t 5m b e low MSL ( 4 .9 m a t i t s n ortheast c orner a nd 5 .05 m a t i t s s outhwest e dge ) . I t i s p reserved f or a bout 1 7 m a long i t s n orth f ace a nd 8 .2 m a long i t s s outh f ace , a nd was f ound more o r l ess i ntact f or a w idth o f 4 .2 m o n t he N -S a x is ( f igs . 1 1 .44-45 , 4 8 ) .

The s labs o f t he p avement a re l a id a s h eaders a long t he n orthern a nd e astern

e dges o f t he p aved a rea , wh i le w ith in i t t he o rder i s more v a r ied . I n c onsequence , t hese s ides may b e t he o r ig ina l e dges o f t he p avement .

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 25

T he p avement was f i rs t n oted b y I UES d ivers i n 1 965 a nd wa s s urveyed a nd d rawn i n d eta i l b y t wo s tudents o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeo logy a t Hebrew Un iv ers ity i n 1 973 a s p art o f af ie ld work a ss ignment .

I t was r e-surveyed a nd a more

a ccurate p lan made d ur ing t he 1 976 CMS r esearch f or I EC ( Sect ion I .B .3 ; Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 4 2-43 , f igs . 4 5-51 , p lan n o . 2 ) . Dur ing t he CMS mar ine workshop f or

t he s tudents o f t he Department f or t he H istory o f Ma r it ime C iv i l izat ions i n 1 978 , t wo t r ia l p robes made o n t he n orth a nd t he s outh s ides o f t he p ave ment f ound n o u nder ly ing c ourses o r s ubstructure ( Sect ion I .B .4 ) .

Dur ing CAHEP 's 1 983 s eason

t he e xcavat ions o n b oth s i des o f t he p avement were e xpanded a nd p art o f i t was r emoved t o s tudy t he s trat igraphy u nderneath ( f igs . 1 1 .46-47 ) . T he a rea f arther t o t he s outh , t oward t he i nner e dge o f t he S outhern B reakwater , was t hen t horough ly s urveyed , a nd s ome a dd it iona l p robes w ere made a long t h is a rea ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 90 , f ig . 7 ; R aban 1 985c : 1 63 , f igs . 6 -7) . As er ies o f l arge a sh la r h eaders was t raced d ur ing t he 1 976 s urvey o n ad eeper l eve l t o t he e ast . T h is l ower c ourse wa s s urveyed a ga in i n 1 980 a nd a dd it iona l b lock s were f ound t o t he SW . T hese a dd it iona l b locks ( 2 .0 x 0 .6 x 0 .7 m ) a re s t il l c lose t ogether , i n t he ir o r ig ina l r e la t ion t o o ne a nother .

T he ir western e nds a re

i ncorporated a t p resent w ith in we l l-concreted d ebr is t hat i sj ust b e low t he e astern e dge o f t he p ave ment .

C ons ider ing t he f act t hat t hese h eaders a re n ow t i lted

g ent ly e a stwa rd t o ad epth o f a l most 6 .5 m b e low MSL , i t i s v ery l i ke ly t hat i n t he ir o r ig ina l s tate , b efore wave a ct ion a nd s ubmergence d isturbed t he ir s ubs tra ta , t hey were p art o f as upport ing wa l l f or t he p avement . S evera l b locks o f s im i lar s ize a nd s hape , a lso a t al eve l d eeper t han t hat o f t he p avement , were l ocated d ur ing t he 1 983 s eason , s cattered j ust SW o f t he westernmost p art . They m igh t v ery we l l r epresent t he r emnants o f t he o ppos ite ( western ) s upport ing wa l l f or t he p avement . E xcavat ion was c a rr ied o ut i n t he s andy s ea-bottom ( depth 5 .3 m b e low MSL ) a long t he n orth s ide o f t he p avement ( f ig . 1 1 .49 ) .

T he p robe e xtended d own 2 .7 m

t o ad epth o f o ver 8 m . T he s labs w ere f ound t o b e 0 .3-0 .4 m t h ick a nd l a id o n a 0 .3 m t h ick c ush ion o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .1-0 .25 m ) wh ich i n t urn was b edded o n a0 .1-0 .2 m t h ick l ayer o f g rey s and m ixed w ith s o me sma l l p ebb les a nd a braded p otsherd s . T h is l ayer i s s uper imposed o n o ne a bout 0 .10 m t h ick , c o mp osed o f c oarser p ieces o f r ubb le . B eneath , t o t he b otto m o f t he e xcavated p it , t here was c lear y e l low ish s and w ith a f ew b roken s he l ls b ut n o p ottery o r o ther a rt ifacts .

I t i s i n tr igu ing t hat n o b locks t hat m ight b e i nterpreted a s c omponents

o f an orthern s upport ing wa l l f or t he p ave ment were t raced i n t hat p robe . The f act t hat t he p ave ment r ema ined r e la t ive ly e ven a nd i n tact f or a c ons iderab le a rea d esp ite t he a bsence o f a ny s upport b ut s and i s s trange a nd u n l ike t he c ond it ion o f o ther s ubmerged s tructures i n t he h arbour . I t i s d iff icu lt t o s ee h ow t he p ave ment s urv ived s ubs idence w ithout s ubstant ia l s upport . T he a bsence o f s uch s upport m ight b e e xp la ined b y p lunder ing i n l ater a nt iqu ity , o r t hat i t was made o f e as i ly d eco mposed s ubstances s uch a s wood o r p oor-qua l ity c oncrete b locks . T he s econd p robe was made a t t he o ther s ide o f t he p ave ment , i n as and-f i l led h o l low o f a bout 2 x 3 m , a d jacent t o t he m idd le o f t he s outhern e dge . The a rea was c overed b y t he d ebr is o f l arge t i lted b locks , i ncrusted t ogether , a t ah igher e leva t ion t han t he p avemen t i t se lf . S ome l oose s labs o f as im i lar s ize a s t hose o f t he p ave ment , f ound a t t he s outh e dge o f t he t rench , m ight b e r emnants o f i t s

1 26

1 1 .E : Area F

c ont inuat ion s outhwa rd t owa rd t he ma in b reakwater . O ther s labs were f ound s catt ered i n t he e xcavated a rea ,

w ith in a r i ch d epos it o f b roken p ottery ,

amphoras , d at ing f ro m t he H erod ian t o t he B yzant ine p er iod .

ma in ly

B eneath t h is s urface

l eve l t here was a l ayer o f r ubb le a t ad epth o f a bout 6 .2 m b e low MSL , we l lc e mented b y mar ine i ncrustat ion . B e low t hat l ayer a nother h o l low wa s e xposed , f i l led w ith s ome a dd it iona l t u mb led a sh la r s labs a nd a l arge q uant ity o f p otsherd s , most o f wh ich were e v ident ly p ushed i n to i t b y t he s u rge

a nd c urrents .

The

c eram ic r epertory e xtend s f rom t he E ar ly R o man t o t he L ate B yzant ine p er iods . The h o l low a nd t he p ottery f i l l e xtended t o ad epth o f 7 .3 m b e low MSL . Undern eath , t here was a p ure f i ne s and w ith n o p ottery a nd a f ew b roken s he ll s . At a d epth o f 7 .9 m t here was a l ayer o f c lay , t yp ica l o f t he o r ig ina l b ottom o f t he h arb our b as in i n t he Herod ian p er iod . T h is l eve l s eems t o b e f a r d eeper t han t he f ound at ion o f t he p avement . The

mu lt itude o f wave-ca rr ied p otsherds f ound b e low t he p avement

m ight

i nd icate e ither t ha t i ti s ap ost-Byzant ine a dd it ion t o t he h a rbour c o mp lex , o r t hat i t h ad a lready s h ifted f rom i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion i n a nt iqu ity . The s econd s uppos it ion m ight b e e xp la ined b y t he c lose p rox im ity o f t he p roposed f au lt l i ne t hat r uns p ara l le l t o t he c oast j ust e ast o f t h is l ocat ion . A l l t he p rob ing a ttempts a nd t he t r ia l t renches t hat w ere made f a rther s outh i n s earch o f a dd it iona l s egments o f t he p ave ment c ame u pon o n ly s cattered d ebr is . Among t h is was a p i le o f h uge marb le b locks , n ow b ad ly e roded b y wave-ca rr ied s and . The b etter p reserved e xamp les h ave t he d imens ions 4 x 2 .1 x 1 .8 m .

I t may

b e t hat t hese b locks f ormed p art o f aj ett isoned c argo o r c argo t hat f e l l o ff a v ess e l . None o f t he b lock s p reserves a ny s ign s o f c arv ing o r o f u se a s a n a rch itectura l member . I n c onsequence , i t i su n l ike ly t hat t hey were p lundered f ro m a l and monument o r h ad b een c omponents o f s ome s uperstructure t hat o nce s tood o n t he q uay , o f wh ich t he n earby p avement m igh t b e a lmost t he s o le r emnant . The a rea b etween t he S unken P avement a nd t he S outhern B reakwa ter i s n ow o ccup ied b y ar ectangu lar s p i l l o f d ebr is ma rked ly h igher t han t he s urround ing a rea .

I t p ro jects n orthwa rd f or s o me 5 0 m f rom t he i nner s ide o f t he S outhern

B reakwater b ase a nd i sa bout 2 0-25 m w ide ( f igs . 1 . 13 , 1 1 .38 ) .

I t i st empt ing t o s ee

i n t h is f eature a s econdary p ier , o f wh ich t he p ave ment was a s u rface p av ing , a nd wh ich was u sed t o d iv ide o uter a nd i n termed iate b a s in s i n t he h a rbour ( f ig .

V I .1) .

S uch a s ubd iv is ion o f t he Herod ian h arbour m ight b e r eferred t o b y J osephus i n h is ment ion o f " secondary a nchorages" ( AJ 1 5 .332 ; s ee Append ix LA ) .

S uch a s ubd iv i-

s ion e x isted a lso a t Cantharus , t he a nc ient h arbour o f P iraeus , t o wh ich J osephus c o mpared t he Herod ian h arbou r o f Caesarea ( Jude ich 1 931 : 4 46-48 ) . T he p ro jecti on a t Caesarea wou ld h ave b een a bout 2 0-22 m w ide a nd a bout 5 0 m l ong , w ith v ert ica l s ides b u i lt o f s evera l c ourses o f l a rge h eaders u p t o j ust a bove t he waterl eve l , c onta in ing a s and f i l l i n b etween . T h is f i l l was t hen c overed b y al ayer o f r ubb le a s t he b ase f or p av ing . Th is r econstruct ion ( Raban 1 985e , f ig . 7 ) i sv ery p rob lemat ic .

T he c lay l ayer

b e low t he s outhern s ide o f t he p avement , i f at yp ica l d epos it w ith in a c losed h arb our , c ou ld n ot h ave b een d epos ited w ith in t he b ase o f a n e x ist ing s t ructure . S o t he a l leged p ier wou ld h ave h ad t o b e e i ther a h o l low s tructure o n u pr igh t p o les o r a rches ( cf . t he f amous wa l l

p a int ing f rom

S tab i i

a nd t he

v ar ious n um is mat ic

Chapter Il.I: CAH EP Excavations

127

depictions in Blackman 1982, figs. 1, 5), or a later feature built some time after the completion of the brea kwater. The first alternative is not supported by our archaeological and architectural data from Area F. If �aised on a platform �p­ ported by arches or pilings, the pavement must have sorhe kind of a substructure much more solid than the existing layer of small loos3/ubble, unless the support­ ing arch was built of cemented rubble that has decayed or decomposed in the course of submergence and subsequent to it. If the pier was built as a later addi­ tion, after the main brea kwaters had been completed (as might be concluded from the presence of a layer of the fine clay underneath its foundations), the sand fill between the mud and the pavement could not have accumulated naturally, but would have been poured in artificially. All in all, the surviving remnants in Area F are short of giving us enough data for secure reconstruction of the original shape of the pier or the pavement, their date, or their function.

m.F. Area G: Northwest Tip of Northern Breakwater and Adjacent Tower. In contrast to the east face of the Entrance Channel, the northwest tip of the Northern Breakwater was built of concrete. In aerial photographs it appears as a large, square projection at the west end of the north face (figs. I.16, 111.1 7). Even before excavation in 1982, the outlines of eroded concrete blocks could be seen, topped by the remains of what may have been limestone paving blocks. During the 1982 season, sand and rubble were removed by hand and with airlifts at several points in this area in an effort to determine the nature of the structure. Excava­ tion ultimately revealed a concrete block ea. 11.5 m wide (E-W) and 15.0 m long (N-S), with an irregular, eroded upper surface ea. 4.0 to 5.1 m below MSL (fig. 111.51). When exposed, the vertical faces of the block were well preserved, and extensive remains of the wooden formwork into which the concrete had been poured were found on the east, west, and north sides (figs. III.53-56). In plan, the block now appears as a regular rectangle that has lost its north­ east corner and has suffered some erosion along its east face. It is surrounded on all but the north side by a well-defined trench 0.4 to 0.8 m wide left behind by the decay of the upper portion of the double-walled wooden formwork (figs. III.57-58). Along the east and south faces the wooden form has been destroyed above the level of the sleeper beams. Excavation revealed that the gap left at these points had been filled with a mixture of rubble, sand and artifacts: mostly amphora body sherds badly eroded by the sand but also a few fragments of fine wares, lead fish­ ing weights, and a corroded bronze statuette of Zeus (see Volume II). The deposit clearly was not coherent but has resulted from the accumulation over time of har­ bour debris swept into the gap at random. Excavation within the trench along the west face of the block quickly exposed remains of the blue-green mortar that had been poured into the hollow walls of the form. Disappearance of the wood left it behind in the form of tall, free-standing oblong blocks (fig. 111.57). The upper sur­ faces of the surviving planks and uprights could be seen hidden deep within the recesses around the masses of mortar. Before excavation, the north face of the block was encumbered by a sloping pile of kurkar and limestone rubble (D 0.3 to

1 28

I I .F : A rea G

1 .0 m ) l a id d irect ly a ga inst t he e xposed c oncrete f ace .

R e mova l o f t he r ubb le

s ubsequent ly r evea led t hat t he u pper p ort ion o f t he f ormwork a long t h is f ace , a bove t he ma in s l eeper b ea m , h ad b een t aken away i n a nt iqu ity , b efore p lace ment o f t he r ubb le b erm . Th is i n tent iona l r ubb le p ack ing s urv ived a s we l l a long t he o uts ide o f t he f ormwork t rench a long t he e ast f ace a nd t he n orthern h a lf o f t he west , a nd h ere , a s a long t he n orth f ace , i t s p resence h ad p reserved t he wood f rom d a mage a nd d ecay . S evera l p av ing s labs s u rv ive o n t he u pper s urface o f t he b lock , n ow a t al eve l o f 3 .4-3 .6 m b e low MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .52 ) .

T races o f i ron c ha in were f ound f used b y c orro-

s ion t o t he k urkar b locks a d jacent t o t he s outheast a nd n ortheast c orners o f t he b lock . A long t he e ast a nd s outh f aces t he t rench wa s w ider ( ca .

0 .5-0 .8 m ) a nd t he

o uter f ace was•co mposed o f a more i r regu la r p ack ing o f b ou lders a nd e roded b locks ( f ig . 1 1 .50 ) .

Wh i le t he s lop ing b erm a round t he e ast , west , a nd n orth f aces

p robab ly wa s i n tended t o we igh d own a nd b uttress t he f orm d ur ing p lacement o f t he c oncrete , a nd t o p revent s ubsequent e ros ion o f t he s and f oundat ion o n wh ich t he b lock was l a id , t he l arger b locks a nd r ubb le a round t he s outh f ace may r epres ent p ack ing p laced b etween t he f in ished n orthwest b lock a nd a d jacent b locks o f k urkar o r c oncrete l a id o r p oured p rev ious ly .

T here s eem t o b e t hree c ourses o f

l arge k urkar b locks a long t h is f ace , n ow i ncorporated i n t he n atura l ly c oncreted ma ss o f t he Northern B reakwater ( Raban

1 983b ;

1 984b , f ig .

2 ) .

S uch p ack ing

wou ld h ave b een n ecessary whatever t he mater ia l o f t he a d jacent p ort ions o f t he b reakwater , i n o rder t o p revent t he e ros ive s urge o f waves t hrough t he c rev ices l eft b etween t he b locks b y r emova l o r d ecay o f t he wooden f orms . The i nsta l lat ion o f s evera l c ourses o f b locks a nd p av ing s tones wou ld h ave made t h is p recaut ion e ven more e ssent ia l , s ince waves f unne led b etween t he b locks wou ld h ave q u ick ly f orced c app ing s labs o ut o f p os it ion . E xcavat ion w ith a n a ir l ift wa s c arr ied o ut a t t he s outhwest c orner o f t he b lock a fter r e mova l o f t he l oose s urface r ubb le : wave a ct ion a t t h is p o int h ad a lready r emoved t he r ubb le b erm a nd p ack ing o f t he a d jacent p ort ions o f t he west a nd s outh f aces . T he l ower s urface o f t he b lock wa s e xposed a t ad epth o f 6 .4 m . I t was l eve l a nd smooth , a nd e xcavat ion b enea th t he b lock b eyond t he a rea d ist urbed b y wave a ct ion p roved t hat i th ad b een p ou red d irect ly o n af ounda t ion o f t he s a me s ter i le wh ite s and f orm ing t he o r ig ina l s ea-bottom .

N o wooden f l oor ing

d es igned t o s erve a s t he b ottom o f t he f orm wa s o bserved , d esp ite r emova l o f t he f i l l f or a d istance o f 2m i n f rom t he c orner . Had i te x isted , t he wood s hou ld h ave b een p reserved i n t h is p rotected e nv ironment . I n 1 984 , r e mova l o f as ect ion o f t he s leeper b eam a long t he b a se o f t he n orth f ace o f t he b lock ( f ig . 1 1 .195) p erm itted e xam inat ion o f t he l ower s urface o f t he b lock a t t h is p o int a s we l l . Here t oo t here was n o e v idence f or f loor ing p lanks , a nd p reserva t ion o f t he a d jacent b eam s ugg ests s trong ly t hat t hey n ever e x isted . A lthough t he u pper s urface o f t he b lock i s n ow v ery u neven a s ar esu lt o f e ros ion a nd t he f ormat ion o f mar ine c oncret ions , ar egu lar s er ies o f c hanne ls a nd h o les c a . 0 .18 m s q . i n t he u pper s urface o f t he b lock were o bserved a nd d rawn i n 1 982 a nd 1 983 ( f igs . 1 1 .50 , 5 5 , 6 0 ) .

T hese c hanne ls were made b y t he h or izonta l

wooden t ie b eams t hat c rossed t he f ormwork i n a n e ast-west d irect ion a t i n terva ls

Chapter III: CAH EP Excavations

129

of approximately 1.6 m, and by uprights (possibly spaced 1.3 m apart) intended to support and reinforce them until placement of the concrete. Although no traces were found, there may have been north-south tie beams as well, designed to brace the other two sides of the form. These braces apparently were felt to be neces­ sary only at the upper portion of the form, since the holes left by their decay were not observed along the lower portions of any of the exposed faces of the block. Nor did exposure of 4 m of the northern sleeper beam reveal any joints other than the lap-joints at either end bonding it with the adjacent sleeper beams. Excavation in 1982 along the northern half of the west face and the western half of the north face of the block provided the most information on the design of the form (figs. III.53-59). The formwork, best preserved at the northwest corner, was built on massive pine (Pinus) and fir (Abies) sleeper beams ea. 0.29 m square that ran along t!1e base of each face of the block and interlocked at the corners with simple lap-joints. A series of pine and possibly fir (Abies) uprights (ea. 0.12-0.15 x 0.23 m), mortised into the horizontal beams at 1.60 m intervals, car­ ried an external and internal wall of horizontal pine p lanks 0.08 m thick and 0.14 m wide. The lowest of the planks on the inner face of the formwork was inset slightly into the upper surface of the large sleeper beam and fastened with mor­ tise and tenon joints. In the examples recovered, the tenons were of oak (Quercus) and poplar (Populus}. Mortise and tenon joints have also been reported from form­ work around inundated concrete structures in North Africa (Yorke & Davidson 1985). The p lanks must have been nailed to the uprights, but it was not possible to examine any surviving joints for verification. The wood species are not indigenous to this area (see Appendix III.A}. At present the seams between the various planks and beams making up the formwork are filled with a sandy white mortar. This substance may be intentional packing designed to seal the seams, but it could also be cement that was forced into loose seams when the interior of the formwork and its hollow walls were filled with concrete and mortar. A translucent material resembling gypsum has crystallized on some of the wooden surfaces through reaction with the sea-water since the time of construction. The hollow spaces formed by the lower beams, uprights, and double wall of planks were filled with a blue-green, sandy mortar containing large particles of tuff, pumice, and lime. Striations in the mortar show that the substance was poured in quickly in a semi-liquid state and puddled as it filled the cavities. The fabric of the block is composed of the same material, but with the addition of a high proportion of aggregate consisting of irregular chunks of kurkar (D ea. 0.10-0.20 m} and sea-worn boulders of a harder limestone. Chunks of the greenish, granular tuff (concreted volcanic ash} and fibrous pumice used in the mortar were recovered from the fill in the harbour channel (Area D}. For the chemical analysis of the mortar, tuff, and pumice, see Appendix III.C. The character of the con­ crete, its constituents, and the sources of the materials and technology will be discussed in Volume IV. A second concrete block was discovered projecting from the sand 6.6 m north of the first block in Area G, separate from the rest of the breakwater mass (figs. III.50, 62-63). Excavation in 1982 revealed that this second block was built of the

1 30

I I .F : Area G

s ame mater ia ls a nd i n t he s ame manner a s t he f i rst o ne i nvest igated , t hat t he b locks h ad a pprox i mate ly t he s ame o r ientat ion , a nd t hat t he ir west f aces were a l igned . A t i t s s outhwest c orner , where i t i s b est p reserved , t he i r regu lar u pper s urface o f t he b lock i sa t 5 .8 m b e low MSL , a nd t he smooth , f lat l ower s urface a t 7 .7 m . A lthough t races o f wha t may h ave b een a r ubb le b erm s urv ive a round t he b lock , o n ly a f ew p ieces o f wooden f ormwork h ad b een p reserved , a nd t he c onc rete mass i t se lf was b ad ly f ractured a nd i ncomp lete . T he l ower s urface h as a n 8 p ercent t i lt t o t he w est . T he b est p reserved f ragment o f t he s leeper b eam measu res 0 .15 x 0 .15 m .

The l ower e dge o f t he s outh f ace o f t he b lock ( f ig . 1 1 .62 ) ,

wh ich r ests o n as tratum o f s ter i le wh ite s and , s lopes u pwa rd s l ight ly f rom west t o e ast , f ro m 7 .7 m t o c a .

7 .2 m b e low s ea l eve l a nd i s i n terrupted b y s evera l ma jor

f i ssures 6 .9 m a nd 8 .0 m e ast o f i t s s outhwest c orner . T he b lock t apers t o at h ickn ess o f o n ly 0 .17 m b efore e nd ing a brupt ly i n a sma l l h eap o f r ubb le 1 2 m e ast o f t he s outhwest c orner , p oss ib ly a t o r n ear t he o r ig ina l s outheast c orner . T he west f ace o f t he b lock was e xcavated f or 6 m t o t he n orth , u ncover ing s evera l h o les l eft b y h or izonta l t i e b eams 0 . 13 m a nd 0 .18 m s q . , 1 .5 m a nd 1 .3 m a bove i t s l ower s urface . No b eam h o les were f ound a long t he s outh f ace o f t he b lock , a nd t he f or mwork f or t h is mass o f c oncrete , l i ke t hat o f t he b lock t o t he s outh , may h ave made u se o f t i e b eams o n ly i n t he e ast-west o r ientat ion .

E xcavat ion a long

t he west f ace o f t he b lock d id n ot e xpose t he n orthwest c orner , a nd a n a ir l ift t rench s unk 2 m i n to t he l oose s and o n t he l i ne o f t he west f ace a nd 1 2 m n orth o f t he s outhwest c orner d id n ot e ncounter a ny s tructura l r ema ins . An a i rjet p robe p ara l le l t o a nd 1 m e ast o f t he e ast f ace , h owever , r ecorded a n i r regu lar u pper s urface s lop ing d own t o 2 m b e low t he p resent s ea-bottom ,

1 4 m n orth o f t he

s outh f ace o f t he b lock . T he d epth o f s and wa s t oo g reat t o a l low p rec ise d ocumentat ion o f i t s n orth-south d i mens ion s . I ts ee ms l i ke ly t hat t he b lock t ipped a nd f ractured d ur ing t he f au lt s l ippage o r b ottom s lu mp ing wh ich s eems t o h ave a ffected much o f t he o uter h a rbour s omet ime d ur ing t he Emp ire . T h is b lock p robab ly s erved a s t he f oundat ion f or t he s i ng le T ower ment ioned b y J osephus a s s tand ing t o t he p ort s ide o f as h ip e nter ing t he h arbour ( AJ 1 5 .338 ; B J 1 .413 ; s ee Append ix I .A ) .

T he Tw in T owers h e men-

t ion s o n t he s ta rboard s ide a re d iscussed b e low , u nder A rea K . [ J .P .O . ]

I I .G . Area H : S ou thern F ace o f Nor thern B reakwater . I n 1 984 t wo t renches were o pened a long t he s outhern , i nner f ace o f t he Northe rn B reakwater , j ust i n s ide t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l i n a n a rea t ermed A rea H ( f igs .

M A,

6 4-65) .

A lthough t he

b reakwater a t

t h is p o int

i s c omposed o f

h eav i ly-concreted k u rkar r ubb le ( D 0 .2-0 .8 m ) , i t s p rof i le i s s teep a nd i t s o ut l ine r egu lar , p rov id ing h ope t hat i t m ight b e p oss ib le t o r ecover e v idence f or t he o r ig in a l a rrangement o f a ny q uays o r p romenades a long t he i nner f ace o f t he b reakwater . I H .G .1: Area H 1 . T he t rench i n A rea H1 wa s l ocated a cross t he s outhern marg in o f t he r ubb le s p i l l f rom t he Northern B reakwater , 4 0 m S E o f t he t u mb led b locks i n A rea D f orm ing t he e a st f ace o f t he c hanne l ( f ig . 1 1 .64 ) .

T he s pot was

Chapter III: CAHEP Excavations

131

selected on the basis of a judgmental survey of this portion of the structure: it represents a point approximately two-thirds of the distance between its base and tip, where the configuration of the structure appears regular and the slope of the rubble steep and high, and where the sediments promised to be deep enough to have protected ancient structural remains. A trench ea. 2.0 m wide was marked off up the rubble slope with ropes and the heavily concreted surface rubble removed. Axes and crowbars were used to detach the rubble and airlifts to remove embedded sand and gravel (fig. III.66). Progress was difficult and very slow, since the concretions were thick and tenacious, and removal of the small rubble occa­ sionally revealed the presence of larger, irregular kurkar masses or eroded blocks (D ea. 1.0-2.0 m) that had to be lifted out with airbags. Four weeks of excavation produced a section through the outer edge of the breakwater from the upper sur­ face (at 3.4 m below MSL) to the layer of grey clay representing the ancient har­ bour floor (at 9.0 m below MSL), extending_approximatel 2.5 m into its core fi .!. III.64). Unfortunately, no coherent structural remains were identified in this trench. The bulk of the material removed consisted of kurkar rubble that had rolled or been dumped along the original breakwater face from above. That this rubble is not part of the Herodian structure is shown by the appearance within it of spo­ radic tumbled kurkar blocks (ea. 0.6 x 0.3 x 0.2 m) and of heavily worn and con­ creted potsherds dating from the Early Roman through the Byzantine period. The rubble also overlay a rich deposit of pottery that included well-preserved Early Imperial utilitarian and table wares and a deposit of 41 mid-fourth century coins (see Volume II). Much of the Early Imperial kitchen ware was recovered from a layer of kurkar gravel 0.8 m thick which rested on a stratum of grey sand directly above the clay. The grey clay disappeared beneath the rubble spill, continuing north toward the original' face of the breakwater. m.G.2: Area H2. A second trench, termed Area H2, was opened 10 m west of

Area H1 , at a point where several large kurkar blocks (ea. 1.5 x 1.0 x 1.0 m) pro­ jected from the face of the breakwater, clear of any rubble covering (fig. III.65). The upper surface of the structure at this point is 4.0 m below MSL. Removal of the concreted rubble below the blocks, however, revealed that they did not form part of any coherent structure and that the arrangement of materials was the same as at H1: kurkar rubble with occasional loose blocks or fragments of blocks (0.6 x 0.3 x 0.2 m), a 0.8 m thick layer of gravelly kurkar sand rich with pottery, a layer of sterile grey sand, and grey clay below at 9.0 m below MSL, representing once again the ancient harbour floor.

[J.P.O.]

m.H. Area I: Inner Harbour Basin.

Land excavation turned out to be increasingly relevant through the seasons of CAHEP. First and foremost, there is the principle that marine archaeology is not synonymous with underwater archaeology but is rather a discipline that studies the material remains of ancient maritime activities, wherever they are found. In the particular case of ancient harbours and the marine aspects of a port city, this

1 32

A rea I

m ight i nvo lve t he s tudy o f t he c omponents o f t he u rban ma ster p lan t hat were p arts o f t he h arbour c omp lex , s uch a s s torage p laces , s h ipyard s , s eaborne i ndust r ies , a nd t he i n terre lat ionsh ip b etween t he c ity a nd i t s p ort . T h is a pproach i sp art icu la r ly r e levant i n t he c ase o f Caesarea , ac ity t hat was b u i lt a s ap re-p lanned r oya l

e ndeavor ,

w ith

i t s

h arbour

a s

t he

v ery

c ause

f or

i t s

e stab l ishment

-

i ntended t o b e a n a utonomous u rban u n it , a n i n ternat iona l empor ium f or r oya l a nd i mper ia l s eaborne c o m merce . T hat t he i n tent ion b ecame r ea l ity , we c an l earn f rom l ater e p ithets f or Caesarea , s uch a s p ros S ebas ton , t hat i s , " next t o t he h arb our S ebastos" , a s t he c ity was c a l led o n i t s c o ins i n t he r e ign o f Nero ( s ee f urther d iscuss ion i n R inge l 1 975 : 8 3-86 , a nd V o lume I I ) . Another r eason t hat makes l and e xcavat ion a lmost a n ecess ity i n s tudy ing a nc ient h arbours i s t hat t here a re s evere p rob lems i n d at ing s ubmerged o r i nund ated s tructures . , o r e ven t hose s tructures wh ich a re o n ly s e ldo m a ffected b y t he waves , b ecause o f t he l ack o f sma l l f inds i n a n u nd isturbed s trat igraphy a nd i n a s ecure c ontext w ith t he v ar ious a rch itectura l p ha ses . F or t hat r eason i t i s o ften n ecessary t o e xcavate t oward t he s hore i n s ea rch o f t he s trata t hat h ave e scaped wave d isturbance ( e .g . R aban 1 981b :

2 95-308 , f or D or ; b e low , S ect ions I BA , I .K) .

I n t he c ase o f Caesarea , w ith i t s h a rbour i n tersected b y af au lt l i ne a nd w ith t he d iverse s ubmergence o f a rch itectura l r e ma ins o f v ar ious p er iod s , i t wa s a lmost i mperat ive t o h ave a c omprehens ive s tudy . There a re a lso t he p ract ica l c ons idera t ions t ha t t here a re d ays o f r ough s ea when work u nderwa ter i s i mposs ib le , a nd o ccas iona l ly d ivers a re u nab le t o work u nderwater f or p hys ica l r easons o r must r ema in i d le d ur ing a l ong b reak b etween s h ifts o n t he a ir l ift . S o , e xpand ing t he p ro ject t owa rd t he l and b eca me n ot o n ly a s c ient if ic r equ irement , b ut a lso a v ery p ract ica l p rocedure , a way o f max im iz ing t he u se o f manpower . I n t he e ar ly 1 960 's , Negev h ad e xcavated what h e p roposed was a Roman p ier , i ns ide t he wa ll s o f t he I .A .4 ) .

C rusader f ortress ( Negev

1 967 :

2 7-30 ;

a bove , S ect ion

Th is I nner Ha rbour Quay h ad b een f urther e xposed d ur ing t he 1 976 CMS

p ro ject ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 3 6-38 ; S ect ion I .B .3 ) ( f ig . 1 .18 ) . B oth , h owever , were

f a r f rom b e ing f u l ly u ncovered o r p roper ly s tud ied . A rea

Quay Wa l l , Nor thern E nd .

F or b oth s c ient if ic a nd p ract ica l r ea sons ,

t he s i te o f t he h ypothet ica l R o man P ier p robed i n 1 976 was s e lected f or e xcavat ion i n 1 983 b y whoever was s pa red f rom t he u nderwater work .

S .E . S idebo tham ,

f rom t he Department o f H istory a t t he U n ivers ity o f De laware ,

was t he f i e ld

s uperv isor f or t he e xcavat ions a t t hat s i te wh ich w ere c arr ied o ut d ur ing t he s eco nd h a lf o f t he 1 983 s eason a nd a l l t hrough t he 1 984 s eason . The s i te i s a bout 1 00 m i n land f rom t he p resent b each , a t t he b ack o f t he I nner B ay ( about 3 00 m E SE o f t he t ip o f t he p romontory ) ( f igs . 1 . 38 , I 1 .1 , 6 7) .

I t

i s t he

i n

n orthwestern

p art

o f

t he

a rchaeo log ica l

f ie ld

e xcavated

b y

Negev

1 961-62 a long t he western f oot o f t he T emp le P od ium ( Negev 1 963a-b ) .

D ur ing

t he 1 982 s eason , t he t eam o f CAHEP a rch itects d irected b y R .L . V ann h ad made a t horough s urvey o f t h is f i e ld , r edraw ing e very v is ib le f eature a nd c omp let ing a n u p-to-date p lan o f t he s i te ( f ig . 1 1 .68 ) . I n v iew o f t he r e lat ive ly l ate d ate o f most o f t he s tructures t hat c over t h is a rea ( most ly E ar ly A rab w ith s ome B yzant ine ) , i t s ee med w ise t o make s ome t r ia l p robes i n o rder t o l ocate s i tes where e xcava t ion

Chapter II.I: CAHEP Excavations

133

might expose the earlier harbour installations beneath. Two such sites w ere selected: the one at the northwest end of the course of blocks at the foot of the Roman Pier was designated as Area I1a. It was about 10 m north of the site of the 1976 probe. Area I 1a started as a 4 x 4 m square with the north end of the visible ashlar course at its centre (figs. III.69-71). The surface elevation was at 1.70 m above MSL. At the mid-section of the north baulk there was a drainage channel, just below the surface, with a base of small, cemented ashlars and framed by two long kurkar ashlars protruding from the baulk. The drain, about 0.5 m deep and 0.4 m wide, was inserted through an earlier ashlar floor at 1.95 m above MSL. The floor continues eastward and is incorporated into the northwest corner of the bottom course of the Roman Pier 2 m away. Parallel to the floor, 1 m to the south, there is a large rectangular slab 0.8 x 0.5 m, with a small one on its west side linin u to-�ern ace and northwest corner to the white ashlar course that overlies the quay. The corner and the course are bordering an unpaved area 1.4 m wide (E-W) and over 9 m long, in front of the pier. Yet, being detached from its base course of kurkar headers, it is impossible to determine whether it is of the same phase or later. Southwest of the drain, at an elevation suitable for the inserted floor, there was a segment of a base course for a wall made of ashlar headers 0.6 x 0.3 x 0.3 m, of which only four blocks remained in situ, with no apparent substructure or architectural context. A similar wall was exposed about 1 m farther SW, at about the same elevation (1.52 m above MSL), in a somewhat different orientation, con­ tinuing for about 2 m toward the southwest corner of the excavated square. This wall makes a corner toward the west and has more courses below. The drainage channel was found to continue, with no apparent side wall on its west side and w ith no real floor except for the cemented fill (probably a natural phenomenon due to the proximity of the lime-saturated water-table). This drain slopes northward as it continues along the upper side of the quay wall, until it reaches a concave hollow carved into the top of an angular block protruding from it, at 0.9 m above MSL. This block has a horizontal pierced hole (D 0.20 m) w ith clear marks of rope cuts along its front upper edges (figs. III.72, 74). It is undoubtedly a mooring stone, still in its original position within the face of the quay. The mooring stone seems to have originally been 0.45 m high, 0.38 m thick, and to have protruded 0.45 m west of the wall's face. It is built into the second course from the top of the quay, although at present the natural concretion dis­ guises the original face of this structure to such a degree that it is rather difficult to distinguish individual blocks within its structure. A re-used, eroded marble slab depicting a vine leaf motif, probably from a chancel screen of a church or synagogue, was found in the drain. This suggests the channel to be later than the Byzantine period. The dig at this level had to cut through a dump of well-cemented debris with no apparent floors or stratified interbeds. The small pieces of pottery were found with no clear context and w ere mostly undatable. Yet all the way to just below the drain there were glazed medi­ eval sherds. The actual ground-water table was encountered at 0.6-0.5 m above

1 34

I I .H : Area I

MSL ( changes f o l low ing t he t i de ) , a nd e xcavat ion c ou ld c ont inue o n ly i ft he water was c ont inuous ly p u mped o ff . A s econd p robe was b egun a t t he s i te o f t he 1 976 t rench , d es ignated a s Area 1b ( f ig . 1 1 .73 , b ackg round ) .

A t t h is p o int a 2 m w ide t rench wa s c ut t hrough t he

water-soaked , c oncreted f i l l , s tart ing a t t he u pper e dge o f t he q uay a nd c ont inu ing d own t o t he a sh la r s lab p ave ment a t 0 .16 m a bove MSL .

T h is p avement wa s e ven-

t ual ly e xposed f or a bout 5 m a long t he b ase o f t he q uay ( f igs . 1 1 .71-73) .

T he s labs

a re l a id i n al oose a rrangement o f h eaders n ext t o t he q uay : a vg . 1 . 1 x0 .6 x 0 .5 m . A s econd c ourse wa s u ncovered a d jacent , t o t he west , w ith a g ap o f 0 .03-0 .05 m b etween t he t wo . A t t he n orth e nd o f t he t rench t here i s ac ross-wa l l o f v ery s im il ar b locks , o n t op o f t he p avement , r unn ing westward ( f ig . 1 1 .76 ) . The s trat igraphy o f t he f i l l w ith in t he t rench was i dent ica l t o t ha t f ound i n 1 976 ( f ig . 1 1 .70 ) .

B e low

m ixed s urface d ebr is t here was a westward s l op ing s tratum o f s and , mud , c o ins , a nd n umerous sma l l p ieces o f p ottery . T he b u lk o f t he d a tab le mater ia l was f rom t he B yzant ine e ra , w ith t he l atest c o ins f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he s ixth c entury . Th is s p i l l i s a t 1 .4-1 .2 m a bove MSL a t t he q uay , a nd a t 1 . 0-0 .7 m a t t he western s ide o f t he t rench . A t t hat p o int , i ti s o ver la id b y i n terbedded l ayers o f s and , s h ing le a nd s he l l i n at yp ica l b each d epos it ion . T hese l ayers i nd icate t ha t t he b each r eached a l most t o t he q uay l ate i n t he B yzant ine e ra o r s oon a fter . T he n earby s tructures t o t he s outh a nd s outhwest a re c lea r ly a bove t hese b each d epos its . S ince t hey a re d ated b y Negev t o t he E a r ly A rab p er iod ( e ighth c entury ) , t hey g ive t he a nc ient b each a t entat ive d ate w ith in t he l a te s i xth-ea r ly s eventh c entury . T h is s ea son o f e xcavat ion c onf irmed t he p resence o f aq uay w ith i t s u pper s urf ace a t 1 .46-1 .42 m a bove MSL , a nd w ith a t l ea st o ne moor ing s tone s t i l l i n s i tu . Th is moor ing s tone i ss t il l u n ique a t Caesarea .

T he l i ne o f t he q uay wa l l d iverges

i n o r ientat ion 5 d egrees e ast f ro m t he s uper i mposed c ourse o f b locks , a nd i t i s u ndoubted ly o f e ar l ier d ate . T he d ate a nd o r ig ina l f unct ion o f t he p aved p latform o f l oose ly l a id s labs h ad t o b e s ett led b y f urther i nvest igat ion .

Dur ing t he 1 984

s eason , A rea ha wa s w idened westwa rd 4 .7 m f rom t he f ace o f t he I nner Quay , f o l low ing t he c onf igurat ion o f t he l a te a sh lar s tructure .

The i n ter ior o f what

s ee ms t o h ave b een a r oom 2 x 3 m was e xcavated . T he b a se o f t he s outhwestern c orner h ad b een c ut i n to a l ayer o f s and t hat s howed p attern ing t yp ica l o f c a lm water .

There was s ome d arker f i l l o f r ed-brown c lay a bout 0 .1 m a bove t he s and ,

w ith a v ery t h in , more s o l id l ayer o f g rey f l oor a t 1 .1 m a bove MSL . T oward t he c orner , t he f loor i s i ncorporated i nto a s o l id ly-ce mented matr ix wh ich e nco mpass es t he b ase wa l l a t t he s outhwest c orner ( f ig . 1 1 .73) . J ust e ast o f t he c orner a nd a bove t he f loor , a l arge n umber o f p ottery v esse ls i ncrusted

a nd

c emented

b y

t he

s ame

c arbonate

w ere p i led t ogether ,

s ubstance

d er ived

f rom

a l so t he

g round-water j ust b e low . Among t he v esse ls , t here a re a bout a d ozen c ook ing p ots o f t h in , p oor ly f i red , d ark r ed-brown c lay , g lazed i n ad ark p urp le-brown v itreous s ubstance o n ly a t t he l ower e xterna l p art ( and i n s ide ) , a nd w ith e verted l oop h and les , t w isted v ert ica l ly a nd a lso q u ite t h in . T here a re a lso a bout t wenty g lazed b ow ls , most ly o f t he s ha ll ow t ype w ith f lattened r im , d ecorated i n s ide w ith a rabesque p atterns a nd g lazed y e l low o r g reen . O ther b owl s a re o f h em ispher ic s hape , w ith b rown p a inted d ecor at ion u nderneath t he b r igh t matte g laze . T he c orpus c an b e b est d ated t o t he t h irteenth o r f ourteenth c entury , f rom a l oca l Mame luke f actory ( see Ho lu m e t a l .

Chapter III: CAH EP Excavations

135

1988, figs. 161, 163 ; Ben-Tor et al. 1979: 74-77, fig. 5 : 2, 12; Levine & Netzer 1986: 69-70, fig. 3: 2, fig. 4: 14-17). Below the floor, which slopes upward to the east, there are interbedded layers of beach sand, clay, and shell (fig. III.76). It has a total thickness of about 0.3 m, standing at 1.0-0.7 m above MSL (somewhat higher at the east). In the proximity of the quay these sand layers tapered off and alternated with land sediments. Below this series of beach deposits there is a fill of some tumbled blocks, small angular rubble pieces of kurkar mixed with grey to brown mud, and some pot­ sherds. This fill is over 1 m thick above the ashlar paving blocks next to the quay wall and slopes gently westward so it is only 0.15 m thick and 0.3 m above the paving at the western baulk of Area l1 a, 4.2 m west of the quay. The upper 0.10-0.15 m of that fill is composed almost exclusively of small, water-rounded -pots·h erds,--gene-ra:l-l-y-0f--Byz-a-nt-i-Re--d a-te-. A fe-w co.ins tha-t had-been--re.co.ll.e.r.ed_fr.o.m. this layer date to the fourth or fifth centuries, but they may indicate only the ear­liest possible date for the fill, which might be a considerably later, secondary wave deposit. At the base of the western baulk of Area l1a there is a single course of flat ashlar and rubble slabs, laid almost directly on top of the flagstones of the paving. This course continues eastward, below the south baulk, and changes to a construction of well defined ashlars (W 1.05 m) extending all the way to the quay (fig. III.70). The top of the course on the second block from the quay is 0. 73 m above MSL, but only 0.61 m above on top of the last visible block at the north end of the west baulk. Although the western part of this course was found to be coated with a lime deposit, there are no remnants of artificial cement or mortar for binding or coat­ ing the structure. This course may have been either a later addition to the actual paving on which it was laid or of the same structural phase. It looks like some kind of partition wall dividing the pavement into north and south units. The paving-stones are laid in loose header order, in four consecutive rows. Being roughly aligned and each block only loosely set, without any mortar or any other solid fill in the wide and deep joints (W 0.02-0.10 m), it is hard to consider them as components of a paved surface to be walked on. The overall surface of these flagstones covers the entire exposed area to the west of the foot of the quay, an area of at least 12 x 4 m. Although it is mostly horizontal, there are dif­ ferences in elevation between individual blocks, ranging from 0.31m to 0.09m above MSL. Toward the end of the 1984 season, some of the blocks were pulled from the second and third rows at the centre of Area 11 a to reveal the underlying strata. Another very similar layer of flagstones was exposed below, and the lifting of one block from the third row of that layer, exposed yet another layer below. These layers were composed of rectangular ashlar blocks of kurkar, some of which have cuttings and recesses indicating that they are re-used from earlier structures. They were laid in horizontal layers over a westward-sloping topography in order to achieve a level surface at the desired elevation. Because the blocks of each layer were laid in overlapping order on top of the lower one, it was impossible to pull off blocks from the third underlying level without removing considerable sections of the first and second layers. Since even the upper paving was well below the

1 36

A rea /

water-tab le , t h is p ro ject c ou ld n ot b e c arr ied o ut . P rob ing w ith p o les d i sc losed t hat t here wa s k urkar b ed-rock b e low t he t h ird l ayer o f f lagstones a t ad epth o f 1 .47 m b e low MSL , 2 m west o f t he q uay o ppos ite t he moor ing s tone . A s f ar a s c an b e d eter m ined b y s uch p rob ing , i t s ee ms a s i f t he b ed-rock h ad b een c ush ioned w ith sma l l r ubb le a nd c h ipped k urka r p ieces i n o rder t o g a in a n e ven b ase f or t he b ottom c ourse o f f lagstones . S o t he o r ig ina l g round i ss o mewhat d eeper . As econd p robe was made t hrough t he p av ing s labs n ext t o t he q uay 1 0 m f art her s outh , a t t he s i te o f t he 1 976 p robe . T hree f l agstones were p u l led f rom t he c ourse a d jacent t o t he q uay a nd o ne o f t he b lock s o f t he s econd c ourse was a lso r a ised f rom i t s p lace . Th rough c onstant p ump ing d ur ing e xcavat ion , t he f ace o f t he l ower p art o f t he q uay wa l l was e xposed d own t o i t s b ase o n t he k urka r b edr ock a t 1 .05 m b e low MSL . The s urface o f t he q uay a nd t he a d jacent b ottom a t t he t ime i t was f unct ion ing c ou ld b e t raced e a s i ly b y t he c oat ing o f mar ine i ncrustat ion o f O strea s he ll s ( f igs . 1 1 .77-78 ) . T hese s he l ls c over t he f ace o f t he q uay wa l l b e low 0 .1 m a bove MSL , a nd t he c oa t ing i sb ur ied u nder a f i l l o f c h ipped p ieces o f k urkar g rave l a dded a t s ome l a ter p hase i n o rder t o a tta in a l eve led b ase f or t he f lagstones , a fter r ecess ion o f t he s ea .

Carefu l c lear ing o f t h is f i l l r evea led a t h in

l ayer o f mud a nd O strea s hel ls o ver ly ing v ery c rumb ly k urkar s im i lar i n c haracter t o t he f i l l a bove . T h is d iv id ing l ayer s lopes t oward t he west a t a bout 4 0 d eg rees , a nd t he Ostrea a nd mud a re a t al eve l o f 1 .41 m t o 1 .53 m b e low MSL a t ap o int 1 .3 m west o f t he q uay . T he mud wa s c arefu l ly w ashed a nd s creened f or s ma l l f inds , r evea l ing t wo c o ins a nd s ome sma l l p otsherds f ro m t he f i rst c entury A .C . The c o ins a re b oth o f t he l ast r egna l y ear o f Nero ( A .D . 6 8 ) b ear ing a c ountermark o f t he T enth Roman L eg ion ( cf . R inge l 1 975 : 1 55-56 , p l . 2 0 .14 ; a lso V o lume I ) . On t he f ace o f t he q uay wal l t here i s ac lea r ly d ef ined h or izonta l r ecess o r a bras ive n otch a t 0 .15-0 .40 m a bove MSL , c overed w ith r ema ins o f V ermetus ( f igs . 1 .70 , 7 2) .

Th is f eature g ives a n e st imated s ea l eve l o f a bout 0 .20 m a bove t he p resent

o ne f or t he f i rst c entury o f o ur e ra . T he s lope o f t he b ed-rock a nd i t s d ecomposed c ond it ion

s uggest

t hat

t he

I nner

B a s in

was a rt if ic ia l ly d eepened

i n o rder

t o

a ch ieve s uff ic ient d epth n ext t o t he q uay . T he mud l ayer b eca me t h icker west o f t he q uay a nd b e low t he s econd r ow o f f lagstones . T h is m ight i nd icate t hat t he g rad ient o f t he q uarr ied b ed-rock d oes n ot c ont inue a t t he s ame s teep r ate much f a rther west , b eyond t he l im its o f t he p robe , a nd p oss ib ly a d epth o f j ust o ver 2 m was t he a verage f or t he I nner B as in ( Sect ion I I .R .1 ) .

No s he l ls o f O strea , V ermetus , o r a ny o ther t ype o f

ma r ine

i ncrustat ion was t raced e ither a t t he k urkar f i l l a bove t he mud o r o n a ny o f t he p av ing f lagstones .

T he f loor o r p latform o f f lagstones i s c lear ly o f al a ter d ate

t han t he q uay a nd must h ave t aken t h is p art o f t he I nner B as in o ut o f u se . The f lagstones a re l ess t han 0 .30 m b e low t he moor ing s tone , s o t here i s n o way b oats c ou ld h ave b een t i ed u p a d jacent t o i t wh i le a f loat . T he a bsence o f mar ine i ncrust at ion s uggests t hat a t t he t ime t he s ubstratum was l eve led a nd t he p latform was b u i lt , t he I nner B a s in was a lready s eparate f rom t he ma in h arbour b as in , p erhaps b ecause o f s i ltat ion o f t he e a stern p art o f t he I n termed iate B as in . I t i s d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t he f unct ion o f t he p av ing . A t t he p resent s ea l eve l , t he f lagstone p av ing i s u nder a t l east 0 .50 m o f f resh g round-water a l l y ear r ound . I tc ou ld n ot h ave b een e as i ly k ept d ry i n a nt iqu ity .

I f t he s hore i n a nt iqu ity

was a t i t s p resent l ocat ion , t he water-tab le wou ld h ave h ad t o b e 0 .6-0 .8 m l ower .

Chapter HI: CAHEP Excavations

137

This would have required a sea level almost 1 m lower than the present one at the time the pavement was laid. The loose arrangment of the stones suits the careful paving of a well-confined hollow. Since we have no indication of a sea level 1 m lower than the present one during the period between the first century A .C. and the Byzantine era, it seems preferable to restore a tank at this point, filled with ground-water at least to its present height. Moreover, there are many indications from structures elsewhere at Caesarea and along the Israeli coast-line that the sea level was higher than the present one all through the Later Roman and Byzan­ tine periods, rising to a maximum transgression of about 1 m above the MSL some­ time in the Early Arab period (Flemming et al. 1978; Raban & Galili 1985: 343-51; cf. Section I.A.2). The paving may, therefore, have been laid in ground-water, possibly with sea-water coming in occasionally from beneath as the increasing hydrostatic pressure of the rising sea [lUShed the__intetlace of the ground-water higher, and farther inland. These observations suggest that the paving stones were laid in a water-fi lled hollow already separate from the sea, as the floor of a freshwater basin. The sur­ face of the floor was laid at a level above the interface with brackish water to keep the water within it fresh (for similar practices in coastal wells, see Raban 1983b: 236-38; Nir & Eldar 1987). The flagstones may have been laid to counter­ act the rise of the interface of fresh and brackish ground-water within a rectangu­ lar spring basin relying on ground-water. The conduit that was exposed during the 1983 season in Area l1a might have channeled water to such a basin in its later phase.

There is no direct evidence for the date of the pavement. It most likely was built long after the Inner Basin had gone out of use, and after the silted area to the west had been incorporated into some kind of overall attempt to renovate the public facilities of the city. Considering that this area was flooded again by the sea in the later Byzantine or Early Arab period, the most likely period for such an attempt would be during the time either of Anastasius (491-518), who was praised for his attempt to renovate the Herodian harbour, or of Justinian (527-557), prob­ ably the last Byzantine emperor to devote financial efforts to public building (Downey 1975: 36-37). Area I2: Quay Wall, Southern F.n.d. This area was selected during the 1984

season following the architectural survey, which suggested that the Inner Quay might continue south from Area 11 on a line parallel to the western facade of the Herodian temple podium. A section of low ground that semed free of later struc­ tures was chosen along the tentative line of the quay, 20 m south of the south cor­ ner of Area I 1b (figs. III.68, 79). A square 5 x 2 m was marked out on a surface 2.2

m above MSL, its long axis oriented N-S, directly over the projected line of the Inner Quay.

Just below the surface, a wall of irregular kurkar blocks was found, its face just outside the west edge of the excavated area, buried under a flimsy structure cleared during Negev's excavation in 1962 and dated to the Early Arab period (fig. III. 79). The upper surface of the block is at 2.21 m above MSL at the southwest corner of the excavated area, and at 2.13 m next to the northwest corner. The floor of the Early Arab building to the west is at 2.6 m above MSL. Most of the

1 38

1 1 .H : Area I

a rea i n t he c entre o f t he s quare i s o ccup ied b y af l at f lagstone p avement wh ich m ight h ave b e longed t o as econdary p ha se o f t he wa l l west o f i t . T he a verage l eve l o f t he p av ing i s a t 1 .77 m a bove MSL , a nd i to ver l ies a f l imsy wa l l ( W 0 . 7 m ) , p ara l le l t o t he western o ne . T h is i s b u i lt o f r ough ly-cut a sh lar a nd sma l l r ubb le a nd r uns N -S . I t s u pper s urface i sa t 1 .5 m a bove MSL , a nd i t wa s e xposed d own t o 0 .62 m a bove MSL n ext t o t he s outh b au lk o f t he p robe . E a st o f t h is wa l l , i n as qua re a bout 1 m o n as ide n ext t o t he s outhea st c orner o f t he e xcavated a rea , ap robe went d own t hrough a water logged m ixture o f b rown s o il , g rave l , a nd b ad ly a braded p ottery f ragments o f most ly L ate R oman a nd B yzant ine d ate . There , a t a bout 0 .7 m a bove MSL , t wo f ourth-century c o ins were r ecovered . Work was s topped a t t he s urface o f t he water-tab le , a bout 0 . 5 m a bove MSL , when n o a dd it iona l s tructures were e ncountered , o r t yp ica l b each d epos its a s e xposed a t A rea

I i .

The s ame g enera l p icture was r evea led a t t he n ortheast s ide

o f t he t rench , i n t he o pen s pace b etween t he p av ing f lagstones a nd t he b ack o f t he b ad ly p reserved wa l l r unn ing e ast a long t he n orth b au lk . The e xcavat ions r evea led t hat t here a re n o r e mnants o f t he q uay i n t h is a rea , e ither b ecause i t was n ot p reserved t o i t s o r ig ina l h e ight a s i n

I ,

o r b ecause i t h as

t o b e s ough t f arther t o t he west . T he b ack p art o f t he wa l l a long t he west e dge o f t he e xcavat ions m ight b e p art o f t he q uay o r al a ter s uper i mposed s tructure t hat u sed t he q uay a s i t s b ase . I f t h is i s t he c a se , t he l a ter , E ar ly A rab s tructure must b e t aken away b efore t he e xcavat ions c an b e p ursued westward , i n o rder t o e xpose t he f ace o f t hat wa l l a nd t o f o l low i t d own . U nfortunate ly , t here was n o t ime l eft f or t h is a ss ignment a t t he e nd o f t he 1 984 s eason , a nd i t w i l l h ave t o b e c arr ied o ut i n t he f uture . Area 1 3 : P od iu m V au lt .

A rea 1 3 i s t he n o tat ion f or t wo t r ia l t renches made

d ur ing t he 1 984 s eason i ns ide t he v au lt a t t he s outhwest s i de o f t he t he r a ised a rea t hat p robab ly s upported Herod 's t emp le o f Rome a nd Augustus ( f igs . 1 .67 , 8 0 ) . The v au lt ( 21 x 7 x 1 3 m ) was e xcavated f or t he I s rae l P ark Author ity b y A . Negev i n 1 960-1961 ( Sect ion 1 .A .4 ) .

T he v au lt was o n ly o ne o f f i ve o r s ix i n as er ies . T he

o thers h ad c o l lapsed , s o me d ur ing t he L ate R o man p er iod a nd t he r ema inder a t l ater d ates ( Negev 1 967 : 2 2) .

P a rt icu lar i n terest was a roused b y t he s outh a nd

e ast wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ing . T he b locks f rom wh ich t hese w ere c onstructed d iffer i n d i mens ions f rom t hose i n t he r est o f t he s tructure . The v au lt wa s f ound f i l led w ith e a rth a lmost

t o i t s r oof ,

r evea led t hat t he l atest o ccupat ion w ith in i t wa s o f t he

a nd e xcavat ion

F at im id p er iod , j ust

b efore t he C rusaders c onquered t he c ity i n 1 101 ( Negev 1 960b : 2 1 , p l . 1 :2) . A t t hat t ime t here was a meta l-work ing c entre j ust o uts ide t he v au lt , a nd t he r efuse o f c opper- a nd i ron-cast ing was f ound i n s ide i t . S evera l metres o f o ccupat iona l l eve ls were r emoved a bove t he o r ig ina l f loor , wh ich was e xpected t o b e o f t he Herod ian p er iod ( Negev 1 960b : 2 1 , p l . 1 :2 ) .

Dur ing t h is work , t wo h ordes o f E ar ly

A rab j ewe lry were f ound i n s ea led j ugs h idden i n p i ts d ug a t t he i nner , e a stern p art o f t he v au lt ( Negev 1 967 : 6 8 ) . T he o r ig ina l f loor was r eached a t a bout 2 m a bove MSL o n ly i n o ne sma l l a rea n ext t o t he n orth wa l l .

I t was f ound t o b e made o f a

h eavy f i l l o f c rushed k urkar . Numerous L ate H e l len ist ic a nd Herod ian p otsherds were f ound o n t he p av ing ( Negev 1 963b : 7 28 ; 1 975 : 2 73) .

Chapter III: CAH EP Excavations

139

Negev noticed that the south and east walls in the vault differ in the height of courses, surface treatment, and means of binding from the north wall and the vaulted roof itself (figs. III.81-84). In these latter areas the blocks are smooth­ faced, smaller, and laid in mortar. Clearly this vault was constructed in two dif­ ferent stages. During the first, the vertical portions of the south and east walls were built, with ashlar blocks carrying drafted edges of their front surfaces, held together with clamps set in lead. The robbing holes above the level of the Early Arab floor are still visible on the face of the south wall (fig. III.83). In the second phase, an additional wall was built parallel to the south one, 7 m to the north, extending eastward to the eastern wall. This chamber was then roofed with a vault that rested on top of the earlier wall (fig. III.81). This rebuilding has a bear­ ing on the chronology of the north gate. CAHEP found in Area J on the shore north of the H erodian harbour what may be the quay of a Hellenistic harbour of Straton's Tower (Section III.I; figs. III.1, 92). Nearby, the Italian Mission had excavated two round towers in a city wall (figs. I.35, 11.1), and proposed a H erodian date. A similar, inundated tower was found by CAH EP in Area T (Section III.R.1; fig. III.17 4). The date of the northern towers was considered questionable (Levine 1975a: 10-15, n. 50), so the JECM car­ ried out a probe outside the southeastern extension of the fortification wall, adja­ cent to the twin round towers (their Field G-8). Ultimately, they also accepted the H erodian date (Blakely 1984). CAHEP architects and researchers, however, noticed that the only section of the northern fortification that showed no signs of rebuilding lay between the east­ ern of the two round towers and a polygonal one farther east, at the point where the High-Level Aqueduct crosses it. In that section, the outer, northern face of the wall is composed of ashlars with smooth surfaces laid in a tight order without any binding cement (fig 11.4). On the inner side, which is built in a similar manner, only the edges of the blocks have been finished, leaving rusticated bossing in the centre (figs. 11.5, III.85). This clear distinction between the two sides of the wall was not retained in the segments of the wall altered later, including that which was excavated by Blakely. The finish, size, and coursing of the blocks in the inside face of the original part of this wall resemble those of the blocks in the vertical part of the southern and eastern (rear) walls of the vault in Area l3 . It may be that they belong to the same fortification wall. The most reasonable historical circumstances for the construction of such pre-Herodian fortifications would be the reign of the tyrant Zoilus, who turned Straton's Tower into a stronghold and the capital of his small kingdom which included also Dor and the hinterland of the northern Sharon (Josephus, AJ 13.3 24-35). The walls had withstood the military attacks of the Jewish king Alex­ ander Jannaeus and never been destroyed in war. Furthermore, there are many parallels for the architectural finish of these walls from the Late Hellenistic period: at Samaria (Reisner et al. 1924, I: 201), Akko (Dothan 1976: 41-43), Dor (Sharon 1987: 38, fig. 5), and Sha'ar Ha'amagim (Segal 1987; see also on this sub­ ject Maoz 1985: 47, n. 8; Laperrousaz 1974, 1979: 113-24). In short, historical probability and architectural parallels for the towers are to be found in the later second century B.C. rather than early in the fourth century, the date suggested for the foundation of the Phoenician outpost (Negev 1975: 273; Foerster 1975: 9;

1 40

A rea I

R inge l 1 975 : 1 9-21 ) . Th is i s sue w i l l b e d iscussed f urther i n V o lu me I V , a nd was r ecent ly s u m mar ized b y Raban ( 1987 ) . Negev 's d ata s uggest ing a Herod ian d ate f or t he v au lt i n t he T emp le P od iu m was b ased o n h is p robe a long t he n orth , l a ter wal l . I n c onsequence , t he o ther t wo wa l ls m ight b e e ither p re-Herod ian o r j ust a n e ar l ier p hase o f t he Herod ian p lan . I n o rder t o s ort o ut t hose a lternat ives , t wo p robes were made i ns ide t he v au lt d uri ng 1 984 d own t o t he f oundat ion l eve l o f b oth t he s outhern a nd t he n orthern wa l ls . A rea I 3a d es ignated t he t rench a long t he s outhern wa l l ( f igs . 1 1 .86 , 8 9 ) .

A t t he

p o int s e lected , t he e x ist ing s urface , l eft u nexcavated b y Negev , i s a t 3 .2 m a bove MSL . I tp robab ly r epresents t he l atest B yzant ine p ha se , b e ing c o mposed o f c rushed b ody s herds o f t yp ica l c igar-shaped amphoras o f t he Gaza t ype ( R i ley 1 975 : 3 0 ; Adan-Bayew itz i n L ev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 9 7-99 ) . I t was c overed w ith b roken b r icks a nd i ron s lag o f. E a r ly A rab sme lt ing a ct iv it ies . T he t rench was 2 m w ide a nd e xtended 6 m a long t he f ace o f t he s outh wa l l .

I t s west e nd was 2 m i n s ide t he

west e nd o f t he v au lt . I n e xcavat ing i l-strat if ied f i l l o f t he B yzant ine p er iod , a c hamber was f ound , e xtend ing f rom a l ime f loor a t 2 .70 m a bove MSL t o i t s b ase a t 2 .17 m . There wa s as p il l o f a sh a nd b urned o rgan ic s ubstances i n t he n orthwestern c orner o f t he c ha mber .

T he a sh s urround ing a c o l lapsed b r ick s tructure

b e longs t o ak i ln t hat was d ated b y a sma l l h oa rd o f b ronze c o ins t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he f ourth c entury . I n

1 987

t h is c hamber was c leared f urther a nd a sma l l

mosa ic f loor

was

e xposed a t i t s b ase . The mosa ic , 1 .2 x 1 .2 m i n s ize , was i nserted i nto t he b otto m o f ar ectangu lar l ime-p la stered b as in o f wh ich o n ly t he l ower p art h as b een p res erved . I t s hou ld b e d ated t o t he L ate R o man p er iod , a nd , a l though n o g ood d atab le f inds were r ecovered f rom a s ecu re c ontext , i t wa s e ither a lready d estroyed when t he k i ln wa s b u i lt , o r i nserted i n to i t f rom t he h igher , l ime f loor . The mosa ic a t 2 .05 m a bove MSL i s made o f f ine t esserae 0 .008 m o n as ide i n as quared b ord er o f l ime mortar . B e low i t t here i s af i l l o f sma l l r ubb le m ixed w ith s ome u nd iagnost ic p otsherds a nd d a rk b rown s o i l . T he g round i s v ery d a mp a nd b ecomes watersoaked b e low 1 .9 m a bove MSL .

T here a re f a int t races o f ab r igh t g rey l ayer

a t a pprox i mate ly t h is l eve l t hat m ight h ave b een a f loor o r a n o ccupat iona l l eve l . I t l i nes u p w ith t he l ower p art o f t he s econd c ourse o f d ressed b locks a bove t he f oundat ion c ourse . B eneath , a t 1 .82 m a bove MSL , t he f i l l c hanges t o al i ght r edd ish-brown , s i lty s and m ixed w ith a ngu lar f ragments o f k urka r ( D 0 .05-0 .06 m ) .

V ery f ew d atab le

s herds were f ound i n t hat l ayer , b ut t wo p ieces o f E astern S ig i l lata A were r ecove red t hat d ate t o t he f i rst c entury B .C . A t 1 .40-1 .44 m a bove MSL t here was a t h in l ayer o f a sh . A t 1 .07 m a bove MSL t he f oundat ion c ourse p ro jects 0 .18 m f ro m t he f ace o f t he wa l l . The t op o f t he b lock i s 0 .13-0 .15 m a bove t he l edge , s o t here i s ak ind o f n arrow b ase o n t he l edge , p robab ly f or r est ing t he f loor o r t he t op o f i t s l eve led s u rface . The n ext c ourse a bove i s c arefu l ly d ressed , s o i t wa s p robab ly meant t o b e v is ib le a bove t he s urface when t he wa l l was b u i lt . T he b ase c ourse i s a bout 0 .60 m h igh , b ut a bout 0 .40 m b e low t he l edge i t t apers b ackwa rd a nd r ests o n t he u neven b otto m o f i t s f oundat ion t rench , a t 0 .62 m a bove MSL , n ow j ust b e low t he water-tab le .

Chapter III: CAHEP Excavations

141

The fill of the foundation trench, clearly visible in the section, is composed of a brighter buff-ye llow aggregate of crushed kurkar (see section, fig. III.86). Above the fill and the top of the foundation trench there is a darker, grey-brown clay­ like silt, the upper surface of which is at 1.10-1.12 m above MSL. This seems to have been the surface of the ground next to the wall until the vault was built. Of the very few potsherds found in that layer, there were two fragments of Eastern Sigillata A and a badly eroded Rhodian amphora handle of late second-early first century B.C. In 1987 this trench was expanded in search of further diagnostic finds, but except for additional small pieces of Eastern Sigillata A and the bottom section of a Late Hellenistic unguentarium, no significant additional data have been recovered. Area l3b designated the trench along the base of the northern wall of the va t(f1gs. III.S:.7"=88):-This tNmc-trwe:s-z--m-wide and extended-for-4-m- along-the wall about half-way down the length of the vault. This spot was excavated in 19 62 to the base of the wall by Negev, in a 1 x 1 m probe. This pit was now cleaned and expanded. First the surface around it was leveled to the top of a white lime floor at 3.05 m above MSL. This floor might represent either the last Byzantine phase or (more likely) the Early Arab occupation in the seventh or early eighth century. The iron slag and some partition walls that were exposed in 1961 are farther inside, toward the back of the vau lt, on a level some 0.20 m higher. Beneath it there is another floor of much the same type, 2.60-2.65 m above MSL (sloping up gently away from the wall). The fill between the two floors is composed of grey-brown soil mixed with gravel and broken body sherds of Byzan­ tine amphoras, most of the Gaza type. Below the lower floor, along the face of the wall, there is a fill of a light grey mixture of decomposed mortar with crushed lime partic les that are incorporated into an underlying floor at 2.18 m above MSL. This fill looks as if it is in a hollow cut along the lower part of the wall through the layer of red-brown mixture of broken pottery, silt, and some lenses of carbon­ ized wood and bright sand. The hollow was cut to a level about 0.25-0.30 m above the top ledge of the original edge, just below the upper part of a horizonta l recess in the wall, 0.35 m high and about 0.10 m deep. It looks as if there was some ren­ ovation effort through which new, heavily cemented courses of ashlar were used for the face of the wall above the base of this narrow foundation trench. Judging from the narrowness of this hollow, it is quite likely that the renovation was only intended to strengthen the existing wall by inserting additional cement between the blocks. The fill through which this hollow was cut includes a few potsherds datable to the second-third century. This stratigraphy was not clearly observed during the 1984 season, so the baulks on both the eastern and western side of the excavation were cleared and expanded during the 1987 season. Then the hollow was detected in both baulks. The floor that this hollow cut through is a thick and compact layer of crushed kurkar mixed with lime. On it there were parts of at least three cooking pots of Early Roman type (first-second century). This floor has its face at 2.35 m above MSL, and it is underlaid by another one, at the base of the ho llow, which was found covered with scattered pieces of carbonized wood and possibly cloth. A sin­ gle coin and some terra sigillata sherds may date it to the first century A.C. The

1 42

Area I

l ayer b e low i s b ased o n ah or izonta l ly s trat if ied f i l l o f c rushed k urkar c hunks j ust b e low t he l edge ( 1 .82 m a bove MSL ) . I ta lso c on ta ins p ieces o f c ha rcoa l a nd a c ons iderab le n umber o f l ustrous r ed s herd s o f s ig i l lata v esse ls , a ma jor p ort ion o f a n E astern S ig il lata b ow l , a nd a c omp lete c ook ing p ot c rushed o n t op o f t he u nder lyi ng k urkar f i l l . Th is c orpus s ee ms t o b e u n iform ly Herod ian i n c haracter . T he l edge i t se lf i s 0 .15 m b road a nd c o mposed o f a sh lar s tr ingers a bout 0 .35 m h igh . The t op o f t he l edge i s a t 1 .86 m a bove MSL , a bout 0 .80 m h igher t han t he l edge a t t he b ase o f t he s outh wa l l ( f ig .

1 1 .88 ) . T he a sh lar c ourse o f t he l edge i s

l a id o n af oundat ion made o f ac ourse o f h eader b locks o n t op o f wh ich t here i s a c ush ion o f f lat , sma l ler b its o f r ubb le . T he v ery b ottom o f t he f oundat ion i s a t 1 .10 m a bove MSL . T he f il n ext t o t he f oundat ion a nd u p t o t he l eve l o f t he l edge r evea ls n o s igns o f af oundat ion t rench o n e ither o f t he b au lks o n t he e astern a nd western s ides o f t he d ig . I f t he f oundat ions were l a id d own b e low t he c onte mpor ary s urface , t he t rench m ight h ave b een b roader t han t he e xcavated a rea . I t i s more l i ke ly t hat , when t he s er ies o f v au lted c ha mbers was b u i lt a s p a rt o f t he Herod ian T e mp le P od ium ( see Negev 1 967 : 2 2 ) , t he g round wa s p repared b y a dd ing c hunk s o f d ecomposed k urkar f or l eve l ing f l oor b ed s a nd f i l l ing d epress ions ( Negev 1 960b : 2 1) . T h is m igh t b e t he r eason why t he b ase o f t he n orth wa l l a nd t he l edge f o r t he f loor n ext t o i t a re s o much h igher t han t hose a t t he o ther s ide o f t he s a me s tructure . T he t wo t renches i n A rea 1 3 y ie lded c lear-cut s trat ig raph ic e v idence t hat t he n orthern a nd s outhern wa l ls o f t he s outhern v au lt were b u i lt a t d ifferent p er iods . S ince t he n orth wal l i sn ot o n ly r e lated i n i t s e ar l iest s tage t o af loor o r o ccupat iona l l eve l 0 .80 m h igher , b ut a lso t o al ater h istor ica l p hase , t hey s hou ld b e l ater t han t he s outh wa l l . I t c ou ld b e t hat t he e x ist ing , ma ss ive s outhern a nd e astern wa l ls were t aken i nto a ccount a nd i t s b etter p reserved p arts r e-used when t he master p lan f or Caesarea wa s l a id o ut . I f , a s i sa rgued i n S ect ion 1 1 . 1 , t h is wa l l i sa ctua l ly t he i nner f ace o f t he s outhe astern c orner o f t he

wa l l o f S traton 's T ower ,

i t may b e

t hat

Herod 's t own-

p lanners d ec ided t o k eep t he wa l l a s ab oundary b etween t he c ity o f Caesarea a nd t he empor ium o f S ebastos ( Lev ine 1 975a : 1 1 , n . 5 0 ) . L iterary s ources r evea l t hat t he wa l ls o f S traton 's T ower r e ma ined p hys ica l l andma rks a l l t hrough t he R o man e ra ( K le in 1 928 : 1 99-228 ) , s o t he ir o ut l ine must h ave b een e a s i ly d ist ingu ishab le w ith in t he b u i lt-up a rea o f Caesarea . A s t he ir c onf ine ment h ad a r e l ig ious a nd j ur id ist ic mean ing f or t he J ew ish h a lacha , i t m ight h ave a lso h ad a n a dm in istrat ive r o le .

One o f Caesa rea 's e p ithets o n c o ins f rom t he r e ign o f Agr ippa I ( 37-44 ) i s

Ka isar ia p ros S ebaston ( Caesa rea b y S eba stos ) ( R inge l 1 975 : 1 53 ) , i mp ly ing t hat t he t wo a re s epa rate e nt it ies . T h is a ssumpt ion s o lves t he d iff icu lty o f a ttr ibut ing t he n orth wa l l a nd t w in t owers t o t he Herod ian c ity wa l ls o f Caesarea ( Lev ine 1 975a : 9 -13 ; Negev 1 975 : 2 73-74 ) . [ A .R . ]

Chapter III: CAH EP Excavations

143

mJ. Area J: Hellenistic Quay. The area designated as Area J is on the shore-line north of the Herodian har­ bour and the Crusader city, west of Field G of the Joint Expedition, and southwest of the wall and two round towers excavated by the Italian Mission (figs. 1.36, III.1, 90). It is located at the only point along this stretch of coast-line that is recessed toward the east, providing about 1 00 m of shore-line facing north and protected from the waves by a wide strip of rocky shallows and scattered abrasive shelves (fig. 111.91). There is a semi-lagoonal cove of calm water extending for about 120 m to the NNE from the southwestern tip of this offset shore, toward the western end of the north city wall (fig. 111.90). This lagoon is navigable at its north end and, although not fully protected at present from the wave energy that comes from the west, it is likely that these rocky reefs were less at>radeci imd less segmen--ted-in the--pa-st and thus gave better protection from the waves. The south shore of this lagoon is an uplifted ancient abrasive platform of kurkar rock, which is at present just over 1 m above MSL (fig. III.94). The date and the cause for the upheaval of this shelf are not known, but whether it was created during a marine transgression or has been tectonically uplifted, it was at sea level long before the first human settler came to the site. On the lee side of this shelf and about 20 m from the present water-line at the south end of the lagoon, the first archaeological excavations of the Hebrew Uni­ versity took place in the 194 0's to early 1960's (see above, Sections II.A.2-3; Avi­ Yonah 1956a-b; Avi-Yonah & Negev 1963a-b). Although their main goal was to expose and study the ancient synagogue, they also recovered structural remains and quantities of pottery from pre-Herodian times. The bulk of this corpus is of the second century B.C. ·They also traced a massive wall in the sea close to the synagogue which they suggested had been part of a mole of the harbour of Stra­ ton's Tower (Avi-Yonah & Negev 1963a: 148). These excavations were never fully published, so it is difficult to determine which wall they meant. The most prominent and massive wall in the water is a segment of a concrete structure 4.6 m wide, 8 m long, and rising 1.25 m above MSL. It extends along the southwest side of the lagoon, a few metres off the edge of the uplifted rocky shelf, in 0.4 m of water (figs. 111.92-93). Another segment of this wall can be see in the water some 20 m farther east and looks as if it were dragged by the waves 1-2 m north into the lagoon from its original position. This movement is suggested by the fact that it is off the course of the more solid part on the west and lies in deeper water (1.2 m) than that section. In addition, the remains of a wooden beam were traced running parallel to it 1.6 m to the south, apparently part of the formwork in which the wall was poured. A few other frag­ ments of this massive wall are scattered along the line of its original course, but most have been carried north into the lagoon. The entire lagoon is now filled with such debris and has at present at most points a depth of less than 1 m. These frag­ ments, the only structural remains in the water, are certainly of Byzantine date, judging from the type of mortar and the typology of the broken pieces of pottery that were added to it. The staff of CMS surveyed the site during the workshops in 1978 and 1979. The initial survey revealed two or three additional structures along

1 44

1 1 .1 : A rea J

t he waterl ine t o t he s outh , p ara l le l t o t he B yzant ine s ea-wa l l ( Sect ion 1 . 114 ; Raban 1 981a : 1 59 ) .

The s tudy o f t hese s tructures was p u rsued a s we l l d ur ing t he

workshop t hat f o l lowed t he 1 980 CAHEP s eason . A t t h is t ime a tte mpts were made t o e xpose t he b a se o f what s ee med t o b e ap re-Herod ian q uay , a nd t o d eterm ine t he s trat igraph ie s equence b etween i t a nd t he o ver ly ing c ourse o f a sh lar b locks b ear ing match ing g rooves f or d oveta i l c lamps . Dur ing t he n ext t wo CAHEP s easons , l and e xcava t ions were c arr ied o ut o n t he u p l ifted s he lf i n o rder t o l ook f or u nd isturbed a rch itectura l f eatures t hat m ight c onnect t h is q uay w ith t he s trat igraph ica l c ontext o f t he b u i ld ings o n t he s hore e xcavated b y Hebrew Un ivers ity . T hese e fforts w ere r enewed i n 1 986 a nd u nder t he d irect ion o f R .R . S t ieg l itz ( Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 987 ) .

1 987

Resu lts u p t o t he

p resent a re s um mar ized h ere . The q uay i sa p latform b u i lt o f s l im a sh lar h eaders t hat p ave t he b ase o f t he u p l ifted r ocky s he lf f or 1 8 m o n a n E -W a x is . I t s e a st e nd i s we l l-def ined b ut p roba b ly n ot t he o r ig ina l o ne .

T he f ront o f t h is c ourse f o l lows a s ha l low S -curve , o f

wh ich t he l a st p reserved b lock i s l ess t han 1 m s outh o f t he western s egment o f t he B yzant ine wa l l . I t s f ace i s n ow u nder 0 .18 m o f water . T he e nt ire s tructure i s e ither t i lted s l ight ly d own t owa rd t he west o r l e ss a braded a t i t s e astern e nd where t he u pper s urface i sn ow 0 .14 m a bove MSL ( f ig s . 1 1 .92-94 ) . The h eaders f orm ing t he p latform a re a l l more o r l ess 1 . 2 m l ong , b ut t hey v ary i n w idth f rom 0 .20 m t o 0 .45 m . T he h e ight o f t he b locks a t t he b etterp reserved e ast e nd i s 0 .42-0 .46 m . T he f ace o f t he p latform i s i ncru sted b y b iog en ic g rowth w ith s o me c over ing d ebr is , s o i t i s h ard t o f o l low

e ach o f

i t s

c o mponents . A t s evera l p o ints , s ect ions o f a n a dd it iona l c ourse a re v is ib le b eh ind t he f ront o ne , a nd a t t wo p laces where t he i ncrusta t ion a nd i ncorporated r ubb le h ave b een r emoved , t he p latform c ou ld b e f o l lowed b ack t o t he b ase o f t he r ocky s he lf , f or a max i mum b readth o f a bout 4 m ( f ig . 1 1 .95 ) .

T o j udge f ro m t he ir r e la-

t ive p os it ions , i t i s q u ite l i ke ly t hat a l arge p ar t o f t h is e ar l ier p latform was r emoved when t he B yzant ine r oadstead was b u i lt , i n o rder t o g ive i t a more s tab le b ase . F or t h is r eason , t he q uay d oes n ot r eta in i t s o r ig ina l f ace , a nd t he e nt ire e astern s egment i sn ow m iss ing . Dur ing 1 981 t he d ebr is a nd s i lt were c leared f rom t he s ea-bottom i n t he a rea n ext t o t he e a stern p art o f t he p latform , a t t he g ap b etween i t a nd t he s egmen t o f Byzant ine wa l l . A lthough t he work c ou ld n ot c ont inue b e low a c oncreted l ayer o f r ubb le a t ad epth o f 1 .2 m b e low MSL ( wh ich s eems t o h ave s erved a s t he b a se l eve l f or t he B yzant ine wa l l ) , i td id e xpose t wo a dd it iona l c ourses o f h eaders u nder t he o ne e dg ing t he p latform . T h is a dd it iona l c ourse makes t he s tructure l ook more l i ke a r ea l q uay r ather t han a mere p latform o r al and ing s tage . A p ara l le l wa l l o ver l ies t he western p art o f t he q uay , a bout 2 m s outh o f i t s p resent n orth , f ront e dge ( f ig . 1 1 .92 ) . T h is wa l l w as b u i lt o f a sh lars o f v ary ing s izes a lternat ing f our t o f i ve h eaders t o o ne s tretcher . J udg ing f ro m t he ir g reat l ength , s ome o f t he b locks s ee m t o h ave b een e xtracted f rom t he u nder ly ing p latf orm . T h is wa l l i sp reserved f or j ust o ver 9 m , r eta in ing a t i t s west e nd u nder ly ing s tones wh ich l ook l i ke a c orner . T he p reserved c ou rse , n ow a t 0 .36 m a bove MSL , was p robab ly j ust a b ase f o r as t i l l h igher s tructure t hat f aced n orth . I n t wo c ases , match ing p a irs o f g rooves f or d oveta i l c lamps a re s t i l l v is ib le o n t he u pper e dges

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 45

o f n e ighbor ing b lock s . I t s eems a s i f t h is wa l l was b u i lt l ater t han t he u nder ly ing q uay , b e ing a d justed t o i t s a l ready s omewhat d ecay ing s urface . A s egment o f y et a t h ird wa l l s urv ived f arther e a st o n t he s a me a x is a s t he s econd o ne , b ut 1 m t o t he s outh o n t he e dge o f t he r ocky s he lf ( f ig . 1 1 .96) . S ix l arge a sh la r b lock s o f t h is wa l l a re s t il l more o r l ess i n s i tu .

They a re much

b roader t han t hose o f t he q uay a nd c ons iderab ly l arger : 1 .6-1 .7 x 0 .90-1 .05 x 0 .6 m .

A l l t he b locks e xcept t he s econd f rom t he west c a rry match ing g rooves f or

d oveta i l c lamps o n t he ir f ront e dges ( f ig . 1 1 .97 ) . T he b lock s o f t h is c ourse a re n ow t i lted t o t he n orth , t he ir u pper ( s outh ) e nd s 1 .3 m a bove MSL . S trat igraph ica l ly , i t i sp oss ib le t o r econstruct t hese b locks a s as econd c ourse o f t he wa l l t o t he west , s lop ing d own 0 .30-0 .35 m a fter t he l ower c ourse wa s c arr ied away b y t he s ea . A t p resent , t he f ac ing h eaders o f t he q uay 's p latform c lear ly c ont inue u nderneath t he westernmost o f t hese l a rge b locks w ith d oveta i l c lamp h o les . Cons ider ing t hat d oveta i led c la mps were n ever u sed a t Caesarea i n s truct u res o f t he p ost-Herod ian p er iod , t he h ighest o f t he t hree s tructures a long t he s outh s hore o f t he l agoon g ives a n u pper d ate f or t he v a r ious s tages o f t he c o mp lex . I f Herod ian , t h is c ourse d ictates a p re-Herod ian d ate f or t he u nder ly ing q uay . S uch

a d ate

matches

t he

e v idence

o f

s im i lar

P hoen ic ian

ma r ine s tructures i n Ty re , A th l it , a nd Akko ( Raban 1 985b :

a nd

He l len ist ic

3 0-40 ) , a s wel l a s a t

n earby Dor ( Raban 1 981b : 2 97-305 , f ig . 2 4 .F ; S tern 1 982 ) . T he t yp ica l o rder o f a d jacent c ourses o f l ong , n a rrow h eaders i sk nown a lso f ro m f ort if icat ions a nd s ea wa l ls a t Dor ( Sha ron 1 987 : 2 5-26 ) , Akko ( Dothan 1 976 : 4 1 ) , a nd S a mar ia ( Crowfoot e t a l .

1 942 : 1 18-21 , p ls . 1 2 , 1 3 , 3 6 ) .

I n 1 981 , t he a rea a bove a nd s outh o f t he e astern p art o f t he q uay wa s c leared o f s ome s urround ing r ubb le a nd wave-dumped g rave l . A s quare 5 x 5 m was e xcav ated d own t o t he r ocky s he lf a nd t he t op o f t he r ear p art o f t he q uay ( f ig . 1 1 .92) . A t l east f our d ifferent b u i ld ing s tages were i dent if ied .

T he l owest s tructure was

b u i lt d irect ly o n t he q uay p latform o f smal l a sh lars . I t s ee ms t o b e t he n orthwest c orner o f al arge s tructure . T he s urv iv ing c orner h as t wo c ou rses ( the ir u pper s urf aces a t 0 .69 m a nd 1 .01 m a bove MSL ) t hat f i l l i n m iss ing b ed-rock t o t he l eve l o f t he u p l ifted s he lf . On t op o f t h is , a nd f arther b ack o n t he r ocky s he lf , t here i s a c o mp lex

o f r ubb le ,

sma l l

a sh lar b lock s ,

a nd p lastered

f loors

i n

a n

e xtens ive

c e mented matr ix o f at ype t hat i sq u ite c om mon e lsewhere i n Caesarea f or B yzant i ne a nd E ar ly A rab s tructures .

One p lastered f l oor i s a t 1 .75 m a bove MSL , a nd

a bove i t , a t 1 .93 m , t here i s a mosa ic f loor , n ow c e mented a nd c overed b y al ater s tructure . The f loors a re v i s ib le o n ly a t t he v ert ica l s ect ion o f t he b locks , a nd t he mosa ic o ne i s made o f med ium s i zed ( 0 .01-0 .012 m ) wh ite , l imestone t esserae . When t he r ubb le wa s c leared f rom t he s urround ing f ace o f t he r ocky s he lf a t a bout 1 m a bove MSL , ag ap a ppeared j ust west o f t h is b lock o f B yzant ine s truct ures .

The d ebr is a nd wave-ca rr ied s i lt t hat f i l led t h is g ap were c lea red i n a

s earch f or a p a ssage c onnect ing t he q uay t o t he a d jacent s tructure o n l and . A l l f inds i n t he f i l l were b ad ly worn b y t he waves , a nd a lthough s ome d atab le a rt ifacts c ou ld b e t raced b ack t o t he l a te t h ird c entury B .C . , n one was a ssoc iated w ith i n tact s trat ig raphy . A r ectangu lar h o l low ( 1 .5 x 1 .5 m ) was e xposed , o pen t oward t he waterl ine a t t he n orth , i t s r ocky b ottom j ust b e low s ea l eve l . T he b ed-rock

146

II.I.I: Area J

walls of the hollow are now badly eroded by wave action, so it is difficult to tell whether they were artificial or natural (figs. III.98-99). At the west side of the south wall of the hollow there was a gap of irregular form and with a width of 0.5 m. One of the large blocks of the course with dove­ tail clamp marks was found tilted down over this passage and had to be removed. The length of the passage is about 1 m, and beyond it there was another rock-cut tank of a very irregular shape (B on the plan). It was cleared of the wave-carried fill from the top of the surrounding bed-rock at 0.9-1.2 m above MSL to about 0.60 m above MSL. At this point, a thin, rock-cut wall was exposed on its south side, about 2 m SW of the passage opposite. This partition wall steps down and tapers from east to west (1.38 m, 1.18 m, 0.66 m above MSL for the steps, and from 0.9 m to only 0.18 m for the thickness of the wall) (fig. III.100). To the west of the wall, there was a course of blocks edging the west side of a third tank. Its upper surface was at 0.87 m above MSL, just below the adjacent bed-rock farther to the west. The four blocks (W 0.55 m; H 0.50 m) composing the course are cemented to the bed-rock by natural concretions to such a degree that it is hard to distinguish their western ends. Along the eastern side of this course, a 2 x 2 m square was carefully excavated during the remaining days of the 1981 sea­ son. The first layer, down to 0.45 m above MSL, was a fill of buff-grey pebbles mixed with broken shells and small, abraded fragments of pottery. The entire fill had the characteristics of secondary wave deposition of nearby debris. There were many coins in this layer, as well as pieces of broken glass vessels, the latest of which are to be dated to the third quarter of the fourth century A.C. Most of the datable finds within the layer belong to the fourth century, and it can be deduced that the deposition was made and sealed (probably by an overlying, no longer extant structure) some time in the later decades of that century. The underlying fill was clearly undisturbed by any marine agent. It was a brown mixture of silt and clay and was found to be soaked in fresh ground-water. This layer extended down to 0.21 m above MSL, and at that elevation it was based on a thin, white plaster surface (floor?). Two pottery vessels were found on top of this surface: an intact jug and an almost complete hemispheric bowl of Eastern Sigillata A (see Volume II). Other, less complete ceramics, such as two oil lamps, help in dating the stratum (locus 20) to the early first century A.C. The white level was underlaid by very fine, grey clay soaked in freshwater (locus 21). In that clay there were over two dozen complete clay vessels. First, just below the plaster and in most cases crushed during deposition, there were at least 14 cooking pots of types usually dated to the late second-early first centu­ ries B.C. Just below, there were eight complete and several broken, double hole­ mouth jars of various shapes (fig. III.102). For information about all these ceramics see Volume II. These jars resemble drain pipes in having a wide opening on both ends, but the expansion in the walls and variations in dimensions would not have allowed them to be assembled in a single pipe unit. One type has almost sym­ metrical ends, with well defined hole-mouths and rounded rims which resemble Punic fish containers from Sicily, North Africa, and Spain (Eisman 1973; Bisi 1970, pl. XXII: 14, 15; Pascual-Guasch 1962 , fig. 16) and in the Levant (e.g., Duncan 1930: 47T; Reisner et al. 1924, fig. 164: Al). Although these parallels are known

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 47

t o b e c onta iners f or p ick led f i sh ( E isman 1 973 ; W il l iams 1 979 : 1 16-17 ) , t hey a re n ot v ery c lose i n s hape t o t he j ars f rom l ocus 2 1 . T he c ontents o f t wo o f t he b etter-preserved j ars were a na lyzed , b ut n o r es idues o f f i sh t i ssue o r b ones were n oted . B e low t he c lay ( at 0 .18-0 .22 m b e low MSL ) t here was a f loor o f sma l l s labs o f k urkar t hat c overed a f i l l o f c lean s and a bove t he u nder ly ing b ed-rock a t a max imum d epth o f 0 .6 m b e low MSL .

Dur ing t he e xcavat ion , t he water i n t he d ig

r eached a l eve l o f 0 .20-0 .30 m a bove MSL a nd wa s f resh t o s l igh t ly b rack ish ( duri ng t he h igh t ide ) . The c lay v esse ls t hat were r ecovered f ro m b e low t hat l eve l w ere f ound t o b e s oftened , a nd t he ir s urfaces e roded b y s a lts a nd t he g roundwater . Dur ing t he 1 982 s ea son , e xcavat ion was r enewed i n t he a rea .

T he a rea o f t he

1 981 p robe was d es ignated a s J 1 a nd t hat o f 1 982 a s J 1 a nd J 2 . A rea J 1 was c leared o f t he wave-ca rr ied s i lt a nd r ubb le t hat h ad f i l led i t a ga in d ur ing t he w int er s torms . The a rea a round i ta nd t o t he s outh wa s a lso c leared b y r emov ing o ver 1m o f t umb led b locks , r ubb le , a nd s i lt . The p u rpose o f t he p robe was t o e xpose what s ee med t o b e a nother r ock-cut t ank i n t he s er ies , i n as earch f or b oth s ubs tant ia l s tructures a nd f or b etter d ated f inds . A t 1 .08 m a bove MSL , j ust b e low t he d isturbed d ebr is , t here were r ema ins o f a s tone wa l l r unn ing n orth a long t he e ast s ide o f t he p lanned p robe . The p robe was d e marcated b y t h is f eature o n t he e a st , b y t he p art it ion wa l l o n t he s outh , a nd b y t he l i ne o f t he a sh la r c ourse f ound d u r ing t he p rev ious s eason t o t he west . The s outh b oundary , t oward t he a rea e xcavated b y Av i-Yonah a nd Negev , was d emarc ated b y ah eavy p i le o f t u mb led s tones .

T he s quare wa s 2 .5 x 2 .0 m .

A fter r e mova l o f t he s cattered b locks , t he u pper p a rt o f t he l ayer was c leared o f s eaborne g rave l , r evea l ing a f i l l o f b rown s i lt m ixed w ith s and a nd smal l r ubb le . T h is f il ( l ocus 2 2 ) c ont inued d own t o 0 .54 m a bove MSL . I n i t were f ound t he s ke le ta l r ema ins o f a h orse a nd l arge q uant it ies o f b roken p ottery , i nc lud ing j ugs , amphor isko i , a nd c ook ing p ots o f t he l ate f i rst c entury B .C . , a nd s o me T erra S ig i ll ata A .

A lthough n o f loor wa s t raced b e low t he f i l l , t here was a ma rked c hange i n

i t s c haracter a t 0 .54 m a bove s ea l eve l , t o af ine g rey mud c onta in ing a sma l l amount o f s and . Th is f i l l c ont inued d own t o 0 .12 m b e low MSL , where t he s ame f loor o f k urkar s labs wa s f ound a s a t t he b ottom o f l ocus 2 1 .

T h is f i l l ( l ocus 2 3 )

was p acked w ith p otsherds , i nc lud ing t wo more d oub le h o le-mouth j ars , c ook ing p ots , t yp ica l He l len ist ic b lack-g loss b ow ls , f i sh p lates , mou ld-made b owls , Rhod ian amphoras , a nd t hree A egean amphora s o f u nknown p rovenance . The p resence o f l oca l He l len ist ic

r ed-g loss b owls ,

amphor isko i ,

u nguentar ia ,

a nd

f our

Rhod ian

s tamped h and les made a s ecure ly d ated c orpus o f t he s econd c entury B .C . S u m mary .

T he e xcavat ion a nd c lear ing o f t he r ock-cut f eatures a long t he 1 5

m o f t he u p l ifted a bras ive s he lf , f ro m t he e ast e nd o f t he He l len ist ic q uay i n t he n orth a nd

t he

l and

s i te

i n t he

s outh ,

y ie lded

d ata

s uggest ing

t he

f o l low ing

s equence o f e vents . 1 . A s er ies o f c hambers o r t anks was c ut i n t he b ed-rock s o met i me b efore o r d ur ing t he s econd c entu ry B .C . T hese t anks i ncrease i n s ize t he f arther t hey a re i n land , s tart ing w ith t he wave-eroded e ntrance f ro m t he q uay ( A ) , t hrough a n arr ow p assage a nd i r regu lar i n termed iate h o l low ( B ) t o as eparate s em ic ircu lar t ank

1 48

1 1 .1 : A rea J

w ith a r ad ius o f 2 .5 m , t he c urved s ide n orth .

T h is t ank ( C ) i s d iv ided f rom t he

n e ighbor ing h o l lows b y t h in , r ock-cut s creen wa l ls t hat were e ach p ierced b y t wo h o les , a t 0 .2 m b e low a nd 0 .1 m a bove MSL .

T he b ottom o f t h is t ank i s a t 0 .6 m

b e low MSL b ut m ight h ave o r ig ina l ly b een l eve led w ith s and f i l l a fter t he q uarryi ng wa s f in ished t o t he e levat ion o f t he l ower d ra in ing h o les . T he l argest t ank ( D ) , a l most 8 m s quare , was a lso d ug t o t he s ame d epth . I t i s q u ite p oss ib le t ha t t hese f eatu res were d es igned a t f i rst t o s erve s ome i ndustr ia l f unct ion , o r e ven a s f i sh t anks , u s ing t he p erforated d ra in h o les f or b etter c ircu lat ion o f t he s ea water . Th is a lternat ive wou ld i nd icate a s ea l eve l a t l eas t 0 .5 m h igher t han a t p resent . The f i rst a lternat ive , h owever , wou ld r equ ire a s ea l eve l l ower t han a t p resent b y a t l east 0 .20-0 .30 m , i n o rder t o f ac i l itate a c o mp lete d ra inage o f whatever s ubs tance was s tored i n t he t ank s . I t i s h ard t o d eterm ine whether t he t anks w ere a t o ne t ime p lastered i n o rder t o o verco me t he p oros ity o f t he k urkar b ed-rock , b ut t he l ime-r ich c ha racter o f t he muddy l ayer a nd t he s and b e low i t m ight i nd icate t hat s uch p laster was o nce t here a nd h as d is integrated d ur ing t he c entur ies . 2 . The k urkar s lab f loor may h ave b een t he o r ig ina l b a se o f t hese t ank s , o r i t may h ave b een l a id i n as econd p ha se .

T he c o inc idence i n l eve l w ith t he d ra in

h o les f avours t he f i rst a lternat ive . I n t hat c ase , t he f unct ion o f af i sh t ank m ight b e e xc luded , b ecause a f loor wou ld b e s uperf luous f or s uch a p urpose . S o me s catt ered s herds t hat were f ound i n t h is f loor a re d ated t o t he t h ird r ather t han t he s econd c entury B .C . ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 3 02) , y et t hese p ieces c an b e f rom t he

e ar l ier s tage o f t he t anks . 3 . The c y l indr ica l o r c iga r-shaped , d oub le h o le-mouth j ars m ight j ust p oss ib ly h ave b e longed t o al ater p ipe a t t he b ottom o f t he t anks , c onnect ing t he h o les o n b oth s ides o f t ank C .

T h is r econ struct ion wou ld f i t t he ir a l leged f unct ion a s s ome

k ind o f i ndustr ia l i nstal lat ion . Yet , t hey c an f i t a lso t he h ypothes is o f f i sh t ank s , o r o f af i sh-pack ing workshop a t t he s i te .

A t h ird p oss ib i l ity i s t hat t hese j ars

were e ither s tored i n t he t ank o r d umped t here w ith o ther v esse ls a t s o me l ater p er iod . I t i s worth n ot ic ing t hat t ank C c onta ined most ly t hese c iga r-shaped j ars a nd c ook ing p ots ( that m ight h ave b een d u mped t here a fterward ) , wh i le t he a d jac ent t ank D c onta ined a much more v ar ied r epertory o f p ottery t ypes , i nc lud ing i mported v essels a nd amphora s . T ank C may h ave b een a s torage p lace , wh i le D was f i l led w ith r efuse . I f t h is wa s t he c a se , t hen t ank D went o ut o f i t s o r ig ina l u se b y t he s econd h a lf o f t he s econd c entury B .C . 4 . S o met i me i n t he s econd c entury B .C . t he a rea was r ep lanned a nd r ebu ilt . Tank C s t i l l f unct ioned ( for s torage? ) , b ut D wa s c overed u p b y f i l l a nd wa l ls were l a id u pon i t . I t i s t entat ive ly s uggested t hat a t t hat s tage , t he l ong , r ock-based s tone wa l ls were l a id i n t he a rea . B ut t h is i s sue mu st b e s tud ied f urther i n f uture s easons a t A rea J 3 . 5 . The l a st s tage r epresented i n t h is c omp lex c an b e d ated t o t he Herod ian p er iod . A t t hat t ime , i t s ee ms t he a sh lar b locks w ith d oveta i l c la mps were l a id a t t he n ew s ea-wa l l , a nd t he e nt ire a rea w ith in i t w as r ebu i lt , w ith t ank C s t i l l r eta in ing s ome f unct ion , p robab ly a s ap lastered b as in i n t he f loor o f ab u ild ing . 6 . Dur ing t he B yzant ine e ra , a fter a p er iod o f n eg l igence d ur ing wh ich t he s ea d u mped wave-ca rr ied d epos its , a mass ive s ea-wa l l was b u i lt i n t he water . Th is s tructure m ight h ave b een i nsta l led t o s top t he r i s ing s ea l eve l f ro m e rod ing t he

Chap ter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 49

n earby J ew ish q uarter . A fter t he wa l l e stab l ished a r eta in ing b a se f or i t , t he a rea a bove t he b ed-rock was l eve led a t 1 .8 m a bove MSL a s ab ase f or a n ew a rea p lan . I t i s q u ite p oss ib le t hat t h is a ct iv ity t ook p lace d ur ing t he s ixth c entury , c onte mp ora ry w ith t he l ater s ynagogue ( Av i-Yonah 1 956a : 2 61 ) . 7 . The f inds i n t he r ock-cut t anks a dd s upport ing d ata f or e xtens ive a ct iv ites a long t he s horel ine a d jacent t o t he q uay d ur ing t he l atter h a lf o f t he He l len ist ic e ra . T hese a ct iv it ies m igh t h ave c oncerned a f i shery o r f i sh-pack ing f actory , b ut n ot i n ad irect c ontext w ith t he q uay a s s uch . T he e levat ion o f t he q uay f i ts a s ea l eve l a bout 0 .2 m l ower t han t he p resent o ne . T hese d ata c oord inate w ith o ne o f t he a l ternat ives f or s ea l evel s d educed f or t he r ock-cut t anks . I t a lso f i ts t he e lev at ion o f Hel len ist ic f loors wh ich were e xposed d ur ing t he 1 986-1987 s eason n ext t o aB yzant ine we l l t hat wa s d ug t o a water-tab le h igher t han t he p resent o ne b y a t l east 0 .5 m ( the g round-water n ow r i ses o n ly 0 .15 m a bove t he b ottom o f t he wel l ) . T h is wou ld c onf irm t he r estored a nc ient s ea l eve ls a t t h is s i te a s h av ing b een l ower d ur ing t he He l len ist ic p er iod a nd h igher t han a t p resent d ur ing t he Byzant ine e ra ( Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 987 ; N ir e i cE ldar 1 987 ) . 8 . Among t he r i ch c orpus o f He l len ist ic p ottery t here i s n oth ing t hat c an b e d ated a fter 1 00 B .C .

O f t he e ight s tamped Rhod ian amphora h and les , f our a re

d ec ipherab le : o ne w ith t he e ponym T i mok les ( f rom l ocus 2 2) i s t o b e d ated t o t he l ate s econd c entury B .C .

a nd o thers w ith t he e ponyms Gorgon a nd T i motheos

( found i n 1 986 ) a re a lso o f t he s econd c entu ry ( s ee G race 1 952 :

5 29-30 , 1 956 :

1 44 ) . Gorgon i s d ated t o p er iod I V ( 180-146 B .C . ) , wh i le T i mok les a nd T i motheos a re d ated t o p er iod V (1 46-108 B .C . )

( Grace & S arvat iannou-Petropou lakou 1 970 :

2 86 ) . T o t he s ame p er iod i s a ttr ibuted t he f abr icant S us i la s , who made o ne o f t he Rhod ian amphoras , t he h and le o f wh ich was f ound i n t ank C i n 1 987 ( Grace & S arvat iannou-Petropou lakou 1 970 : 3 11) , a nd t he Rhod ian s tamped h and le d ep ict ing t he h ead o f He l ios f ound i n 1 987 i n t ank D , d ated t o t he t h ird o r f ourth q ua rter o f t he s econd c entury B .C . ( Grace 1 956 : 1 44 ) .

T he Rhod ian amphora s ta mps c orre-

s pond w ith t he r est o f t he He l len ist ic p ottery t ypes t o make a s o l id c ase f or l ate s econd c entury B .C . a s t he l a test He l len ist ic o ccupat ion a t t h is s i te . J osephus ( 1 1 1 1 .408 ; s ee Append ix I .A ) n otes t hat S traton 's T ower h ad a lready b een d estroyed a t t he t ime Herod s e lected i t s s i te f or h is c ity , y et S trabo ( 16 .2 .27 ) s ta tes t hat S traton 's T ower h ad a h a rbour o r a nchorage ( p rosormon ) d ur ing t he m id-f irst c entury B .C .

T he a rchaeo log ica l d ata c o l lected s o f ar b y CAHEP a nd b y

t he t ea m o f t he Hebrew U n ivers ity ( Negev & Av i-Yonah 1 963 : 1 48 ) s uggest t hat t h is h arbour was n ot t he q uay a t A rea J . T h is a rea s ee ms t o h ave b een a bandoned f rom t he t ime S traton 's T ower was t aken b y A lexander J annaeus ( j ust a fter 1 00 B .C . ) u nt i l Herod b u i lt C aesarea . T he a nchorage r eferred t o b y S trabo m ight b e s ought i n t he I nner B a s in o f S ebastos ( Areas I i a nd T 1 ; s ee S ect ions I I .H .1, I I .R ) . [ A .R . ]

T IL L Area K : Tw in Towers Wes t o f E ntrance Channe l . Two e roded b ut mass ive c oncrete T owers s tand a bout 5 0 m o uts ide t he Harb our E ntrance a nd 1 0 m b eyond t he s p i l l o f t he Northern B reakwater ( f igs . I I .1 , 1 6 ) ( Raban 1 983b : 2 45-48 ; O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 2 93-94 ) . T he a rea where t hey s tand

1 50

1 1 .J : Area K

h as b een n amed A rea K .

B oth f eatures a re c lear ly v is ib le i n r ecent a er ia l p hoto-

g raphs ( f igs . 1 . 13 , 1 1 .17 ) a nd , when s ea c ond it ions p erm it , c an b e s een f ro m t he s urface . T he p a ir , r ough ly s quare i n p lan , s tand a bout 6 m a part a nd p rotrude f rom t he d eep s and f i l l t hat n ow o ver l ies t he a nc ient s ea-bottom ( f igs . 1 1 .103-105 ) .

The

E astern T ower i s t he l arger o f t he t wo , s tand ing 6 .10 m h igh a bove t he s and , a nd r i s ing t o w ith in 1 .65 m o f MSL ( f igs . 6 .80

1 1 .104 ) . I n p lan i t measures 5 .10 m ( N-S ) a nd

m ( E-W ) . None o f t he e xter ior s urfaces i s f i n ished , a nd t he o uter wa l ls ,

a lthough r ough ly v ert ica l , a re v ery i r regu lar . T he Western T ower i s much s horter , s tand ing 3 .30 m h igh a nd measur ing 7 .50 m N -S a nd 7 .00 m E -W a t t he b a se ( f ig s . 1 08 ) . T he t op o f t he Western T ower r i ses t o w ith in 3 .10 m o f MSL a nd h as a l arge s lot ( W c a . 0 .70 m , H c a .

0 .90 m ) o n i t s s outh s ide ( f ig . 1 1 .107 ) .

The Tw in T owers were b u i lt o f c oncrete a nd p oured i n p lace a t t he p o int where t hey n ow s tand o n t he o cean f loor . A c lose i n spect ion o f t he v ert ica l f aces r evea ls

r ough ly

h or izonta l

c av it ies ,

0 .20-0 .30

m s quare ,

p resu mab ly

l eft

b y

d ecayed t ie b ea ms u sed t o s tab l ize t he f ormwork d u r ing t he p rocess o f c onstruct i on ( f ig . 1 1 .106) .

T he f abr ic i s ap eppery g rey-g reen mortar c onta in ing i r regu lar

l imestone a nd k urka r r ubb le a ggregate . T h is ma ter ia l wa s l a id i n wooden c a issons t hat were c onstructed e lsewhere a nd t hen t owed i n to p lace , s unk t o t he s ea b ed , a nd s tab i l ized o n ap rev ious ly p repared b u i ld ing s i te ( O leson 1 985a ) . A ir l ift e xcav at ions i n A rea K d id n ot u ncover a ny r e ma ins o f t he wooden f ormwork , b ut a h o l low-wal led c onstruct ion s im i lar t o t hat f ound i n A rea G ( s ee S ect ion I I .F ) m ight h ave b een u sed h ere a s we l l .

I n t hat d es ign , c av it ies b etween t he i nner a nd

o uter p lank ing were f i l led w ith c oncrete , s o t hat t he a dded we ight w ou ld h e lp c ounter t he b uoyancy o f t he wooden f ormwork a nd a id i n s i nk ing i t . A ir l ift t renches d ug d ur ing t he 1 981 s eason d id n ot l ocate t he a nc ient s eaf loor o r t he b a se o f e ither T ower , a l though a ir-probe s urveys d id a scerta in t hat t here was n o s tructura l c onnect ion b etween t he t wo ( Raban 1 983b : 2 45-50 ) . F inds f rom t hese t renches were v ery m ixed i n c ha racter a nd p robab ly r epresent s econd ary d epos its b rought i n b y wave a ct ion ( see V o lume I ) .

T he c eram ics r anged i n

d ate f ro m t he s econd t o t he s ixth c entur ies A .C . a nd i nc luded a w ide v ar iety o f t ypes o f amphora s , u t i l itar ian ware , a nd r ed-g loss E gypt ian t erra s ig i l lata .

Co ins

were more u n iform i n d ate , y et r anged a s e ar ly a s ab ad ly c orroded Roman i mper ia l i s sue o f t he s econd c entury t o as er ies o f e ight b ronzes o f B yzant ine d ate : o ne o f Constant ius 1 ( 351-354 ) , t hree f o l les o f T iber iu s 1( 581-2 ) , t hree f o l les o f Maur i ce ( 588-9 ) a nd o ne f o l l is e ither o f Mau r ice o r T iber ius ( Hoh lfe lder 1 985) . The l arger n u mber o f s ixth-century c o ins s uggests t hat t he r epa ir o f t he h arbour b y Anastas ius ( 491-518 ) may h ave r esu lted i n ac ons iderab le amount o f n ew t rade . There c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he Tw in T owers i n A rea K a nd t he s ing le T ower i n A rea G were p art o f t he h arbour e ntrance d escr ibed b y J osephus ( BJ 1 .413 ; s ee Append ix LA ) :

" At t he h arbour e ntrance t here were c o lossa l s tatues , t hree o n

e ither s ide , s et u p o n c o lumns . A mass ive ly-bu i lt t ower s upported t he c o lu mns o n t he p ort s ide o f b oats e nter ing t he h arbour ; t hose o n t he s tarboard s ide were s upp orted b y t wo u pr ight b locks o f s tone y oked t ogether ( sunezeug meno i ) , h igher t han t he t ower o n t he o ther s ide ."

T he Tw in T owers i n t he w est h ad p robab ly b een

f aced w ith a sh la r masonry a nd m ight e as i ly h ave b een m istaken f or u pr ight monol i ths o f s tone , b ut i t i s more d iff icu lt t o u nderstand t he mean ing o f t he t erm s unezeugmeno i , " yoked t ogether ." O leson h as s uggested t hat J osephus m ight h ave

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 51

i n tended t hat t hese T owers were " pa ired" , b ut a dded t hat , i n t hat e ase , i t wou ld h ave b een d iff icu lt t o d iv ide t h ree s tatues b etween t he t wo ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 :

2 93-94 ) . However , t he s pan o f c a . 6 .0 m b etween t he Tw in T owers m ight h ave b een j o ined b y as ha l low v au lt , s im i lar t o t he o ne s uggested f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he l i ghthouse o f L ept is Magna ( Ba rtocc in i 1 958 : 5 9-65) . Ar ecent mode l o f t he h arbour ( to b e d iscussed i n V o lume I V ) r econstructs t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he Tw in T owers , t he ir c o lumns , a nd t he s cu lpture t hey s upp orted , a nd t he N orthern B reakwater a nd h arbour E ntrance Channe l . A lthough J osephus d oes n ot ment ion a l i ghthou se i n h is d escr ipt ions o f t he h a rbour ( see Append ix LA ) , t he t umb le o f mass ive b locks a t t he n orthern t i p o f t he S outhern B reakwater , c lose t o A rea K , h as b een i dent if ied a s al i ke ly c and idate f or s uch a s tructu re , wh ich was a n i n tegra l p a rt o f a ny h arbour c omp lex . [ R .L .V . ]

H I .K . Area L : Herod ic rn Quay a nd P ier . A u n ique s tructure a long t he c oastl ine o f Caesarea 's h arbour i s a n a sh lar p latform t ha t l ooks l i ke a p ier , p ro ject ing f rom t he f oot o f t he p resent c l iff o f d ebr is a t t he s hore j ust n orth o f t he modern h arbour b a s in , b etween t he Co lumn J etty o n t he s outh a nd t he modern mo le o n t he n orth ( f igs . I I .1 , 1 09-110 , 1 13) . T he s tructu re was f i rst o bserved a nd s tud ied d u r ing CMS work f or t he I EC i n 1 975 ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 3 3-34 , f ig . 2 4 ) . I t was t hen s tud ied b r ief ly b y L ev ine a nd N et-

z er i n 1 976 , when t hey c arr ied o ut a s trat ig raph ic e xcavat ion o n t he h igh g round e ast o f i t a nd c onc luded t hat t he s tructure was " appa rent ly a p ier c onnected t o t he p ort s ystem o f Herod 's t ime" ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 6 5 ; a l so W 2 01 o n t he ir p lan 3 , 1 1c , 1d , p p . 5 0-52 , a nd i l . 7 3 ) . i n 1 986 a nd 1 987 .

I t was s ubsequent ly e xcavated b y CAHEP

A lthough t hese c ampa igns f al l o uts ide t he p er iod c onst itut ing

t he ma in f ocus o f t h is v o lume , t hey a re i nc luded h ere b ecause o f t he ir i mportance f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he h i story o f t he I n termed iate B a s in o f Herod 's h arbour . D ur ing t he CAHEP s urveys , t he a rea a round t he s tructure wa s t ermed A rea L , b ut d ur ing t he CAHEP e xcavat ions , i t was l umped i n w ith A rea S , a s A rea S 1 . N evert he less , t he P ier w il l b e d iscussed h ere u nder A rea L , w ith c ross-reference t o t he d iscuss ion o f t he c ont iguou s A rea S ( i n S ect ion I I .Q ) . T he s tructure , p reserved t o a max imum h e ight o f t wo c ourses , was f ramed b y t wo s ide wa l ls o f l ong b locks a rranged a s h eaders ( f ig .

11) . I t i s6 .4 m w ide a t i t s

w estern t ip , wh ich i s n ow p art ly c overed b y al arge c hunk o f b each-rock t hat r eaches a h e ight o f 0 .37 m a bove MSL . T h is b each-rock i nd icates t hat t he t ip o f t he p ier wa s c overed b y b each d epos its f or a l ength o f t ime a fter i t went o ut o f u se , when t he s ea l eve l was s l ight ly l ower t han a t p resent . T he n orth s ide o f t he p ier i s b etter p reserved t han t he s outh a nd s t i l l r eta ins a l l t he b locks o f i t s f ound at ion c ourse . T here a re 3 8 h eaders e xtend ing i n al i ne f or 2 3 .7 m . T he b etter p res erved b locks a re 2 .2 x 0 .61-0 .63 x 0 .42-0 .53 m . On t he s outh s i de o f t he p ier , o n ly t he w estern 1 h eaders were p reserved more o r l ess i n t he ir o r ig ina l c onf igurat ion .

A t t h is p o int t here a re r emnants o f a

c ross-wa l l t hat o nce l ay o n t op o f t he p ier , o n aN -S a x is . T he western f ace o f t h is c ross-wa l l was b u i lt o f a l ternat ing h eaders a nd s tretchers h e ld b y t he m ixed f i l l o f

1 52

I I .K : A rea L

sma l l r ubb le a nd s he l l-r ich c e ment c o mpr is ing t he c ore o f t hat wa l l . The s izes o f t he b u i ld ing s tones , t he ir o rder , a nd t he i ncorpora t ing matr ix r esemb le t hose o f t he C rusader s ea-wa l l f arther s outh , o n t he n orth s ide o f t he Harbour C itade l . Dur ing CAHEP 's 1 986 a nd 1 987 s ea son s , e xcavat ions were c arr ied o ut i n o rder t o e xpose t he b a se o f t he p ier a nd t he s trat igraph ic c ontext o f i t s e astern s ide . T he e xcavat ion was c arr ied o ut f or t hree weeks i n 1 986 i n a n a rea d es igna ted a s A rea S 1 , d irected b y R ob in Z iek .

D ur ing t hese e xcavat ions t he e astern p art o f t he

p ier was c lea red t o b ed-rock , t he a rch itectura l c omp lex o n t op o f t he p ier 's e aste rn s tem was e xcavated , a nd t he d ebr is c over ing t he waterl ine t o t he s outh was c leared b y a mechan ica l s hove l , e xpos ing a n a sh lar q uay p erpend icu lar t o t he p ier ( f ig . 1 1 .114 ) . The ma in s tructure e xcavated d ur ing t he 1 986 s eason wa s ar ectangu lar b u i ldi ng . On ly t he we stern e nd was e xposed , s ince t he r est o f i t was i ncorporated i nto a nd b ur ied u nder l ater s tructures . T he n orth wal l o f t h is s tructure was p reserved t o ah e ight o f f our c ou rses , t he b locks l a id i n a lterna t ing o rder o f o ne c ourse o f h eaders a nd o ne c ourse o f s tretchers . T h is wa l l ( des ignated W 1 80 b y L ev ine & Netzer 1 986 ) i s 1 .05 m w ide ; a nd t he b lock s a re 1 .05 x 0 .52 x 0 .52 m .

T he b ase o f

t he wa l l i s a t 0 .43 m a bove MSL , a nd i t s h ighest s urv iv ing p o int a t 2 .49 m a bove MSL . The a sh lar b locks a re b ound b y a c ement o f c o mpact r ed l oam ( hamra ) , m ixed w ith sma l l r ubb le . A t i t s west e nd , t he wa l l f orms a c orner w ith a s im i lar wal l t hat r uns s outh ( des ignated W 1 66 b y L ev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 5 2) . T he e xterna l s ide o f t h is n orthwest c orner i s d irect ly o n t op o f t he n orthern e dge o f t he p ier , 2 2 .3 m e ast o f i t s western t ip ( f ig . I I .111 ) . J ust west o f t h is c orner , t he e xcavat ions e xposed t he b locks o f t he p ier b ur ied i n p art ly-ca lc if ied s and . The t op o f t he p ier 's c ourse i s 0 .34 m a bove MSL , a nd match ing g rooves f or d oveta i l c lamps were c leared o n t he e dges o f t wo n e ighbour ing b locks , a ttest ing t he f act t hat t h is t echn ique , c haracter ist ic o f t he Herod ian p hase a t Caesarea , was i n u se f or t he e aste rn s egment o f t he p ier ( f ig . 1 1 .112 ) . E xcavat ions i ns ide t he r ectangu lar b u i ld ing b eh ind t he western wa l l ( l ocus 1 01 ) went t h rough s and f i l l w ith s ome L ate R oman p otsherds ( second-th ird c entur ies ) , d own t o ag rey c ement f loor a t 0 .92 m a bove MSL . S ome v esse ls f ound smashed o n t h is f loor c an b e d ated t o t he m id-second c entury . T he wa l l o n t he west s ide o f t he l ocus 1 01 s urv ived f or o n ly t wo c ourses , b ut i ts eems a s i f i t s o r ig ina l w idth wa s a t l east 1 .52 m , t he l ength o f t he b est p reserved b lock . T he western f ace o f t he wal l a nd i t s c ont inuat ion t o t he s outh h ave b een b ad ly a ffected b y t he s ea . S o , t he s outhwest c orner o f t he r ectangu lar s tructure c ou ld b e r estored o n ly b y c a lcu lati ng t he i nteract ion b etween t he west wa l l a nd t he c ou rse o f t he s outh wal l wh ich was s tud ied b y L ev ine a nd N etzer a nd d es ignated b y t hem a s W 1 67 . The e xterna l s outhwest c orner i s 7 .8 m s outh o f t he n orthwest c orner a nd o n t op o f t he s outhern s ide wa l l o f t he p ier ( Lev ine & Netzer 1 986 : 6 5 ) . T he w idth o f t he s outh wal was 1 .05-1 .10 m ( Lev ine & Netzer 1 986 : 5 2) , b ut d ur ing t he 1 986 e xcavat ions o n ly a f ew f ragmented b locks o f i t s f oundat ion c ourse were f ound s t il l i n s i tu .

Accord ing

t o L ev ine a nd Netzer ( 1986 : 5 2 ) , a t l east o ne f loor wa s f ound w ith in t h is r ectangul ar b u i ld ing , a t 2 .13 m a bove MSL . T h is f l oor , a nd p robab ly a nother o ne s ome 0 .13 m h igher , were d ated b y t he e xcavators t o t he l ate s econd-ear ly t h ird c entur ies A .C . ( 1986 : 6 5) .

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 53

The s outh wa l l o f t he p ier was f ound t o e xtend u nderneath t he s outh p a rt o f t he r ectangu la r s tructure , j ust i ns ide i t s s outh wa l l . A t t h is p o int ( l ocus 1 02 ) t he b locks o f t he p ier were c overed b y al ater f loor o f c o mpact g rey mortar w ith a b ase o f sma l l p ieces o f r ubb le ( I 1 I .115 ) . T h is f l oor i s0 .57 m a bove MSL i n l ocu s 1 02 a nd 0 .54 m i n l ocus 1 01 . I n b oth l oc i i t i s c lear ly b eneath a nd e ar l ier t han t he western a nd s outhern wa l ls o f t he r ectangu la r s tructure . T he c era m ics f ound o n t h is f loor g ive i t at entat ive d ate i n t he l ate f i rst c entury A .C . T h is i s a n i nd icat i on o f t he l atest p oss ib le t ime t he p ier went o ut o f u se f or i t s o r ig ina l f unct ion . T he b au lk a t t he e astern s ide o f l ocus 1 02 ( bau lk A ) i nd icates q u ite c lear ly t hat t here was a p er iod o f a bandonment a t t h is s i te b etween t he t ime t he c e ment f loor was l a id o n t op o f t he p ier a nd t he b u i ld ing o f t he r ectangu lar s tructure :

t he f oun-

d at ion t rench o f t h is s tructure was d ug i n to a h eavy l ayer o f b each d epos its ( f ig . 1 1 .116 ) . T he c oarse c omponents o f t hese b each d epos its a nd t he ir s teep g rad ient i nd icate t hat a t t h is p er iod t he b each wa s f ormed b y waves w ith c ons iderab le e nergy . Th is s i tua t ion m ight i nd icate t hat t he ma in b reakwaters o f t he Herod ian h arbour h ad a lready l ost t he ir i nteg r ity a nd t he ma in b as in was n o l onger wel l p rot ected . The a sh lar q uay e xposed i n 1 986 a long t he waterl ine s outh o f t he p ier was c o mp lete ly c leared d ur ing 1 987 . Manua l e xcavat ion , a ss isted b y waterjet s weepi ng o f t he wave-carr ied s and t hat c overed i t , r evea led t he e nt ire s urv iv ing p art o f t h is q uay , a s we l l a s t he b ed-rock b eh ind i t a nd t he a sh la r wa l l wh ich r eta in s t he f i l l t o t he e a st ( f igs . 1 1 .117-18 ) . Th is r eta in ing wa l l i s o r iented s ome 2 0° W o f t he a x is o f t he q uay ( bear ing 2 07 °,a ga inst 1 88 ° f or t he q uay ) . T h is o r ientat ion r ese mb les t hat o f t he r ectangu la r s tructure , wh i le t he o r ientat ion o f t he q uay i sp erpend icu lar t o t hat o f t he p ier ( 276 ° a long i t s s outh e dge ) . The s egment o f t he a sh lar q uay wh ich s urv ived i nc luded 1 1 l ong b locks embedd ed i n ar ock-cut t rench i n af lattened k urkar p latform s lop ing v ery g ent ly u pward t o t he e ast . The e dge o f t he s tructure i s e ven a long i t s o uter e dge , b ut t he l eng th o f t he b locks v ar ies b etween 2 .2 a nd 2 .7 m , s o t he i ns ide e dge i s u neven . The e xtant s egment i s o n ly 6 .6 m l ong , w ith i t s n orthern e nd 5 .6 m away f rom t he s outhern e dge o f t he p ier . T he h o l lowed c utt ings i n t he b ed-rock a long t h is g ap i nd icate t hat t he t wo s tructures were o r ig inal ly o ne u n it a nd t he m iss ing b locks were r emoved b y h uman a gency o r b y t he s ea . Another s egment o f t he s ame q uay wa l l i s v is ib le j ust a bove s ea l eve l f arther t o t he s outh . Th is s egment i sa bout 1 4 m s outh o f t he s outh e nd o f t he f i rst o ne , o n t he o ther s ide o f t u mb led s ect ion s o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ion wa l ls , b ut o n t he s ame l i ne ( f igs . 1 1 .109 , 1 19 ) . I t i s c omposed o f 1 1 h eader b locks o ver 6 .6 m . Here t oo , a s a t t he o ther s egment , t he western f ace i s as tra ight l i ne wh i le t he b ack s ide c onta ins s ome a dd it iona l p av ing s labs t hat a re l a id a s s tretchers . T he max imum e xtant w idth o f t he p latform i s 2 .8 m , b ut i t s eems a s i f t he o r ig ina l w idth was g reater . There c an b e l i tt le d oubt t hat t h is l ong p ave ment i sn ot t he b ase f or a wa l l b ut s ome k ind o f waterfront q uay o r p latform .

T he s ea n ext t o i t i s s i lted u p a t

p resent , a nd i t i s i mposs ib le t o d eterm ine t he o r ig ina l d epth o f water a long t he q uay w ithout f urther e xcavat ion . Nor i si tp oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish t he o r ig ina l f unct i on o f t h is s tructure : whether i t wa s at rue q uay a ga inst wh ich v esse ls c ou ld moor

1 54

I I .K : A rea L

o r j ust a p aved r oad l ead ing t o t he a d jacent p ier . I f o ne p ro jects t he l i ne o f t h is q uay a bout 1 4 m f a rther s outh o f i t s e x ist ing s outhern most s egment , i t meets a t a r ight a ng le t he p ro jected western c ont inuat ion o f t he ma ss ive s ea-wa l l ( W 1 ) i n A rea S 2 . T hese m iss ing s ect ions l ay i n a n a rea n ow c overed b y 1 .2 m o f water , e xposed t o t he s urge a nd n ot p rotected b y l a ter B yzant ine a nd C rusader s truct ures , a nd s ee m t o h ave b een t ota l ly l ost t o e ros ion . The r eta in ing wa l l b eh ind t he n orthern s egment o f t he q uay e xposed i n 1 987 s ee ms t o s how a t l east t wo d ifferent s tages o f c onstruct ion a nd t o b e m iss ing t he f ac ing b lock s a bove t he s econd a nd t he t h ird c ourses ( f ig . 1 1 .118 ) . Two f oundat ion c ourses were i nserted i n to a t rench t hat wa s d ug d own t o t he b ed-rock t hrough 1 m o f b each d epos its . A fter t he i nsert ion a nd c onstruct ion o f t hese t wo c ourses o f b locks ( the l ower i s 0 .37-0 .42 m h igh ; t he u pper 0 .6 m h igh ) , t he f oundat ion t rench was f i l led w ith r ubb le a nd h a mra s im i lar t o t hat wh ich w as u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he n ea rby r ectangu lar s tructure . T he s ame r ed l oam was u sed a s ab ind ing c e ment w ith in t he h igher c ourses o f t he wa l l , wh ich i s p reserved t o ah e ight o f s even c ourses o n i t s s outh s ide .

I ts eems a s i ft he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he wa l l a bove

i t s b ase was a bout 1 .3 m . T he t ota l h e ight o f t he p reserved wa l l i s 3 .1 m ( i nc lud ing 1 .0 m o f t he f oundat ion c ourses ) , w ith i t s b ase o n t he b ed-rock a t 0 .62 m a bove MSL . The f act t hat t h is r eta in ing wa l l was b u i lt i n to a b each f ormed o f g rave l , s hel ls , a nd o ther c o mponents t yp ica l o f wave d epos its i nd icates t hat p r ior t o i t s c onstruct ion t he a rea wa s e xposed t o t he s urge t o much t he s a me e xtant a s a t p resent .

J udg ing f ro m t he s im ilar ity i n o r ientat ion , f ounda t ion e levat ion , a nd c on-

s truct ion t echn ique , t h is wa l l most l i ke ly h as t he s ame d ate a s t he n earby r ectang u lar s tructure .

T here i s n o f loor a d jacent t o t he west s ide o f t h is wa l l , s o i t

s ee ms a s i f i t wa s a n e x terna l wa l l r eta in ing a f i l ledin a rea a long t he s ea . One m ight c la im , o n t he b as is o f t hese d ata , t hat b y t he l ate s econd o r e ar ly t h ird c entury t h is p art o f Caesa rea wa s ab each e xposed t o t he s urge o f t he o pen s ea a nd h ad n o a pparent h arbour f unct ion . T h is m igh t b e u sed a s e v idence f or t he e ar ly s ubmergence o f t he b reakwaters o f t he Herod ian h arbour . [ A .R . ]

J ILL . Area M : C rusader C itade l . A rea M c ons ists o f t he c entra l p ort ion o f t he modern s outhern b reakwater , i nc lud ing s tructures s uch a s t he C rusader C itade l , i t s moat , a nd t he a ssoc iated d efens ive t owers ( f igs . 1 1 .120 , 1 22 ) . O ther f eatures o n t he b reakwater , i nc lud ing t he s lu ice g ate a nd a sma l l p robe d ug a ga inst t he n orthern ( i ns ide ) e dge o f t he q uay wa l l i n 1 983 ( Area Q ) , w i l l b e d iscussed e lsewhere b e low ( Sect ion I 1 .0 ) . The modern s outhern b reakwater i s a l l t ha t r ema ins a bove s ea l eve l o f t he ma in s tructures o f t he o r ig ina l Herod ian h arbour . T he s e lect ion o f t h is p os it ion f or a n a nchorage m ight h ave b een d ue t o t he p resence o f ak urkar p romontory s t i l l v is ib le a t v ar ious p o ints a long t h is b reakwater .

E ven i ft h is h ead land was sma l l , i t

a ppears t o h ave b een t he o n ly s ubstant ia l r e l ief a long a n o therw ise s tra ight s horel i ne a nd must h ave b een a n i mportant f actor i n d eterm in ing t he s i te o f b oth t he

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions s outhern h arbou r o f S traton 's T ower a nd Herod ian S ebastos .

1 55 B ecause o f i t s c entra l

l ocat ion a nd e levated p os it ion w ith in t he h arbour , t h is s i te must h ave a lways b een i mportant f or t he c ontro l o f merchand ise c om ing i n to a nd o ut o f t he p ort . The r u in s s een t here t oday d ate f rom t he C rusader p er iod , when t h is s trateg ic p os it ion was s e lected f or t he c itade l a nd was s eparated f ro m t he r e ma inder o f t he c ity b y a water-f il led moat . The r ema ins o f t he C rusader C itade l c ons ist o f t he c entra l d onjon , p ort ions o f t he n ortheast a nd s outheast t owers , s tretches o f t he s ea-wa l ls , t he wet moat , a nd t owers o n t he e astern , o r l andward s ide o f t he moat ( Benven ist i 1 970 : 1 35-45) . The d on jon was o ne o f t he most c onsp icuous r u ins o n t he s i te a nd was o ften s ketched b y e ar ly v is itors i nc lud ing F orb in ( 1817 ) , B a rt lett ( 1842 ) , a nd F enn ( 1888 ) .

The

e ar l iest k nown p hotog raphs o f t he s i te were t aken i n t he t h ird q uarter o f t he n inet eenth c entury b y t he B onf i ls f am i ly o f B e irut . Accord ing t o Conder a nd K itchner , t he s tructure was " st i l l ma inta ined" a nd a ppears t o h ave b een o ccup ied b y t he l oca l v i l lage h eadman ( Conder & K itchner 1 882 : 2 6 ) . Accord ing t o t he s urveyors , t hese wa l ls were 1 4 .5 f t . ( 4 .42 m ) t h ick a nd s tood t o ah e ight o f 7 0 f t . ( 21.34 m ) t o t he s econd s torey l eve 1 . 1 The s tructure was b u i lt o f sma l l k urkar b locks s et i n ah ard wh ite mortar , c haracter ist ic o f C rusader c onstruct ion , w ith i n ter ior r ooms c overed b y r ibbed v au lt ing o f t rad it iona l E urop ean d es ign , p ort ions o f wh ich c an s t i l l b e s een among t he f a l len

masses o f

masonry ( f ig . 1 1 .121 ) . One o f t he i n ter ior r ibs wa s s t i l l i n p lace i n 1 873 , s upported b y ac orbe l c a rved i n t he f orm o f ah uman h ead . I n a dd it ion , t here were t wo w ind ows i n t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ions o n t he s outh s ide , o ne s panned w ith a f lat l i nte l a nd t he o ther b y ap o inted a rch . T he p lan o f t he b u i ld ing r e ma ins u ncerta in , b ut a l arge mou lded p ier b ase ( H 1 8 f t . 3i n . , 5 .56 m ; D 5f t . 3i n . , 1 .60 m ) r ecorded i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury i nd icated a monu menta l i n ter ior h a l l w ith r ibbed , v au lted b ays c arr ied o n b ear ing wal ls a nd f reestand ing i n ter ior s upports ( Schumacher 1 888 : 1 36 ) . S evera l e xa mp les o f t esse lated f loors were s t i l l t o b e s een a t t he s ame t ime t he p ier b ase was d iscovered . T he f abr ic c ons isted o f al ayer o f g ood mortar , 0 .04 m t h ick a nd f i l led w ith c h ips o f f l int a nd o ther h ard s tone , a s wel l a s f ragments o f b r ick a nd t i le . On t he n orth s ide o f t he d onjon , s teps l ead ing t o t he f i rst f loor f ro m t he a nchorage b e low c ou ld s t i l l b e s een i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entu ry ( Schumacher 1 888 : 1 36 ) .

T he f l ight was 4 f t ( 1 .22 m ) w ide a nd b u i lt o f marb le b locks

w ith r i sers 9 3 /4 t o 1 0 1 /2 i n . ( 0 .25-0 .27 m ) h igh a nd s urmounted a t errace wa l l o f b ossed a sh lar ma sonry . N oth ing i st o b e s een t oday o f t h is n orthern a pproach . On t he western t i p o f t he b reakwater , Conder a nd K itchner r ecorded a s econd b u i ld ing i dent if ied a s at ower ( 1882 : 2 6 ) . T he s tructure n o l onger e x ists a nd was d escr ibed a t t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury a s a lmost t ota l ly d estroyed . I t measured 4 3 f t . ( 13 .11 m ) N -S b y 6 6 f t ( 20 .12 m ) E -W , w ith e xter ior wa lls 2 .0 m t h ick . The a cco mpany ing p lan s howed a p a ir o f p ara l le l wa l ls i n ap os it ion v ery n ea r t he s lu ice g ate . T he t ower wa s 5 0 m west o f t he d on jon a nd c onnected b y a v au lted p assage o f u ncerta in d ate .

1 Where t he o r ig ina l s urveys u sed E ng l ish u n its o f measure ment t hey a re r eprod uced h ere , b ut w ith t he metr ic c onvers ion i n p a rentheses .

1 56

I 'LL : A rea M The d on jon was s urrounded b y s ea-wa ll s b est p reserved o n t he n orth s ide ,

where c ourses o f sma l l a sh lar b locks ( avg . 0 .4-1 .2 x 0 .35-0 .6 x 0 .35-0 .6 m ) s tand 3 .9

m h igh ( f ig .

1 1 .128 ) .

Another s tretch o f s ea-wa l l

o n t he

s outh s ide

was

d escr ibed i n t he S urvey o f Wes tern P a lest ine a s i nc lud ing a sma l l p ostern g ate w ith a c ur ious t r iangu la r v au lt a t t he j unct ion o f s ea-wa l l a nd d onjon wa l l . Th is s tretch h as a lso d isappea red . T he ma sonry o f t he c i tade l s ea-wa l ls i s s im i lar t o t hat o f t he f i rst s tage o f t he C rusader c ity wa l ls . The s ea-wa ll s were s treng thened a t s evera l c r it ica l p o ints b y mass ive t owers b u i lt i n t rad it iona l C rusader s ty le o f a l ternat ing c ourses o f l arge b ossed a sh lars w ith r ows o f c o lumns s et i n to t he t h ickness o f t he wa l ls ( f igs . 1 1 .125 , 1 29 ) . The l ength o f t hese c o lu mns p rov ided a v ery b road b a se f or t he t ower wal ls , p rotect ing t he m f rom c o l lapse d ue t o u ndercutt ing b y s appers o r , f or t hat matter , b y wave a ct ion . The s outhea st t ower i s t he b est p reserved , w ith e xter ior d i men s ions o f 1 3 .65 m ( N-S ) a nd 1 2 .80 m ( E-W ) a nd a n i n ter ior r oom 6 .5 m ( N-S ) x8 .4 m ( E- W ) ( f igs . 1 1 .123-25 ) . T he s outh wa l l s tands 5 .25 m h igh w ith a n i n ter ior s ta ircase l eadi ng u p f ro m e a st t o w est . Another i n ter ior l and ing i sf ound o n t he e ast s ide wh ich l ed t o as im i lar i nter ior p a ssage . A sma l l e xcavat ion i n 1 983 u ncovered p ort ions o f t he n ortheast t ower a nd a s ect ion o f t he western c urta in wa l l b etween i t a nd t he s outheast t ower . S ix c ours es o f masonry f rom t he s outh f ace o f t he t ower were l a id b are b etween 0 .9-3 .95 m a bove MSL , r evea l ing a b attered wa l l w ith a n i nc l inat ion o f e leven d eg rees . P ort ions o f t he n orth a nd e ast s ides o f t he t ower a re s t i l l v is ib le b eneath modern t errace wa lls o ver look ing t he modern i nner h arbour where s even c ourses o f a sh lars a nd c o lu mn s s tand 3 .40 m h igh ( f igs . 1 1 .126-27 ) . The moat s eparat ing t he c itade l f ro m t he C rusader c ity i s n ow c o mp letely f i l led b ut c an b e i dent if ied . I t s western e dge wa s d ef ined b y t he c u rta in wal l b etween t he n ortheast a nd s outhea st t owers ( no .

A i n f ig . 1 1 .126 ) a nd t he e ast

s ide b y a nother wa l l f rag ment u ncovered i n 1 981 when a n ew p ower l i ne was b e ing b ur ied a long t he s outhern f acade o f t he e x ist ing r ow o f s hops . The e astern moat wa l l , b u i lt o f ah eav i ly-mortared r ubb le 2 .10 m t h ick , h a s s ubsequent ly b een r eburi ed . A h ypothet ica l r estorat ion o f t he moat f or modern u se ( not i t s o r ig ina l s tate ) h as b een p repared ( f ig .

1 1 .131) .

The c itade l o f C rusader Caesarea d ates f rom t he e a r ly t h irteenth c entury when K ing J ean d e B r ienne r efort if ied t he c ity w ith t he a ss istance o f t he Hosp it a l lers a nd Duke L eopo ld o f Austr ia . Known a s a /-Khe c ira , " The G reen ," t he c itade l was o ften t he o b ject o f a ttack , a nd i t s r o le i sd escr ibed i n s ome d eta i l i n a ccounts o f t he a ttack o f B eybars i n t he f ina l s e ige o f t he c ity . The c a l iph s urpr ised t he t own 's i nhab itants , e ntered t he c ity , a nd t ook a s h is c om mand p ost t he r oof o f t he n earby c hurch o ppos ite t he c itade l . A fter s ca l ing t he wa l ls a nd b urn ing t he g ates , t he Egypt ian a rmy e ntered t he c itade l i n v ictory . Accord ing t o A rab s ources , t he p r ince c ame d own f rom h is p os it ion t o a ss ist p ersona l ly i n t he d emo l it ion o f t he f ort if icat ions .

T he c itade l r u ins a re n ow o ccup ied b y a n a rt ist 's s tud io a nd g a l lery

o n t he l ower l eve l a nd a r estaurant a bove . [ R .L .V . ]

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions EL M . Area N : I nner Edge

1 57

o rSouthern Breakwater.

Two e xcavat ions were c arr ied o ut d ur ing t he 1 983 CAHEP s ea son a long t he p resent i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater , a t p o ints t ermed A reas N1 a nd N 2 ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 8 , 1 32) .

The p u rpose was t o s ea rch f or t he q uay a long t he i ns ide o f

t he S outhern B reakwater ment ioned b y J osephus ( Append ix I .A ) . I t s p resence was a lso s uggested b y f eatures f arther w est a nd NW a long t he i nner f ace o f t he s ame b reakwater , y et i t h ad n ot b een t raced d ur ing t he v isua l s u rvey o r t he more s yst emat ic s urvey l i nes ( Sect ion I V .C) . Un l ike t he c entra l p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater , wh ich h as many c ourses o f b locks a long i t s i nner p art , t he s outhern s ect ion h as n o r emnants o f e i ther h or izonta l p av ing o r av ert ica l wa l l t hat m ight o nce h ave f aced i t s i nner e dge . A lthough t he Northern B reakwater a lso l acks a ny v is ib le r emnants o f t h is t ype , i n t h is c ase l ater a tte mpts o f r enovat ion may h ave c overed t he o r ig ina l f eatures . N o s uch l a ter i n terference c an b e d eterm ined f or t he S outhern B reakwater , a nd t he d ata f ro m t he c asua l s urveys a nd S urvey L ines n os . 1 -3 i nd icate t hat c omponents c ons idered t o b e o f t he o r ig ina l c onstruct ion a ppea r a l l o ver t he u pper p ort ion o f t he s unken s tructure : f or e xamp le , t he c onc rete b locks w ith f ormwork i mpress ions . T here a re a lso h eaps o f b a l last b locks o n t he s urface o f t h is a rea , l eft b y s h ipwrecks o f t he B yzant ine p er iod . I n a dd it ion t o t he i s sue o f t he I nner Quay , t here i s a nother s pec ia l f eatu re o f t he i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater t hat c augh t o ur a ttent ion . I t i s ar ectangu la r p ro ject ion t hat i s e as i ly d ist ingu ished i n a er ia l p hotographs o n t he i nner e dge o f t he b reakwater , a bout 5 0 m w ide a nd e xtend ing a bout 3 0-35 m i n to t he b as in ( f ig . 1 . 13) .

The

s urface i s a n e levated p latform o f d ebr is s o mewhat l ess p ro m inent a nd o f d iffere nt c omponents t han t he b reakwater i t se lf . Our work ing h ypothes is wa s t hat t h is s ub merged f eature m igh t b e t he r ema ins o f a n i nner p la tform o r al and ing s tage t hat wa s a dded t o t he S outhern B reakwater i n o rder t o i ncrease i t s d ock ing c apaci ty ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 2 89-90 ) . T he u nderwater e xcavat ions o f t he 1 983 s eason ,

wh ich were d evoted t o s tudy ing t he a rch itectura l f eatu res a long t he S outhern B reakwater , t herefore i nc luded t hese t wo t renches i n a n e ffort t o r ecover more i nformat ion a bout t he i s sues d escr ibed a bove . I I .M .1: Area N1. The f i rst t rench ( Area N 1 ) was c ut f or a bout 1 2 m a long t he s outhea st e dge o f t he r ectangu lar f eature , t oward t he e dge o f t he b reakwater i t se lf , t hen f or a n a dd it iona l f ew metres t o t he w est a long i t s i nner f ace ( f igs . 1 1 .132-33 ) . I t was d ug w ith in a n a rea marked b y t wo p a ra l le l r opes f ixed t o t he s ea-bottom 2 .5 m a pa rt , e xtend ing f rom t he a ssumed i nner f ace o f t he b reakwater f or 1 0 m t o t he n ortheast , i n s ide t he e dge o f t he r ectangu lar s tructure . The e xcav at ion s ta rted a t t he n ortheast e nd o f t he marked a rea a nd e xtended t owa rd t he ma in b reakwater . The p latform was f ound t o f a l l i n to t wo s ect ions . T he s ect ion c loser t o t he b reakwater wa s a bout 1 m h igher t han t he o ther a nd c omposed o f l arger p ieces o f r ubb le . The p ort ion e xtend ing i n to t he b as in o f t he h arbour r i ses a bout 0 .8 m a bove t he s urround ing s and a nd i sc omposed o f as p i l l o f k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .3-0 .9 m ) . T he t op o f t he r ubb le i sa t ad epth o f 6 .3 m b e low MSL . T he s urface o f t he r ubb le was i ncrusted b y mar ine f auna a nd c onta ined s ome b ad ly worn s herds . E xcavat ion r evea led t hat t h is l ayer w as 1 .0 m t h ick a nd l ay o n al ayer o f c lea r s and w ith n o p ottery , a bout 0 .8-1 .0 m t h ick . A t ad epth o f 8 .1-8 .3 m a t h in b ut we l l-def ined l ayer o f g rey c lay was e ncountered , o ver ly ing c oa rser s and a nd s h ing le . T he t op o f

1 58

I I .M : A rea N

t he c lay was c leared f or a pprox i mate ly 1 m 2 ( f ig . 1 1 .134 ) , e xpos ing s ome we l lp reserved p ottery i ncorporated i n i t s u pper s urface . The s herds i nc luded a f ew p ieces o f T erra S ig i l lata A a nd a l a mp o f Herod ian t ype . T he c ha racter o f t h is c lay a nd t he c h rono logy o f t he p ottery o n i t s uggest a d epos it ion d ur ing t he r e ign o f Herod a nd a t as tage when t h is a rea was c overed b y c a l m water . The s ame s trat ig raphy was f ound a long t he l ower p art o f t he e nt ire t rench a s f ar a s t he e dge o f t he b reakwater i t se lf .

A long t he l a st 8 m b efore t he b reakwater , t he t h ickness o f

t he l ayer o f r ubb le i ncreased t o a l most 2 m , w ith i t s c rest r i s ing t o ad epth o f o n ly 5 .2-5 .3 m b e low MSL .

On t op o f t hat s p i l l a nd n ext t o t he t rench o n t he west ,

t here were f ive s cattered c lusters o f b a l last s tones s o me 5 -10 m a part , c omposed o f b asa lt , s ch ist , o r s im i lar i gneous r ock . I n t wo e ases t he b a l la st i nc luded s tone b locks ; o ne o f t hese g roups wa s c omposed o f l arge b locks w ith c oncave s ides ( 0 .68 x0 .36 x 0 .26 m ) ( s ee V o lu me I ) .

A t l east t wo d ozen s uch b locks were t raced i n

t he a rea , u ndoubted ly i nd icat ing a w reck s i te . T he wave-worn p otsherds t hat were f ound c oncreted t o t he f ace o f t he r ubb le n ear t he b a l la st s tones c an b e d ated t o t he L ate Ro man a nd E ar ly B yzant ine p er iod ( l ate t h ird t o f i fth c entur ies ) . A t t he b ase o f t he ma in s tructure t he t rench r evea led a s teep s p i l l o f l arger r ubb le ( avg . D 1 .0-1 .5 m ) , m ixed w ith c rumb l ing p ieces o f c oncrete a nd s ome t umb led k urkar b locks .

A t t h is p o int , t he t rench wa s e xtended west f or 8 m ( f igs .

1 1 .132-33 , s ect ion A -A1) a long t he s teep s lop ing ma ss , t he c rest o f wh ich s tands a t ad epth o f 3 .8-4 .2 m b e low MSL . T he b a se r ested o n c lear s and a t ad epth o f 7 .3-7 .8 m . No c lay l ayer was f ound b e low t hat l eve l a nd n o man-made s tructures . A lthough n o c oherent s tructura l f eatures were r evea led , t he e xcavat ions d id e xpose s o me r egu lar b locks ( 3 x 1x 1 m ) t i lted d own s o t he ir l ower e dges a re n ow a t ad epth o f o ver 7 m . T here were f ive s t i l l i n a pprox imate ly t he ir o r ig ina l r e lat ionsh ip , b ut t urned c ounterc lockw ise ( westwa rd ) b y 3 0-40 d egrees f rom

t he ir

o r ig ina l o r ientat ion i n ac ourse o f h eaders . I t i s v ery p robab le t hat t hese b locks a re r e mnants o f t he f ace o f t he I nner Quay a nd t hat t he s labs t ha t p aved t he t op o f i t a re t o b e s ough t u nder t he o ver ly ing s p i l l o f r ubb le . T he ir p resent t i lt m ight h ave r esu lted f rom e ither t he s ubmergence o f t he b reakwa ter o r t he f lu idat ion o f t he s and u nderneath ( or b oth ) . The w reck s i tes o n t op o f t he r ectangu lar p ro ject ion i nd icate t hat i t a lready e x isted i n much i t s p resent f orm b y t he f ourth c entury . B ut t he p resence b eneath i t o f t he s tratu m o f c lay i nd icates t hat i t d oes n ot d ate f ro m t he h arbour 's f i rst c onstruct ion p er iod . T h is c lay s eems t o h ave b een d epos ited when t he b reakwaters s t i l l p rotected t he b as in a nd i ti nd icates t he f loor o f t he Roman h arbour b as in . T he s trat ig raphy r ese mb les t hat o f t he s unken f loor i n A rea F ( Sect ion I I .E ) , a lthough i t s f orm i st ota l ly d ifferent . The d ata a va i lab le f a l l s hort o f a l low ing r econstruct ion o r d at ing o f t he p latf orm . A t p resent , t he more l i ke ly a lternat ives a re :

( 1 ) T he p ro ject ion r epresents

a n a dd it iona l l and ing s tage t hat was b u i lt e i ther i n t he f ina l s tage o f t he c onstruct ion o f t he o r ig ina l S ebastos , o r s omewhat l a ter , i n t he e ar ly p a rt o f t he f i rst c ent ury A .C . , when t he h a rbour wa s s t i l l f unct ion ing t o i t s f u l l c apac ity . ( 2 ) T he p ro ject ion i sa ctua l ly a s p i l l o f b u i ld ing mater ia ls f rom t he u pper s tructures o n t he S outhern B reakwater t hat were t hrown i n to t he water b y wave a ct ion d ur ing t he e ar ly s tages o f t he h arbour 's d ecay . T h is p oss ib ly o ccurred when t he h arbour h ad

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 59

f a l len i nto a s tate o f d isrepa ir , a t at ime when t here were n o l onger t he r esources o r e cono m ic j u st if icat ion t o k eep s uch a c omp l icated , e xpens ive , a nd p robab ly a lready s ubs id ing c omp lex i n tact . T h is m ight h ave h appened s o me t ime d ur ing t he s econd o r e a r ly t h ird c entury . N everthe less , t he r ectangu la r s hape o f t he p latform a nd t he t wo s eparate u n its o f d ifferent t h ickness c ompos ing i tc a l l f or more e xp lan at ion t han j ust a cc ident . F urther e xcavat ion i sn eeded o ver a more e xtended a rea b efore s ecure a nswers c an b e p resented . 1 1 .A 4 .2 : A rea N 2 . T he s econd t rench e xcavated i n t h is a rea i n 1 983 wa s c a l led A rea N2 . I t wa s l ocated 6 0 m S E o f A rea N1 , a long t he i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater , 9 0 m west o f t he modern mo le ( f igs . I I .1 , 3 8 ) . A 5x5 m s qua re was d es ignated w ith a l i ne o n t he s ea-bottom t oward t he s teep ly-s lop ing r ubb le a t t he e dge o f t he s ubmerged s tructure , j ust e ast o f S urvey L ine n o . 1( Sect ion I .C) a t metre marks 1 5-20 ( p l . I ) .

The s ea-f loor i n t he a rea was c overed b y al ayer o f

s cattered r ubb le , p art ia l ly o ver la id b y wave-carr ied s and .

The d epth o f t he s ea-

f loor o n t he n orth s ide o f t he s quare was 6 .83 m b e low MSL , a nd a t i t s s outh s ide , h a lf-way u p t he s lope o f t he e dge o f t he b reakwater , was 5 .75 m . The t rench p enetra ted a l ayer o f k urkar r ubb le a pprox i mate ly 1 .0 m t h ick ( D 0 .3-0 .6 m ) , i nc lud ing t hree o r f our s cattered b locks ( avg . 1 .5 x 0 .6 x 0 .5 m ) . B e low ad epth o f 7 .6 m , t here wa s o n ly c lea r s and w ith s o me s he l ls a nd b ad ly-worn p ots herds . A t 8 .05-8 .12 m b e low MSL t he c ompact g rey c lay l ayer was e ncountered . I t was f ound t o b e s im i la r t o t he s tratum i n N1 , a bout 0 .04-0 .05 m t h ick , c onta ini ng f ine p ieces o f b roken s he l ls . T h is l ayer o ver la id c oarser s and w ith a h igher p erc entage o f s he l ls . Here , a s i n N1 , t here were p otsherds o f Herod ian a nd e ar ly f i rst c entury A .C . d ate .

T he l ayer o f c lay c ou ld b e f o l lowed a l l a round t he b otto m o f

t he n orthern p a r t o f t he t rench . On t he s outhern s ide , h owever , j ust a t t he f oot o f t he s lop ing d ebr is o f t he b reakwater , t here was a h o l low where t he s tratum was m iss ing a ltogether , a nd t he s and u nderneath t he r ubb le , m ixed w ith s ome sma l l s tones a nd wave-worn p otsherd s , c ont inued d own t o o ver 9 .6 m o f water ( the b ott om o f t he p it ) . The s l op ing d ebr is was c leared away a nd a bout 1 .5 m o f t u mb led r ubb le was r e moved , i nc lud ing s ome l arge p ieces o f c oncrete a nd a f ew b locks s im i lar i n s ize t o t hose f ound b e low . N ot a s ing le b lock o f t he t ype f ound a t Area N 1 c ou ld b e t raced i n A rea N 2 . T he h eap o f r ubb le was f ound t o c ont inue d own t o ad epth o f a bout 7 .9 m a nd t o b e u nder la id b y c lea r s and w ith n o man-made a rt if acts . T he s andy h o l low t hat n ow d iv ides t he e x ist ing i nner f ace o f t he b reakwater d ebr is f ro m t he c lay l ayer m igh t v ery l i ke ly b e ar obber 's t rench f rom wh ich t he o r ig ina l a sh lar b locks were s a lvaged a fter t he h arbour went o ut o f u se , t o b e r eu sed f or s t ructures o n l and , s uch a s t he C rusader Harbour C itade l . Th is p lunder ing s ee ms a lso t o h ave a ffected A rea s A -C . T he d ata a cqu ired f rom A rea N 2 , l i ke t hat f ro m t he t rench i n Area N1 , f el l s hort o f g iv ing d ef in ite a nswers f or t he o r ig ina l l ayout o f t he i nner s ide o f t he ma in b reakwa ter . S evera l h ypothes is may b e p roposed , n everthe less , b ut t hey a re t entat ive i n c haracter . ( 1 ) A ssu m ing t hat t he c lay l ayer r epresents t he o r ig ina l f loor o f t he f unct ion ing Harbour B a s in , i t s a bsence h ere a nd t here m igh t b e d ue e ither t o l a ter s a lvage a ct iv it ies ( a s i n A rea N 2 ) o r t o ac urrent t hat was f low ing a round t he b a s in f rom t he f lush ing c hanne ls i n A rea Q ( Sect ion I I .0 ) . S uch e ircu la-

1 60

I I .M : A rea N

t i on m ight h ave g a ined v e loc ity when f l ow ing i n ac urved c ourse d ictated b y t he t opography n ea r t he b ottom o f t he h arbour . I n s uch a c ase , t he f low m igh t h ave h ad e nough e nergy t o c arry s i lt a long , t o d ump i t o n ly when l o s ing v e loc ity a ga in , a t s i tes s uch a s t he o uter p ort ion o f t he E ntrance Channe l . ( 2 ) The i nner f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater e ither l acked t he f eatures o f aq uay a ltogether , o r i t s c haracter ist ic c omponents - s uch a s a sh la r p av ing s labs a nd c ourses o f h eaders were t ota l ly r obbed o ut s ome t ime i n t he p a st . ( 3 ) T he q uay was b u i lt o f e as i ly l ost mater ia ls s uch a s wood o r b ad ly m ixed c oncrete .

A lthough b oth t echn iques a re

k nown f rom Ro man h arbours i n t he West , t here i s n o a rch itectura l o r t extua l e v id ence f or t he ir u se a t Caesarea o r a ny o ther a nc ient h a rbour i n t he L evant . [ A .R . ]

I I .N . Area P : P isc ine . I ntroduct ion . T he S outh B ay a t Caesa rea i s f ramed o n t he n orth b y t he k urkar p ro ject ion o n wh ich t he S outhern B reakwater o f S ebastos wa s f ounded a nd o n t he s outh b y as econd l ow k urkar p en in su la c a . 5 0 i n w ide t hat p ro jects c a . 8 0 m i n to t he s ea ( cf . S ect ion I V .B ) ( f igs . 1 . 40 , I V .2 ) .

S evera l l ow k urkar i s lets a nd V ermetus

p latforms p ro ject j ust a bove s ea l eve l a round t he p en insu la , wh ich i s f r inged b y s ub merged s lopes o f k urkar b ed-rock a nd r ubb le t ha t d escend g radua l ly t o t he wh ite s and o f t he p resent s ea b ottom , a t ad epth v ary ing f rom 2 m b e low MSL c lose t o s hore t o 1 0 m a t t he western most p o int . Th is p en insu la , t ermed A rea P ( f igs . 1 1 .1, 1 35 ) , n ow p resents a c omp l icated a ppea rance .

T he u pper s urface o r ig ina l ly s loped u neven ly d ownward f rom a pprox i-

mate ly 6 m a bove MSL where i tj o ins t he s hore t o s ea l eve l a t i t s western e xtre mi ty .

T he

i r regu lar

n atura l

s urface

h as

b een

l arge ly

q ua rr ied

away ,

w ith

t he

e xcept ion o f o ccas iona l l ow o utcropp ings l eft a t s evera l p o ints a long t he n orth a nd s outh ma rg ins o f t he p en insu la . A t t he b a se o f t he p en insu la a n a rea a pprox i ma te ly 3 0 x1 0 m was l eve l led a nd b u i lt o ver i n t he Herod ian p er iod , p erhaps f or p art o f Herod 's p a lace . T he mosa ic c overed f loor i n t h is s tructure i s n ow a t 1 .49 m a bove MSL . T h is a rea o f t he p en in su la was n ot c overed b y t he p erm it g ranted t o CAHEP b ut h as b een p robed a nd p art ly e xcavated .

P robes w ere c arr ied o ut h ere b y A lex-

a nder F l inder , E . Netzer , a nd L . I . L ev ine i n 1 964 ( F l inder 1 976a :

7 7 ; 1 981-82 ,

1 985a : 1 74 ) , a nd b y E . N etzer i n 1 976 ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 1 49-77 ) .

S evera l

E -W a nd N -S c hanne ls c ut i n t he r ock c ross t he s outhern e nd o f t h is p latfor m .

T he

r ock b etween t he s outh e nd o f t he p latform a nd t he s ea s t i l l r i ses t o i t s o r ig ina l h e ight . The c entra l p ort ion o f t he r e ma inder o f t he k urkar p en insu la h as b een c ut d own t o al eve l n ow a bout 0 .3 m t o 0 .4 m a bove MSL i n o rder t o a cco m moda te a l arge , e laborate f i sh t ank a nd i t s a ssoc iated c ircu lat ion c hanne ls a nd r eservo irs ( f igs . 1 1 .136-41) .

T he Roman t erm f or t h is t ype o f i n sta l lat ion i sp isc ine .

A t s ome

l ater p er iod , l ong f oundat ion t renches w ere c ut i n to t he b road p latform o f r ock ( ca . 3 0 x3 0 m ) t o t he west o f t he P ise ina b as in t o a ccom modate b edd ing c ourses o f b locks f or s evera l N -S a nd E -W wa l ls ( f ig . 1 1 .151 ) . The s outhern marg in o f t he p en insu la a d jacent t o t hese f oundat ions c arr ies t he b u lky r ema ins o f t he B yzant ine c ity wa l l ( f ig . 1 1 .141) , p oss ib ly o ccup ied a s as trong p o int i n t he C rusader p er iod a s

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions w el l .

1 61

T h is l ower p ort ion o f t he p en in su la wa s c overed b y t he CAHEP p erm it .

I n

1 964 a nd 1 973 A lexander F l inder c arr ied o ut a p re l im inary s urvey o f t he who le P isc ina a rea , b ut w ithout a ny r ea l e xcavat ion ( F l inder 1 985a-b ) .

P ort ions o f t he

c entra l a rea o f t he b as in w ere c leared o f r ubb le a nd s and i n 1 976 b y Avner Raban a nd Yoss i Tur-Ka spa , a nd i n 1 983-84 t he e nt ire p en insu la wa s c a refu l ly s urveyed a nd d rawn b y CAHEP s taff , a nd t hat p ort ion o f t he b a s in f loor s t i l l e ncu mbered w ith s and c harted b y means o f meta l p robes . J udg ing f rom t he h istory o f Caesarea a nd t he a rrangement o f t he r ock-cut a nd b u i lt r e ma ins o n t he p en insu la , t he P isc ina wa s t he f i rst ma jor s tructure l ocated a t t h is p o int .

The c hrono logy , f unct ion , a nd t echno log ica l c ontext o f t h is f eature

w il l b e d iscussed i n V o lume I V , a nd o n ly a d escr ipt ion o f t he s urv iv ing p hys ica l r ema ins a nd t he ir a rchaeo log ica l i nvest igat ion i s p rov ided h ere , w ith a b r ief , p rel im inary a na lys is a t t he e nd . T he ma in f eature o f t he P isc ina c omp lex i s ar ectang u lar c entra l b a s in c onnected t o t he s ea b y c hannel s o n t he n orth a nd s outh , t owards i t s west e nd ( f ig . 1 1 .136 ) .

An e levated r ock-cut c hanne l e nters t he b as in

t owards i t s s outheast c orner , a nd a nother c hanne l a t t he c entre o f t he west wa l l c onnects i t w ith t hree l ong r eservo irs c ut i n t he r ock a t t he western e xtrem ity o f t he p en in su la .

A t p resent t he b a s in i s p art ia l ly f i l led w ith k urkar r ubb le , c ut

b lock s a nd c o lu mns , a nd s and .

T he e astern q ua rter i s o ccup ied b y a mob i le , b ut

more o r l ess p ermanent , s and a nd g rave l b each c arr ied t here a nd s haped b y t he water t hat f lows i n a nd o u t o f t he c entra l b a s in w ith t he t ide a nd b y w inter s torm waves t hat b reak we l l o ver t he f lattened a rea o f t he p en insu la , a l most a s f ar a s t he b as in i t se lf .

S ome o f t he p hotographs i lustrat ing t h is s ect ion were t aken d ur-

i ng a f ew h ours o f v ery l ow water l eve l b rought a bout b y ac omb inat ion o f t ida l a nd w ind a ct ion . Centra l Tank a nd Assoc ia ted Channe ls .

T he c entra l b as in o f t he P ise ina i s a

s ha l low , r ectangu lar , r ock-cut t ank , t he l ong a x is o f wh ich i so r iented t o t he l ong a x is o f t he p en insu la , more o r l ess d ue E -W ( the l ong a x is i s o n ab ear ing o f 8 3 d eg rees ; t he e astern e nd i s 7d egrees west o f n orth ) ( f igs . 1 1 .136 , 1 38 , 1 40-41) . T he d i mens ions a re s l igh t ly i r regu la r :

n orth e dge L 3 5 .15 m ; s outh e dge L 3 5 .26

m ; e ast e dge L 1 8 .20 m ; west e dge L 1 7 .87 m .

T he f loor o f t he b as in i s smooth

a nd s ee ms more o r l ess l eve l t o t he e ye , a lthough s l ight i r regu lar it ies a ppeared i n s urveys a nd a re r ef lected i n t he s ect ion d raw ings ( f ig . 1 1 .137 ) . I t a ppa rent ly i s u n marked b y a ny i n tent iona l r ock-cut d epress ions o r p rotrus ions .

The f loor s tands

a pprox i mate ly 0 .80 m b e low p resent MSL , b ut t he a ctua l l eve l o f water i n t he b as in f luctuates ma rked ly , d epend ing o n t he t i des , t he d irect ion o f t he w ind , a nd s ea c ond it ions . T he max imu m v ar ia t ion i s a pprox imate ly 0 .50 m i n e ither d irect ion .

S ince t he u pper s urface o f t he k urkar b ed-rock a round t he t ank h as n ot b een

c ut t o ac o mp lete ly u n iform l eve l , t he h e ight o f t he v ert ica l t ank wa l ls a bove t he f loor v ar ies f rom o ne p o int t o a nother : a t t he s outhwest c orner t he f loor i s 1 .20 m b e low t he u pper e dge o f t he wa l l , a t t he n orthwest c orner 1 .42 m b e low , a t t he n orthwest s lu ice 1 .35 m b e low , a nd a t ap o int 2 .0 m west o f t he s outh e nd o f t he i nterna l d iv ider wa l l , 1 .40 m b e low . On t he who le , t he s urface o f t he k urka r p en ins u la i s r ougher a nd c loser t o i t s o r ig ina l p rof i le a long t he n orth t han a long t he s outh e dge o f t he b as in .

A s er ies o f s ha l low d epress ions ( 1 .40 x 0 .60 x 0 .10 m

d eep ) f or b ases o r s ome o ther a rch itectura l e le ment h ave b een c ut i n to t he r ock i n ar ow 2 .2 m n orth o f t he n orth b as in wa l l , t owards i t s e a st e nd ( f ig . 1 1 .140) .

1 62

I I .N : A rea P The o n ly r ock-cut f eature v is ib le w ith in t he t ank a re t wo s teps 1 .45 m w ide

t hat d escend i nto t he b a s in n ear i t s n ortheast c orner , c onnect ing t he mosa ic p avement t o t he e ast w ith t he b as in f loor . T he l ower s tep i s 0 .23 m h igh , t he u pper 0 .10 m h igh . T he o ther i ntact f eatures a re b u i lt o f c oncrete , morta r , a nd c u t s tone b locks : ac entra l p ier o r b ase ( f ig . 1 1 .149 ) , a nd a c urved d iv ider wal l t owards t he e ast e nd o f t he b as in ( f ig . 1 1 .139 ) .

T he n u merou s c o lu mn d ru ms t hat n ow l i e s cat-

t ered a round t he b a s in p robab ly c onst itute t he d ebr is o f t he s tructures t hat o r ig in al ly s urrounded t he P isc ina ( f ig . 1 1 .148 ) . The p ier , 1 .68 m w ide ( N-S ) a nd 2 .70 m l ong ( E-W ) , i s l ocated a l most e xact ly a t t he c entre o f t he b as in .

T he d istance b etween i t s n orth e dge a nd t he n orth

ma rg in o f t he b as in i s8 .4 m .

The morta r f orm ing t h is f eature i s s im i lar t o t hat o f

t he Herod ian c oncrete b locks i n t he h arbour :

i t i sf ine-g ra ined a nd h a rd a nd c on-

t a ins s pecks o f ag reen v o lcan ic mater ia l a nd s ma l l n odu les o f l ime . T he r ounded u pper s urface o f t he p ier s tand s a lmost e xact ly a t p resent MSL : t he r ock-cut f loor o f t he t ank .

c a . 0 .80 m a bove

T he u pper s urface c lea r ly h as n ot p reserved i t s

o r ig ina l f orm , b ut t he g enera l c o inc idence w ith s ea l eve l may n ot b e a n a cc ident . The p resent s ea l eve l i s a pprox i mate ly t he s ame a s t hat i n t he t ime o f Herod , a nd t h is p ier o f h ydrau l ic c oncrete may h ave o r ig ina l ly s erved a s t he f oundat ion f or a s tatue b ase b u i lt o f s tone b locks l ess r es istant t o t he s ea-water .

I t may a lso h ave

s erved t o s upport a wa lk-way b u i lt o f wooden p lanks , a ssoc iated w ith t he ma inten ance o f t he f i sh-tank .

A l ow ma rg in o f s hort , w ide k urkar b locks s et i n mortar

s urround s i t , e xtend ing o ut 1 .03 m t o t he n orth , 0 . 75 m t o t he e ast , 0 .60 m t o t he s outh , a nd 0 .80 m t o t he west ( f ig . 1 1 .149 ) .

I t i s p oss ib le , b ut c an n o l onger b e

p roven , t hat t hese mortared b locks o r ig ina l ly e xtended u pward t o f orm a c as ing f or t he c oncrete c ore . A l ow , w ide , c oncrete p a rt it ion wa l l c urv ing ma rked ly t o t he e ast s eparates t he e astern t h ird o f t he P isc ina f ro m t he r est o f t he b as in a nd i t s water c hanne ls ( f ig . 1 1 .139 ) .

I t i s a pprox i mate ly 1 .35 m w ide a nd 1 .20 m h igh , t he i r regu lar b ut

r ough ly l eve l u pper s urface r i s ing t o w ith in 0 .05 m o f t he u pper e dges o f t he r ockc ut b as in wa l l a t i t s n orth a nd s outh e nds . T he west f ace o f t he wa l l a buts t he b as in wa l ls 1 0 .5 m west o f t he e ast b as in wa l l . T he h eav i ly e roded u pper p ort ion , b u i lt o f l arge , i r regu lar p ieces o f k u rka r r ubb le s et i n at h ick matr ix o f as andy wh ite morta r , was f ounded f or a t l east p a rt o f i t s c ourse o n ac urv ing b a se o f we l l-cut k urkar b locks . These b lock s a re e xposed where t he u pper p a rt h as f a l len away , i n p art icu lar f or a 1 .5 m s tretch a t i t s s outhern e nd a nd a g ap o f 4 .0 m a t t he c entre .

Th is c entra l g ap h a s t he a ppearance o f a n i ntent iona l o pen ing , s ince i t

o ccurs a t t he c entre o f t he p art it ion wa l l a nd h as a r egu la r l ower s urface f or med b y t he k urkar f oundat ion b locks . F urthermore , i tc onst itutes t he o n ly p oss ib le c onn ect ion b etween t he ma in b ody o f water i n t he t ank a nd t he p ort ion i so lated t o t he e ast b y t he wa l l . O r ig ina l ly , h owever , t he o pen ing may h ave b een much sma l ler a nd b een e n larged s ubsequent ly b y e ros ion : t here i s n ow n o e v idence f or s lu iceg ate s lots a t e ither e nd .

I t i s d iff icu lt t o s ay whether t h is wa l l b e longs t o t he

o r ig ina l c onstruct ion p er iod o f t he P isc ina , wa s a dded s oon a fterward , o r i sc ons ide rab ly

l ater

i n d ate .

I nterna l

p art it ion

wa l ls a re

c erta in ly

c haracter ist ic

o f

Ro man p isc inae ( see b e low ) , b ut i f i t were p a r t o f t he o r ig ina l p lan , o ne m ight e xpect i t t o h ave b een c ut i n t he b ed-rock . Th is w as n ot t he c ase w ith t he c entra l p ier , b ut t h is l atter f eature i s l ess p rom inent a nd h as t he a ppearance o f a n a fter-

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 63

t hought a dded t o a l low s ome embe l l ishment o f t he c o mp lex . T he a rch itect o f t he o r ig ina l p hase wou ld h ave k nown where h is p art it ion wa l ls were t o g o f rom t he s tart , i f t hey f ormed p a rt o f h is p lan f or t he t ank .

F urthermore , t he mortar u sed

f or t he p a rt it ion wa l l d oes n ot h ave t he c haracter ist ic g reen c o lour a nd f ine t ext ure f ound i n most Herod ian c oncrete a t S ebastos .

I t c erta in ly i s d ifferent i n

c haracter t han t he mortar f ound i n t he c entra l b ase . One metre e ast o f t he e ast e dge o f t he n orthwest s lu ice , as ing le c ourse o f f i ne ly-cut k urkar b locks 0 .75 m l ong p ro jects 2 .0 m i n to t he ma in b as in , p erpend icu la r t o t he n orth b as in wa l l .

I t n o l onger i s c lear whether t h is f eature i s i nten-

t i ona l a nd c onnected w ith t he o r ig ina l p hase o f c onstruct ion , o r l ater . I t s erves n o o bv ious f unct ion i n i t s p resent f orm a nd i sn ot b a lanced b y s im i lar wa l ls i n s ym met r ica l p os it ions e lsewhere i n t he P isc ina .

T he c o lu mn d rums t hat l i e s cattered o r

s tand u pr igh t a round t he b as in were n ot o r ig inal ly i n tended f or t h is a rea .

A c lus-

t er o f u pr igh t c o lumns m idway b etween t he t wo r ock-cut c hannel s s uperf ic ia l ly h as t he a ppearance o f t he r e ma ins o f a monop teros , b ut t he c o lu mn s d o n ot s tand o n b a ses , a nd t he ir p lacement i s i n f act i r regu lar ( f ig . 1 1 .148 ) .

The u pper e nds o f

s evera l o f t he c o lumns h ave b een e roded i n to s hapes t hat r esemb le weathered Cor inth ian c ap ita ls , r e inforc ing t he f a lse i mage o f as tructure . A t p resent t here i s ag ap o f 6 .7 m a t a pprox imate ly t he m idpo int o f t he s outh wa l l o f t he c entra l b as in , where t he b ed-rock e ither wa s l ack ing a t t he t ime o f c onstruct ion o r h a s s i nce b een e roded away b y t he a ct ion o f t he s ea .

T h is g ap n ow

i so ccup ied b y ah eap o f i r regu lar k urka r r ubb le t hat t he a ct ion o f t he waves h as p ushed n orthward t o o ccupy t he a d jacent p a rt o f t he b as in ( f ig . 1 1 .141) .

A lthough

t he s p il l o f r ubb le s ee ms t o b e r estr icted t o t h is a rea , t here a re n o v is ib le t races o f mortar o r c ut b lock s t o s uggest t ha t t h is r ubb le c onst itutes t he r e ma ins o f a f i l ler wa l l b u i lt a cross t he g ap a t t he o r ig ina l t ime o f c onstruct ion o r l ater . I t may s imp ly h ave b een g enerated b y t he d ecay o f t he b ed-rock f orm ing t he wa l l a t t h is p o int .

Certa in ly t he e dge o f t he r eef i s d eep ly i ndented h ere , a nd g reat p lates o f

k urkar l i e t ipped a t v ar ious a ng les . There a re t hree r ock-cut c ondu its o r s lu ices d es igned t o c ontro l t he c ircu lat i on o f water i n t he ma in P isc ina b as in : t wo ma in c hannels w ith med ia l h o ld ing t anks r unn ing d irect ly i n to t he s ea f ro m t he n orth a nd s outh wa l ls o f t he b as in 4 .5 m f ro m i t s west e nd , as ma l ler c hanne l c onnect ing t he h igh g round S E o f t he P isc ina w ith i t s s outh wa l l , j u st west o f t he i n ter ior d iv ider , a nd a s econd smal l c hann e l t hat g u ided water f rom t he c omp l icated s er ies o f c utt ings west o f t he b as in t o t he m idd le o f t he west b a s in wal l ( f ig . 1 1 .136 ) . The s outhea st c hanne l s t i l l i s p art ia l ly c overed w ith s and a nd r ubb le , b ut i t s g enera l c ourse a nd d es ign a re c lear . I t c uts t hrough t he s outh wa l l o f t he b as in 1 1 .8 m west o f t he s ou theast c orner , 0 .8 m west o f t he s outh e nd o f t he c urved p art it ion wa l l . A t t h is p o int i t i s 0 .47 m w ide a nd 0 .60 m d eep , w ith a smooth , s lop ing f loor t hat t erm inates 0 .80 m a bove t he f loor o f t he b as in , more o r l ess a t p resent MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .142 ) .

T here a re t wo p a irs o f g rooves f or s lu ice-gates 0 .40 m

a nd 2 .20 m s outh o f t he i n tersect ion w ith t he b a s in wa l l . T hese g rooves , l i ke t he c hanne l i t se lf , a re d amaged b y e ros ion , b ut t hey s eem t o h ave b een 0 . 10 m w ide a nd d eep , a nd t o h ave b een c ut f rom t he s urface o f t he b ed-rock t o ap o int 0 .20 m a bove t he c hanne l f l oor . F or i t s f i rst 3 .8 m t he c hanne l i s o r iented more o r l ess

1 64

A rea P

p erpend icu la r t o t he s outh b as in wa l l , b ut i t t hen makes a n a pprox imate ly 9 0 d egree t urn t o t he e ast a nd s lopes u pward g radua l ly u nt i l i t s c ourse i s l ost i n t he s and . Where i td isappears i n t he f i l l , t he b otto m o f t he c hanne l i s0 .85 m a bove t he b as in f loor .

A lthough i t wa s n ot p oss ib le t o e xcavate t he e nt ire c ourse o f t he

c hanne l , i t i s c lear f rom v is ib le c utt ings i n t he b ed-rock f urther t o t he e ast t hat , a t ap o int 1 4 m e ast o f t he f i rst b end , t he c hanne l made a s econd 9 0 d egree t urn a nd c arr ied o n t o t he s outh marg in o f t he p en insu la i n ad eep c utt ing e xcavated t h rough t he h igh ( 3 .0

m ) wa l l o f b ed-rock t hat s u rv ives a t t h is p o int ( 1 1 .143) .

J udg ing f r om t he p hotographs i n h is r eport ( 1986 : i l . 1 32 ) , N etzer d id n ot e xcav ate t h is c hanne l e ither , b ut h is p lan ( 1986 : 1 51) s hows t he s ame a rrangment . The w idth o f t he c hanne l i sa pprox i mate ly t he s ame h ere a s a t i t s i n tersect ion w ith t he b as in ( 0 .52 m ) , a nd i t s f loor i s a pprox i mate ly 1 . 10 m a bove t he l eve l o f t he b as in f loor , 0 .30 m a bove MSL .

T he d eep c utt ing o pens o ut t o t he s ea w ith smooth ,

s pread ing wal ls , f unne l ing ma jor waves i n to t he water c hanne l . The k urkar b edr ock h ere h as b een d eep ly u nderm ined b y t he waves , a nd a t o ne p o int 2 .0 m i n f rom t he t erm inat ion o f t he c hanne l a smooth r ounded h o le ( D 0 .50 m ) h a s b een e roded t h rough i t s f loor f rom b e low . T h is o pen ing n ow f unct ions a s ab lowho le , a nd t he o ften s pectacu la r s uck ing a nd b low ing e ffects c aused b y t he waves s eem t o h ave m is led F l inder ( 1985a : 1 74 ) i n to b e l iev ing t ha t t he h o le was c ut h ere i n tent iona l ly i n o rder t o e xtract water f ro m t he P isc ina b a s in . T here a re s evera l r eas ons t he c hanne l c ou ld n ot h ave s erved s uch a f unct ion , n ot l ea st o f a l l t hat i t s lopes d ownward f ro m t he h o le t o t he b as in . T h is c ondu it most l i ke ly was d es igned t o a ss ist c ircu lat ion o f water i n t he r ear o f t he b as in b y f unne l ing i n to i t water f rom t he waves t hat b reak v ery h a rd a ga inst t h is p o int o f t he p ro montory . N etzer a ssu mes t hat i t c arr ied f resh water i n to t he b as in f rom a n a queduct t o t he e ast ( see d iscuss ion b e low ) . The ma in e ntrances a nd e x its f or t he water i n t he b as in , h owever , were t he t wo c hanne ls c ut d own i nto t he b ed-rock we l l b e low s ea l eve l n ear t he west e nd o f t he b as in , p rov id ing d irect c onnect ions b etween t he b as in a nd t he s ea t o t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he p en insu la ( f igs . 1 1 .144-48 ) .

T he n orthwest c hanne l i s 1 0 .0 m l ong

f rom i t s i ntersect ion w ith t he b a s in t o t he r ough , u ntr im med e dge o f t he v is ib le k urkar b ed-rock , t he s outhwest i s 1 8 .0 m . The w est e dge o f e ach c hanne l i s4 .5 m e ast o f t he west b as in wa l l , a nd t he ir a rrange ment a ppears s y m metr ica l t o t he e ye . The n orthwest s lu ice , h owever , i s s l igh t ly w ider t han t he s outhwest , b e ing 1 .15 m a s o pposed t o 1 .0 m .

A lthough t he s urface o f t he r ock h as o n ly b een

r ough ly t r i m med , b oth c hannel s a re 1 .20 m d eep , t he ir smooth , r ough ly l eve l f loors a pprox i mate ly 0 .80 m b e low p resent MSL .

S eaward o f t he ir i n tersect ions w ith t he

b as in , b oth c hanne ls h ave s uffered f rom e ros ion a nd f ractur ing o f t he b ed-rock a nd a re p art ly e ncu mbered w ith f a l len k urkar b locks a nd r ubb le . The d ebr is i n t he n orthwest c hanne l h as b een f rozen i n p os it ion b y t he f ormat ion o f b each-rock a round i t . Neverthe less , t he g enera l a rrange ment c an b e d eterm ined . E ach c hanne l was i nterrupted 3 .75 m s eawa rd f ro m t he b as in b y al arge r ect angu lar t ank ( 2 .0 x 5 .7 m ) p os it ioned s ym metr ica l ly a cross t he l ong a x is o f t he c hanne ls .

The b lock ing wa l ls b u i lt o f l ong k urkar b lock s t hat a re s t i l l i n p os it ion i n

t he n orthern t ank , i n l i ne w ith t he c hanne l wa l ls , a pparent ly were d es igned t o s epa rate t he e ast a nd west t erm inat ions o f t h is i n termed iate t ank f rom t he c hanne l p roper ( f igs . 1 1 .144-45 ) . On ly t races o f s uch wa l ls r ema in i n s ide t he t ank i n t he

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions s outhern c hanne l ( f igs .

1 65

1 1 .146-47) , p robab ly b ecause o f t he g reater e xposure t o

wave a ct ion a nd t he a bsence o f b each-rock . I ts eems u n l ike ly t hat t hese b lock ing wa l ls were p art o f t he o r ig ina l d es ign , s ince t hey s ee m t o n egate t he f unct ion o f t he t anks .

They may h ave s ometh ing t o d o w ith t he r emova l o f s and f rom t he

i ncom ing water . t o t he west .

S eawa rd o f t he t anks t he l ong a x is o f e ach c hanne l s h ifts 0 .25 m

T here may h ave b een a s econd r ock-cut t ank a pprox imate ly 4 .0 m

s qua re i n t he s outhwest c hanne l , e xtend ing e a st o f t he c hanne l wa l l , 6 .0 m s outh o f t he f i rst t ank , b ut t here h a s b een s o much d amage a t t h is p o int t hrough e ros ion a nd f ractur ing t hat

i t i s d iff icu lt

t o b e c erta in .

A lthough b oth c hanne ls

a re

o bstructed w ith d ebr is , t hey s eem t o h ave c ons istent ly h or izonta l f loors a long t he ir e nt ire l eng th , l eve l w ith t he f loor o f t he P isc ina . A s ar esu lt o f t he e ros ion o r c o l lapse o f t he c hanne l wa l ls , i t i s n ow d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t he l ocat ion o f a l l t he s lu ice-gates t hat o nce i n terrupted t hem . B ecause o f i t s l ocat ion , s he ltered f rom t he p reva i l ing s outhwest s eas , t he n orthe rnwest c hanne l i s b etter p reserved . Here , h owever , o n ly t hree p a irs o f s lu iceg ate s lots c an b e s een : a l o f t hem 1 1 .144-45 ) .

s eawa rd o f t he

i n termed iate

t ank

( f ig s .

They a re 0 .20 m w ide a nd d isappear i n t he e ros ion n otch a t p resent

s ea l eve l o r i n t he c oncreted d ebr is o f t he c hanne l . U nfortunate ly , t he c ond it ion o f t he c hanne l wa l ls b etween t he c entra l b as in a nd t he i n termed iate b as in i s t oo d eg raded t o h ave p reserved t races o f s l u ice-gate s lots . T races o f what may h ave b een t wo p a irs o f s uch s lots c an , h owever , b e s een a long t he c ourse o f t he s outhwest c hanne l , b etween i t s i n termed iate t ank a nd i n tersect ion w ith t he c entra l b as in . No c lear t races r ema in s eaward o f t he t ank .

I ts eems l i ke ly t hat t he i nter-

med iate t ank i n e ach o f t he ma in c hanne ls was b racketed b y s lu ice-gates . T he c utt ings a nd s tructura l r e ma ins i n t he l arge l eve l led a rea west o f t he ma in P isc ina b as in a re v ery c o mp l icated a nd d isturbed ( f igs . 1 1 .136 , 1 51) .

I n s u m-

mary , t here a re t h ree l ong , n arrow , a nd d eep r ock-cut t anks c onnected t o e ach o ther a t t he ir e astern e nds b y as ha l low c hanne l t hat l eads i n t urn t o t he west e nd o f t he c entra l b a s in . T he t h ree t anks o r r eservo irs , o r iented i n a n E -W d irect ion , a re p a ra l le l , more o r l ess t he s ame s ize , a nd t erm inate 1 4 m west o f t he ma in P isc ina b as in . The n orthern t ank i s 1 2 .10 x 1 .85 m , t he c entra l t ank 1 2 .95 x 1 .49 m , a nd t he s outhern t ank 1 2 .50 x 1 .85 m .

A l l t hree t anks a re t o ag reater o r l esser

d eg ree f i l led w ith b each-rock t hat h as s o l id if ied a round t u mb led k urkar b lock s a nd r ubb le a nd o ccas iona l ly i ncorporates f ragments o f p ottery ( a l l o f wh ich a ppear t o b e u nd ifferent iated amphora b ody s herds ) . T he s outhern t ank ( f ig .

1 1 .152 ) , wh ich

i s t he l east e ncumbered , i sp resent ly 1 .30 m d eep a long i t s n orthern e dge , h o ld ing water t o ad epth o f 1 .15 m . I f t h is i s i n f act t he o r ig ina l f loor , i t i s a t a pprox imate ly t he s ame l eve l a s t he f loor o f t he ma in P isc ina b a s in . A lthough t he s i tuat ion a t t he e astern e nd o f t he t h ree t anks i s c onfused a s a r esu lt o f t he d epos it ion o f b each-rock a nd t he c utt ing o f b edd ing t renches f or c ourses o f k urkar b locks , i t c an b e s een t hat a s ha l low N -S r ock-cut c hanne l c onn ected a l l t hree ( f ig . 1 1 .153 ) .

T he e a st e nd o f t he n orthern t ank n arrows a t o ne

p o int t o t ake o n ac ruc iform s hape .

A l ong , s ha l low c ondu it ( W c a . 0 .35 m , c a .

0 .40 m d eep ) c onnects t he c entre o f t h is t ransverse c hanne l w ith t he c entre o f t he west wa l l o f t he ma in P isc ina b as in , 1 4 m t o t he e a st . S o me p a rts o f t h is c ondu it h ave b een q uarr ied away a nd o thers f i l led i n tent iona l ly w ith k urkar b locks , b ut i t s ee ms t o h ave b een i n terrupted a t i t s m idpo int b y as ha l low t ank c a . 2 .0 m s quare .

1 66

I I .N: A rea P

T here a re t wo p a irs o f s lu ice-gate s lots 0 .05 m w ide b etween t he w est e nd o f t he c ondu it a nd t h is c entra l t ank , a nd t wo f urther p a irs i n t he l ast 1 . 5 m b efore i t e nters t he ma in P isc ina b a s in . A t i t s i n tersect ion w ith t he west P isc ina wa l l , t he f loor o f t he c hanne l i s 0 .86 m a bove t he b as in f loor , more o r l ess a t p resent MSL . A b ranch o f t he s ame d i mens ions a s t he ma in c hanne l l eaves i t 1 .5 m west o f t he b as in wa l l a nd c urves a round t o t he s outh t o e nter t he b as in 3 .0 m s outh o f t he o ther c hanne l ( f ig . 1 1 .150) .

T here i s a nother p a ir o f s lu ice-gate s lots i n t h is s ub-

s id iary c hanne l , j ust a fter i t s d ev iat ion f rom t he ma in c hanne l . West o f t he t h ree r eservo irs , as ha l low N -S c utt ing 2 .0 m w ide r uns f or 1 8 m s outh f ro m a p o int more o r l ess e ven w ith t he c entre l i ne o f t he c entra l r eservo ir . I td oes n ot a ppear t o b e c onnected w ith a ny o f t he r eservo irs a nd may i n f act h ave s erved a s t he b edd ing t rench f or a masonry w a l l .

A n umber o f s hort E -W a nd N -S

s tretches o f s uch wa l ls s t i l l s urv ive i n t h is a rea , p art icu lar ly t he s ect ion SW o f t he ma in P isc ina b as in .

T hese f oundat ion t renches a nd t he wa lls t hey s upported b ear

n o o bv ious r e lat ion t o t he f unct ion o f t he P isc ina , a nd f or t he most p a rt t hey s ee m t o i gnore o r i nterfere w ith i t s c hanne ls , c ondu its , a nd r eservo irs . T hey a lso b ear n o r e lat ion i n mater ia ls o r s tructure t o what i sp robab ly a f ragment o f t he Byzant ine c ity wa l l , t he t a l l , i r regu lar ma ss o f morta red r ubb le a long t he s ou th e dge o f t he p ro montory ( f ig . 1 1 .141 ) .

Another f eature a ppa rent ly u nre lated t o t he P isc ina i sa

sma l l t ank ( 3 x3m , 1 .9 m d eep ) c ut i n t he r ock a t t he v ery n orthwest c orner o f t he p en insu la . A v ery s ha l low , i r regu la r c hanne l e xtend s f or 4 .0 m t o t he s outh , b ut t he p resent p rof i le o f t he b ed-rock makes i t u n l ike ly t hat i t e ver c onnected w ith t he r est o f t he c omp lex .

T h is t ank r esemb les t he s imp le , s ha l low r ock-cut

t anks t hat c an b e f ound a l l a long t he c oa st o f t he L evant , i nc lud ing s evera l j ust t o t he s outh o f S ebastos i n t he k urkar r eefs i n f ront o f K ibbutz S edot Y am ( Sect ion I V .D ) .

S ince t hey d o n ot h ave a ny mechan ism f or c ontro l l ing t he f l ow o f s ea-

water , t hey may h ave s erved a s t e mporary h o ld ing t anks f or l i ve f i sh , o r f or s ome i ndustr ia l p rocess s uch a s t he p roduct ion o f p u rp le d ye o r t he f in ish ing o f c loth . The western most man-made f eature o f t he P isc ina p ro montory i s al ong , s ha ll ow c utt ing - p erhaps a ga in a b edd ing t rench f or a n ow-van ished wa l l - t hat f orms a g ent le westwa rd a re b etween t he s outh e nd o f t he b edd ing t rench west o f t he t hree r eservo irs a nd t he n orth s ide o f t he p en insu la ( f ig . 1 1 .154 ) . T he n orthern e nd o f t h is f eature h a s b een l ost t o e ros ion . S eawa rd o f t h is c utt ing t he k urkar b ed-rock i s f ractured a nd p itted w ith p otho les a nd t erm inates i n a n

i r regu lar

f r inge o f V ermetus c o lon ies b efore f a l l ing o ff s teep ly t o t he s andy s ea-botto m . P re l im inary Ana lys is .

Netzer , who e xcavated t he f i l l t o t he e ast o f t he P is-

c ina , p roposes t hat t he s tructures f ound t here , a long w ith t he c entra l t ank , were a l l p a rt o f t he p a lace o f Herod d escr ibed b y J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .331) ( Lev ine & N etz er 1 986 : 1 76-82) . E ast o f t he P isc ina h e f ound a l arge , mosa ic-paved c hamber o r ie nted a round i t s c entra l a x is , f l anked o n e ither s ide b y t wo s y m metr ica l ly d isposed c hambers .

F ro m a n e xam inat ion o f t he t races o f c utt ings a nd wa l ls a round t he

c entra l P isc ina t ank , h e r econstructs a p aved c ourt a t a n e levat ion o f 1 .4 m a bove MSL , ac o lonnade o f 1 8 b y 1 1 c o lumns s urround ing t he t ank , a nd p oss ib ly f l ower b oxes p laced a bove t he s er ies o f r ectangu la r c utt ings b etween t he c o lu mns . T here was a sma l l , s ha l low p oo l ( 1 .3 m o n as ide ) a t t he o pen , f ront e dge o f t he c entra l c hamber o n t he e a st , o n t he c entra l l i ne o f t he P isc ina t ank , b ut , s trange ly , N etz er makes n o ment ion o f t he p ier a t t he c entre o f t he p oo l . B ecause o f t he p res-

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 67

e nee o f t races o f g rey a sh-andl ime p laster o n t he wa l l o f t he P isc ina t ank a t i t s n orthea st c orner ( not o bserved b y t he CAHEP s urvey ) , Netzer b e l ieves t hat t he p oo l was d es igned t o b e f iled w ith f resh water f or b ath ing . Accord ing t o h is i nterp retat ion , t he water w ou ld h ave b een s upp l ied b y a n a queduct t hough t he c ondu it i n t he s outhea st c orner o f t he c omp lex . H e r egards t he s teps , c urved wa l l , a nd n orth a nd s outh c hannel s a s a dd it ions o f t he l ate s ixth o r e ar ly s eventh c entury . The s uggest ion t hat t he P isc ina c omp lex was p art o f t he p a lace o f Herod i s q u ite r easonab le , a nd i n my o p in ion c orrect . I t d oes , h owever , s eem much more l i ke ly t hat t he p oo l i t se lf was f rom t he s ta rt i n tended t o b e ap isc ina i n t he Ro man s ense o f t he word : as a l t-water t ank i n tended f or t he r a is ing o r h o ld ing o f c o mmerc ia l ly v a luab le o r e xot ic v a r iet ies o f f i sh , b oth f or o stentat ion a nd f or c ons umpt ion i n t he p a lace . T he n orth a nd s outh c hanne ls a re n ot s o d ifferent f ro m t he r est o f t he s tructure t hat t hey mu st b e l a ter , a nd t here i s n o r eason t o a ssume t hat t he s outheast c ondu it must h ave c arr ied f resh water .

I n a ny c ase , i t i s d iff i-

c u lt t o i mag ine why a s w imm ing p oo l wou ld h ave b een l im ited t o a water d epth o f l ess t han 1 m .

T he p resence o f ap laster l i n ing o ver t he p orous k urka r b ed-rock

c an h ave b een i ntended a s much f or a ppearance a s f or s egregat ion o f s a lt a nd f resh water , a nd i t may h ave b een n ecessary t o k eep t he p orous k urkar t ank f i l led d ur ing t imes o f a bnorma l ly l ow t ides .

I n a ny e ase , t he s tucco l i n ing wou ld h ave

h e lped t he c lean ing a nd ma intenance o f as a lt-water t ank a nd a l lowed b etter c ont ro l o f c ircu lat ion b y c hanne l ing a l i n take a nd o utf low t hrough t he n orth a nd s outh c hannel s . F ina l ly , f i sh t anks o f t h is t ype i n s p lend id s ea-s ide p a laces a re v ery much a p art o f t he L ate Repub l ican t rad it ion o f v i l lae mar it imae i n I ta ly . T hey a re a luded t o b y n u merous Roman a uthors a nd d escr ibed i n s o me d eta i l b y V a rro ( R 3 .17 .2-9 ; f or c o l lect ions o f a nc ient s ources , s ee L afaye 1 916 , S chne ider 1 950 , Ooteghem 1 968 ) .

T he owners who were s o d evoted t o t he m a nd l av ished s o

much money o n t he ir p reparat ion a nd ma intenance c ame t o b e c a l led p isc inar i i , a nd were t he s ub ject o f i nnumerab le j i bes a nd a necdotes ( s ee C icero , A tt 1 .19 .6 , 2 0 .3 ; a nd Varro / oc .c it . ) .

T he d es ign a nd f unct ion o f t he P isc ina , a nd i t s p lace i n

I t a l ian a nd e a stern Med iterranean v ila a rch itecture w il l b e d iscussed i n V o lu me I V . [ J .P .0 . ]

IMO . Area Q : P romontory a nd S ou th S ide o fI ntermed ia te B as in . A rea Q was t he t erm u sed b y CAHEP t o d es ignate t he western h a lf o f t he p romontory t hat s erved i n a nt iqu ity a s t he b a se o f t he Herod ian S outhern B reakwater , j ust west o f t he s i te o f t he C rusader Ha rbour C itade l ( Sect ion U M ( f igs . I I .1 , 1 20 ) . A t p resent , t he p romontory p rotrudes f rom t he g enera l l i ne o f t he s hore f or o ver 2 00 m t oward t he WN W . I t i s a bout 3 0 m w ide o n t he a verage . L ater s truct ures a nd t he p avements wh ich n ow c over most o f i t s s urface d isgu ise t he o r ig ina l b ed-rock a nd make i t d i ff icu lt t o d eterm ine whether i t c ont inues a long t he e nt ire l ength o f t he p ro montory . A t t h is moment , t he b ed-rock i s e xposed o n ly a s f ar e ast a s t he west s ide o f t he t u mb l ing r ema ins o f t he c entra l s tructure o f t he C rus ader C itade l ( f ig . 1 1 .120 ) , s ome 9 0 m e ast o f t he p resent t i p . A t t h is p o int s ome

1 68

1 1 .0 : A rea Q

r ocky o utcrops p ro ject we l l a bove t he modern p avement . Most o f t he b ed-rock was r emoved b y t he C rusaders , t hen b y I s rae l is i n 1 949-1961 . C lear ing i n 1 987 west o f t he C itade l e xposed t he h ighest l eve led s urface o f t he b ed-rock a t a bout 1 .6 m a bove MSL a long most o f t he n orthern e dge o f t he modern b reakwater , b etween t he C itade l a nd t he t i p o f t he p romontory . T h is s urf ace i ss et b ack 3 -4 m f rom t he p resent n orthern e dge o f t he p ro montory , where i t i so ut l ined b y C rusader a nd modern s tone wa l ls ( f ig . 1 1 .158 ) . T o t he s outh , t here i s n ow a w ide p latform o f c oncrete l a id i n 1 951 t hat c overs a l l e ar l ier f eatures .

The

p lan o f t h is a rea made b y t he s urveyors o f t he B r it ish Pa lest ine E xp lorat ion F und i n 1 872 s hows a c onf igurat ion much l i ke t hat o f t oday , w ith p resumed b ed-rock c overed b y C rusader f loors a nd s ea-wa l ls ( see Conder & K itchener 1 882 : 1 6 ; S chumacher 1 888 :

1 32 ; S ch i ler 1 981 , c over f ig . , f igs . o n p p . 3 , 4 7 , 5 5 , 5 7 , 7 1 ) .

I t i s

p oss ib le t hat t he . base o f t he p ro montory wa s f ormed n ot b y b ed-rock b ut b y ak ind o f t o mbo /o .

R ecent t renches t hat were made b y t he Caesarea Deve lopment Co .

a long t he e a stern h a lf o f t he p romontory t o l ay d ra ins a nd e lectr ic c ab les d id n ot r each b ed-rock a bove p resent MSL .

CAHEP 's e xcavat ion i n 1 982 s howed t hat t he

C rusader moat s eparat ing t he h arbour C itade l f rom t he r est o f t he t own was n ot c ut i n b ed-rock - a t l east a s f ar d own a s p resent MSL ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 3 02-4 ;

S ect ion I I .L ) . A lthough e xtens ive

C rusader a nd

modern b u i ld ing a ct iv it ies

h ave n o t

l eft

much o f t he e ar l ier man-made o r e ven n atura l f eatures , t wo l oca t ions o n t he western most p art o f t he p romontory s eem s t il l t o b ear s ome t races o f o lder s truct ures . B oth were o bserved a nd s urveyed d ur ing t he CMS 1 976 s ess ion ( see S ect ion 1 .B .3 ; Raban e t a l . 1 976 : 3 0-31 , 3 4-35 ) .

D ur ing t he 1 982 s ea son t he a rch itects o f

CAHEP c arr ied o ut a s ystemat ic s urvey o f t he p romon tory a nd p repared a d eta i led map a nd s er ies o f p lan s o f a l l t he C rusader a nd o ther e a r ly s tructures ( f ig . 1 1 .122) . I n t he c ourse o f t hat s urvey t he r ock-cut f l ush ing c hanne l wa s r edrawn a nd s tudi ed .

The western s ide o f t h is c hanne l h as b een p a rt ia l ly d estroyed , p robab ly d ur ing

p reparat ion f or t he c onstruct ion o f t he n ew mo le i n 1 949 .

Dur ing t hat a ct iv ity , a

modern s tone wa l l wa s b u i lt a cross i t s n orthern s ect ion a nd c e ment p av ing l a id o ver t he e ar l ier f eatures b eyond i t . A t p resent , o n ly t he s outhern 4 m o f t he c hanne l a re v is ib le ( f igs . 1 1 .155-56) . I th as a w idth o f a bout 1 m a nd was c ut d own i n to a b ed-rock p ro ject ion , t he u pper s urface o f wh ich s tand s a t 3 .2 m a bove MSL . T he p resent f loor o f t he c hanne l l i es j ust b e low t he a bras ive s he lf , b ut c ons ider ing t he e xtens ive b iogen ic i ncrustat ion o n s uch a s he lf , i t i s h ard t o d eterm ine p rec ise ly t he o r ig ina l e levat ion .

T here a re

p a irs o f v ert ica l g rooves c ut i n to t he s ides o f t he c hanne l . T he f i rst p a ir , wh ich o ccurs a bout 2 m n orth o f i t s s eaward o pen ing , i sp reserved o n b oth s ides ; t he s eco nd i sf a rther a long t he e a stern s ide 1 .4 m n orth ( the west s ide i s m iss ing ) .

A l l t he

g rooves a re p reserved t o ah e ight j ust s hort o f 2m a bove t he b a se o f t he c hanne l , a nd , a lthough p art ia l ly f i l led i n b y mar ine i ncrusta t ion a t t he ir b ase , t hey s ee m t o c ont inue d own t o t he f loor o f t he c hanne l a t a bout 0 .05 m b e low p resent MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .157 ) . These g rooves were u ndoubted ly d es igned f or t he i n sert ion o f s lu ice-gates d es igned t o c ontro l t he f low o f water i n to t he c hanne l . S uch a d ev ice i s we l l k nown a l l o ver t he Med iterranean f rom a t l east t he e ar ly R o man p er iod , a nd i t was v ery c o m mon whenever a c ontro l led i n f low wa s n eeded f or t he c ircu lat ion o f water i n p isc inae ( s ee S chm iedt 1 972 ) o r h arbour i n sta l lat ions ( B lack man 1 973 :

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions 1 77 ; 1 982 :

1 69

1 99-202 ; P o idebard & L auffray 1 951 : 3 1-32 ) . I n o rder t o d eterm ine

wh ich o f t hese t wo f unct ion s t h is c hanne l m ight h ave b een b u i lt f or , t he waterl i ne a long t he o ther s ide o f t he p ro montory was e xam ined f or a n o pen ing i n to t he h arbour b as in . U nfortunate ly , t h is s ide i sn ow c overed b y l ate s tructures , i nc lud ing t he c ont inuous b ase o f aC rusader s ea-wa l l . I n o ne p lace , h owever , t here i s ag ap i n t he p latform u nder ly ing t h is wa l l t hat s eems more o r l ess i n l i ne w ith t he g ene ra l c ourse o f t he c hanne l . I f i n f act t here e x isted a c hanne l w ith a n o vera l l l ength o f a bout 4 0 m a cross t he s te m o f t he b reakwater , i t wou ld most l i ke ly h ave b een f ash ioned a s af lush ing d ev ice f or k eep ing t he h arbour f ree o f s i lt . T he o ther k nown a lternat ive - t hat o f ap isc ine - i sl ess l i ke ly f or s evera l r ea sons . F irst , i fs uch a p isc ine h ad b een b u i lt wh i le t he Herod ian h arbour was s t i l l e ven p art ia l ly f unct ion ing , i t s s i t ing wou ld h ave h a mpered t he movement o f g oods a long t he I nner Quay .

S econd , f or a l ater

s tage o f t he Roman a nd B yzant ine e ra , t here i s al arge p isc ine e lsewhere , o n t he n ext p romontory t o t he s outh ( see S ect ion I I .N ) .

F ina l ly , n o r ock-cut t ank i s i nd i-

c ated o n t he p romontory i n e ar ly i lustrat ions , a nd n oth ing was f ound d ur ing t he 1 987 e xcavat ions i n A rea M4 . Consequent ly , t he most l i ke ly f unct ion o f t h is c ross c hanne l i s f or f l ush ing t he h arbour o f wave-ca rr ied s and a nd s i lt b y t rapp ing e nough s urp lus water w ith in i tt o p erm it a c ont inuous ly o utf low ing c urrent t hrough i t s e ntrance .

I n t h is a rrangement , t he s lu ice-gates wou ld h ave t o h ave b een o per-

a ted t o k eep o ut wave-ca rr ied s and , y et a l low a c ont inuous f low e ven d ur ing c a lm s ea c ond it ions a t l ow t ide . F or s uch a n o perat ion t he b ase o f t he c hanne l s hou ld h ave b een j ust a bove t he l ow-t ide l eve l .

F o l low ing t h is l og ic , t he s ea a t t he t ime

t he c hanne l was made h ad t o b e a bout 0 .10-0 .15 m a bove p resent MSL .

S uch a f ig-

u re f i ts t he e levat ion o f t he f auna l r ema ins a nd t he a bras ive n otch o n t he f ace o f t he q uay i n Area I i ( s ee S ect ion I I .H .1) . Th is c ircumstant ia l e v idence a dvocates g iv ing t he c hanne l t he s ame d ate a s t he I nner Quay a t i t s l ater p hase o f u se .

S ince t h is c hanne l a lone wou ld h ave b een

f a r f ro m s uff ic ient t o s upp ly t he q uant it ies o f water n eeded t o k eep s uch a v ast b as in f ree o f s i lt , more c hanne ls must h ave e x isted .

The s i t ing o f t he s urv iv ing

c hanne l i s s u itab le f or t he c apture o f s i lt-free waves . S ince i t f aces a p art o f t he c oa st wh ich i s o n t he l ee o f t he l i ne o f b reakers d ur ing s tormy s ea s a nd w ith a s ha l low r ocky b ottom , t he waves r each ing t he c hanne l i n let wou ld a lready h ave d ropped most o f t he ir b urden o f s o l id p a rt ic les . F or t hat r eason o ther c hanne ls m ight h ave b een l ocated o n t h is p art o f t he S outhern B reakwater . One s uch c hanne l m ight h ave e x isted a t t he s outhwest c orner o f t he ma in b u i ld ing o f t he C rusader C itade l , j ust e ast o f t he h igh r ocky o utcrop . There a " tunn e l" wa s f ound d ur ing a s urvey made b y t he I s rae l i Navy i n 1 949 , l ead ing f rom t he s ea u nderneath t he C rusader wa l ls . A t h ird f lush ing c hanne l m ight h ave p re-dated t he C rusader moat o n t he e a stern s ide o f t he C itade l . T hese p roposed a dd it iona l c hannel s m ight h ave b een e ven w ider t han t he o ne a t t he western t ip o f t he p romontory . B e ing f arther t o t he l ee o f t he b reakers , i t wou ld h ave b een e a s ier t o c ontro l t he ir i ntake a nd t o k eep s and f rom e nter ing w ith t he water . The n orthern e dge o f t he p ro montory r eta ins b etter-preserved f eatu res , t he most p rom inent o f wh ich i s as egment o f a bra s ive s he lf w ith a s tra ight e dge t hat r uns f or a bout 2 0 m a long t he b ase o f t he modern p aved r oad , b ut 2 m f arther

/ 70

1 1 .0 : Area Q

n orth ( f ig . 1 1 .158 ) . The r egu lar s hape o f t h is s he lf i nd icates i t s man-made o r ig in , a c haracter t hat b eco mes a ppa rent when v iew ing i t s s urface c arefu l ly . U nder t he c oat ing o f mar ine i ncrustat ions t he l i nes s eparat ing i nd iv idua l a sh lar b locks o f k urkar a re

c lear ly

v is ib le

( f ig .

1 1 .159 ) .

T hese

a re

u sua l ly

l ong ,

s l im

h eaders

( 1 .3-1 .5 x 0 .4-0 .5 x 0 .55-0 .60 m ) . T oward t he e astern s ide o f t h is p la tform t he h eaders b eco me s horter , a nd a s econd c ourse i sv i s ib le b eh ind t he m . On t op o f t h is s econd c ourse a re r emnants o f a wa l l wh ich f aced n orth , t oward t he h arbour B as in . Th is wa l l was b u i lt o f r eused R oman c o lu mns i n ter la id w ith sma l l a sh lar b locks b ound i n h eavy

morta r . T he

mortar s eems

b eneath , a nd i t c an b e d ist ingu ished f rom

t o c over t he l ee o f i t a nd f rom

t he p latform

t he c oat ing o f ma r ine

i ncrustat ion b y t he sma l l p ieces o f r ubb le i ncorporated i n to i t . About 5 m f rom t he e astern e nd o f t he p latform , t he c app ing wa l l s ee ms t o b e h e ld u p b y a n o utcropp ing o f b ed-rock wh ich was l eve led i n a nt iqu ity t o a bout 1 .2 m a bove t he p resent MSL . On t op o f t he r emnants o f t h is wa l l t here i s modern f i l l , ar eta in ing wa l l , a nd t he c ement p ave ment o f t he q uay t hat was b u i lt i n 1 961 . T he c onstruct ion t echn ique o f t he wa l l wh ich i s a bove t he a bras ive p latform a nd b e low t he modern p avi ng matches t he n orth wa l l o f t he C rusader C itade l . The c omb inat ion o f r eused R o man c o lu mns a lternat ing w ith a sh la r b lock s i s c haracter ist ic o f a l l t he b asement c ourses o f wal ls a nd t owers a l l o ver t he c omp lex o f t he C rusader C itade l ( e .g . f ig . 1 1 .125 ) . Th is wa l l s eems t o h ave b een l a id i n as ha l low f oundat ion t rench t hat was q uarr ied o r p repa red b y c lea r ing s ome o f t he s labs o ff t he e a r l ier , u nderl y ing p latform . Dur ing t he 1 976 s urvey , t he CMS s urveyors made a n u nderwater p robe a t t he b ase o f t h is p latform , 1 2 m e a st o f i t s western e nd ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 3 4-35) .

Dur ing t he CMS workshop i n 1 980 , an ew t rench wa s d ug i n t he s ea-bottom a t t he s ame s i te w ith a d redge . T h is e xcavat ion e xposed t he f eatures a t t he b ase o f t he p latform d own t o a d epth o f 2 .3 m b e low MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .160 ) .

Th ree c ou rses o f

h eaders were o bserved . T he t op o ne c onst itutes t he p latform 's p resent s urface a nd l ooks a s i fs ome 0 .05-0 .10 m o f i t s o r ig ina l h e ight h as b een worn o ff o ver t he c ent ur ies . The s econd o ne i s l ess worn o n i t s v ert ica l f ace , wh ich n ow p rotrudes 0 .2-0 .3 m b eyond t he t op o ne . T h is c ourse i sj ust o ver 0 .6 m h igh . T he t h ird c ourse was f ound t o b e e xceed ing ly w orn a t i t s b ase , l eav ing a r ecess a bout 1 .3 m d eep . Th is r ecess wa s f i l led w ith wave-carr ied p ebb les , sma l l p ieces o f r ubb le , s and , b ad ly-worn p otsherds , a nd s ome f ragments o f modern b ott les . The v ert ica l s urface a t t he d eep e nd o f t he h o l low s ee med t o t he s urveyors t o b e c omposed o f c oncrete r ather t han k urkar . Dur ing t he 1 983 CAHEP s eason , t he p latform i n A rea Q was s tud ied a ga in i n a n a tte mpt t o f ind o ut h ow t h is p latform was b u i lt , a nd whether i t m igh t b e c ons idered p a rt o f t he I nner Quay o f t he S outhern B reakwater o f t he Herod ian h arb our . The s i te s e lected f or t he t r ia l t rench wa s n ext t o t he west e nd o f t he p latf orm , where t he p resent water d ep th s uggested t hat i t wou ld b e e as ier t o e xpose t he f oundat ion o f t he s tructure .

I ts oon b ecame a pparent t hat t he s ea-bo tto m was

c overed b y ah eavy d epos it ion o f g rave l t hat h ad b een d umped when t he n ew q uay was b u i lt i n 1 954 . T he e xcavat ion was s lowed b y t he n eed t o r emove t he g rave l manua l ly a s uff ic ient d istance f rom t he t rench . I n a dd it ion , t he r ough s ea s t irred

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 71

u p a h eavy s urge a nd r educed v is ib i l ity a lmost t o z ero , e ven a t t h is s he ltered p o int . The t rench r eached a max i mum d epth o f 3 .8 m b e low MSL w ithout e xpos ing t he a ctua l b a se o f t he s tructure ( f ig . 1 1 .160 ) . B e low t he p av ing c ou rse o f t he p latf orm a s econd o ne , made o f l arge a sh la r h eader b locks , wa s e xposed . B eneath t h is c ourse , a t ad epth o f 1 .3 m o f wa ter , wa s t he u pper s urface o f at h ird o ne . Th is l ower c ourse was f ound t o b e b oth e xceed ing ly worn a nd c e mented b y mar ine i ncrustat ion .

F ol low ing i t s c oncave f ace , t he e xcavat ion e ntered t he s ame t ype o f

o verhang ing h o l low a s i n t he 1 980 p robe . Yet t h is h o l low s ee med t o b e h igher , a s i f most o f t he b otto m c ourse o f h eaders was m iss ing . Two b locks t hat were f ound i n t he f i l l a t ag reater d epth m ight h ave f a l len f rom t hat c ourse . The i nner f ace o f t he r ecess i s c omposed o f as ubstance t hat r esemb les t he c oncrete o f wh ich t he T owers i n A reas G a nd K a re made ( Sect ion s I I .F , J ) .

The

s ed i ments b e low t he modern d ump o f g rave l c ons isted o f c lean s and w ith s ome wave-carr ied a nc ient a nd modern a rt ifacts a nd s ea-she l ls , d own t o ad epth o f 3 .2 m b e low MSL . S t i l l d eeper , t he r ecessed h o l low was f ound t o b e f iled w ith smal l p ieces o f r ubb le , d ark g rey s and m ixed w ith c lay , a nd v ar ious p a rt ic les o f v o lcan ic a sh a nd t ufa , p oss ib ly t he d ecomposed r ema ins o f ac oncrete b lock . A t t he b otto m o f t he t rench , t he r ecess b ecame s ha l lower , a s i f b e low t hat d epth t he c oncrete b lock i s l ess worn a nd b etter p reserved . A lthough t he d ata f rom b oth t he 1 980 a nd 1 983 t renches c orrespond r ather we l l , i t i s s t il l n ot c lear i f t hese were t he s ame t h ree c ourses o f h eaders i n b oth s i tes , o r what i s t he e xact e levat ion o f t he t op o f t he c oncrete b lock , o r where t he b ed-rock b eg ins , o r what t he d epth i so f t he s eaf l oor a t t he t ime t he s tructure was b u i lt . There a re s evera l o ther i s sues t o wh ich t he d ata s o f ar e xtracted f ro m A rea Q h ave c ontr ibuted . T he r ectangu lar a bras ive p latform a long t he western 2 0 m o f t he n orth e dge o f t he p ro montory i s p a rt o f a man-made mar ine s tructure t hat p re-dates t he C rusader p er iod . T h is s tructure m ight b e ar e mnant o f t he I nner Quay o f t he Herod ian S outhern B reakwater . I f t h is i st he e a se , i t e xp la ins t he f act t hat i t s c ont inuat ion c ou ld n ot b e t raced f arther west , i n A rea N ( Sect ion I I .M ) . A s f ar a s c an b e l earned f rom t he A rea Q d ata , t h is q uay wa s b u ilt o f t wo t o t hree a sh lar h eaders t opp ing a s ubstructure made o f c oncrete b locks . P reservat ion o f t hese t opp ing a sh la rs b y t he C rusaders f or u se a s ab ase f or t he ir s ea-wa l l p art i a l ly p reserved t he Herod ian f oundat ion b eneath t he m , wh i le i n A rea N r obb ing o f t hese t opp ing b locks may h ave c aused t he l oss o f t he r est o f t he wa l l . A lthough t he b ed-rock i s v is ib le o n ly a t o ne p o int n ext t o t he p latform , i t i s p oss ib le t hat i ts erved a s t he f oundat ion f or much o f t h is s ect ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

T he man-made f ea tures wou ld h ave f unct ioned o n ly a s a dd it iona l f i l l

t o b u i ld a n e ven p latform w ith t he b readth a nd e levat ion n ecessary t o ma tch t he d e mands o f t he g enera l l ayout o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

Th is e astern b a se

b u i lt o n b ed-rock wou ld h ave c onf ined t he I ntermed iate B as in o f t he h a rbour , a nd i t s c ont inuat ion b eyond t he a l leged a dd it iona l p ier ( Area F ) wou ld h ave c onf ined t he e xterna l , Ma in Harbour B as in . I f t h is i s ac orrect r econstruct ion , s ome a rch it ectura l a nd t echn ica l d i fferences m ight b e a nt ic ipa ted i n r egard t o t he c onstruct i on o f t he t wo u n its .

1 72

1 1 .0 : A rea Q A lthough i t i s p oss ib le t hat t he a rt if ic ia l p latform i n A rea Q was a dded i n

s ome l ater s tage , a fter t he c o mp let ion o f t he Herod ian h arbour , a nd a l though t here a re n o means f or d at ing i td irect ly , t here a re n o o ther r easonab le p er iods f or i t s c onstruct ion .

I t i sh igh ly i mprobab le t hat v o lcan ic a sh a nd t ufa were i mported

f or u se i n c oncrete i n t he p ost-Herod ian p er iod . B oth t he d e l ineat ion o f t he p latf orm 's e dge a nd i t s b u i ld ing s ty le f i t i n w ith Herod ian s tructures e lsewhere w ith in t he h arbour c omp lex . I t i s o bv ious t hat t he p resent s urface o f t he p latform i s n ot t he o r ig ina l o ne . S ince wave a ct ion a nd l ater s a lvage e fforts c ontr ibuted t o r educe t he o r ig ina l p latform more o r l ess t o MSL , i t i s n o wonder t hat n o moor ing s tones o r a ccess s ta ircases were f ound a long t he p reserved s egment o f t he q uay . A s ta ircase was o bserved a long t h is l i ne a bout 3 0 m f arther t o t he e a st b efore t he ma in s tructure o f t he Ha rbour C itade l was b lown u p a t t he t urn o f o ur c entury , b ut i t i sn ow c o mp lete ly l ost ( Schumacher 1 888 : 1 36 ) . Next t o t he f l ush ing c hanne l , o n t he e ast s ide o f t he r ocky o utcrop i n to wh ich i t was c ut , t here i s ar e mnant o f a n a sh la r c ourse o f h eaders ( f ig . 1 1 .161 ) . T hese b locks a re 1 2 m e a st o f t he c hanne l , p ara l le l t o t he c ourse o f t he p latform o n t he o ther s ide o f t he p romontory . I t c ons ists a t p resent o f f our c lose lyla id b locks , a bout 2 .0 x 0 .5 x 0 .5 m . A lthough t hese b locks m ight b e r e mnants o f al ater s truct ure , l i ke t he B yzant ine p ave ment made o f r eused H erod ian s labs a t t he n earby a rea M4 ( see Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 988 ) , t hey m ight a l so b e t he i n s i tu r e ma ins o f t he e xterna l p av ing o f t he Herod ian S outhern B reakwater .

T he ir g enera l a l ign ment

w ith t he i n let o f t he f lush ing c hanne l i s a n a dd it iona l f act i n f avour o f s uch a n a ssu mpt ion . [ A .R . ]

M.P . Area R : Rubb le P ro ject ion I ns ide Harbour E ntrance . The s i te o f t he t r ia l p robe ma rked a s A rea R was s e lected a nd e xcavated d uri ng t he 1 984 s eason . I ti s l ocated a bout 3 0 m s outh o f H 1 ( on t he s outh s ide o f t he Northern B reakwater , n ext t o i t s western t ip ) , a nd a bout 5 0 m S SE o f A rea D2 i n t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l ( Sect ion 1 1 .C .2 ) ( f ig . I I .1 ) . T he p robe was made a long t he s teep s lope o f r ubb le t hat c reates a d ogleg p ro ject ion o n t he s outheast s ide o f t he t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwater , i ns ide t he h a rbour E ntrance Channe l ( cf . f ig . 1 . 13) .

S ince t h is p ro ject ion g ives t he i nner p art o f t he E ntrance Channe l a

f unne l s hape , i t wa s c ons idered p oss ib ly t o b e a n i n tent iona l f eature d es igned t o s peed u p t he o utf low ing c urrent f or more f lush ing o f t he n a rrow p a rt o f t he e ntrance ( see Raban 1 988 : 1 92-96 ) .

T he p robe was made i n o rder t o d eterm ine t he

c haracter o f t he s p i l l , t o l ook f or more s ubstant ia l s tructures i n i t , a nd t o e xpose i t s b ase a nd t he s trat igraphy b e low i t . T he l oca t ion was s e lected o n t he n orth s lope o f t he s p i l l , n ext t o i t s e astern t i p ( f ig . 1 1 .163 ) , j ust e a st o f m 3 1 o f S urvey L ine n o . 1 6 ( Sect ion I V .C) . T he t op o f t he r ubb le s p i l l i s a t ad epth o f 5 .4 m b e low MSL a nd s lopes d own t o 8 .5 m a t t he s andy b ottom o f t he E ntrance Channe l , a bout 1 0 m f arther NNE . The p robe was made w ith a 5 inch a ir l ift , c reat ing a s em ic ircu la r h o l low i nto a nd b e low t he s lope o f t he s p i l l , w ith a r ad ius o f a bout 4 m . A t t he c entre o f t h is

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 73

a rea , o n t he s andy f loor , as ing le b lock o f s tone 2 .2 x 1 .1 x 1 .2 m was f ound , e xtens ive ly e roded b y t he s ea a nd n ot a ssoc iated w ith a ny s tructures . T he s p i l l was c omposed o f t wo l ayers : t he u pper o ne , d own t o 7 .1-7 .3 m b e low MSL , i sc omposed o f sma l l t o med ium s i zed f l attened p ieces o f r ubb le ( D 0 .3 m t o 0 .6 m ) . S ome b ad ly-eroded p otsherds o f B yzant ine d ate were f ound i ncorporated w ith in t h is r ubb le l ayer . T he l ower l ayer c onta ined much l a rger a nd more a ngu lar c hunk s o f r ubb le u p t o 1m i n l eng th . N o p otsherds were t raced i n t h is l ayer , wh ich was e xposed t o i t s b ase a t ad epth o f 9 .2 m . B e low t he r ubb le a t t hat l eve l , t he f i l l was c omposed o f am ixed l ayer 0 .5 m t h ick o f sma l l r ubb le , l arge q uant it ies o f s hel ls , a nd s and ( f ig . 1 1 .162) . W ith in t h is l ayer t here were many amphora f ragments o f t he s econd t o t h ird c entur ies a nd o ther a rt ifacts s uch a s l ead we ights , p ieces o f l ead s heath ing , a nd b a l last s tones . Th is l ayer was u nder la id b y p oor ly-sorted s and w ith s hel ls b ut l ack ing a ny a rt if acts , a l l t he way t o t he b ottom o f t he p robe a t a pprox i mate ly 1 0 .5 m b e low MSL . N o c lay l ayer was d etected , a nd t he m ixed s and a t ad epth g reater t han t he b ase o f t he r ubb le s p i l l i nd icates t he f ormer p resence o f s trong c urrents . The p ott ery a nd o ther a rt ifacts f ound b e low t he b ase o f t he s p i l l m ight h ave b een d umped t here e ither b efore t he r ubb le f eature d eve loped , o r d ur ing a p er iod when t he s ubmar ine t opography was s uch a s t o i n it iate a r ap id u ndertrench ing c urrent . I f t he a rt ifacts were d epos ited b efore t he r ubb le a nd n ot i nserted b y e ros ive c urrents , t h is f eature was l a id o n t he s ea-f loor l ong a fter t he c omp let ion o f t he Herod ian h arbour , a nd v ery p robab ly o n ly a fter i t went o ut o f u se .

I n t hat c ase , o ne m ight

s uggest t hat t he s p i l l b e longs t o Anasta s ius ' a ttempt t o r estore t he h arbour a round A .D . 5 00 ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 2 94 , n . 2 0 ) . T he f act t hat t he b a se o f t he r ubb le s p i l l

i n b oth Areas R a nd A rea D ( Sect ion I I .C .2 ) i s a t t he s ame d epth m ight b ack t he a lternat ive e xp lanat ion , t ha t t he p ottery was c a rr ied i n b y t he s ea . [ A .R . ]

I H .Q . Area S : S ea-Wa l l t o Nor theas t o fI ntermed iate B as in . T he e xcavat ion a rea a long t he n ortheast s hore o f t he I ntermed iate Ba s in , a t t he n orth e dge o f t he p resent p ub l ic b each , was d es ignated A rea S ( f igs . 1 . 37 , I I .1 , 1 09-110 , 1 64-66 ) .

Dur ing CMS r esea rch f or t he I EC a t t h is p o int i n 1 975 , a n a sh lar

wa l l p reserved t o ah e ight o f 1 .2 m a bove MSL was o bserved r unn ing a long t he waterl ine i n a n E -W d irect ion ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 3 5 , f igs . 3 8-41) . Th is wa l l h ad

b een n ot iced b efore , a nd B loch c la i med t hat t he p resence o f b ore h o les o f L ithop hagae o n i t s u pper s urface m ight i nd icate t ha t i t h ad b een c overed b y a MSL a t l east 1 .3 m h igher t han a t p resent ( B loch 1 965 :

1 5-16 ) ( f ig . 1 1 .171) . The wal l was

p art ly c lea red d ur ing 1 976 a nd was f ound t o h ave b een r eused i n t he C rusader p er iod , when i t s w estern e nd wa s r ebu i lt w ith t he u se o f i r on c la mps a nd a n a dd it iona l s tretch was a dded t o i ta t as o mewhat d ifferent o r ientat ion , o n al eve l i nd ic at ing a s ea l eve l l ower t han a t p resent ( f ig . 1 1 .170 ) . T h is wa l l was s tud ied a ga in d ur ing t he 1 986 CAHEP s eason a s Wa l l W 1 , a nd a n e xtens ive a rea b eh ind i t w as e xcavated i n a n a tte mpt t o d eterm ine i t s o r ig ina l d ate o f c on struct ion a nd t he c haracter o f t he s tructures t hat were a d jacent t o i t

1 74

1 1 .Q : Area S

t hen a nd a t l ater p ha ses . A lthough t h is c ampa ign s tr ict ly f a l ls o uts ide t he p er iod w ith wh ich t h is v o lume i s c oncerned , as u m ma ry o f t he r esu lts i s p resented h ere b ecause o f t he ir i mportance f or o ur u nderstand ing o f t he h a rbour . T he a rea t hat was s tud ied i s c omposed o f t wo a d jacent u n its : a n e astern o ne a long b o th s ides o f t he wa l l ment ioned a bove , a nd a n orthwest u n it c o mposed o f t wo l arge c ha mbers f ront ing t he water t o t he s outh ( f ig . 1 .165 ) . A s n oted a bove i n S ect ion I LK , f or t he p urpose o f t he 1 986-87 e xcava t ions , f ormer CAHEP A rea L was r e-na med A rea S 1 .

T he

a rea t o

t he

s outh ,

d iscussed

i n t h is s ect ion ,

was s ubsequent ly

r eferred t o a s A rea S 2 . The wa l l W 1i n A rea S 2 h a s s urv ived t o at ota l l ength o f we l l o ver 2 0 i n , b ut i t was e xposed a long i t s e xterna l s outh f ace f or o n ly i t s western 1 8 .9 m ( f igs . 1 1 .170 , 1 72) .

I n i t s p resent f orm t h is wa l l s hows many p hases o f r econstruct ion . I n

a dd it ion t o t he l atest , C rusader p ha se , t here i se v idence t hat i t was p a rt o f ah ab it at ion l eve l i n t he E ar ly I s lam ic p er iod . A t t hat s tage t wo c isterns were i nserted i nto i t - o ne j ust i ns ide i t s western p a rt , a nd t he s econd 1 5 m e ast o f i t s western e nd , o n i t s e dge . The b locks o f t he wa l ls were r emoved f rom a 1 .05 m s tretch o f t he wa l l a t t hat p o int , d own t o a l eve l o f 0 .46 m a bove MSL . T h is r ecess was e xtended b eh ind t he s outh f ace o f t he wa l l f or a n a dd it iona l 0 .6 m , a nd t he f i l l was r eta ined b y r eused b locks i n o rder t o c reate a r ectangu lar c istern ( 1 .05 x 1 .72 m ) d escend ing f rom g round l eve l a t 1 .58 m a bove MSL . T he b ottom o f t he c istern m ight h ave b een l ocated a t t he i n terface b etween s ea-water a nd t he o ver ly ing f resh water , i mp ly ing a s ea l eve l a bout 0 .5 m h igher t han a t p resent .

A s im i lar

s ea l eve l c an b e d educed f rom t he o ther c istern a nd f rom a t l ea st h a lf a d ozen more t hat were e xcavated i n t he a rea . I n t hat E ar ly I s lam ic p ha se t he e nt ire a rea a long t he l ee s ide o f t he wa l l wa s l eve led t o a bout 1 .6-1 .5 m a bove MSL , e ither b y a dd it iona l p av ing s labs ( a s a t t he e astern s egment ) o r b y a dd it iona l f il o f sma l l r ubb le a nd l arge q uant it ies o f p otsherds .

T hese s herds a re a l l o f M idd le a nd L ate

Byzant ine t ypes . An e ven h igher s ea l eve l wa s a ttested f or t he l atest B yzant ine p ha se . R e mova l o f Ea r ly I s lam ic f i l l f rom a c hamber o n t he n orth s ide o f t he western p art o f W 1 ( l ocus 2 19 ) e xposed a f l oor o f f l attened p ebb les a t al eve l 0 .59 i n a bove MSL ( l ocus 2 24 ) .

Th is f loor e xtended a long t he n orth f ace o f W 1a nd u nder t he wa l l ( W 1 7 )

t hat f orms t he west s ide o f t he c hamber . On t he f loor a nd t he n orth f ace o f W 1 t here was a s ubstant ia l c oat ing o f ma r ine i ncru stat ion , t o ah e ight o f 0 .72 m a bove MSL .

Th is c oat ing was a bsent o n t he e astern f ace o f W 1 7 , i nd icat ing t hat t h is

wa l l was a dded i n al ater p er iod , when t h is p avement was n o l onger f looded b y t he s ea . T he n orthern s eg ment o f W 1 7 was t hen r emoved i n t he n orthwest c orner o f l ocus 2 19 , a nd a p it was c leared t here ( l ocus 2 26 ) , a l l t he way t o t he e astern f ace o f W 1 2 . A lthough n o f loor was a pparent i n t hat p robe , t he e xposed f ace o f W 1 2 t urned o ut t o b e c oated w ith t he s ame mar ine f auna a s W 1 . Two p robes were made a long t he s outh f ace o f W 1 . T he e astern o ne f o l lowed t he h o l low o f t he E ar ly A rab c istern a nd c ont inued d own b e low i t ( f ig . 1 1 .173 ) . A ltogether , f ive c ourses were e xposed ( the c i stern went d own a l most t o t he b ott om o f t he t h ird ) . T he t wo l ower c ourses were f ound t o b e b onded b y L -shaped b locks . A t a bout t he m idd le o f t he l ower c ourse , a t 0 .43 m b e low MSL , t here was a h or izonta l l i ne o f O strea t hat m ight i nd icate a n a nc ient s ea l eve l . A s im ilar l i ne was f ound a t 0 .42 m b e low MSL i n t he western p robe 1 0 m away .

T he western

C hapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 75

p robe went d own a long t he n orth f ace o f W 1t o ad epth o f 2 .0 m b e low MSL ( l ocus 2 25 ) . E xcavat ion i n b oth p robes was made p oss ib le o n ly b y c onstant p ump ing . The s outh s ide o f W 1i n l ocus 2 25 wa s f ound t o b e c omposed o f s even c ourses o f b locks . The u pper c ourse s ee ms t o h ave b een r e la id b y t he C rusaders , j udg ing b y t he u nmatched g rooves f or d oveta i l c lamps a nd t he u se o f i r on C -c la mps ( f ig . 1 1 .170 ) .

A l i ne o f V ermetus i ncrustat ion a long t he l ower p art o f

t he s econd

c ourse , a t 0 .65 m a bove MSL , r esemb les t he ma r ine f auna c oat ing t he o ther s ide o f t he wa l l a t t hat p o int ( l ocus 2 24 ) a nd p roves t hat i t was t here b y t he B yzant ine e ra . T he f ourth a nd f i fth c ourses a re b e low MSL a nd a re i ncorporated i n a most u neven manner , much l i ke t hose i n t he e a stern p robe . Two a dd it iona l c ourses ( the s i xth a nd t he s eventh ) w ere f ound t o b e made o f a sh lars a l most 0 .7 m h igh . A h or iz onta l l i ne o f Os trea i ncrustat ion was f ound a t a bout h a lf t he h e ight o f t he b otto m c ourse , a t 1 .77 m b e low MSL . T h is c ourse wa s l a id o n al ayer o f f ine c o mpact g rey c lay . T he t op o f t he c lay i s a t 1 .87 m b e low MSL a nd t here i s b ed-rock s ome 0 .4-0 .6 m u nderneath ( r eached w ith a n a irjet p robe ) . T he p otsherds t hat were r ecovered f rom t he t op o f t he c lay were f rom t he f i rst c entury A .C . Wa l l W 1s eems t o h ave b een b u i lt a t a n e ar ly s tage i n t he h istory o f Caes a rea , y et t here a re n o c lear i nd icat ions f or t he d ate o f t h is s tructure . On t he o ne h and , p ara l le ls w ith o ther e ar ly s tructures i n t he I nner B as in , s uch a s t he Round T ower ( Sect ion I I .R .1 ) o r t he n earby p latform W 2 20 ( see b e low ) m ight s uggest a p re-Herod ian d ate . On t he o ther h and , t he u neven q ua l ity o f t he b u i ld ing i s t yp ica l o f p ost-Herod ian s tructures , i n c ontra st t o Herod ian s tructures s uch a s t he P ier a nd Quay i n A rea L , n earby ( Sect ion I I .K ) . N everthe less , t he o r ientat ion o f W 1i s t he s ame a s t hat o f t he p ier a t A rea L a nd i t s a d jacent q uay , a nd n ot t he s ame a s t hat o f t he L ate

Roman s tructures ,

ma inta ined t hroughout t he B yzant ine a nd

E a r ly A rab p er iods . O f t he s tructures o n t he western p art o f A rea S , t he e ar l iest i su ndoubted ly W 2 20 ( f igs . 1 1 .166 , 1 69 ) . T h is i s n ot a ctua l ly a wa l l , b ut a p latform o r p aved r oad l ead ing S SW t oward t he water o f t he I nner B a s in . T h is p ave ment went t hrough many s tages o f r euse a nd p art ia l d ismant l ing . I n i t s o r ig ina l f orm i t was p robab ly a l i ne o f l ong , n arrow a sh lar b locks 1 .6 m w ide , i n serted i n to t he s urface o f t he f latt ened b ed-rock , w ith i t s u pper s urface 0 .23-0 .37 m a bove MSL ( the h igher e levat i on o n t he n orth s ide ) . T h is c ourse wa s b ordered o n b oth s ides b y l ong , n arrow s tretchers o f u n iform measure ments : 1 .6 x 0 .5 x 0 .27-0 .32 m ( f igs . 1 1 .166 , 1 69 ) . T h is p ave ment r uns t h rough t he c entre o f al ater c ha mber , 5 .2 m w ide ( E- W ) a nd 1.1 m l ong ( N-S ) . T he l ast 3 m o f t he p ave ment t oward t he s outh p art o f t he c hamber s eem t o h ave b een r ebu i lt a t s ome l ater s tage , i n o rder t o b e a d justed t o ap assage t h rough t he s outh wa l l , wh ich i s o ffset a bout 0 .5 m e ast o f t he o r ig ina l c ourse o f t he p ave ment .

T he p assage t hrough t he s outh wa l l i s 1 .5 m w ide a nd

l eads t o t he water t hrough t wo d escend ing s ta irs . T he wa l l i t se lf ( W 1 3 ) was o r ig in a l ly 1 .8 m w ide , b ut a t al a ter p hase a n a dd it iona l c ourse o f b locks was a dded o n i t s western , s eaward s ide , mak ing a f oundat ion f or a n ew wa l l 2 .7 m w ide . The o r ig ina l p avement c an b e s een u nder t he r ubb le f i l l o f t he l ater s tage , j ust b e low MSL . Wh i le c lear ing t he n orthern , b etter-preserved p art o f t he p ave ment , s ome L ate He l len ist ic p otsherds were r ecovered .

A lthough t he c hamber r eta ins n o s tra-

1 76

1 1 .Q : A rea S

t igraphy o f a ny s ign if icance , s ince i t i s washed b y t he s ea d ur ing s tormy w eather , t he p resence o f p re-Herod ian p ottery w ith in i th ints t hat t he e ar l iest a rch itectura l r e ma ins i n t h is a rea may a lso r e lated t o t h is e a r ly d ate . The c hamber w ith in wh ich t h is e ar ly p ave ment l i es i s o ne o f t hree p a ra l le l s paces o f more o r l ess s im i lar w idth t hat , a ccord ing t o L ev ine a nd Netzer , a re o f t he s ame d ate a s t he r ectangu lar s tructure i n A rea L , wh i le t he e ar l ier c ross-wal l a long t he waterl ine i so f t he s ame d ate a s t he H erod ian p ier t here ( Lev ine & Netz er 1 986 : 6 0-63 , W 1 50 ) . T he s ide wa l ls b etween t hese t hree c ha mbers a re b u i lt o f a sh lar b locks i n a n u neven o rder o f h eaders a nd s tretchers . T he western most ( Levi ne & N etzer 1 986 : 6 0 , p lan 1 4 , W 1 60 ) i sp oor ly p reserved a nd most ly c overed b y a l ater C rusader f ort if icat ion wa l l . T he n ext o ne t o t he e ast , W 1 0 ( Lev ine & N etzer 1 986 , W 1 54 ) i s 1 .35 m w ide a nd h as b een p reserved f or s even c ourses f r om i t s b ase a t 0 .61 a bove MSL t o 3 .98 m . T he t wo u pper c ou rses s ee m t o b e long t o a l ater s tage ( f ig . 1 1 .167) . On t op o f t he wa l l t here i s an arrower o ne ( W 0 .6 m ) wh ich was d ated b y L ev ine a nd Netzer t o t he ir S tratum 4 , t he F ina l B yzant ine p er iod ( 1986 : 6 0-65 , p lan 1 4 , i l . 8 7 ) . S im i lar f eatures e x ist a t t he n ext wa l l t o t he e ast , o n t he o ther s ide o f t he e ar ly p ave ment . T hat wa l l ( W 1) i s o n ly 1 .75 m w ide a nd h a s s urv ived t o ah e ight o f e igh t c ourses , w ith i t s t op a t 4 .45 m a bove MSL ( f ig . 1 1 .168 ) .

The e astern f ace o f t h is wa l l i s i ncorporated i n to t he west f ace o f W

1 2 , a d jacent t o i t o n t he e ast , b y ac oat ing o f sma l l r ubb le a nd a g rey c ement , o nce f aced w ith t h in s tone s labs . T h is s pace wa s d iv ided i n t he E ar ly I s la m ic p er iod i n to s ix a d jacent c hambers o r b ins b y p art it ion wa l ls o f c emented r ubb le a nd f aced b y p av ing s labs . Most o f t hese s labs were r e moved i n a nt iqu ity , a nd a t p resent o n ly t he b a se c ourses s urv ive , t o a h e ight o f a bout 0 .18 m a bove t he mosa ic f loors o f t he b ins ( f ig . 1 1 .165) . Th is b in c omp lex wa s p a rt ly e xcavated b y L ev ine a nd N etzer ( 1986 : 6 1 , i l l . 9 0-91) who d ated i t t o t he E ar ly A rab p er iod .

T he b ins were c leared c omp lete ly

d ur ing CAHEP 's 1 986 s ea son . T hey r esemb led f our o ther g roups o f r ectangu lar b ins w ith mosa ic f loors t hat were e xposed b y Negev a t t he f oot o f t he Herod ian T e mp le

P od iu m

e a st

o f

t he

I nner

B as in

( Negev

1 967 :

6 7-68 ) .

The

s em i-c ircu lar

r ecesses i n t he mosa ic f loors o f t hese b ins i nd icate t hat l i qu id wa s s tored i n t he m , p robab ly o l ive o i l , t o j udge f rom t he b lack , g rea sy s ubstance wh ich i mpregnated t he c ement u nder t he mosa ic f loors . S u m mary . I n s um m ing u p t he ma in f eatures o f A rea S , o ne may a rgue t he f o ll ow ing c h rono log ica l o rder : ( 1 ) T he p avement i n t he c entra l c hamber i n t he n orthwest p art o f t he a rea ( l ocus 2 20 ) , i n i t s o r ig ina l f orm , m ight b e o f p re-Herod ian d ate . I n a ny c ase , i t s o r ientat ion d oes n ot f i t t hose o f H erod ian s tructures i n t he a rea , o r i n t he a d jac ent A rea L . T he o r ig ina l f unct ion o f t h is p avement i s n ot c lear a nd c annot b e d ef ined w ithout f urther e xcavat ions t oward t he n orth . ( 2 ) The ma in s ea-wa l l , W 1 , wa s l a id i n t he wa ter , p erhaps i n o rder t o s erve a s ar eta in ing wa l l o r ab a se f or a v ert ica l q uay wa l l t hat c ont inued f arther west , p erhaps f ar e nough t o make a r ight a ng le w ith t he s outhernmost t ip o f t he q uay i n A rea L . I f t he o r ig ina l s tage o f t h is wa l l c an b e a ss igned a p re-Herod ian d ate , i t p rov ides a r ea sonab le f unct ion f or t he p avement W 2 20 wh ich m ight h ave l ed t o i t . The ma in i mportance o f W 1i s i n t he a bundant d a ta i tp rov ides t o d ocu ment v ar io us s ea l eve ls . T hese c an b e s ecure ly d ated t o t he R oman , B yzant ine , E ar ly A rab ,

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 77

a nd C rusader p er iods . These s ea l eve ls w ere a t a bout t he p resent MSL i n t he f i rst c entury A .C . , 0 .6-0 .7

m h igher d u r ing t he l ater B yzant ine p er iod , a bout 0 .4 m

h igher i n t he n inth t o t enth c entur ies , a nd a t l east

0 .4 m l ower

i n t he

m id-

t h irteenth c entury . ( 3 ) The t hree r ectangu la r c hambers NW o f W 1a re c lea r ly p ost-Herod ian i n d ate a nd p robab ly e ven p ost-date t he o r ig ina l p ha se o f t he c ross-wa l l a nd t he p ass age t o t he water a t W 1 3 .

I t s ee ms p oss ib le t here wa s as er ies o f s torehouses

h ere , h orrea o f t he l ater Roman e ra ( see L ev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 6 5 ) , b ut l ater u ses o f t hese s tructura l c omponents h ave r emoved a ny a rt ifacts t hat c ou ld d ocu ment s uch a p roposa l . ( 4 ) Dur ing t he E ar ly A rab p er iod much o f t he a rea was l eve led a t a bout 1 .5 m a bove MSL , a t a work ing s urface p rov ided w ith many f reshwater c isterns . One c hamber was b u i lt u p t o ah e ight o f o ver 4 .5 m a bove MSL , c onta in ing s torage b ins o r r ectangu lar s i los f or l a rge q uant it ies o f o l ive o i l o r s o me o ther l i qu id c o m modi ty f or e xport . ( 5 ) Dur ing t he C rusader p er iod , t he c ourse o f t he f ort if icat ion l i ne a long t he water-front c overed t he westernmost p art o f A rea S a nd was e xtended o uts ide t he f ormer W 1 3 t o t he s outh . A t t hat t ime t he s ea must h ave b een f arther away , a s c an b e d educed f ro m t he western a dd it ion t o W 1a nd t he n ow s ubmerged wa l l t hat s tems f rom t h is a dd it ion , l ead ing s outh a cross t he b ay ( Area T 2 ; S ect ion I I .R .2 ) . [ A .R . ]

I I .R . Area T : Wa l ls a nd Towers i n I ntermed ia te B as in . I I .R .1 . Area T 1: Round Tower .

T he Round T ower t hat wa s d iscovered a nd

s tud ied d ur ing t he 1 978 CMS work shop ( Sect ion 1 .B .4 ; Raban & L inder 1 978 : 2 43 ) was r e-stud ied d ur ing t he CAHEP 1 984 s eason ( Raban 1 985c : 1 63-65 ) . The s econd s urvey was a n a tte mpt t o c o l lect a dd it iona l d ata f or t he d ate o f t he t ower 's c ons truct ion , t he a rch itectura l d es ign o f i t s b ase , a nd i t s i n terre lat ionsh ip w ith t he p romontory t o t he s outh . T he t ower i s a r ound s tructure f ormed b y as ing le r ow o f r ad ia l e xterna l b locks , wh ich a t p resent l i es s o me 1 0-20 m west o f t he modern b ath ing b each ( f ig s . I I .1 , 1 74 ) . T h is a rea was d es ignated A rea T 1 . T he s outh e dge o f t he t ower i s 3 2 m n orth o f t he i nner e dge o f t he b ase o f t he p romontory .

A t p resent , t he t ower

i so ften a t l east p art ly c overed b y s and , e xcept f or i t s west a nd n orthwest q uarter , wh ich i s a d jacent t o ap i le o f b locks a nd l a rge p ieces o f r ubb le . The 6 0 s l im h eade rs t hat d ef ine i t s c ircumference a re g enera l ly u n iform i n s ize :

1 .6-2 .0 x 0 .4-0 .5 x

0 .5-0 .6 m ( f igs . 1 1 .174 , 1 77 ) . T he h ighest s urv iv ing c ourse was e xtens ive ly a braded b y t he wave-carr ied s and a nd p ebb les , a nd s ome o f i t s b locks h ad l ost more t han h a lf t he ir o r ig ina l h e ight . On t he t ower 's n orth t o n ortheastern s ect ion , t he c ourse o f h eaders i s r ep laced b y what s ee ms t o b e ac onnect ing wa l l b u i lt o f s l ight ly sma l ler a sh lars . I t h ad a p robab le o r ig ina l w idth o f 4 .6 m .

On ly i t s western f ace

c an n ow b e d iscerned , b u i lt o f a lternat ing h eaders a nd s tretchers . Th is o rder c ont i nues f or a f ew metres a long t he c ircumference o f t he t ower a t t he l ee s ide o f t he wa l l .

I ns ide t he t ower , t here i s a nother c oncentr ic c ourse o f s l im

b locks

( 0 .8-1 .3 x 0 .35-0 .50 x 0 .7-0 .8 m ) . T here a re 1 2 s uch b locks e nc irc l ing a c entra l c ir-

1 78

I I .R : Area T

c u lar h o l low 4 .5 m i n d iameter , f i l led b y ap av ing o f f lat k urkar s labs . T he f ace o f t h is p av ing i s a t ad epth o f 1 .3 m b e low MSL , 0 .5 m l ower t han t he t ops o f t he b locks .

Another f l oor o f b roader a nd l arger s labs p aves t he 2 m s pace b etween t he

t wo c oncentr ic c irc les ; i t s f ace i s u nder 1 . 1 m o f water o n t he west s i de a nd j ust l ess t han 1 m o n t he e ast s ide . T here i s a westward s lope o f a bout 0 .15-0 .20 m f or t he f loor a nd t he t op o f t he e xterna l c ourse o f h eaders . I n 1 984 a p robe 1 m w ide was made a long a 4 m s tretch o f t he e xterna l f ace o f t he s outh s ide o f t he t ower ( f igs . 1 1 .175-76 ) . T he p robe t apered t o o n ly 0 .8 x 0 .8 m a t i t s b ottom , u nder 2 .7 m o f water a nd 1 .5 m b e low t he p resent s ea-f loor . Three a dd it iona l c ourses o f k urkar h eaders were e xposed b e low t he t op o ne .

S ince t he

c ourses a re n ot p roper ly l eve led , t he b locks i n e ach o f t hem d iffer s omewhat i n h e ight s o t hat t hey i n ter lock .

T here a re s t i l l t races o f smooth p laster o n t he

a d jo in ing l onger s ides o f t wo o f t he b locks , a s i f t hey h ad p rev ious ly b een u sed a s s tretchers i n a nother wa l l ( f ig . 1 1 .176 ) .

O ther p lastered b locks were f ound d ur ing

t he p robe made i n 1 978 a long t he west f ace o f t he t ower . F rom t he s andy s ea-f loor a t 1 .2 m b e low MSL , t he t rench d escended t h rough a d isturbed t op l ayer a bout 0 .9 m t h ick o f t umb led a sh la r b locks a nd l a rge r ubb le b locks , m ixed w ith s ea-worn p otsherd s o f v a r ious p er iods , i nc lud ing b roken Coca Co la b ott les . A t ad epth o f 2 .1 m t he s ed iment t urned g rey a nd c ons isted o f c oarse s and w ith s ome p ebb les a nd c arbon p art ic les . L arge q uant it ies o f s ea-worn p ots herds , i nc lud ing b ig p ieces o f amphoras o f L ate R o man a nd B yzant ine d a tes , c o mp osed a l most h a lf t he v o lu me o f t hat f i l l , d own t o ad epth o f 2 .5 m . B eneath l ay a bout 0 .15 m o f s t icky g rey c lay i n terbedded w ith f lat f ragments o f k urkar . On ly a f ew s herds were f ound i n t h is l ayer , a nd t hey a re o f L ate He l len ist ic-Ea r ly Ro man d ate . A t t he b ase o f t h is l ayer t here wa s ag radua l c hange i n t exture , t he c lay a nd a rt ifacts d isappea r ing a nd t he k urka r c hunks b eco m ing 1 1 .178 ) .

A t

a d epth o f

2 .7

m b e low

MSL ,

more

p oor ly-ce mented

c ompacted k urka r

( f ig .

b ed-rock

a ppeared . Th ree a dd it iona l p robes were made w ith t he d redge a t t he s ea-f loor a long a l i ne f rom t he t ower t o t he p romontory , a t ab ear ing o f 2 30 °. T he p robes were made e very 1 2 m , d own t o b ed-rock . I n a l t h ree e ases t he s trat ig raphy was much t he s ame a s i n t he t rench a long t he s outh s ide o f t he Round T ower . T he b ed-rock was r eached a t 2 .8 m b e low MSL i n t he f i rst p robe , a t 2 .65 m i n t he s econd , a nd a t 2 .5 m i n t he t h ird , o n ly 1 0 m n orth o f t he p resent n orth s ide o f t he p romontory . S o me a dd it iona l a irjet p robes t hat were made a round t h is a rea b etween t he t ower a nd t he p romontory t o t he s outh a nd s outhwest d id n ot e ncounter a ny b ur ied s truct ures b e low t he s andy s ea-f loor . I t i s q u ite c lea r t hat t h is a rea was n ot b locked a nd t hat n o man-made s tructures h ad e ver b een l a id f or e i ther c los ing o r n arrowi ng t he g ap b etween t he t ower a nd t he p ro montory s outh o f i t . S ty l ist ica l ly , t h is Round T ower w ith o ver ly ing c ourses o f h eaders h as p ara l le ls d at ing f ro m t he f i fth t o s econd c entur ies B .C .

( e .g . , C rowfoot 1 942-58 : 2 7 , n . 2 ;

L ev ine 1 975a : 1, n o . 5 6 ; W inter 1 971 : 1 94 ; Adam 1 982 : 6 2 ) . d ate f ro m t he L ate He l len ist ic p er iod ( e .g . R e isner e t a l .

The c losest p ara l le ls

J ameson 1 969 : 3 33-35 , p l . I ; 1 973 ;

1 924 , p lan 1 0 ) , a nd t he b est o f t hese a re t he t wo r ound t owers t hat

were e xcavated b y t he I ta l ian M iss ion n ear t he b each n orth o f t he C rusader c i ty wa l ls o f Caesarea ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 47-92 ) ( Sect ions I .A .5 , I I .H .3 ; f i gs . 1 . 8 , n o .

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 79

1 6 , 1 . 35-36 , I .1) . S ince t he s tructure a nd d ate o f t hese t owers h ave a b ear ing o n t he t ower i n A rea T 1 , t he d ata w il l b e s um mar ized h ere . The J o int E xped it ion t r ied t o v er ify t he s trat ig raph ic d ata o f t he I t a l ians b y e xcavat ing a p robe f arther e ast a long t hat wa l l ( B lake ly 1 984 ; c f . Raban 1 987 ) . O f t he t wo t owers i nvest ig ated b y t he I t a l ian M iss ion , o n ly t he e astern o ne was f ound t o b e a l most i ntact ( f ig . 1 .2 ) . Th is s tructure s urv ived t o ah e ight o f s even c ourses , a l most 4 m . I t c ons isted o f ac ircu lar wa l l a bout 2 m w ide t o wh ich a n e xterna l s em ic ircu la r f ac ing was a dded a round t he s outhern p art o f t he t ower . The u pper c ourse o f t he o r ig ina l s tructu re was a rranged i n a n a lternat ing o rder o f h eader a nd s tretcher o n b oth i t s s ides , w ith t he i n fac ing h eader a ga inst a n o utfac ing s tretcher a nd v ice v ersa ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 69-71) . Th is o rder was n ot k ept a l l a round t he c ircumference

o f t he t ower a nd was a d justed b y a dd it iona l h eaders o r s tretchers when n ecessary f or a t ighter f i t b etween t he t wo s ides o f t he c ourse . L ower c ourses s eem t o h ave b een b u i lt i n ad ifferent o rder , b ut s t i l l u s ing t he s ame p r inc ip le , w ith more h eade rs f ac ing t he e xterna l c i rcumference o f t he t ower . T he b ottom c ourse was b u i lt o f h eaders o n ly ( f ig . 1 .3 ) . T he k u rka r b locks o f wh ich t he t ower was b u i lt a re s o b ad ly weathered t hat i t i s h a rd t o d eterm ine whether t hey a l l h ad d rafted e dges . On t he l ower , l ess weathered c ourses , t here a re s ome h eaders a nd s tretchers t hat a re c lear ly f ash ioned t h is way . The e astern t ower a nd a d jacent s tructures c lear ly b e long t o t h ree d ifferent b u i ld ing s tages ( Frova e t a l .

1 965 : 2 66-78 ) . T he wa l l e ast o f t he t ower s eems t o

h ave b een b u i lt a t t he s ame t ime a s t he o r ig ina l t ower , b e ing s tructura l ly i ncorpor ated i nto i t ( f ig . 1 .2 ) . T he a dd it iona l w idth o f t he s outh s ide o f t he t ower i s o f l ater d ate

a nd wa s e ven o f a d ifferent b u i ld ing

t echn ique ,

w ith

mortar a nd

i nserted s lates b etween t he a sh lar b locks . A t h ird f eature , p robab ly b u i lt e ven l ater t han t he o ther t wo , i s t he b road wa l l a d jacent t o t he west o f t he t ower . I t c loses t he p a ssage b etween i t a nd t he western t ower , s o me 1 2 m away ( f ig . 1 .3) . The s uggested d ate f or t h is wa l l , a ccord ing t o t he e xcavators , i s Herod ian , s o t here was n o f unct ion ing g ate a t t hat t ime b etween t he t wo t owers ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 2 80-86 ) . C lear ly , t here a re many p rob le ms i n r e lat ing t he o r ig ina l s tructure o f t he g ate t owers ( at l east o f t he e astern o ne ) t o t he Herod ian p hase . T he f act t hat t he H ighL eve l Aqueduct c ut t h rough t he f ort if icat ion wa l l t o t he e ast c reates s t i l l more p rob lems . I I .H .3 ) ,

F or t hese r easons , a nd f or o thers t hat a re d iscussed a bove ( see S ect ion

t he f ort if icat ion s hou ld b e p re-Herod ian .

T he wa l l p robab ly wa s

t he

n orthern b oundary o f He l len ist ic S traton 's T ower , t he s trongho ld o f t he t y rant Z o il us ( Raban 1 987 ) . A lthough t he e astern o f t hese n orthern t owers h as t he s ame d iameter a s t he o ne i n A rea T 1 , a nd t he s ize o f t he b lock s a nd h e igh t o f t he c ours es i s much t he s a me , t he a rrangement o f t he b locks i s d ifferent , a long w ith t he i nterna l s tructure . T he f our l ower c ourses o f t he e astern t ower a re t he most s im il ar , b ut t hat l eve l i s e xposed o n ly f rom t he o uts ide , s o t here a re n o c o mparat ive d ata a va i lab le f o r i t s i n ner c onstruct ion . T he c arefu l ly f i n ished i nner f ace o f t he c ircu lar wa l l o f t he e a stern t ower a t t he l eve l o f t he s ixth a nd s eventh c ourses i nd icates t hat t he s tructure wa s h o l low a t t hat l eve l . T he t ower i n A rea T 1 h ad i t s f loor a t t he l eve l o f t he t op o f t he f ourth c ou rse . T h is i s a lso t he l eve l o f t he o pen ing t hrough t he c i rcu lar wa l l a t t he s outh s ide o f t he e astern t ower o f t he n orthern f ort if icat ion .

1 80

A rea T I f we c ons ider t he p aved s pace t hat f i l ls t he c i rc le b etween t he t wo c oncen-

t r ic wa l ls o f t he t ower i n A rea T 1 t o b e ap ave ment o r ab a se f or a n a scend ing f l ight o f s ta irs , i t s p resent s ubmerged l eve l i s d iff icu lt t o u nderstand . One wou ld e xpect s uch a p latform t o b e a t a bout t he s a me l eve l a s t he r ampart o n t op o f t he a d jacent f ort if ica t ion wa l l , o r a t l east we l l a bove t he water . T he p resent l eve l o f a bout 1 m b e low MSL s uggests a v ert ica l d isp lacement o f a bout 2 m . Th is i sp erp lex ing i n c ompa r ison w ith t he s tab i l ity o f n ea rby f eatures o n e ither s ide o f t he I ntermed iate B as in .

T he l ater s ub merged wa l ls a nd t ower i n t he s ame a rea , s ome-

what f arther t oward t he west a nd n orthwestern s ide o f t he b as in , a re n ot b ased o n n atura l b ed-rock , a s t he T 1 t ower was f ound t o b e . These d a ta a re e ven more p erp lex ing when we c ons ider t he f act t hat b ed-rock was f ound a t much t he s ame l eve l a l l a cross t he b otto m o f t he b ay , b etween t he t ower a nd t he s outhern p romontory .

Reconstruct ing t he e levat ion o f t h is r ocky

b ed a t 2m a bove i t s p resent l eve l d estroys a ny p oss ib i l ity o f an av igab le c hanne l i nto t he I nner B as in i n Area I i , s o me 1 00 m f arther e ast .

T he a bsence o f a wa l l

a d jacent t o t he Round T ower o n t he p romontory s ide makes s ense o n ly i f t here was a n i n let f or s uch a n I nner B as in a t t h is p o int . One t entat ive h ypothes is i st ha t t he Round T ower was b u i lt a t much t he s ame d epth a t wh ich i tn ow s tands , a nd t hat t he p av ing w ith in i t s wa l ls was mere ly p art o f t he b u ild ing p rocess . The i n ter ior wou ld t hen h ave b een f i l led w ith p ack ing t o a l eve l wh ich s u ited t he o perat iona l d emands o f s uch a f ort if icat ion . T h is a ssumpt ion wou ld f i t i n w ith t he d ifferences i n t he c onstruct ion t echn iques o f t h is t ower a nd t he t wo t owers o f t he n orth s hore . I n t he c ase o f t he n orthern t owers , t he t h in i nner wa l l was j ust a means o f r eta in ing f il . T he h eader-faced c ourses o ver t he e x ist ing p art o f t he s ubmerged t ower matched t he b ottom c ourse o f t he e astern t ower e xcavated b y t he I ta l ians . These t owers a t t wo d istant l ocat ions i n Caesa rea , may b e r e lated t o t he s ame f ort if icat ion s yste m t hat i ncorporated t he s outhern a nd t he e astern wa l ls o f t he Herod ian P od iu m V au lt i n A rea 1 3 ( Sect ion I I .H .3) . P ro ject ing t he c ont inuat ion o f t he s outh wa l l o f t h is v au lt westward , i tl ead s t o t he p ro montory o n t he s outh s ide o f t he b ay i n wh ich t he s ub merged t ower i s f ound . S uch a c ourse f or t he s ou thern p art o f t he wal l wou ld f i t a n e nce inte d es igned t o p rotect S traton 's T ower . F ro m t he t opog raph ic p o int o f v iew , i t e nco mpasses t he I n termed iate a nd I nner B as ins . I n as im i lar way , t he western s egment o f t he n orth wa l l w ith t w in r ound t owers c an b e p ro jected t oward t he s ea a t ap o int a ppropr iate f or p rotect ing t he n orth e ntrance i n to t he l agoon , w ith t he He l len ist ic q uay a t i t s i nner e nd ( Sect ion I l .» . I n t he a bsence o f d atab le , s trat if ied c eram ics , t he e xact d ate o f t he t ower c an b e d educed o n ly b y s ty l ist ic a nd h istor ica l a rguments . A s wa s n oted a bove , t he b est p ara l le ls o uts ide o f Caesa rea f or t he a rch itectura l s ty le o f t he t ower a re f ound a t S amar ia ( Re isner e t a l .

1 924 , I , p lan 1 0 ; C rowfoot 1 942-58 : 4 0 ) . A t t hat

s i te t hey were d ated t o t he L ate He l len ist ic p er iod , p r ior t o 8 8 B .C . ( Crowfoot 1 942-58 : 1 18-21 ) .

S uch a d ate wou ld f i t t he t est i mony o f a nc ient s ources t hat

S traton 's T ower was a t t hat t ime a f ort if ied s trongho ld a nd t he c ap ita l o f Z o i lus , w ith Dor a s econdary t own w ith in h is t err itory ( AJ 1 3 : 3 24-35 ) . T he i dea t hat Dor i s a" lesser c ity" i s r epeated e xp l ic it ly when J osephus c ompares Dor a nd J oppa ( Jaffa ) t o S traton 's T ower ( AJ 1 5 .333 ; Append ix LA ) .

Cons iderab le d ata r e levant

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 81

t o t he He l len ist ic p ha se a t Dor a nd i t s f ort if icat ions , h ave b een r ecovered d ur ing r ecent e xcavat ion ( e .g . , S haron 1 987 ; S tern 1 982 ) . A lthough t he a ctua l f ort if icat ion wa l ls a t Dor a re d ated t o a n e ar l ier s tage o f t he He l len ist ic e ra , a nd i t s t owe rs a re n ot r ound , o ne c an c o mpare t he s ize o f t he a rea e ncompa ssed b y t hose wa l ls w ith t he s uggested f ort if ied c onf ine ment o f S traton 's T ower ( about 1 2 h a f or Dor a nd 2 0-25 h a f or S traton 's T ower ) .

G iven t h is i nformat ion , i t i s p oss ib le t hat

t he r ound t owers a nd t he f ort if icat ion wa l ls were b u i lt b y Z o i lus s ome t ime t oward t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury B .C . a nd were s uff ic ient t o r epe l J annaeus .

The

s urv iva l o f t hese wa l ls i n l a ter Caesarea i s s uggested b y t he Rabb in ic s ources , wh ich r efer t o t hem a s l andmarks f or t he b ounda r ies o f E retz I s rae l o n t he s eac oa st ( Suss mann 1 976 : 2 28-29 , 2 56 , I I ) . I t i s q u ite p oss ib le t hat t he f ort if icat ion wa l ls Z o i lus b u i lt f or h is s trongho ld a nd wh ich h ad n ever b een s tormed i n wa r , were u sed t h ree g enerat ions l a ter a s ab oundary d e l ineat ing t he h arbour d istr ict o f S ebastos f rom t he r est o f t he c ity . l I I .R .2 . Area T2 : C rusader Wa l l a nd S quare T ower .

T he a rea d es ignated a s

A rea T 2 i sa t t he e ast s ide o f t he p resent a nchorage a t Caesarea , n orthwest o f T 1 ( f ig s . I . 10 , I I .1 , p l . I ,n o . 5 0) .

A s ubmerged wal l was t raced a nd s tud ied i n t h is

a rea i n 1 976 , d ur ing CMS r esea rch f or I EC ( Sect ion I .B .3 ) . Dur ing t he CMS f ie ld work shop i n 1 979 t he wa l l was s u rveyed a ga in , t he s outhern c ont inuat ion p art ly c leared , a nd s ome t r ia l t renches were d ug w ith a d redge a long b oth s ides ( Sect ion I .B .4 ) . D ur ing t he CAHEP 1 983-1984 s easons t he e nt ire a rea was s urveyed b y ag roup o f d iv ing a rch itects f rom t he Un ivers ity o f Mary land , a nd t he p rev ious p lans a nd s ect ions were c hecked a nd c orrected .

Dur ing t h is s urvey t he r ectangu lar t ower a t

t he s outh e nd o f t he wal l wa s d rawn i n d eta i l . T he s ub merged wa l l i sc omposed o f t wo s ect ions a t s omewhat d ifferent o r ient at ions . T he b ase o f t he n orth s ect ion i s as egmented a sh lar wa l l r unn ing a long t he n orth s hore o f t he b ay o n ab ear ing o f 2 92 ° ( f igs . 1 1 .109 , 1 66 ) . I t was b u i lt o f l arge a sh lar b locks w ith t yp ica l ly Herod ian d oveta i l c lamps r eused f rom s ome e a r l ier s tructu re .

S o me o f t hese g rooves were r e-set w ith i r on C -c la mps s et i n l ead .

I n

c ases where t he c lamp h o les were a bsent o r i n t he w rong p os it ion , a sma l l h o le was c ut a t t he f ace o f t he b lock a nd t he i r on c lamp wa s i nserted i n to i t . Th is wa l l i sp robab ly a western s egment o f W 1i n A rea S 2 ( Sect ion I I .Q ) , a t t he l atest p hase o f t hat wa l l . Th is s egment c an b e t raced f or a bout 5 m , b e ing c omp lete ly c overed b y mar ine-cemented d ebr is f arther e a st a nd west a long i t s p ro jected c ourse . The v is ib le s eg ment c ons ists o f o n ly t wo c ourses o f a sh lars o f v a r ious s izes : 0 .6-1 .2 x 0 .4-0 .6 x 0 .45 m . T he t op o f t he h igher c ourse i s j ust b e low MSL , a nd t he b ase o f t he l ower o ne r ests o n r ubb le a t ad epth o f 0 .93 m b e low MSL . T he n orth e nd o f t he s ubmerged wa l l meets t h is s egment a t r ight a ng les , i t s u pper s urface j ust b e low t ha t o f t he l ower c ourse o f t he wa l l o n s hore , a t ad epth o f 0 .56 m . Th is s ect ion o f t he s ubmerged wa l l h as a b ear ing o f 2 03 °. I t s e astern f ace i s t he o n ly o ne t hat c an b e f o l lowed a t p resent f or a l most i t s e nt ire e xtent ( f igs .

1 1 .179 , 1 81) . T he u ppermost c ourse o f t h is f ace ( the f ourth f ro m t he b ot-

t om ) c an b e t raced f or 5 8 m . I t i s c omposed o f med ium t o sma l l k urkar a sh lars , most o f wh ich a re l a id a s h eaders ( 0 .5-0 .9 x 0 .2-0 .4 x 0 .28-0 .31 m ) . T he b locks were l a id c a re less ly a nd t he g aps f i l led w ith sma l l r ubb le a nd c e ment , most o f

1 82

I I .R : A rea T

wh ich h as b een washed o ut . I n s ome p laces t here i s more t han o ne r ow o f f ac ing b locks : a t p o ints 6 -7 m a nd 1 3-14 m s outh o f t he wa l l 's b ase . A t t hese p o ints t he t ota l w idth o f t he wa l l i sa bout 1 .5 m , b ut i t i so n ly 1 .3 m w ide a t t he s outhern t i p o f t he n orth s ect ion , a t 5 5 m s outh o f i t s s te m . T he e nt ire u pper p a rt o f t he s truct ure i s t i lted westward . Two t renches were d ug a ga inst t he e astern f ace o f t he wal l :

t he f i rst was made 2 6-27 m s outh o f i t s n orth e nd ( f ig .

1 1 .180 ) . A t t h is p o int

t he wa l l i s p reserved t o at ota l h e ight o f 1 .78 m a nd c ons ists o f s ix c ourses . I t i s b ased o n an on-con so l idated l ayer o f g rave l , sma l l r ubb le a nd s and , wh ich i ncludes q uant it ies o f s ea-worn p otsherds f rom v ar ious p er iods , b ut most ly B yzant ine a nd E a r ly A rab . The l ower t h ree c ourses a re t ipped b ackward 5° f rom t he v ert ica l , wh i le t he u pper t hree a re t ipped a s much a s 1 3° o ff t he ir o r ig ina l v ert ica l p os it ion ( f ig . 1 1 .181 ) . T he b ase o f t he wa l l i s n ow a t ad epth o f 2 .06 m a nd i t s s urv iv ing u pper s urface a t 0 .27 m . The h e ight o f t he c ourse i s 0 .30 m , e xcept f or t he f i fth o ne f rom t he b a se , wh ich i so n ly 0 .22 m h igh . The s econd p robe was made n ea r t he s outh e nd o f t he wa l l , 5 2-53 m f ro m i t s n orth e nd ( f ig . 1 1 .180 ) .

A t t ha t p o int t here a re a lso s ix c ourses , b ut t he b ottom

o ne was f ound t o b e p art ial ly l ost t hrough u ndertrench ing . T he s ame w estward t i lt was f ound a s i n t he f i rst t rench . Yet a t t h is p o int t he e nt ire l ast 8 m wa s d isp laced , s o t hat t he s outh t ip i s n ow 1 m west o f t he g enera l c ourse o f t he wa l l . T he b ase o f t he wa l l i s a t 2 .24 m b e low MSL a nd i t s u pper s urface a t 0 .68 m b e low . T he s ed iments u nder t he wa l l 's b ase a re a wave-d isturbed m ixture o f s and , g rave l , sma l l r ubb le a nd p otsherds , e xtend ing t o k urkar b ed-rock a t 2 .8 m b e low MSL . I t s eems a s i f t he u nconso l idated s ed iments o n wh ich t he wa l l wa s b u i lt a l lowed

e xtens ive

u ndertrench ing

t hat

e ventua l ly

c au sed

d is locat ion ,

p a rt ia l

d estruct ion , a nd g enera l s ubmergence o f t he wa l l . T h is p rocess m igh t e xp la in t he u ndu lat ing e levat ion o f t he wa l l 's l i ne . T he u pper s u rface o f t he f ourth c ourse a long t he l i ne o f wa l l i s a t 0 .6 m b e low MSL a t 1m s outh o f t he n orth e nd ; 0 .8 m b e low a t 5m ; 0 .73 m b e low a t 8m ; 1 .0 m b e low a t 1 2 m ; 0 .7 m b e low a t 2 1 m ; 0 .6 m b e low a t 2 7 m ; 1 . 1 m b e low a t 3 8 m ; 0 .9 m b e low a t 4 5 m ; a nd 1 .2 m b e low a t 5 5 m , n ext t o i t s s outh e nd . The west s ide o f t he wa l l i s c overed b y al ayer o f h eavy b u i ld ing s tones , r ubb le , a nd s cattered c o lu mn d rums , s ome o f wh ich s ee ms t o make s ense a s d isp laced c o mponents o f t he wa l l i t se lf :

f or e xamp le , t wo c oncreted masses o f b u i ld ing

s tones a nd p ara l le l c o lu mns l a id p erpend icu lar t o t he wa l l , o ne 9 m w est o f m 1 3 , a nd t he o ther 8 m west o f m 2 2 . A t h ird g roup o f f our p a ra l le l c o lumns l i es o n t he b ottom , a t 1 .9 m o f water 6 m west o f m 3 8 .

P lott ing t hese c o lu mns a nd o thers

s cattered n ea rby g ives a g enera l l ayout t hat s uggests a w estern e dge o f t he wa l l a bout 8 m west o f i t s e astern f ace . T h is p oss ib le western f ace was b u i lt i n much t he s ame way a s t he s ea-wa l ls o f t he C rusader Harbour C itade l , w ith c ourses o f c o lu mns a t i t s b ase a nd o ther c o lumns i ncorpora ted a s r e inforc ing b eams i nto t he u pper c ourses o f t he s tructure . A C rusader d ate f or t he wa l l c an b e d educed a lso f rom i t s j o int w ith a s egment o f wa l l s et w ith i r on c lamps i n at yp ica l C rusader t echn ique k nown a lso f rom Akko ( L inder 8 c R aban 1 966 : 2 3-27) a nd e l sewhere i n Caesarea ( Raban e t a l .

1 976 : 3 5 ) . A s ar esu lt , t h is wa l l m ight b e ac ont inuat ion o f

t he C rusader s ea-wa l l , t he r emnants o f wh ich a re c lea r ly v is ib le a t t he h ead land n orth o f t he b ay a nd a long i t s n orth s hore i n A rea S ( Sect ion I I .Q ; c f . d iscuss ion o f t he Co lumn J etty i n S ect ion 1 .1 3 .3 ) .

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 83

The s outhern s ect ion o f t he wa l l i sp reserved o n ly t o t he l eve l o f t he s urroundi ng s ea-f loor , a nd i t s e a stern e dge c an b e f o l lowed o n ly w ith d iff icu lty among t he mass o f s cattered d ebr is . T he n orth e nd o f t h is s egment i so ffset a bout 2 m e ast o f t he s outh e nd o f t he l onger s egment a nd t he c onnect ion b etween t he t wo i s n ow t ota l ly l ost . T he c ourse o f t h is s outhern s ect ion i s 1 85 °,1 8° d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he n orthern o ne . I t i s c omposed o f t he s ame t ype o f b locks a s t he o ther s ect ion a nd was p reserved t o a max imu m h e ight o f t hree c ourses a t ap o int 5 m away f ro m i t s n orthern t i p . A t t hat p o int i t s u pper s urface i s n ow a t 1 .5 m b e low MSL a nd i t s b ase a t 2 .38 m . A t many p o ints t he wa l l i s p reserved t o aw idth o f t h ree o r f our b locks , a nd i n t wo p laces mass ive c o lumns a re i ncorpora ted w ith in i t . A t t he n orth e nd , t he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he s tructure s eems t o b e i nd icated b y t he t i p o f a westf ac ing e dge 5 .1 m away f rom t he e astern o ne . I f t he l i ne o f t h is f ace i s p ro jected p ara l le l t o t he e a stern e dge f or i t s 3 8 m l eng th , i t t erm inates j ust b eyond a c o lumn b r idg ing most o f t he w idth o f t he s tructure , a nd a t t he l i ne o f t he s outh e dge o f t he r e mnants o f ar ectangu lar t ower 3 .1 m t o t he west . On ly t he i nner c ore o f t he b a se o f t h is t ower h as s u rv ived , a s a mass o f r ubb le a nd sma l l s tones b ound b y h eavy mortar .

A t t he e ast s ide o f t h is r ectangu lar p i le

t here a re t wo c o lu mns . One marks t he s outheast c orner a nd h as a d ia meter o f 1 .3 m . I t s p reserved s haft i s 3 .2 m l ong . T he s econd c o lumn i so n ly 0 .62 m i n d iameter a nd i s l a id n ear t he n ortheast c orner o f t he t ower , p o int ing n orthward , w ith i t s 6 m l ong s haft l i n ing u p w ith t he e astern s ide o f t he r ectang le . I t s ee ms a s i f t h is c o lu mn was a b ind ing c omponent o f t he t ower wa l l . Two p ara l lel c o lumn s hafts s im i la r t o t he o ne a t t he s outheast c orner o f t he t ower a re l a id a s as outhern c ont inuat ion o f t he s tructure a nd m ight r epresent r e ma ins o f t he s outh wa l l o f t he t ower a nd t he t i p o f t he s tructure . On t he b as is o f t he measu re ments a nd s tructura l c omponents o f t he t owers a nd wa l ls a t t he e astern s ide o f t he Harbour C itade l , s ome 5 0 m SW o n t he p romontory ( Sect ion 1 1 .0 ; p lans , f igs . 1 1 .125-26 , 1 28 ) , o ne c an r econstruct a t ower w ith a c hamber 9 x 6 m s urrounded b y wa lls 3 .2-3 .8 m t h ick . The s outh wa l l o f t he t ower c ont inued a long t he s outh e dge o f t he s tructure e ast o f i t . Th is s tructure was v ery p robab ly a p latform o r aq uay , 5 .1 m w ide a t i t s s outhern s ect ion a nd b acked b y as ea-wa l l t hat r an a long i t s western e dge . Th is s ea-wa l l c ont inued a lso a long t he west s ide o f t he n orth s ect ion , a nd t he c o lumns t here m ight i nd icate i t s c ourse .

I f p ro jected n orthward , i t wou ld l i ne u p w ith t he

r ema ins o f t he C rusader s tructu res a t t he b ase o f t he Co lumn J etty a nd w ith t he b ase c ourse o f a wa l l t hat r uns a cross t he Roman P ier i n A rea L ( Sect ion I I .K ) . The p rob lem r ema ins o f why t he r ema ins o f t he q uay , t ower , a nd s ea-wa l l a re n ow s o f ar b e low MSL . F lu id izat ion a nd u ndertrench ing m ight b e t he c ause f or s ome s ubs idence , b ut t he g enera l i n tegr ity o f t he s urv iv ing p ort ions o f t he wa l l s uggests t hat t he ir c omb ined e ffect d id n ot e xceed b y v ery much t he p resent i r regu lar ity i n t he l eve l o f t he c ou rses , wh ich i sl ess t han 0 .7 m . Another c ause f or t he s ubmergence m igh t b e t he f act t hat a t t he t ime t h is c omp lex was b u i lt t he s ea l eve l was e ustat ica l ly l ower b y 0 .5-0 .8 m t han a t p resent . An a bra s ive n otch a t t he e a stern f ace o f t he wa l l t hat c an b e t raced a t v ar io us p laces a long t he b etter p reserved p a rts o f t he n orthern s ect ion i s n ow a t a d epth o f 1 .1-0 .8 m , a long t he t op o f t he f ourth c ourse . T h is n otch r epresents t he

1 84

1 1 .R : A rea T

s ea l eve l a t t he t ime t h is s tructure wa s i n tact a nd s t il l f unct ion ing .

I t wou ld l eave

1 .2 m o f water d epth a long t he i nner f ace o f t he q uay , o r s omewhat l ess , c on s ideri ng t he b ase o f t he s tructure must h ave b een c overed b y s i lt t o ac erta in e xtent . These d ata c orrespond t o t he f act t hat t he f ourth c ourse i s t he u ppermost t o s urv ive f or most o f t he n orthern s ect ion , maybe a s s ome k ind o f a n a bras ive p latf orm . T he a dvanced d estruct ion o f t he a d jacent s ea-wa l l m ight h ave b een c aused b y i t s b e ing a t a l l , n arrow s tructure r ather t han a b road , l ow o ne l i ke t he q uay . Once u ndertrenched , s uch a wa l l wou ld t umb le i n l arge u n its , w ith a d evastat ing i mpact o n i t s c omponents , wh ich wou ld s oon b e c arr ied away a nd s cattered b y t he s u rge . T he e nerget ic e fforts o f t he Mame lukes t o d emo l ish a s much a s p oss ib le o f t he C rusader f ort if icat ions a t Caesarea a nd t o f i l l u p t he ir a nchorage w ith d ebr is ( Haza rd 1 975 : 8 8-89 ) m igh t a lso e xp la in t he a l most t ota l d isappearance o f t h is s ea-wa l l a nd t he s ide wa l ls o f t he r ectangu lar t ower . [ A .R . ]

R M . Area Y : Roman Sh ipwreck . H is tory o f S urvey a nd E xcavat ion .

A lthough t he f u l l p ub l icat ion o f t he h u l l

a nd a ssoc iated f i nds w i l l a ppear i n V o lu me I , A rea Y was a n i ntegra l p a rt o f t he CAHEP e xcavat ion f or s evera l s ea sons , a nd a p re l im inary r eport must b e g iven h ere .

The w reck was f i rst d iscovered i n t he s um mer o f 1 976 , d ur ing a c asua l s ur-

v ey c arr ied o ut b y A . Raban a nd a g roup o f I UES d ivers . T he e nds o f 2 5 f rames s paced 0 .25 m a pa rt c entre-to-centre were o bserved s t ick ing o ut t he s and f or a d istance o f c a . 6m ( f igs . 1 1 .185-86 ) .

The wooden r e ma ins l ay i n l ess t han 2 .5 m o f

water a bout 6 0 m west o f t he c urrent s horel ine , i n s ide t he p art ia l ly p rotected b ay a bout 2 00 m NW o f t he He l len ist ic Quay i n A rea J , a nd a bout 8 0 m n orth o f t he t wo r ound t owers d iscovered b y t he I ta l ian M iss ion i n 1 960 ( Raban 1 985c : 1 73 , f ig . 2 0) ( f igs . 1 . 8 , 1 1 .90 , p l . 1 ,n o . 6 1 . Heavy s urge a nd p oor v is ib i l ity made i t i mposs ib le t o c arry ou t a n e x tens ive r econna issance , a nd d ur ing l a ter v is its t he a rea was f ound a lways t o b e c omp lete ly c overed w ith a t h ick l ayer o f s and . T he s i te i s p art ial ly p rotected b y r ocky s ha ll ows t o t he west t hat c ause p r i ma ry b reak ing a t t h is p o int o f waves o ver a c erta in magn itude . A s a r esu lt , t here a re b reakers a bove t he w reck most o f t he t ime , wh ich makes t he s and b ar c over ing t he a rea v irtua l ly a p ermanent f eature ( see P eregr ine

1 983 ) . I n c onsequence , i t s ee med l i ke ly t hat , b ecause t he w reck was

a l most c onstant ly c overed b y s and t h rough t he c entur ies , a l a rge p art o f

t he

wooden h u l l m ight h ave s urv ived , d esp ite t he v ery d ynam ic e nv ironment . I t i s p robab le t hat t h is c o mp lete a nd p ermanent c overage was a ltered f or t he f i rst t ime o n ly i n r ecent y ears , d ue t o t he i n terrupt ion o f l ongshore s and movement c aused b y t he c onstruct ion o f t he b reakwaters f or t he c oo l ing wa ter b as in o f t he n ew e lectr ic p ower p lant a t n earby Hadera ( see e .g . G ita i 1 982 , a nd S ect ion 1 .A .4 ) . E ar ly i n 1 980 , ar ip c urrent e xposed a f ew wooden p lanks b etween a nd u nder s ome s cattered s tone b locks s evera l metres s outh o f t he f rames d iscovered i n 1 976 . The p resence o f mort ise-and-tenon j o ints i nd icated t he s h ip h ad b een b u ilt i n t he a nc ient s he l l-f irst t echn ique . F urther , c a rbon-14 a na lyses p erformed o n s a mp les f rom t wo p lanks , o ne f rame , a nd o ne t enon a t t he We izmann I nst itute o f S e i-

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 85

e nce ( Rehovot , I s rae l ) d a ted t he wood t o 1 900 ± 1 40 BP a nd 1 900 ± 2 20 BP ( 133 B .C .-A .D . 3 07) , c a lcu lated a t a n u ncorrected h a lfl ife d ecay r ate o f 5 570 y ears . Dendroch rono log ica l c orrect ion b ased o n t he b r ist lecone p ine p rov ides a d ate o f a pprox i mately 2 00 B .C . ±2 40 y ea rs , o r as pan o f f rom 4 40 B .C . t o A .D . 4 0 ( see Append ix I I .B , b e low) . T hese d ata s uggested t he w reck m ight b e t hat o f as h ip f rom t he E ar ly Roman p er iod , p erhaps e ven f rom t he t ime o f Herod . B y e ar ly Apr i l o f 1 980 , w inter s torms h ad c leared t he s and away f ro m t he s outh e nd a nd s outhea st e dge o f t he s urv iv ing p ort ion o f t he h u l l . Dur ing a f ew d ays b etween t wo s torms , t he s i te was s urveyed a nd p hotographed a nd t he f i rst p lan o f t he h u l l wa s made . T h is s urvey r evea led t hat t he s ea-bottom o n wh ich t he h u l l 's r ema ins l ay c ons isted o f a v ery c o mpact o range t o g rey ish-brown l oam , wh ich was c overed b y s cattered r ubb le , s ea-worn p otsherd s , a nd s o me h eavy a rt if acts t hat h ad b een c arr ied b y t he waves f rom t he n earby s hore ( f ig . 1 1 .187 ) . T he w reck was f ound t o c ons ist o f as egment o f t he l ower p art o f t he wooden h u l l o f ah eavy merchantman . T he s outh e nd c ompr ised a n i ntact s egment o f 1 4 p lank ing s trakes j ust u nder 0 .09 m t h ick , a nd t wo s trakes e xtended a n a dd it iona l 6 .2 m s outhward . F orty-three f rames were c ounted a bove t he s and a long t he e aste rn e dge , c ons ist ing o f h a lf-frames a lterna t ing w ith f loor t imbers a nd t he ir f utt ocks ( f ig . 1 1 .185 ) .

T hese f rames were

mou lded ( h igh ) c a .

0 .25-0 .28

m ,

s ided

( w ide ) a bout 0 .16 m , a nd s et s ome 0 .09 m a part . A c o i led r ope was f ound n ear t he p lanks e xtend ing s outhward , a nd o ther s cattered f inds i nc luded n u merous l arge f ragments o f d o l ia , o ne l eg f rom a f o ld ing b ronze t ab le ( two more l egs were r ecovered i n 1 980 b y S . Wachsmann , t he mar ine s uperv isor o f t he I s rae l Department o f Ant iqu it ies ) , ab ad ly worn p late , ab ronze r od o f ab a lance s ca le , af ew l ead b ra i l ing r ings , a nd s ome f ragments o f l ead s heath ing ( see V o lu me I ) . T he f i rst a ttempt t o e xcavate t he w reck was made i n t he 1 983 CAHEP s ea son . E xcavat ion was c arr ied o ut w ith a 5 inch d redge c onnected b y a3 inch f i rehose t o ap ump l ocated o n s hore ( f ig . 1 1 .182 ) . T he p u mp d e l ivered 1 500 l i tres o f water p er m inu te a t ap ressure o f 4a tm . A sma l ler p ump wa s mounted o n a n i nf latab le b oat moored o ver t he w reck s i te . T h is p u mp d eve loped 3 a tm . o f p ressure a nd s upp l ied 5 00 l i tres/m inute t h rough a 2 inch f i rehose t hat t erm ina ted i n a Ga l iazz i n ozz le . Th is p roduced a n e as i ly-regu lated s tream t hat was u sed t o h e lp c lear o ff t he h eavy o verburden o f s and . A b asel ine was e xtended d ue n orth f rom t he k nown s outhwest c orner o f t he w reck , a nd a meta l g r id w as i n sta l led l engthw ise a long t he e astern s ide o f t he b asel ine a t i t s s outhern l im it . T he g r id c ons isted o f f our a d jacent s quares measuri ng 2 m o n as ide t hat c ou ld b e l eve l led i ndependent ly o f o ne a nother . A g r id o f 0 .20 x 0 .20 m s quares was s uper i mposed o n e ach s quare a fter t he h u l l was c o mp lete ly e xposed w ith in i t , t o p rov ide a b a se l eve l f ro m wh ich v ert ica l measurements c ou ld b e t aken ( f ig . 1 1 .184 ) . As er ies o f p robes w ith a irjets was made a long t he N -S b asel ine i n o rder t o l ocate a nd d e l ineate a dd it iona l r e ma ins . T he p robes s uggested t hat wooden h u l l members e xtended a s f ar a s 2 8 m n orth o f t he s outhwest c orner o f t he k nown p ort i on o f t he h u l l , a nd u p t o 4 m west o f t he b asel ine , f or a d istance o f 2 6 m f rom t he s outh e nd o f t he h u l l ( Raban 1 985c : 1 76 , f ig . 2 3 ) .

1 86

1 1 .S : Area Y Over t he c ourse o f t he 1 2 d ays o f s eas c a lm e nough t o a l low work o n t h is s ha l-

l ow s i te , a n a rea 1 4 x 5 m wa s c leared , s tart ing a t t he s outhern , l ess d eep ly-bur ied p art o f t he h u l l . A f ree-hand p lan w ith a p re l im inary s et o f mea surements was made i m med iate ly , t o a cqu ire s ome t entat ive d ata f or t he e nt ire e xcavated a rea . U nfortunate ly , o n ly s ix s qua res were more c lose ly s urveyed a nd d rawn b y a rch it ects b efore waves s evere ly r estr icted work a t t he s i te . I n f act , f or most o f t he s eason t he e xcavat ion wa s aS isyph ian e ffort , a s e ach d ay b egan w ith t he r e mova l o f t he c onstant ly i nf low ing s and . An a tte mpt t o b u i ld a r eta in ing b ank o f s and b ags a round t he w reck r educed t he f low , b ut i t wa s i nadequate whenever t he s urge i ncreased ( f ig . 1 1 .182 ) . I n October o f 1 984 , d ur ing t he mak ing o f ad ocu menta ry f i lm o n C aesarea 's h arbour , a n a dd it iona l s ess ion o f e xcavat ion wa s c arr ied o ut , a nd t he s i te was s urv eyed w ith a meta l d etector ( f ig . 1 1 .183) . T he p urpose o f t h is s urvey w as t o l ocate a rt ifacts t hat m igh t h ave b een c arr ied a way f rom t he ir o r ig ina l c ontext i n t he s unken s h ip . A lthough t he s ea-bottom west a nd s outh o f t he w reck w as l i ttered w ith b u i ld ing s tones , b roken amphoras , s cattered c o in s a nd o ther meta l o b jects , most o f t hese i tems s eemed t o h ave b een d ragged o ut f rom t he s horel ine b y t he r ip c urrents . E xcavat ions o ver 1 1 d ays o f c a lm s eas i n 1 986 r evea led t hat a s ect ion o f f rames a nd p lank ing 3 m l ong h ad d isappeared f rom t he s outh e nd o f t he w reck s ince 1 983 . Moreover , a irjet p robe d ata i nd icated most o f t he h u l l t hought t o h ave b een l ocated n orth o f t he 1 983 e xcavat ion a rea h ad b een s h ifted o r d estroyed b y s torms d ur ing t he i n terven ing y ea rs . Two a reas l ocated a t o ppos ite e nds o f t he p reserved h u l l , wh ich w as t hen e a . 9 .75 m i n l ength , were u ncovered a nd p art ly r ecorded . F rames 8 , 9 , 1 0 , a nd 1 3 a t t he n orth e nd were r ecorded i n p lan v iew . S ect ions a cross t he h u l l w ere t aken a t f rames 8 a nd 1 3 . E leva t ions o f t he e ast a nd wes t e dges o f t he h u l l b etween f rames 8a nd 1 3 were a lso d rawn . A t t he s outhern e xtrem ity o f t he w reck , wh ich was o n ly 2m w ide , a sma l l a rea wa s c lea red c ons ist ing o f 1 . 5 m o f p lank ing s outh o f f rame 3 3 . Th is a rea wa s d rawn o n ly i n p lan v iew . R e lat ive ly f ew a rt ifacts were f ound i n 1 986 . A b eaut ifu l ly p reserved i vory g am ing d ie was r etr ieved f rom t he e ast e dge , a nd a l ead t oken , u nfortunate ly i leg ib le , was r ecovered f rom t he f i l l b etween t wo f rames . B etween t he f rames o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he h u l l wa s f ound mud m ixed w ith s traw , t w igs , a nd s ome p ine n eed les ; ap ine c one o f t he s pec ies P inus p inea was d iscovered i n ac oncret ion l odged b etween f rames 1 2 a nd 1 3 . 2 Numerous c oncreted i ron n a i ls o f v a r ious s izes a nd c onf igurat ions were f ound ( d iscu ss ion i n V o lume I ) . Destruct ion o f t he w reck b y t he s ea c ont inued i n 1 986 a nd 1 987 . E xposure b y a s torm i n e ar ly s pr ing o f 1 987 d isc losed t hat a nother 2 m o f p lank ing a nd 3 m o f f rames h ad b een l ost f rom t he s outhern e xtre m ity . A t t hat t ime t he t imbers were c overed w ith more t han 2 00 s andbags i n a n e ffort t o p revent f urther d amage . Descr ip t ion o r t he S h ip .

A s um mary d escr ipt ion o f s ome o f t he h u l l 's f eatures

i sg iven h ere . A more d eta i led d iscuss ion w ith c i tat ion o f p ara l le ls a nd a c o mp lete c orpus o f t he f i nds w i l l b e p ub l ished i n V o lume I .

2 I dent if icat ion c onf irmed b y D r . M .E . K is lev , D epartment o f L ife S c iences , B arI l an Un ivers ity , R a ma t Gan , I s rae l .

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 87

Wood s amp les t aken f rom t h ree p lanks a nd f our f rames a l l p roved t o b e p ine o f t he Red a nd Wh ite p ine g roups , a t l east h a lf o f wh ich a re n ot l oca l v a r iet ies . Two t enons a re o f p op lar , a nd t h ree t reena ils b e long t o t he l i ve o ak g roup ( see Append ix 1 1 .A , b e low ) .3 The s h ip wa s b u i lt i n s tanda rd G raeco-Roman f ash ion :

h ul l p lanks were f as-

t ened e dge-to-edge w ith mort ise-and-tenon j o ints , a nd f rames c ons ist o f f loor t imbers a nd f uttoc i cs t hat a lternate r egu lar ly w ith h a lf-frames ( f igs . 1 1 .188-89 ) T he k ee l was o r ig ina l ly l ocated west o f t he e x ist ing p ort ion o f t he h u l l , a s i nd ic ated b y t he h eavy d amage t o t he f loor t imbers a nd p lank ing , a nd b y t he p resence o f f in ished h a lf-frame e xtre m it ies , a long t he west e dge o f t he r ema ins . F urthermore , a t t he e astern e dge , t he e roded e nds o f t he f rames u sua l ly b eg in t o make t he t urn o f t he b i lge ( f ig . 1 1 .186 ) . A s ing le l ayer o f s trakes r eaches a max i mum b readth o f a pprox imate ly 3 .2 m n ear t he n orth e nd o f t he w reck a t f ra me 1 3 . P lanks a re a max i mum o f 0 .32 m w ide ( avg . 0 .285 m ) a nd 0 .09-0 .094 m t h ick b etween f ra mes 8 a nd 1 3 , a nd 3 3 a nd 3 9 . The mort ise-and-tenon j o ints a re s taggered a cross t he t h ickness o f t he p lanks a nd s paced a mere 0 .05-0 .06 m a part ( f igs . 1 1 .188-89 ) . D i mens ions o f t he mort ises measu red v ary , b ut t hey a verage 0 .09 m i n w idth , 0 .01 m i n t h ickness , a nd t he t eno ns f i t t ight ly w ith in t hem . T he p egs h o ld ing t he t enons i n p lace a re s paced c ons ist ent ly a t i nterva ls o f 0 . 13-0 .14 m c entre-to-centre , a nd a re s et 0 .03-0 .04 m f ro m t he p lank ing s ea ms . F rames e xa m ined s o f ar a re n atura l ly-grown s hapes . The h a lf-frames a re o f o ne p iece , a nd t he f loor t imbers a nd t he ir f uttocks a re s eparated b y g aps o f 0 .02-0 .10 m ( f igs . 1 1 .185-86) .

F rames 8 t hrough 1 3 s pan b readth s o f u p t o 3 .5 m

a nd a re s et 0 .05-0 .10 m a part , w ith a n a verage s pac ing o f 0 .07 m . A t t he west o r k ee l s ide o f t he h ul l r ema ins , t hese f rames a re mou lded ( th ick ) 0 .15-0 .20 m , b ut a verage 0 .167 m . They a re s ided ( w ide ) a n a verage 0 .18 m , r ang ing f rom 0 .16 t o 0 .22 m . A long t he e astern e dge o f t he w reck , n ear t he t urn o f t he b i lge , t he s ame f rames a re s ided 0 .18-0 .19 m a nd mou lded 0 .18-0 .24 m , a verag ing 0 .18 m . W ith a verage s ided d i mens ions o f a bout 0 .18 m a nd a n a verage s pac ing o f s o me 0 .07 m , r oo m a nd s pace ( d istance c entre-to-centre ) a verages 0 .25 m . The f rames a re f astened t o t he h u l l p lanks w ith t reena i ls d r iven f ro m t he o uts ide a nd s taggered t o p revent s p l itt ing .

T reena i l d iameters a re e a . 0 .015 m o n t he

i n ter ior f rame s urfaces a nd c a . 0 .02-0 .025 m a t t he o uter p lank ing f aces . Occas iona l ly , b ronze n a il s ( D o f h ead 0 .035

m , D o f s haft

0 .0065

m ) were d r iven

t h rough t he t reena ils , b ut t hey d id n ot p rotrude a bove t he i n ter ior f rame f aces . I n t he a bsence o f a n o pportun ity t o e xam ine t he e xter ior o f t he h u l l , n o p attern f or s uch u sage h a s y et b een a scerta ined . A u n ique f eature o f t he Caesarea s h ip l i es i n t he u se o f b o lts i nserted t hrough t he p lank ing a nd f rames f ro m t he o uts ide . I n s o me p laces t he ir c oncreted s hafts p rotrude a bove t he u pper f rame s urfaces . Two s uch b o lts were n oted i n 1 986 ( f ig . 1 1 .192 ) , a nd i n 1 987 , when t he s urv iv ing p ort ions o f t he h u l l were a l most c o mp lete ly e xposed , f our more were r ecorded .

W ith in t he c oncret ions t he b o lts a re

3 Wood a na lyses p erformed b y D onna J . Ch r istensen o f t he Center f or Wood Anato my Research , U .S . F orest P roducts L aboratory , Mad ison , W iscons in , a nd b y t he s taff o f t he A rchaeometr ic L aboratory a t T e l Av iv U n ivers ity .

1 88

I I .S : A rea Y

c a . 0 .013 m i n d iameter a t t he f rames , b ut t aper s l ight ly t o 0 .011 m a t t he ir u pper e xtrem it ies , wh ich a re 0 .08 m f ro m t he f rame s urfaces .

A c oncret ion was r ecov-

e red t hat y ie lded a p erfect c ast o f what h ad b een a c opper a l loy washer . I t s i nner d iameter matches p erfect ly t he d ia meters o f t he u pper e xtre m it ies o f t he b o lts . F rom t h is e v idence i t may b e c aut ious ly p roposed t hat s uch b o lts were u sed t o f ast en h eavy s tr ingers c a .

0 .08

m t h ick t o t he p lanks a nd f ra mes . T he d istances

b etween t he f our b o lts f ound i n 1 987 s uggest s uch s tr ingers c ou ld h ave b een e a . 0 .18-0 .25 m w ide , a nd t hat t hey m ight h ave b een f astened w ith t he b o lts a bout e very 2 m ( that i s , a t e very e ighth f rame ) . I n a ny e ase , t he p ract ice o f b o lt ing s tr ingers t o p lanks a nd f ra mes , i f t h is i s i ndeed t rue f or t he Caesa rea s h ip , i s u npara l le led i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i teratu re . I t wou ld a lso b e u n ique i f t he b o lts were u sed s imp ly t o f asten p lanks t o t he f rames , a part f rom t he p resence o f s tr ingers . Yet a nother u nusua l f eature o f t h is s h ip i s t he a l ign ment o f t he g aps b etween a l l f loor t imbers a nd t he ir r espect ive f uttocks d own t he l ength o f t he h u l l ( f ig . 1 1 .186 ) ; t he l imber h o les i n t he h a lf-frames a l ign w ith t hese g aps . I t was i n teresti ng t o d iscover t hat w ith in t hose l imber h o les , a nd t hus a b le t o p a ss t hrough t he g aps , i s ar ope 0 .015 m i n d iameter ( f ig . 1 1 .191 ) . I t s f unct ion c lear ly wa s t o h e lp k eep t he l imber h o les o pen t o a ssure f ree p a ssage o f b i lge water t o ab i lge p u mp . We h ave f ound o n ly o ne o ther e xa mp le i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i terature o f r ope w ith in l imber h o les : t he l ate f ourth- o r e ar ly f i fth-century P ort-Vend res w reck ( L iou 1 974 : 4 23) . On f rame 2 1 , a t t he i nboa rd e xtrem it ies o f t he f uttock a nd f loor t imber , a g roup o f Greek l etters h as b een s cratched i n to t he wood t w ice ( f ig . 1 1 .190 ) .

One

p oss ib le r ead ing i s X IAIA P PN, wh ich m ight t rans late a s " one t housand , 7 50" o r " 1750 ," p oss ib ly s o me i nd icat ion o f t he c apac ity o f t he s h ip .

L ione l Casson ( ora l

c o m mun icat ion ) h as s uggested t hat t hey m ight h ave b een c arved b y as tevedore i nvo lved i n l oad ing t he s h ip . The wooden h ul l o f t he Caesarea s h ip was p rotected f rom mar ine b orers a nd i t s watert ightness i mproved b y at h in s hea th ing o f l ead . S uch s heath ing was c o mmon ly f astened w ith c opper t acks o ver a l ayer o f f abr ic i mpregnated w ith p itch o r as im i lar s ubstance . T races o f p itch were o bserved , b ut n o f abr ic , a nd t he p ieces o f s heath ing r ecovered f rom t he s i te a re p ierced w ith n a i l h o les 0 .005 m i n d iamet er , s paced 0 .055-0 .065 m a part i n aq u incunx p attern ( f ig . 1 1 .193) . E qu ipment , F itt ings , a nd Cargo .

A f ew i t e ms o f e qu ipment a ssoc iated w ith

t he o perat ion o f t he s h ip h ave a lso b een f ound o n t he s i te . A l ead b ox w ith o ne p ipe s t il l a ttached a nd h o les f or t wo o thers was d iscovered i n t he w inter o f 1 985 . The b ox i s r ectangu la r w ith a n o pen t op , a nd n o s o ldered s eams a re e v ident i n t he l ead , wh ich i s 0 .0017-0 .002 m t h ick . O r ig ina l d i mens ions c an b e r econstructed a s 0 .29 x 0 .15 x 0 .21 m , s uggest ing a c apac ity o f a bout 9 l i tres . T he p ipe i s made o f l ead s heet ing 0 .003 m t h ick a nd h as a n o uter d iameter o f a bout 0 .05 m . A n u mber o f s im ilar b oxes h ave b een f ound o n s h ipwrecks o f t he R o man p er iod a nd a re t hought t o b e c omponents o f b i lge p ump s ystems ( O leson 1 984e : 1 97 , 2 13 , 2 18 ) . I n 1 983 , e ight l ead r ings w ith i nner d iameters o f 0 .02-0 .032 m were r ecovered , a nd a nother t wo were f ound i n 1 987 t hat a re 0 .026-0 .041 m i n d iameter . C rosss ect ion s hapes r ange f ro m c ircu la r t o r ectangu lar . N o h o les o r l ugs a re p resent o n

Chapter I I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 89

a ny r ings , a nd n one i s s p l it o pen . T hese p robab ly a re b ra i l ing r ing s f rom t he s a i ls o f t he s h ip , b ut t hey c ou ld h ave s erved e qua l ly f or t he d isentang le ment o f f i sh ing l i nes ( d iscuss ion i n V o lu me H ) . Th ree r opes were d iscovered a bout 0 .15 m west o f t he west e xtrem ity o f f rame 1 3 i n 1 986 . Two l arge o nes were p os it ioned a t t he l eve l o f t he f rame/p lank i nterface ( f ig . 1 1 .191 ) , wh i le a t h ird l ay a pprox imate ly 0 .20 m b eneath t hem . I t measured e a . 0 .01-0 .015 m i n d iameter . B oth l a rge r opes c ons ist o f t hree s trands l a id l eft , a nd o ne i sr ound w ith a d iameter o f 0 .05 m . T he o ther i sf lattened i n s ect ion , w ith d i mens ions o f 0 .045 x 0 .02 m .

B otan ica l a na lys is i nd icates t h is l atter

r ope was made o f r o l led l eaves o f S t ipa t enac iss ima , o r E sparto g rass ( Append ix I I .A ) .4 F rag ments o f t hree d i fferent s izes a nd s hapes o f d o l ia were f ound i n t he i m med iate v ic in ity o f t he w reck i n 1 983 .

The f i rst t ype h as n o d ist inct r im a nd n o

h and les . Max i mum i n terna l d iameter i s e a . 1m , w ith a h e ight much g reater , a nd t he d ia meter o f t he mouth e xceed s 0 .60 m . The c losest p ara l le ls t o t h is t ype c ome f rom t he Cap B enot 2 w reck , wh ich p robab ly d ates t o e ar ly i n t he f i rst c entury A .C . ( L 'Hour , L ong , P o mey 1 985 : d o l ia

o n

t he

D iano

Ma r ina

8 1) . More p ara l le ls a re p rov ided b y t he c argo o f

w reck ,

o ff

t he

L igur ian

c oast

o f

I ta ly

( Pa l la res

1 975-81 : 9 2-97 ) . On b oth s i tes t he d o l ia a re s o mewhat l arger t han t hose a t Caes a rea , a nd s eem t o h ave c onta ined w ine . The s econd d o l iu m t ype h as a s hort n eck w ith a b road f o lded r im , a nd v ert ica l s em i-c ircu lar h and les . I t measures a bout 1 .1-1.2 m h igh , a nd h as a max i mum d iameter o f j ust u nder 1 m . The d ia meter o f t he b ase v ar ies f rom 0 .24-0 .32 m , wh i le t he mouth d iameter r anges f ro m 0 .32-0 .39 m . The t h ird t ype h a s an eck a nd r im much l i ke t hose o f t he s econd t ype , b ut t he d iameter o f t he mouth i s s omewhat g reater , a t 0 .36-0 .42 m . T he d iameter o f t he b ase i s 0 .23-0 .36 m . P re l im inary Ana lys is .

F rom t he i nformat ion a t h and i t i s d iff icu lt t o d raw

many f i rm c onc lus ions a bout t he s h ip . We c annot d eterm ine where t he s h ip was c onstructed , b ecause we o n ly k now t hat a t l east h a lf o f t he p ine u sed f or t he p lanks a nd f rames a re n ot l oca l v a r iet ies . A t most , we m ight v enture t hat t he s h ip was n ot b u i lt i n t he L evant . The r e ma ins e xcavated a nd p robed i n 1 983 e xtended s ome 3 4 m , a nd f rames f ro m p a rt o f o ne s ide o f t he s h ip s panned 3 .5 m , i nd icat ing t hat t he s h ip was o f s ign if icant s ize . T h is c onc lus ion i s f urther s upported b y t he h eavy p lanks f astened w ith s taggered

mort ise-and-tenon j o ints ,

a nd b y

t he

l a rge

d i mens ions

o f

t he

c lose ly s et f rames , wh ich a re l arger t han t hose i n t he s h ip t hat s ank n ear L a Madrague d e G iens . That v esse l , d ated t o 7 0-60 B .C . , i sr econstructed t o c a . 4 0 m x9m ( Pomey 1 982 : 1 45 , 1 47 , f ig . 8 ) .

T he Caesarea s h ip was q u ite l i ke ly o f s im i lar

s ize , a nd p erhaps a b it l arger . The c arbon-14 d ata ( Append ix I I .B ) i mp ly a c onstruct ion d ate e ar l ier t han t he f i rst c entury A .C . , a s d oes t he p resence o f l ead s heath ing o n t he h u l l , af eature t hat i sq u ite r are o n Roman c raft f ro m t he f i rst c entury o n . However , t he w reck 's c lose p rox im ity t o Herod 's h arbour , wh ich was b u i lt b etween 2 3 B .C . a nd 1 0 B .C . , m ight s uggest a d ate l a te i n t he f i rst c entury B .C . o r l ater f or t he s h ip 's s ink ing .

4 B otan ica l a na lys is p erformed b y P rofessor Doctor Ude lga rd Körber-Grohne o f t he I nst itut f ür B otan ik , Un ivers ität Hohenhe im , S tuttgart , West Germany .

1 90

I I .S : A rea Y

Moreover , t he u se o f d o l ia a s c argo c onta iners i sc ons idered t o b e a n i nnovat ion o f t he L ate Augustan e ra , e a r ly i n t he f i rst c entury A .C . ( L 'Hour , L ong , a nd P o mey 1 985 : 7 9 ) . I n c onsequence , ac onstruct ion d ate o f t he f i rst c entury B .C . , a nd a w reck d ate o f s o met i me i n t he f i rst c entury A .C . s eem l i ke ly f or t he Caesarea s h ip . Our h istor ica l u nderstand ing o f t he t ypes o f g oods t hat were t ransh ipped a t S ebastos s uggest t ha t t he b u lk c argo c onta ined i n t he d o l ia o f t he Caesa rea s h ip m ight h ave b een e i ther s a lt f rom t he Dead S ea o r s p ices f ro m t he I nd ian Ocean t hat c ame o ver c a ravan r outes p art ia l ly c ontro l led b y Herod ( cf . S idebotham 1 986 : 7 6-77 ) . The i s sue o f why K ing Herod b u i lt s uch a magn if icent a nd o vers ized h arbour i n t he p oor v assa l k ingdom o f J udea w i l l b e d iscussed i n V o lu mes I I a nd I V o f t h is r eport . Here , w ith in t he c ontext o f ap r i ma r i ly f actua l d escr ipt ion o f t he e xcavat ions , i t c an b e s uggested o n ly t hat t he w reck i n A rea Y m ight b e r e levant t o t he q uest ion . I t s l arge d i mens ions , h eavy s tructure , a nd p resumed b u lk c a rgo s eem c ons istent w ith t he n ot ion t hat t h is mar ine e ng ineer ing e ndeavor was n ot i n tended s imp ly f or s how , b ut t hat i t was a we l l-ca lcu lated e conom ic p ro ject d es igned t o a ttract i nternat iona l s eaborne t rade w ith i t s c ons iderab le r evenues . An a lternat ive h ypothes is i s t hat t he s h ip was a b u lk c arr ier w recked wh i le moored a t t he s em ip rotected l agoon o f t he p re-Herod ian a nchorage d ur ing t he t ime S ebastos was u nder c onstruct ion . I t may h ave b een c arry ing b u i ld ing mater ia ls s uch a s t he p ozz o lana a nd t uff a dded t o t he c oncrete u sed i n t he h arbour , wh ich were l oaded a t P uteo l i i n t he B ay o f Nap les . ( M .F . , A .R . ]

APPEND IX ILA : ANALYS IS OF WOOD AND ROPE

Append ix 1 1 .A .1: Wood a nd Rope f rom Areas D a nd G . The f o l low ing r esu lts h ave b een t rans lated f rom t he Hebrew r eports r ece ived b y CAHEP f ro m t he L aboratory f or A rchaeometr ic S tud ies a t T e l Av iv Un ivers ity , r eports p repared b y D r . L iphsch itz a nd S . L ev-Yadun .

D r . L iphsch itz f requent ly

v is ited Caesarea d ur ing t he f ie ld s easons a nd i n structed o ur s taff i n p roper s a mp l ing t echn iques , i n o rder t o i nsure t he q ua l ity o f t he s pec imen a nd t he p roper t reat ment o n t he way f rom r ecovery t o t he l aboratory i n T e l Av iv . Twenty-e ight p ieces o f wood a nd o ne p iece o f r ope were s e lected d ur ing t he 1 982 s eason . They were k ept i n s ter i le water i n p last ic b ags a nd b rought t o t he l aboratory i n T e l Av iv , a long w ith a d eta i led d escr ipt ion o f e ach p iece , i nc lud ing t he l ocat ion , d epth , a rchaeo log ica l c ontext , a nd p robab le d ate . S o me o f t he s amp les t urned o ut t o b e i n s uch a s tate o f d ecay t hat t he i dent if icat ion o f t he s pec ies was n ot p oss ib le . S uch s amp les were l eft o ut o f t h is r eport . A l l t he s amp les were f rom A rea s D a nd G . T he f i rst g roup i s c omposed o f f ragments o f wood f ound o n o r i n t he l owest c lay s tratu m t hat r epresents t he a ctua l f loor o f t he Herod ian h arbour b as in a t t he t ime i t wa s s t il l f unct ion ing . T he l atest d atab le a rchaeo log ica l c ontext i s n o l ater t han e ar ly t h ird c entury A .C . The o ther g roup was c ol lected f rom t he r e mnants o f t he wooden f orms o f t he c oncrete b lock a t t he n orthwest t i p o f t he Northern B reakwater a nd f ro m p art o f t he s leeper b eam a nd o ther wooden p ieces t hat were r ecovered a t t he b ase o f t he T ower j ust t o t he n orth , b oth i n A rea G ( f ig . 1 1 .196 ) ( Sect ion I I .F ) . T ab le 1 a re s cattered a round t he t rench i n A rea D1 .

The l oc i i n

T he l oc i i n Tab le 2 a re a s

f o l lows : aa nd b , west s ide o f s outh b lock ; c , n orthwest c orner o f s outh b lock ; d , n orth f ace o f s outh b lock ; ea nd f ,e a st f ace o f s outh b lock ; g , s outheast c orner o f s outh b lock ; h , s outh f ace o f s outh b lock ; 1a nd j ,s outh f ace o f n orth b lock ; k , west f ace o f n orth b lock .

T ab le 1 . Wood a nd R ope S amp les f ro m A rea D . No .

L ocus

Depth

D escr ipt ion

S pec ies

1 .

D 1-a

9 .2 m r ope f ragment

P hoen ix c l acty 1 ifera ( Pa l m)

2 .

D l-a

9 .1 m p lank

u n ident if ied

3 .

D l-a

9 .6 m

t w ig s

u n ident if ied

4 .

D l-a

5 .

D 1-a

6 .

D 1-2

8 .7 m

t w igs

Quercus c a l l ipr inos ( Oak )

7 .

D 1-2

8 .7 m

t w igs

Quercus c a l l ipr inos ( Oak )

8 .

D l-b

1 0 .6 m t reena i l

Quercus c a l l ipr inos ( Oak )

9 .

D l-b

1 0 .4 m t reena i l

Quercus s p . ( Oak )

heave b lock 9 .3 m s 1 0 .1 m p lank ( f rom s h ip? )

191-

( see T ab le 3 , b e low ) P inus s p . ( P ine )

1 92

Append ix L ILA : Wood a nd R ope 1 0 .

D 1-a

9 .7 m

b roken t enon ( ? )

B uxus s p . ( Boxwood )

1 1 .

D l-b

9 .7 m

p lank ( f ro m s h ip? )

P opu lus s p . ( Pop lar )

b eam ( sh ip 's f rame?)

P inus s p . ( European P ine )

p lank

u n ident if ied c on ifer

1 2 .

D 1-a

9 .9 m

1 3 .

D1-a

1 0 .1 m

T ab le 2 . Wood S amp les f rom A rea G . No .

L ocus

Depth

Descr ipt ion

S pec ies

5 .8 m

f ormwork p lank

P inus s p . ( European P ine )

G -a

5 .8 m

f ormwork u pr ight

u n ident if ied c on ifer

G -a

6 .1 m

f ormwork s leeper b ea m

Ab ies s p . ( S ilver F ir )

4 .

G -b

5 .7 m

c ross b eam w ith in f orm

u n ident if ied c on ifer

1 .

G -a

2 . 3 . 5 .

G -c

6 .2 m j o int a t NW c orner

6 .

G -d

6 .2 m

f ormwork u pr ight

( see T ab le 3 ) P inus s p . ( European P ine )

7 .

G -f

5 .9 m

f ormwork s leeper

Ab ies s p . ( S i lver F ir )

8 .

G -g

5 .9 m

p art o f j o int a t S E c orner

Ab ies s p . ( F ir )

9 .

G -h

6 .3 m

s leeper b eam ( ? )

P inus s p . ( European P ine )

1 0 .

G i

5 .7 m

s l eeper b eam ( ? )

P inus s p . ( European P ine )

1 1 .

G i

5 .8 m

t reena i l f ro m f ormwork

P opu lus s p . ( Pop la r )

1 2 .

G -k

6 .5 m

s leeper b eam t enon

Quercus s p . ( Oak )

1 3 .

G -k

7 .2 m

f ormwork s leeper b eam

Ab ies s p . ( S ilver F ir )

S o me o f t he s amp les were a ctua l ly c omb ined u n its o f what m ight b e more t han o ne t ype o f wood . T hese were s tud ied s epa rate ly , a nd t he r esu lts s um mar ized i n T ab le 3 . S pec i mens 4 a-c a re c ited f rom T ab le 1 ,s pec imens 7 a-b f rom T ab le 2 .

T ab le 3 . Compos ite Wood S amp les . S pec ies

No .

L ocus

Descr ipt ion

4 a .

D1-a

s heave b lock

B uxus s p . ( Boxwood )

4 b .

D 1-a

s heave b lock whee l

Quercus s p . (European Oak )

4 c .

D1-a

s heave b lock p o le

F agus s p . ( Beech )

7 a .

G -c

j o int o f b eams

P inus s p . ( European P ine )

7 b .

G -c

j o int o f b eams

P icea s p . ( Spruce )

[ N .L . , S .L-Y . , Y .W . ]

Appe r td ix ILA .2 : Wood f rom Area Y . I n 1 983 , 1 2 wood f ragments f rom s e lected members o f t he h u l l o f t he R o man Wreck i n A rea Y were b rought t o t he l ab a t T e l Av iv Un ivers ity . The f o l low ing i nformat ion , d ated 1 Nove mber 1 984 , wa s s ent t o CAHEP ( Report n o . 1 14 ,1 .11 .84) . The s a mp les were t reated , s l iced a nd d yed i n t he r egu la r f reez ing p rocess ( see b e low ) a nd t he i dent if icat ion was made t he s ame way . I t was p oss ib le t o i dent ify o n ly t he g enera l s pec ies , b oth d ue t o t he p oor s ta te o f t he wood a nd t he d iff icu lty o f i dent ify ing E uropean t rees more p rec ise ly . I n s pec ies l i ke o ak a nd p ine , t he

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 93

E uropean s tandard i s t o i dent ify t he l eve l o f t he g enera l s pec ies o n ly , d ue t o t he c lose r esemb lance among t he v ar ious s ub-spec ies . T he h u l l o f t he w reck f rom Caesa rea was made o f t hree t ypes o f wood .

The

l ong t imbers ( p lanks a nd f rames ) a re a l l made o f s o me k ind o f E uropean p ine . The t wo t enons a re o f p op lar , a nd a l l t he t reena i ls o f s o me k ind o f f ore ign e vergreen o ak ( a lso E uropean ) . B ased o n t hese d ata i ti sv ery l i ke ly t hat t he s h ip was b u i lt i n E urope , p robab ly i n I ta ly o r S outhern F rance .

T ab le 4 . Wood S a mp les f rom A rea Y . 1 .

F rame n o . 3 1 :

P inus s p . ( European p ine ) .

2 .

F rame n o . 3 1 :

P inus s p . ( European p ine ) .

3 .

F rame n o . 2 6 ( ha lf f ra me ) : P inus s p . ( European p ine) .

4 .

F rame n o . 2 6 ( ha lf f ra me ) : P inus s p . ( European p ine ) .

5 .

P lank a ( be low s econd wa l l ) :

P inus s p . ( European p ine ) .

6 .

P lank d : P inus s p . ( European p ine ) .

7 .

P lank k ( the westernmost ) :

8 .

T reena i l f rom p lank d : Quercus s p . ( evergreen o ak ) .

P inus s p . ( Eu ropean p ine ) .

9 .

T reena i l f rom t enon o f k : Quercus s p . ( evergreen o ak ) .

1 0 .

T reena i l f rom t enon o f j : Quercus s p . ( evergreen o ak ) .

1 1 .

T enon f rom p lank j : P opu lus s p . ( pop lar ) .

1 2 .

T enon f rom p lank k : P opu lus s p . ( pop lar ) . [ N .L . , S .L-Y . , Y .W . ]

Append ix I I .A .3 : Rope f rom Area Y . F our f ragments o f ap iece o f r ope a ssoc iated w ith t he s h ipwreck i n A rea Y were s ubm itted f or a na lys is ( f ig . 1 1 .191) . Under t he s tereo-m icroscope ( 10X t o 4 0X ) , i t c an b e s een t hat t he r aw mater ia l c ons ists o f r e lat ive ly t h ick a nd s trong p lant mater ia l w ith a d iameter o f 1 mm a nd more . I t t herefore c annot b e long t o t he f u l ly p rocessed f ibres o f f lax o r h e mp .

U nder t he m icroscope ( 100X t o 4 00X ) ,

t h ree t ypes o f c e l lu lar t i ssue c an b e s een : 1 ) E p ider m is c e l ls a lternat ing w ith l ong c el ls a nd s hort c e ll s .

The l ong c el ls

h ave u ndu lat ing wa lls a nd a re r e lat ive ly b road ( 16-18 m il l im ierons ) . 2 ) B und les o f f ibre s e lere ids l y ing d irect ly u nder t he e p iderm is .

The b und les

a re s eparated f rom e ach o ther o n ly b y an a rrow p art w ith o ther c e l ls . 3 ) One l ayer w ith c el ls wh ich a re r ich i n b road p ap i ls ( short h a irs ) . The p ap i ls a re e a . 2 6-34 m i l l im ierons l ong a nd a t t he b a se a re c a . 1 0 m il l im ierons b road . Th is l ayer i ss i tuated a t t he i nner s ide o f t he f ibre b und les . T h is

t ype

o f

c e l lu la r

t i ssue

b e longs

t o

t he

l eaves

o f S t ipa

t enac iss i ma ,

( Esparto g rass ) . T h is u sefu l p lant g rows t oday i n North A fr ica a nd S outhern S pa in . I n R oman t imes i t wa s c om mon ly u sed f or w ickerwork a nd r ope-mak ing . [ U .K-G . [

1 94

Append ix I l .A : Wood a nd Rope

Append ix I I .A .4 : Dendroarchaeo log ica l Ana lys is ( Repor t n o . 9 9 , 3 .11.1982 ) . The s a mp les t hat were b rought b y CAHEP w ere s l iced t o c ubes o f 1 . 0-0 .5 em 3 e ach . Due t o t he d ecayed s tate o f t he water logged wood , i t was f rozen b efore s l ic ing . F reez ing m in im izes t he i n terna l d istort ion o f t he c el ls a nd t i ssues a nd s hortens t he l ong p er iod o f t ime n eeded t o p repare mar ine s a mp les f or s l ic ing ( L iphsch itz , L ev-Yadun , Wa ise l 1 981 : 2 31 ) . The s l ic ing was e xecuted w ith a s l id ing m icrotome i n t h ree d irect ions : t angent ia l

l ong itude ,

b etween 2 0-150

a nd

r ad ia l l ong itude .

T he

t h ickness o f

a cross ,

t he s l ices v ar ied

g , d epend ing u pon t he s tate o f p reservat ion o f e ach s amp le . T he

s l ices were d yed w ith t wo s eparat ive f resh p igments :

C lZn I a nd React if Genevo is .

S uch c o lour ing e nab les v isua l d ist inct ion o f v ar ious c e l l-wal ls . T he i dent if icat ion o f t he t ree s pec ies was made b y v isua l c o mpar isons w ith p hotog raphs o f p ara l le l s pec i mens f ro m t he l ab 's c ata logue , made o f c onte mporary t rees , a nd w ith p hotog raphs o f p ara l le l s ect ions p ub l ished i n s tanda rd b otan ic t extbooks o n E u ropean t rees ( Greguss 1 959 ; S chwe ing ruber 1 978 ) . T he d ata i n T ab les 1 -3 a bove p resent e ight s pec ies o f t rees , s ome o f wh ich c ou ld b e i dent if ied t o t he l eve l o f s ubs pec ies , s uch a s i n t he e ase o f t he o ak , o f wh ich a l b ut o ne s a mp le ( G-14 ) i so f t he l oca l s ub-spec ies , Quercus c a l l ipr inos .

Yet a l l o ther s amp les o f o ak a re o f s ome

E uropean s ub-spec ies t hat c ou ld n ot b e d ef ined f ro m t he p resent s amp les , d ue t o t he ir d ecay ing s tate . I t i s , h owever , q u ite c lear t hat n one o f t hese o ak s amp les c an o r ig inate i n t he t ypes o f o ak wh ich g row i n t he L evant . Three s amp les a re o f u nspec if ied c on ifers ( D-13 , T ab le 1 n o . 1 3 ; G -2 a nd G -4 , T ab le 2 n os . 2 , 4 ) .

T he

s tate o f t he wooden s a mp les e nab le u s t o s ay o n ly t hat t hey a re a l l c on ifers , n ot c ypress , n ot p ine , a nd v ery p robab ly n ot o ther l oca l s pec ies . On ly t wo o f t he e ight s pec ies a re c lear ly l oca l : t he c om mon o ak ( Quercus c a lUpr inos ) a nd t he c om mon p a lm ( Phoen ix d acty l ifera ) . E urope o r t he n orthern p art o f T urkey . s pruce ( P icea ) , a nd f i r ( Ab ies ) .

T he o ther s ix a re t yp ica l t o

T hree o f t hem a re c on ifers : P ine ( P inus ) ,

T he o ther f our ( i nc lud ing t he u nspec if ied o ak ) a re

d ec iduous : b eech ( Fagus ) , b oxwood ( Buxus ) , a nd p op lar ( Popu lus ) .

T he r e lat ive ly

h igh p roport ion o f f ore ign wood s pec ies i s n ot s u rpr is ing f or t he s i te o f at rad ing h arbour s uch a s S ebastos . I t i sa l so q u ite l i ke ly t hat t he e xtens ive b u i ld ing a ct iv it i es d ur ing Herod 's r eg i me , d eforesta t ion t h rough b urn ing f or c harcoa l a nd f oragi ng b y t he b lack g oat , a nd t he e xpans ion o f a gr icu ltura l c u lt ivat ion m ight h ave c aused s evere d ef ic its i n f orest a reas i n t he c ountry , n ecess itat ing i mportat ion o f t imber f rom a broad f or t he h arbour 's e xtens ive c onstruct ion works . The wooden r ema ins t hat a re d ated t o t he Herod ian p er iod a l l c ome f ro m t he f orms u sed d u r ing t he h arbou r 's c onstruct ion . O f t hese , a l l t he l ong b ea ms , t he u pr ight p o les , a nd t he p lank s were made o f i mported c on ifers . T reena i l s a nd t eno ns were made o f o ther t ypes o f i mported wood , s uch a s p op lar a nd o ak . T he wooden s a mp les f rom A rea D , wh ich a re d ated t o t he t wo c entur ies t ha t f o l lowed Herod 's t ime , a re e ither p arts o f s h ip h u l ls o r r igg ing , s uch a s t he p a lm-made r ope o r t he o ak c omponent o f t he s heave b lock . T he p lanks a nd t he p iece f rom a s h ip 's f rame were made o f E uropean wood : b oxwood , b eech , p ine , a nd p op la r . The t wo s amp les D -6 a nd D -7 ( Tab le 1 ) a re p robab ly t wo p ieces o f ab ranch f rom l oca l o ak . S o me o f t he b ark i ss t il l v is ib le . [ N .L . , S .L-Y . , Y .W . ]

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions

1 95

Append ix I I .A .5 : Dendrochrono log ica l Ana lys is . I n 1 984 , al arge s ect ion o f t he s leeper b eam a long t he n orth f ace o f t he s outh b lock i n Area G wa s r ecovered f or d endroch rono log ica l a na lys is ( f ig . 1 1 .195 ) a nd s ent t o P rof . P . I . K un iho lm o f C ornel l Un ivers ity .

H is l aboratory was a b le t o i s o-

l ate a s equence o f 1 51 y ears o f g rowth o n t he b eam ( samp le n ame C IS-CSM-1 I ; I D n o .

1 98601 ) , b ut u nfortunate ly i th as n ot a s y et matched u p w ith a ny o ther d ated

o r u ndated s equence i n h i s l arge d atabank . F uture d iscover ies may v er ify t he d ate o f f e l l ing o f c a . 1 5 B .C . t hat we a ss ign t o t he wood o f t h is f ormwork o n t he b as is o f h istor ica l p robab i l ity . [ J .P .O . ]

APPEND IX I I .B : RAD IOCARBON DAT ING

S evera l s amp les w ere s ent f rom CAHEP 's e xcavat ion t o v a r ious l aborator ies i n I s rae l , t he Un ited S tates a nd S outh A fr ica f or c arbon-14 d at ing . A lthough r esu lts w ere s ent b ack f or a l l t he s amp les , o n ly o ne w r itten r eport was p roper ly s um mar i zed i n p ub l icat ion ( Ca rm i 1 987 : 1 01) . T hese s amp les were t reated a t t he D epartment o f I sotope R esearch , i n t he We izmann I n st itute o f S c ience ( Rehovot , I s rae l ) b y D r . I s rae l Carm i a nd h i s a ss istants .

Two p roport iona l c ounters were u sed : ( 1 )

0 .5 l i tre v o lu me , 0 .865 ± 0 .023 c pm b ackg round , 1 2 .830 ± 0 .134 e pm NBS o xa l ic a c id s tandard . ( 2 ) 0 .25 l i tre v o lume , 0 .484 ± 0 .023 c pm b ackg round , 6 .185 ± 0 .123 c pm NBS o xa l ic a c id s tanda rd . A p ass ive s h ie ld was i ncreased b y 2 cm o f mercury n ext t o t he c ounters . F or a nt i-co inc idence , a modu lar g as c ounter was u sed .

Data

a cqu is it ion a nd p rocess ing wa s c arr ied o ut w ith a s ca ler/buffer b u i lt a t t he I nst it ute a nd a n I BM PC c omputer . S amp les w ere f i l led i n to t he c ounters a nd c ounted f or c a . 1 000 m in . a t l east t w ice . F or o ther d eta i ls o f t he p rocess ing o f t he s a mp les , s ee Carm i , Noter , a nd S ch les inger 1 971: 4 12 . R esu lts : 1 . RT 609 ( CAHEP , 1 981) : B eam f rom p oss ib le l i ft ing f rame f ound u nder l arge k urkar b lock i n A rea D a t ad epth o f 8 .7 m i n ag rey s and m ixed w ith g rave l , s he ll s , a nd B yzant ine s herds a nd c o ins . 1 470 BP ± 5 0 . 2 . RT631A ( CAHEP , 1 983 ) : T i mber o f wh ite wood f rom t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l , a t ad epth o f 1 0 .1 m ( see a bove Append ix A , T ab le 1 : n o . 1 3 ) . The a rchaeo log ica l c ontext i s o f f i rst o r e ar ly s econd c entury A .C . §1 3 C = 2 6 .4 % . 2 210 BP ± 1 90 . 3 . RT631B ( CAHEP , 1 983 ) : S leeper b eam ( S i lver f i r ) o f t he f ormwork i n A rea G , a t ad epth o f 6 .1 m ( s ee a bove , Append ix A , T ab le 2 : n o . 3 ) . §1 3 C =2 5 .8 % . 1 970 BP ± 7 0 . 4 . RT645 ( CAHEP , 1 983) : P iece o f P ine s trake ( p lank a ) f rom t he Roman Wreck i n A rea Y , a t ad epth o f 2 .1 m ( see Append ix A , T ab le 4 : n o . 5 ) .

E xposed t o

t he water f or c ons iderab le t ime , o n s evera l o ccas ions . 1 870 ± 6 0 . 5 . RT653B ( CAHEP , 1 983) : P iece f rom f rame n o . 3 1 f rom t he Roman Wreck i n A rea Y , a t ad epth o f 2 .2 m ( s ee Append ix A , T ab le 4 : n os . 1 -2) . E xposed t o t he o pen water f or a c ons iderab le p er iod , o n s evera l o ccas ions .

§1 3 C =

2 8% . 1 990 BP ± 1 40 . 6 . RT653C ( CAHEP ,

1 983 ) : F ragment o f f rame n o .

2 6 ( ha lf f rame ) f rom

t he

R oman Wreck i n A rea Y , a t ad epth o f 2 .3 m ( s ee Append ix A , T ab le 4 : n os . ' S1 3 C

3 -4 ) . E xposed t o t he o pen water a f ew t imes b efore t he e xcavat ions . =2 6 .6 % . 1 990 BP ± 1 40 . 197-

1 98

Append ix I I .B : R ad iocarbon

7 . RT680B ( CAHEP , 1 983) : T enon f rom s trake ( p lank k ) f rom t he R oman W reck i n A rea Y , f rom t he d eeper p art o f t he p reserved h u l l , a t ad epth o f 2 .7 m ( see Append ix A , T ab le 4 : n o . 1 2 ) . 1 990 BP ± 1 00 . 8 . RT680A ( CAHEP , 1 983 ) : T enon f rom s trake ( p lank j )f ound f ar s outh o f t he r est o f t he h u l l o f t he Roman Wreck i n A rea Y , f rom a d epth o f 2 .4 m ( see Append ix A , T ab le 4 : n o . 1 1 ) . E xposed t o t he o pen water a t l east i n r ecent y ears .

§1 3 C =2 7 .1 % .

1 930 BP ± 2 20 . A l l t he d ates a re b a sed o n ah a lfl ife o f 5 568 y ears .

Ca l ibrat ion f actors were

n ot c a lcu lated , a lthough s evera l m ight b e c on s idered . T he f i rst i s t he a l ternate h a lfl ife o f 5 732 y ears , a nd t hen t here a re t he v ar ious s uggest ions f or c a l ibrat ion b ased o n t ree r i ngs o f b r ist lecone p ine a nd o ther means ( s ee S tu iver & P earson 1 986 ) . There a re a lso s ome n ew t heor ies a bout mar ine s pec imens i n t he Med iterran ean b e ing o lder t han t he r ad iocarbon d at ing b y a s

much a s

1 35 ± 8 5 y ears

( Stu iver , P earson , a nd B raz iumas 1 986 , f ig . 1 0B ) . A s ar esu lt , t he d ates s hown a bove may b e f a r f rom a ccurate . T he c a lcu lated c a l ibrat ion s wou ld p oss ib ly a dd a s much a s 5 -10 % t o t he ir d ate , o r a t l east t h is w il l b e t he t rend . [ A .R . ]

APPEND IX R LC : CHEM ICAL ANALYS IS OF MORTAR

Append ix 1 1 .C .1: Gross Chem ica l Ana lys is . Th ree o f t he s amp les t hat w ere b rought t o t he a rchaeometr ic l abs o f T e l Av iv U n ivers ity were n on-organ ic f ragments o f morta r .

Two were e x tracted f rom t he

c oncrete b lock i n A rea G . N o . 1i st yp ica l o f t he f i l l b etween t he d oub le wal ls o f t he f orm .

No . 2 was e x tracted f rom t he matr ix t hat c emented t he r ubb le f i l l

w ith in t he f orm i t se lf . N o . 3 was c o l lected i n A rea D2 , where a n a ttempt was made t o e xpose t he o r ig ina l w estern f ace o f t he h arbour E ntrance Channel . Th is p iece o f c oncrete was e xtracted f rom what l ooked l i ke a d ecomposed c oncrete b lock , s im ilar t o o thers t hat m ight h ave made u p t he b u lk o f t he b reakwater 's v o lume . E ventua l ly , i t b ecame c lear t hat t hese c hunk s h ad b een c arr ied away b y w aves f ro m t he ir o r ig ina l l ocat ion , p erhaps a lready i n a nt iqu ity .

U nfortunate ly ,

t he l ab a t T e l A v iv g ave t he d ata w ith n o i n terpretat ion a nd w ith n o c red it f or t he p eop le who d id t he a na ly s is . T he s amp les w ere d r ied i n t he l ab a t at emperature o f 1 50 ° C b efore t he p rocess . T he a na lys is wa s made i n as pectrograph ic t echn ique ( s ee R ichards & Ha rt ley 1 960 ) .

T ab le 1 . G ross Chem ica l Ana lys is o f Mortar , CAHEP 1 982 . S amp le L ab .no .

S i02 %

C aO% Mg0 %

F 203% SO4%

A 1203 %

1 .

1 3 .98

3 3 .24

1 .30

4 .40

2 3658

9 .30

n .d .

H 1 50 ° 2 3 .5 L o 6 00 ° 1 8 .2 9 00 ° 3 6 .0 2 .

2 3657

3 7 .48

6 .30

2 1 .13

2 .07

n .d .

9 .80

H 1 50 ° 2 3 .1 L o 6 00 ° 1 6 .2 9 00 ° 2 0 .0 3 .

2 3659

4 2 .30

1 5 .44

4 .80

4 .15

n .d .

7 .73

H 1 50 ° 1 6 .8 L o 6 00 ° 1 4 .4 9 00 ° 2 0 .2 E n .d .= n ot d etected ]

E N .L . , S .L-Y . , Y .W . ]

199-

2 00

Append ix 1 1 .C : Mortar

Append ix 1 1 .C .2 : Ma jor E lement Ana lys is . Ma jor e lement a nd t race e lement a na lys is was p erformed o n s evera l s amp les o f mortar a nd t uff c o l lected i n t he h arbour b as in i n 1 982 a nd 1 983 , a s p art o f t he a ttempt t o f i nd t he s ou rce o f t he v o lcan ic mater ia l u sed i n t he mortar .

G . B ran-

t on o f t he Department o f Chem istry , Un ivers ity o f V ictor ia , a nd J .P . O leson w il l r eport i n V o lume I V o n t he r esu lts o f t he t race e lement a na lys is o f t he p u re v o lc an ic mater ia ls .

One o f t he mortar s amp les , c o l lected f rom t he l arge b lock n orth

o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater i n A rea E 2 , wa s s ub jected t o P lasma Em iss ion S pect roscopy

a t

# 4739-016 ) .

Quanta

T race

L aborator ies

i n

B urnaby

B .C .

( Lab .

r eference

T he method u sed was a lka l ine f us ion o f 0 .100 g o f s amp le ma ter ia l .

T he s amp le was p repa red b y g r ind ing a pprox imate ly 7 5 go f mortar , i so lated f ro m a ny l arge c oarse a gg regate .

T ab le 2 . Ma jor E lement Ana lys is o f Mortar , CAHEP 1 983 . S iO2

A 1203

F e2O3

CaO

MgO

N a2O

K 20

4 8 .3 %

1 2 .2 %

2 .20 %

4 .89 %

9 .24%

2 .84 %

3 .50 %

B aO

MnO

P 20 5

S r0

T iO2

Z rO2

0 .013 %

0 .096%

< 0 .09%

0 .031 %

0 .36 %

0 .02 % L oss o n i gn it ion : 1 6 .49% . [ J .P .O . ]

APPEND IX ILD : PHYS ICAL ANALYS IS OF MORTAR

T he f o l low ing i n format ion i sf or t he most p a rt a dapted f rom r eports s ubm itted i n F ebruary a nd Apr i l , 1 987 b y Gordon E . B rown , Concrete C onsu ltant ( R .R . # 3 , Ca ledon E ast , Ontar io L ON 1 E0 ) . S amp le n o . 1a na lyzed h ere was t aken f rom t he s ame f ragment f or wh ich ma jor e le ment a na lys is i s g iven i n Append ix I I .C : t he c oncrete b lock i n A rea E 2 , n orth o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater .

S amp le n o . 2 was

t aken f rom t he mortar f i l l ing o f t he h o l low wa l l o f t he f ormwork i n A rea G .

S amp le n o . 1 : Mor tar f rom Concre te B lock i n Area £ 2 . T he mortar i sc lass if ied h ere a s c oncrete . I t i s g rey , w ith d ark b rown , p orous c oa rse a ggregate u p t o 2 5 mm D . T he f ine a gg regate i s b rown a nd c onta ins p art ic les o f

p um ice .

T he

mater ia l h a s

s ome

p oros ity ,

t yp ica l o f

e xpected f rom u ndercompacted c oncrete p laced u nderwater .

what

wou ld

b e

U n it w e ight was c a l-

c u lated f rom t he measured b u lk s pec if ic g rav ity i n as aturated , s urface d ry c ond it i on .

Absorpt ion was measured a fter 2 4 h our i m mers ion i n 2 0 °C water .

Th is

s amp le d id n ot c onta in a ny l arge c oarse a ggregate a nd c onsequent ly wa s l i ghter t han most R o man c oncrete . f or a c o mpress ion t est .

A sma l l c ube ( 28 mm x 2 9 mm ) was c ut a nd p repared

T he Moh h ardness o f t he i n ter ior o f t he s amp le was meas-

u red a nd t he e st i mated c ompress ive s trength t aken f rom a g raph p roduced f ro m t he t est ing o f 3 8 s amp les f rom o ther a nc ient s i tes , a nd t he ir s ub ject ion t o l i near r egress ion a na lys is . T hese d ata c an b e u sed t o e st imate c ompress ive s treng th i n t he f i e ld . Un it we igh t : 1 574 k g/m 3. Absorpt ion : 3 3 .3 % . Moh h a rdness : 2 .5 . E st imated c ompress ive s trength : 1 0 MPa . Actua l c ube c ompress ive s trength : 6 .6 MPa . A mod if ied v ers ion o f t he ASTM 4 57 Mod if ied P o int C ount was u sed t o e st imate t he p aste a nd a gg regate c ontent . T he t est e xc luded c ount ing a ny c oarse a gg regate a nd was c onf ined t o t he mortar f ract ion o n ly . Ca lcu lat ion s were made c ons ider ing t he s pec if ic g rav ity o f t he mater ia l s t o g ive a n e st i mate o f t he l ime c on tent , b y b u lk v o lume . T he w e igh t o f t he mater ia ls was c a lcu lated a s f o l lows : l ime , 4 0 l b ./cu .ft . ; f ine a ggregate , 6 4 l b ./cu .ft . Rat io o f l ime t o f ine a ggrega te : 1 : 2 .0 . S ince t h is c a lcu lat ion i so n ly a n e st i mate , i t may b e c o inc identa l t hat t he r at io i s t he s a me a s t hat s pec if ied b y V itruv ius ( 5 .12 .5 ) f or h ydrau l ic mortar . S amp les o f a nc ient c oncrete a re n orma l ly c arbonated t hroughout , s o n o r eact ion w ith p heno lp htha le in o ccurs . Carbonat ion : c omp lete . 201-

2 02

Append ix I I .D : Mortar T he f ine a ggregate c ons isted o f a n a c idin so lub le mater ia l c onta in ing a b rown

p um ice , p robab ly t he i mported p ozzo lana . T he c oarse a ggregate was d ark b rown , s omewhat p orous , a nd t he s pec if ic g rav ity t est s uggested i t was a c oarse f ract ion o f t he i mported p ozzo lana ( f ine a ggregate ) .

T he s pec if ic g rav ity o f t he n atura l

c oa rse a ggregate a t C aesarea i si n t he r ange o f 2 .60-2 .70 . T h is f igure i ss upported b y as pec if ic g rav ity o f 2 .70 f ound i n t he c oarse a gg regate u sed i n t he c oncrete f or t he a queduct a t C aesarea . A lthough t he s amp le s ubm itted f or a na lys is c ont a ined o n ly a f ine a gg regate a nd s ome c oarse p art ic les o f s im i lar mater ia l , l arge , b ou lder-s ize c oarse a ggrega te was u sed t o c omp lete t he matr ix o f t he c oncrete . T he s pec if ic g rav ity a nd a bsorpt ion o f t he f i ne a nd c oarse a ggregate were c a lcul ated , i n s o f ar a s i t was p oss ib le . Apparent s pec if ic g rav ity : c oarse a gg regate , 2 .26 ; f ine a ggregate , 1 . 58 . Absorpt ion : c oarse a gg regate , 6 .9 % ; f i ne a gg regate , u ndeterm ined . X -Ray D iffract ion a na lys is o f t he s amp les w as c arr ied o ut b y D r . R .

Hooton ,

U n ivers ity o f T oronto . Ma jor : Ca lc ite ( CaCO3 ) a nd a Qua rtz ( S iO2 ) . M inor : F e ldspars , s uch a s A lb ite ( NaA lS i4012 ) , Z eo l ite ( K2A l2S i4012NH20 ) . T he d etect ion o f CSH ( hyd rates f ormed b y h ydrau l ic c ements o r p ozzo lan ic mort ars ) b y X -Ray D iffract ion i s d iff icu lt , s i nce CSH i s av ery p oor d iffractor . T he m inor c on st ituent , Z eo l ite , i sk nown t o b e p ozzo lan ie .

S amp le n o . 2 : Mor tar F i l l ing f r om Formwork Wa l l , Area G . The mater ia l was c lass if ied a s mortar . I t was a l i ght g rey , f ine-gra ined mortar c onta in ing v ery l i tt le f ine a ggregate .

T he t est methods d escr ibed a bove p roduced

t he f ol low ing r esu lts : Un it we igh t : 1 425 k g/m 3. Absorpt ion : 6 6 .7 % . Moh h ardness : 2 . E st imated c ompress ive s trength : 7 MPa . Carbonat ion : c omp lete . The s amp le was s ub jected t o X -Ray D iffract ion b y D r . R .D . Hooton o f t he U n ivers ity o f T oronto . Ma jor : Ca lc ium Carbonate ( CaCO3 ) , Ca lc ite ( CaCO3 ) . Med ium :

a Qua rtz ( S iO2) .

There was a s ign if icant amorphous h a lo , p oss ib ly c aused b y CSH ( Ca lc ium S i l icate Hydrates ) . T he u n it we ight o f t he s amp le was o f p art icu la r i n terest . T he s tandard t est c a l ls f or i m mers ion i n water f or 2 4 h ours . T he s amp le a bsorbed 6 6 .7 % mo isture , a nd t he u n it we ight was r ecorded a t 1 425 k g/m 3. When d ry , h owever , t he s amp le h ad a u n it we ight o f 8 55 k g/m 3 .I n o ther words , when d ry , t h is mortar wou ld f loat i n water f or a s hort t ime , u nt i l i t a bsorbed s uff ic ient w ater t o s ink . M icroscop ic e xam inat ion i nd icated t hat t he s amp le may h ave c onta ined t he s ame p ozzo lana a s t he c oncrete o f S amp le n o . 1 , b ut t hat t he l ime a nd p ozzo lana w ere g round t o a

Chapter H I : CAHEP E xcavat ions f ineness t hat p romoted r ap id h arden ing .

2 03 T he Ca lc ium S i l icate Hydrates p oss ib ly

r evea led i n t he X -Ray D iffract ion a na lys is a re p roducts t yp ica l o f af ine ly-ground , s uper ior h ydrau l ic mortar , s upport ing t he m icroscop ic e xam inat ion .

T he p oss ib le

r easons f or t he emp loyment o f t h is s pec ia l t ype o f mortar w i l l b e e xam ined i n V o lume I V .

CHAPTER I V : CAHEP SURVEYS

I V .A : Arch itectura l S urvey o n Land . T he s urvey o f a l l r ecogn izab le a nt iqu it ies o n l and i nc luded t he mapp ing o f p art ia l ly s ubmerged f eatures a long t he c oast , a s w el l a s d ocumentat ion o f s tand ing r ema ins a nd s tructures e xcavated b y t he d ifferent t eams t hat h ave worked a t t he s i te i n t he p ast . T he f ina l p roduct o f t he s urvey w i l l b e a Ma ster U rban P lan wh ich w il l u lt i mate ly i nc lude a l l s ign if icant r ema ins o f C aesarea a nd i t s e nv irons . A p rel im inary v ers ion o f t hat p lan i s p ub l ished h ere ( p l . I ) , a nd t he f ina l s er ies w il l f o ll ow i n V o lu me I V . T he f i rst map o f ma jor a rch itectura l f eatures o f t he c i ty was t hat o f Conder a nd K itchner , p roduced a t t he e nd o f ab r ief v is it i n t he s pr ing o f 1 873 ( Conder & K itchner 1 882 : 1 3-29 ) . S evera l o ther s ketch p lans o f t he s i te were p ub l ished i n t he e ar ly t went ieth c entury , b ut n o s ubstant ia l n ew s urvey ing was c a rr ied o ut u nt i l E dwa rd Russel l o f Corne l l U n ivers ity p repared a n u rban p lan f or J EC M , a n a bbrev iated v ers ion o f wh ich wa s p ub l ished i n 1 986 ( Bu l l , K rentz , S torv ick 1 986 : 3 3 , f ig . 2 ) .

T he p lan was d rawn a t as ca le o f 1 : 2500 a nd was b ased o n t he B r it ish O rd i-

n ance S urvey , t he s ame o ne u sed b y CAHEP . The r ecord ing o f a nc ient a nd med ieva l s tructura l f eatures a long t he s horel ine was i nc luded i n t he CMS r eport t o t he I ES i n 1 976 a nd h as b een c o mb ined w ith t he c onte mporary work p ub l ished b y t he J EC M . Among t he ma jor f eatu res f rom n orth t o s outh a re t he S ea-Wa l ls a nd a ssoc iated Quay i n A rea J , t he P avement i n A rea L , t he mass ive l i ne o f c o lumn s hafts ( t entat ive ly i dent if ied a s aC rusader J etty ) , a Quay Wa l l o f r eused a sh lars i n A rea S , t he s ubmerged wa l ls a nd R ectangu lar a nd R ound T owers i n A rea T , t he f ort if icat ions o f t he C rusader C itade l i n A reas M a nd Q , a nd t he s ubmerged p avement j ust n orth o f t he P isc ina . E ach o f t hese h as b een s urveyed a nd mea sured s tone b y s tone , p laced o n t he Master U rban P lan , a nd d rawn s eparate ly i n p lan a nd e levat ion . I n s ome i n stances , s uch a s i n A rea s J , L , S , M , a nd Q , a dd it iona l d ata h ave b een g athered t h rough e xcavat ion s i nce 1 985 . Not a l l o ur o b ject ives h ave b een r ea l ized . D ocu mentat ion o f t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he S outh B ay a nd F ie ld C o f t he J o int E xped it ion , s outh o f t he C rusader c ity , wou ld h ave b een most i n struct ive f or a c omp lete u nderstand ing o f t he way i n wh ich t he Herod ian warehouses a nd t he q uay wa l ls o r s treets were o rgan ized . T he p oss ib i l ity o f e xcavat ing i n t h is a rea n ot o n ly d epends u pon t he c ooperat ion o f CAHEP a nd t he J o int E xped it ion , e ach h o ld ing s epara te p erm its f or d ifferent p arts o f t he s i te , b ut a lso i sc omp l icated b y t he p resence o f ab each r oad l ead ing t o p ark ing f ac i l it ies u sed b y b oth l oca l f i shermen a nd t he l arge c rowds a ttend ing e ven ing p erformances i n t he r estored Herod ian t heater .

205-

2 06

I V .A : L and S urveys The c o mp lete Ma ster P lan w i l l a lso i nc lude t he l ocat ions o f a l e xcavat ions a t

t he s i te s ince o rgan ized e xp lorat ion s tarted d ur ing t he 1 940s . No map t o d ate h as i nc luded t he l ocat ion s o f t he e ar ly B r it ish a nd I s rae l i e xcavat ions b efore a nd a fter i ndependence .

L ikew ise , t he work b y Av i-Yonah w ith in t he C rusader f ort if ica-

t ions h a s n ever b een p roper ly r ecorded , a lthough i t s g enera l l ocat ion i s n ow s urv eyed a nd i nc luded o n t he p lan . I n f act , ap lan o f t h is t ype i s n ever c omp lete a nd must c ont inua l ly b e a ugmented w ith a dd it iona l s t ructu res . [ R .L .V . ]

I V .B : S urvey o f t he S outh B ay . The S outh B ay t oday i s as l ight b ight i n t he c oast t o t he s outh o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( f igs . 1 . 11 , I V .2 ) . I t e xtend s e a . 5 00 m s outh o f t he Outer B as in t o t he k urkar p romontory i n to wh ich t he P isc ina h as b een c ut . I ts tands c o mp lete ly o pen t o t he s ea , a fford ing n o p rotect ion f rom e ven t he a fternoon waves o f at yp ica l s um mer 's d ay , b ut i n a nt iqu ity t he c onf igurat ion may h ave b een d ifferent . S ubmerged b ed-rock a nd r ubb le s p i l l mark t he e nt ire c oa st a nd h int a t a nc ient s truct u res o n t he s hore d estroyed l ong a go b y t he s ea . I n a dd it ion , t he p resence o f b each-rock a long t he e nt ire l eng th o f s hore s uggests t hat i t i s c urrent ly e rod ing ( f ig . I V .3 ) . s on e t a l .

T he a nc ient s horel ine may w el l h ave b een 1 0-15 m f arther west ( O le1 984 : 2 68 , n . 1 6 ) . D ivers f rom t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa a lso d iscovered a

s ub merged s ect ion o f f loor n ea r t he p romontory t hat a lso s peaks t o ac hang ing c oastl ine ( s ee S ect ion I .B .4 ) . Most s cho la rs a gree t hat t he S outh B ay p layed s ome r o le i n t he mar it i me l i fe o f Caesarea ( e .g . R aban & Hoh lfe lder 1 981 : 6 3 ) . A s r ecent ly a s 1 950 , b efore t he a dvent o f u nderwater e xp lorat ions a t t he s i te , R e ifenberg i ncorrect ly p laced t he ma in h a rbour d escr ibed b y J osephus ( Append ix I .A ) i n t h is l ocat ion ( Re ifenberg 1 950-51) . I n f act , t he S outh B ay may b e i n tended b y t h is a nc ient a uthor i n h is o b l ique r eference

t o

t he

s econdary a nchorages

t hat

e x isted

a t

Caesarea ( BJ

1 .410 ) . A lthough c lear ly a n a ux i l iary f ac i l ity t o t he

g reat a rt if ic ia l

Outer B as in

d escr ibed i n d eta i l b y J osephus i n t he s ame t ext , i t a ppears t he S outh B ay c ou ld , a nd d id , h and le a g reat many c om merc ia l a ct iv ites when s ea c ond it ions p erm itted . One a rchaeo log ist h a s e st i mated t hat o ver 1 00 h orrea ( wa rehouses ) d at ing b ack t o t he Herod ian e ra e x isted a long i t s s hores ( Bu l l 1 982 : 3 6 ) . R ecent l and e xcavat ions c onducted b y t he J EC M h ave u ncovered e v idence s uggest ing t hat t he o ne v au lted s torage f ac i l ity i t h as e xcavated c o mp lete ly was i n s erv ice f rom Caesa rea 's f ound at ion ( f ig . 1 . 8 , n o . 2 7 , p l . I ,n o . 3 1 ) .

I t wa s u sed i n to t he Roman e ra i n av a r iety

o f ways , s uch a s aM ith raeu m , a nd r emode led a ccord ing ly ( Bu l l e t a l .

1 986 ) . D iag-

n ost ic s herds f rom t he e ar l iest s tratum i n t h is b u i ld ing i nc luded n umerous t ransp ort amphoras f rom a round t he Med iterranean b as in ( B lake ly 1 987 , 1 988 ; Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 1 37 ) .

I n p art icu lar , an umber o f g arum amphoras f rom t he I ber ian p en in-

s u la were d iscovered h ere . T he o ther warehou ses s t i l l awa it ing e xcavat ion n earby most l i ke ly were c onstructed a t t he s ame t ime a nd f o l lowed t he s a me l ongev ity a nd d ivers ity o f u se u nt i l t he b u i ld ings f e l l o ut o f s erv ice f o l low ing t he A rab o ccup at ion i n t he m id-seventh c entury .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 07

I f s o , t he S outh B ay h ad a h uge s torage c apac ity f or i ncom ing a nd o utgo ing c argo d ur ing t he p er iod C aesarea f unct ioned a s a n i n ternat iona l empor iu m . Wh ile c om mod it ies f rom a nd f or merchantmen moored i n t he Outer B a s in c ou ld h ave b een t ransported b y c arts t o a nd f rom t hese warehouses , i t wou ld h ave b een much s imp ler a nd more e ff ic ient i ft hese t ransport c onta iners c ou ld h ave b een l oaded o n a nd o ff s h ips moored a d jacent t o t he warehouses t he mse lves . T hus , t he v ery e x ist ence o f t hese s horel ine s torage magaz ines a rgues f or a ma jor c om merc ia l r o le f or t h is a nchorage i n t he l i fe o f t he p ort a nd s uggests t hat t he S outh B ay may h ave b een a more p rotected a nchorage i n a nt iqu ity . P erhaps t he s l ight n a tura l p rotect i on a fforded b y t he b reakwaters a nd t he s outhern p romontory were a ugmented i n s ome way b y Herod 's e ng ineers a s p art o f t he o r ig ina l d es ign o f S eba stos . CAHEP 's 1 983 s urvey wa s n ot t he f i rst o ne t o a tte mpt t o d ef ine t he r o le o f t he S outh B ay i n t he p ort 's l i fe . T he L ink E xped it ion d id n ot s ystemat ica l ly e xa mi ne t h is a nc ient f eature d ur ing i t s o ne s eason i n 1 960 ( Sect ion I .B .1 ) .

L ater o n i n

t he 1 960 's , E l isha L inder o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , who h ad o rgan ized a g roup o f I s rae l i n avy d ivers a s t he I s rae l Undersea E xp lorat ion S oc iety ( IUES ) , c onducted v ar ious s urveys o f t he who le h arbour a rea w ith t h is g roup a nd v ar ious f ore ign c o ll aborators ( Sect ion I .B .2 ; L inder & L eenhardt 1 964 ) . H is e fforts i nc luded a n e xa mi nat ion o f t he S outh B ay . I n 1 976 , a n e xtens ive s urvey wa s u ndertaken b y R aban a nd F le m m ing a s p art o f ac omprehens ive e xam inat ion o f t he Caesa rea c oastl ine c onducted b y t he CMS f or t he I s rae l E lectr ic C o mpany ( Sect ion 1 .B .3 ) . S ubsequent ly , t he s tudents a nd s taff o f CMS a lso e xp lored t h is a rea d ur ing workshops c onducted i n t he s um mers o f 1 978-1980 a nd d iscovered a s ect ion o f p avement n ear t he b ase o f t he P ise ina p ro montory ( Sect ion I .B .4 ) . Hoh lfe lder a nd O leson a lso b r ief ly r econno itered t h is s ect ion o f s ubmerged c oastl ine i n 1 978 ( Hoh lfe lder & O leson 1 980 ; S ect ion I .B .5 ) . A fter t he r esu lts o f a l l t hese e fforts were c o l lated b y CAHEP , s o me i ncons ist enc ies a nd u nanswered q uest ions r ema ined i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . I n 1 983 , as ystemat ic s urvey o f a l l v is ib le u nderwater f eatures i n t he b ay wa s c arr ied o ut b y t eams o f d ivers . T h is d eta i led i nvest igat ion , i n tended t o e xpand a nd r econc i le p rev ious s ea rches , was u ndertaken i n a n a ttempt t o d ef ine t he o r ig ina l c onf igurat i on o f t he S outh B ay i n a nt iqu ity a nd t o s ee i f a ny man-made s tructures h ad e x isted t here . I n p art icu lar , e xp lorat ion wa s f ocused o n t hree d ifferent l ocat ions . A t t he n orth s ide o f t he b ay , al ong a rm o f r ock p rotrudes f rom t he b ase o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter t o t he SW f or a d istance o f c a .

7 5 m b efore d isappea r ing

b eneath t he s and ( f ig . 1 . 11) . I n a ppea rance , i t l ooks l i ke a p urposefu l a ppendage t o t he ma in a nchorage i n t he l ee o f t he l arger i n sta l lat ion . T h is i mpress ion i s r e inf orced b y al arge r ubb le c oncentrat ion e a . 2 00 m S E o f t he t erm inus o f t h is a rm . I t t oo l ooks l i ke t he b ad ly d amaged r e ma ins o f ab reakwater b u i lt o ut f ro m s hore t o c reate a nd e nc lose a sma l l b a s in .

T he t h ird a rea o f c oncern was t he P isc ina p ro-

montory i t se lf ( Sect ion I I .N ; f igs . 1 . 11 , 1 1 .135 , p l . I ,n o . 4 1 ) .

I t s a ctua l c onf igura-

t i on i sn ow o bscured b oth b y t he s andy b ottom a nd b y r ubb le t hat h a s t opp led f ro m what may h ave b een a B yzant ine f ort if icat ion wa l l . D id i t e xtend f arther west o r e ven NW i n a nt iqu ity t o s erve a s a n e nc los ing a rm f or t he S outh B ay? The CAHEP s urvey wa s d es igned t o a nswer t hese q uest ions .

2 08

I V .B : S outh B ay The p r imary method o f e xp lorat ion was p lacement o f t wo 4 0-metre l ong p robe

l i nes a long t he ma in a xes o f t he n orthern a nd c entra l f eatures t o s ee i f t hey c ont i nued b eneath t he p resent s andy s ea-bottom , a nd i fs o , t o t race t he ir d imens ions a nd o r ientat ion ( see f ig . 1 . 11 , L ines A -B a nd K -L ) . I n a dd it ion , 2 0-metre l ong p robe l i nes were marked o ut a t t he v is ib le e nd o f t he p romontory t o t he s outh ( L ines HI ) a nd a t o ther l ocat ion s o n t he n orthern a rm ( L ines C -D , E -F , A '-B ' , a nd A "-B" ) . The j et-prob ing was c arr ied o ut b y at eam o f t wo d ivers ( see S ect ion I V .E ) . One d iver , wear ing t w in 8 0 e u .ft . t anks , c arr ied a n a irjet p robe made f rom 2 m l ength s o f n arrow p ipe ( 0 .02 m i n d iameter ) a ttached b y s crew j o ints ( f ig . I V .17) . T h is was f ed a ir f rom t he SCUBA t anks t h rough a y oke a nd f lex ib le p last ic h ose ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 2 86 ) . T he o ther d iver r ecorded d ata o n ap last ic s l ate .

A

p robe l i ne marked i n metre i ncrements o r a n u nderwater t ape measure was p laced o n t he o cean f loor i n t he d es ired l ocat ion , i t s p os it ion c hecked b y c ompass r eadi ngs . A t e very metre mark a long t he l i nes , t he d iver w ith t he j et-probe e ngaged a t r igger mechan ism t o r e lease a j et o f a ir f rom t he e nd o f t he p ipe , e nab l ing h im t o p enetrate t he s and u nt i l r each ing s o l id r ock o r t o t he l im it o f t he p ipe s ect ions i n u se . The s econd d iver r ecorded d ata : t he metre mark , t he d epth o f p enetrat ion b efore a b lockage was r eached , a nd t he d epth o f water o ver t he p robe p o int . I n t he s ha l low water o f t he S outh B ay ( ca . 5 -8 m a verage o ver t he p robe l i nes ) , t h is t ea m c ou ld c onduct 1 5-20 p robes b efore e xhaust ing t he a i r s upp ly i n t he t w in 8 0 t anks . The t eam wou ld t hen s u rface f or f ul l t anks , v er ify t he ir a ss ignments , a nd c ont inue t he i nvest igat ion . T h is j et-prob ing d ev ice , d es igned b y S tephen B re itste in o f CMS , i s more mob ile a nd b etter s u ited f or u nderwater e xp lorat ions c onducted o ver a l arge a rea t han t he p rototype mode l , wh ich emp loyed a waterjet a nd was c reated b y J ohn L ew is f or u se i n t he Cosa e xcavat ions ( Lew is 1 973 : 2 47 ) . U s ing t h is s yste m , i t i sr e lat ive ly e asy t o t race s ubmerged s tructures t hat a re a t p resent c overed w ith b ottom s and a nd t o r ecover a n a ccurate r ead ing o f t he ir o r ig ina l d i mens ions a nd o r ienta t ion . I n t he c ase o f CAHEP 's p robes i n t he S outh B ay , h owever , a l l were n egat ive . None o f t he t hree ma jor s ubmerged f eatures e xp lored was s ubstant ia l ly l a rger i n a nt iqu ity t han i t a ppea rs t oday , n or d id t hey e xh ib it a ny c hanges i n d irect ion . I n a l l i nstances , t he p robes a lso r ecorded a g radu a l s eaward s lope s im ilar t o t hat o f t he v is ib le p or t ion o f t he r ock a nd r ubb le c onc entrat ions i nvest igated . I t a lso a ppeared t hat n one o f t hese p ro ject ions was man-made , a lthough r ubb le may h ave b een c onsc ious ly d umped o n t he n orthern a rm a t s ome p o int . G iven t he i mproper o r ientat ion a nd i nsuff ic ient s i ze o f t he n orthern , c entra l , a nd s outhern f eatures , a nd t he a bsence o f a ny s ub-bottom c ont inuat ion o f a ny o f t hese p ro ject ions , i t i s v ery u n l ike ly t hat a ny o f t hese s ubmerged f eatures were i mportant c omponents o f a h arbou r i n t he S outh B ay . T he ir s ubmar ine p rof ile p robab ly h as n ot c hanged s ign if icant ly o ver t he c entu r ies a nd may we l l c lose ly r ese mb le t he ir c onf igurat ion i n a nt iqu ity . I ft here were n o man-made o r n a tura l e nc los ing a rms c reat ing a h arbour i n t he S outh B ay , h ow c an o ne e xp la in t he p resence o f t he n umerous s horel ine h orrea? I ts eems most l i ke ly t hat t h is b ay was a lways a s econdary a nchorage , more s pec ifi ca l ly a f a ir-weather h aven . I t was t oo e xposed t o t he v o lat i le s ea c ond it ions a long t h is s ect ion o f t he L evant ine c oa st , a nd t o t he s torms t hat c ome f rom t he SW e ver

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 09

t o h ave s erved a s Caesarea 's ma in h arbour . B ut when t he s eas were c a lm , u sua l ly f rom t he d awn t o m id-morn ing d ur ing t he n orma l s a i l ing months i n a nt iqu ity ( Apr i l t o October ; Ca sson 1 971 : 2 70 ) , s h ips c ou ld h ave b een d rawn b y h awsers t o aq uay f ront ing t he e nt ire l i ne o f wa rehouses f or e asy l oad ing a nd u n load ing .

When c ond i-

t i ons d eter iorated , t he s h ips wou ld h ave b een p u l led o r s a i led b ack t o as afer o ffs hore a nchorage . I n t h is way , t he S outh B ay c ou ld h ave s erved t he p ort 's n eeds .

I t was n ever a n

a l l-weather r oadstead , b ut wou ld n ot h ave b een n eeded a s o ne , s ince t he Outer B a s in s erved t hat p urpose . I td id f unct ion n ice ly , h owever , a s as econdary f ac i l ity f or Caesarea . I n f act , l ong b efore Herod 's c ity r ose f ro m t he s and d unes , t he b ay h ad a ttracted

a nc ient

mar iners

when

weather

c ond it ions

p erm itted .

A s tone

a nchor d iscovered a d jacent t o t he n orthern a rm s uggests s uch u se a s e a r ly a s t he L ate B ronze Age ( s ee V o lume I ) . P rofessor B u l l h as ment ioned u ncover ing t he r ema ins o f ar oad a long t he s ea f ront west o f t he warehouses .

P resumab ly , i t t opped a q uay , b ut d eta ils o f h is

e xcavat ion h ave n ot y et b een p ub l ished ( Bu l l 1 982 : 3 6 ) . T he r ecovery o f e xtens ive e v idence f or e ither o f t hese p roposed f eatures i s u n l ike ly a t p resent , f or a modern r oad n ow e xtends t he l ength o f t he S outh B ay 's s horel ine i n f ront o f t he h orrea . I t was c onstructed o f f i l l f rom t he I t a l ian M iss ion 's e xcavat ion o f t he t heatre ( Sect i on I .A .5 ) a nd c oncea ls w hatever s urv ives o f e a r l ier s tructures . T he r eced ing c oa st h as d estroyed a ny r ema ins s eawa rd o f t he p resent r oad , a lthough t he s ubmerged r ubb le s p i l l p ara l le l ing t he c oa st

may d er ive i n p art f rom i t s a nc ient

c ounterpa rt . [ R .L .H . ]

I V .C : S urvey L ines a nd S ect ion D raw ings . P rocedures .

I n 1 980 , af ew ma rked s urvey l i nes ( abbrev iat ion : S L ) were l a id

o ut f ro m A rea A ( near t he s outh e nd o f t he I nner Quay a long t he i ns ide f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater ) a cross t he a d jacent b reakwater ma ss . T he r esu lt ing d ata a l lowed p reparat ion o f r ough r econstruct ion s ketches o f t he b reakwater 's c ross s ect ion .

The 1 980 s urvey l i nes were e xecuted b y D r . W i l l iam Murray , Un ivers ity

o f S outh F lor ida , who a ss isted w ith f ie ld d irect ion o f t he 1 983 s eason a s we l l .

I n

1 983 e ight s uch s urvey l i nes ( nos . 1 -8 ) were l a id d own a cross t he S outhern B reakwater b y O leson a nd S herwood a s p a rt o f ap ro ject t o p repa re a c omprehens ive s et o f d eta i led s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings f or b oth b reakwaters .

I n 1 984 ,

O leson

a nd S herwood l a id o ut f our more s urvey l i nes ( nos . 9 -11 a nd 1 6 ) o n t he S outhern B reakwater a nd f our o n t he Northern B reakwater ( nos . 1 2-15) ( f ig . I V .5 ) .

F ina l ly ,

i n 1 986 Avner Raban l a id o ut a nd s urveyed S L n o . 1 7 f rom s outh t o n orth a long t he s p ine o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

I n s uch a v ast h arbour s i te , o n ly s ca le d raw ings

o f t h is n ature c an g ive a p rec ise i dea o f t he p resent c onf igurat ion o f t he s truct ura l r e ma ins o f t he b reakwater a nd t he a rrangement o f t he mater ia ls u sed i n b u i ld ing i t .

The u l t i mate p urpose o f t he s urvey l i nes was t o p rov ide i nformat ion

a l low ing r econstruct ion o f t he o r ig ina l mass o f t hese s tructures , t he ir d es ign , a nd t he p rocess o f t he ir c onstruct ion .

T he r esu lts o f t he s urvey f or t he most p art

a ppear i n V o lu me I V , a nd o n ly t he r aw d ata a re p resented h ere , a ccompan ied b y a b r ief s um mat ion o f t he ir s ign if icance .

2 10

I V .C : S urvey L ines T he l i nes t he mse lves w ere p last ic-covered , s tee l a irp lane c ab les marked w ith

c o lou red t ape e very metre a nd n umbered d i stance t ags e very 5 .0 m .

T he b ase o r

z ero p o ints f or t he s urvey l i nes w ere c hosen a nd t he ir b ea r ings c a lcu lated s o t hat t he ir c ourses wou ld e xtend o ver s e lected a rch itectura l f eatures a nd ( except f or n os . 6 , 1 2 , a nd 1 6 ) r un more o r l ess p erpend icu lar t o t he a x is o f t he a d jacent p ort ion o f t he b reakwater f ace .

E ach s urvey l i ne was measu red f rom a z ero ma rk

a ttached t o as take p ounded i n to t he s and a t ap o int 5 t o 1 0 m i ns ide t he i nner f ace o f t he s tructure . T he l i ne t hen was p layed o ut a long t he s e lected b ea r ing f rom a p ortab le r ee l c arr ied b y t wo d ivers a nd a nchored c a . 1 0 m b eyond t he v is ib le o uter e dge o f t he b reakwater ( f ig . I V .6 ) . T he s urvey l i nes v ar ied i n l ength f rom 4 0 m ( no . 1 6 ) t o 3 45 m ( no . 1 2 ) , w ith a n a verage l ength o f a pprox i mate ly 1 44 m . The t ota l l ength o f 2 .465 km o f s u rveyed l i nes r epresents a r emarkab le a ccomp l ishment f or t hree s easons o f u nderwater w ork . L ine N u mber

B ear ing

L ength

1

1 80 °

1 00 m

2

2 35 °

9 5 m

3

2 40 °

1 30 m

4

2 40 °

1 15 m

5

2 70 °

1 35 m

6

3 30 °

1 10 m

7

2 80 °

1 60 m

8

2 90 °

1 90 m

9

3 00 °

2 00 m

1 0

3 10 °

1 80 m

1 1

3 20 °

1 90 m

1 2

1 00 °

3 45 m

1 3

1 0°

8 5 m

1 4

1 0°

8 0 m

1 5

1 0°

7 5 m

1 6

3 0°

4 0 m

1 7

6°

2 35 m

I t p roved n ecessary t o a nchor t he l i nes o n ly a t e ither e nd , s ince t he c ab le i s h eav ier t han water a nd l ay o n t he b ottom , a nd t he i r regu lar s urface o f t he b reakwater p revented s ign if icant l atera l movement e ven i n h eavy s eas . T eams o f t hree d ivers g athered d ata f or s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings b y work ing a long t he l i ne w ith t wo 2 .0-m l ong p o les marked i n c ent imeters , c onnected b y a 1 0-m

l i ne

marked i n metres . Two d ivers s et t he p o les o n t he s urvey l i ne 1 0 m a part a nd d rew t he 1 0-m l i ne t ight , a l low ing t he t h ird d iver t o l eve l i t w ith a b ubb leleve l b y s l idi ng t he e xtrem it ies o f t he l i ne u p o r d own t he marked p o les ( f ig . I V .7 ) .

T h is l ast

d iver t hen n oted t he e levat ion o f t he t emporary b a sel ine a t e ither e nd a nd i t s l ocat ion o n t he s urvey l i ne , a nd r ecorded e levat ions a long t he b reakwater mass b eneath i t a t 1 .0-m i n terva ls .

F or e ach 1 0-m u n it t he d iver r ecorded 1 0 e leva-

t i ons , p repared a s ect iona l e levat ion s ketch w ith a g raph ite p enc i l o n s heets o f my lar , a nd made n otes c oncern ing b u i ld ing mater ia ls . An a irjet p robe w as u sed t o p rov ide d ata o n t hose p ort ions o f t he b reakwater c overed b y s and . A more d eta i led c heek o f mater ials a nd s tructura l f eatures wa s c arr ied o ut l a ter b y s eparate t eams o f d ivers u s ing h am mers t o r emove s urface c oncret ions a nd t ake s amp les , a nd a l l

Chapter / V : CAHEP S urveys

2 11

t he d ata were e ntered o n ap re l im ina ry d raw ing . T h is d raw ing t hen was c hecked a ga inst t he s urvey l i ne i t se lf b y t he a rch itects , who l a ter p repared t he f ina l s ect i ona l e levat ion d raw ing s . Reduced c op ies o f t hese d raw ings a ppea r h ere a s p lates I -V .

The most s ign if icant d ata f rom e ach s urvey l i ne h ave b een i ncorporated i n

t hese d raw ings , a nd f ur ther d eta i ls a re p rov ided i n w r itten f orm i n t he d escr ipt i ons b e low .

I n t he t abu lat ion o f t he d ata , r eference i s made t o p o ints a long t he

s urvey l i nes a s "metre mark ' x ' ," a bbrev iated t o "m ' x" , t o a vo id c onfus ion w ith t he d epth r ead ings a nd mea surements o f f eatures i n wh ich t he "m" f o l lows t he n u mber .

A l l d epths a re b e low

MSL ; f or f eatures s t i l l b ur ied b e low

d epths a re g iven b oth t o t he s and a nd t o t he t op o f t he b ur ied f eature .

t he s and , F or t he

most p art , t he d escr ipt ion o f t he b reakwater g iven f or e ach s urvey l i ne i s b ased o n t he s tructura l r e ma ins o bserved f or a pprox imate ly 1 m t o e ither s ide o f t he a ctua l l i ne .

Note wa s made , h owever , o f s ign if icant f eatures u p t o 1 0 m o n e ither s ide o f

t he l i ne , a nd many o f t hese a re c om mented u pon h ere .

T he d epth r ead ings a re

g iven f or a l l s ign if icant f eatu res , a nd r egu la r ly a t 1 0-m i n terva ls a long t he l i nes . T he g reat s ize o f t he f eatures n oted a long t he S urvey L ines , c omb ined w ith t he p resence o f v ery t h ick i ncrustat ion a nd g enera l ly p oor v is ib i l ity h ave meant t hat p hotog raphs a re o f v ery l i tt le u se f or i lustrat ion o f t he f o l low ing d iscuss ion . Many p hotographs were t aken f or t he r ecord , b ut - w ith a f ew p ro m inent e xcept ions t hey a re o f l i tt le u se i n i lustrat ing t he s hape o r mater ia l o f t he f eatures o n t he b reakwater .

F igure I V .4 g ives a g ood i mpress ion o f t he g enera l a ppearance o f t he

b reakwater s urface . A s a r esu lt o f t hese d iff icu lt ies , t he r eader w il l h ave t o d epend o n t he s ect iona l e levat ion d raw ings f or d eta i ls .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 .

S urvey L ine n o .

1 was l a id o ut a cross t he b ase o f t he

S outhern B reakwater t o c lar ify t he c onnect ion b etween t he ma in b reakwater mass a nd t he S ubs id iary B reakwater t o t he s outh ( p l . I ) . s ented a bove , i n t he d iscuss ion o f A rea E 2 .

S ome o f t he r esu lts a re p re-

T he b ase p o int , a pprox i mate ly 7 0 m

f rom t he west e nd o f A rea F a t ab ear ing o f 2 65 °,was s e lected s o t hat a l i ne l a id f rom i t f or 1 00 m a t ab ear ing o f 1 80 ° wou ld p a ss o ver t he v is ib le e ast e nd o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater , where i tj o ins t he ma in b reakwater ma ss . T he l i ne was t ang ent t o t he e ast e dge o f A rea E 2 . Descr ip t ion o r F ea tures , SL n o . 1 : m 0 -5 : r ubb le c overed b y al ayer o f s and d ecreas ing g radua l ly i n t h ickness f ro m 0 .75 t o 0 .1 m .

D epth a t m 0 : 7 .45 ( t o s and , 6 .7 m ) .

m 5 -20 : g ent le s lope o f t u mb led k urkar r ubb le a nd o ccas iona l k urkar b locks 1 .5 x 0 .6 x 0 .4 m . K urkar b lock a t m 1 8 .5 : 2 .0 x 1 . 3 x1 .3 m .

Depth a t m 1 0 : 6 .75 m ;

a t m 2 0 : 5 .9 m . m 2 0-40 : b reakwater c ore , c omposed o f at u mb led h eap o f b roken a nd e roded k urk ar b locks u p t o 3 m i n l ength . b etween m 2 6 a nd m 3 2 ,

D epth a t m 3 0 :

5 .4

m . T he h eap c rests

t hen s lopes d ownward t o t he s outh a t a bout 4 5

d egrees t o ad epth o f 8 .3 m a t t he m 4 0 mark . T he f oot o f t he s lope i s r evett ed w ith l arge , i r regu lar ma sses o f c oncrete ( D e a .

1 .0

m ) , b eyond wh ich

e xtends a n a pron o f sma l l , smooth p ieces o f k urkar a nd l imestone r ubb le ( D c a . 0 .1-0 .2 m ) 6m w ide . m 4 0-44 : r ubb le a pron .

2 12

I V .C : S urvey L ines

m 4 4-57 : s and . A t p resent a l ayer o f s and c overs t he s pace b etween t he S outhern a nd S ubs id iary B reakwaters , c oncea l ing a l l s tructura l r ema ins e xcept f or s o me l arge k urka r b locks w ith max imu m d i mens ions o f 1 .5 t o 2 .5 m . S ub-botto m p robes r evea led a l ayer o f r ubb le 0 .8 t o 1 .2 m b e low t he s and . Depth a t m 5 0 : 1 0 .4 m ( to s and , 9 .2 m ) . m 5 7-70 : al ow r idge o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le i n terspersed w ith l a rge k urkar masses r i ses 1 .0 m a bove t he s and , p robab ly s im i lar i n c haracter t o t he s ect ion h idden b e low t he s and a t m 3 8 t o m 4 4 . Depth a t m 6 0 : 9 .1 m ; a t m 7 0 : 8 .7 m . m 7 0-100 : t he l i ne i n t h is a rea s k irts t he e ast e dge o f A rea E 2 a nd c rosses t he ma in b ody o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater a nd i t s f oot ings t o t he n orth a nd s outh . F or a f u l l d escr ipt ion o f t he s tructure s ee t he d iscuss ion o f A rea E ( Sect ion I I .D ) .

Co l lapse o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater h as p roduced s lop ing

b erms o f k urkar r ubb le t o t he n orth a nd s ou th , i nterspersed o ccas iona l ly o n t he n orth W ith t he r ema ins o f e roded c oncre te b locks ( max . D 1 .5 m ) .

The

s lope r i ses f rom a d epth o f 8 .7 m a t m 7 0 t o 7 .5 m a t t he c rest ( m 7 8 ) .

The

r ough ly h or izonta l r ubb le c rest e xtends f rom m 7 7 t o m 8 5 , t hen s lopes r ap id ly t o t he s outh b eneath t he s andy s ea b ottom .

D epth a t m 8 0 : 7 .9 m ; a t m 9 0 :

8 .6 m ( to s and , 7 .7 m ) ; a t m 1 00 : 8 .8 m ( to s and , 7 .8 m ) . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 1s howed t hat ( a t i t s p o int o f i ntersect ion ) t he

r ema ins o f t he ma in b reakwater ma ss a re c a . 2 5 m w ide . T he s tructure i s c o mp osed l arge ly o f t umb led a nd b roken k urkar b locks a nd masses a nd r i ses t o ah e ight o f 3 .5 m a bove t he s ea-f loor a long i t s o uter f ace . A f ew t u mb led c oncrete masses r evetted t he o uter f ace , a bove a b edd ing o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le . t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater a re n ow

The r ema ins o f

c a . 1 5 m w ide b ut o n ly 8 m a cross t he c rest ,

wh ich r i ses e a . 1 .5 m a bove t he p resent s ea-bottom , 2 .5 m a bove i t s s outhern f ooti ngs . The c onstruct ion was c a rr ied o ut w ith k urka r r ubb le a nd b locks , w ith t he o ccas iona l u se o f l a rge masses o f c oncrete t o s tab i l ize c erta in s ect ions .

S urvey L ine n o . 2 .

S urvey L ine n o . 2 was l a id o ut a cross a n a pparent ly n arrow

p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater t o t he t i p o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwa ter ( p l . I ) . I t was d es igned t o c lar ify t he c ha racter a nd r e lat ionsh ip o f b oth s tructures .

The

b ase p o int was l ocated m idway b etween t he b ase p o int o f S L n o . 1a nd t he e dge o f A rea N 1 . The l i ne was l a id o ut f or 9 5 m a t ab ear ing o f 2 35 °. Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 2 : m 0 -5 : r ubb le c overed b y al ayer o f s and d ecrea s ing i n t h ickness f ro m 0 .9 t o 0 .1 m . Depth a t m 0 : 7 .7 m ( t o s and , 6 .8 m ) . m 5 -10 : sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( D c a . 0 .15-0 .25 m ) . D epth a t m 1 0 : 6 .4 m . m 1 0-35 : ma in c ore o f b reakwater . A t m 1 0 t he a verage d ia meter o f t he k urkar r ubb le i ncreases t o c a . 0 .5-0 .7 m , a nd a f ew t u mb led k urkar b lock s a ppear s cattered a cross t he s urface : a vg . s i ze 2 .0 x 1 . 5 x1 .0 m . These mater ia ls r i se a long a n e ven s lope t o t he c rest o f t he b reakwater a t m 2 4 :

d epth 4 .9 m .

F rom m 2 0 t o m 3 0 , t he c rest i sf ormed o f t umb led k urkar r ubb le w ith a n a vg . D o f 0 .8-1 .5 m . T he r ubb le i s n atura l ly c oncreted , b ut marked w ith d eep f i ss ures c aused b y s ett l ing .

D epth a t m 2 0 : 5 .5 m ; a t m 3 0 : 5 .3 m .

m 3 5-40 : s outh f ace o f b reakwater . S lop ing f i e ld o f i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le ( max . D 0 .2-1 .0 m ) . D epth a t m 4 0 : 7 .9 m .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 13

m 4 0-82 : s and , t h rough wh ich p ro jects a n i r regu lar k urkar mass 2 m i n d iameter a t m 4 8 . P rob ing o f t he s and r evea led t he p resence o f a n i r regu lar b ut more o r l ess h or izonta l l ayer o f r ubb le f ro m 1 .2 t o 1 .8 m b e low t he s and , a nd o ccas iona l l enses o f g rey c lay a t 0 .40 m b e low t he s u rface . Depth a t m 5 0 : 9 .4 m ( to s and , 7 .9 m ) ; a t m 6 0 : 9 .1 m ( to s and , 7 .7 m ) ; a t m 7 0 : 9 .5 m ( to s and , 7 .7 m ) ; a t m 8 0 : 8 .2 m ( to s and , 7 .6 m ) . m 8 2-85 : v is ib le p ort ion o f S ubs id iary B reakwater , c ons ist ing o f i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le ( max . D 0 .15-0 .5 m ) . T he s tructura l r e ma ins s lope d own g ent ly t owa rd t he n orth a nd s outh b eneath t he s and . Depth a t m 8 3 ( crest ) : 7 .2 m . m 8 5-95 : s and .

F or t he p rof i le a cross t he S ubs id iary B reakwater s ee t he d iscuss ion

i n S ect ion I I .D . Depth a t m 9 5 : 8 .6 m ( to s and , 7 .6 m ) . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 2 , l i ke S L n o . 1 , s howed t hat t he r ema ins o f t he

ma in b reakwater a re a pprox i mate ly 2 5 m a cross a t t he p o int o f i n tersect ion .

On

t h is l i ne , h owever , n o r e ma ins o f c oncrete b locks were f ound a long t he o uter f ace . T he ma in b reakwater h ere h a s b egun t o c urve t o t he n orth , away f ro m t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater , wh ich i s s eparated f rom i t b y as and-covered d epress ion 4 7 m a cross . The S ubs id iary B reakwater i ss l ight ly n arrower a t S L n o . 2t han a t S L n o . 1 b ut r ests a t a pprox imate ly t he s ame d epth .

S urvey L ine n o . 3 .

S urvey L ine n o . 3 wa s p os it ioned t o c ross s evera l l arge ,

w e l l-preserved c oncrete b locks a nd c lar ify t he ir r e lat ionsh ip t o t he r est o f t he b reakwater ( p l . I ) .

F rom t he b ase p o int 5 m i n s ide t he v is ib le i nner e dge o f t he

r ema ins o f t he S outhern B reakwater , t he l i ne was l a id o ut f or 1 30 m a t ab ear ing o f 2 40 °,e xtend ing 1 0 m b eyond t he v is ib le o uter e dge . Descr ip t ion o f Fea tures , SL n o . 3 : m 0 -5 : r ubb le c overed b y al ayer o f s and d ecreas ing g radua l ly i n t h ickness f ro m 0 .75 t o 0 .1 m .

Depth a t m 0 : 8 .25 m ( to s and , 7 .5 m ) .

m 5 -11: t umb led k urkar r ubb le ( max . D 0 .15-0 .60 m ) . Depth a t m 1 0 : 7 .5 m . A p robe t hrough t he r ubb le r evea led t hat i t i s at h in l ayer o f s p i l l o ver ly ing a t l east 2 m o f c lear s and . m 1 1-21 : e dge o f ma in b reakwater s tructure , ma rked b y l arger k urka r r ubb le ( max . D 0 .7-1.0 m ) , ak urkar b lock ( 4 .4 x 2 .3 x 1 .5 m ) , a nd a n amorphous ma ss o f c oncrete a t m 1 9 ( max . D 3 .0 m ) .

D epth a t m 2 0 : 5 .8 m .

m 2 1-39 : s lop ing h eap o f t umb led k urka r r ubb le v ary ing i n max . D f rom 0 .2 t o 1 .5 m . Depth a t m 3 0 : 6 .2 m . m 3 9-55 : c ore o f b reakwater , c o mposed o f l arge c oncrete b locks s et i n k urkar r ubb le , c rest ing a t m 5 1 a t ad epth o f 3 .9 m . A t t he c rest t he l i ne p asses o ver a t ipped c oncrete b lock . I t s u pper s urface i s ma rked w ith a c ross f rom

t he

wooden t ie b eams t ha t h e ld t ogether t he f ormwork i n to wh ich t he c oncrete was p oured : b lock 4 .7 x 3 .4 x 1 .7 I V .8-13 ) .

m ; b eam c asts e a . 0 .3

m s qua re

( f igs .

There a re s im i lar b locks a d jacent t o t h is o ne o n t he e ast a nd west ,

a nd many e normous , e roded c oncrete masses ( max . D 1 .7 t o 4 m ) a long t he n orth s lope o f t he c ore , f ro m m 3 9 t o 5 0 .

Depth a t m 4 0 : 5 .2 m ; a t m 5 0 : 5 .0

m 5 5-70 : o uter f ace o f b reakwater c ore , c omposed o f k urkar r ubb le s lop ing d own marked ly f ro m a d epth o f 5 .0 t o 8 .5 m . Depth a t m 6 0 : 6 .5 m ; a t m 7 0 : 8 .5 m .

2 14

I V .C : S urvey L ines

m 7 0-97 : s cattered c oncrete a nd k urkar b locks a nd ma sses o ver ly ing s and a nd k urk ar r ubb le . The c oncrete b lock a t m 7 1 i so ne o f t he l argest c oncrete masses i n t he h arbour :

c a . 7x 8x 4 m ( f ig . I V .14 ) . T here a re n u merou s o ther c oncrete

ma sses a long t h is s tretch o f t he s urvey l i ne , v ary ing i n max i mum d ia meter f rom 2 t o 4m , a nd s evera l worn k urka r b locks ( 4 x 2x 2 m ) .

The b locks a re

s urrounded b y s and wh ich c oncea ls a l ayer o f k urka r r ubb le v ary ing i n t h ickn ess f ro m 0 .1 t o 2 .0 m . Depth a t m 8 0 : 9 .8 m ( to s and , 9 .5 m ) ; a t m 9 0 :

1 0 m

( to s and , 9 .5 m ) . m 9 7-130 : c ont inuat ion o f s and-covered l ayer o f r ubb le , i nterspersed w ith a f ew e roded k urkar masses a t m 1 05 ( max .

D 2 .6 m ) a nd m 1 21 ( max . D 2 .0 m ) . The

l ayer o f s and a verages 0 .5 m i n t h ickness . D epth a t m 1 00 : 1 0 m ( to s and , 9 .2 m ) ; a t m 1 10 :

9 .8 m ( to s and , 9 .1 m ) ; a t m 1 20 : 9 .3 m ( to s and , 9 .1 m ) ; a t m

1 30 : 1 0 .45 m ( to s and , 9 .4 m ) . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 3c rossed a b etter-preserved a rea o f t he b reak-

water t han S L n os . 1a nd 2 . T he s tructura l r ema ins h ere a re e a . 7 0 m w ide a nd a t t he ir c rest s tand 5 .5 m a bove t he s ea-f loor o u ts ide . Aga in , t he b u lk o f t he s truct ure i sk urka r r ubb le , b ut s cattered c oncrete masses a ppea r o n t he i nner f ace , a nd t he c rest i so ccup ied b y we l l-preserved c oncrete b locks .

S o me e normous c oncrete

a nd k urkar masses l i e i n a pparent ly r andom c lusters f or a d istance o f 2 5 m s eaward o f t he ma in b reakwater s lope .

B locks o f t h is s i ze , wh ich a lso a ppear e lse-

where a long t he west a nd s outhwest p ort ion o f t he b reakwater , may h ave b een p art o f a mass ive r evet ment d es igned t o p rotect t he s tructure f ro m t he w inter s torms t hat a pproached f ro m t h is d irect ion . N o c oncrete o r k urka r masses o f t h is s ize a re f ound i ns ide t he b reakwaters .

S urvey L ine n o . 4 . S urvey L ine n o . 4 wa s p os it ioned t o c ross a wel l-preserved s ect ion o f t he I nner Quay a long t he i n s ide f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater a t A rea B ( Sect ion I I .B ) , a nd t o t ouch t he s outh e dge o f what a ppeared i n a er ia l p hot ographs t o b e ar ecess i n t he o uter f ace o f t he b reakwater c a . 6 0 m o n as ide ( p l . I ) .

T h is l i ne , wh ich c rossed t he b reakwater a t ab ear ing o f 2 40 ° a nd e xtended 1 15

m , was d es igned t o p rov ide i nformat ion o n t he r e lat ionsh ips b etween t he q uay , t he c ore o f t he b reakwa ter , a nd t he r ecess . Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 4 : m 0 -10 : r ubb le c overed b y s and t hrough wh ich p ro ject s evera l k urkar masses ( D 1 .0-1 .6 m ) . T he s and i s 0 .8 t o 1 .0 m t h ick . D epth a t m 0 : 8 .1 m ( to s and , 7 .3 m ) ; a t m 1 0 : 7 .5 m . m 1 0-20 : A rea B . E roded k urkar b locks o f q uay ( 2-2 .5 x 1 x 1 m ) , b edded p a rt ly o n s and , p a rt ly o n sma l l k urka r r ubb le . Depth a t m 1 5 ( centre o f wa l l s ect ion ) : 7 .3 m . Depth a t m 2 0 : 7 .6 m . m 2 0-45 : c ore o f b reakwater , c o mposed ma in ly o f i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le ( max . D 0 .15-1 .0 m ) . T he i nner f ace o f t he s tructure r i ses s teep ly t o ac rest a t m 2 4 ( depth : 5 .8 m ) , t hen s lopes g radua l ly d ownward t o ad epth o f 8 .2 m a t m 4 5 . There a re s evera l e roded k urka r b locks ( L 2 .3-3 .0 m ) embedded i n t he s urface o f t he r ubb le a t m 2 7 , a nd t wo l a rge c oncrete b locks h a lfway d own t he o uts ide s lope , f rom m 3 0 t o m 3 3 : 3x 2x 1 m a nd 4 .5 x 4 x 1 .5 m . m ; a t m 4 0 : 7 .6 m .

Depth a t m 3 0 : 6

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 15

m 4 5-75 : b road f i e ld o f l a rge , b ad ly b roken a nd e roded k u rka r a nd c oncrete b locks , s lop ing g radua l ly d own t o ad epth o f 8 .5 m a t m 5 9 , t hen u p t o ad epth o f 7 .5 m a t m 7 5 . T he b locks r est o n sma l l k urka r r ubb le . L arge k urkar masses , t he e roded r ema ins o f b locks , a ppear a t m 4 6 ( max . D 2 .5 m ) , m 5 0 ( max . D 6m ) , a nd m 5 5 ( max . D 5m ) . An i r regu lar c oncrete ma ss a t m 6 5 , w ith max imu m d iameter o f 6m , i s s urrounded b y sma l ler f ragments . Another c oncrete mass 2 .5 m i n d iameter a ppears a t m 7 4 . 7 0 o n t h is l i ne .

T he z ero p o int o f S L n o . 6i sl ocated a t m

D ep th a t m 5 0 : 6 .8 m ; a t m 6 0 : 8m ; a t m 7 0 : 7 .5 m .

m 7 5-103 : s lop ing f ie ld o f k urkar r ubb le i n terspersed w ith a f ew s cattered k urkar masses ( max . D 1 . 5 t o 2m ) . A k urka r b lock r ests o n t he r ubb le a t m 8 4 : 6 .0 x 2 .4 x 1 .3 m .

Depth a t m 8 0 : 8m ; a t m 9 0 : 8 .6 m ; a t m 1 00 : 1 0 .2 m .

m 1 03-115 : s and , c over ing a l ayer o f r ubb le t hat s lopes g radua l ly s eaward . Depth a t m 1 10 : 1 m ( t o s and , 9 .8 m ) ; a t m 15 : 1 1 .5 m ( to s and , 9 .8 m ) . S u m mary . S urvey L ine n o . 4c rossed a p oor ly-preserved p ort ion o f t he S outhe rn B reakwater a pprox imate ly 7 0 m w ide . A t t h is p o int , t he k urkar b locks o f t he N -S I nner Quay s k irt i to n t he i n ter ior , r est ing o n ac ush ion o f k urka r r ubb le .

T he

c rest , wh ich s tands 4 m a bove t he s andy s ea-botto m , i sc omposed o f k urkar r ubb le w ith a c oncentrat ion o f l a rge c oncrete a nd k urka r b locks 4 t o 5m l ong a nd e a . 2m s quare a long t he o uter s lope .

T he f i e ld o f l a rge i so lated k u rkar a nd c oncrete

b locks s eawa rd o f t he b reakwater c rest may r epresent t he r ema ins o f ap ort ion o f t he b reakwater c ore s ca ttered b y t he a ct ion o f t he s ea .

S urvey L ine n o . 5 .

S urvey L ine n o . 5 was o r iented t o p ass a cross t he l i ne o f

t he I nner Quay a t A rea A ( Sect ion I I .B ) a nd t o t ouch t he n orthern e dge o f t he a pparent r ecess i n t he o uter f ace o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( p l . I I ) .

I t e xtended

f or 1 35 m a t ab ea r ing o f 2 70 °. L ike S L n o . 4 , n o . 5 was d es igned t o c lar ify t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he q uay wa l l , b reakwater c ore , a nd r ecess . Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 5 : m 0 -21 : u ndu lat ing s tra tum o f k urkar r ubb le , c overed b y al ayer o f s and 0 .5 t o 1 .8 m t h ick t h rough wh ich p ro ject o ccas iona l masses o f k urka r 0 .5 t o 1m l ong . A t m 7 , t he l i ne c rossed t he b locks o f t he N -S I nner Quay , wh ich a re o r iented more o r l ess E -W : a vg . 2 .4 x 1 x 1 m .

D ep th a t m 0 : 9 .4 m ( to s and , 7 .5 m ) ; a t

m 1 0 : 8 .9 m ( t o s and , 8 .3 m ) ; a t m 2 0 : 9 .2 m ( to s and , 8 .3 m ) . m 2 1-60 : s cattered r e mnants o f t he b reakwater c ore , c omposed o f l arge c oncrete a nd k urkar masses a nd b locks i n af ie ld o f k urkar r ubb le . There a re h eaps o f r ubb le b etween m 2 1 a nd m 3 0 a nd b etween m 3 4 a nd 3 9 , c rest ing a t m 2 5 ( depth , 6 .8 m ) a nd a t m 3 6 ( depth , 6 .5 m ) . S evera l l a rge k urka r b locks ( avg . 3 .7 x1 .7 x 0 .6 m ) r est a ga inst t he west f ace o f t he f i rst h eap , a t m 3 1 . E lsewhere , e normous e roded masses o f c oncrete 2 t o 4 .5 m s quare a nd u p t o 3m h igh r i se o ut o f t he f ie ld o f k urkar r ubb le . T he l argest a re a t m 4 2 ( depth a t c rest 5 .6 m ) a nd m 5 9 ( depth a t c rest 6 .5 m ) . 5 0 : 8 .5 m ; a t m 6 0 :

Depth a t m 3 0 : 8m ; a t m 4 0 : 8 .8 m ; a t m

8 .7 m ( to c rest o f b lock , 6 .5 m ) .

m 6 0-93 : n ortheast c orner o f p oss ib le r ecess i n o uter f ace o f b reakwater . T he r ema ins o f t he b reakwater a t t h is p o int a re a t as l ight ly l ower d epth t han t he s urround ing a rea s .

T hey a re c omposed o f a n i r regu lar s tratum o f k urka r r ub-

b le c overed b y al ayer o f s and 0 .2 t o 1 .0 m t h ick t hrough wh ich p ro ject k urkar masses a nd b locks ( max . D 1 .0 t o 2 .5 m ) . m ( to s and , 9 .1 m ) , a t m 9 0 :

Depth a t m 7 0 : 9 .0 m ; a t m 8 0 : 9 .5

9 .6 m ( to s and , 9 . 1 m ) .

2 16

I V .C : S urvey L ines

m 9 3-127 : mound o f k urkar r ubb le v a ry ing i n d iameter f rom 0 .2 t o 1 .5 m , i nters persed w ith o cca s iona l k urkar b lock s a nd masses . T he i nner e dge i s f aced w ith t wo l arge k urka r b locks ( 5 .5 x 2 .3 x 2 .2 m ) , t he u pper s urfaces o f wh ich a re a t ad epth o f 8m . A t m 9 5 , S L n o . 5c rosses t he 1 05 m mark o f S L n o . 6 . The mound o f sma l l r ubb le s lopes d own g radua l ly f rom t h is l eve l t o ac luster o f s l ight ly l a rger k urkar r ubb le masses ( max . D 1 .5-2 .0 Depth a t m 1 00 : 8 .5 m ; a t m 1 10 : 8 .3 m ; a t m 1 20 :

m ) a t

m 1 17-125 .

9 .3 m .

m 1 27-135 : s and , b eneath wh ich a l ayer o f r ubb le s l opes g radua l ly s eaward . Depth a t m 1 30 : 9 .7 m ; a t m 1 35 : 1 m ( t o s and , 9 .5 m ) . S u m ma ry .

S urvey L ine n o . 5p rov ides much t he s a me i n format ion a s S L n o . 4 .

I t s hows t he I nner Quay wa l l r est ing o n al ayer o f r ubb le a nd s and j ust i n s ide a nd b e low t he l ow r i se o f t he b reakwater c ore . T he r e ma ins o f t he ma in b reakwater , p resent ly c a . 8 0-100 m w ide , c lear ly h ave b een s cattered b y t he a ct ion o f t he waves , wh ich may h ave s h ifted e ven s ome o f t he l arger b locks . S ee a lso t he s u mmary o f S L n o . 6 .

S urvey L ine n o . 6 .

T he s tructura l r ema ins i n t he a rea o f S L n os . 4 , 5 , a nd 6

a re more c omp lex t han t hose e lsewhere a long t he S outhern B reakwater ( p l . I I ) . Aer ia l p hotographs a nd o ur p lan s how a n i m mense , r ough ly s quare r ecess i n t he o uter f ace o f t he b reakwater a t t h is p o int , a pprox i mate ly h a lfway a long i t s l ength . The a ppa rent r ecess i s c a . 6 0 m l ong f ro m n orth t o s outh , a nd a bout t he s ame i n w idth . I n 1 982 a nd 1 983 , af ew i so lated , l arge k urkar a nd c oncrete b locks p rot ruded f ro m t he o therw ise f eature less s and w ith in i t . I n 1 984 much o f t h is s and d isappeared t emporar i ly a s a r esu lt o f c hanges i n c urrents r evea l ing a b ed o f t u mb led , i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le . d ered t he f eature l ess d ist inct . a rea .

a nd

wave a ct ion ,

T he a bsence o f c ontrast r en-

N everthe less , t here i s ad ist inct d epress ion i n t he

I n v iew o f t he amount o f

mater ia l t hat h a s d isappeared , i t s eems o n ly

r emote ly p oss ib le t hat t he f eature i s t he r esu lt o f a cc identa l e ros ion o f ab reakwater c ore o f r ubb le a t t h is p o int .

T he r ecess may , h owever , h ave a b ear ing o n

t he t heory t hat s ign if icant p ort ions o f t he b reakwater c ore wa s c o mposed o f c el ls o f s and h e ld 1 89-93 ) .

i n b y s urround ing h eaps o r wa l ls o f r ubb le ( Raban

1 985c ,

1 988 :

I n o rder t o g a in i n format ion a bout t he c haracter o f t he r ecess , S L n o . 4

was l a id o ut a cross t he b reakwater a long t he s outh e dge o f t he f eature a nd SL n o . 5j ust t o i t s n orth . S L n o . 6 was l a id a cross i t f rom s outh t o n orth , f ro m t he m 7 0 mark o f S L n o . 4t o t he m 9 5 mark o f S L n o . 5 , f or a d istance o f 1 10 m a t ab eari ng o f 3 30 °. Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 6 : m 0 : m 7 0 mark o f S L n o . 4 . D epth a t m 0 : 7 .5 m . m 0 -43 : r ough f ie ld o f i r regu lar , t umb led k urkar r ubb le f rom wh ich p ro ject o ccas iona l e roded ma sses o f k urkar a nd c oncrete .

I r regu lar c oncrete masses 2 .5 t o

3m i n d iameter a ppear a t m 6a nd m 1 2 , a nd a k urkar mass 2 .5 m i n d ia meter a t m 2 7 .

The d epth o f t he u pper s urface f luctuates b etween 8 .6 a nd 7 .2 m .

T he f ie ld o f k urkar r ubb le s lopes d own marked ly f rom a d epth o f 8 .2 m a t m 4 0 t o 9m a t m 4 3 , ma rk ing t he t he e dge o f t he r ecess . Depth a t m 1 0 : 8 .6 m ; a t m 2 0 : 7 .6 m ; a t m 3 0 : 7 .9 m ; a t m 4 0 : 8 .2 m . m 4 3-58 : c luster o f l arge , e roded k urkar masses ( D 2 -3 m ) s urrounded b y k urkar r ubb le .

D epth a t m 5 0 : 8 .9 m .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 17

m 5 8-74 : s and-covered d epress ion . T he r ubb le s urround ing t he k urkar masses o f t he p rev ious s ect ion s lopes d own f rom a d epth o f 1 0 m a t m 5 8 .5 t o 1 1 .7 m a t m 6 1 . Depth a t m 6 0 : 1 1 .5 m .

A irjet p robes t hrough t he s and e very metre

r evea led a more o r l ess l eve l s tratu m o f r ubb le a cross t h is e nt ire p ort ion o f t he l i ne , s lop ing u pward a t t he n orth e nd f rom a d epth o f 1.1 m a t m 7 0 t o 9 .6 m a t m 7 4 . m 7 4-110 : a rea o f l arge k urkar b locks s tand ing o n al eve l s tratu m o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( D 0 .3-0 .5 m ) , c overed w ith a t h in l ayer o f s and . T here i s a n i r regu lar k urkar b lock ( L 4m ) a t m 8 0 , as hape less k urka r ma ss ( D 1 .5 m ) a t m 9 0 , a nd a sma l ler b lock ( 2 x0 .7 x 0 .7 m ) a t m 1 00 . A t m 1 05 t he l i ne c rosses t wo e normous b locks o f k urkar ( s ee S L n o . 5m 9 5 ) .

Depth a t m 8 0 : 8 .6 m ( on b lock ; t o

r ubb le , 1 0 .1 m ) ; a t m 9 0 : 1 0 m ; a t m 1 00 : 9 .6 m ; a t m 1 10 : 8 .3 m ( on b lock ) . S u m mary . T he r ecess o ccurs b etween m 4 0 a nd m 1 03 o f S L n o . 6 . I t a ppears a s ad eep , s and-f i l led c entra l d epress ion 4 .5 t o 5m d eeper t han t he s urround ing b reakwater

r ema ins .

F ew l arge b locks p ro ject f rom

t he s and i n t h is c entra l

d epress ion ( none a t a l l i n t he a rea o f t he s urvey l i ne ) , b ut b locks a nd masses o f k urkar a nd c oncrete d o a ppear o n l eve l p latforms o f r ubb le t o t he n orth a nd s outh . These a re 2 m h igher t han t he c entra l d epress ion b ut s t i l l 2 .5-3 m b e low t he s urr ound ing l eve l o f r ubb le .

S urvey L ine n o . 7 . T he b ase p o int o f S u rvey L ine n o . 7 wa s p laced 2 0 m n orth o f t he z ero p o int o f S L n o . 5 , 7m i ns ide t he v is ib le i nner e dge o f t he b reakwater r ema ins .

I t wa s p layed o ut f or 1 60 m a t ab ear ing o f 2 80 ° i n o rder t o p rov ide a

s ect ion p erpend icu la r t o t he c rest o f t he b reakwater ( p l . I I ) . Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 7 : m 0 -7 : s and , c over ing a g ent ly s lop ing l ayer o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .15-0 .3 m ) . Depth a t m 0 : 8 .3 m ( to s and , 7 .4 m ) . m 7 -30 : sma l l k urka r r ubb le , s lop ing g radua l ly u pward t owards t he I nner Quay wa l l ( at m 2 8 ) . Occas iona l i r regu lar masses o f c oncrete ( 1 x2m ) l i e s cattered o n t he r ubb le , a nd a f ew l imestone b ou lders ( ba l last? ) a round m 2 0 . A t t he p o int o f i ntersect ion , t he b locks o f t he I nner Quay measure a pprox imate ly 3 .0 x 1 .4 x0 .7 m .

Depth a t m 1 0 : 7 .8 m ; a t m 2 0 : 7 .4 m ; a t m 3 0 : 6 .8 m .

m 3 0-72 : a n a rea o f l arger k urkar r ubb le s lopes u pward g radua l ly t o ac oncentrat ion o f l arge c oncrete b locks a t t he c rest o f t h is p ort ion o f t he b reakwater . There a re i r regu lar masses o f c oncrete ( 2 .5 x 1 .0 x 1 .0 m ) a t m 3 3 a nd m 4 8 , a nd n u merous l arge c oncrete b locks b etween m 5 0 a nd m 7 0 t hat s t il l r eta in much o f t he ir o r ig ina l s hape : 2 .1 x 1 . 1 x> 1 .2 m ; 6x 5x 1 .4 m ; 5x 3 .9 x 1 .2 m . T he marks o f f ormwork , h owever , h ave e i ther b een l ost t hrough e ros ion o r a re c oncea led b eneath mar ine c oncret ions . T here a re n u merous o ther l arge f ragments o f b locks i n t h is a rea , f rom 2 t o 3 .5 m i n max imum d ia meter . D epth a t m 4 0 : 6 .9 m ; a t m 5 0 : 6 .0 m ; a t m 6 0 : 5 .0 m ( on b lock ) ; a t m 7 0 : 5 .3 ( on b lock ) . m 7 2-100 : o uter s lope o f b reakwater , c omposed o f i r regu lar f ragments o f k urkar s urround ing l arger

b locks ,

f ragments

o f

b locks ,

a nd

masses

o f

t he

s ame

mater ia l . A t m 8 4 t he l i ne c rossed a b lock 4 .5 x 1 .0 x 1 .0 m i n a n a rea o f i r regu lar k urkar ma sses 2 t o 5m l ong .

Ad jacent t o al arge s and p ocket 5 m

n orth o f t he b lock , t here i s ac luster o f t u mb led k urkar b locks ( avg . 1x 0 .5 x 0 .5 m ) .

Th is a nd s evera l o ther p ockets i n t he a rea a re s and-f i l led d epress ions

2 18

I V .C : S urvey L ines r ather t han h o les i n t he b reakwater .

A t m 9 7 t here a re t hree l arge k urkar

b locks more o r l ess i n l i ne w ith o ne a nother a nd a pprox i mate ly t he s a me s i ze : 4 .5 x 1x 1 m .

Depth a t m 8 0 : 6 .8 m ; a t m 9 0 : 7m ; a t m 1 00 : 7 .4 m .

m 1 00-118 : r ubb le-f il led d epress ion i n t he b reakwater . T h is a rea i s a pprox i mate ly 1m l ower t han t he s urround ing r ema ins , a nd c o mposed o f sma l l k urka r r ubb le ( D 0 .2-0 .4 m ) . One k urkar b lock wa s e ncountered i n t he a rea o f t he l i ne : 4 .4 x 1 .5 x 1 .3 m .

Depth a t 10 : 7 .4 m .

m 1 18-139 : mound o f l arge , i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le a nd b locks . k ar masses a verage 1 -1 .5 m i n max i mum d iameter .

The i r regu lar k ur-

A b lock 5 x 2 .5 x 1 m

r ests o n t he r ubb le a t m 1 21 , a nd t here i s as l ight ly l arger b lock 1 5 m n orth : 6 x2 .5 x 1 .5 m . T he o uter e dge o f t he mound i s marked b y ak urkar b lock 4 x 2 x 2m . D epth a t m 1 20 : 6 .4 m ; a t m 1 30 :

6 .8 m .

m 1 39-160 : g ent le s lope o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( max . D 0 .15-0 .3

m ) w ith o cca-

s iona l p ieces o f l imestone ( bal la st?) . Depth a t m 1 40 : 8 .2 m ; a t m 1 50 : 1 0 m ( t o s and , 9 .4 m ) ; a t m 1 60 : 1 0 .9 m ( to s and , 9 .4 m ) . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine 7 c rossed a p ort ion o f t he b reakwater t hat h as b een

b ad ly d amaged a nd s cattered b y a ct ion o f t he waves . The c rest s t i l l s tands c a . 4m a bove t he l eve l o f t he s ea-bottom o uts ide , b ut t he s lopes a re v ery g radua l b oth i ns ide a nd o ut . T he b u lk o f t he v is ib le s tructure i sc omposed o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le , a lthough t here a re n u merous c oncrete masses a long t he c entra l p ort ion o f t he l i ne , a nd t he o uter s lope i s c ha racter ized b y l a rge k urkar b locks s urrounded b y r ubb le .

S urvey L ine n o . 8 .

S urvey L ine n o . 8 was l a id o ut a cross a b road , l ow , e roded

p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( p l . I I ) . T he z ero p o int wa s p laced 5 0 m NE o f t he z ero p o int o f S L n o . 7 , a nd t he l i ne wa s p layed o ut f or 1 90 m a t ab ea r ing o f 2 90 °.T he l i ne c rossed A rea C a t t he n orth e nd o f t he I nner Quay o n t he i n s ide o f t he b reakwater ( Sect ion I I .B ) .

I t s p urpose w as c la r if icat ion o f t he r e lat ion sh ip

b etween t h is s tructure a nd t he r est o f t he b reakwater a nd o f t he a rrange ment o f mater ia ls i n t he e roded b reakwater c ore . Descr ip t ion o f Fea tures , SL n o . 8 : m 0 -5 : s and , g radua l ly d im in ish ing i n d epth f rom 1 t o 0 .1 m .

Depth a t m 0 : 8 .5 m

( to s and , 7 .5 m ) . m 5 -60 : l ow , s l igh t ly s lop ing mound o f k urkar r ubb le ( max . D 0 .15-0 .40

m ) o n

wh ich s i t o ccas iona l sma l l b locks o r e roded masses o f k urkar o r c oncrete . T here a re a f ew r ounded b ou lders o f l imestone i n t he a rea o f m 1 0 t o 2 0 , p oss ib ly f rom s h ips ' b a l la st , a nd k urkar b locks ( max . D 2m ) a t m 3 0 a nd m 3 5 . A t m 3 8 , t he l i ne c rosses t he N -S I nner Quay a t ap o int where t he b locks a re we l l-preserved ( 3 .0 x 0 .75 x 0 .75 m ) .

D ep th o n wa l l b lock : 6 .3 m . A t m 5 2 a n

e roded mass o f c oncrete ( 2 x 2x 1m ) r ests o n t he s urface o f t he r ubb le . Depth a t m 1 0 : 7 .5 m ; a t m 2 0 : 7 .3 m ; a t m 3 0 : 7 .2 m ; a t m 4 0 : 6 .7 m ; a t m 5 0 : 6 .7 m ; a t m 6 0 : 6 .8 m . m 6 0-70 : t he l i ne c rosses s evera l p i les o f t u mb led k urkar b locks a nd r ubb le j ust b efore t he ma in b reakwater c ore . T he b locks a t m 6 0 t o 6 2 mea sure 1 .7 x 0 .7 x0 .3 m . J ust t o t he n orth o f t hese b locks t here i s a n i s o lated a rea c a . 1 0 m o n as ide c o mposed o f f lat k urka r s labs , s im i lar t o p av ing s labs .

T here i s ah eap

o f k urkar masses ( D 1 -2 m ) a t m 7 0 , j ust b efore t he i n s ide s lope o f t he b reakwater c ore .

D epth a t m 7 0 : 6 .0 m ( on h eap ) .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 19

m 7 0-100 : mound o f k urkar a nd c oncrete r ubb le a nd l arge c oncrete masses marki ng t he b reakwater c ore . T he i nner e dge o f t he mound , a t m 7 1 , r i ses s teep ly f rom a d epth o f 7 .0 m t o 5 .5 m . T he mound , c o mposed o f t u mb led r ubb le r angi ng f ro m 0 .5 t o 1 .5 m i n d ia meter , c rests a t m 8 2 o n a n e roded c oncrete b lock ( ca . 3 .5 x 3 .0 x 1 .0 m ) :

d epth , 5 .0 m . T here a re s evera l smal ler c oncrete mas-

s es ( D 1 -1 .5 m ) j ust s eaward o f t he l arge b lock , a nd a s econd l a rge b lock ( 3 x3 x1 .5 m ) d own t he s lope a t m 9 4 . T he o uts ide s lope o f t he mound i s v ery g radu a l . Depth a t m 8 0 : 5 .5 m ; a t m 9 0 :

6m ; a t m 1 00 : 6 .7 m .

m 1 00-150 : l eve l f ie ld o f c oncrete a nd k u rka r r ubb le p unctuated b y k urkar b locks a nd a n e normous ma ss o f c oncrete . T he c oncrete mass , wh ich e xtends f rom m 1 05 t o m 1 12 , i s s urrounded b y al eve l a rea o f sma l l k urka r r ubb le ( avg . D c a . 0 .3 m ) .T he l ower s urface s eems t o e xtend t o ad epth o f 8 .0 m , a nd t he c rest r i ses t o 3m . The b lock i s a pprox i mate ly 4 m w ide , a nd , a lthough t he s hape i s v ery i r regu lar , t he p resent v o lume c an b e c a lcu lated a t a pprox i mate ly 7 5 m 3. B etween m 1 20 a nd m 1 48 , t here i s ah eap o f e normou s k urkar b locks . o n ly we l l-preserved e xamp le measures 7 .2 x 1 .7 x 1 .5 m .

The

T he max i mum d ia m-

e ter o f t he r e ma in ing i r regu lar ma sses r anges f ro m 1 .0 t o 3 .5 m . Depth a t m 1 10 : 5 .1 m ( on b lock ) ; a t m 1 20 : 7 .8 m ; a t m 1 30 : 7 .3 m ; a t m 1 40 : 6 .5 m ; a t m 1 50 : 8 .2 m . m 1 50-190 : l ow mound o f sma l l k urka r r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .15-0 .3 m ) .

A d epress ion i n

t he r ubb le s po i l f rom t he b reakwater b etween m 1 50 a nd m 1 64 h as f i l led w ith 0 .6 m o f s and . B etween m 1 60 a nd m 1 75 , t he r ubb le r i ses g ent ly 1 .6 m , f ro m a d epth o f 8 .9 t o 7 .3 m .

T he o uter s lope t hen d escends g radua l ly t o t he s andy

s ea-bottom a t m 1 84 . D epth a t m 1 70 : 7 .8 m ; a t m 1 80 : 7 .5 m ; a t m 1 90 :

9 .4

m ( to s and , 7 .5 m ) . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 8c overs a n e ven more b ad ly d amaged s ect ion o f

t he S outhern B reakwater t han S L n o . 7 . T he c rest o f t he h ighest r ubb le mound r i ses o n ly 2 .5 m a bove t he l eve l o f t he s ea-bottom o n t he e xter ior , a lthough t he c rest o f t he c oncrete b lock b etween m 1 05 a nd m 12 i s 2m h igher .

B ecause o f

t he e normou s a rea o ver wh ich t he r ubb le f i l l o f t he b reakwater c ore h a s b een s cattered , i t i s n ow d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he s tructure a t t h is p o int . T he l argest f ragments o f b u i ld ing mater ia ls o ccur b etween m 6 0 a nd m 1 50 , wh ich may i nd icate a n o r ig ina l w idth o f c a . 9 0 m .

S urvey L ine n o . 9 . S urvey L ine n o . 9 , t he z ero p o int o f wh ich was l ocated c a . 2 0 m NE o f t he z ero p o int o f S L n o . 8 , was d es igned t o c lar ify t he c onstruct ion o f t he S outhern ' i l reakwater i n a n a rea where t he p reservat ion was s o mewhat b etter t han o n SL n os . 7a nd 8 . I t was l a id o ut a cross t he s tructure f or 2 00 m a t ab ea r ing o f 3 00 °,c a lcu la ted t o t ake i ta cross a f i e ld o f c oncrete a nd k urkar b locks ( p l . I V ) . Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 9 : m 0 -75 : g ent ly s lop ing f i e ld o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le p unctuated b y o ccas iona l i r regu lar k urkar masses . A t m 3 0 t here a re 3 s uch ma sses ( D 1 -2 m ) . D epth a t m 0 : 8 .1 m ( to s and , 7 .3 m ) ; a t m 1 0 :

7 .0 m ; a t m 2 0 : 6 .8 m ; a t m 3 0 : 6 .0 m ; a t m

4 0 : 6 .0 m ; a t m 5 0 : 6 .0 m ; a t m 6 0 : 6 .2 m ; a t m 7 0 : 5 .8 m . m 7 5-85 : i nner s lope o f b reakwater c ore . T he k urkar r ubb le i ncrea ses i n a vg . D t o 0 .75-1 .0 m a nd s lopes u pward s teep ly f rom a d epth o f 5 .5 m a t m 7 5 t o 4 .0 m a t m 8 5 . Depth a t m 8 0 : 5 .0 m .

2 20

I V .C : S urvey L ines

m 8 5-160 : c ore o f b reakwater , ac onfused f ie ld o f v ery l a rge c oncrete a nd k urkar b locks a nd ma sses o n ab a se o f sma l ler k urkar r ubb le .

A lthough t he d epth a t

i nd iv idua l p o ints v ar ies g reat ly , t he o vera l l a verage r e l ief s lopes u pward g radu a l ly f rom a d epth o f 4 .0 m a t m 8 5 t o 2 .5 m a t m 1 39 . F ro m m 8 5 t o m 1 00 t he s urface i sc omposed o f n atura l ly c oncreted k urkar r ubb le o f w ide ly v aryi ng d i mens ions .

I r regu lar masses o f c oncrete 2 .5 t o 4m i n max i mum d iameter

a ppear o n t h is b a se a t m 1 02 , m 1 09 , a nd m 1 32 , a nd a n e normous b lock a t t he c rest ( m 1 39 ; c a . 5x 5 x 1 .5 m ) . K urkar masses o f s im i lar d i mens ions a ppear a t m 1 13 , m 1 20 , m 1 47 , i n 1 52 , a nd m 1 58 . 4 .0 m ; a t m 10 : 4 .0 m ; a t i n 1 20 :

D epth a t m 9 0 : 3 .8 i n ; a t m 1 00 :

3 .5 m ; a t m 1 30 : 4 .0 m ; a t m 1 40 : 2 .8 m ; a t

m 1 50 : 4 .5 m ; a t m 1 60 : 5 .2 m . m 1 60-200 : as lop ing f i e ld o f c oncreted k urkar r ubb le marked w ith d eep f i ssures . Depth a t m 1 70 : 4 .8 m ; a t m 1 80 :

5 .5 m ; a t m 1 90 : 7 .3 m ( to s and , 6 .6 m ) ; a t

m 2 00 : 8 .0 i n ( to s and , 7 .5 m ) . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 9c rosses a s ect ion o f t he b reakwater where t he

mass ive c haracter o f t he c onstruct ion mater ia ls , a nd p oss ib ly t he o b l ique o r ientat ion t o t he p reva i l ing waves , h as p reserved i t f rom t ota l d estruct ion . A lthough i ns ide t he b reakwater t here i s ab road , l eve l f i e ld 7 0 m w ide o f r ubb le p ushed o ff i tb y t he waves , i t i ss t i l l p oss ib le t o d iscern t he 8 0 i n w idth o f t he o r ig ina l s truct ure . B oth c oncrete a nd k urkar ma sses w ere u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he c ore , b ut t here i s ac oncentrat ion o f l arge c oncrete b locks a t t he p resent c rest , a nd o f k urkar b locks a long t he o uter s lope .

T hese p a tterns

may r ef lect t he o r ig ina l

d es ign .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 0 . S urvey L ine n o . 1 0 was d es igned t o g ather i nformat ion o n t he c onf igu rat ion o f t he l arge c oncrete b locks a t t he n orthern t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwater ( p l . I V ) . T he z ero p o int was p laced 1 0 m i n s ide t he p resent i nner e dge o f t he s tructure , c a . 2 5 i n NE o f t he z ero p o int o f S L n o . 9 . T he l i ne wa s p layed o ut f or 1 80 m a t ab ea r ing o f 3 10 °. Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 1 0 : m 0 -80 : v ery g ent ly s lop ing , smooth f i e ld o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le .

There i so n ly o ne

marked i r regu lar ity i n t he a rea , as l ight ly e levated p latform o f n atura l ly c onc reted r ubb le 1 m h igh , b etween m 3 2 a nd m 4 8 . An i r regu la r mass o f c oncrete ( D 1m ) s i ts o n t he i nner e dge o f t he p latform a t m 3 3 . D epth a t m 0 : 9 .0 m ( to s and , 7 .1 m ) ; a t i n 1 0 :

7 .2 m ; a t m 2 0 : 7 .0 m ; a t m 3 0 : 6 .7 m ; a t m 4 0 : 5 .9 m ;

a t m 5 0 : 6 .0 m ; a t m 6 0 : 6 .6 m ; a t m 7 0 : 6 .6 m ; a t m 8 0 : 6 .2 i n . m 8 0-118 : s er ies o f l arge k urkar b locks a nd e roded masses r est ing o n a b ed o f i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le . T he r ough ly r ectangu lar masses , v ary ing i n max i mu m d i mens ions f ro m 1 .5 t o 3 .5 m , a re c oncentrated i n t he a rea f rom m 9 1 t o i n 1 09 , a t t he i nner e nd o f a mound r i s ing 1 i n a bove t he f i rst p art o f t he l i ne . A rea D 3 ( Sect ion I I .C .3 ) i s 1 5 m Eo f m 1 05 . D epth a t i n 9 0 :

5 .5 m ; a t m 1 00 :

5 .3 m ; a t m 1 10 : 5 .4 m . m 1 18-144 :

c oncentrat ion o f l arge c oncrete

c ore o f t he b reakwater .

masses ,

p robab ly r epresent ing

t he

T he f i rst e roded mass , a t m 1 20 , i s a pprox i mate ly 4

i n s quare a nd l i es o n ab ed o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .2 m ) . I t i s s epar ated f ro m t he o ther , l arger c oncrete ma sses b y 6m o f t h is r ubb le ( f rom i n 1 23 t o i n 1 29 ) . T he c ore o f t he b reakwater i n t h is s ect ion n ow s urv ives a s a n

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 21

a rea o f t umb led c oncrete b locks , e roded , b ut w ith o cca s iona l s urv iv ing p lanar f aces . B ecause o f t he d amage a nd s ubsequent g rowth o f n atura l c oncret ions i t i sd iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t he o r ig ina l d imens ions o r a rrangement o f t he b locks , b ut t he p resent max i mum l eng ths a nd h e ights r ange f rom 4 t o 6m a nd 2 t o 3 m , r espect ive ly . a t m 1 40 :

D epth a t m 1 20 : 5 .5 m ( on b lock ) ; a t m 1 30 : 5 .0 m ( on b lock ) ;

5 .0 m ( on b lock ) .

m 1 44-159 : c o mpact a rea o f l a rge k urka r b locks . b led f rom

T he b locks s eem t o h ave t u m-

t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ions , b ut t hey n ow

a re

b edded c lose

t o o ne

a nother a nd h ave i n s ome e ases b een j o ined b y n atura l ly d epos ited c oncret i ons . T he b locks t hat c ou ld b e measured a re 3 -3 .5 x 1 .5 x 1 -1 .5 m .

Depth a t

m 1 50 : 5 .0 m . m 1 59-180 : o uter f ace o f b reakwater , c o mposed o f k urkar r ubb le s lop ing d own s teep ly t o t he NW . Depth a t m 1 60 : 4 .8 m ; a t m 1 70 : 6 .5 m ; a t m 1 80 : 8 .6 m ( to s and , 6 .9 m ) . S u m mary . The d ata p roduced b y S L n o . 1 0 a re s im i la r t o t hose p roduced b y S L n o . 9 . Much o f t he mass o f t he b reakwater a t t h is p o int h as b een b roken a nd s catt ered b y t he waves , s ome o f i t f orm ing a l eve l s tratu m o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le 8 0 m w ide o n t he i nter ior o f t he s tructure .

N everthe less , t he c ore o f t he b reakwater

h as s urv ived a s a n a rea o f i m mense c oncrete a nd k urka r b locks t umb led o ver a l ow mound o f k urka r r ubb le 8 0 t o 9 0 m w ide . T he c rest n ow i s c omposed o f c oncrete b locks , f aced a long t he o uter s lope b y v ery l arge k urkar b locks .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 1. T he z ero p o int o f S urvey L ine n o . 1 1 was p laced 2 0 m e ast o f t he z ero p o int o f S L n o . 1 0 . T he l i ne was o r iented t o p ass o ver t he l arge c onc rete a nd k urkar b locks f orm ing t he h ead o f t he S outhern B reakwater a nd t he e ast t ower o f A rea K ( Sect ion I I .J ) ( p l . I V ) .

I t was l a id o ut f or 1 90 m a t ab ear ing o f

3 20 °. Descr ip t ion o f Features , SL n o . 1 1: m 0 -26 : s lop ing f ie ld o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .25 m ) .

Depth a t m 0 : 9 .6 i n

( t o s and , 7 .6 m ) ; a t m 1 0 : 7 .8 i n ; a t m 2 0 : 6 .8 m . m 2 6-132 : al eve l p latform o f k urkar r ubb le , f eature less e xcept f or o ccas iona l k urk ar a nd c oncrete b locks . T here i s al ow v ert ica l f ace 1 .2 m h igh a t m 1 26 , f ormed o f n atural ly c oncreted k urkar r ubb le . T he s carp may b e an atura l f eat ure , b ut t here i s al arge k urkar ma ss 2 .5 m w ide v is ib le i n t he r ubb le j ust b eyond i t , f rom i n 3 2 t o i n 3 5 . T he p rof i le r i ses f rom a d epth o f 6 .7 m a t m 2 5 t o 5 .0 m a t m 3 0 ( on t he mass o f r ubb le ) . T he u pper s urface o f t h is p ort ion o f t he b reakwater i s e ssent ia l ly l eve l , w ith o n ly m inor d epress ions a nd e levat ions a s f ar a s m 1 32 .

B etween i n 6 3 a nd i n 7 5 t here i s ah eap o f i r regu lar masses

o f k urkar ( D e a . 1 -1 .5 m ) .

A t i n 1 01 , t here i s a n e roded c oncrete b lock 3 .5 m

s quare , embedded i n t he k urkar r ubb le . A t m 1 20 , t here i s as econd c oncrete ma ss ( 1 .5 m l ong ) a d jacent t o ad isturbed b ut r ecogn izab le l i ne o f 8k urkar b locks . The b est p reserved b lock i s 2 .2 x 0 .8 x 0 .5 i n .

There a re more sma l l

masses o f c oncrete s cattered i n t he a rea b etween i n 1 22 a nd m 1 32 . i n 4 0 : 5 .5 m ; a t m 5 0 : 5 .5 i n ; a t i n 6 0 : 5 .6 i n ; a t i n 7 0 :

D ep th a t

5 .2 m ; a t i n 8 0 : 5 .5 i n ;

a t I n 9 0 : 5 .4 i n ; a t i n 1 00 : 5 .5 i n ; a t m 1 10 : 5 .5 m ; a t m 1 20 : 5 .2 i n ( on wa l l ) ; a t m 1 30 : 5 .5 m .

2 22

I V .C : S urvey L ines

m 1 32-165 :

c ore o f b reakwater , c omposed o f e normous b locks o f c oncrete a nd

k urkar . S evera l c oncrete b locks ( 2 x 2x 1m ) l i e o n t he r ubb le b etween m 1 32 a nd m 1 36 , a nd i r regu lar masses o f k urkar ( 2-3 x 1 . 5 x 1 .5 m ) l i e s cattered a round t he s urround ing a rea o n t he k urkar r ubb le . T here a re t wo c oncrete b locks s ide b y s ide a t m 1 44 t o m 1 51 ( 7 x 5x 2 .5 m ) . B locks o f s im i lar d i mens ions a re t umb led i n ag reat h eap 4 t o 5m h igh , j ust west o f t he l i ne f ro m m 1 48 t o m 1 68 . T hese l i e o n s ome e ven l arger c oncrete f oundat ion b locks , o ne o f wh ich t he l i ne p asses o ver a t m 1 56 t o m 1 65 ( 8 .5 x 3 x > 2 m ) . T he c rest o f t he p i le o f c oncrete b locks r i ses t o w ith in 2 .0 m o f s ea l eve l . T he c oncrete masses t erm inate a brupt ly i n ar ough v ert ica l f ace a t m 1 68 , a nd t he r ubb le b ase o r b ur ied b locks s lope d own s teep ly b eneath t he s andy s ea-bottom . Depth a t m 1 40 : 5 .5 m ; a t m 1 50 : 5 .0 m ( on b lock ) ; a t m 1 60 : 4 .2 m ( on b lock ) ; a t m 1 65 : 5 .0 m ( on b lock ) . m 1 65-190 : A rea K ( Sect ion I I .J ) . The e ast t ower o f A rea K i ss eparated f ro m t he p resent v is ib le f ace o f t he b reakwater b y 6m o f s andy s ea-bottom . I t r i ses 5 m f rom t he p resent b ottom t o w ith in 2 .0 m o f s ea l eve l . P robes a long t he l i ne o f b oth s ides o f t he t ower s how t hat t he s and i s more t han 2 m d eep o ver a ny b ur ied s tructu res .

Depth a t m 1 70 : u ndeterm ined , > 8 .5 m ( t o s and , 6 .5 m ) ; a t

m 1 80 : u ndeterm ined , > 9 .3 m ( t o s and , 7 .3 m ) ; a t m 1 90 : u ndeterm ined , > 9 .2 m ( to s and , 7 .2 m ) . S um mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 c rosses t he h ead o f t he S outhern B reakwater .

A t p resent , ma jor s tructura l f eatures a ppea r o n ly a long t he l ast 5 0 m o f t he l i ne , a nd t he c ore o f t he b reakwater i t se lf i s a pparent ly o n ly 3 0 m w ide .

T he smooth

f i e ld o f r ubb le 1 32 m w ide o n t he i nner f ace o f t he b reakwater a t l east i n p a rt i s r ubb le s p i l l f ro m t he d ecay o f t he s tructure , b ut i t may c oncea l t he f oundat ions f or q uays o r o ther f eatures .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 2 .

S u rvey L ine n o . 1 2 , b y f ar t he l ongest i n t he s er ies , was

o r iented a l most d ue E -W t o p rov ide a p rof i le a cross t he E ntrance Channe l ( Area D 1 ; S ect ion I I .C .2 ) a nd a long t he l ength o f t he Northern B reakwater ( p l . I V ) .

T he

z ero p o int was l ocated 2 0 m n orth o f t he t rench i n A rea D 2 , 1 5 m f rom t he e nd o f t he S outhern B reakwater . T he l i ne was l a id o ut o n ab ea r ing o f 1 00 ° f or 3 45 m , u p t o t he p resent b each a t t he b ase o f t he N orthern B reakwater .

B ecause o f t he r e l-

a t ive ly u n informat ive c haracter o f t he l ast 1 70 m o f t h is l i ne , a nd b ecause o f s pace r estr ict ions o n t he p lates i n t h is v o lume , o n ly t he f i rst 1 70 m o f t h is l i ne a re r eproduced o n p late I V . Descr ip t ion o f F eatures , SL n o . 1 2 : m 0 -15 : t ip o f S outhern B reakwater . E xcavat ion i n a rea D 2 h as s hown t hat t he g ent ly s lop ing r ubb le f orm ing t he p resent t i p o f t he S outhern B reakwater i s s p i l l t hat h as b een p ushed o ff t he s tructure b y waves d ur ing i t s d ecay . T h is s p i l l e xtends a l t he way a cross t he E ntrance Channe l t o t he t ip o f t he Northe rn B reakwater ( Sect ion I I .C .2 ) .

Depth a t m 0 : 5 .9 m ; a t m 1 0 : 6 .5 m .

m 1 5-24 : h arbour E ntrance Channe l . T he r ubb le-f il led r ema ins o f t he E ntrance Channe l a re n ow c overed b y as h ift ing l ayer o f s and .

S ince t he s lope o f t he

t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwater i sg ent le , t he a pparent p rof i le o f t he c hanne l c hanges d rama t ica l ly f rom y ear t o y ea r w ith o n ly m inor v ar iat ions i n t he d epth o f s and . I n 1 984 t he s and was a pprox imate ly 2 .5 t o 3m t h ick o ver t he l ayer o f s p i l led r ubb le .

D epth a t m 2 0 : 7 .0 m ( to s and ) .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 23

m 2 4-42 : h ead o f Northern B reakwater . A t t h is p o int t he b reakwater h ead was b u i lt o f l arge k urka r b locks 5 -6 m l ong t hat were i n ter locked w ith l apjo ints a nd f astened w ith l arge i ron c lamps s et i n l ead ( see S ect ion I I .C .1 ) .

The

b locks a re t u mb led i n as teep p i le r i s ing f rom t he o r ig ina l c hanne l f loor a t a d epth o f 1 1 .0 m a t m 2 4 t o 2 .6 m a t m 3 3 . T he h eap t hen s lopes d own t o a d epth o f 5 .0 m a t m 4 2 . Depth a t m 3 0 : 4 .0 m ; a t m 4 0 : 3 .9 m . m 4 2-110 : c ore o f b reakwater . V irtua l ly t he e nt ire l eng th o f t he p reserved p ort ion o f t he Northern B reakwater i s c omposed o f i r regu lar , h eav i ly e roded ma sses o f k urkar a nd c oncrete r est ing o n , o r s urrounded b y , k urka r r ubb le o f marked ly v ary ing d i men s ions .

T here a re i r regu lar p ockets where t he r ubb le h as b een

l ost , o r where t he b reakwater c ore was c onstructed i n p art o f s and h e ld i n r ubb le-bu i lt c e ll s , a long w ith amorphous h eaps c o mposed o f r ubb le c e mented t ogether f ortu itou s ly b y n atu ra l c oncret ions . T here a re i s o lated k urkar b locks 3 -4 m l ong a t m 4 5 , m 4 9 , m 8 4 , a nd m 1 00 , a nd a h eap o f i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le p oss ib ly d er ived f rom b locks a t m 9 1 ( avg . D 1 .5 m ) .

A t m 6 3 t he l i ne

c rosses m 2 5 o f S L n o . 1 3 ; a t m 9 8 i tc rosses m 2 2 o f S L n o . 1 4 . 5 0 : 5 .5 m ; a t m 6 0 : 4 .5 m ; a t m 7 0 : 4 .5 m ; a t m 8 0 :

Depth a t m

4 .6 m ; a t m 9 0 : 5 .7 m ; a t

m 1 00 : 5 .7 m ; a t m 1 10 : 5 .0 m . m 1 10-156 : s lop ing f i e ld o f k urka r r ubb le . F or t he most p art t he r ubb le i s sma l l i n s ize ( avg . D 0 .2-0 .3 m ) , b ut t here a re i so lated k urkar masses ( L 2 -4 m ) , a t m 1 30 a nd m 1 44 . A t m 1 48 t he l i ne c rosses m 2 2 o f S L n o . 1 5 .

D epth a t m 1 20 :

5 .0m ; a t m 1 30 : 5 .0 m ; a t m 1 40 : 5 .0 m ; a t m 1 50 : 4 .6 m . m 1 56-318 : s lop ing , h igh ly i r regu lar f ie ld o f k urkar b ed-rock .

F rom m 1 56 t o m

1 71 a l eve l s tratum o f b ed-rock i sv is ib le b eneath t he k u rka r r ubb le . B etween m 1 71 a nd m 2 30 t he r e l ief i s v ery marked , a nd a t o ne p o int - b etween m 1 92 a nd m 2 08 - t wo v ery l arge p ro ject ions r each p resent s ea l eve l .

A t m 2 10 t he

l eve l d escend s a ga in t o ad epth o f 5 .8 m a nd s ubsequent ly r i ses g radua l ly t o s ea l eve l a t t he b each .

Where i t i se xposed , t he s urface o f t he s oft k urkar h as

b een e roded b y t he s ea i n to l eve l s urfaces o r s tream l ined f orms . 1 60 : 3 .4 m ; a t m 1 70 : 3 .3 m ; a t m 1 80 : 5 .0 m ; a t m 1 90 : m ( on r eef ) ; a t m 2 10 : 5 .8 m ; a t m 2 20 : m ; a t m 2 50 :

Depth a t m

2 .0 m ; a t m 2 00 : 1 .5

3 .3 m ; a t m 2 30 : 2 .5 m ; a t m 2 40 : 2 .3

1 .7 m ; a t m 2 60 : 1 .6 m ; a t m 2 70 : 0 .6 m ; a t m 2 80 : 0 .5 m ; a t m

2 90 : 0 .7 m ; a t m 3 00 : 0 .7 m ; a t m 3 10 : 0 .7 m . m 3 18-345 : s and , p ebb les , a nd o ccas iona l k urka r r ubb le c over t he b ed-rock , r i s ing t o f orm t he b each a t m 3 41 . Depth a t m 3 20 :

0 .8 m ; a t m 3 30 : 0 .5 m ; a t m

3 40 : 0 .1 m ; a t m 3 45 : + 0 .4 m . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o .

1 2 r evea ls t ha t

t he

Northern

B reakwater

was

f ounded o n ak urkar b ed-rock r eef e xtend ing o ut a t l east 1 80 m f rom t he p resent s horel ine . I n p laces t h is r eef i s s t i l l v ery p rom inent , a nd i n i t s o r ig ina l f orm i t wou ld h ave f ormed a s tab le c ore f or t he r ubb le a nd b locks o f t he a rt if ic ia l s truct ure . A lthough t he c entra l p a rt o f t he s eaward p ort ion o f t he b reakwater h a s b een s er ious ly d amaged s ince a nt iqu ity , i tc an s t i l l b e s een t hat t here h as b een n o ma jor t ecton ic f au lt ing a cross i t . I nstead , t here i s a more o r l ess u n iform , g radua l s lope f rom i t s b ase a t p resent s ea l eve l t o t he o uter e nd .

T h is s lope may b e t he r esu lt

o f t ecton ic a ct iv ity a long a f au lt r unn ing t hrough t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l , o r f ro m s lump ing a cross t he who le h arbour a rea .

T he p resence o f at a l l h eap o f

b locks i n A rea D a t t he e nd o f t he s tructure r ef lects t he c arefu l a ttent ion p a id t o

2 24

I V .C : S urvey L ines

t he p lacement o f mater ia ls a t t he c ruc ia l b reakwa ter h ead . E lsewhere , l oss o f t he o r ig ina l s tructura l f ac ing h as a l lowed t he c ore o f c oncrete a nd k urkar b locks a nd k urkar r ubb le t o b e s cattered a nd d estroyed b y t he waves .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 3 . S urvey L ines n os . 1 3 , 1 4 , a nd 1 5 were l a id o ut a cross t he Northern B reakwater f ro m s outh t o n orth t o p rov ide i nformat ion o n t he p rof i le o f t he s tructure . S ince t he o ut l ine o f t he b reakwater i sq u ite r egu lar i n a er ia l p hotog raphs , i t was h oped t hat s ome p ort ions o f t he o r ig ina l c as ing o r i ns ide q uays m ight h ave b een p reserved . S ee t he d iscuss ion o f A rea H1 ( Sect ion I I .G ) .

The

z ero p o int o f S L n o . 1 3 was p laced a cross A rea H 1 , 4 0 m e ast o f t he west e nd o f t he b reakwater ( p l . V ) . T he l i ne was l a id o ut p erpend icu lar t o t he l ong a x is o f t he b reakwater , a t ab ear ing o f 1 0 0,f or 8 5 m . Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 1 3 : m 0 -14 : s outh f ace o f b reakwater , A rea H1 . T he ma ss o f t he s tructu re i s f or med o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .3 m ) t hat s lopes u pward s teep ly f ro m 7 .7 m a t m 8t o 4 .7 m a t m 1 3 .

T h is r ubb le f ace p lunges s teep ly b e low t he s andy s ea-

b ottom a t m 8b ut l eve ls o ff a t ad epth o f 8 .0 m a nd s lopes d ownwa rd g radua l ly t o t he s outh .

T here a re s evera l k u rka r b lock s a nd i r regu lar masses ( ca . 2

x1 .5 x 1 .5 m ) a t t he f oot a nd c rest o f t he s lope . D epth a t m 0 : 8 .3 m ; a t m 1 0 : 6 .0 m . m 1 4-32 : s outhern e dge o f b reakwater c ore . T he who le s outhern marg in o f t he s tructure i s marked b y al ow E -W r idge o f l a rge b ut h eav i ly-eroded k urkar a nd c oncrete masses , s urrounded b y l oose a nd n atura l ly-concreted k urka r r ubb le . There a re k u rkar ma sses 2 -2 .5 m i n l eng th a t m 1 5 a nd m 3 0 , f ra m ing a s hapel ess c oncrete mass ( D 4m ) a t m 2 3 . T he mound c rests a t ad epth o f 2 .1 m a t m 2 5 .

A t t h is p o int i tc rosses m 6 3 o f S L n o . 1 2 .

Depth a t m 2 0 : 3 .2 m ; a t m

3 0 : 2 .8 m . m 3 2-85 : t he r ema inder o f t he b reakwa ter i s ag enera l ly l eve l p latform o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le o n wh ich r est o ccas iona l h eaps o f b ad ly-eroded masses o f k urkar o r c oncrete . T he b u lk o f t he b reakwater i sc omposed o f sma l l k u rkar r ubb le ( D 0 .3-0 .4 m ) . A p i le o f l a rge c oncrete masses ( ca . 3 .5 x 3 .5 x 1 m ) a ppears a t m 4 3 t o m 4 6 ; ah eap o f k urkar ma sses ( D 2m ) a t m 5 2 t o m 5 9 . A t m 7 0 t he r ubb le s urface b eg ins t o s lope v ery g ent ly d own a nd d isappears b eneath t he s and a t m 7 7 . Depth a t m 4 0 : 3 .3 m ; a t m 5 0 : 3 .2 m ; a t m 6 0 : 3 .5 m ; a t m 7 0 : m ; a t m 8 0 : 5 .4 m ( t o s and , 4 .5 m ) ; a t m 8 5 : 5 .9 m ( to s and , 4 .5 m ) .

3 .8

A irjet

p robes l ater r evea led t hat t he s lope r ema ins g ent le f or a t l east 1 0 m b eyond t he e nd o f SL n o . 1 3 . S u m ma ry .

S urvey L ine n o .

1 3 s hows t hat t he c ore o f

t he

b reakwater

i s

a pprox i mate ly 6 0 m w ide a t t h is p o int , w ith a we l l-def ined s outhern e dge b ut a n i ndef in ite n orthern marg in . A t p resent n o r e ma ins o f a ny masonry s he l l c an b e i dent if ied , a nd i n g enera l t he b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls a re much sma l ler i n d i mens ions t han t hose u sed o n t he S outhern B reakwater .

T here i s ac oncentrat ion o f l arge

ma sses t oward s t he s outhern e dge o f t he s tructure .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 4 .

S urvey L ine n o .

1 4 was l a id o ut a cross t he Northern

B reakwater 3 5 m Eo f S L n o . 1 3 t o p rov ide d ata f or a s ect iona l e levat ion a t t h is p o int ( p l . V ) .

I t was l a id o ut f or 8 0 m a t ab ear ing o f 1 0 0.

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 25

Descr ip t ion o f Features , SL n o . 1 4 : m 0 -14 : s outh f ace o f b reakwater . T he r ubb le f orm ing t he b u lk o f t he s tructure s lopes u pward s teep ly f rom a d epth o f 6 .4 m a t m 7( i ts i n tersect ion w ith t he s and ) t o 3 .6 m a t m 1 3 ( the c rest ) .

B e low t he s and , t he r ubb le f oot ings s l ope

g radua l ly t o t he s outh t o ad epth o f 7 .6 m a t m 0( 6 .4 m t o s and ) .

T he s l op ing

f ace i sc o mposed o f i r regu lar k urkar r ubb le ( D 0 .2-0 .4 m ) , wh i le a l arge k urkar mass ( D 3 .5 m ) o ccup ies t he c rest , s urrounded b y af ew e roded b lock s ( 2 x 1x 1m ) .

D epth a t m 1 0 : 4 .8 m .

m 1 4-58 : b reakwater c ore . N orth o f i t s s outhern e dge , t he b reakwater r ema ins a re c omposed o f av ery i r regu la r f i e ld o f b roken k urkar b locks , k urkar r ubb le o f a l l s i zes , a nd l a rge i r regu lar k urka r a nd c oncrete masses . T he l eve l v ar ies f rom d epths o f 3 .6 t o 6 .0 m .

B etween m 1 8 a nd m 2 3 t here a re n umerous t um-

b led k urkar b lock s ( avg . 2 .5 x 0 .7 x 0 .7 m ) .

A t m 2 2 t he l i ne c rosses t he m 9 8

ma rk o f S L .n o . 1 2 . A t m 3 0 t here i s al arge , i r regu lar k urkar mass ( D e a . 5m ) p ro ject ing f rom t he r ubb le , a nd a sma l ler mass ( D e a . 2m ) a t m 4 5 . An e roded ma ss o f c oncrete ( D e a . 3m ) s tands i n ap ocket o f smal l k urkar r ubb le a t m 4 0 , a nd a f lat b lock c a . 7m s quare p ro jects s l ight ly f rom t he r ubb le b etween m 5 1 a nd m 5 8 , i t s u pper s urface a t ad epth o f 3 .6 m . a t m 3 0 : 5 .1 m ( on k urkar mass ) ; a t m 4 0 :

D epth a t m 2 0 : 5 .9 m ;

4 .6 m ( on c oncrete ma ss ) ; a t m 5 0 :

5 .0 m . m 5 8-80 : n orth f ace o f b reakwater . B eyond t he c oncrete b lock a t m 5 1 t o m 5 8 , t he b reakwater i s c omposed o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le c oated a nd j o ined b y a t h ick l ayer o f n atura l c oncret ion . I ts lopes o ff v ery g ent ly f rom a d epth o f 4 .4 m a t m 6 0 t o 6 .3 m a t m 7 0 ( t o s and , 5 .6 m ) . T he r ubb le s ee ms t o v irtua l ly l eve l o ff a t t h is d epth a nd s tands a t ad epth o f 7m a t m 8 0 . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 4 p rov ides much t he s ame i n format ion a s S L n o .

1 3 , b ut t he c oncav ity o f t he c entra l p ort ion o f t he b reakwater i s more p ronounced . A s ar esu lt , t he c rests o ccup ied b y k u rka r masses o n t he s outh a nd n orth e dges a re more d ist inct .

T he r ema ins o f t he b reakwater p roper a re a pprox i mate ly 6 0 m

a cross .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 5 .

S urvey L ine n o .

1 5 w as l a id o ut a cross t he Northern

B reakwater 5 0 m e ast o f S L n o . 1 4 t o p rov ide d ata f or a s ect iona l e levat ion ( p l . V ) . T he l i ne was l a id o ut f or 7 5 m a t ab ear ing o f 1 0 0. Descr ip t ion o f Features , SL n o . 1 5 : m 0 -17 : s outh f ace o f b reakwater . T he k urka r r ubb le c on st itut ing t he mass o f t he s tructure s l opes u p g radua l ly f rom a d epth o f 6 .4 m a t m 0( to s and , 5 .4 m ) t o ad epth o f 5 .6 m a t m 1 0 . B etween m 1 a nd m 1 6 t here i s al ow c rest f ormed b y h eav i ly-eroded k urkar masses ( D 1 . 5-2 m ) , s urrounded b y n umerous sma l l k urkar b locks ( 1 x0 .5 x 0 .5 m ) . T he c rest ( a t m 1 6 ) s tands a t ad epth o f 4 .6 m . m 1 7-59 : b reakwater c ore . T he c entra l p ort ion o f t he b reakwater n ow h as t he a ppearance o f a n i r regu lar f i e ld o f e roded k urkar b locks a nd r ubb le s urroundi ng o ccas iona l l arge masses o f k urkar o r c oncrete . a pprox i mate ly 5 m .

T he a verage d epth i s

A t m 2 2 t he l i ne c rosses t he 1 50 m ma rk o f S L n o . 1 2 .

B etween m 2 0 a nd m 3 0 t he l i ne c rosses n umerou s b roken k urkar b locks o f a pprox i mate ly i dent ica l d imens ions : 1 . 2 x0 .4 x 0 .6 m .

A t m 3 2 ak u rka r b lock

( 2 x2x 1m ) r ests o n ap i le o f k urkar r ubb le . T here i s a sma l ler b lock ( 2 .2 x

2 26

I V .C : S urvey L ines 0 .7 x 0 .4 m ) a t m 4 3 , n ext t o ac oncrete b lock 1 .5 m s quare .

B etween m 5 1

a nd m 5 7 t he l i ne c rosses a p i le o f e roded k urka r ma sses ( L 5 -6 m ) t hat may o r ig ina l ly h ave f ormed a r ow o f b lock s e a . 1 0 m l ong l a id s ide b y s ide i n aN -S o r ientat ion . T he u pper s urface s tands a t ad epth o f 4 .1 m .

Depth a t m 2 0 : 5 .0

m ; a t m 3 0 : 4 .7 m ; a t m 4 0 : 5 .2 m ; a t m 5 0 : 5 .2 m . m 5 9-75 : n orth f ace o f b reakwa ter . T h is p ort ion o f t he b reakwater , c omposed o f sma l l , h eav i ly-concreted k urkar r ubb le , s lopes d own g ent ly f rom a d epth o f 5 .0 m a t m 6 0 t o 6 .0 m a t m 7 0 ( t o s and , 5 .4 m ) . Depth a t m 7 5 : 6 .7 m . S u m mary .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 5 p rov ides much t he s ame i nformat ion a s S L n o .

1 4 , b ut t he r e l ief o f t he s outh s lope a nd t he c oncav ity o f t he c entra l p ort ion o f t he b reakwater a re l ess p ronounced . Here a ga in , t here a re d ist inct c rests o n t he s outh a nd n orth e dges , b ut b oth a re o ccup ied b y k urkar ma sses . T he r e ma ins o f t he b reakwater p roper a re a pprox i mate ly 5 5 m a cross .

S urvey L ine n o . 1 6 . a ng l ing o ut f rom

S urvey L ine n o . 1 6 was l a id a cross a n arrow p ro ject ion

t he s outheast t i p o f t he S ou thern B reakwater t o d eter m ine i t s

p rof i le , s tructura l c haracter , a nd r e lat ionsh ip t o t he E ntrance Channe l ( p l . V ) . I t was l a id o ut f ro m s outh t o n orth f or 4 0 m a t ab ear ing o f 3 0 °. Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 1 6 : m 0 -18 : g ent ly s lop ing f ie ld o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le ( avg . D 0 .25 m ) . T he r ubb le r i ses v ery g radua l ly f ro m a d epth o f 8 .4 m ( t o s and , 7 .4 m ) a t m 0t o 7 .4 m a t m 1 8 . Depth a t m 1 0 : 8 .0 m . m 1 8-35 : c ore o f b reakwater s p il l . B etween m 1 8 a nd m 3 4 t he f eature i s c o mp osed o f smal l k urkar r ubb le c oncreted t ogether i n as teep-s ided mass marked b y s evera l d eep f i ssures . N o k urka r o r c oncrete b locks a re v is ib le a t p resent . Depth a t m 2 0 :

6 .3 m ; a t m 3 0 : 6 .0 m ; a t m 3 5 : 8 .0 m .

m 3 5-40 : h a rbour E ntrance Channe l . T he s teep p rof i le o f t he r ubb le a long t he c hanne l c ont inues u nder t he s and , a ga in w ithout a ny a pparent s tructura l f eat u res . D epth a t m 4 0 :

9 .5 m ( t o s and , 7 .8 m ) .

S u m mary . I n v iew o f t he a bsence o f a ny b locks o r o ther s tructura l f eatures , i t s ee ms l i ke ly t hat t he p ro ject ing l i ne o f r ubb le c rossed b y S L n o . 1 6 i s s imp ly r ubb le s p i l l p ushed o ff t he t erm ina l p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater d ur ing i t s d ecay .

The l ow s lope o f sma l l k urkar r ubb le i s f ound a l l a long t he i nner f ace o f

t he n orthern p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater , j ust t he a rea t o wh ich r ubb le wou ld b e p ushed b y t he f orce o f t he p reva i l ing s outhwest s torms . e ast f ace o f t he

r ubb le

p ro ject ion

i s g overned b y

The s teep n orth-

t he g reater d epth o f

t he

E ntrance Channe l , wh i le t he s outhwest f ace h as t he g ent le s lope t yp ica l o f t he s ed iment-choked h arbour b as in .

P re l im inary Ana lys is o f S urvey L ines n os . 1 -16 .

I n s um mary , t he l i nes s ur-

v eyed i n 1 983-84 p rov ided a n e xce l lent r ev iew o f t he n a ture a nd a rrangement o f t he mater ia ls u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he h arbour . They s howed t hat t he S outhe rn B reakwater was b u i lt o f l arge p ieces o f k urkar r ubb le o r r ough ly-shaped b locks p laced o n ac ush ion o r a pron o f sma l ler k urkar r ubb le a nd s and . Th is c ore o f r ubb le was r evetted a nd p rotected b y i m mense b locks o f k urkar a nd c oncrete a long i t s c rest a nd o uter f ace , a nd b y sma l ler b locks o f k urkar a long t he i nner f ace .

T he

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 27

c ore o f t he n orthern p ort ion o f t he b reakwater was c omposed o f e normous masses o f c oncrete d es igned t o r e inforce t he b reakwater h ead , t o p rotect a n i mportant d ock ing a rea , a nd p oss ib ly a lso t o s erve a s t he f oundat ions f or a l i ghthouse .

The

S ubs id iary B reakwater w as b u i lt s imu ltaneous ly t o p rotect t he s outh f lank . The r ecess b u i lt i n to t he west f ace o f t h is b reakwater p robab ly r epresents t he r ema ins o f a nother s ubs id iary b reakwater o r wave-break ing a rrange ment i n t h is a rea . Th is f eature c annot b e e xp la ined s imp ly a s a n a cc identa l r esu lt o f t he e ros ion o f t he b reakwater a nd s catter ing o f t he r ubb le c ore a t t h is p o int . T oo much c on struct ion mater ia l s eems t o h ave v an ished .

A l ong q uay was a lso b u i lt a long t he i ns ide f ace

o f t he ma in b reakwater mass . The Northern B reakwater was c onstructed o f much t he s ame mater ia ls :

a

c ore o f k urkar r ubb le f ounded o n b ed-rock f or h a lf o f i t s l ength , o n ac ush ion o f sma l ler r ubb le f or t he r est . Much o f t h is r ubb le c ore s ee ms t o h ave b een l ost f ro m t he c entra l p ort ion o f t he b reakwater . I t s d isappearance l eft a d epress ion a long i t s l ength f ramed o n t he n orth a nd s outh s ides b y t he r ema ins o f t he o r ig ina l p rotect ive c ladd ing o f l arge k urkar a nd c oncrete b locks . T he i nter ior f ace i ss teeper a nd d eeper t han t he o uts ide f ace , p robab ly b ecause t he o uts ide f ace h ad t o b e d es igned t o a bsorb t he f orce o f t he o pen s ea .

T he b reakwater h ead was b u i lt o f c arefu l ly

i nter locked b locks o f k urkar , ar esponse t o i t s c r it ica l i mportance . T h is s ect ion was t he k ey t o t he s tab i l ity o f t he who le b reakwater a nd o f t he a d jacent h arbour E ntrance Channe l . T here i se v idence f or p lac ing t he l eve l o f t he a nc ient s ea-f loor a round t he t wo b reakwaters a t ad epth o f c a . 8m b e low p resent MSL :

i t c an b e d iscerned i n t he

s ter ile s and b eneath t he r ubb le b edd ing i n A rea E , i n t he v iscous c lay i n A reas N2 a nd H 1 , a nd i n t he e ros ion n otch o n at ower i n A rea K . I n t he E ntrance Channe l t he c lay l eve l o ccurs a t ad epth o f c a . 1 0 .5 m . I f we r estore a n o r ig ina l d epth o f 2 .5 m f or t he Outer B as in , i t a ppears t hat t he who le a rea h a s s lu mped 5 .5 m .

B ut

l ower ing p resent s ea l eve l 5 .5 m wou ld s t i l l l eave most o f t he t wo b reakwaters a t o r s l ight ly b e low s ea l eve l . S ome o f t he b etter p reserved s ect ions wou ld s tand c a . 1 .5 m a bove t he water . Obv iou s ly , ag reat d ea l o f t he b reakwater s uperstructu re h as b een d estroyed , s cattered , o r c a rr ied away .

T he t ip o f t he S outhern B reak-

water a nd t he e nt ire Northern B reakwater a re b etter p reserved . T hey s eem t o b e more s o l id ly b u i lt , p erhaps b ecause t hey b racketed t he c ruc ia l h a rbour e ntrance a nd were d es igned t o s upport t owers a nd p oss ib ly a l i gh thouse .

I n a dd it ion , t hey

were s h ie lded f rom t he f u l l f orce o f most s torms e ven a fter t he d ecay o f t he S outhern B reakwater . P re l im inary c a lcu lat ion o f t he t ota l o r ig ina l v o lu me o f t he b reakwaters o n t he b as is o f t he p resent c onf igurat ion o f t he r e ma ins i s p resented i n S ect ion I .B .3 . F ina l c a lcu la t ions b ased o n t he s urvey l i nes r ecorded h ere w il l a ppea r i n V o lume I V . I ts hou ld b e n oted t hat t he c oncrete b locks wh ich o r ig ina l ly r e inforced t he t wo b reakwaters , p art icu lar ly o n t he ir o uter f aces , a re more s uscept ib le t o t ota l l oss t han t he k urka r b locks a nd r ubb le . Once a c oncrete b lock b roke u p , b ecause o f s ett le ment o f t he f oundat ion o r o ther s tresses , t he s oft f ragments o f mortar , o r o f mortar a nd a ggregrate , were much l ess l i ke ly t o s urv ive t he a bras ion o f r o l l ing a round o n t he s urface o f t he c ru mb l ing b reakwater t han k urkar f ragments . On ly a f ew morta r f ragments were f ound i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavat ion a nd s urvey , u sua l ly i n d eep s trata ( e .g . A rea D 2 , A rea E 2 ) .

P art o f t he r educt ion i n t he mass o f

2 28

I V .C : S urvey L ines

t he b reakwaters c an b e a ttr ibuted t o t h is p henomenon . I t i s a lso p oss ib le t hat much o f t he S outhern B reakwater was n ot s o l id , b ut c ons isted e ither o f waveb reak ing b as ins s uch a s t he S ubs id iary B reakwater , o r o f r ubb le-bu i lt c e l ls o r c o mp artments b u i lt o f r ubb le a nd c oncrete o r k urka r b locks a nd f i l led w ith s and d redged f ro m t he Outer B a s in a s t he b reakwaters were c onstructed . The d ecay o f t he b reakwater c ore a nd s catter ing o f i t s r ubb le may h ave p art ia l ly o bscured s ome o f t hese wave-breakers a nd s and c el ls . R aban i n p art icu lar s upports t h is l ast s o lut ion , a nd h e l a id o ut a s eventeenth s urvey l i ne i n 1 986 t o c o l lect t he r e levant d ata . T he r esu lts o f t h is s urvey a re p resented b e low . [ J .P .O . , A .N .S . 1

S urvey L ine n o . 1 7 .

Dur ing t he 1 985 s tudy s ea son , t he i s sue o f h ow t he ma in

b reakwaters were b u i lt was d iscussed a t l eng th b y t he c o-d irectors o f CAHEP . The d ata c o l lected b y t he s urvey l i nes l eave r oom f or v a r ious i n terpretat ions o f t he o r ig ina l c o mponents o f t he t he b reakwaters , t he ir l ayout , a nd t he c ross-sect ions . The p re l im ina ry r eport p ub l ished b y Raban was q uest ioned , p a rt icu lar ly r egard ing t he s uggest ion t hat Herod 's e ng ineers made u se o f c ompa rtments f i l led b y wavec arr ied s and t o f orm a s ign if icant p ort ion o f t he b reakwater c ores ( Raban 1 985c : 1 55-58 ; 1 988 ) .

T he o ther c o-d irectors f e lt t hat t h is p rocedure , wh ich i s n ot d ocu-

mented i n a ny a nc ient a uthors , wou ld h ave b een b oth h aza rdous a nd i mpract ica l . They f e lt t hat , wh i le r ubb le-bu i lt c ompartments f i l led w ith s and d redged f rom t he Outer B as in a nd s ea-bottom m ight h ave f unct ioned a s a n e ffect ive f oundat ion , t here was n ot a s y et s uff ic ient e v idence t o p ostu late t he ir e x istence .

A s ar esu lt ,

Raban a rranged t o l ay o ut o ne more s urvey l i ne i n 1 986 ( SL n o . 1 7) a long t he c rest o f t he S outhern B reakwater . T he l i ne was l a id o ut f rom s ou th t o n orth , e xtend ing f rom m 2 6 o f S L n o . 6f or 2 35 m a t ab ear ing o f 6° ( p l . V ) . c rossed S L n o . 5m 7 1 ; a t m 8 5 i t c rossed S L n o .

A t m 6 2 t h is l i ne

7m 7 3 ; a t m 1 31 i t c rossed SL

n o . 8m 9 5 ; a t m 1 62 i tc rossed S L n o . 9m 1 08 ; a nd a t m 1 29 i t c rossed SL n o . 1 0 m 1 38 . T he n orthern t erm inat ion wa s o n t he s andy s ea-f loor j ust o uts ide t he n orthwestern t ip o f t he d ebr is o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter . Descr ip t ion o f F ea tures , SL n o . 1 7 : m 0 -49 : e a stern e dge o f r ecess a t t he w est s ide o f t he b reakwater .

Depth a t m 0 :

7 .1 m ( on t op o f ac oncrete b lock ) , d rops t o as andy b otto m a t ad epth o f 8 .3 m . Th in l ayer o f r ubb le ( D 0 .2-0 .4 m ) .

L arge b lock a t m 7( 4 .2 x 3 .6 x 2 .2 m ) .

Depth o n b lock 6 .8 m . Two b roken b locks a t m 1 5 , a t ad epth o f 7 .3 m . K urkar b lock a t m 3 0 ( 4 .9 x 2 .3 x 1 . 7 m ) , a t ad epth o f 7 .0 m . m 4 9-60 : t wo l arge c oncrete b locks , p oss ib ly t wo s ect ions o f as ing le b roken b lock . The s outh s ide o f o ne s i ts o n s and a t ad epth o f 8 .2 m ( ba se a t ad epth o f 9 .1 m ) a nd e xtends u pward t o 3 .9 m . T he t op o f t he o ther mass i s a t ad epth o f 5 .8 m . m 6 0-83 : l eve l a rea o f b roken a nd e roded k urkar b locks , s ome o ver 2 m l ong , l a id i n a nd o n t op o f sma l ler r ubb le , a t d epths o f 6 .2-6 .5 m .

A t m 7 6 , b locks a t a

l eve l o f 6 .5 m l i e o n r ubb le a t 7 .5 m . m 8 3-92 : g roup o f c oncrete b locks a t ad epth o f u p t o 4 .9 m ( 9 .1 x 7 .2 x 4 .2 m ) . T here i s ac luster o f c oncreted r oof t i les t o t he west o f t hese b locks , p oss ib ly aw reck s i te .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 29

m 9 2-105 : a n a l most h or izonta l s urface o f e roded a sh lar b locks o f k urkar , s lop ing g radua l ly t o t he e a st a nd n orth ; d epth a t m 9 5 : 5 .4 m , a t m 1 05 :

6 .0 m . S ome

r ubb le a nd a f ew l arge k urkar b locks ( 2 .1 x 1 .2 x 0 .7 m ) l ay o n t h is s urface . m 1 05-121 :

t wo

c oncrete

b locks ,

a d jacent

o n

a SW-NE

a x is .

A lthough

b ad ly

e roded , t he t ota l d iameter i s n ow 1 4 m . T he u pper s urface i s a t ad epth o f 4 .1-4 .3 m . T he r ubb le t o t he west i s a t ad epth o f 6 .1 m a nd i s o ver 0 .8 m t h ick . m 1 21-129 : f lat-surfaced k urkar b locks s l op ing t owa rd t he n orth f ro m a d epth o f 4 .8 t o 5 .6 m . m 1 29-146 : f ive masses o f c oncrete . T he u pper s urface o f t he f i rst i sa t ad epth o f 3 .4 m , s lop ing n orthward t o ad epth o f 7 .8 m . T he l ast t wo i n t he s er ies s tand a bout 2 m a bove t he s urround ing r ubb le s urface ( a t ad epth o f 6 .2 m ) . D i mens ions o f t he b locks : 4 .2 x 3 .4 x 2 .2 ; 4 .1 x 3 .8 x 1 .4 m ; 3 .1 x 2 .7 x 1 .6 m ; 3 .2 x 2 .4 x 2 .1 m ;.3 .2 x 2 .3 x 2 .2 m . m 1 46-158 : r ubb le s urface , p art ia l ly c overed w ith s and , s lop ing f rom a d epth o f 6 .1 t o 5 .2 m . T o t he west t he r ubb le d rops t o ad epth o f 7 .1 m , where t here i s a l arge p atch o f s and , w ith r ubb le u nderneath , a t a d epth o f 9 .3 m . P rob ing s howed t hat t he r ubb le wa s m iss ing a t s evera l p o ints a t t he west a nd e ast o f t h is s egment , t oward t he n orth e nd . T he r ubb le l ayer a t ad epth o f 5m i s o n ly 0 .7 m t h ick , w ith c lea r s and u nderneath , p robed t o ad epth o f 1 2 m . S evera l k urkar b locks a re s cattered a round . West o f t he l i ne 6 o r 7m t here i s ah uge c oncrete b lock ( 8 x 6m ) t i pped westwa rd , i t s u pper s urface a t ad epth o f 2 .6 m . There i st he i mpress ion o f a wooden b eam o n i t s e astern f ace . m 1 58-170 : t wo c oncrete b locks a t ad epth o f 5 .5 m . T he f i rst ( 3 .7 x 3 .1 x 2 .4 m ) i s a t ad epth o f 3 .4 m . T he s econd ( 6 .8 x 4 .1 x 1 .8 m ) i s t i lted t oward t he S E , i t s u pper s urface a t ad epth o f 4 .0 m . m 1 70-204 : a n a rea o f r ubb le s lop ing n orthward f rom a d epth o f 5 .5 t o 7 .1 m , w ith s ome s andy p atches a t t he l ower p o ints . T here a re t hree l arge b locks o n t h is s eg ment : o ne a t m 1 78-180 , i t s u pper p o int a t ad epth o f 4 .5 m ; as econd a t m 1 82-186 ( 4 .2 x 3 .3 x 1 .4 m ) ; a nd a t h ird a t m 1 90-195 w ith i t s u pper p o int a t a d epth o f 5 .5 m ( 5 .6 x 3 .9 x 1 .8 m ) . m 2 04-228 : a n a rea o f h uge r ectangu lar b lock s o f k urkar t umb led a nd t i lted i n d iff erent d irect ions . T he f i rst t hree l i e a bout 1 m a part o n a NW-SE a x is , t i lted d ownward t o t he e ast t owa rd a s andy h o l low a t ad epth o f 6 .7 m ( 5 x2 .5-3 x 2 m ) . The ir u pper e nds a re a t d epths o f 3 .5 m , 4 .7 m , a nd 4 .5 m . T he o ther b locks a verage a round 2 x 3 x 2 m a nd s l ope t o t he n orth f rom a d epth o f 4 .5 t o 7 .3 m . Th is g roup may h ave f ormed p art o f t he b reakwater h ead . m 2 28-235 : t he s andy s ea-f loor a t t he f oot o f t he b reakwater i s a t a d ep th o f 7 .3-7 .6 m . A t h in , b ur ied l ayer o f r ubb le a t ad epth o f 1 0 .8-11 .6 m was n oted b y means o f waterjet p rob ing . S evera l l arge k urkar b locks a re s cattered o n t he b otto m i n t h is a rea . S u m mary .

E xcept f or t he s i ng le h uge b lock west o f m 1 60 , t he e nt ire a rea

west o f S urvey L ine n o . 1 7 i s l ower , a nd i n g enera l made u p o f much l ess c onso l id ated r ubb le t han t he a rea t o t he e ast .

S ome o f t he d ebr is p i led u p t o t he e ast o f

t he l i ne i ss ha l lower , b ut o n t he who le t he b locks a nd ma sses h ere a re sma l ler t han t hose o n t he l i ne i t se lf . A lthough t he c ause o r f unct ion o f t he r ecess o n t he west f ace o f t he b reakwater a t m 0 -49 i ss t il l o bscure , t he r ubb le b a se a t ad epth o f 9 .2

2 30

I V .C : S urvey L ines

m d oes s eem l ower t han t he f oot ings f or t he b reakwater e l sewhere . T he s cattered f ragments o f b locks i n i t s eem t o h ave f a l len t here b efore t he h ol low wa s l ater p art ia l ly f i l led u p w ith sma l l r ubb le a nd q uant it ies o f s and . The f act t hat s o many b locks a re t i lted d own away f rom t he c rest o n wh ich t he l i ne l ay i nd icates t hat t h is c entra l f eature was b u ilt o n b etter s ubs tructures . Nowhere a long t he l i ne c ou ld p robes p enetrate t he r ubb le t o u nder ly ing s and . S ince t he e astern e dge o f t he r ecess i s o n t he s a me l i ne a s t he c entra l r i dge o f t he b reakwater r ema ins , i t may b e a n i n tent iona l f eature . I t may h ave s erved a s t he b as in f or a wave-breaker f unct ion ing i n t he s a me manner a s t he r ecess b eh ind t he S ubs id iary B reakwater t o t he SE , b ut h as n ow l ost i t s o uter wa l l . T here may h ave b een s evera l more o f t hese c o mpart ments a long t he o uter e dge o f t he b reakwater t o t he n orth . S urvey L ine 1 7 a lso s eems t o h ave d etected a p attern o f s egments o f r ubb le a lternat ing w ith a reas o f c oncrete b locks . T he s tretch f rom m 5 0 t o m 2 20 c ont a ins s even

u n its o f c oncrete b locks s eparated b y s ix i n terva ls o f r ubb le a nd

sma l ler b locks . T hese i nterva ls a re a pprox imate ly 1 5-20 m l ong e ach . Th is p attern may i nd icate t he s pac ing o f t he t owers J osephus ment ions a long t he S outhern B reakwater ( AJ 1 5 .336 ; 1 3 . I 1 .412 ; Append ix LA ) :

s o l id f oundat ions b eneath t he

t owers a lternat ing w ith r ubb le o r s and-f i l led c ompartments . A lthough t he d ata g athered i n S urvey L ine n o . 1 7 d o n ot p rov ide p roof o f t he t heory o f s and-f il led c e l ls a s p a rt o f t he c onstruct ion t echn ique f or t he b reakwa ters , i t i ss t il l p oss ib le t hat t h is p rocedure was u sed . [ A .R . ]

I V .D : M isce l laneous Underwater S urveys . Dur ing a nd b etween t he CAHEP f ie ld s ea sons , v ar ious o pportun it ies a rose f or c arry ing o ut r ando m u nderwater s urveys a t C aesarea . T he r e lat ive p rox im ity o f t he s i te t o Ha ifa a nd t he p resence t here o f t he p ermanent b ase a nd d iv ing works hop o f CMS made i t p oss ib le t o v is it Caesarea a nd s ea rch t he s ea-f loor a fter a l most e very w inter s torm , i n o rder t o c heck f or a ny n ew e xposu res o f u nknown f eatures , a rt ifacts , o r a dd it iona l d ata f or s tudy ing t he c yc l ica l v ar iat ion i n d epos it o f wave-carr ied s and a t v ar ious s i tes . T he c urrent y ear-round a ct iv it ies o f t he Caesarea D iv ing C enter a t t he s i te , wh ich i s c oncerned ma in ly w ith t ra in ing n ew s port d ivers , a re i n i n forma l c o l labora t ion w ith CAHEP 's s tud ies . The owner o f t he c entre , I t zhak A sher , a nd h is d iv ing i nstructors a t o ur r equest k eep a r ecord o f o bservat ions made d ur ing t ra in ing d ives . T h is i nformat ion i s r eported t o u s , a nd a ny p rom is ing r eports a re f o l lowed u p b y CMS d ivers w ith t he f u l l c o-operat ion o f t he D iv ing Center . O ther r ando m s urveys were c arr ied o ut p r ior t o e ach s eason , u sua l ly i n l ate Apr i l a nd e a r ly May , i n o rder t o a ssess t he s i tuat ion a t v a r ious s i tes t hat were s chedu led f or i n tens ive s tudy t he s ame y ear . D ur ing t he a ctua l f ie ld s easons t here were o ften o pportun it ies f or me mbers o f CAHEP 's s taff t o u se s pare t ime a nd i d le g ear f or c asua l s earches o f t he e normou s e xpanse o f s ea-botto m i n t he v ic in ity o f t he s unken h arbour , l ook ing f or r e levant n ew i n format ion . Much o f t he i nformat ion g athered t hrough t hese s urveys b ecame a f actor i n s e lect ing s pec if ic s i tes f or f urther i nvest igat ion a nd f u l l-sca le e xcavat ion ( such a s

Chapter N: CAHEP Surveys

231

Area G). In most cases such surveys were directed toward the environs of the known submerged features such as the breakwaters, walls, paved areas, and other features that might contribute to the reconstruction of the harbour. This was always the case when surveys were carried out looking for wreck sites on top of the breakwaters, or the search for segments of intact building courses of ashlar. Most of the information gathered is presented here, and the more significant finds from these random surveys are described and discussed in Volume II. The sites and features discovered through these surveys that are relevant to the history of Cae­ sarea's harbours, are described below rather than incorporated directly in one of the designated areas discussed above. These sites are described in order from north to south, and those which are partially above the water are at the end.

Aqueduct Beach. This is the area just northwest of the walled area of ancient Caesarea, between it and the southernmost tip of the intact part of the High­ Level Aqueduct (figs. 1.34, pl. I, between nos. 1 and 10). It is the northern half of a semi-protected body of water separated from the open sea by a series of flat­ tened reefs. These are more prominent in the southwest portion of this unit, just west of Area J (figs. III.90-91). This badly abraded and mostly submerged kurkar ridge is the northern continuation of the same rocky formation constituting the promontories of the Harbour Citadel and Piscina. It seems as if this ridge was originally not fully continuous and that there was some hollow or a fault line lead­ ing NNW through which the sea came and carried away the less consolidated sedi­ ments in the lee of the ridge. This structural weakness, possibly triggered by the alteration of coastal pro­ cesses through construction of the Herodian harbour, caused massive erosion of the shore-line, and the eventual destruction of a long stretch of the High-Level Aqueduct and some 50-70 m of the built-up urban area (Nir 1985). The scattered foundations of the aqueduct's arches are easily traced in shallow water just off the present beach, but there are quantities of building stones and debris up to 100 m farther out. Most of the sea-floor up to a distance of about 300 m off shore, where the submerged ridge is at a depth of 3-4 m, is covered by sand deposits of varying thickness. Here and there, exposures of sandstone bed-rock can be seen, either as intact flattened units, or as already decomposed chunks incrusted with marine growth. In rare instances, after a spell of winter storms some patches of hard loam are exposed on the sea-floor. These exposures usually are the richest in arti­ facts. Several anchors were found in these sites, indicating that small to medium­ sized vessels used to moor at this place. The recorded anchors include five of the Byzantine era, two of the Medieval period, and two of either the Mameluke era or later. The casual observation of amphora fragments presents more or less the same variety of historical periods, with the addition of a few Early Roman types and at least one basket-handled jar of the Phoenician type characteristic of the late fifth-early fourth century B.C. Sea-Floor West of Area Y. This area is actually the southern half of the topo­ graphic unit described above (fig. III.90). Being closer to the built-up shore-line and better protected from the open sea, the sea-floor of this area is littered with much heavier spills of building debris and other relics eroded from fill along the

2 32

I V .D : M isce l laneous UW S urveys

s hore .

N everthe less , u nder t hese s omet i mes q u ite mass ive c over ings , t here a re

many r emnants o f a nc ient mar it ime a ct iv it ies . I ts eems a s i ft he Roman merchant s h ip f ound i n A rea Y ( Sect ion 1 1 .S ) was n ot t he o n ly c ase o f s h ipwreck i n t h is a rea i n a nt iqu ity . B es ide a r ich r epertory o f b roken p o ttery o f a l l p er iods f rom t he s eco nd c entury B .C . t o t he L ate B yzant ine e ra , a nd a v ar iety o f b u ild ing c o mponents , a rch itectura l members , marb le c o lumn d ru ms , a nd o ther i t e ms c arr ied away f rom t he e roded s horel ine , t here a re meta l o b jects s uch a s b ronze a nd i r on n a i ls , l ead r ings , a nd many p ieces o f l ead s heath ing r epresent ing o ther i l-fated v esse ls t hat were s wept a shore j ust s outh o f t he w reck i n A rea Y . Th is a rea s outh a nd SW o f A rea Y h a s as ub-bottom o f g rey-to-orange c omp act l oam a t ad epth o f a bout 3 .0 m .

O f t he e xtreme ly r ich a nd v ar ied f inds , o ne

m igh t p o int o ut a t l east f i ve l arge mortar ia o f t yp ica l L ate Roman-Ear ly B yzant ine s hape , t he ir r ims b ear ing s tamps r ecord ing t he n ame o f t he f abr icant i n G reek o r L at in . Another i n terest ing d iscovery wa s ag roup o f t hree l ead b aringots o f t rapez o ida l s ect ion ( 0 .52 x 0 .27 x 0 .18 m ) .

T hey were c a st a round a c ore o f sma l l p eb-

b les , p oss ib ly t o i ncrease v o lume w ithout i ncreas ing t he we ight . I t i s p oss ib le t hat t hese b a rs were a c ore f i l l i n a s andw ich t ype o f c o mpos ite l ead-wood Ro man a nchor . More c omp lete a nchors were f ound f arther west , a bout 2 00 m o ff s hore . The f i rst i s aB yzant ine i r on a nchor f ound a t t he n or thern e dge o f ar ocky e xposure , s ome 1 30 m d ue west o f A rea Y , i n 3 .2 m o f water . T he o ther i s at h ree-ho le s tone a nchor o f ar ectangu lar s hape t yp ica l o f t he P hoen ic ian t rad it ion o f t he s eventh t o f i fth c entury B .C . t hat was f ound a bout 5 0 m f arther west , o n ar ocky b ottom u nder 4 .6 m o f water , j u st o n t he l ee s ide o f ap assage b etween t wo r eefs . Cove Wes t o f Area J .

T he s ea-bottom n ear A rea J a ttracted o ur a ttent ion

f rom t he f i rst s eason . l t i s an arrow , s and-f il led h o l low wh ich i s c onf ined b y s ha ll ow , r ocky r eefs o n t he n orth , e ast , a nd s outh . I t i s a bout 5 0 m a cross a nd s epar ated b y ar ather n a rrow s he lf f rom t he i nner l agoon n ext t o t he l and ing s tage o f A rea J ( f igs . 1 . 36 , 1 1 .90 ) . B ad ly worn , s porad ic f ragments o f amphoras d at ing t o v ar ious p er iods were c o l lected f ro m t he e astern e dges o f t h is h o l low .

Yet , o n t h ree o cca s ions when t he

s and f i l l i n t he h o l low was l ow , a more u n iform c orpus o f s herds i n ab etter s tate o f p reservat ion wa s t raced i n d eeper water .

Among t h is c orpus were t he u pper

p arts o f a bout h a lf a d ozen R hod ian w ine amphoras , t h ree o f Coan t ype a nd t wo o f Cn id ian t ype . A l l t h ree t ypes a re v ar iants t yp ica l o f t he l ate s econd-ear ly f i rst c entury B .C . a nd m ight mark t he w reck s i te o f a merchant s h ip t hat was mak ing i t s way t o t he n earby h aven , b ut m issed t he e ntrance a t t he h ead o f t he r eefs , 2 00 m f arther n orth . I nter ior o f t he Harbour B as in .

T he s ea-f loor w ith in t he c onf inement o f t he

s ub merged Herod ian b reakwaters was s u rveyed more t han a ny o ther s ect ion , b oth b y CAHEP 's d ivers a nd b y o ther v is itors t o t h is u nderwater s i te . Many o f t he f inds r ecovered i n t h is a rea b y t he p ub l ic f ound t he ir w ay t o p r ivate c o l lect ions a nd a nt iqu it ies d ea lers ; o thers a re d escr ibed a nd d iscussed e lsewhere i n t h is r eport w ith in t he ir p roper c ontexts . A t l ea st f our u n its a re worth ment ion ing h ere .

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 33

A l ong , n arrow s p i l l o f sma l l r ubb le r uns p a ra l le l t o t he N orthern B reakwater , s ome 5 0 m s outh o f i ta nd e a st o f A rea R , a t ad epth o f 6 .8-7 .2 m .

On t he west

e nd o f t h is s p i l l ag roup o f r ectangu la r , b r ick-shaped b asa lt b locks were f ound d uri ng t he 1 987 CAHEP s eason , p i led l i ke r emnants o f b a l last . Manua l p robes a nd a s u rvey w ith a meta l d etector h ave y ie lded s ome we l l-preserved b ronze c o ins o f P h i l ip t he A rab ( 244-49 ) , many p ieces o f l ead s heath ing , v ar ious b o lts a nd n a ils , a nd t wo s ets o f l ead b ra i l ing r ings s t il l l i ned u p o n t he s ea-f loor a s t hey m ight h ave b een o r ig inal ly s et o n t he s a i l 's c anva s ( Sect ion I I .P ) . I t i sp robab le t hat t h is i s aw reck s i te t o b e d ated t o t he m id-th ird c entury . Another p i le o f b a l last s tones i sl ocated a t t he e a stern e dge o f t hat s p i l l , s ome 8 0 m f arther e a st . W ith in t h is p i le t here were v ar ious i ron b ars t hat , a lthough f ound i n a n a dvanced s tage o f d ecay a nd h eav i ly c orroded , c an s t il l b e i dent if ied a s c omponents o f s h ip 's r a i l ing , l i ft ing d ev ices ( capstans ) a nd o ther me mbers o f t he o perat iona l g ear o f as t i l l u ndated w reck . Ar ather r estr icted s p i l l o f a sh la r b locks w ith n o a ppa rent n ea rby c ontext was t raced j ust e ast o f t he v ery c entre o f t he h a rbour 's Outer B a s in , s o me 3 0 m west o f t he e dge o f t he r ocky o utcrops , a t ad epth o f 4 .8 m . T h is a rea i s a l most c ons tant ly c overed b y more t han 1 m o f s and , s o i t w i l l t ake a u n ique o pportun ity o f n atu ra l e xposure , o r al arge-sca le e xcavat ion , t o a ttempt a b etter u nderstand ing a nd a more c omprehens ive s tudy o f t h is s i te . About 5 0 m s outh o f A rea R , a nd e ven c loser t o t he f i rst s i te ment ioned a bove ,

d ur ing a u n ique e xposure o f t he s andy f loor i n Augu st

1 968 ,

a d iv ing

i nstructor ( H . Rosenste in ) e qu ipped w ith a meta l d etector d iscovered a nd s a lvaged o ver 3 00 g o ld c o in s f rom j ust o ver 8 m o f water . Rosenste in a lowed D r . A . K ind ler , t he d irector o f t he Kadman Num ismat ic Museum i n T e l Av iv , t o c heck 2 30 o f t hese c o ins . O f t hese , 3 9 were d escr ibed a nd d iscussed i n p r int ( K ind ler 1 969 ) , a no ther 1 93 were r ecorded d ur ing 1 971-1972 a nd f ound t o b e f rom t he i mper ia l R oman s er ies m inted i n Rome o ver a p er iod o f a l most 1 20 y ea rs . O f t he 2 32 r ecorded c o ins , 4 were o f Augustus , 1 4 o f T iber ius , 7o f C laud ius , 3 8 o f Nero , 2o f N ero-Drusus , 2o f Ga lba , 3o f O tho , o ne o f V ite l l ius , 3 4 o f V espas ian , 1 1 o f T itus , 2 5 o f Dom it ian , o ne o f Nerva , a nd 9 0 o f T ra jan , f rom a s er ies d ated 1 12-117 A .C . N o f urther d eta i ls were e ver made p ub l ic a bout t h is h oard . I t s ee ms a s i f t he s pot was r ev is ited f or s evera l y ea rs i n t he e a r ly s event ies i n as earch f or a dd it iona l c o ins , b ut t here i sn o a va i lab le i nformat ion a bout a ny a dd it iona l d iscover ies . S outh Bay .

T he a rea b etween t he Herod ian h a rbour o f S eba stos a nd t he p ro-

montory west o f t he t heatre , t he s i te o f t he P isc ina ( Sect ion I I .N ) wa s p robab ly a n a dd it iona l h arbour t hat o perated c onte mporaneou s ly w ith S ebastos a s a n o pen a nchorage f or t he l oca l n eeds o f t he c ity . I t was p robab ly e ven more i mportant i n t hat r espect when S eba stos f e l l i n to d isrepa ir s omet ime d ur ing t he Roman e ra . T he d ata g athered t hrough t he v ar ious s urveys o f t h is b ay a re d iscussed a bove ( Sect ion I V .B ) . S edot Ya m . T he s ea i n f ront o f K ibbutz S edot Yam i sd issected b y as er ies o f a bras ive p latforms ( f ig . 1 .12) .

U nt i l t he 1 940 's t hese f eatures were we l l a nchored

i n t he s andy b each ( Da lman 1 925 : 7 4 , p l . 6 5 ) , b ut e ver s ince , i ts eems t hat t he b a la nce o f t he s and s upp ly t o t he b each h as b een r epea ted ly i n terrupted b y h u man i n tervent ion .

I n p a rt icu lar , t he r ecent e stab l ishment o f l a rge b reakwaters f or t he

2 34

I V .D : M isce l laneous UW S urveys

I EC s tat ion a t Hadera a dded a s ign if icant f actor . S o much s o t ha t d u r ing t he e xcept iona l ly s tormy w inters o f 1 980/1 , 1 986/7 a nd 1 987/8 t here were w eeks when t he e nt ire s horel ine was s tr ipped o f a l l s and . Many man-made s tructures a nd a rt ifacts h ave b een e xposed d ur ing t hese p er io ds , b oth o n l and a nd u nder t he water . T he p eop le o f t he k ibbutz a re f u l ly awa re o f t he p heno menon a nd many a re w el l t ra ined f or s a lvag ing a ny n ew ly-exposed a rt ifacts . Among t he members o f t he k ibbutz t here i s as tudent o f t he D epart ment o f H istory o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , Mr . A . E nga rt , who k eeps r ecord s o f t hese r ecovered a rt ifacts a nd t e mpora r i ly e xposed s truct ures . F rom h is f i les we h ave n ow p lans a nd d ocumentat ion f or a s many a s 1 8 d iff erent s tructures , ma in ly o f t he B yzant ine p er iod , a nd d raw ings a nd p hotographs o f d ozens o f c o ins , b ronze s tatues , a nd o ther s ma l l f inds , f ro m t he Herod ian t o t he C rusader e ras . E . Ga l i l i i s c urrent ly h e lp ing A . E ngart c onduct a n u nderwater s u rvey . H is r eports i nd icate a p oss ib le w reck s i te o f aB yzant ine merchantman t hat c a rr ied c igar-shaped Gaza t ype amphoras , t he r e mnan ts o f wh ich t hey t raced j ust s outh o f t he V -shaped r eef , o ppos ite t o t he s outhern K ibbutz b each , s ome 4 0 m o ff t he s hore a t ad epth o f 2 .3 m . T he o ther s i te i s f arther s outh , j ust o ff t he b oat-house o f t he Hapo 'e l S port Centre . T here , j u st a t t he b order b etween t he c entre a nd t he k ibbutz , t here i s a s er ies o f r egu lar b locks ( 4 x 1x 1 m ) , e ach c arry ing a c ircu lar h o l low o n i t s u pper s urface , a rranged i n t wo p a ra l le l l i nes t hat l ead f rom t he b each i n to t he water . They c ou ld b e f o l lowed f or s o me 3 5 m o ff s hore t o ad epth o f a bout 1 .6 m o f water . Not a l l t he b locks s urv ived i n s i tu , s o i t i s h a rd t o d eterm ine t he o r ig ina l i nterva l b etween t he m . I t i s q u ite l i ke ly t hat t hese s tones r epresent b ases f or a wooden j etty t hat was c arr ied o n p o les a nd m ight h ave b een b u i lt i n t he B yzant ine o r t he E a r ly A rab p er iod . S uch a j etty c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or e xport ing t he p roducts o f t he a d jacent a g r icu ltura l f i e lds . J ust s outh o f t h is p oss ib le j etty , ag roup o f t hree b un-shaped l ead i ngots was f ound i n 2 .7 m o f water , i n scr ibed w ith s o me s y l lab ic w r it ing p oss ib ly o f I ron Age d ate . They a re c urrent ly b e ing s tud ied b y D r . M . A rtzy o f CMS . Next t o t hese i ngots t here were a bout 3 00 k g o f c o i led f ragments o f l ead s heath ing a nd o ther meta l a rt ifacts , i nc lud ing a l arge b ronze s tatuette o f a s tand ing n ude f e ma le ( Aphrod ite? )

l ean ing o n a sma l l i mage o f P r iapus t hat s tands o n t op o f a sma l l

c o lu mn . The a bove l i st o f i n format ion i s b y n o means f ina l . T he d ata were g athered t hrough r andom s urveys , a nd n one o f t he s i tes h as y et b een t he s ub ject o f i ntens ive s tudy . F or t hese r ea sons , t he i nformat ion h ere c an s erve o n ly a s e xtra b ackg round ,

r ather

t han

a c oherent

c hapter

i n t he

s tory

o f

Caesa rea 's

a nc ient

h arbours . T o t he s ame c ategory o ne wou ld a dd t he c oastl ine s urvey o f f eatures wh ich a re n ot d irect ly c onnected t o e i ther o f t he ma jor a rch itectura l c omp lexes ( Append ix I .A ) , b ut r ather more i s o lated u n its —though s t i l l c lear ly w ith in ma r it ime c ontext .

t he

O f s evera l s uch s tructures t hat h ave b een t raced a nd d ocu-

mented t hrough t he y ears , t wo a re p resented h ere a s a n e xamp le . Co lu mn J etty o n t he Nor th S hore . T h is s tructure i st o b e f ound a t t he b reaker z one , j ust o ff t he o ut let o f t he H erod ian s ewer t unne l ( f ig . 1 . 35 , b ottom o f p icture ,

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys P l . I ,n o . 5 ) .

2 35

I t was f i rst n ot iced b y t he s urvey ing t eam o f t he S urvey o f Western

Pa lest ine i n 1 873 . The f act t ha t ah undred y ea rs a go i t was a s e xposed a s i t i sn ow m ight b e u sed a s ag ood a rgument f or t he p resent r e lat ive s tab i l ity o f t h is s tretch o f t he b each t hat o therw ise i s c ons idered t o b e e xtens ive ly e roded ( N ir 1 985 ; Ro l ler 1 983 : 6 3 , 6 5 ) . T he s tructure s eems t o b e s ome k ind o f al and ing s tage o r a l oad ing p latform t hat wa s l a id o n t he b each a nd i n to t he water t o ad istance o f o ver 2 0 m .

Un l ike t he C o lumn J etty i n t he p resent a nchorage a t Caesarea , t h is

o ne was l a id r ough ly , w ith n o b ind ing c e ment o r s o l id l eve led b ase . The b est p ara ll e ls a re t he c o lu mn j ett ies a t b oth e nds o f T e l A shke lon , where s uch s tructures s ee m t o b e l a id b y t he C rusaders a s ab ase f or t he ir s ea-wa lls . Here o n t he n orth s hore o f Caesarea , h owever , t here i s n o c oasta l s tructure n earby i dent if ied a s C rusader t hat c an b e a ssoc iated w ith t he s tructure i n t he water . Another i n terpretat ion m igh t b e t hat t he j etty was b u i lt a s al oad ing p latform b y Ahmed J azzar , t he r u ler o f Akko d ur ing t he l ate e ighteenth c entury t o e nab le h is men t o l oad p lundered b u i ld ing mater ia ls f ro m t he n ea rby s i te , t o b e c arr ied o n b arges t o Akko ( Sch i ler 1 981 ) . I f t he s tructure was b u i lt a t s uch a r e lat ive ly l ate d ate , i t s p reservat ion o n t he b each i sl ess i n tr igu ing . Quay n ear t he Theatre .

T h is s tructure was t raced s evera l t imes , b ut f ina l ly

d ocu mented a nd mea sured o n ly d ur ing t he e ar ly s pr ing o f 1 986 ( f ig . I V .15 ) .

I t i s a

p latform , p oss ib ly a l and ing s tage , wh ich i sb u i lt o f a sh la r s labs ( 1 .2 x 0 .6 x 0 .6 m ) . Due t o e ros ion , t he d imens ions a re h a rd t o d eterm ine . The s egment t hat was measu red i n t he l ast s urvey i s a t t he waterl ine , o n t he s outh s ide o f t he P ise ina p ro montory , 1 6 m d ue e a st o f t he c orner o f t he ma in s tructure e xcavated b y Netz er i n 1 976 ( h is W 2 24 a nd W 2 28 ) ( Lev ine & Netzer 1 986 : 1 55 , p lan 1 6 ) . A t t he t ime o f t he s urvey , as tretch o f 1 6 b locks was e xposed , t o at ota l d istance o f 9 .8 m o n a n e ast-west a x is , a nd t hree r ows o f s labs , w ith a t ota l w idth o f 3 .6 m , s lopi ng d own t o t he s outh i n to t he water . A lthough t here i sa lmost n o d oubt t hat t h is p latform h ad s o me mar it i me f unct ion , n o d ata were f ound t o s uggest a d ate f or i t s c on struct ion . The n earby s truct ures o n t he west , n orth a nd e a st a re n ot d irect ly c onnected t o t h is p la tform , a nd t hey h ave n ever b een p roper ly s tud ied . [ A .R . ]

I V .E : J et-Probes . B oth I s rae l i c oastl ines a re r i ch w ith a rchaeo log ica l a nd h istor ica l s i tes d at ing f rom t he P re-Pottery N eo l ith ic t o l ate a nt iqu ity a nd t he modern p er iod . A rt ifacts r etr ieved f rom t hese s i tes d ocument a n e xtens ive t rade b oth w ith t he h inter land a nd o versea s . Th is s ea-borne t rade n ecess itated s afe h avens f or t he merchant men a nd q uays f or s afe t rans-sh ipment o f g oods . The s ea rch f or t hese h arbou r i nsta l lat ions c onfronts t he a rchaeo log ist w ith a b as ic p rob lem : what wa s t he r e lat ionsh ip o f t he s horel ine t o ak nown c oasta l s i te i n a nt iqu ity , a nd d id i t h ave t he p resent c onf igurat ion a t t he t ime t hat s i te wa s f unct ion ing a s ap ort? There a re many i nd icat ions f or a l l s orts o f c hanges i n l and-sea r e lat ions d ur ing t he

Ho locene

p er iod . E ustat ic s ea l eve l f luctuat ions , l oca l a nd r eg iona l t ecton ic d isp lace ments , ma r ine

e ros ion ,

c oa sta l

d epos it ion ,

a nd

o ther

n atura l

p rocesses

c onstant ly

2 36

I V .E : J e t-Probes

a ffected t he s tab i l ity o f t he s horel ine . T he e a rth s c iences h ave s hown t hat t he o dds f or t he d e l icate e qu i l ibr ium b etween t he l and a nd water masses a t a ny p o int a long t he c oast t o b e ma inta ined o ver many d ecades a re meag re . D isturbance o f t h is e qu i l ibr iu m i s ac onstant menace t o ap roper ly f unct ion ing h arbour a nd m ight b e d evastat ing f or t he p eop le who make t he ir l i v ing f rom i t . F or t hat r eason a ny l onglast ing h a rbour must h ave b een r epeated ly r ebu i lt a nd a d justed t o t he c hangi ng l and-sea r e lat ions . Determ inat ion o f i t s s i te a t a ny s tage o f t he h a rbour 's h ist ory may b e p oss ib le o n ly i fo ne k nows where t he w aterl ine was a nd what t he s ea l eve l was a t e ach p er iod . The a nswer t o t h is q uest ion may b e s ough t b y t he g eomorpho log ist , b ecause t he l i ne o f b att le b etween t he l and a nd t he s ea i s o f ap art i cu lar c haracter . When r ocky , as pec ia l t ype o f a bras ive t ab le i s c reated ; when s andy , s lop ing p lates o f b each-rock a re f ormed a nd p ebb les a nd s ea-she l ls d eposi t ed . These f eatures may b e c overed l a ter b y a l l k inds o f s ed i ments whenever a c hange i n t he s ea l eve l t akes p lace a nd may n ow b e we l l b u r ied b e low t he water a nd t he s and . A lthough a c arefu l a nd s ystemat ic v i sua l s urvey o f t he c oasta l s tr ip , b oth a bove a nd b e low t he waterl ine , m igh t t race s ome o f t hese c haracter ist ic " benchmarks ," i n many c a ses t hey a re a t p resent e i ther worn away o r b ur ied . I n o rder t o h e lp t he a rchaeo log ists i n t he ir s earch , a s imp le t echn ique h as b een d eve loped f or t rac ing t hese b ur ied f eatures . T h is i s a j et p robe , a r ig id p ipe t hrough wh ich water o r a ir i s p umped , a l low ing i t t o b e manua l ly d r iven t hrough t he v a r ious n on-con so l idated s ed i ments , b oth o n l and a nd o n t he s ea-bottom . The p rob ing p ipe g oes t h rough s oft s trata u nt i l i t h its b ed-rock , ac e mented s tratum , o r c ompacted c lay . A t t he s ame t ime d ata c an b e c o l lected f or t he a rchaeo log ists c oncern ing t he whereabouts a nd t he e levat ion o f b ur ied a nc ient waterl ine f eat u res , a nd a dd it iona l g eo morpho log ica l d ata g athered f or t he v ert ica l r ate a nd t he s trat ig raph ie c haracter ist ics o f t he o ver ly ing s ed iments . These d ata e nab le r econs truct ion o f a g eomorpho log iea l s equence o f e vents ,

d ated a nd c a l ibrated

b y

a rchaeo log ica l f ind s w ith in t he s ed i mentary c ontext . Dur ing t he r ecent g row ing s earch f or n ew o ff-shore o i l-f ie lds , v ery s oph ist ic ated t echn iques a nd r e mote s ens ing d ev ices h ave b een d eve loped f or s e is m ic s urv ey o f t he s ea-f loor . T hose t oo ls , u sua l ly work ing o n t he p r inc ip le o f r ecord ing e choes r ef lected f rom b ur ied s trata , m igh t b e o f s ome h e lp t o t he ma r ine a rchaeo log ist , b ut i n most c ases i t i sn ot a ccurate e nough f or t he ir n eeds .

R epeated s ur-

v eys w ith o ur manua l ly-operated j et p robes a t s i tes t hat were p rev ious ly s urveyed w ith s e ism ic r e mote s ens ing i nstru ments h ave p roved t hat t he s imp le t oo ls t hat we h ave d eve loped c an g ive much more r e l iab le a nd p rec ise d ata , a nd t hey a re o ften t he o n ly way t o p roper ly i n terpret t he r esu lts o f as e ism ic s urvey . F or t h is r eason CMS h as b een a sked i n r ecent y ears t o c arry o ut a l l s orts o f a pp l ied s urveys f or v ar ious c ompan ies a nd a genc ies , s uch a s t he I EC , P ort Author it ies , Mar ine E ng in eer ing P ro jects , e tc . There a re t wo s imp le ways o f p rob ing : w ith a irjet a nd w ith waterjet .

A irjet

p robes a re e ffect ive o n ly o n t he s ea-f loor when t here i s ar e lat ive ly s ha l low l ayer o f s oft s ed i ments . T he b est r esu lts o b ta ined a re i n p enetrat ing t h rough l ayers o f wave-carr ied s and , s o t yp ica l o f t he n ear s hore s ea-f loor o f t he Med iterranean c oa st o f I s rae l . T he p robe i s p erformed b y ad iver w ho c arr ies , i n a dd it ion t o h is s tandard SCUBA g ear , af l ex ihose a ttached a t o ne e nd t o t he f i rst s tage o f t he

Chapter I V : CAHEP S urveys

2 37

r egu lator a nd a t t he o ther t o ar ig id p ipe ma rked w ith a s ca le ( f ig . I V .17 ) . Th is p ipe m ight b e o f N iarrosta s tee l , c opper , o r a ny o ther n on-rust ing mater ia l , a bout 2m l ong a nd o f am in ima l i nner d iameter ( 1/4-1/8 i nch ) . Open ing t he o utf low f ro m t he r egu lator p rov ides a c onstant s upp ly o f p ressured a ir t h rough t he r ig id p ipe a t 8 -9 a tm . The o utf low a t t he t i p o f t he p ipe d i lutes t he s and a nd p erm its e asy p enet rat ion t hrough i t . T he e ffect iveness o f t h is s yste m i sr ad ica l ly r educed when o ver 2m o f s ed i ment a re a ttempted . S o , t hough s imp le , f ast ( one d iver c an c arry o ut a p robe i n 2 0-30 s econd s ) , a nd h andy , i ti sl im ited t o b ed s o f f ine-gra in s ands o f l ess t han 2 j it h ickness . T he o ther s ystem i s much t he s ame , b ut t he c ompressed a ir i s r ep laced b y water . A water p ump w ith a n o utput o f 5 00 l i tres/m inute a t 4 -8 a tm i s o perated f rom a b oat ( when work ing o n t he s ea-f loor ) , s uck ing i n s ea-water a nd p ush ing i t t h rough a 3 inch o r 4 inch f i re h ose i n to a r ig id 3 /4inch meta l p ipe ( f ig . I V .16) . The l i qu ifact ion o f t he s ed i ments a t t he t i p o f t he p ipe e nab les i t t o p enetrate t o a n a l most u n l im ited d epth , a lthough t here a re s ome t echn ica l l im ita t ions f or manua l ly-operated p robes . I n Caesarea we h ave u sed c oup led u n its o f 2m p ipes t o p enetrate a s f a r a s 1 0 m i nto t he s ed i ments o n t he s ea-f loor . U s ing p ipes marked w ith s ca les , i t wa s p oss ib le t o t ake r ecords o f t he r e lat ive d ep ths o f v a r ious s trata t hrough wh ich e ach p robe went . The p rob ing d ev ice was o perated b y at eam o f f our : b oat o perator , p u mp t ender ( on t he b oat ) , a nd t wo d ivers - o ne t end ing t he p ipe a nd t he o ther r ecord ing t he d ata o n a PVC b oard . T he e xact p os it ion o f e ach p robe was r ecorded b y at eam o f s urveyers o n t he s hore , u s ing t heodo l ites o r t ran s its a nd h av ing r ad io c o m mun icat ion w ith t he b oat t eam . I n s ome c a ses , t he d es ired p o ints f or p rob ing were p re-marked w ith n umbered b uoys . Th rough y ears o f t ra in ing , t he d iv ing t echn ic ians o f CMS h ave a cqu ired much e xper ience o n o perat ing t he j et p robes , a nd t hey h ave l earned t o f ee l t he c haract er ist ics o f t he l ayers t hrough t he v ibrat ion o f t he p enetrat ing p ipe a s i t g oes t hrough t he m . S ome f iner s ed iments c an b e o bserved a s t hey c o me t o t he s urface o f t he d r i l l ing h o le a long w ith t he c o mpressed water . T he p ipe t ender c an s hake o r e ven h a m mer t he p ipe t o p enetra te l ayers o f r ubb le , g rave l , a nd e ven t h in s heets o f k urkar . The p rob ing p ipe , h owever , i ss topped b y l ayers o f c ompact c lay , b eachr ock , o r we l l-cemented s andstone . Dur ing t he CAHEP s easons a t Caesa rea , t he a ccu mu lated e xper ience made i t p oss ib le f or t he d iv ing t echn ic ians o f CMS t o d eterm ine n ot o n ly t he t ota l v ert ica l d epos it o f s oft s ed i ments , b ut t o d ef ine i n terstrata o f s oft c lay , p ure s and , b each s and

w ith

s he l ls ,

s h ing le ,

g ravels ,

a nd

p ebb les .

T rad it iona l

s ub-botto m

c ores

e xtracted w ith h eavy d uty d r i l l ing g ear f rom work ing p latforms a nd d r i l l ing t owers h ave v er if ied t he a ccuracy o f o ur i n terpreted d ata ( e .g . , Neev e t a b 1 977 ) . S e lect ing a p rob ing s i te o r al i ne f or a s er ies o f p robes was d one a fter c onsu lt at ion among t he a rchaeo log ists , g eomorpho log ists , g eo log ists , a nd t echn ica l s taff o f CAHEP , c ons ider ing c arefu l ly t he p otent ia l c ontr ibut ion o f t he d ata t o a nsweri ng s pec if ic q uest ions . A lthough i n most e ases t he s i tes were s e lected t o a dd s ed imento log ica l a nd g eo morpho log ica l d ata , o r t o f ind b ur ied man-made s tructures , i n s ome e ases t he j et p robes were u sed i n " reverse ."

I t b ecame a pparent t hat

o b l ique p robes c an r evea l h ow f ar a c erta in s tructure e xtend s u nder t he s and , o r

2 38

I V .E : J et-Probes

what t ype o f b edd ing i sb enea th t he b ase o f ac ourse o f b u i ld ing b locks . B oth a ira nd waterjet p robes b ecame o ne o f t he most v a luab le a nd f requent ly-used s yst ems d ur ing t he y ears o f f i e ld work a t Caesarea . T hey p roved t o b e a n e ssent ia l means f or t hree-d imens iona l p re l im ina ry s u rvey o f a reas p r ior t o e xcavat ion , a nd i n many c a ses t hey s aved t he t roub le o f e xpos ing f eatures b ur ied d eep i n t he s eaf l oor . [ Y .T-K . ]

The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima Results of the Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavation Project, 1980--1985 General Editor: John Peter Oleson Volume I: The Site and the Excavations by

Avner Raban With Contributions by R. L. Hohlfelder, J.P. Oleson, R. L. Vann, and S. Breitstein, K. E��ry, M.·. Fitzgerald, N. Flemming, E. Linder, D. Neev, Y. Nir, Y.Peleg, A. Sherwood, Y. Tur-Kaspa.

Part ii Center for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa Publication No. 3

BAR International Series 491 1989

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S49� (ii), 1989

'The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima,volume I', Part ii

© The Authors,1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390239 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390246 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546283 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347806 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546283 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS ( Part i )

T ab le o f Contents

i i

C hapter V : P ract ica l O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP . A . B . C . D .

O rgan izat ion , S taff ing , a nd F und ing [ R .L .H . 1 Da i ly S chedu le [ R .L .H . ] Work ing B a se [ A .R . ] R eg istrat ion a nd C onservat ion o f F inds 1 . F inds f ro m Underwater E xcavat ion [ J .P .0 . ] 2 . F inds f rom L and E xcavat ion [ A .R . ] 3 . Conservat ion a nd R estorat ion [ A .R . ] B as ic L and S urvey s [ A .R . ] A rch itectura l S urvey T echn iques [ R .L .V . 1 B arge a nd A ir S upp ly S ystem E S .B . ] A ir l ifts I S .B . 1 Hookah S urface-Supp ly B reath ing-A ir S ystem [ S .B . ] S ha l low-Water E xcava t ion [ S .B . ] D iver S uperv is ion a nd S afety [ S .B . 1 O rgan izat ion o f L and E xcavat ion [ A .R . ]

2 39 2 41 2 43

Append ix V .A : L ist o f CAHEP S taff a nd V o lunteers , 1 979-85 .

2 67

E . F . G . H . I . J . K . L .

2 46 2 48 2 50 2 51 2 53 2 56 2 58 2 60 2 62 2 63 2 64

C hapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion . A . B . C . D . E . F . G . H .

S traton is T ower [ A .R . ] T he I nner B as in [ A .R . ] T he I n termed iate B as in [ A .R . ] T he S ubmerged B reakwaters [ A .R . ] T entat ive Reconstruct ion o f t he Herod ian Ha rbour T he S outh B ay [ A .R . ] L ater Man-Made F eatures [ A .R . ] L and-Sea Re lat ions [ A .R . ]

B ib l iography I lustrat ions

[ A .R . ]

2 71 2 75 2 76 2 79 2 86 2 89 2 89 2 93

2 97 3 25

..!..

r

CHAPTER V : PRACT ICAL ORGAN IZAT ION OF CAHEP

V .A : Organ iza t ion , S taff ing , a nd F und ing . F rom i t s i ncept ion i n 1 979 a nd i t s f i rst f u l l s ea son o f f i e ld work i n 1 980 , CAHEP h as b een a n i n forma l c onsort ium o f s cho la rs w ith i n terests i n a nc ient mar it ime h istory a nd a rchaeo logy who r epresent t he ir r espect ive i n st itut ions o f h igher l earn ing . Avner R aban , who h o lds t he u nderwater e xcavat ion p erm it a t C aesarea , h as s erved a s p ro ject d irector f rom CAHEP 's i ncept ion . Robert L . Hoh lf e lder h as b een c o-d irector s ince 1 980 , J ohn P . O leson f rom 1 981-1985 , Robert L . V ann , s ince 1 982 . T he c ore p rofess iona l s taff i nc luded n umerou s p ersonne l f rom t he CMS . S tev en

B re itste in ,

d irector o f d iv ing o perat ions ,

a nd

Yoss i

T ur-Ka spa ,

a ss istant

p ro ject d irector , t ogether d es igned a nd c onstructed most o f CAHEP 's e xcavat ion e qu ipment , p rov ided t echn ica l g u idance a nd c oord inated a l l og ist ica l s upport . I n p art icu lar , B re itste in d es igned t he b arge t ha t s erved a s t he o perat ions c entre f or u nderwater e xcavat ion a nd t he h ookah s ystem u sed b y d ivers t o i ncrease b otto m t ime d ur ing t he ir work s h ifts ( Bre itste in 1 985 ) . D anny F re idman p rov ided t echn ica l a ss istance a s we l l . Z araza F re idmann p erformed a r ange o f a dm in istrat ive t asks a nd a lso p repared p ottery p rof i les f or p ub l icat ion a nd v ar iou s o ther d raw ings d uri ng a l l t hese s easons , a long w ith R achae l P o l lak . V ar ious f acu lty members o f t he D epartment o f Mar it i me C iv i l izat ions a t t he U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa p art ic ipated i n ar ange o f c apac it ies d u r ing t he s evera l s eas ons o f f ie ld-work . CAHEP b enef ited f rom t he c ontr ibut ions o f S arah A renson , R uth i Gertwagen , E hud S pan ier , M icha l A rtzy , a nd E l isha L inder . CAHEP was a lso f ortunate t o h ave a ccess t o t he f ac i l it ies a nd s taff o f t h is u n ivers ity f or t he s tora ge a nd c onservat ion o f a nt iqu it ies . I n p a rt icu lar , P inhas P e led wa s o f g reat a ss ist ance

i n

t reat ing

a nd

c lean ing

meta l

o b jects ;

Nehama

Co lumbus

h as

b een

i nva luab le i n t he r estorat ion o f p ottery f inds . S ome t ests o n a rt ifacts a nd a rchaeol og ica l s a mp les were a lso c onducted a t t he We izmann I n st itute a nd t he a rchaeo log ica l l aboratory o f T e l Av iv U n ivers ity . Harry Wadsworth s erved a s c h ief u nderwater p hotog rapher f rom 1 980-1984 . Mark L itt le a ss isted i n 1 983 a nd 1 984 a nd b ore f u l l r espons ib l ity i n 1 985 . He a lso a ssu med t he r o le o f l and a nd o b ject p hotographer i n t hat y ear , r ep lac ing Robert L . H oh lfe lder who h ad p rev ious ly h ad t ha t a ss ignment .

B il l C urts inger o f Nat iona l

G eograph ic magaz ine p art ic ipated i n t he e xcavat ion i n 1 984 wh i le o n a ss ign ment f or t hat p ub l icat ion ( Hoh lfe lder 1 987a ) . H is p hotograph s h ave b ecome a p art o f t he v i sua l r ecord o f CAHEP 's work . The t ask o f p roduc ing p lans o f CAHEP 's e xcavat ions was a l lotted t o R .L . V ann o f t he Un ivers ity o f Mary land . F ina l work ing d raw ings were p repared i n t he f i e ld

239-

2 40

V .A : O rgan izat ion a nd F und ing

i n a n a d h oc s tud io o n s i te . P ub l icat ion d raw ings w ere c omp leted d ur ing t he a cad em ic y ear a t t he U n ivers ity o f Mary land .

V ann wa s a ss isted i n t h is t ask a nd i n

t he f i e ld a t Caesa rea b y many s tudents o f t he S choo l o f A rch itecture , Un ivers ity o f Mary land . S isse la Ma lmström , Rob in Z iek , V y tn is Gureeka s , S hor ieh Ta laat , a nd J i l l S ch ick p art ic ipated i n t h is c apac ity f or more t han o ne y ear o f f ie ld-work . Ann Ma r ie B orys , B eth B r idges , S a l ly B urkha rdt , Daphes F raz ier , L aureen Go ldberg , J eff H il l , Al ison Hoad ley , K en J ones , Cynth ia L oebenste in , L ourdes Reynafar je , S tephen A . G iannett i , a nd C indy L ink ins were s taff a rch itects f or a s ing le s eason . I n a dd it ion , K enneth B ennett a nd P eter F . D essauer o f t he N at iona l P ark S erv ice , D enver a lso p rov ided t he ir a rch itectura l e xpert ise f or t wo s easons . V a r ious i nd iv idua ls a nd s cho lars f rom i n st itut ions o uts ide o f I s rae l a lso j o ined CAHEP 's p rofess iona l s taff . s erved

a s a n

S teven S idebotham o f t he Un ivers ity o f D e laware

a rea s uperv isor a nd

f i ne-ware

c eram ic ist

a nd

l amp

s pec ia l ist .

Tho ma s H i l lard o f MacQua r ie U n ivers ity , Au stra l ia ; M ichae l F itzgera ld o f t he I nst itute o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy , T exa s A & M U n ivers ity ; Andrew S herwood o f P r inceton Un ivers ity ; W i l l iam Murray o f t he Un ivers ity o f S outh F lor ida ; a nd J ohn B ower o f I owa S tate Un ivers ity were a rea s uperv isors . W i l l iam F arrand o f t he Un iv ers ity o f M ich igan a nd P au l Dav is o f R ivers ide , C a l iforn ia w ere g eo log ica l c ons u ltants . T om G r iff iths , t hen a f acu lty member a t t he U n ivers ity o f Mary land , s erved a s c h ief d iv ing o ff icer i n 1 983 . Kath i S herwood a nd Ma r la S idebotham p rep ared d raw ings o f f i nds a nd a ss isted w ith t he s tudy o f t he c eram ics . F und ing f or CAHEP 's e xcavat ions a nd t he p reparat ion o f f ie ld d ata f or p ub l ic at ion c ame f rom n umerous s ources . T he Caesa rea D eve lopment C orpora t ion a nd i t s f ounder , B aron E dmond d e R othsch i ld , were c ons istent p atrons . T he Nat iona l E ndow ment f or t he Human it ies , t he S oc ia l S c iences a nd Human it ies Counc i l o f C anada , S ea G rant ,

R esearch

a nd t he N at iona l G eog raph ic S oc iety p rov ided g en-

e rous f i nanc ia l s upport . T he f our c ooperat ing i n st itut ions o f CAHEP ( Un ivers ity o f Co lorado , B ou lder , U n ivers ity o f Ha ifa , Un ivers ity o f Mary land , Un ivers ity o f V ict or ia ) s usta ined t he e xped it ion i n many ways . Numerous p r ivate d onors a nd c o mpan ies a ss isted a s we l l . B ut most o f a l l , CAHEP w as a nd i s a n a rchaeo log ica l p ro ject t hat f l our ishes b ecause o f i t s v o lunteers . T he a rchaeo log ica l v o lunteer--one who i s r equ ired t o p ay a l l h is o r h er own t rave l , p er d iem e xpenses , a nd a n a dm in istrat ive s u rcharge a s wel l t o p erform a rduous l abor o n l and o r i n t he s ea o n a n e xcavat ion f or weeks a t at ime - i s ar e lat ive ly n ew p henomenon i n I s rae l a nd e l sewhere i n t he Med it erranean b as in . F rom 1 980 t o 1 985 s cores o f f ore ign v o lunteers f rom s even c ount r ies worked w ith CAHEP a t Caesa rea , l ogg ing t housands o f h ours o f t ime b eneath t he s ea a nd o n l and ( s ee Append ix V .A :

L ist o f P art ic ipants ) . The ir e fforts were

matched b y a n e qua l ly d ed icated g roup o f I s rae l i v o lunteers , who j o ined CAHEP a s t he ir work , m i l ita ry s erv ice o r u n ivers ity s chedu les p erm itted ( Append ix V .A ) . T hese amateurs , i n t he p urest s ense o f t he word , w ere t he i nd ispensab le i ng red ient i n whatever CAHEP h as a ccomp l ished . F R .L .H . ]

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 41

V .B : Da i ly S chedu le . L ike most a rchaeo log ica l p ro jects i n t he M idd le E ast , CAHEP 's f i e ld s eason was d ictated b y u n ivers ity c a lendars . S um mer i s t he u sua l s eason f or f i e ld-work , b ut f or CAHEP , t he s ea was a nother ma jor d eterm inant . S ince CAHEP 's z one o f a rchaeo log ica l c oncern was i n t he s hal low wa ters c over ing t he s ubmerged r u ins o f t he a nc ient h arbou rs , r a re ly more t han 1 0 m i n d epth a nd u sua l ly e ven l ess , s urf ace c ond it ions p rofound ly i n f luenced what h appened o n t he o cean f loor . When t here wa s e ven a moderate c hop , v is ib i l ity d eter iorated q u ick ly a nd a b otto m s urge d eve loped t hat i nh ib ited c arefu l s trat ig raph ie e xcavat ion a nd o ften e ndang ered t he d ivers , who c ou ld b e s wept a ga inst s ubmerged s tructures o r r ubb le , o r j ost led o r i n jured b y ab ounc ing a i r l ift . T here a re o n ly s evera l months o f t he y ear a long t h is s ect ion o f t he L evant ine c oast when s ha l low-water e xcavat ions c an t ake p lace . May a nd J une a re t wo s uch month s o f r e lat ive ly c a lm s ea s . E ven t hough t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa w as s t i l l i n s ess ion i n May , CAHEP b egan i t s s eason t hen t o t ake a dvantage o f t he b est s ea c ond it ions o f t he s um mer . B y e a r ly J u ly , i f n ot b efore , t he s ea wa s r unn ing h igh most d ays a nd f i e ld-work c ou ld n ot p roceed p rofi t ab ly o r s afe ly . I t wa s f or s im ilar r easons d ur ing t hese t wo months i n t he f ie ld t hat CAHEP 's d ay s tarted e ar ly , u sua l ly j ust b efore o r i m med iate ly a fter d awn . Most a rchaeo log ica l p ro jects i n t he M idd le E ast f o l low a s im i lar r eg i men b ut f or a d ifferent r eas on . T he p rob le m f or t he u nderwater a rchaeo log ist i sn ot a vo id ing t he h eat o f t he d ay , t he f actor t hat mot ivates a d awn c ommencement f or l and a rchaeo logy . I n f act , t he u nderwater a rchaeo log ist o ften c onfronts t he o ther e xtreme i n h is/her work - h ypotherm ia r a ther t han h ypertherm ia , p roduced b y t oo much t ime i n t he water d ur ing a d ive s h ift . R ather , t he e a r ly s tart was d ictated o nce a ga in b y t he s ea . A t d awn t here was a dequate l i gh t t o b eg in u nderwa ter e xp lorat ions , a nd t he s ea was o ften a s f lat a s t he p roverb ia l m i l lpond . Cond it ions w ere r a re ly b etter t han a t f i rst l i ght . F rom t hat moment o n , a s t he s un r ose a nd h eated t he l and , o n s hore w inds b egan t o b u i ld . On a t yp ica l d ay , b y 1 :00 p .m . , i fn ot e ar l ier , a modera te c hop h ad d eve loped wh ich c reated a b ottom s u rge t hat d isrupted u nderwater e xcavat ion s . Moreover , e gress f rom t he s ea t o CAHEP 's d iv ing b arge o r z od iacs ( smal l i nf latab le b oa ts ) b ecame d i ff icu lt a nd o ften d angerous . On most d ays , t he s ea d eterm ined when w ork w ou ld c ease ; u sua l ly i t wa s much s ooner t han d es irab le . B efore d iv ing a ct iv it ies b egan , v o lunteers met w ith s taff f or a b reakfa st o f c offee a nd b iscu its a t 5 :30 a .m . a t t he S ports Center o n K ibbutz S edot Yam , where CAHEP s tayed f rom 1 982-1985 . T he f i rst f u l l s eason when t he f ore ign v o lu nteers a ctua l ly l i ved a t t he s i te , 1 981 , was s pent i n t ents o n t he b each a t Caes area w ith a s omewhat mod if ied e a r ly morn ing a nd e ven ing r out ine , a lthough t he work d ay i t se lf was s im i lar . A fter a b r ief d iscu ss ion o f t he d ay 's s chedu le a t t h is e ar ly meet ing , t he e nt ire t eam l e ft i n v ans f or t he s i te , where CAHEP 's d iv ing g ear was k ept i n ar en ted s toreroom i n s ide t he C rusader f ort if icat ions n ear t he b each ( f igs . V .1-2 ) . T he f i rst g roup t o g o was c omposed o f t he s upport t eam a nd k ey s taff me mb ers . E ach d ay a c ont ingent o f v o lunteers was d es ignated a s s erv ice p ersonne l w ith

2 42

V .B : Da i ly S chedu le

p r i ma ry r espons ib i l it ies t o man t he b oats , f i l l t anks , s erve a s s afety d ivers o n t he b arge , h and le r ad io t raff ic f rom t he b ase o n s hore t o t he b arge , a nd , i n g enera l , meet a l l a dm in istrat ive a nd l og ist ica l n eed s o f t he e xped it ion f or t hat d ay . T he s erv ice t eam 's f i rst t a sks w ere t o l aunch a nd e qu ip t he b oats t hat h ad b een b eached d ur ing t he n ight , b r ing t anks a nd o ther e qu ipment t o t he s hore f or t he f i rst d ive t eam , s tart t he c ompressor t hat s upp l ied a i r f or t he a ir l ifts a nd t he h ook ah s yste m ( O leson e t a h

1 984 : 2 86 ) , a nd man a nd o utf it t he b arge w ith n ecessary

s afety a nd e xcavat ion e qu ipment f or t he d ay 's work . Wh i le t he s erv ice t eam p erformed i t s i n it ia l c hores , t he f i rst s h ift o f d ivers " geared u p" o n s hore ( d ressed i n t he ir wet s u its , d onned t he ir b uoyancy c ompensat ors a nd S CUBA t anks , a nd s ecured a l l t he o ther e qu ipment r equ ired f or t he ir d ive ) . T he d ivers were r em inded o f t he ir t eam a ss ignments . F or s afety r ea sons , e veryone h ad a tl east o ne d iv ing p a rtner . S omet imes , d epend ing o n i t s t ask , ad ivi ng t eam m ight h ave more members . T hese t eams p r i ma r i ly e xcavated i n o ne o f t he t h ree o r f our t renches u sual ly o pen a t t he s ame t ime . E ach d ay t he c ompos it i on o f t he d ive t eam c hanged , a s d id t he a rea s where a v o lunteer wou ld w ork . E very e ffort was made t o e nsure t ha t e ach v o lunteer h ad t he o pportun ity t o e xper ience work ing a t a l l t asks i na l l a reas . A fter a ss ignments h ad b een c onf irmed a nd t he d ivers h ad d onned t he ir e qu ipment , t hey were t aken b y s erv ice t eam members i n z od iacs t o t he d ive b arge t o b eg in t he ir w ork s h ifts u nderwater . T he d ive b a rge wa s c onstructed o n s hore a t t he b eg inn ing o f e ach s eason a nd t owed i n to a p os it ion t hat wa s c entra l t o t he a reas where e xcavat ions wou ld b e c onducted d ur ing t hat p a rt icu lar s eason ( f ig . V .4 ) . I t wa s p ermanent ly a nchored a t t h is l ocat ion u nt i l a l l e xcavat ion was c omp leted a t s eason 's e nd .

T hen i t wa s t owed t o s hore , d isassemb led , r epa ired , a nd

s tored i n Ha ifa i n t he CMS l ocker a t t he N at iona l Ma r it ime Museu m . A rea s uperv isors a ccompan ied t he t eams o f d ivers t o t he b arge t o e nsure t hat e xcavat ions b egan i n t he c orrect p laces a nd t ha t t he d ivers w ere aware o f t he a rchaeo log ica l o b ject ives i n ap art icu la r t rench . A l l d ive t eams a nd s taff e n tered a nd l eft t he water a t t he b arge s o t hey c ou ld b e l ogged i n b y t he s afety d ivers ( f ig . V .20 ) . T here were t wo s uch i nd iv idua ls f rom t he s erv ice t eam w ith t h is r espons ib i l ity o n t he b arge a t a l l t imes . T hey h ad l i fe-preservers , az od iac a t t he ir d isposa l f or emergency r escues , f i rst a id e qu ipment , a nd a r ad io f or c om mun icat ions w ith t he c o m mand c entre o n s hore . T he ir o n ly r espons ib l ity was t o a ss ist t he d ivers i n a l l ways t o e nsure t he ir s afety . Wh i le s ome t eams were e xcavat ing , o ther v o lunteers w ere d iv ing w ith t he a rch itects ,

c onduct ing v ar ious d raw ing o r

mea sur ing a ss ignments .

S t il l

more

t eams h e lped s taff members i n u nderwa ter s urvey w ork i n v a r ious l ocat ions a long t he c oa st . O ther v o lunteers f requent ly worked c lose ly w ith a n a rea s uperv isor i n o pen ing a nother z one o f e xcava t ion away f rom t he b a rge i t se lf , u s ing a z od iac a s a p latform f or a d redg ing d ev ice t hat o perated i ndependent ly ( f ig . V .16 ) .

O ther d iv-

e rs m ight b e a ss igned a s upport t ask o f mov ing r ocks f rom a reas t o b e e xcavated o r f rom o uts ide a t rench where e xcavat ion s were i n p rog ress . F requent ly a s many a s 1 8-20 d ivers e ntered t he water a t n ear ly t he s ame t ime t o b eg in t he work d ay . T he f i rst s h ift wa s o ften t he most p roduct ive , b ecause v is ib l ity a nd s ea c ond it ions were u sua l ly e xce l lent a nd a l l p ersonne l w ere r ested .

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 43

A t yp ica l work s h if t f or d ivers u s ing S CUBA t ank s wa s a bout o ne

h our ,

a l though t h is t ime v ar ied d epend ing o n t he e xper ience o f t he d ive t eam a nd t he ir a i r c onsumpt ion wh i le i n t he water . D ivers u s ing t he h ookah s yste m , wh ich p rov ided u n l im ited a ir f rom a s urface s upp ly ( Sect ion V .I ) , l im ited t he ir b otto m-t ime t o a bout o ne a nd o ne-ha lf h ours . A lthough t hey c ou ld h ave s tayed d own l onger i n C aesarea 's s ha l low waters w ithout worry ing a bout n i trogen b u i ld-up i n t he b lood , CAHEP 's p o l icy wa s t o c ontro l b ottom

t ime t o

m in im ize

t he p oss ib i l it ies o f

h ypotherm ia a nd d eb i l itat ing f a t igue . S taff , o f c ourse , were a l so s ub ject t o t he s ame a ssortment o f p hys io log ica l p rob lems t hat c an d eve lop f rom r epet it ive d a i ly d iv ing , e ven i n s ha l low water . N everthe less , o ne s taff member wa s u sua l ly i n t he water a t a ny g iven t ime , v is iti ng t he t renches t o p rov ide g u idance f or t he v o lunteers a nd t o k eep a breast o f d eve lopments . T h is s ta ff member wou ld s urface b efore t he e nd o f ad ive s h ift t o meet h is r ep lace ment a nd t he n ext s h ift o f d ivers , t o b r ief t hem o n t he p rogress i n t he t renches , a nd t o f ormu late s pec if ic a ss ignments t o b e a ccomp l ished i n t he ir s h ift . He wou ld wa it f or t he f i rst t eam t o s urface a nd t hen h ead i n to s hore w ith t hem o n t he z od iacs t o o versee t he p repa rat ion o f t he r eports o n t he ir p rog ress t hat e ach t eam wa s r equ ired t o c omp lete a fter a d ive s h ift . T h is s chedu le wa s f o l lowed u nt i l s ea c ond it ions p revented f urther work . On t he r are c a lm d ays when n a ture d id n ot i n terd ict o perat ions , d iv ing c ont inued u nt i l a bout 3 :00 p .m . B etween t he ir d ive s h ifts , t he v o lunteers w ere f ree t o t ake t he ir mea ls a t ar estaurant o n t he s i te , warm u p b od ies c h i l led b y t he ir d ive s h ift ( an u nu sua l p rob lem f or a rchaeo log ists i n t he f i e ld i n I s rae l f or t he s um mer ! ) , a ss ist w ith c lean ing a nd s ort ing p ottery , work w ith t he s erv ice t eam , h e lp i n t he c atal ogu ing r oom o r i n t he a rch itects ' s tud io , o r e xcavate o n l and - i f s uch a ct iv ites w ere b e ing c onducted a t t hat t ime . E ach d iver was e xpected t o d ive t w ice a d ay a nd a ss ist w ith a l l o ther d a i ly r out ine o perat ions ; s ome v o lunteers m ight l og a t h ird d ive o n ag iven d ay . A fter t he m idday mea l a nd a s i nd iv idua l r espons ib i l it ies w ere c omp leted , v o lu nteers h eaded b ack t o t he d orm itor ies f or a n a fternoon r est . L ectures o r meeti ngs were h e ld i n t he l a te a fternoon b efore a s oc ia l h our . V ans t ransported p eop le b ack t o t he s i te f or t he e ven ing mea l a t t he Harbour C itade l Restau rant , f o l lowed b y as u m mary o f t he d ay 's a ct iv it ies a nd b r ief a nnouncements r ega rd ing t he n ext d ay 's s chedu le .

T he g roup r eturned t o S edot Y am a round 9 :00 p .m . F ree t ime , f or

t he h ardy o f c on st itut ion a nd s p ir it , was t hen a va i lab le a t t he S ports C lub where v ar ious b everages c ou ld b e p u rchased . F or t hose who e n joyed t he wonderfu l e ven ing v iew o f t he Med iterranean a nd t he amen it ies o f o ur " c lub" , t here was a lways t he r ea l ity o f a5 :00 a .m . w ake u p b y o ne o f t he c o-d irectors t o s tart a nother t yp ic a l d ay . [ R .L .H . ]

V .C : Work ing B ase . The c omp l icated t ask o f c arry ing o ut a n amph ib iou s e xcavat ion p ro ject o f CAHEP 's s cope d emands a p roper l og ist ic s ett ing .

B e ing t he f i rst p ro ject o f i t s

k ind i n t he c ountry , t here was n o e xper ience a va i lab le t o d raw o n when CAHEP

2 44

V. C : Work ing B ase

was o rgan ized i n 1 979-1980 . V ar iou s l og ist ica l p rob lems , a nd t he v ar ious r out ines a nd t oo ls t hat were d eve loped d ur ing CAHEP 's w ork a re d escr ibed e lsewhere i n t h is c hapter . T h is s ect ion w i l l s u rvey t he v ar ious s o lut ions t hat were t r ied a nd e ventua l ly a dopted a s t he b est u nder t he g iven c ircumstances f or t he v a r ious c o mp onents o f a work ing b ase d ur ing t he f i e ld-work s ess ions . T hese s o lut ions c ame a bout a s an ecessary c omprom ise b etween b udget ing r estr ict ions , a va ilab i l ity o f s erv ices a t t he s i te , e ff ic iency o f t he d a i ly r out ine , a nd t he a tte mpt t o ma inta in a n o pt i ma l s tanda rd o f l i v ing a nd s at isfact ion among CAHEP v o lunteers a nd s taff t h rough a d e mand ing f ie ld s eason . T he f i rst t wo CAHEP s easons were c a rr ied o ut b y a t eam t hat was b ased l arge ly a t h ome , c om mut ing d a i ly t o a nd f rom Caesa rea , e i ther f rom Ha ifa o r v ari ous o ther r es idences a s f ar a s 1 00 km away .

I n c onsequence , t he work ing p er iod

a t t he s i te was r educed t o 5 -6 h ours a d ay , w ith a dd it iona l h ours e very d ay f or g ear ma intenance , s uch a s f i l l ing a i r c y l inders a t t he CMS Mar ine Work shop i n Ha ifa , b oth a fter a nd b efore e xcava t ion . T he b ase a t Caesa rea was a s ing le r oo m r ented f rom I t zhak A sher , t he owner o f t he l oca l d iv ing c entre . I n 1 979 most o f t he g ear a nd a l d iv ing e qu ipment t rave l led d a i ly f rom Ha ifa a nd b ack . B ut f ro m 1 980 o n , a l t he d iv ing e qu ipment , e xcavat ing g ear , o utboard b oat e ng ines , a nd o ther t oo ls f or l and a nd u nderwater e xcavat ion were k ept u nder g ua rd a t Caes area . Dur ing t he 1 979 a nd 1 980 s easons , t he l and b ase was t he g rassy l awn i ns ide t he p ub l ic b each f ence , j ust a bove t he n ortheast s ide o f t he i nner b ay , s ome 2 00 m away f rom t he d iv ing s hop . I n 1 980 a h igh-pressure c ompressor b e long ing t o CMS was s et u p a nd o perated f rom a s tand o uts ide a s ouven ir s hop o n t he e dge o f t he l awn . T h is s ame y ear CAHEP was g iven t wo r ooms o n t he f i rst f loor o f t he S trat on 's R estaurant b u i ld ing o n t he n orth s ide o f t he ma in t our ist s qua re o n t he a nc ient s i te . T h is s pace h ad b een u sed p rev iou s ly a s as torage r oom f or t he n earby r estau rant a nd was b are ly a dequate f or l i v ing q ua rters . S o i t wa s u sed d ur ing 1 980 t o s tore t he h eav ier work ing g ear , a s ad raft ing r oom , a nd a s t e mporary s torage f or t he t he f inds . T he mea ls w ere s erved a t o ne o f t wo r estaurants u nder t he owne rsh ip o f t he Me ita l b rothers a nd M . T zefan ia - t he " Stra ton 's R estaurant" a nd " Herod 's C itade l R estaurant ." T he 1 981 s eason i nc luded t he f i rst f u l l-sca le e xcavat ion w ith a g roup o f f ore ign d iv ing v o lunteers r es id ing o n t he s i te . I .A sher t ook u pon h imse lf t he m iss ion o f s upp ly ing a l t he n ecessary c omponents o f t he b ase a nd l i v ing q uarters .

Three

meta l-framed s tructures w ere p laced a bove t he s hore , i n s ide t he f ence o f t he p ubl i c b each , o n i t s n ortheast e dge . T hese s tructu res w ere c overed w ith p la st ic awni ngs , a nd e lectr ic l i gh t wa s b ought f or l i gh t ing b y t he Caesarea Deve lopment Co . T he v o lunteers s lept i n t hese s tructures o n p ortab le b eds , wh i le t he s taff h ad o ne o f t he t wo r ooms o n t he s econd f loor o f t he S tra ton 's Restaurant b u ild ing a s ar esi dence . T he o ther r oom was u sed f or s tor ing f i nd s , wh i le d iv ing g ear w as k ept a t t he d iv ing s hop . T he b each d we l lers ( fore ign d iv ing v o lunteers a nd t he s taff me mb ers ) u sed s howers a t t he b each f ac i l it ies t hat h ad b een t emporar i ly f urn ished b y I . A sher w ith a n u nre l iab le d ev ice f or wa rm ing t he water .

E ventua l ly , t he

1 981

e xper ience p roved t o b e f ar t oo p r im it ive f or b oth t he v o lunteers a nd t he s taff members a nd was n ever r epeated . O ne b enef it t hat y ear wa s t he o pportun ity t o u se t he n ow i d le S traton 's Restaurant a s ad raft ing r oom f or t he a rch itects a nd a c lassroom f or t he e ducat iona l p rogram me . T he b oats were d ragged e very e ven ing

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 45

t o t he g ra ss , a nd f or w eekends t hey w ere l oaded o nto t he ir c rad les a nd t i ed t o t he f ence . Dur ing t he 1 982 s eason , t he l og ist ica l b ases w ere s et u p a long much t he s ame l i nes t hat h ave b een k ept u p t o t he p resent . L iv ing q uarters were r ented f rom Hapo 'e l Mar ine S ports C enter a t t he s outh s i de o f K ibbutz S edot Y am . T hese f ac i li t ies a re a pprox imate ly 2 km s outh o f t he d iv ing s hop a long t he c oast , a nd a bout 5 km b y t he p ub l ic r oad . N everthe less , t hey h ave t urned o ut t o b e q u ite a dequate f or t he v o lunteers a nd s taff . Among t he f ac i l it ies i n t h is s port c entre i s a me mber 's c lub f urn ished w ith a t e lev is ion , b ar , a nd sma l l k i tchen where c offee , t ea , c ook ies , a nd b eer c an b e f ound a round t he c lock . A l a rge c lassroom i s u sed a s ad raft ing r oo m f or t he a rch itects a nd f or r eg ister ing a nd s ort ing t he f inds .

N ea rby , t here i s

ad arkroom a nd a p hotog raphy l ab . The t oo ls f or l and e xcavat ion w ere s tored a t t he s i te i n o ne r oom o f t he d iv ing s hop , wh i le t he o ther r oom was d iv ided i n to s paces f or p ersona l d iv ing g ear , o vern ight s torage o f t he o utboard b oat e ng ines , S CUBA c y l inders a nd f ue ls , a nd a s epa rate s ect ion f or t he more s oph ist icated g ear s uch a s s pare p arts a nd c ameras . L a rge s pare p arts f or t he a ir l ifts a nd a i r h oses w ere s tored a bove , o n t op o f a n o verhead wooden d eck . Outs ide t he d iv ing s hop , t o t he n orth , t here i s ac oncrete p latform a bout 1 .5 m a bove MSL ( f ig . V .1 ) . T h is p latform was f u rn ished w ith a l arge b as in f or r ins ing g ear a fter e ach d ive , a nd b enches f or t he v o lunteers t o u se wh i le r est ing b etween t he ir s h ifts o r d ress ing t o e nter t he water . N earby , t here wa s as haded s he lter f or t he h igh-pressure c ompressor t hat o pera ted t hroughout t he d ay f i l l ing SCUBA c y li nders . A s pec ia l p rob lem wa s a rrangement o f moor ing f or t he Z od iac b oats . I t was most i mportant t o f i nd a way t hat t he b oats c ou ld b e moored c lose t o t he c e ment p latform s o t hat d ivers wou ld b e a b le t o embark e a s i ly w ith t he ir g ea r a nd v ar ious work ing t oo ls , w ithout wast ing t oo much e nergy a nd t ime . T h is moor ing p lace h ad t o b e d eep e nough f or t he b oats n ot t o t ouch b ottom a t l ow t i de , y et s hal low e nough f or t he d ivers t o c l i mb i n e as i ly ( f ig . V .2) . I n 1 982 , as tudent o f t he Depa rtment f or t he H istory o f Ma r it ime C iv i l izat ions a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , G iora Ga l l , l oaned o ne o f h is mechan ica l p ay loaders t o d eepen t he s ea-bottom a t t he f oot o f t he p latform a nd c arry o ff t he s tone s p i l l t hat l i ttered t he p lace , b u i ld ing w ith i t al ow b reakwater o n t he west s ide . T h is a nchorage p roved t o b e a dequate d ur ing t he s eason , t hough t he s tones t hat were l eft o n t he b ottom a nd a t t he e dges o f t he a nchorage c aused e xtens ive a bra s ion o f t he b oats o ver t he s eason . T he a nchorage w as a l so n ot f u l ly p rotected f rom t he s urge , s o i n r ough d ays a nd o ver weekends t he b oats h ad t o b e p i led u p o n t he p latf orm . The s ea-wa l l wa s c omp lete ly d estroyed b y t he s torms o f t he f o l low ing w int er . Dur ing t he 1 983 s eason Ga l l a tte mpted , a t o ur r equest , a nother a nchorage , o n t he west s ide o f t he p ier a nd t he c oncrete p latform . T hough a ppear ing t o b e b etter p rotected a nd e as i ly a ccess ib le f or t he d ivers , i t t urned o ut t o b e more a ffected b y t he s urge a nd c au sed e ven more d amage t o t he b oats t han t he f ormer o ne . S o , d ur ing 1 984 , h e was a sked t o p erfect t he e a stern a nchorage . B ut i t was o n ly i n 1 986 , when I .A sher b rought i n l a rge l imestone b locks t hat were p laced b y Ga l l 's

2 46

V. C : Work ing B ase

l oader a s p rotect ive r amparts o n b oth t he e astern a nd western s ides o f t hat a nchorage , t hat t he b a s in was p rotected e nough t o ma inta in s andy b ottom a l l t h rough t he s eason a nd t o s urv ive t he w inter s torms . I .A sher a l so r estored t he p latform , c ement ing i t s water s i de a nd a s ta ircase l ead ing d own t o t he water n ext t o t he r ins ing b as in . T h is a nchorage was i mproved o nce more a t t he e nd o f 1 986 , a nd i n i t s p resent s tate i th a s e ndured t wo s tormy w inters w ith n o d eter iorat ion . Ga l l a lso d onated mach inery f or b u i ld ing a r oad d own t o t he s hore i n A rea Y , o ppos ite t he w reck s i te , a nd a nother t wo d own i n A reas J a nd L . I t was a lso u sed d ur ing t he 1 986 s ea son f or t he i n it ia l r emova l o f h eavy d ebr is i n A reas J , L , a nd S a nd f or o pen ing a r oad f or l ocat ing t he l ow p ressure c ompressor ( the ma in s ource o f a ir f or t he a ir l ifts a nd t he h ookahs ) o n t he n orthwest e dge o f t he C rusader f ort i f icat ions . [ A .R . ]

V .D : Reg is tra t ion a nd Conserva t ion o f F inds . V .D .1: F inds f rom Underwa ter E xcava t ion .

T he c u ltura l mater ia l r ecovered

d ur ing t he s urvey a nd e xcavat ion o f as ubmerged a nc ient h arbour i sv ery h eterogen eous i n c haracter . I n t he f i rst p lace , i t o ften h as b een d a maged , s cattered , a nd m ixed b y t he a ct ion o f t he waves . I n s i tes s uch a s S eba stos , s ea led s trata a re t he e xcept ion r ather t han t he r u le : o n s evera l o ccas ions modern c eram ics o r f ootwear were r ecovered n ea r ly o ne metre b eneath what a ppeared t o b e as ea led s tratu m c onta in ing a u n iform d epos it o f B yzant ine p ottery .

T he a ct ion o f t he s ea a t Cae-

s area h as a l so e roded t he s horel ine a d jacent t o t he h arbour , a ffect ing t errestr ia l c u ltura l d epos its a nd a dd ing t he m t o t he mater ia l o r ig ina l ly d epos ited i n t he h arb our .

T he mortar ia f ound n ear t he s h ipwreck i n A rea Y , f or e xamp le , a re s usp i-

c ious ly s im i lar t o mortar ia f ound b y t he I t a l ian e xped it ion n earby o n l and , a t t he n orthern c i ty g ate ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 2 56 ) .

T he c on stant move ment o f t he s and

t hat f orms t he s ea-botto m a t Caesarea means t hat modern d ebr is , a s w e l l a s e xtraneous a nc ient a rt ifacts , c an b e w e l l m ixed w ith t he c u ltura l mater ia l d irect ly r e levant t o S eba stos . T hese u nprop it ious c ond it ions o bv iou s ly a ffected t he s trate gy o f c o l lect ion , r eg istrat ion , a nd i n terpretat ion o f a rt ifacts b y CAHEP p ersonn e l . I n r ecent y ears s ubmerged a rchaeo log ica l s i tes h ave b ecome f amous f or t he e xqu is ite p reservat ion o f a rt ifacts made f rom f rag i le o r o rgan ic mater ia ls . Wa terl ogg ing o r a n a nerob ic e nv ironment , h owever , c an o n ly e xerc ise t he ir b enef ic ia l e ffect

i n

s i tuat ions

where

t he

a rt ifacts

a re

p rotected

f rom

movemen t

a nd

mechan ica l d amage : f or e xamp le , i n b ogs , s i lted d i tches , o r b eneath a mound o f c argo . I n a h arbour ,

i n c ontrast , e xposed a rt ifacts a re s coured b y t he s and ,

i ncrusted o r c onsumed b y mar ine l i fe , o r b roken u p b y ac yc le o f i m mers ion a nd d ehyd rat ion . E ven h eavy amphoras c an q u ick ly b e r educed t o a h eap o f sma l l , smooth f ragments . I fs uch c ond it ions a ffect most o f ah arbour s i te , t he s urv iv ing a rt ifacts t hat h appen t o b e r ecovered may b e t ota l ly a typ ica l o f t he o r ig ina l d epos it . F ortunate ly , s evera l s ea led l oc i d id a ppear d ur ing t he CAHEP e xcavat ions , a nd t hey y ie lded v ery s ign if icant a nd u sefu l c o l lect ions o f p ottery , meta l , g lass ,

C hapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP a nd o rgan ic r ema ins :

2 47

f or e xamp le , A rea s D 1 , F , a nd H 1 T h is mater ia l was c are-

f u l ly c o l lected , r ecorded , a nd f or t he most p art h a s b een c ata logued i n V o lume I . T he o b ject ive was c omp lete c o l lect ion a nd r epresentat ive p ub l icat ion . P ottery e ncountered e l sewhere i n t he h arbour , h owever , w ou ld n ot h ave y ie lded u seab le r esu lts f rom t he s ame p rocedures .

B y f ar t he l a rgest p roport ion o f t h is mater ia l

c ons isted o f f eature less amphora b ody s herds t hat g enera l ly h ad l ost t he ir s urface c oat ing a nd t he e dges o f wh ich n o l onger p reserved a ny s harp b reaks . T he v ast ma jor ity were a nonymou s o r a ttr ibutab le o n ly t o aw ide c hrono log ica l r ange b y e ven a n e xpert i n t h is s ubd iv is ion o f a nc ient c eram ics .

E ven i fp otent ial ly i dent i-

f i ab le , c era m ics r ecovered f ro m t he s urface o f t he h arbour f l oor o r f rom mob i le s ed iments a re n ot n ecessar i ly r e levant t o t he h a rbour s i te i t se lf . Many may h ave m igrated t o t he ir p o int o f d i scovery f rom e roded t errestr ia l d epos its . Neverthe les s , a l l t h is mater ia l was e xam ined f or f ea tures o f p art icu lar i n tere st , s uch a s i n scr ipt ions , i n tact o r w e l l-preserved f orms , d ist inct ive o r e as ilyi dent if iab le

wares ,

o r

i n tr ins ic

a nd

h i stor ica l

v a lue .

Wel l-preserved

a nd

i dent if iab le amphora n eck s , r ims , a nd h and les , f or e xamp le , were s aved a nd c atal ogued , a long w ith r ed-g loss wa res , s ince b oth t hese c lasses o f c eram ics a re r e lat i ve ly we l l-known a nd c an y ie ld a t l east a pprox imate d ata o n t he p er iods o f i n tense a ct iv ity i n t he h a rbour a nd a d jacent u rban c entre , a nd o n t he s ources a nd n ature o f t rade g oods .

O ther t ypes o f a rt ifacts , t oo , w ere r ecovered f rom t hese

c ompro m ised c ontexts a nd r eg istered :

s cu lpture , s tone

a nchors ,

members , f i sh ing we ights , a nd m isce l laneous meta l o b jects .

a rch itectura l

T he f i sh ing we ights

a nd a nchors , o f c ourse , c lear ly a re r e levant t o t he h arbour s i te , a nd e ven many o f t he meta l o b jects - s uch a s a sma l l s tee lya rd b a lance - s eem r e levant t o t he c om merc ia l l i fe o f ah arbour e ven i f we n o l onger c an b e c erta in t hat t hey were o r ig inal ly d epos ited i n t he Outer B a s in i t se lf .

T he smal p ieces o f s cu lpture i n

meta l , b one , a nd t erracotta h ave a n i n tr ins ic a rt-h istor ica l v a lue .

T he o b ject ive

o f r ecovery , r eg istrat ion , a nd p ub l icat ion o f a l l t h is mater ia l h as c ons istent ly b een t he p rov is ion o f e v idence f or t he c om merc ia l a nd c u ltu ra l l i fe a nd t he c h rono logy o f S ebastos . A l l a rt ifacts r ecovered d ur ing s urvey o r e xcavat ion w ere b rough t i n p last ic f ru it c rates o r n et b ags t o t he c entra l d ive a rea b y t he d ivers i nvo lved . T he r eg ist ra r t hen l abel led e ach g roup a ccord ing t o i t s a rea a nd s tratum , a nd t he d ivers e ntered t he ir own a na ly s is o f t he mater ia l a nd t he l ocat ion o f t he f i nd o n t he ir d ive r eports . I n t he c ourse o f ap re l im ina ry s ort ing , t he r eg istrar r e moved e xtran eous mater ia l s uch a s r ocks a nd s he l ls a nd d iscarded u n ident if iab le c era m ic ma ter ia l a fter mak ing n o te o f t he t ypes o f f abr ics i nvo lved . F or s ea led s trata s uch a s t he c lay l ayer i n A rea D 1 , a l l f ragments were r eta ined f or e xam inat ion a nd p oss i b le r estorat ion . A l l ma ter ia l e xcept f or f rag i le a rt ifacts was t hen s oaked f or s evera l h ours i n warm f resh water t o r emove s ome o f t he s a lt ; f rag i le a rt ifacts , g lazed p ottery , g lass , a nd o rgan ic mater ia ls were s oaked s eparate ly f or l onger p er iods o f t ime i n more p rotected t anks .

T he g roups o f mater ia l were t hen

a l lowed t o d ry i n t he s un , e xcept f or i t ems t ha t wou ld h ave b een d amaged b y s uch ap rocedure , s uch a s wood , g lass , a nd s ome o f t he more d e l icate c eram ics . A fter t h is p re l im inary t reatment a t t he d ive c entre , t he l abe l led b ags , b oxes , o r s oak ing t anks were b rought t o t he c ata logu ing r oom f or r eg istrat ion a nd p re l i mi nary t reat ment o r r estorat ion . E ach a rt ifact t o b e c ata logued wa s a ss igned a c at-

2 48

V .D : Reg istrat ion o f F inds

a logue n umber d es igned t o i ncorporate t he y ea r o f e xcavat ion ,

t he a rea ,

t he

mater ia l , a nd a n i nd iv idua l r eg istrat ion n umber . F or e xamp le , i n C 84-F1-25 , t he " C84" s tands f or CAHEP 1 984 c ampa ign , " F" f or A rea F , " 1" f or c eram ics , a nd " 25" f or t he 2 5th i t em t o b e r eg istered f rom t hat a rea i n t hat y ear . T here a re s epa rate r uns o f r eg istrat ion n umbers f or e ach e xcava t ion o r s urvey a rea f or e ach c a lenda r y ear .

T he f o l low ing n umbers were u sed t o i nd icate mater ia l :

1 ,c eram ic ;

2 , meta l ( except c o ins ) ; 3 , s tone ; 4 , c o in ; 5 , g lass ; 6 , b one o r t ooth ; 7 , wood ; 8 , m isce l laneous .

Once a c ata logue n umber h ad b een a ss igned a nd p a inted o r o ther-

w ise a ttached t o a n a rt ifact , a l l d ata c oncern ing c ontext a nd d ate o f d i scovery were e ntered o n ac ata logue c ard , a long w ith a c a refu l d escr ipt ion a nd i n it ia l a na lys is . P re l im inary mend ing o r r estorat ion w as t hen c a rr ied o ut , i n p reparat ion f or p hotography a nd d raw ing .

More c omp l icated o r t ime-consum ing r estorat ion

was e xecuted i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l aborator ies o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa . A t t he e nd o f e ach s eason , a l l a rt ifacts w ere t ransferred t o t he Un ivers ity f or s torage a nd f urther s tudy . T he c ata logue c ards u sed b y CAHEP w ere p r inted o n e dge-punched s tock d es igned t o

a l low

mechan ica l

d eterm ined c ategor ies .

s ort ing

a ccord ing

t o

a l a rge

n umber

o f

p re-

T he p unchca rds , a c opyr ighted p roduct o f I ndecks I nc . ,

c arry 1 17 h o les a rranged i n t wo n umbered a nd l e ttered r ows a round t he o uts ide marg in .1 A c ode

wa s

c reated

t hat

a l lowed

u s

t o

r ecord

c ata logue

n umber ,

mater ia l , t ype o f a rt ifact , c hrono logy , t ype o f c eram ic wa re , av ar iety o f d iscret i onary c ategor ies t hat m ight b e d i fferent f or c o in s a s o pposed t o c eram ics , d ate a nd p lace o f e xcavat ion , a nd s tatu s o f d raw ing , p hotography , a nd p ub l ica t ion .

The

c ode was r ecorded o n t he c ard b y c l ipp ing o ut d i fferent a rrangements o f h o les , a nd c ards r e levant t o a ny o f t he c ategor ies o f i n format ion i nd icated a bove c ou ld b e r ecovered f rom t he ma ster f i le b y p ass ing a r od t hrough t he a ppropr iate h o les . Wh i le t he s yste m d oes n ot h ave t he e ase , s peed , o r f l ex ib i l ity o f ac omputer ized s yste m ( wh ich was n ot i n a ny e a se a va i lab le t o u s a t t he t ime ) , i t i s n ot a ffected b y p r im it ive c ond it ions o r t he

a bsence

o f c ompa t ib le h ardware

o r s oftware .

Dup l icate s ets o f t he o r ig ina l c a rds were p roduced t o a l low t he d epos it o f c o mp lete s ets a t t he C entre f or Mar it i me S tud ies a nd w ith J .P . O leson , e d itor o f t he f inds v o lu me , a s we l l a s d i str ibut ion o f r e levan t c op ies t o t he s cho lars i nvo lved i n p ub l icat ion o f t he v ar ious c lasses o f f inds . [ J .P .O . ] V .D .2 : F ind s f rom L and Excava t ion .

T he s t ra tegy o f r eg istrat ion a nd c ata-

l ogu ing o f t he f i nds f rom t he t errestr ia l e xcavat ions was more o r l ess t he s ame a s f or t hose f rom t he s ea , b ut t here were s ome d i fferences d ictated b y t he s c ient if ic g oa l a nd t he s pec ia l c haracter o f e ach e xcavat ion a rea . Most o f t he t errest ia l s i tes e xcavated b y CAHEP a re c lose t o t he s ea , a nd a l l a re a t l ea st p a rt ia l ly i nund ated b y t he g round-water . T he s ea sona l ly c hang ing l eve l o f t he watertab le , a s w el l a s t he l ong-term c hanges c aused b y a l ternat ing s ea l eve ls , l eft t he b u lk o f t he g round n ow w ith in a lmost 2 m a bove MSL , b e ing a l ternate ly s oaked b y f resh , b rack ish , o r s a lt water a nd t hen d r ied . I n s ome s i tes , t he u pper l ayers a re b ad ly d isturbed b y t he waves , r ecent l and r ec lamat ion , r obber t renches ,

o r a l l t h ree .

1 I ndecks I nc . , A r l ington VT ; " resea rch d eck" . A fter p urcha s ing s tock i n b u lk , w e p r inted o ur own c ata logu ing h ead ings o n i ta t a ppropr iate p o ints .

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 49

F or t hese r easons , s ome l oc i d id n ot y ie ld mean ingfu l s trat igraphy , a nd t he c arefu l r ecord ing o f s ma l l f i nds a ccord ing t o t he ir r e lat ive e levat ion wou ld h ave b een mean ing less . T he way t he f inds w ere r ecorded a nd c ata logued was t herefore d eterm ined b y p roper u nderstand ing o f t he v ar ious p rocesses e ach l ocus h ad g one t h rough s ince a nt iqu ity . I n o rder t o b e o n t he s afe s i de , e very s ing le p iece t hat m ight b e e i ther d atab le o r ac omponent i n al ater r estored v esse l was k ept u nt i l t he f ina l s ort ing h ad b een made a t t he r estorat ion l ab a fter t he f ie ld-season . I n s ome c a ses t he s ame l ocus was d ug o ver more t han o ne s eason , a nd t hen t he f ina l s ort ing h ad t o b e p ostponed u nt i l t he f i e ld-work was c omp leted . T he f inds f rom p er iod ica l ly i nundated s i tes n eeded s pec ia l t reatment b efore f i na l c ata logu ing c ou ld b e u ndertaken . I n s ome c ases t he p ottery h ad b ecome v ery s oft a nd e as i ly d amaged . I n o ther e ases , q uant it ies o f s herds were f ound c e mented w ith in a ma ss o f b each -rock a nd were s ent t o t he l ab f or c he m ica l a nd mechan ica l c lean ing . Al t he sma l l f inds w ere r insed i n f resh water t he s ame d ay t hey were u ncovered . I n c ases o f d ecay ing f inds , t he p ack ing a nd s tor ing was a lso w ith in water c onta iners , o r s oaked b ags .

S uch s torage d ictated p ostponement o f s ort ing

a nd c ata logu ing u nt i l a fter c onservat ion . F or t hese r easons , n ot a l l t he s ign if icant f inds f rom r ecent s ea sons o f t he l and e xcavat ion h ave b een c omp lete ly c ata logued .

S ince c onservat ion , p reservat ion ,

a nd d ocumentat ion a re s t il l c ont inu ing , s ome f inds a re n ot i nc luded i n t he c orpus o f V o lu me I . On t he o ther s ide , s ome f inds t hat were e xcavated d ur ing t he CMC workshops i n 1 978 , 1 979 a nd 1 980 w i l l b e i nc luded , i n c a ses where t hey a re f ro m s i tes o r e ven l oc i t hat were f u rther s tud ied d ur ing CAHEP 's f i e ld s eason s i n 1 980-1984 . T he s pec ia l s i tuat ions c oncern ing r ecovery a nd s ort ing o f sma l l f i nds f rom t he l and s i tes were a s f o l lows : A rea J was n ext t o ar ocky s horel ine a nd a t as i te t hat was c overed b y wave-dumped d ebr is a lmost 1 m t h ick . T he p ottery a nd g lass p ieces were a l l b ad ly a ffected a nd a lmost u se less .

T he b etter p ieces ( as we l l a s

t he c o ins ) were k ept , b ut t he c ata logu ing r eference i nd icates t he y ear a nd l ocu s . B eneath , t here were t wo s uper i mposed l ayers f i l l ing i n h o l lows i n t he b ed-rock . T hose h o l lows were e xcavated d ur ing t wo s ea son s ( a lthough t he f i na l e xposure o f t he b ed-rock was c omp leted o n ly d ur ing t he s easons o f 1 986-1987 ) . E ach l ayer was c ons idered a s eparate l ocus i n e ach s eason ( 1981-1982) , a nd t he f i nds were k ept i n b ags marked w ith t he l ocus n umber . T he l ower l oc i a re f rom a l eve l n ow s oaked b y a l ternat ing f resh a nd b rack ish wa ter ( chang ing w ith t he t i de ) a nd t he p ottery f ound t here h ad t o b e t reated b efore s ort ing a nd mend ing c ou ld b e c arr ied o ut . D ur ing 1 983 , i n t he CAHEP c onservat ion a nd r econstruct ion l ab a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , N . C o lumbus , P . P e led , a nd Z . F r iedmann s pread o ut t he s herds f rom t he c orrespond ing l oc i o f b oth s easons , s orted t he p ieces t hat m igh t b e r estored i n to c omp lete v esse ls , a nd r eg istered o ther s ign if icant i so lated s herds . A l l o ther s herds w ere s tored a ga in i n t agged b ags a nd h ave n ow b een r e-sorted w ith t he f inds f rom 1 986-1987 , i n o rder t o f i nd more r epa irab le v esse ls .

Cata logu ing c a rds were made

f or a l l t hese mended v esse ls a nd r eg istered s herd s wh ich w ere s orted b y 1 985 . T he e xcavat ion s i n A rea

1

w ent t hrough r ecent ly d i sturbed s urface l evels ,

b each d epos its , c e mented mater ia l a nd p erenn ia l ly i nundated f i l l b e low t he watert ab le . T he r e lat ive ly f ew f inds o f s ign if icant s hape o r c lear c ontext were t reated

2 50

V .D : R eg istrat ion o f F inds

a nd r ecorded w ith t he f i nds f rom t he s ea . S ince t h is a rea was f i rst c overed b y t he s ea a nd t hen b y as andy b each , t here was n ot much s t rat igraph ic d ocumentat ion o f i t s e a r l ier h istory . One e xcept ion i s ac orpus o f b roken v esse ls o f med ieva l d ate f ound i n o ne r oom , c e mented w ith in s ome k ind o f b each-rock . T hese p ieces were t reated f or a l most a y ear b efore t hey were f i na l ly c leaned a nd mended . T he f i na l r ecord ing was d one o n ly a fter t he l ab work wa s c omp leted . I n t he P od iu m V au lt ( Area 1 3 ) t here a re t wo s epa rate t renches , e ach we l l s trat i f ied . T he l im ited q uant ity o f smal l f i nds r ecovered w ere r ecorded , a nd e very p iece wa s k ept . T he f i na l s ort ing h as n ot y et b een c arr ied o ut , b ecause b oth t renches w ere t o b e e xpanded l a ter ( dur ing 1 987 ) . T he f ina l s ort ing , r ecord ing a nd d raw ing o f t he e nt ire c orpus i ss t i l l b e ing c arr ied o ut d ur ing 1 988 . The i n it ia l r eadi ng o f t he smal l f inds ( i nc lud ing a c ons iderab le n umber o f c o ins ) s howed t ha t t hey wou ld n ot s o lve t he p rob lem o f d at ing t he s ide wa l ls a nd o ther a rch itec tura l r ema ins , s o t hey h ave b een l eft o ut f rom t h is s er ies o f r eports a nd w i l l b e d ea lt w ith s ubsequent ly . I n A rea M , t he C rusader Moat s eparat ing t he Harbour C itade l f ro m t he ma inl and , e xcavat ion was c arr ied o ut ma in ly b y mechan ica l b ackhoe a nd was i n tended t o e xpose t he s ide wa l ls o f t he c i tade l a nd t he o r ig ina l b ottom o f t he moat .

T he

l atter was f ound t o b e c overed w ith b each d epos its , wh i le t he f i l l a bove s eems t o b e m ixed a nd r ecent .

A lmost n o sma l l f inds were r ecovered , a nd n ot a s ing le

p iece o f a ny s ign if icance . [ A .R . ]

V .D .3 : Conserva t ion a nd Res tora t ion .

T he s pec ia l p rob lems c oncern ing f inds

f rom u nder t he water , o r f rom water-soaked t errest ia l d igs , were b r ief ly d escr ibed a bove . T he measures t aken b y CAHEP i n o rder t o s ecure t he i n tegr ity a nd d urab i li t y o f t hese f ind s w ent t hrough s evera l s tages o f e xper imenta l e fforts w ith m in imum p recedents .

A lthough p ottery , meta l s a nd o rgan ic mater ia ls f ro m t he s ea

h ave b een t reated i n l abs s i nce t he 1 950 's , much l ess e xper ience h a s b een a cqu ired i n p rev iou s e xcavat ions c oncern ing t he t reatment o f f i nds t hat h ave b een s oaked f or c entur ies i n l ime-r ich g round-water o r what s eems t o b e a n a ctua l ly a c id ic s ubstance . On t he b as is o f e xper ience , t he f ol low ing p rocedure was e stab l ished . E very p iece o f p ottery t hat was r ecovered f rom t he ma r ine e nv ironment w as f i rst r insed t horough ly i n f resh water , t hen k ept i n as haded p lace t o d ry s low ly . As pec ia l d i luted s o lut ion o f wh ite g lue i n water wa s t hen u sed f or r ins ing s herds t hat s ee med t o b e c rack ing o r s pontaneous ly d eco mpos ing d ur ing d ry ing . T h is s o lut ion was u sed f or a ny p ottery t hat h ad b een r ecovered f rom a muddy s tratum , o r f ro m l ime-r ich

i n tert ida l

o r g round-water .

I n

s ome

e ases ,

t he

p rocess

h ad

t o

b e

r epeated s evera l t imes . S ome c rude v essel s t ha t h ad c ome f rom t he l ower l eve l o f A rea J h ad t urned p owdery e ven when s t il l wet . T he o n ly way t o s ecure t he i n tegr i ty o f t hese p ieces ( most o f wh ich were c omponents o f mendab le v esse ls ) was t o r inse t he m i n ah ot s o lut ion o f a cetone a nd a r os in c ompound , s uff ic ient ly d i luted t o p ermeate t he i n ter ior o f t he c lay wa l ls . T h is p rocess i s t ime-consum ing , e xpens ive , a nd h aza rdous . Yet i t i sn ow u sed b y u s a lso f or f i na l p reservat ion o f w ooden a rt ifacts f ro m t he water . I n t he c ase o f wood , t he ma in g oa l i s t o ma inta in t he a ccurate s hape a nd d imens ions o f e ach p iece t h roughout t he p rocess . T he f i nd i s

C hapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 51

k ept i n s ea-wa ter u nt i l i tr eaches t he l ab . T here i t i s c leared o f t he m inera ls b y r i ns ing i n f resh water a nd d etergents ( i n o rder t o s ter i l ize i t f rom a ny p oss ib le d estruct ive b io log ica l a gents ) . T hen i t i s l eft i n ac onta iner o f a cetone , t o b e w e ighed e very week u nt i l i t c eases l o s ing w e igh t . A t t h is s tage t he a cetone h as r ep laced t he wa ter c omp lete ly . T hen t he p iece i s s oaked i n t he s o lut ion h eated i n af reshwater b ath . T he w e igh ing i s c arr ied o n e very week u nt i l t he wood s tops g a in ing we ight . A t t h is s tage , s ix t o s even months a fter t he t reatment h as c o mmenced , t he wood i s f ul ly s oaked w ith r os in , a nd when c oo led i t r eta in s t he f u l l v o lume d esp ite c hanges i n h um id ity . T he a dvantage o f t h is p rocess i s t hat i t i s r evers ib le , i n c ase s ome d istort ion i n t he w ooden member h as t o b e c orrected . A fter b e ing c leared o f m inera l s a nd m icrob io log ica l i n trus ions , o ther wooden f inds a re k ept i n b as ins o f f resh water a nd d etergents . S uch s torage i st e mporary . Co ins f rom .t he water a re b rough t t o t he l ab i n b ags f ul l o f s ea-water ( or t he s ubstance i n wh ich t hey w ere f ound ) a nd a re k ept i n a n a irt ight r efr igerated c ont a iner u nt il

t hey c an

b e

t reated

w ith d i luted a c id s ,

d etergents ,

a nd e lectro-

c hem ica l p rocesses . T he r estorat ion o f p o ttery , g lass a nd meta ls h a s b een c arr ied o ut s ince 1 982 b y g roups o f s en ior v o lunteers who work u nder t he i n struct ion o f P inha s P e led , t he C h ief Conservator o f Ant iqu it ies f or t he CMS a nd t he H echt Museum a t t he Un iv ers ity o f Ha ifa . [ A .R . ]

V .E : Bas ic Land S urveys . Caesarea 's p hys ica l r ema ins , l i ke t hose o f a ny o ther a rchaeo log ica l a nd h istori ca l s i te o f s im i la r i mportance , were s urveyed a nd s tud ied b efore a nd d ur ing t he e ar ly s tages o f CAHEP 's f i e ld-work .

I n f act , a s o ne c an l ea rn f rom t he f i rst p art

o f t h is v o lume , Caesarea h a s b een r epeated ly s urveyed s ince 1 738 , b oth t he t opog raph ica l f eatures a nd t he a rch itectura l r ema ins . When t he CAHEP p ro ject b egan , w e h ad i n h and o r a t l east h ad a ccess t o t he f o l low ing i n format ion : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

8 . 9 .

The p ub l ished p lans o f t he S urvey o f Western P a lest ine ( Conder & K itchener 1 882 ) . The p lan o f t he B osn ian v i l lage a t C aesarea , d ep ict ing e very b u i ld ing , wh ich was c omp i led b y S chumacher ( 1888 ) . A v i l lage p lan c omp i led f or t he B r it ish Mandate a uthor it ies i n 1 932 . A n aut ica l c ha r t o f Caesarea 's a nchorage ( Mansel l 1 860 ) . A n aut ica l c ha rt o f Caesarea 's a nchorage b y t he B r it ish Adm ir a lty , c orrected a nd u pdated t o 1 947 . A t opog raph ica l map t o as ca le o f 1 : 10 ,000 wh ich was c omp i led b y t he B r it ish O rd inance S urvey i n 1 931 . A s et o f t opograph ic maps a nd p lans a t s ca les o f 1 :5000-1 :1000 wh ich was made b y t he I s rae l S urvey f or t he D epartment o f Conservat ion o f L andscape a nd E nv ironment b y t he P r ime M in ist er 's O ff ice i n 1 959-1961 . , b ased o n t r iangu lat ion a nd a er ia l p hot ographs . M isce l laneous maps a nd p lans o f ma jor s tructures , made b y v ar io us s urveyors s i nce 1 963 , i n t he a rch ives o f Caesa rea Deve lopment Co . A 1 :500 p lan o f t he Caesa rea a nchorage w ith d epth c ontours e very 0 .5 m , wh ich wa s p repared b y t he D epartment o f F isher ies i n 1 951 , a nd a nother o ne t hat was made i n 1 972 f or t he Caesarea Deve lopment C o . b y t he Un it f or C oasta l S urvey i n t he I s rae l P ort A uthor ity .

2 52

V .E : B as ic L and S urvey 1 0 . F ie ld p lans a nd master u rban p lans o f C aesarea 's a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins , made b y t he s urveyors o f t he I t a l ian M iss ion i n 1 959-61 . 1 1 . A g reat v a r iety o f a er ia l p hotographs f rom t he a rch ives o f t he I s rae l S urvey a nd t he P hotogrammetr ic I n st itute i n J erusa lem , t aken s evera l t imes e ach y ear s ince 1 949 . 1 2 . A d eta i led b athymetr ic map , w ith i s obaths e very 0 .25 m , c omp i led b y t he I s rae l Oceanograph ic a nd L i mno log ica l R esearch C o . f or t he r esearch p ro ject wh ich was c arr ied o ut b y CMS f or t he I EC i n 1 975 . T h is map was p r inted i n t wo s ca les : 1 :1000 ( w ith i s obath s e very 0 .5 m ) , a nd 1 :500 ( w ith i sobaths e very 0 . 25 m ) . 1 3 . A ma ster p lan o f C aesarea a nd i t s e nv irons wh ich was c omp i led f or t he J o int E xped it ion i n 1 971 . 1 4 . A master u rban p lan o f Caesarea Mar it ima a t as ca le o f 1 :2500 , wh ich was c omp i led b y R usse l l a nd V ann f or t he J o int E xped i t ion . 1 5 . A master p lan o f f i e ld a nd a rea l ocators f or t he J o int E xped it ion , c o mp i led b y V ann a nd W ing i n 1 981 E ventua l ly , i tb ecame a pparent t hat n ot a l l t hese s ources a greed o n e ven v ery

b as ic r eference p o ints . A s ar esu lt , d ur ing 1 981-1982 t he t eam o f CAHEP a rch it ects wa s f urn ished w ith a n o rdered s et o f a er ia l p hotographs a t s ca les o f 1 : 1000 , 1 :500 , 1 :250 , a l l t he a va i lab le p lans f rom CDC a rch ives , a nd t he CMS b as ic s urvey f or I EC , t o b e c ompa red w ith t he master p lans o f t he J EC M . The f i rst w as t herea fter a d justed t o t he s tanda rd d ata o f t he I s rae l T opograph ic S urvey f or c omp il ing ac o mb ined s i te p lan o f 1 : 1000 o n wh ich a l l CAHEP 's d ata were p lo tted ( Z iek 1 987) . Dur ing t he f ie ld-work o ver a s er ies o f s easons , t he n ew d ata were p lo tted o n a master p lan b y mean s o f i n terpo lat ion o f d irect ions , e levat ions , a nd d i stances f rom

CDC

b enchmarks a t t he s i te , u s ing t heodo l ites a nd l evel s .

I n a dd it ion ,

CAHEP a rch itects d eve loped c lose w ork ing r e lat ion s w ith t he s urveyors a nd a rch it ects o f CDC s o t hat i n e very e ase when we n eeded s ome a ssessment o f c orrected p lott ing , t hey h e lped o ut w ith t he ir d ata a nd e ven o ccas iona l ly s ent o ut t he ir own t eams t o t ake measurements a nd p lot l ocat ions . A s ystemat ic o vera l l a rchaeo log ica l s urvey o f Caesa rea a nd i t s e nv irons h ad n ever b een a tte mpted . A rchaeo log ica l s urvey i n t he water was d escr ibed a bove ( Sect ions I V .B-D ) , b ut l and s urveys a re v ery d ifferent . Unt i l r ecent ly , s u rvey o n l and was o uts ide CAHEP 's c ha rter , c ons ider ing t hat o ther r esearch u n its m ight d ea l w ith i t . A lthough e ach o f t he e xped it ions t hat e xcavated i n Caesa rea u ndert ook p art ia l s urveys , n o o ne h as e ver a ttempted a c omp lete o ne . T rue s urveys were c arr ied o ut o n ly w ith in t he c ontext o f t he e stab l ishment o f t he E lectr ic P ower S tat ion a t Hadera . I n 1 970-1971 a c omp lete a rchaeo log ica l s urvey was e xecuted n orth o f Caes area i n t he v ic in ity o f K rokode i lonpo l is b y A . B erman , f or t he I s rae l D epart ment o f Ant iqu it ies . An a rea o f a bout 1 0 km 2 was c overed , f rom t he mouth o f t he r iver e ast t o t he A rab v ilage o f J asser-es-Zarqa a nd s ome 3 km s outh . Ano ther s urvey was f in ished b y Y . P orat a nd M . P rausn itz i n t he a rea o f d unes s outh a nd SE o f K ibbutz S edot Yam ( Prausn itz 1 971 ; P orat 1 975 ) . A l ess c omp lete b ut s t i l l e xtens ive s urvey wa s c onducted b y Y . N e 'e man o f K ibbutz Gan-Shmue l , who c o l lected a rchaeo log ica l d ata f rom s i tes o ver t he who le n orthern S haron p la in , f rom t he s outhern t i p o f Mount Carme l i n t he n orth t o t he Hadera R iver i n t he s outh , a nd f rom t he s ea-coast o n t he w est t o t he h i l l c ountry

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP o n t he e ast ( Ne 'e man 1 970 ; 1 972 ) .

2 53 A much more r estr icted s urvey was c arr ied o ut

b y D . Ro l ler o f W i lfred L aur ier U n ivers ity i n t he n ortheastern p ort ion o f t he c ity w ith in t he wa l ls o f B yzant ine C aesarea ( Rol ler 1 982a ) a nd p resumab ly o n al arger a rea a s wel l ( Ro l ler 1 982b ) , t hough t he p ro jected s urvey o f t he n orthern S haron p la in n ever r ea l ly t ook p lace . CAHEP

ma inta ins i t s f ie ld-work o n

a lready p ub l ished

t he

a ssumpt ion

t hat ,

e xcept

f or

t he

monuments a nd a rchaeo log ica l s i tes ( s ee Append ix I .A ) , a l l

a dd it iona l i n format ion r e levant t o i t s c harter i st o b e c o l lected a new i n t he f ie ld . F or t hat r ea son , r epet it ive v is its t o t he s i te a re p romoted , e spec ia l ly d ur ing t he w inter months a nd a fter s torms . T hese v is its i nc lude v isua l c overage o f t he c oastl i ne f rom t he E lectr ic P ower S tat ion i n t he s outh t o t he Z a rka r iver ( Naha l h aT ann in i m) i n t he n orth . S o f a r , s uch wa lk ing s u rveys h ave b een c arr ied o ut t wo o r t h ree t imes e very w inter s ince 1 979 , e i ther w ith t he h e lp o f s tudents o f t he D epartment o f H istory o f Mar it ime C iv i l izat ions a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa , o r w ith l oca l r es idents f rom Caesarea a nd K ibbutz S edot Yam . A t t he s ame t ime , a s er ies o f 1 :1000 s ca le a er ia l p hotos o f t he c oa stl ine , wh ich i sr out ine ly o rdered b y t he I s rae l Geo log ica l S urvey , h as b een made a va i lab le f or o ur i n spect ion . T hese a er ia l p hotos a re t aken t hree t o f our t imes e very y ear i n a l ternat ing s easons , s o i t i s p oss ib le t o f o l low t he p atterns o f s ea sona l ly c hang ing s and a nd g rowth c overa ges b oth o n l and a nd i ns ha l low water . [ A .R . ]

V .F : Arch itectura l S urvey T echn iques . T he

t echn iques f or

s urvey ing a nd r ecord ing t he

a rch itectura l r e ma in s

o f

a nc ient s i tes v ary f or e ach a rchaeo log ica l e xped it ion , a nd t he work o f CAHEP a t Caesarea i sc erta in ly n o e xcep t ion . D ue t o t he n a ture o f t he s i te a long t he s hal low s andy s hore , v ar ious t echn iques h ave b een d eve loped t hrough y ears o f t r ia l a nd e rror .

D ivers h ampered b y s urge a nd p oor v is ib i l ity h ave c ont inua l ly r ef ined t he ir

p rocedures a nd o ver t he y ears h ave p rov ided u s w ith a n ew s et o f g u ide l ines a pprop r iate t o c ond it ions a t t he s i te . The n ature o f t he ma jor a rch itectura l f eatures , t he r ather amorphous b reakwaters o f Herod 's b ad ly d amaged h arbour , must a l so b e t aken i n to c ons iderat ion . F or t he a rch itect who i sa ccustomed t o measur ing a nd d raw ing c omp lete o r p a rt ia l wal l l i nes , t he e xper ience o f r ecord ing h uge masses o f g enera l ly f eature less r ubb le was a d isappo int ing c ontrast . T he o ccas iona l c oncrete b lock w ith r egu lar f aces , i n t urn , p rov ided a we lcome c hange i n t he d a i ly r out ine . T he r esu lts o f t he u nderwater s urvey o f t he H erod ian h arbour , i nc lud ing b oth t he ma jor s tructura l f eatures a nd t he l ocat ion o f t he v ar iou s a ir l ift t renches e xcav ated d ur ing CAHEP c ampa igns , w ere r ecorded o n ab ase p lan o f 1 : 1000 ( f ig . I V .5 ) . T h is c ompos ite p lan i nc luded a l l k nown f eatures a nd wa s c hecked a ga in st n umero us a er ia l p hotographs s upp l ied b y t he I s rae l S urvey a nd t he P hotogram metr ic I n st itute o f J erusa lem .

A s im i lar p lan f or t he r esu lts o f t he l and s urvey , b a sed o n

t he s urvey c omp i led b y t he B r it ish O rd inance S urvey o f 1 931 , wa s d rawn a t 1 :2500 . A ma jor i n tersect o f s urvey l i nes n ear t he m inaret o f t he l a te n ineteenth-century B osn ian

mosque ,

n ow

w ith in

t he

C rusader

f ort if icat ions

1 40 ,000 ) , was e stab l ished a s o ur 0 /0 p o int ( f ig . 1 . 8 ) .

( North

2 12 ,000/West

2 54

V .F : A rch itectura l S urvey T echn iques T ransferr ing t he g r id t o a mar ine e nv ironment p roved t o b e a c omp l icated

t a sk a nd r esu lted i n a n i ncrease i n t he ma rg in o f e rror . E ach o f t he u nderwater a ir l ift t renches was p rov ided a b ench-mark i n t he f orm o f a0 .10 m s quare meta l t ag h am mered i nto a n a d jacent b lock o f c oncrete o r k urkar . A v ar iety o f ma sonry n a i ls were u sed b ut f ew were s uccessfu l i n h o ld ing t he p laques i n p lace o ver t he w inter f ro m o ne s ea son t o a nother . T o l ocate t he b ench-mark f ro m s hore was a c omp l icated p rocedure i nvo lv ing t hree t eams o f s urveyors .

F irst , e ar ly i n t he morn ing o n ad ay w ith c a lm s eas , t wo

t ea ms s et u p t heodo l ites o n s hore i n p os it ions t hat wou ld p rov ide r easonab le a ng les t o t he i n tended t argets . The ir p os it ions were d eterm ined b y t wo f actors : f i rst , t he r esu lt ing t r iang les t o b e f ormed b y s ight l i nes t o t he t arget a t s ea h ad t o b e b a s ic a l ly e qu i latera l . A t t he s ame t ime , t he d istance o ver wh ich o ne was r equ ired t o s igh t wa s k ept t o am in imum . Obv ious ly , t he t wo c ond it ions d id n ot a lway s l end t he mse lves t o as ing le p os it ion , s o e ach s tat ion f or s urvey ing h ad t o b e d eterm ined s epa rate ly . A s t he t wo l and c rews were e stab l ish ing t he ir s tat ions , t he t h ird t ea m h eaded t o s ea a nd p ut t wo d ivers i n t he water .

The f i rst h e ld o ver t he s ubmerged

b ench-mark t he e nd o f al i ne a ttached t o af loa t , c reat ing a v ert ica l l i ne o ver t he p o int o f t he b ench-mark . The f loat i n t h is c ase c orresponds t o t he p lumb b ob wh ich wou ld b e u sed t o s et a v ert ica l l i ne o n l and . As econd d iver r ema ined o n t he s urface a nd a ttempted t o s tab i l ize t he f loat . I f s eas were t oo r ough , t h is b ecame i mposs ib le a nd t he e nt ire o perat ion wa s c ance l led . When t he d iver o n t he s u rface was c onv inced t hat t he f loat was d irect ly a bove t he b ench-mark , h e o r s he g ave a v erba l s igna l t o at h ird p erson s tat ioned i n t he z od iac a nchored n earby , who i n t urn p rov ided a p redeterm ined h and s igna l t o s urveyors o n l and . These t hen i m med iate ly t ook t he r equ ired r ead ing . A lthough t he e nt ire o perat ion s ounds c omp l ic ated , a n e xper ienced t eam moved q u ite smooth ly a s e ach member l ea rned t o a nt ic ipate t he a ct ions o f o thers .

The d egree o f a ccuracy was c hecked a ga inst a er-

i a l p hotog raphs a nd d irect measu re ments whenever p oss ib le . Another t ype o f d raw ing p roduced f or e ach s eason o f e xcavat ion was t he a irl i ft l ocator p lan , wh ich i nc luded t he o ut l ine o f e ach t rench a nd i t s r e lat ionsh ip t o a l l o ther t renches .

E ach s eason o f e xcavat ion wa s c a refu l ly p lanned a round t he

l og ist ica l r equ ire ments o f s erv ing s evera l a ir l ifts f rom a s ing le d ive b arge , e ncoura g ing a t ight p attern o f work s tat ions i n t he water . B ecause t he s ectors t ended t o b e c lose t o o ne a nother , t he a rch itect 's j ob o f l ocat ing e ach i n r e lat ion t o o ne a nother a nd t o t he b arge was s omewhat s imp l if ied .

Measurements f or t he l ocator

p lan wou ld b eg in f ro m a l a rge meta l p ipe d r iven i nto t he s and i n ac onven ient p os it ion b eneath t he d ive b arge .

D irect t ape mea surements a nd c o mpass b ea r ings

were t aken t oward e ach s i te a nd a dd it iona l r ead ing s b etween e ach p a ir o f t he b ench-marks .

The f ina l p roduct was a lso c hecked a ga inst a er ia l p hotographs .

Once a ga in t here wa s s ubstant ia l marg in o f e rror . F or e xamp le , i f ad istance t o b e t aped wa s 6 0-70 m a nd t he t ape measure was o n ly 5 0 m l ong , al i ne wa s f i rst l a id o ut b etween a ny t wo p o ints a long wh ich t he b ear ing wou ld b e t aken . The c ompass r ead ing wou ld b e s hot a long t he l i ne o n ly a fter o ne o f t he d ivers h ad s wum t he l ength c orrect ing a ny i r regu lar ity i n i t s c ourse . Nex t , o ne d iver h e ld t he e nd o f t he t ape a t t he i n it ia l p o int , e ither t he i ron s take b eneath t he b a rge o r o ne o f t he b ench-marks , wh i le a s econd d iver p u l led t he l eng th o f t he t ape a long t he s tr ing l i ne , e nsur ing t hat t he d irect

measure ment wa s t aken f rom a h or izonta l t ape

C hapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 55

r ather t han o ne f o l low ing t he r i se a nd f a l l o f t he s tr ing l i ne a s i tp a ssed o ver t he s l ope o f t he b reakwater o r a cross i nd iv idua l b ou lders . T he f ina l p lan was d rawn f rom a s er ies o f t r iang les f ormed b y measure ments among t he v a r ious p o ints . P roduct ion o f p lans a nd s ect ions o f i nd iv idua l t renches was t he most f ru strati ng a rch itectura l t ask . T errestr ia l a rchaeo logy p rov ides v ert ica l b au lks a nd c lear ly i dent if iab le wa l l l i nes wh ich a t b est m igh t b e f ragmentary o r e ven r ecogn izab le a s ar obber t rench f rom wh ich t he ( Vann 1 980 ) .

wal ls a nd t he ir f oundat ions h ad b een r e moved

A rch itects measur ing r ema ins o n l and f i nd w el l-cut a sh lar b lock s ,

c orners o f b u i ld ings , o r l i nes o f p iers o r c o lonnades , many o f wh ich r e inforce t he o rthogona l s ystem

o f

p lann ing

a nd

c onstruct ion

c haracter ist ic

o f

t he

G reco-

R oman wor ld . I n c ontra st , e xcavat ion i n to t he r ubb le s p i l l o f t he b reakwaters o r t he s andy s ea-bed a t Caesa rea r esu lted i n w ide , s ha l low p robes w ithout wel ld ef ined b au lks . The p rof i les o f CAHEP 's t renches were d eterm ined b y t he n atura l s l ope o f s and , u n less t he f abr ic o f t he mater ia l wa s s treng thened b y i nc lu s ions o f c lay o r mud . T h is was t he c ase i n A reas C a nd D n ear t he h a rbour mouth . T he i mportance o f t he s ing le e xamp le o f as ea led l ocus i n A rea D 1 i s r ef lected i n t he emphas is g iven t h is s tratum i n b oth t he p ub l icat ion o f t he f i nd s ( Vo lume I ) a nd t he s eparate d raw ings i nc luded h ere ( f igs . 1 1 .27-32 ) . A n u mber o f s pec ia l c onstruct ion f eatures a round t he h arbour r equ ired s epar ate d raw ings . T i mbers s urround ing t he l arge c oncrete b lock i n A rea G l ed t o a s er ies o f r econstruct ion p roposa l s f or t he f ormwork i n to wh ich t he c oncrete was p oured . Th is s er ies e ventua l ly r esu lted i n t he s uperb p a int ing o f t he h arbour u nder c onstruct ion p repared b y R obert T err ingo o f t he Nat iona l G eograph ic S oc iety w ith t echn ica l a dv ice b y J ohn P . O leson ( f igs . V I .1-2) . O ther l arge c oncrete b locks f ound a long S ect ion L ine 3 p resu mab ly o nce s upported p a rt o f t he s p ina l wa l l r unn ing t he l ength o f t he b reakwater . T he c oncentrat ion o f s evera l o f t he b locks i n o ne l ocat ion was c arefu l ly d ocumented w ith a s i te p lan a nd e levat ion ( f igs . I V .8-9 ) , a s we l l a s s epa rate p lan s , e levat ions , a nd p erspect ives o f e ach b lock t hat emphas i zed t he f eatures o f t he ir c onstruct ion ( f ig . I V .10 ) . Two a dd it iona l a reas were s tud ied n ear t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l : o ne a t t he western t erm inat ion o f t he N orth B reakwa ter a nd t he o ther o ppos ite t he t owers i n A rea K . B oth w ere marked b y c oncentrat ions o f l arge c oncrete a nd k urka r b locks t hat p resumab ly s erved a s t he f oundat ion f or ma jor s tructures ( f ig .

1 1 .18 , p l . I V , S L n o . 1) .

O ther s pec ia l

r ecord ing p ro jects i nc luded S ect ion L ines a cross t he b reakwaters ( Sect ion I V .C ) , a i rjet p robes i n t he S outh B ay ( Sect ion I V .B ) , a nd t he S h ip i n A rea Y ( Sect ion I .S ) . T he t oo ls n eeded f or d raw ing u nderwater w ere s imp le . P last ic d raw ing b oa rds a bout 0 .225 m s qua re were u sed , f i rst w ith t he d raw ing d irect ly o n t he s urface b ut l a ter o n w ith my lar s heets wh ich c ou ld b e k ept a s p ermanent d ocuments . T he s tand ard l ead p enc ils u sed f or d raw ing were a ttached t o t he d raw ing b oa rd w ith s t r ings , t o k eep t he m f rom f loat ing t o t he s urface . T he p la st ic p ads a nd my lar s heets a lso s erved t he n eed f or a means o f u nderwater c om mun icat ions a s a rch it ects a nd e xcavators t raded i mpress ions a nd o p in ions o n t he a ss ignment a t h and . O ther e qu ipment i nc luded 5 m , 1 0 m , a nd 5 0 m p la st ic meter t apes a nd h eavy l i nes . T he l i nes w ere s tored o n ap last ic f rame d es igned f or l ong e xtens ion c ords t hat e nab led d ivers t o c onven ient ly u nree l t he l i ne a s t hey s wam f rom o ne a rea t o a nother . Masses o f u ncontro l led l i ne u nderwater w ere n ot o n ly d iff icu lt t o u nrave l b ut a lso a p otent ia l d anger t o t he d iver .

2 56

V .F : A rch itectura l S urvey T echn iques A l l f i e ld d raw ings , whether o n p la st ic s late o r my lar s heets , were t aken t o t he

d raft ing r oom , t ransferred t o g raph p aper , a nd e ntered i n to t he n otebook o f t he s eason 's work . A s ing le s ector m ight r equ ire s evera l d ives , r esu lt ing i n s eparate g raph p aper s heets t hat l a ter wou ld b e j o ined t ogether i n as i ng le f ina l i nked d rawi ng o n my lar . [ R .L .V . ]

V .G : B arge a nd A ir -Supp ly S ys tem . B etween t he s urvey s eason o f 1 979 a nd t he p roposed u nderwater e xcavat ion s chedu led f or May 1 980 , t he s taff o f t he Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa Mar it i me Workshop was c harged w ith t rans lat ing t he s c ient if ic o b ject ives o f CAHEP i n to a w ork ing o perat iona l p lan . T he o b ject ives f or 1 980 a nd b eyond i nc luded p lans t o e xcavate i n more t han 1 5 l ocat ions o ver t he 2 00 ,000 m 2 o f t he Outer B as in . A s t he R o man b reakwaters h ad s ubs ided b e low t he water s urface , t h is meant t hat o perat ions wou ld b e c a rr ied o ut i n o pen s ea . S i tes 5 00 m f rom s hore a re t oo f ar away f or t he e xcavat ion t o b e b ased o n a nd s uperv ised e nt ire ly f rom s hore , b ut a re v ery c lose i f a s ea-worthy

( ocean-go ing )

c raft

i s t he

b a se

o f

o pera t ion .

T he

a l terna t ive

s e lected wa s l ocat ion o f as ha l low-d raft p latform c entra l t o t he e xcavat ion s i tes , a nd t he c onduct ion o f c ompressed a i r f rom t he s hore f or t he e xcavat ion . T h is p latform was i n tended t o s erve a s af orward b a se f or d iver s uperv is ion a s w e l l a s g enera l f ie ld s uperv ison a nd a s as tag ing a nd r est a rea f or d ivers . F urther , t h is p latform wou ld s erve a s ar ece iv ing s tat ion f or c ompressed a ir b e ing b rought f rom s hore i n as ubmar ine h ose t o o perate t he a i r l ifts , a nd a d istr ibut ion s tat ion f or d e l iver ing t h is a ir t o what g rew t o b e n ine s eparate u nderwater s tat ions . The d ec is ion n ot t o o perate a c ompressor a t s ea wa s t aken a fter c on s ider ing t he p robl ems o f f ue l s upp ly a nd n o ise p ol lut ion . I n s ix CAHEP s easons t he c ompressor was p laced o n s hore i n ar emote l ocat ion . P r ior t o t he 1 980 s eason , as tee l b arge was made a va i lab le t o t he p ro ject , b ut t he c ost o f g enera l f i tt ing , t ow ing t o a nd f rom C aesarea , a nd s torage i n H a ifa f ar e xceeded b udget l im its . F urthermore , t he s tee l b arge c ou ld n ot b e moved u s ing t he Z od iac r ubber b oats a t o ur d isposa l . T he s o lut ion c hosen f or p rov id ing a p latf orm was t o d es ign a nd c onstruct a wooden b arge , f l oated o n b arre ls , wh ich c ou ld b e b rought d isassemb led t o Caesarea v ia l and a nd a sse mb led a t water 's e dge o n s i te .

T he b arge p ictured i n f i gure V .4 h a s b een u sed f or s ix s easons a t C aesarea .

T h is 3 x 6 m p latform i s c onstructed o f 0 .05 x 0 .20 m p rof i le c lear p ine p lanks , c onnected b y 0 .10 x 0 .10 m a ng leiron c onnectors . Wh i le i t c onta ins 4 1 p lanks , t hey a re o f f our s i zes o n ly , a nd o n ly t wo p lanks e xceed 3 m i n l ength ( f ig .

V .6 ) .

T he b arge i sb u i lt u p i n t hree 2 x 3 m u n its wh ich a re c onnected i n t he w ater ( or wh ich may b e u sed s eparate ly a s sma l l p latforms ) . T he e nt ire b a rge i s f l oated o n 2 4 2 00l itre b arre ls , g iv ing a n et f l otat ion o f a lmost f ou r t ons . F u l ly l aden w ith d ivers a nd t he ir e qu ipment , t he d raft i so n ly 0 .30 m . A l l s tee l c onnectors a nd t he s tee l b ands wh ich h o ld t he b arre ls i n p lace a re h ot-d ip g a lvan ized a nd h ence i m mune t o c orros ion . A lthough t he b arge must b e a sse mb led w ith 4 00 1 /2 i n . b o lts a nd n uts , t h is t ask i sa ss isted b y t he u se o f ap neumat ic w rench .2

2 E ng l ish measurements a re u sed f or t hose f i tt ings wh ich h ave b een mach ined t o

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 57

E ach s ect ion o f t he b arge i s a ssemb led u ps ide d own a t t he water 's e dge , a nd a fter t he b arre ls a re a ttached , i sf l ipped i n to t he water . T he s l ight d raught a l lows f or e asy l aunch ing t h rough u se o f t he t i des . T he t h ree s ect ion s a re u n ited wh i le a f loat , a fter wh ich t he d eck i s l a id a nd f astened i n p lace . T he b arge i s t hen e qu ipped w ith a s uperstructure t hat i nc ludes a l a rge b ox c onta in ing a 3 50l itre h o ld ing t ank f or t he Hookah s ystem , t ab le , a ir man ifo ld , a i r-pur if icat ion s ystem , t wo-way r ad io s ystem , c anopy , d ivers ' l adders , n av iga t ion l i gh ts , a nd a nchors . The a ssemb ly o f t he b arge c an u sua l ly b e c omp leted i n t wo d ay s b y s ix t o e ight p eop le . I t c an b e t owed i n to p os it ion b y t wo Z od iac b oats . T he e xcavat ion s chedu le r equ ired t he b arge t o b e o n s tat ion f or s ix weeks , a nd t h is p lan h a s s ucc eeded f or t he most p a rt .

Wh i le t he b arge d es ign wa s d eve loped w ith p ortab i l ity

i n m ind , t he c omp l icated n etwork o f a ir-hoses a nd a nchor l i nes make r out ine o r r ap id r e mova l o f t he b arge t o s hore o r h a rbour u nfea s ib le . T he b arge i s a nchored w ith f our t o s ix a nchors wh ich ma inta in i t s p os it ion a nd d irect ion r egard less o f t he w inds . Th is a ttempt t o o vercome t he e nergy o f t he s ea h as l ed t o s ome f a i lures . I n 1 981 , h eavy s torms p arted a l l t he a nchors a nd a ir l i nes a nd c ast t he b arge a shore , f ortunate ly w ith a lmost n o d amage . T he b arge wa s r e-anchored i n p os it ion o n t he f i rst d ay a fter t he s torm s ubs ided . I n 1 984 e ven h eav ier s torms o verturned t he b arge , c aus ing l o ss o f t he s uperstructure , b ut n o d amage t o t he ma in s truct ure . Two d ays were r equ ired t o r ebu i ld a nd r e-pos it ion . I n 1 986 t he b arge was o verturned o nce a ga in a nd c ast a shore , c aus ing s ubstant ia l d amage . F ie ld r epa irs , h owever , e nab led t he p la tform t o b e r eturned t o s erv ice w ith t he l oss o f o n ly t hree work ing d ays .

D esp ite t hese c asua lt ies , t h is p refabr icated p latform wa s o ut

o f s erv ice f or o n ly 1 1 o f 1 80 work ing d ays o ver t he f i rst s ix s ea sons o f e xcavat ion . A s ar esu lt o f t he d amage s uffered i n 1 986 , an ew p latform i s b e ing d es igned f or s erv ice i n 1 988 a nd s ubsequent s easons . F igure V .3 s hows t he r e lat ive p os it ion o f t he b arge t o t he work ing s i tes i n a t yp ica l s eason . T he b arge i s a nchored i n as i te c ons idered c entra l t o t he a reas t o b e e xcavated . S hown a l so a re t wo o f t he s i tes f or t he s hore-based c ompressor a nd t he r oute o f t he ma in a i r-supp ly h ose . T he f igure c lear ly s hows t he d istr ibut ion o f a ir f ro m t he b arge t o t he e xcavat ion s i tes . T he a rrows s how t he Z od iac r oute f ro m t he s hore b a se t o b arge . T he l i fel ine t o t he b arge i s a4 0 mm d iameter p o lyethe lyne , s ubma r ine p ipe wh ich b r ings c ompressed a ir f rom t he s hore t o t he e xcavat ion . Compressed a ir i s t he ma in s ource o f e nergy f or a l l u nderwater a ct iv ity . On t he b arge , a l l t he a ir e nters a man ifo ld wh ich t hen d i str ibutes i t t o t hree a ir l ift s i tes , t o t he Hookah b reath ing-a ir s ystem , a nd t o p ressure g auges f or mon itor ing a ir-f low . T h is man if o ld i s f i tted w ith v a lves f or a l l o ut lets i n o rder t o g ive t he b arge s uperv isor c ont ro l o ver a ir d i str ibut ion . A ir t o t he a ir l ifts i sd istr ibuted i n 3 /4 i n . r e inforced n y lon h oses , a nchored t o t he s ea-f loor o ver t he r oute t o t he e xcavat ion s i te . T hese h oses s erve t o g u ide d ive rs i n t he e vent o f p oor v is ib i l ity a nd i n t he e a se o f a n e xcavat ion s i te b e ing r emote f rom t he b arge . A ir t o t he Hookah s ystem i s f ed t o ah o ld ing t ank where most o f t he water v apor s ett les o ut . F rom t he t ank i t i s p lumbed t o af i lter s yst em , a nd t hen d istr ibuted t o t he d ivers i n 5 /16 i n . r ubber h oses . Ny lon h oses were

E ng l ish r ather t han metr ic s tandard s .

2 58

V .G : B arge a nd A ir S upp ly

u sed i n 1 981 b ut s ubsequent ly a bandoned d ue t o t he u np lea sant t a ste i mparted t o t he a ir b y t h is h ose mater ia l . The b arge s uperv isor h as g auge d isp lays o f t he s yst em ( a ir-fro m-shore ) p ressure , t he h o ld ing-tank p ressure , a nd t he a ctua l p ressure o f b reath ing-a ir b e ing d e l ivered t o t he d ivers ( f ig . V .5 ) . [ S .Bd

V .H : A ir l if ts . E xcavat ion i n t he h arbour was c arr ied o ut w ith t he u se o f a ir l ifts o perat ing o n c o mpressed a ir . Th is t ype o f e xcavat ing t oo l wa s c hosen b ecause o f t he r e la t ive e ase o f d istr ibut ing a ir f ro m p ressure

water-f low

a c entra l

s ource

a s o pposed t o s upp ly ing

i n l arge d iameter h oses t o d redges .

h igh-

F urthermore , a ir l ifts

r emove e xcavated s ed iments f urther f rom t he e xcavat ion s i tes t han d o sma l l d redges . An a ir l ift i s i n f act a s imp le p ump wh ich u ses c ompressed a ir t o a erate a c o lumn o f water i n ap ipe , mak ing i t" l ighter" ( i .e . w ith a l ower s pec if ic g rav ity ) t han s urround ing c o lumns o f water . Add it iona l wa ter t hen f l ows i nto t he b ottom i n take o f t he p ipe i n a n e ffort t o e qua l ize t he we ight o f t he water c o lu mn .

S ince t he

water c o lumn i n t he p ipe i s a lways a erated , a nd t hus l ess d ense , e qua l izat ion o f we ight w il l o n ly b e a ch ieved when t h is c o lumn i s much t a l ler . Hence a ir l ifts c an b e u sed t o " l ift" water f rom a l ow s pot t o ah igher . I n o ur e ase , we were i nteres ted o n ly i n l i ft ing t he water t o t he s u rface o f t he s ea i n o rder t o u t il ize t he e nt ire p ressure g rad ient c reated b y t he r e lat ive ly s ha l low d epth o f t he water . The s uct ion c reated a t t he e ntrance t o t he a ir l ift c an b e u t i l ized t o p ump water a nd s o l ids t ogether , a nd t hus i ti s we l l s u ited t o u nderwater e xcavat ion . T he l a rge amount o f s and a nd r ock wh ich were s chedu led f or r emova l t o e xpose t he

f ounda t ions

o f

t he

h a rbour

s tructu res r equ ired

t he

u se

o f

l arge-

d iameter a ir l ifts . S ince t hese t oo ls were t o r ema in o n s tat ion f or s ix weeks e ach s eason , i t was d ec ided t o b u i ld t hem e nt ire ly o u t o f u nbreakab le mater ia ls w ith l i tt le r egard f or t he ir we ight .

The r e lat ive s ha l lowness o f t he s i te a nd t he a bsence

o f p red ictab le c urrents r equ ired t hat t hese u n its b e t i lted a t 4 50 t o e nsure t hat e xcavated mater ia ls wou ld n ot s ett le b ack o n t he s i te . Th is t i lt ing made t he a irl i fts v ery b uoyant , t hereby e l im inat ing a ny p otent ia l p rob le ms c aused b y t he ir i ntr ins ic we ight . F igure V .7 s hows a 6 inch a ir l ift s ystem . The h ead , wh ich c onta ins t he v a lves , a ir-connect ion h and les , a nd a nchors , i s c onstructed o f g a lvan ized s tee l . Th is h ead i s c onnected t o 6 inch a lu m inum e xhaust p ipes u s ing a t h ick wa l led , t rans lucent p last ic f lex p ipe o f t he r o l lf lex d es ign . I n n orma l o perat ions t he h ead i s a nchored a nd f loated 1 m f ro m t he s ea-f loor n ear t he e xcavat ion s i te a nd c onnected t o 8 -12 m o f e xhaust p ipes ( f igs . V .9-10 ) . T he

ma ss ,

b uoyancy , a nd s uct ion p ower o f t hese

u n its

makes e xcava t ion

d irect ly w ith t he a ir l ift h ead v irtua l ly i mposs ib le . T o make t he a ir l ift e as i ly a nd s afe ly h and led b y SCUBA d ivers , i t i s e qu ipped w ith a 4 m t o 6m l ong f lex ib le s uct ion h ose , wh ich i sa ttached f orward o f t he a ir l ift h ead . T h is h ose h as v irtua l ly n o r eco i l , o r t orque , e ven a t max i mum s uct ion . T he c ond it ions c reated a re s im i lar

C hapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 59

t o u s ing a h o me v acuum c leaner w ith a s uct ion h ose ( r ather t han l i ft ing a nd worki ng d irect ly w ith t he motor ) . S ince t he r esu ltant a ir l ift wa s v ery l ong , i t was e ssent ia l t hat p recaut ions b e t aken t o p revent s tones f rom b e ing t rapped a nd t hus b lock ing t he a ir l ift . One s o lut ion u sed a t Caesarea was t o e qu ip t he f l ex ib le s uct i on h ose w ith a muzz le ( s ee d eta i l i n f ig . V .12 ) wh ich a l lowed t he e xcavat ion o f s and a nd sma l l p art ic les a cross t he e nt ire d iameter , b ut p revented e xcavat ion o f s tones l a rger t han 3 i nches i n d iameter ( t hese s tones wou ld b e r emoved f rom t he s i te b y h and ) . T he muzz le i s made o f t h ick-wal led p ipe t o r educe i n jury t o o perat ors , whose h ands a re f requent ly d rawn t o t he s uct ion p o int . T h is s imp le d ev ice h as v irtua l ly e l im inated t he c logg ing o f t hese a ir l ifts , wh ich h ave c arr ied o ut o ver 5 000 h ours o f e xcavat ion i n f i ve s easons . E ach a ir l ift h ead ( f ig . V .8 ) i s e qu ipped w ith t wo v a lves : o ne b al l v a lve f or emergency s hut -down o f t he a i r s upp ly , a nd o ne g a te v a lve f or a d just ing s uct ion i n tens ity . A ir i s i n troduced o n t wo s i des o f t he a ir l ift h ead i n to a s leeve wh ich s erves t o s pread t he a i r a round t he a ir l ift wa l ls a nd r educe b ubb le s ize ( thus i ncreas ing s uct ion ) . E ach a i r l ift h ead i s a l so e qu ipped w ith a s erv ice c onnect ion f or c ompressed a ir . T hus t he a i r l ift c an a lso s erve a s ag enera l s ource o f a ir f or a ux i l iary work n ear t he e xcavat ion s i te , s uch a s l i ft ing w ith a ir b ags , o r a irjet p rob ing . T h is f eature a l lows s uch a ct iv it ies t o b e c arr ied o ut w ithout t he n eed t o f eed o ut a dd it iona l h oses f rom t he b arge ( f ig . V .9 ) . T hree 6 inch a ir l ifts c ou ld u se a lmost a ny v o lume o f a ir t hat c ou ld b e s upp l ied t h rough t he h ose s ystem w e o perated . E xper ience s howed u s t hat 2 40 e fm ( cub ic f eet/m in . =6 700 l i tres/m in . )

met o ur m in imum e xcavat ing n eeds a nd a l lowed u s

t o ma inta in a b a lanced f ue l b udget . I n 1 986 we e xper i mented w ith t he u se o f a n 8 inch a ir l ift s upp l ied b y l arge-d iameter h oses . T h is u n it g reat ly r educed t he p ower o f t he t wo o ther 6 inch a ir l ifts i n s erv ice .

Desp ite i t s e ffect iveness i n

e xcavat ing l arge a reas , i t s u se was d iscont inued , s i nce t he g enera l a ir s upp ly c ou ld n ot b e i ncreased .3 T he u se o f f l ex s uct ion h oses d oes n ot r educe t he s uct ion p ower o f t he a ir l ift u n it . I t d oes , h owever , i ncrease t he t ota l v o lu me o f t he s ystem , b eyond t he u sab le a ir v o lume ( wh ich i s t hat v o lume e qua l t o t he c ross-sect iona l a rea o f t he a ir l ift mu lt ip l ied b y t he d epth o f t he water f rom t he p o int where t he a i r i s i ntroduced ) . Th is i ncreases t he d anger t hat t he s ystem w il l b e o ver loaded : 3

I n 1 980 when CAHEP f i rst i n troduced t hree 6 inch a ir l ifts i n to s imu ltaneous s erv ice 4 00-500 m f rom t he a ir s ource , t he o perat ions s taff was r equ ired t o c ompute t he a ir v o lume r equ ire ment . T he g enera l f ormu la f or f ree a ir v o lume i n c ub ic f eet f or e ach g al lon o f water p umped i s : V a = L /[ C L og10 ( S/34 + 1 ) ] =( un its i n f eet ) , where C i s ac onstant c omputed f rom t he r at io o r p ump ing a nd s tand ing s ubmergence , Li st he t ota l l i ft , a nd S e qua ls p ump ing s ubmergence . U s ing a s ubmergence r at io o f 1 00 % ( t he s ea l eve l d id n ot c hange a s ar esu lt o f o ur p ump ing ) a nd a l i ft o f 1m ( t he d i stance t he a ir l ift e xhaust p ipe p rot ruded f rom t he water ) , w e a ch ieved v a lues o f l ess t han 1 /2 c u f t 5l i tres ) f ree a ir t o p ump 1 U .S . g a l . ( 3 .79 l i tres ) o f water . U s ing a 2 40 c u f t m in c omp ressor , we c ou ld h ope f or 1 25-150 g a l/m in p ump ing r ate a t e ach a ir l ift , p rov ided t hat a l t he a i r c ompressed a t t he c ompressor c ou ld b e d e l ivered t o t he a ir l ifts . Cons ider ing t he s ha l lowness o f t he s i te , p ressure r equ irements p rov ided n o p rob lems ( a t 1 0 m o n ly 2 a tm a re r equ ired t o i n ject a ir i n to t he a ir l ift ) . T o i n sure a dequate v o lume f low a 4 0 mm d iameter wa s c hosen f or t he ma in a irh ose . Th is g ave a c ross-sect iona l a rea more t han f our t imes t he 3 /4 i n . ( 20 mm ) h oses f eed ing e ach a i r l ift . P o lyethe lyne wa s c hosen f or t he ma in a irl ine b ecause , among o ther c ons iderat ions , i ti se asy t o d ep loy i n t he water a nd s tore b etween s easons , a nd b ecause i t s smooth i nner wa l l m in im izes f r ict ion , t hus m in im iz ing p ressure l o sses i n r oute . P ressu re a t t he b arge t erm inu s o f t he ma in l i ne wa s ac oncern c h ief ly b ecause o f t he Hookah b reath ing-a ir r equ ire ments .

2 60

V .H : A ir l ifts

t hat i s , i t w il l t ake i n more s ed i ment i n we ight t han t he a ir v o lume i n l i tres . Th is r equ ires t hat t he e xcavat ion b e c arr ied o ut w ith c are , a nd t hat t he s uct ion h ose n ot b e a l lowed t o b ury i t se lf i n t he s and . T he e xhaust f rom a ir l ifts g enera l ly s eparates i t se lf a ccord ing t o we igh t o f t he p art ic les . S and a nd f ine p a rt ic les f loat d ownstream wh i le h eav ier s tones ( and a rt if acts ) d rop d irect ly b e low t he e xhaust p o int . Th is s eparat ion a l lowed f or i n spect ion

o f

e xcavated

mater ia ls .

Nonethe less ,

e xcavators

r ece ived

s pec if ic

i nstruct ion s t o e xcavated i n ac ontro l led f ash ion , t o a l low f or t he r ecovery o f a rt if acts b efore t hey p assed t hrough t he a ir l ift .

[ S .B . ]

V

Hookah Surface-Supp ly B rea th ing -A ir S ys tem . Ana lys is o f t he 1 980 s eason r evea led t hat t he u nderwater e xcavat ion i nc luded

many t ypes o f a ct iv ity r equ ir ing g reat ly v ary ing amounts o f e nergy . Moreover , o ur s taff o f v o lunteer d ivers was c o mposed o f p eop le w ith g reat ly v a ry ing e xper ience a nd a b i l ity . I t p roved v ery d iff icu lt t o s chedu le d ives , s ince i t was v ery h ard t o p redeterm ine a ir c onsu mp t ion r ates i n a SCUBA e nv iron ment . I n t h is f i rs t s eason much t ime wa s l ost a s p a irs o f d ivers ( or e ven o ne o f t wo d ivers i n a p a ir ) e xhausted t he ir a ir s upp ly e ar l ier t han e xpected , b efore r e l ief t eams were r eady . I n o rder t o e nsure e ff ic ient u se o f e xcavat ion t ime a ccord ing t o ap redeterm ined s chedu le , i t was n ecessary t o d eve lop a s urface-supp l ied Hookah s yste m wh ich wou ld e l im inate t he f actor o f v ar iat ions i n a ir c onsu mpt ion r ates ,

a nd

i ncrea sed a ir c onsumpt ion when d o ing more d iff icu lt work . On t he o ther h and , most o f o ur v o lunteer p ersonne l a re d ivers w ith l im ited e xper ience a nd w ho h ave b een t ra ined o n ly i n b a s ic SCUBA d iv ing . Moreover , t he l ong h or izonta l d i stances b etween t he s uperv isor 's b arge a nd t he a ir l ift s i te wou ld h ave r equ ired l i ne t ende rs , wh ich were u nava i lab le . T he s o lut ion r eached was a c omb ined SCUBA-Hookah s yste m wh ich i nc ludes a SCUBA s yste m f am i l ia r t o d ivers t hat c onnects t o a Hookah s ource p ermanent ly i nsta l led a t t he e xcavat ion s i te . D ivers wea r as ma l l 7 l itre ( 50 f t . 3) t ank f i tted w ith a r egu la tor ( f ig . V .11 ) .

The t ank i s mounted w ith t he v a lve d own a nd f ac ing

o ut ( for r easons n oted b e low ) . The r egu lator ( we u se a U .S .

D ivers Aqua r iu s r egu-

l ator , b ut s evera l o ther c o m mon mode ls a re s u itab le ) i s f i tted w ith a 4 0inch ( about 1 m ) i n terstage h ose t hat p erm its e asy r each f rom t he f i rst s tage , s i tuated n ow a t t he l ower b ack , t o t he s econd s tage . T he f i rst s tage i s f urther f i tted w ith a Hookah a irintake h ose c onnected t o al ow-pressure s erv ice p ort t hrough a c heck v a lve ( f ig . V .13 ) . Th is h ose i s f i tted w ith t he ma le s ide o f ab rass q u ick-re lease c onnector ( Parker B 6 1 I ) . P ressure i n t he t ank i s mon itored b y as ubmers ib le p ressure g auge wh ich i sc onnected d irect ly t o t he t ank v a lve . T he d iver e nters t he water u s ing t h is e qu ipment a s s tandard SCUBA g ear a nd s w i ms t o t he e xcavat ion s i te . The a ir l ift h ead s erves a s at erm inus n ot o n ly f or t he a ir l ift c ompressed a ir-hose b ut a lso f or t wo 5 /16inch Hookah a ir-hoses wh ich a re l ashed t o t he f ormer a nd t o t he a ir l ift h ead . B eyond t he a ir l ift h ead i s a n a dd it iona l 1 0 m o f Hookah h ose wh ich f loats t h rough i t s own b uoyancy a nd a sma l l

Chapter V : O rgan iza t ion o f CAHEP

2 61

f loat a ttached 3 m f rom t he e nd . T o t he e nd o f t h is h ose i sf i tted t he f ema le P ark er , b rass q u ick-re lease f i tt ing wh ich w il l c onnect t o t he d iver 's u n it . Upon a rr iva l a t t he a ir l ift , t he d iver g athers i n t he f loat ing h ose , t o wh ich h e c onnects h is Hook ah i ntake h ose ( f ig . V .15 ) . A t t h is p o int h e i sn ow c onnected t o a n u n l im ited s urf ace s upp ly o f a ir a nd may n ow t urn o ff t he t ank v a lve . He f ee ls n o c hange whatsoever i n t he b reath ing c ha racter ist ics o f h is r egu lator . F igure V .11 c lear ly s hows t wo e xcavators u s ing t he Hookah s y stem . T o d isconnect f rom t he s ystem , t he d iver mere ly o pens h is t ank v a lve ( the t ank h as b een mounted u ps ide d own t o s imp l ify t h is o perat ion ) a nd d isconnects t he Hookah h ose a t t he q u ick-re lease f i tt ing .

Now , h av ing r eturned t o a SCUBA

mode , t he d iver may s w im t o t he b a rge u nderwater . E ven i n p oor v i s ib il ity d ivers c an e as i ly f i nd t he r oute t o a nd f rom t he a ir l ift b y f o l low ing t he t r ip le h ose b und le f rom t he b a rge t o t he a i r l ift h ead . L og ist ica l ly , t he s ystem e ff ic ient ly u t i l izes t he l arge s upp ly o f l ow p ressure a ir wh ich i sa l ready p resent i n t he s uperv isor 's b arge . A ir t o t he Hookah s yste m r eaches t he b arge f rom t he ma in c ompressor o n s hore t h rough t he 4 0 mm p o lyethy lene h ose p rev ious ly ment ioned . P a rt o f t h is a ir i ss iphoned o ff t o t he 3 50l itre h o ld ing t ank , wh ich , i n a dd it ion t o h e lp ing t o s epar ate o ut water , s erves a s ar eserve s upp ly o f a ir i n c a se o f c ompressor f a i lure o r t emporary i n terrupt ion o f t he a ir s upp ly . F rom t he h o ld ing t ank , a ir i s p assed t h rough a f our-stage p ur if icat ion s yste m . T h is s ystem i nc ludes t wo s e lf-d ra in ing , mechan ica l water-and-o i l s epa rators , a nd a m icro-coa lesc ing f i lter t hat r emoves 9 9 .99999 p ercent o f a l l p art ic les l a rger t han . 03 m icrons . T he a i r t hen p asses t hrough a r egu lator , a nd u ndergoes f i na l p u r if icat ion i n ad ess icant a nd c harcoa l . T hese f ina l c he m ica ls a re a rranged i n t wo p aral le l c o lumns , a l low ing f or r enewa l o f c hem ica ls wh i le t he s ystem i si n u se ( f ig . V .14 ) . T he e nt ire s ystem i sf urther b acked u p b y f our f ul ly-charged 1 0l itre S CUBA t ank s wh ich a re c onnected t o af i lter s yste m , d own stream o f t he f i lters , f eed ing d irect ly i nto t he Hookah h ose man ifo ld .

T h is s upp ly c an s upport t he s ix d ivers i n

t he s yste m f or 4 0 m inutes a fter t he ma in c ompressor h as c eased o perat ion a nd b efore t he d ivers a re r equ ired t o o pen t he ir own b a i l-out t anks . B ut s i nce t he a irl i fts wou ld h ave b een o ut o f o perat ion s i nce l oss o f t he ma in c ompressor , t he d ive rs wou ld h ave l ong s i nce r eturned t o t he b arge . T he e nt ire Hookah s ystem i s p lumbed t hrough c heck v a lves . T hus a ir i n t h is s yste m c an v ent o n ly a t t he d iver 's r egu lator . A s n oted , t he a i r l ift s ystem a nd t he Hookah s yste m u se a c om mon a ir s upp ly , g reat ly s imp l ify ing l og ist ics a nd e qu ipment r equ irements . H owever , o n ly t he a i r wh ich e nters t he Hookah s yste m i sp ur if i ed . T h is b reath ing-a ir s ystem h as b een u sed f or f our s easons w ith v irtua l ly n o b reakdown . D ivers a re g iven a d ry b r ief ing i n t he u se o f t he s ystem d ur ing t he ir f i rst v is it t o t he e xcava t ion . A mock-up a i r s upp ly i su sed i n t h is b r ief ing s o t hat d ivers may a ctua l ly p ract ice t he h ook-up p rocedures . T he b r ief ing i sa cco mpan ied b y as l ide p resenta t ion wh ich d escr ibes t he s ystem i n d eta i l i n o rder t o b u i ld c onf id ence . T he u se o f aS CUBA-Hookah s yste m s o lves b oth a ir-supp ly a nd t raff ic p robl e ms , y et r equ ires o n ly o ne r egu la tor , t he o ne i n a ctua l u se a nd t hus u nder c ons tant o bservat ion . Wh i le t here a re o n ly s i x Hookah s tat ions , e ight Hookah t ank

2 62

Vi : Hookah S ys te m

u n its w ere u sed t h rough t he 1 983 s eason .

T h is a l lowed f or t wo s pa res i n c ase o f

e qu ipment f a i lure o r t he n eed t o r echarge a t ank . About 1 5 m inutes o f d own t ime was r equ ired f or a d ive t ea m t o c onc lude o perat ions , s w im t o t he b arge , t urn o ver t he u n it t o t he r e l ief t eam a nd h ave t h is n ew t eam r each t he s i te a nd b eg in worki ng . I n a ctua l p ract ice a f u l ly-charged t ank s erved f our t o f ive s h ifts , b e ing u sed a s SCUBA o n ly t o a nd f rom t he s i te . B eg inn ing w ith t he 1 984 s eason , 1 2 t ank u n its were p repared , a nd d ivers a ctua l ly c hanged s h ifts a t t he e xcavat ion s tat ions . The r esu lt was a l most c ont inuous e xcavat ion t hroughout t he e igh t- t o n ine-hour work d ay .

[ S .B . ]

V .J : S hal low-Water Excava t ion . A ir l ifts o f t he t ype a nd s ize u sed b y CAHEP a re i neffect ive i n s i tes l ess t han 5m d eep . Throughout t he 1 980 t o 1 986 s easons , h owever , s evera l s i tes i n d ep ths o f l ess t han 2 m r equ ired e xcavat ion a nd i nvest igat ion . T hese s i tes i nc luded t he Round T ower n ea r t he modern s horel ine i n t he I ntermed iate B as in ( A rea T 1 , T 2) , t he p ier i n t he p resent i nner h arbour , b u i lt o n C rusader f oundat ions ( Area Q ) , a nd t he Roman Wreck n orth o f t he ma in h a rbour ( Area Y ) . Not o n ly were t hese s i tes i n s ha l low water , b ut t hey a lso were r e mote f rom t he s upp ly o f c o mpressed a ir . A s a r esu lt , t hey were e xcavated w ith v entur i-operated d redges ( j et-pu mps ) . Th is s imp le t oo l p roduces a v acuum b y a cce lerat ing water f low t hrough a v entur i c onstruct ion i n ah or izonta l p ipe .

The more water d r iven t hrough t he v entur i , t he g reater

t he a cce lerat ion , p roduc ing a n e ven g rea ter v acuu m . F igure V .18 i s as che mat ic d iag ram o f t he t ype o f d redge u sed a t Caesa rea . Water i s i ntroduced t hrough t he n ozz le a t l eft a nd f lows t o t he r ight t hrough t he c onstr ict ion . An o pen ing i n t he p ipe i sc reated t o a l low f u rther water t o b e s ucked i n b y t he v acuu m c reated a s t he water f lows t h rough t he

c onstr ict ion .

The

CAHEP d redges u sed a f l ex h ose t o t rans late t h is s uct ion i n to a n e as i ly a pp l ied e xcavat ing d ev ice . F or e ase o f o perat ion , t he d redge u n it was u sualy f loa ted 1 -1 .5 m a bove t he s i te a nd a nchored i n p lace . The f lex h ose was u sed b y t he d iver t o e xcavate a ny a rea w ith in t he h ose 's r ange . I n t he c a se o f s ect ions i n A rea T where water d epth was l ess t han 0 .5 m , t he u n it wa s s imp ly p laced o n t he s ea-bottom a f ew metres f rom t he s i te . I n most c ases , CAHEP e xcavators were r equ ired t o r e move s and t o e xpose t he o b ject b e ing i nvest igated .

S and , b e ing a r e lat ive ly h eavy s ed iment ,

t ended t o s ett le o n t he b ottom h a lf o f t he e xhaust t ube a nd i mpede f low . T o p rev ent t h is p rob le m t he d redge was o r iented i n t he water s o t hat t he h ead was a nchored h igher t han t he e xhaust , s uch t hat g rav ity j o ined t he water f low i n movi ng t he s and t hrough a nd o ut o f t h is p ipe ( f ig . V .17) . One c onstra int o n t he d es ign o f t he d redge was t hat t he m in i mu m d ia meter o f t he v entur i c onstruct ion h ad t o e xceed t he max imum d ia meter o f a l l h oses p recedi ng i t i n t he s yste m . O therw ise t he d redge c ou ld s uck u p s tones a nd a rt ifacts wh ich wou ld b e s topped a t t he v entur i a nd b lock t he f low . A s i n t he a ir l ift s yst ems , a muzz le d ev ice was i nsta l led a t t he mouth o f t he s uct ion h ose t o r egu late

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP t he

2 63

max i mum s i ze o f o b jects a l lowed t o p ass t h rough t he d redge . T he u n its

d es igned f or u se a t Caesa rea w ere made o f s tee l a nd a lu m inum . T hese mater ia ls w ere c hosen b ecause o f t he ir r es istant q ua l it ies , wh ich a lowed t he d redges t o b e u sed i n d iff icu lt c ond it ions a nd t o b e l eft f rom d ay t o d ay a t t he e xcava t ion s i tes . S uch mater ia ls a re h eav ier t han p last ics , b ut t h is w e ight c an b e o vercome b y b uoys . The p r inc ipa l l og ist ica l p rob lem c reated b y d redges i s g enerat ion o f h ighp ressure water f low . CAHEP e xper i mented b oth w ith s hore-based a nd s ea-based p u mps . S hore-ba sed p u mps h ave t he a dvantage o f e ase o f o perat ion a nd t he a b i l ity t o u se l arge u n its t ha t c an s upp ly water t o s evera l d redges . T h is a rrangement was u sed i n A rea Q i n 1 982 . D isadvantages i nc lude t he p rob le ms o f h ose manage ment o ver l ong d istances ( o ften t hrough t he z one o f b reak ing waves ) .

CAHEP u ses o n ly

s ma l l r ubber b oats ( Zod iacs ) , a nd t hus a l l s ea-borne e qu ipment r equ irements must s u it t hese sma l l v esse ls .

I n t he c ase o f e xcavat ion u s ing d redges , aZ od iac was f i t-

t ed w ith a p ortab le f i re p ump ( 400 l i tres/m in . a t 8a tm ) , a nd t h is b oat , c o mp lete w ith a d redge , f ue l f or a f u l l d ay 's work , a long w ith a ir a nd d ivers ' e qu ipment , c ou ld b e s ent t o a ny s i te ( f ig . V .16 ) . F igure 1 1 .182 s hows a d redge e xpos ing t he r ib o f t he Roman Wreck a t C aesarea . [ S .Bd

V .K : D iver S uperv is ion a nd Sa fety . Dur ing s ix s ea sons o f u nderwater o perat ions , CAHEP d ivers h ave c arr ied o ut a i r l ift e xcavat ions o n t hree s i tes s imu ltaneous ly d ur ing e ach s ix-week s eason . A dd it iona l d ivers p erformed s evera l s urveys , a nd many d iv ing h ours were i nvested i n d raw ing , mea sur ing , a nd p hotograph ing . T o t h is must b e a dded t he d ives made f or s uperv is ion a nd e qu ipment r epa ir . A t a ny g iven t ime d ur ing a n 8 -10 h our worki ng d ay , f ro m 6 -16 d ivers c ou ld b e a ct ive . Add it iona l o ff-shore p ersonne l i nc luded ab a rge s uperv isor , s afety d iver , a nd b oat h and lers . T o c oord inate t h is a ct iv ity , a t wo-stage , o ver lapp ing s y stem o f t raff ic a nd d iver s uperv is ion wa s d eve loped . Genera l c ontro l o f a l l o perat ions was i n t he h ands o f t he S hore T raff ic S uperv i sor , g eneral ly a CAHEP s taff member , a ss isted b y v o lunteer p ersonne l . S ituated a t ac ontro l p o int a t t he CAHEP s hore b ase , t h is s uperv isor s chedu led a nd mon it ored a l l t raff ic t o a nd f rom s hore . T he S hore T raff ic L og n oted t he t ime o f p ers onne l l eav ing s hore b y a ny mean s ( i nc lud ing s w imm ing ) , o b ject ive a nd t ask , a nd t he t ime o f r eturn t o s hore ( f ig . V .19 ) . T o s imp l ify r ecord ing , t he b oat h and lers w ere l ogged i n b y s h ift , a nd t he a bsence o f e ach o perator 's b oat f rom t he b a se meant t hat t hat h and ler wa s o ff s hore . D iv ing t asks w ere a ss igned o n s hore , b efore d epartu re . However , a l l d ivers h ad t he ir a ctua l d ives ( s ite , p ro jected d epth , t ime i n , t ime o ut , b ottom t ime , a nd a ctua l d epth ) l ogged i n a nd c ontro l led b y t he B arge S uperv isor . E xcavat ion was b y n atu re c arr ied o ut n ear t he b a rge , a nd s uperv is ion wa s r ather s tra ightforwa rd ( f ig . V .20 ) . S urvey a ct iv ity c arr ied o ut more t han 2 00 m f rom t he b a rge r equ ired t he u se o f aZ od iac b oat a s as uperv isor 's c raft a nchored a bove t he s i te . I n t h is c ase , t he

2 64

V .K : D iver S uperv is ion

b oat , a fter l ogg ing o ff t he s hore , t rave l led t o t he b arge , where t he p roposed d ive was l ogged i n . A t t he c onc lus ion o f t he d ive , t he b oat r eturned t o s hore v ia t he b arge t o l og o ff t he d ive . T he S hore a nd B arge s uperv isors ma inta ined t wo-way r ad io c ontact t o c oord inate a ct iv it ies . T he b oats t rave l led i n p re-estab l ished r outes marked b y f loats wh ich b rought t he m t o t he b arge w ithout b e ing f ou led i n a nchor l i nes o r a i r-hoses . D iver u nderwater t raff ic r outes were e stab l ished t o c lose ly f o l low h ose a nd a nchor l i nes , r outes o ffl im its t o b oa ts . T he D iver D own F lag f lown f rom t he b a rge s erved t o p roh ib it a ccess t o a ny v esse l n ot i nvo lved i n t he e xped it ion . T he e xcavat ion o f t he R oman Wreck i n 1 983 , 1 984 , a nd 1 986 was c arr ied o ut i n ar e mote s i te 2 km n orth o f t he R oman h arbour a nd h ence o ut o f d irect c ontro l o f t he s uperv isors . I n 1 983 t h is e xcavat ion , i n 2m o f w a ter , was o rgan ized f ro m a s hore s i te c lose t o t he w reck , o ften w ithout a b oat . T he p ump s upp ly ing p ower t o t he d redg ing u n its was p laced o n s hore . D ivers w ere f err ied t o t he s i te o ver l and , a nd o perat ions were c ontrol led b y as uperv isor a t t he p ump s i te . Wh i le t wo-way r ad io e qu ipment wa s s upp l ied t o t h is s i te , i t was r endered l arge ly i neffect ive b y t he n o ise o f t he p ump e ng ine . I n 1 984 a nd 1 986 , a smaler p ump w as emp loyed o n t h is s i te , b e ing o perated f rom a Z od iac a nchored a bove t he e xcavat ion a rea . T h is p rocedure e l im inated t he ma jor p rob le m o f h ose manage ment f rom t he s hore .

I n t h is c ase , ac omp lete d ive

t eam l eft t he ma in b a se i n t he morn ing f u l ly f i tted o ut f or i ndependent o perat ions . T h is t eam was r e l ieved a nd/or s upp l ied w ith c y l inders t hroughout t he d ay b y a f erry s erv ice a ccord ing t o as chedu le , o r b y r equest r ece ived b y r ad io . A ga in t he p u mp n o ise l eft t he i n it iat ive f or r ad io c ommun icat ion i n t he h and s o f t he d ive t eam . Ca lm s eas a nd s ha l low water r esu lted i n l ong d ive s h ifts a t t h is s i te , o ften e xceed ing t wo h ours p er b uddy p a ir . F our d ivers c ou ld f i l l a n 8 -hour d ay . E qu ipment f a i lure o n t h is s i te g enera l ly c entred a round t he p ump , i n wh ich c ase t he t eam wou ld r a ise a nchor a nd r etu rn t o t he ma in b ase f or r epa irs . I S .B . ]

V .L : Organ izat ion o f Land Excavat ion . E xcavat ion o n l and b ecame i nev itab le o nce t he CMS work f or t he I EC e xposed t he l and locked I nner B as in n ear t he H erod ian t e mp le p od iu m ( Area I ; S ect ion I I .H ) , a nd t he CMS f i e ld s choo l i n 1 979 b egan s tudy o f t he p re-Herod ian q uay o n t he s ea-shore n ear t he s ynagogue ( Area J ; S ect ion M .O . I n t he f i rst e ase , i t was c lear t hat t he e astern q uay o f t he I nner B as in o f t he H erod ian h arbou r c ou ld b e s tud ied o n ly b y e xcavat ing o n l and i n a n a rea w h ich i s a t p resent a bout 1 00 m away f rom t he s horel ine .

I n t he c a se o f A rea J , i t b ecame a pparent a fter t he

1 979 s ea son t hat t here were c hances t o d ate t he q uay a nd t o u nderstand i t s o r ig in a l l ayout o n ly i f t he a rea b eh ind i t c ou ld b e e xcavated . Here , t oo , t here were l im itat ions , d ue t o t he f act t ha t t he l and s i te a d jacent t o t he q uay o n i t s s outh was e xcavated i n t he 1 950 's a nd e ar ly 1 960 's b y Hebrew Un ivers ity . T he r esu lts o f t hese e xcavat ion s w ere n ever f u l ly p ub l ished , y et we were n ot p erm itted t o p robe t he e xcavated a rea . T h is l e ft CAHEP w ith t he t anta l iz ing t a sk o f o pen ing t renches o n t he 1 5-20 m s tretch o f q uay wa l l , most o f wh ich y ie lded o n ly wave-d isturbed d epos its c onf ined b etween t he s ea a nd f ormer e xcavat ions .

Chapter V : O rgan izat ion o f CAHEP

2 65

A t h ird l and e xcavat ion was a ttempted a cross t he p romontory o n t he s outh s ide o f t he p resent h arbou r , a t t he p roposed s i te o f t he moat t hat o nce s epa rated t he C rusader Ha rbour C itade l f rom t he r est o f t he f ort if ied t own ( Area M ) . T he i dea was i n it iated b y t he I s rae l P ark s Author ity , wh ich s uggested t hat a t r ia l d ig m ight p rove t hat s uch a moa t was a ctua l ly o nce t here , a nd wou ld p rov ide a n o pportun ity t o r e-open i ta nd e xpose i t f or t he t our ists . F or CAHEP t h is t r ia l d ig wou ld c ontr ibute s ome d ata a s t o whether t h is moat wa s f i l led b y s ea-water a t t he t ime , a nd s ome e v idence f or s ea l eve l i n t he t h irteenth c entury ( Sect ion I I .L ) . The t r ia l e xcavat ions i n A rea M were c arr ied o ut f or a week d u r ing CAHEP 's 1 983 s eason . A mechan ica l b ackhoe was u sed f or c lea r ing t he r ecent d ebr is t hat f i l led t he moat , d own a lmost t o p resent MSL .

T he s ides o f t he t rench were d ug

manua l ly , a nd a lthough n o s trat if ied d epos its r ema ined , t he a rch itectura l me mbers o f t he e astern wa l l o f t he c i tade l a nd t he s outh f ace o f i t s n ortheast t ower were c arefu l ly c leaned b y h and a nd met icu lou s ly s tud ied b y t he a rch itects . An a d jacent e xcavat ion was c a rr ied o ut b y h and o n t he s outhwest e dge o f t he t rench , c lear ing t he t op l eve l o f t he o r ig ina l C rusader s tructure a nd c lar ify ing t he l a ter a dd it ions b y t he B osn ian s i n t he l a te n ineteenth c entury . T h is l and e xcavat ion i n A rea M was t he o n ly d ry o ne . T he o ther t wo A reas ( Ia nd J ) r eached l evels wh ich were e ither p ermanent ly s oaked w ith g round-water o r p er iod ica l ly i nundated f o l low ing t ida l c hanges . I n o rder t o f ac i l itate t he d ig , ad iese l p ump was o pera ted c on stant ly d uri ng t he work ing s ess ions . T he s ame p ump was u sed a l so d ur ing o ur 1 986-1987 s eas ons o f e xcavat ions i n A rea S ( Sect ion I I .Q ) , f or d ewater ing b oth p i ts t hat were c arr ied b e low s ea l eve l o n t he s outh s ide o f W 1a nd W 7 , wh i le c lear ing t he E ar ly I s lam ic c istern i n l ocus 2 08 , a nd f or t he p roper e xposure o f l ocus 2 24 a nd l ocus 2 26 . The p ortab le g aso l ine p ump t hat p owered t he d redge ( Sect ion V .J ) was a lso u sed i n l and e xcavat ion f or p ump ing water t hrough a f i rehose n ozz le t o s weep o ff wave-carr ied d epos its o f s and . T h is method p roved t o b e v ery e ff ic ient i n c lean ing t he a sh lar q uay i n A rea L a nd i t s s urround ing b ed-rock ( Sect ion I I .K) a nd t he wave-du mped s h ing le a nd s and f rom t he s u rface o f t he r a ised a bras ive p latform o f s and stone i n A rea J . T he s wep t s ed iments w ere p ushed b y t he water c urrent i n to t he n earby s ea , wh ich wa s u sed a s as ource f rom wh ich t o p ump water . A s pec ia l l and d ig , as er ies o f smal l-sca le p robes , wa s c a rr ied o ut i n t he 1 984 a nd 1 987 s ea sons i n s ide t he v au lt a t t he s outh e nd o f t he Herod ian t e mp le p od ium ( Area 1 3 ; S ect ion I I .H .3 ) . T h is i s t he o n ly CAHEP t rench s o f a r wh ich was n ot i ntended t o r ecover d a ta d irect ly i n t he mar it i me c ontext o f Caesarea 's h istory , b ut t o e luc idate t he c h rono logy o f t he c i ty-wa l l .

I n b oth t he 1 984 a nd 1 987 s ea-

s ons t he t wo p robes r eached t he g round-water a t t he b ottom o f t he p i ts , b ut n ot t o a n e xtent t hat d emanded p ump ing o ff t he water . T he t oo ls f or l and e xcavat ion w ere b orrowed f rom CMS a rchaeo log ica l s torage a nd f ro m t he Akko E xcavat ions P ro ject .

T he r out ine f o l lowed d ur ing t hese e xca-

v at ions was t hat t yp ica l o f a ny s trat igraph ie d ig o f B ib l ica l s i tes , t hough i n n o a rea was t here a b a s ic g r id o f 5x5 m s qua res . I n a l l l and s i tes t he e xcavat ions were c arr ied o ut among a lready e xposed w a l ls o r o ther a rch itectura l me mbers t hat were u sed f or d ef in ing l oc i . T he b as ic g r id f or s urvey ing wa s p lotted a nd p roj ected f rom t he g enera l s i te g r id b y t he a rch itects , w ith b enchmarks d es ignated

2 66

V .L : Land E xcava t ion

w ith in e ach a rea f or t ak ing mea surements o f d istances a nd e levat ions . T h is s yste m was a ccurate e nough f or p lott ing t he r e lat ive d ata w ith in e ach a rea , b ut t urned o ut b e b e u nsat isfactory when t he a rch itect a ttempted t o c omp i le a n a d ju sted p lan o f t wo o r more n e ighbour ing a reas . I n t hese e ases a r enewed s urvey was c a rr ied o ut w ith t heodo l ites a nd measur ing t apes . T he e xcavat ing t eams w ere manned i n t he e ar l ier s easons b y v o lunteer d ivers who h ad c o mp leted t he ir d ives f or t he d ay o r who h ad b een g rounded f or med ica l r easons . I t h as o n ly b een s ince CAHEP 's 1 986 f i e ld s eason t hat l and v o lunteers were r ecru ited e spec ia l ly f or t h is p art o f t he e xcavat ion .

Th rough a l l t he s easons

t here were p rofess iona l f ie ld s uperv isors i n c harge o f d irect ing t he e xcavat ion f or e ach a rea o f t he l and d ig , k eep ing d a i ly r ecords i n t he f i e ld d iary , l i st ing t he l oc i a nd wa ll s , r ecord ing mea surements a nd e levat ions , mark ing a nd r ecord ing t he p ott ery b a skets , a nd r eg ister ing s pec ia l f i nds . An a ttempt was made t o h ave a t ra ined a rch itect a ttached t o e ach f ie ld d ur ing t he e xcavat ions w ith t he a ss ignment o f p repar ing s ect ion d raw ings , p lott ing a rch itectura l f ea tures , a nd c omp i l ing t he f i rst d raft o f p lans , s ect ions , a nd v iews o f t he e xcavat ion d ur ing t he f ie ld s eason . I n t he 1 981 s ea son , A . R aban was i n c harge o f A rea J a nd was a ss isted b y S . S idebotham i n 1 982 . T he e xcava t ions i n A rea M ( 1983 ) w ere s uperv ised b y R aban w ith t he a ss istance o f S idebotham a nd R .L . V ann a s t he a rch itect . T he e xcavat ions i n A rea

I (1_2_3 )

were c a rr ied o ut b y t he s ame t eam i n 1 984 , w ith a g roup o f y oung

a rch itects f rom t he S choo l o f A rch itectu re a t t he U n ivers ity o f Mary land s ha r ing r espons ib i l it ies i n A reas

I i ,

1 2 , I 3a , a nd I 3b . A rea S was a l so s uperv ised b y R .

S t ieg l itz ( 1986 ) who was a ss isted b y D . S tronge a nd G . Moh r . A rea L was s uperv ised b y A . Raban a nd a rch itect R . Z iek ( 1986-1987 ) . [ A .R . ]

APPEND IX V .A : L IST OF CAHEP STAFF AND VOLUNTEERS , 1 979-1985 .

1 979 : J une 3 -15 . D irector :

A . Raban .

A ss istant D irectors : F acu lty A ss istant : Guests :

E . L inder , Y . T ur-Kaspa , S . B re itste in . E . S pan ier , S . A renson .

J .P . ( Meson , A . S herwood , J . B re iger .

S ecreta ry : A rch itects :

A . Rosentzwe ig . G . Kap lan , M . S neh .

I s rae l i V o lunteers :

A . A t id , S . T a l , E . Yem in i , Y . S chne ider , M . B en-Ha im , S . Ke i-

d ar , Gur-A r ieh . I s rae l i S tudents :

K . E lhanan i , R . Gertwagen , Y . S neh , A . B lau , E . Mahnaee , Y .

S ha lhav , R . Ta l l , Y . Ofer , H . Katz , D . T oppe l , B . B en-Ze 'ev , M . F roe l ich , T . P o l lack , S . I nbar , G . Z e l inger , R .

We issb loom , R . P o l lack , S . Ya 'anke lew itz ,

0 . Messer , S . Me irav , A . Adar , P . S chwartz , Y . Dayan , I . Kazarah , B . B enI tzhak .

1 980 : May 1 8-Ju ly 4 . D irector :

A . Raban .

Co-D irectors :

R .L . Hoh lfe lder , E . L inder .

A ss istant D irectors : P hotographer :

W .M . Murray , Y . T ur-Kaspa , S . B re itste in , M . A rtz i .

H . Wad sworth .

S ecretary :

Z . B en-Hor in .

A rch itect :

G . Kap lan .

I s rae l i V o lunteers :

Y . Mende lson , G . T ur-Kaspa , A . M i l lgrome , B . Nadav , S . S er-

l i ng , H . Goren , A . Gur , I . Koresh , 0 . Messer , Y . man , Z . F isher , A . K le in , D . Ga l l , N .

S ivan , Y . S chatz , D . F r ied-

L an iado , N . P a rag , Y . P arag , A .

E shko l i , L . Cert is , S . K le in , Y . Daube , Y . O feq , E . Ron , A . G intzburg , J . S ega l , A . V ered , I . Yan iv , N . Kot ler , H . Z evu lun , R . H i l ley , D . Go ldman , R . B erger , H . A razy , Y . Avn i , A . R oth , J . B erger , A . He iman , A . V ered , P . S adeh , G . P e led , Z . G id lman , D . P e leg , 0 . L inder , T . L inker , R . G ranoth , A . G ronow itz , D . K ipn is , E . K ipn is , G . B roockman , I . Gr inberg , D . P eretzman , Y . G i lboa , G . B ent ley , A . G reenste in , A . P r imber , A . F inkelste in , E . Ha lfon . I s rae l i S tudents :

E . Grosman , N . Raz-Sav ir , D . P undaq , S .

S e l iger , R . Rosenta l , R . Gertwagen , K . B irath i , R . P o l lack , R .

A . Raban .

Co-D irectors :

E lhanan i , S . K le in , E . Mahnaee , Y .

We isb loom , N . Karmon , Y . S neh , M . Ratner , U . Ga l-

1 981: May 2 3-Ju ly 1 0 . D irector :

Yan ' anke lew itz , G .

R .L . Hoh lfe lder , J .P . O leson . 267-

2 68

Append ix V .A : P ersonne l

A ss istant D irectors :

A . S herwood , Y . T ur-Kaspa , S . B re itste in , D . F r iedman , E .

L inder . P hotographer : A rch itects :

H . Wad sworth .

R .L . V ann , G . K ap lan , C . L oebenste in , V . Gureckas .

S ecreta ry :

H . B oneh .

F ore ign V o lunteers :

A .E . B erg , A .M . B orys , B . B r idgers , S . B urkhart , P .L . B urn s ,

M . Coo ley , D .A .

C a in , B . F ist , A .S . Gamson , D . I . Koh l , T .N . Ko ltun , L .G .

K ress ir , L . L as ley , M .S . L itt le , J . Mark s , R . Morste in-Marx , M . S eo l lar , B .J . Umbre it , J . Wank , S . Wank , A .M . Wa shburn , T .E . I s rae l i V o lunteers :

W ittenberg .

Y . S hatz , E . S herman , D . Z ahar ia , A . S hko ln ik , Z . F r iedmann ,

U . Gal l i l i , Z . B en-Hor in , Y . K antor , A . Gover , N . Yana i , K . E lhanan i , I . M ich l in , N . Reshef , G . S e l iger , R . L iefsh itz , P . P inkow itz , R . R osenta l , A . R on , D . P ertz man , A . P o l lack , M . Ha leen , A . S ha lon , Y . S hne ider , G . T urKaspa , A . S ofer , M . I nbar , 0 . Manor .

1 982 : May 2 3-Ju ly 2 . D irector :

A . R aban .

C o-D irectors :

R .L . Hoh lfe lder , J .P . O leson , R .L . V ann .

A ss istant D irectors :

A . S herwood ( Survey L ines ) , S . S idebotham ( Pottery a nd

Smal l F inds ) , S . B re itste in ( Operat ion s Manager a nd D iv ing O ff icer ) , Y . T ur-Kaspa ( F ie ld D irector a nd Underwater Gear ) , D . F r iedman ( E lectron ics a nd D iv ing Gear ) . UW P hotographer : A rch itects :

H . Wad sworth .

K . B ennett , P . Dessauer , S . Ma lmström , J . S ch ick , S . Ta laat , R . Z iek .

S ecretar ies :

Y . V agste in , Z . B en-Hor in .

F ore ign V o lunteers :

B . A rmstrong , A . B a ler , C . C onne l ly , M .J .

Coo ley , J . Dar-

i go , K . F loyd , S . F reedman , L . Gese lbraeh t , P . G i l l i land , J . H i l l , L . Honeyman , K . Kurtz , J . L ensehow , F . Mob ley , L . Og le , T . S h ie lds , W . S h ie lds , D . S inger , T . T rup in , A .M . Washburn . I s rae l i V o lunteers :

E . Ad ler , D . B ar , Y . B en-K ik i , B . B en-Ze 'ev , H . B onch , R . B ro-

d etzky , G . B roockman ,

K . E lhanan i ,

Z . F r iedmann ,

E .

F roomerman ,

E .

Ga l i l i , Y . Ga l i l i , A . Gann i , R . G ertwagen , H . Goren , J . Har lap , M . L andsb erg , 0 . L ang le ib , E . Maehna i , B . Marmel ste in , A . Me ita l , Y . Mendel son , 0 . Messer , I .M ich l in , I .M izrach , Y . O ffer , D . P eretz man , R . P o l lack , D . P und acq , R . Raban , M . R atner , 0 . Regev , G . Rosentha l , N . S hmue ly , R . Ta l l , A . T r ighr is , G . Tu r-Ka spa , N . T urka spa , S . Y oss ifonn , D . Z ahar ia .

1 983 : May 2 2-Ju ly 1 . D irector :

A . R aban .

C o-D irectors :

R .L . Hoh lfe lder , J .P . O leson , R .L . V ann .

A ss istant D irectors :

S . S idebotham ( F ie ld D irector ) , T . H il lard ( F ie ld D irector ) ,

R . Gertwagen ( F ie ld D irector ) , Y . Tu r-Kaspa ( F ie ld D irector a nd U nderwat er Gear ) , S . B re itste in ( Operat ions Manager ) , D . F r iedman ( E lectron ics a nd D iv ing Gear ) , T . G r iff iths ( D iv ing O ff icer ) , W .M . Murray ( F ie ld D irector ) , A . S herwood ( Survey L ines a nd U nderwater S urvey ) , W . F arrand a nd P . D av is ( Geo log ica l Consu ltants ) .

Chapter V : O rgan iza t ion A rch itects :

2 69

R . Z iek , S . Ma lmström , L . R eynafar je , S . T a laa t , J . S ch ick , P . D es -

s auer , K . B ennett , Z . F r iedmann . UW P hotographers :

H . Wadsworth , M . L itt le .

P ottery D raughtsmen : S ecreta ry :

K . S herwood , M . S idebotham , Z . F r iedmann .

R . L ub inevsky .

F ore ign V o lunteers :

K . Anderson , F . B aker , M . B aker , J . B a rnes , M . B arnes , P .

B assett i , J . C . B rader , C . B lou ir , A . C ohen , C . A . J .F . Cunn ingham , F . D ehn isch , A .M .

Conne l ly , M .J . Coo ley ,

D ehn isch , J .W . D ick ie , M . D ietz , D .P .

Dougherty , M . Du ffy , T . E ads , S .A . E dwards , D .J . F ie ld , K . F loyd , L . Ga l ins on , L .A . Gaunt , E .H . G ier inger , L . Go lden , K . Gurt ler , L . Hardw ick , S .E . Hester , J . L enschow , P . L os ikoff , P . Madsen , E . Ma rcus , J .A . Maseman , E . Montemayor , R .P . N e itze l , R . P assmore , M .J . P echacek , E . P r iester , K .G . Ra msay , L . R amsay , R . S churr , D . S iga let , J . S im mon s , D .M . S inger , M . S pratt , T . T rup in , C . T ryba , A . U nderwood , J . V an Heteren , J . V an V oast , C . Weather ley-Wh ite , R .C .A . Weather ley-Wh ite . I s rae l i V o lunteers :

D . A rnon , M . B ack , D . B ar , E . B e 'er i , B . B en-Ze 'ev , R . B rodny-

Gay , G . Dagan , 0 . D rore , D . D v ir , K . E lhanan i , Z . F r iedmann , Y . Ga lanty A . Gafn i , G . Go lany , N . Gordon , H . Goren , F . Hagay , Y . He i man , P . Hertz og , S . I s h-Sha lom , Y . K eshev , 0 . Markus , I .M ich l in , D . Ochanah , Y . O ffer , N . Qo lodn i , Y . P erry , R . R aban , D . R apoport , M . R od in , A . R on , G . R osent ha l , Y . S chne ider , G . S hahaf , Y . T eneh , G . T ur-Kaspa , S . Yoss ifon , D . Z ahar ia , Y . Z e itun i .

1 984 : May 2 1-June 3 0 . D irector :

A . R aban .

Co-D irectors :

R .L . Hoh lfe lder , J .P . O leson , R .L . V ann .

A ss istant D irectors :

S . S idebotham ( F ie ld D irector ) , T .

H il lard ( F ie ld D irector ) ,

R . Gertwagen ( F ie ld D irector ) , Y . T ur-Kaspa ( F ie ld D irector a nd Underwat er Gear ) , A . S herwood ( Survey L ines a nd Underwa ter S urvey ) , J . B ower ( Area S uperv isor ) , S . B re itste in ( Operat ions Manager ) , M . F itzgera ld ( Area S uperv isor ) . UW P hotographers : UW T echn ic ians : A rch itects :

H . Wadsworth , M . L itt le .

D . F r iedman , E . Marcus .

S .A . G iannett i , A . Hoad ley , C . L ink ins , S . T a laat .

P ottery D raugh tsmen : F ore ign V o lunteers :

K . S herwood , M . S idebotham , Z . F r iedmann . R . Abraham , A .J . Auch , C . B aker , D .

M .Y . B eckw ith , J an . B ower , J en . B ower , S .M . C lark , A lb . Cohen , A l i . Cohen , M .J .

B a rrett , K . B arth ,

Cameron , L . C ansda le , P .

C oo ley , J .J . C ron in , T . C ron in , M .

Dabrowsk i , G .P . D ietz , M .C . D ietz , M . Duffy , D . F loh r , M . F lohr , M .L . Ga lb ra ith , L .

Go ldste in , R . I . Good , C . G ray , K . I i zuka , J . Kozek , L . K reutzer ,

T .C . Kuff ler , M .W . K ushnet , E .

Ma rcus , J .A . Ma se man , F .G . Mohr , M .G .

P awer , K . S impson , F .E . T ob in , R .F . T ousey , M . V an A lst ine , J . V an V oast , L . V ann , M . We isz . I s rae l i

V o lunteers :

E .

Ad ler ,

D .

B ar ,

H .

B oneh ,

N .

B rooks ,

Y .

Ca rme l ,

S .

D rausch t , K . E lhanan i , Y . Ga lanty , U . Ga l l l i , G . Gal l , N . Gordon , H . Goren , I . G reenberg ,

M .

L andsberg ,

0 .

L ang le ib ,

Y .

Mende lson ,

I . M ich l in ,

I .

M izrach , Y . N evet , D . O chana , R . O renbooch , N . P o lack , R . R aban , D .

2 70

Append ix V .A : P ersonne l Rapoport , A . Ron , A . Roth ledge , Y . S chne ider , U . S e la , Y . S hap ira , S . S hapk aro , N . Tur-Ka spa , N . Yogev .

1 985 ( Study S eason ) : J une 3 -29 . D irector :

A . Raban .

Co-D irectors :

R .L . Hoh lfe lder , J .P . O leson , R .L . V ann .

A ss istant D irectors :

S . S idebotham ( Pottery a nd Sma l l F ind s ) , A . S herwood ( Pot-

t ery ) , M . F itzgera ld ( Wreck i n A rea Y ) , Y . T ur-Kaspa a nd S . B re itste in ( Underwater S urvey , P robes , a nd S ect ion L ines ) . P hotographer :

M . L itt le .

P ottery D raughtsmen : P ottery R estorer :

K . S herwood , Z . F r iedmann .

N . Co lumbus .

CHAPTER W: SU M MARY D ISCUSS ION

T he f o l low ing s um mary i si n tended t o b e ac onc ise , p rov is iona l a na lys is o f t he f acts p resented i n d eta i l i n t he p rev ious c hapers . I ti sp rov is iona l i n t he s ense t hat i td oes n ot a ttempt a c omp lete r econstruct ion o f t he v ar ious f eatures o f Caesare a 's h a rbours , t he ir o r ig ina l f unct ion , a nd t he manner a nd s equence o f i t s c ons t ruct ion .

S uch a r econstruct ion w i l l b e p resented , t ogether w ith a c omparat ive

a nd h i stor ica l s tudy , i n V o lumes I IIV o f t he CAHEP r eport . T he f o l low ing p ages a re i n tended t o d raw t ogether i n as umma ry way d educt ion s c oncern ing t he ma in h arbours o f Caesarea t h rough t he a ges , b ased o n t he d a ta c o l lected i n t he f i e ld t o d ate b y CAHEP a nd o ther p ro jects . T he c onc lu s ions s uggested s hou ld b e c ons ide red t entat ive , b ut f or t he most p art t hey a re b ased o n r esearch a nd a na lys is c arr i ed o ut b y a l l f our CAHEP c o-d irectors a nd b y s ome o f t he o ther c ontr ibutors t o t h is v o lu me . I n s ome i n stances t hey r epresent t he p ersona l o p in ion o f t he a uthor r ather t han t he c o l lect ive o p in ion o f t he CAHEP c o-d irectors . T hese d ifferences i n i n terpretat ion w i l l b e d i scussed i n d eta i l i n V o lume I V .

We h ope t o b e a b le b oth

t o b etter s ubstant iate s ome o f t hese s uppos it ions a nd t o b r ing f orward a l ternat ives a s a dd it iona l d ata a re r ecovered a nd s tud ied i n f uture CAHEP f i e ld-work . We a lso h ope t hat t he a dd it iona l s tud ies o f C aesarea a nd o ther h arbours o f t he e ar ly R oman Emp ire w i l l h e lp t he s cho lars o f f uture g enerat ion s t o c orrect o ur s hortc om ings a nd a ny p oss ib le m is interpretat ion o f t he f acts we h ave b efore u s a t t he p resent t ime .

V I .A . S tra ton 's T ower . T he h istor ica l d ocuments a re e xp l ic it a bout t he e x istence o f a He l len ist ic t own c a l led S traton 's T ower ( Stratonos P yrgos ) a t t he l ater s i te o f Caesarea s ince a t l east t he m id-th ird c entury B .C . ( Ro l ler 1 983 ; R aban 1 987) .

T here a re n o h is-

t or ica l o r a rchaeo log ica l d ata t o d irect ly s ubstant iate t he c om mon n ot ion t hat i t was f ounded b y P hoen ic ian s f rom S idon i n t he f i fth c entu ry . T h is t own h ad a n a nchorage i n wh ich t he P to le ma ic o ff ic ia l Z enon l anded a round 2 58 B .C . ( Abe l 1 923 ) , a nd t oward t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury B .C . t he t own h ad b ecome a t rue s trongho ld f or t he l oca l t yrant Z o i los . L ater J ew ish t rad it ion r eca l led i t a t t h is p er iod a s a" peg , s tocked am id I s rae l" ( Lev ine 1 974 ) .

A lexander J annaeus f a i led i n

h i s a tte mpts t o c onquer t he c ity b y f orce , b ut e ventua l ly S traton 's T ower was g iven t o t he Ha smonean k ing b y P to lemy L athy ros a round 1 00 B .C . T he c ity was s ubsequent ly g iven b ack t o i t s o r ig ina l " Greek" i nhab itants b y P ompey i n 6 3 B .C . , a nd t h irty y ea rs l ater S trabo ment ions t hat i t h ad a n a nchorage . About t h is t ime , H erod r ega ined most o f t he c oastl ine f or J udaea , i nc lud ing t he s i te o f S traton 's T ower , wh ich J osephus r eferred t o n ot o n ly a s

2 71-

" much d ecayed" ( pö l in k ämnousan )

2 72

V I .A : S traton 's T ower

( BJ 1 .408 ) , b ut a l so a s " su itab le f or t he f oundat ion o f ac i ty" ( AJ 1 5 .331) .4 T he o ld n ame o f S traton 's T ower r ema ined i n u se l ong a fter t he e stab l ishment o f Caes a rea , d own t o t he Med ieva l p er iod ( R inge l 1 975 : 8 3-84 ) . I n J ew ish t rad it ion , t he c ity wa l ls o f t he f ormer t own were r eferred t o a s t he b ounda ry o f t he H o ly L and f or p ract ica l h a lach ic p u rposes . T he b u lk o f t he p re-Herod ian f i nd s a t C aesarea c ome f rom t he e xcavat ions n ear t he s hore n orth o f t he C rusader c i ty , j ust s outh a nd S E o f CAHEP 's A rea J , a nd f rom F ie ld G o f t he J ECM ( Negev 1 967 : 9 -13 ; R ol ler 1 983 ) . I n b oth s i tes , a nd i n A rea J , most o f t he d a tab le p ottery i so f t he s econd h a lf o f t he s econd c entury B .C . B e ing we l l w ith in t he u rban a rea o f Herod ian Caesa rea , a bout h a lf-way b etween t he a nc ient s ewer o ut let t o t he n orth a nd t he N orthern B reakwater o f S ebastos t o t he s outh , t he g enera l l ocat ion o f t hese f i nds f i ts t he h i stor ica l a ccount o f t he l ocat ion o f S traton 's T ower .

W ith in t h is a rea t here a re f ive s truc-

t ura l u n its t hat a re c ons idered t o b e p re-Herod ian : 1 .A r ectangu lar c ourtyard-house o f a sh lar wa l ls ,

ma in ly h eaders , i n Av i-

Yonah 's A rea A , j ust west o f t he s ynagogue a nd n ext t o CAHEP 's A rea J . I t s f ound at ion ,

a t

2 .8

m a bove

MSL ,

r ested

o n

s ter i le

s o i l

( Av i-Yonah

1 956a :

2 60 ;

Av i-Yonah & Negev 1 963a : 1 46-47 ) . 2 . A q uay , b u i lt o f l ong a sh la r h eaders , o bserved a t t he e dge o f t he water i n CAHEP 's A rea J ( Sect ion M .O .

T he c urved l i ne o f t h is 4 .0

m w ide p latform

e xc ludes t he p oss ib i l ity t hat i t wa s t he l ower p art o f ab u i ld ing , a nd t he l ower c ourses o n i t s s ea s ide s how t hat i t was n ot a s t reet .

T he o ver ly ing a sh la r wa l l

w ith i t s g rooves f or d oveta i l c lamps i s Herod ian i n d ate . T h is d ate a ss igns t he q uay i t se lf t o a n e ven e ar l ier p ha se . S ty l ist ica l ly t h is q uay h a s i t s b est p ara l le ls a t Ty re a nd a t Akko , i n P hoen ic ian h arbour works o f t he P ers ian a nd H e l len ist ic p er iod s . T he p henomenon o f i nund ated s tructures b e ing p reserved o n ly u p t o p resent s ea l eve l i s c om mon i n t he Med iterranean , b ut t he o ver ly ing a sh lar wal l was l a id d irect ly o n t op o f t h is l eve l , s o t he e xtant s urface may b e t he o r ig ina l o ne . A s egment o f t h is q uay e a . 1 8 m l ong h as s urv ived . I t m ight o r ig ina l ly h ave b een l onger , f or t he s horel ine e ast o f i t s e ntrance e nd i s marked ly e roded . T here a re n o i n tact t races a t t h is p o int o f e ven t he l a ter , more mass ive B yzant ine s eawal l .

T he e ros ion o f t he c oast a t t he i nner , s outhea stern p art o f t he b ay i s we l l

a ttested b y t he r eg ress ion o f t he c oasta l c l iff , t umb led s tructures , t he m iss ing western e nd o f t he n orthern c i ty wal l , a nd t he f act t hat a p aved B yzant ine s treet t hat o nce r an a long t he s hore i s n ow c ut o ff b y t he r etreat ing c l iff ( s ee a l so N ir 1 985 f or t he d estruct ion o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct a long t h is s egment o f t he c oa st ) . 3 . A s er ies o f t hree b a s in s c ut d own i n to t he b ed-rock o f a n o lder , u p l ifted a bras ive p latform w ere f ound t o b e f i l led w ith s econd-century B .C . p ottery . Th is f i l l was d umped t here s omet ime i n t he l a tter p art o f t he s econd c entury B .C . , y et i ti sn ot t he l atest p re-Herod ian p hase i n t hat s i te . On t op o f t he f i l l i n t he s outhe rnmost b as in o f t he t h ree , a n a sh lar wa l l was l a id ( W 3 2 i n A rea J 3) w ith a n a d jac ent f l oor o n wh ich L ate H e l len ist ic s herd s w ere f ound . 4

F or t he t ext o f J osephus ' d escr ipt ions o f t he c i ty a nd h arbour o f C aesarea r eferred t o t hroughout t h is c hapter , s ee Append ix I .A .

Chapter V I : S umma ry D iscuss ion

2 73

The r ock-cut b a s ins w ere c onnected t o e ach o ther b y h o les t h rough t he p art it i on wa l ls , i nd icat ing t ha t t he b as ins were f ash ioned t o c onta in water a nd t o d ra in i n to t he n earby s ea . R emnants o f p laster o n t he f l oors o f t hese c hambers may i nd icate t hat t he ir f loors a nd s ide wa l ls ( a v ery p orous s andstone ) were s ea led t o make t he m waterproof . Whether t hese b a s in s w ere a ssoc iated w ith a f i shery o r f i sh-pack ing s hop c annot b e d eterm ined . T he c orpu s o f d oub le h o le-mouth j ars a nd o f c ook ing p ots t end t o s upport t he a ssumpt ion t hat t he ir o r ig ina l f unct ion was s ome i ndustr ia l p rocess t ha t i nc luded s oak ing , c ook ing a nd p ack ing . T he e levat ion o f t he b as in 's f l oors a nd t he d ra in ing h o les s uggest t hat , a t t he t ime t h is u n it was f unct ion ing , t he s ea l eve l was a t l ea st 0 .3 m l ower t han t he p resent MSL . 4 . A c orner o f a n a sh la r b u i ld ing , o f wh ich o n ly t wo c ourses h ave s urv ived , was e xposed a t t he e astern e nd o f Negev 's t rench D , a bout 5 0 m e ast o f t he s ynagogue . I t was f ound t o b e c overed b y ah eap o f s herds o f t he t h ird o r s econd c entur ies B .C .

( Av i-Yonah & Negev 1 963a : 1 48 ) . T h is c orner was b u i lt o f a sh lars i n a n a lter-

n at ing o rder o f t wo s tretchers a nd a h eader , a nd t he r est o f t he s tructure m ight h ave b een p lundered b y Herod 's workers , t o b e u sed a s b u i ld ing mater ia ls i n h is n ew c ity ( Negev 1 967 : 1 2-13 ) . 5 . One o f t he most c ontrovers ia l i s sues o f Caesarea 's a nc ient t opography i s t hat o f t he d ate o f t he n orth wa l l a nd i t s t owers , wh ich were e xcavated b y t he I ta l ian M iss ion ( Frova e t a l . 1 965 : 2 47-92) . T h is c omp lex was d ated b y i t s e xcavat ors t o t he H erod ian p er iod , a l though t he e v idence i s f ar f rom b e ing g enera l ly a ccepted ( Lev ine 1 975b : 9 -13 ; Negev 1 966b : 3 43-44 ; R inge l 1 975 : 7 6-77 ; Raban 1 987) . I n o rder t o t est t he t heory h e ld b y many I s rae l i s cho lars t hat t h is c o mp lex d ates t o t he He l len ist ic e ra , t he J EC M c a rr ied o ut a p robe ( G 8 ) o n t he e xterna l s ide o f t hat wa l l , a t i t s s outheastern e xtens ion . F rom t he d ata r ecovered f ro m t hat p robe , t hey d educed t hat t he wa l l wa s b u i lt s omet i me b etween 1 20 B .C . a nd t he e nd o f t he p re-Chr ist ian e ra ( B lake ly 1 984 ; Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 8 2 ; a nd i n a p aper p resented a t as ympos ium h e ld i n Wa sh ing ton , 2 7 .3 .88 ) . I t h as b een a rgued e l sewhere i n t h is v o lume ( Sect ions I I .H .3 , R .1 ) t hat t he d ata r ecovered f rom t he p robes a nd t he a rch itectura l s u rvey o f t he P od ium V au lt ( Area 1 3 ) a re s ubstant ia l e nough t o a ttest a p re-Herod ian d ate f or t he s outhern a nd e astern wa ll s o f t hat s t ructure . T he r ese mb lance b etween t hese wa l ls a nd t he i nner f ace o f t he n orth c i ty wa l l i n t he o rder o f t he b locks w ith in e ach c ourse , t he ir d i mens ions , a nd t he d raft ing o f t he e dges , s uggest a L ate He l len ist ic d ate f or i t a s wel l . I n f act , t he n orth wa l l h ad a l ong l i fe , a nd i t wa s f ixed , r ebu i lt , a nd i n s ome p hases , a l tered more t han o nce . I n s u m mary , CAHEP 's f i e ld-work a nd o ther d ata g athered i n t he f i e ld s uggest t hat t he n orth wa l l a nd t he s outhern a nd e astern wa l ls o f t he P od ium V au lt a re t wo s egments o f t he s ame o r ig ina l u n it : t he c i ty wal l o f S traton 's T ower ( Ho lum e t a l . 1 988 : 4 3-53 ) . On t he b as is o f h i stor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l d ata , we s uggest t hat t h is c i ty wa l l wa s b u i lt l a te i n t he s econd c entury B .C . , p robab ly a t t he t ime Z o i los made S traton 's T ower h i s s trongho ld a nd c ap ita l .

T h is wa l l may h ave b een

i ncorporated w ith in t he ma ster p lan o f t he Herod ian c i ty , p oss ib ly w ith t he f unct i on o f ad iv id ing l i ne b etween t he mun ic ipa l ity o f C aesarea o uts ide t he wa l l a nd o f t he Roya l Empor ium S ebastos w ith in . S uch a n a dm in istrat ive d iv is ion i s k nown f rom o ther c i t ies , e spec ia l ly t hose w ith r oya l h arbours , where t he t axat ion , c us-

2 74

V I .A : S traton 's T ower

t oms , a nd o ther a dm in istrat ive r equ ire ments c a l led f or a d iv is ion b etween t he u rban u n it a nd t he a d jacent r oya l e nterpr ise , t he F ree P ort o r Empor ium ( see B lackman 1 982 : 1 94-96 ) . T he n ext e le ment t hat m ight h ave f ormed p a r t o f t he H el len ist ic c o mp lex o f S traton 's T ower i sf arther s outh . I ti st he Round T ower t hat was f ound s ubmerged u nder l ess t han 1 m o f water a t t he b ack o f t he I n termed iate B as in ( Sect ion 1 1 .1 1 .1 ) . T h is t ower i s s im i lar i n d imens ions a nd s t ructura l d eta ils t o t he r ound t owers o f t he n orth wa l l ( e spec ia l ly t o t he l ower f ou r c ourses o f t he e a stern a nd b etter-preserved t ower ) . T he d ata p roduced b y t he CAHEP e xcavat ions i nd icate t hat t he s ubmerged t ower was t he s outhwestern t erm inu s o f af ort if ica t ion l i ne , w ith a n o pen ing o n i t s s outh s ide b etween i t a nd t he n atura l p romontory o f t he l ater Harbour C itade l .

T h is 5 0 m w ide o pen ing h a s a t p resent a water d epth o f

2 .2-2 .5 m , d own t o b ed-rock . E st i mat ing t he He l len ist ic s ea l eve l t o h ave b een a bout 0 .3 m l ower t han t he p resent o ne , t h is c hanne l p robab ly s t il l h ad a bout 2 m

o f water a t t hat t ime . I t i sl og ica l t o a ssume t hat t he western c ont inuat ion o f t he s outh wa l l i n t he P od ium V au lt ( Area 1 3 ) wou ld h ave b een o n t he p romontory , embrac ing t he I nner B as in w ith in i t s c onf inement . I n t hat c ase , t he o pen ing wou ld h ave l ed i n to t he l ee o f t he b ay , t o t he p resent ly s i lted a rea o n t he e ast . About 1 20 m away i n t hat d irect ion w ere f ound t he q uay a nd moor ing s tone o f A rea ( Sect ion I I .H .1) . I n f act , n o i t ems f ound t here d ate e ar l ier t han t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i rst c entu ry A .C . , b ut t he d eepest p robe i n A rea

I

wa s v ery sma l l , a nd a t a

p o int where t he b a se , t he q uarr ied b ed-rock , s l opes s teep ly westward . One wou ld e xpect t o f ind t he e ar l iest r ema ins d eeper a nd f arther t o t he west . A lthough we h ave n o d ata f or d at ing t he p resent ly l and locked q uay , we s t i l l h ave i t s o r ientat ion a nd t opograph ic l ayout t o s uggest a c onnect ion w ith t he s outh wa l l a nd w ith t he R ound T ower t o t he west . I n s um ma ry , a t t he t ime o f Z o i los , t he o pen ing b etween t he Round T ower a nd t he p ro montory may h ave b een t he e ntrance t o ar ock-cut I nner Ha rbour B as in t hat measured a bout 1 20 m o n a n E SE-WNW a x is a nd a bout 4 5 m o n a NNE-SSW a x is . T h is b as in wou ld h ave b een l i ned o n t he o uts ide b y t he i nner f ace o f t he c ity wa l ls o f t he s outhern p art o f S traton 's T ower . Another b as in , i n t he n orth , was d ef ined a t i t s s outhern , i nnermost p a rt b y t he q uay i n A rea J , h av ing t he b u i lt-up a rea o f S traton 's T ower a long i t s s outhern a nd e astern s hores . T he n orth wa l l t hat o r ig ina l ly c ont inued f arther west i n to t he n ow i nundated a rea m ight h ave p rot ected t he e astern f lank o f i t s n orthern e ntrance , wh i le t he s er ies o f r eefs o ff s hore f unct ioned a s an atura l b reakwater o n i t s west s ide . T hese r eefs , wh ich e ven n ow p rov ide g ood s he lter o n t he ir l ee , w ere l e ss f ragmentary i n a nc ient t imes a nd wou ld h ave g iven much b etter p rotect ion t o t h is n a tura l a nchorage o f S traton 's T ower . I t i s p oss ib le t hat t h is n atura l h aven wa s t he t opog raph ic f eature t hat a ttracted t he o r ig ina l s ett lement .

A t p resent , t h is b as in h a s a m in ima l water

d epth a nd i s a lmost f i l led w ith b u i ld ing mater ia ls e roded f rom t he n earby s horel i ne . T he r eefs o n i t s s eawa rd s ide h ave t rapped t he d ebr is i n t he b as in .

[ A .R . ]

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 75

V l .B : The I nner B as in . I t was s uggested a bove t hat t he I nner B as in o f S ebastos wa s p robab ly t he a rt if i c ia l , r ock-cut i nner h arbour o f t he He l len ist ic t own , y et t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata i nd icate t hat i t wa s i n u se a s s uch a t l ea st t o t he t ime o f V espas ian . A s ac ompon ent i n t he Herod ian h arbou r , S eba stos , t h is p rotected b as in m ight b e i n tended b y J osephus i n h is ment ion o f d eep a nchorages ( bathe is h ormous ) i n t he i nner p art o f t he h arbour ( R I 1 .410 ) . O n ly a bout 1 2 m o f t he e astern q uay o f t h is I nner B as in were e xposed d ur ing CAHEP f ie ld-work . T h is s egment i s n ow a bout 1 00 m i n land f rom t he p ub l ic b each a nd v ery p robab ly r epresents t he n orthern e nd o f aq uay t hat was o r ig ina l ly 4 5-47 m l ong o n a NNE-SSW a x is . I t s eems l i ke ly t hat d ur ing t he Herod ian p er iod a n a dd it iona l p avement o f r ectangu lar s tone s labs was l a id a long i t s e dge , r a is ing t he s urface o f t he q uay t o a n e levat ion o f a bout 1 .4 m a bove p resent s ea l eve l d ur ing t he l a test s tage a t wh ich i t was i n u se . T he u ppermost l i ne o f mar ine i ncrustat ion wa s e a . 0 .3 m h igher t han t he p resent MSL . G iven t hese c ircu mstances , t he h o le i n t he moor ing s tone wou ld h ave b een o n ly c a . 0 .5 m a bove t he water a nd wou ld h ave b een f i t f or moor ing o n ly sma l l b oats r ather t han s ea-go ing v esse ls . T he wa ter d epth a t t he f ace o f t he q uay d ur ing t he Herod ian p er iod was e a . 1 .4 m , t oo s ha l low f or l arge s ea-go ing s h ips . Neverthe less , t he r ocky b ottom s lopes d own q u ite s teep ly away f rom t he q uay , westward . A t ad ist ance o f 2m f rom t he wa l l , t he d ep th i sa lmost 1 .8 m , a nd i ti sp oss ib le t hat s h ips o f c ons iderab le s ize c ou ld h ave b een moored w ith t he ir p rows o ver t he t op o f t he q uay , i n t he manner d ep icted i n n umerous Roman b a s-re l iefs ( B lack man 1 982 : 8 0 , 9 2 , f ig . 2 ) . I n a ny e ase , w e d o k now t hat t he d epth o f t he water a t t he e ntrance t o t h is b a s in was a bout 2 m a t t he s ame p er iod , d eep e nough f or a med ium-s ized merchantman . I f s uch v esse ls e ver moored i n t he I nner B as in , t hey wou ld h ave b een t owed t o t he ir b erths b y t ow ing b oats . T he a bsence o f a dd it iona l moor ing s tones a long t he e xposed s t retch o f t he q uay i s p uzz l ing . I f b oats o r s h ips were moored a ga inst t he q uay w ith t he ir p rows o r s terns t oward i t , o ne wou ld e xpect moor ing d ev ices t o b e o n ly 3 -4 m a pa rt ( a lthough i n t he T ra jan ie b as in a t O st ia , t hey were p laced a t r egu lar i n terva l s o f 1 4-15 m ; B lackman 1 982 :

2 03 a nd n . 1 00) .

I fs h ips were moored b road s ide , t he d epth wou ld h ave b een s uff ic ient f or o n ly f latb ottomed b arges o r sma l l b oats . I t i s p oss ib le t hat e i ther t he I nner B a s in wa s u sed f or l i ghters a nd h arbour b arges t hat moved c argos t o a nd f rom s ea-go ing v esse ls a t a nchor o uts ide t he h arb our o r i n t he c entre o f i t s g reat O uter B as in , o r t he o ther moor ing s tones were r emoved .

They may h ave b een t r im med o ff when t he a rea was r efu rb ished a s a

f resh water b as in i n t he L ate B yzant ine e ra . T he s urv iv ing moor ing s tone may h ave e scaped s uch a f ate b ecause i t was u sed t o a nchor a wa ter p ipe i n t hat B yzant ine i nsta l lat ion . F rom t he d ata p resent ly a va i lab le , i t i s i mposs ib le t o r econstruct t he a rch it ectura l a rrangement l i nk ing t he q uay w ith t he n earby s tructures .

N egev 's s ugges-

t ion t hat t he mass ive s tructure t o t he e ast was o nce a s ta irca se t hat l ed u p t o t he t op o f t he a rt if ic ia l p od ium ( Negev 1 967 : 2 7-30) i s i n tr igu ing , b ut i n i t s p resent s tate t h is s tructure i st he p roduct o f r epeated r emode l ing d own t o t he E ar ly A rab p er iod . I f i ndeed i t was o nce a s ta irca se , i t was l ater r eshaped i n a manner t hat l ooks l i ke a f oun ta in h ouse o r aN ymphaeum . I t may h ave f ormed p art o f t he p ubl i c c omp lex wh ich a s ix th-cen tury i n scr ipt ion r efers t o a s t he Hadr ianeum ( Lev ine

2 76

V I .B : I nner B as in

1 975b : 2 1 , n . 1 46 ; Av i-Yonah 1 970 ) . [ A .R . ]

VLC : The I ntermed ia te B as in . The I n termed iate B as in o f S ebastos i s more o r l ess t he a rea o f t he p resent a nchorage a t Caesarea . On t he e ast s i de i t was s eparated f rom t he smal ler I nner Ba s in b y as ea-wal l ( poss ib ly o f Hel len ist ic d ate ) wh ich t erm inated a t i t s s outh t i p w ith t he Round T ower . T he 5 0 m g ap b etween t h is p resent ly s ubmerged t ower a nd t he s outh p romontory was t he e ntrance f rom t he I n termed iate t o t he I nner B a s in . On ly t he l ower c ourses o f t h is s ea-wa l l h ave s urv ived , i n l e ss t han 1 m o f wa ter a nd i n a n a rea wh ich i sa t p resent e xtens ive ly c overed b y d ebr is h eav i ly i ncrusted b y ma r ine f auna . A s ar esu lt , t he d eta i ls o f i t s s t ructure h ave n ot y et b een s tudi ed . T he western s ect ion o f t h is p roposed I n termed iate B a s in i s west o f t he f au lt l i ne t hat c aused s ubmergence o f t he ma jor p art o f t he h arbour . I f t he S unken P avement i n A rea F i st he r emnant o f ap ier t ha t p ro jected i n to t he h arbour f ro m t he S outhern B reakwa ter , t he western e dge o f t he I n termed iate B a s in m igh t b e r econstructed s ome 5 0 m w est o f t he modern mo le , j u st o n t he N -S l i ne o f t he o r ig ina l t ip o f t he r ocky p romontory p r ior t o t he s ubs idence o f i t s westernmost s egment .

No r ema ins h ave b een f ound t o i nd icate t hat t here wa s as im i la r p ier

p ro ject ing s outh f rom t he N orthern B reakwater . T he e nt ire n orthern h a lf o f t he I n termed iate B a s in i sn ow f i l led i n w ith c arbonate-cemented d ebr is , a nd t here a re s ome g eomorpho log ica l i nd icat ions t hat t he p rocess h ad b egun a lready i n t he L ate R o man p er iod ( see b e low ) . T he a rea t o t he s outh o f t he b ase o f t he Northern B reakwater i s d issected b y f ragmented , r ocky r eefs . Hav ing b een s ub jected t o e xtens ive wave e ros ion , n oth ing c an b e t raced t hat

m ight i nd icate where t he

waterl ine was d ur ing t he H erod ian p er iod , a nd w hat s tructures were t here a t t he t ime . J ust t o t he s outh , a bout 2 50 m n orth o f t he s outhern p romontory , a nd n orth o f t he p resent a nchorage , t here i s ar ocky p ro ject ion w ith i t s n orthern e dge a t waterl eve l . T h is r ocky p latform i sc onnected t o t he l and b y a modern p ier b u i lt i n 1 961 . T he p ier i s n ow i n ab ad s tate o f d isrepa ir , b ut i ts eems t o h ave a ltered t he c urr ents c reated b y t he w inter s torms i n s uch a way t hat t he s hore n orth o f i t i s r etreat ing , wh i le a p rotect ive s andy b each h as f ormed o n t he s outh ( f ig . 1 . 37 ) . T here a re i nd icat ions t hat t h is r ocky t ongue h a s e x isted s i nce a t l east t he L ate R oman e ra , a nd t ha t a t t hat t ime i t d iverted t he c u rrent much a s i t d oes a t p resent . T h is h ypothes is i ss upported b y t he p resence o f ac rescent-shaped f ormat i on o f b each-rock o n i t s s outh s ide wh ich c overed t he Herod ian P ier a nd Quay i n CAHEP 's A rea L ( Sect ion I I .K ) a nd c oa rse b each d epos its i n to wh ich a wa l l was i n serted i n t he f ourth c entury .

S uch a b each c ou ld n ot h ave f ormed wh i le t he s ub-

merged a rea o f t he h a rbour was p rotected b y t he i n tact b reakwaters o f S ebastos , a nd i f t he r ocky p ro ject ion h ad p redated S eba stos , Herod wou ld h ave b u i lt t he Quay o n i t a nd t he b each .

T h is c ircumstant ia l e v idence s uggests t hat t h is r ocky

p ro ject ion a ppeared i n t he p ost-Herod ian p er iod , e i ther a s ac oncreted mass o f d ebr is , o r a s t he r ema ins o f al a rger p latform o f b ed-rock t hat was f ragmented b y movement o f t he f au lt l i ne j ust t o t he w est .

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 77

T he P ier i n A rea L must h ave b een a c omponent o f al arger c omp lex , p art o f wh ich i s s t i l l b u r ied b e low l ater s tructures t o t he e a st , a nd p a rt o f wh ich t o t he s outh h as b een c arr ied a way b y t he waves . T he P ier wa s o ver 7 m w ide , a nd a l most 2 4 m o f i t s l ength h ave b een e xposed .

I t was b u i lt i n at yp ica l P hoen ic ian s ty le o f

c ourses o f l ong h eaders , much l i ke t he mo les a t A th l it a nd Akko ( Raban 1 985a : 3 0-40 ) , b ut t he b lock s w ere more u n iform i n s hape a nd d imens ions t han t hose o f t he q uay i n A rea J . T he Quay p erpend icu la r t o t he P ier o n i t s s outh s ide wa s b u i lt o f t he s a me t ype o f h eaders .

On ly t wo s egments o f t h is Quay h ave s urv ived i n

s i tu , b ut i t s c ont inuat ion s outhward f or a bout 4 3 m c an b e p ro jected f rom t he c orn er w ith t he P ier . A t t ha t p o int i t m igh t h ave f ormed a r ight a ng le w ith t he westward c ont inuat ion o f W 1i n A rea S ( Sect ion I I .Q ) . U nso lved i s sues a re t he o r ig ina l f unct ion o f t he P ier a nd Quay a nd t he water d epth n ext t o t he m . T he s urv iv ing n orthern s egment o f t he Quay c ons ists o f as ing le c ou rse o f b locks a nd l ook s more l i ke a p aved ma rg in a dded t o t he wa ter s ide o f ar ocky p latform t han a q uay w ith s uff ic ient d epth f or e ven sma l l b oats .

The

s ame i st rue f or a t l east t he e astern h a lf o f t he P ier . N everthe less , t he c oncreted d ebr is t hat c overs t he s urround ing s ea-bed d isgu ises a nd c oncea ls t he o r ig ina l b ase o f b oth t he w estern t i p o f t he P ier a nd t he s outhern s egment o f t he Quay . T he t i p o f t he P ier i s a lso c oncea led a t i t s s urface b y al a rge p iece o f b each-rock . T h is b each-rock , wh ich i nd icates t he l ocat ion o f t he L ate Roman b each , may h ave p res erved t he r ema ins o f t he P ier s horeward . A s ar esu lt , o ne c annot t el l h ow f ar w est t he P ier o r ig ina l ly r eached . T he s im i lar ity i n s i ze o f t he a sh lar b locks i n t h is P ier t o t hose f ound a long t he i nner s ide o f t he S outhern B reakwater m ight i nd icate t hat i t was c onstructed t o f orm p art o f t he I n termed ia te B as in o f S eba stos . N everthe less , t he h eader b locks i n t he R ound T ower i n A rea T 1 a nd i n t he r ound t ower o f t he n orth c i ty wa l l a re a lso o f much t he s ame d imens ions . A s ar esu lt , i t c ou ld b e a rgued t hat t he P ier a nd t he Quay i n A rea L a re o f p re-Herod ian d ate a nd may h ave b een b u i lt b y Z o il os . T he d ifferent s ty le o f b u i ld ing o n t he Quay i n A rea J i n t h is c ase m igh t r ef lect a n e ar l ier b u i ld ing p hase , p oss ib ly o f t he t h ird c entury B .C .

T he e xact d ate o f t he

P ier a nd t he Quay i n A rea L i sn ot y et k nown , b ut t he s trat igraph ie e v idence a nd t he p resence o f d oveta i l c lamps s uggest t hey w ere b u i lt n o l a ter t han t he Herod ian p er iod . F arther S E , a round t he ( m iss ing ) c orner , i st he A rea S c omp lex ( Sect ion I I .Q ) . T h is c omp lex i nc ludes t h ree p ara l le l , wa l led s paces f ac ing S SW , t oward t he water a nd t he I ntermed iate B a s in . T here , a nd f arther WN W , t he o r ig ina l waterfront f rom t he t ime o f S ebastos i sn ow m iss ing a l together . I ts eems t hat t he d amage o ccurred a t l east b y t he L ate R oman p er iod , when t he c ross-wa l l ( W 2 20 ) , t he e ntrance , a nd t he s ta irca se l ead ing t o t he water w ere b u i lt ( for a n e ven e ar l ier d ate , L ev ine & N etzer 1 986 : 6 0-65 ) . T he e a stern s egment o f A rea S c onta ins a c omp l icated s er ies o f r ebu i lt f eatures , o f w h ich t he ma in o ne i s wa l l W 1 .T h is b road a sh lar s tructure , t he b ase o f wh ich i s n ow 2 m b e low MSL , wa s b u i lt a s as ea-wa l l . I f t here was i n f act a q uay o n t op o f i t i n t hat p hase , n oth ing r ema ins o f i t a t p resent .

Mar ine

i ncrustat ions o n t he s ou th f ace o f t h is w a l l i nd icate t hat a t o ne t ime a fter i t s c ons truct ion t he s ea l eve l w as a t l east 0 .4 m l ower t han t he p resent MSL .

2 78

V I .C : I ntermed iate B as in F ragmented a s t hey a re , t he r ema ins o f t he ma r ine i nsta l lat ions a t t he n orth-

e rn p art o f t he I ntermed iate B as in must b e s tud ied f urther .

One wou ld e xpect t o

f ind t here , b e low a nd b eh ind t he r eta in ing wa l l o n t he s outh s i de o f A rea L , t he Neor ion ( Arsena l ) , o f S ebastos , where s h ips u nderwent r epa irs .

T h is s i te i s t he

o n ly o ne t hat was p roved t o b e o ut o f u se f or a c ons iderab le t ime d ur ing t he Roman p er iod , when t he e ar l ier , Herod ian s tructures were c overed b y as andy b each . S uch a u n ique s i tuat ion may h ave k ept t hese r e ma ins f rom b e ing r ad ica l ly a ltered , a s was c om mon ly t he c ase f or H erod ian b u i ld ings e lsewhere i n Caesarea . T he s outh s ide o f t he I n termed iate B as in i s d e l ineated b y t he S outh P romont ory ( Sect ion I I .0 ) . T he e xtens ive l a ter c onstruct ions o n t op o f t h is r ocky f eature , e spec ial ly t hose o f t he C rusader a nd t he modern e ras , h ave l eft o n ly a f ew f ragmented r emnants o f t he e a r l ier man-made f eatures - a l l o f wh ich a re t o b e f ound a t t he westernmost p art o f t he p romontory . A t t he s outhwestern e nd o f t he r ocky o utcrop t here i s af l ush ing c hanne l w ith s lu ice g ates . T h is t ype o f r ock-cut f eature i s k nown f rom

many o ther ma r ine

i nsta l lat ions o f t he Roman wor ld , b oth f rom I t a ly a nd t he L evant . The b est p ara ll e ls a re e ither f eeder c hanne ls f or p isc inae o r t he f lush ing c hanne ls o f h arbours ( s uch a s t he o ne i n S idon ) . T he measurements a nd t he l ocat ion o f t he c hanne l i n A rea Q make t he s econd f unct ion much more p robab le . A lthough t here i s n o way o f d at ing r ock-cut s tructures b y d i rect e v idence , t he b ehav ior o f s ed i ments a long t h is c oast a nd a rrangements made f or f lu sh ing o ut o ther a nc ient L evant ine h arb ours s uggest t he p resence o f s uch a f eature h ere .

S uch a s yste m f or d e-s i l t ing

t he h arbour r equ ires a rrange ments f or a n i ncom ing f l ow o f s i lt-free water t hrough i t s mo les .

T h is f act m igh t a s we l l b e u sed f or d eterm in ing t he f unct ion a nd t he

d ate o f t he c hanne l i n A rea Q . A smal l s egment o f ac ourse o f a sh lar h eaders w ith match ing d oveta i l g rooves l ocated o n t he s outh s ide o f t he p romontory j ust e ast o f t he r ock-cut c hanne l , m igh t a lso b e d ated t o t he Herod ian p er iod .

I t m igh t b e ab ase c ourse o f t he l ong-

i t ud ina l wal l wh ich , a ccord ing t o J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .335 ) , was t he most p rom inent f eature o n t he mo le , o r j ust a r e mnant o f o ne o f t he v au lts t hat were l ocated t here . More s ubstant ia l r e ma ins o f a wa l l h ave b een p reserved a t waterleve l a long t he e dge o f t he n orth s ide o f t he p romontory . T h is s tructure , o f wh ich a s tretch o f c a . 2 0 m i s s t i l l i n s i tu , i s b u i lt o f l ong , s l im h eaders a d jacent t o t he r ocky o utcrop , l a id most l i ke ly o n b locks o f h ydrau l ic c oncrete . T here s hou ld b e a s egment o f t he q uay wa l l o f t he I n termed iate B as in o f S eba stos . A lthough t he b locks a re s o mewhat sma l ler i n s ize t han t hose e lsewhere i n t he h arbou r ( poss ib ly d ue t o t he s he ltered l ocat ion o f t h is p art icu lar f ea ture ) , t he f act t hat t hey s ee m t o f orm a n a rch itectura l u n it w ith c ement b locks u nderneath makes o ther d a t ing o r f unct iona l i n terpretat ion most i mprobab le . CAHEP 's u nderwa ter p robes i n A rea Q were t oo l im ited a nd t he s i te t oo d i sturbed b y modern b u i ld ing a ct iv it ies t o a l low a ssured r econstruct ion o f t he b u i ld ing t echn ique .

However , i t s eems l i ke ly

t hat t he water d epth n ext t o t h is s egment o f t he q uay wa s wel l o ver 3 m a nd t hat b locks o f c oncrete were c a st a t t he s i te i no rder t o w iden a nd c on so l idate t he b edr ock f oundat ion f or t he q uay , t o a l low t he p roper c onstruct ion o f i t s n orth s ide . [ A .R . ]

Chapter VI: Summary Discussion

279

VI.D: The Subme-rged Breakwaters.

The research of CAHEP, CMS and other groups has shown that a major fault line crossed Sebastos just inside its Intermediate Basin (Neev et al. 1978). For that reason, the man-made features which were laid there or in close proximity to the active fault underwent such a complicated set of destructive processes that in most cases they are incomprehensible or have been lost entirely. This is clearly the case with the two main breakwaters. It seems as if both were based on the tips of rocky promontories, or actually on the rocky western extension of such natural features. But whether these rocky bases were at the time above the water or already in a process of submergence, we cannot tell. We have studied the sub­ merged Southern Breakwater, its subsidiary feature in Area F, and the way in which the artificial substructures were incorporated into the western tip of the southern promoritory. The area west of the modern mole, however, was littered with huge masses of rock, structural debris, and concrete blocks left over from modern harbour works. There is less natural disturbance at the base of the Northern Breakwater, but a spill of small rubble, possibly representing the Byzantine attempt to reconstruct the mole, covers the remains of the earlier structure. West of these areas, the debris of both breakwaters lies on a sandy bottom far above any bed-rock base. No bed-rock was traced west of the fault line at least to a depth of 11 m below the present MSL. This profile proves that the parts of the breakwaters which enclosed the main harbour basin were built on a sandy floor in the first place. Such a foun­ dation is prone to decay from both fluidation and undertrenching of the sand. CAHEP research on the submerged portions of Sebastos has from the begin­ ning depended on Josephus' description of the harbour as it was in the first cen­ tury, on the data from the earlier surveys by Link and the CMS (Sections 11.B.1 and 3), and on our own set of working hypotheses. The sites studied were selected for their potential value for better understanding the way the harbour was built and functioned, or in a search for additional unknown and unmentioned components of the harbour complex. This is still our motive for studying Sebastos. The sites in the submerged part of the harbour which have been studied so far include the Entrance Channel (Areas D, D 1, D2, D3 ), the Towers mentioned by Josephus as standing just outside the entrance (Areas K and G), the ashlar courses and seg­ mented pavements along the inner side of the Southern Breakwater (Areas A, B, C), the Subsidiary Breakwater outside the Southern Breakwater (Area E), the inner edges of the Southern Breakwater (Area N) and the northern one (Area H), the Sunken Pavement at the southeast side of the main basin (Area F), and the rubble spill inside the inner face of the Southern Breakwater, within the northwest part of the main basin (Area R). Moreover, all data was gathered from numerous visual surveys and mostly from the 17 survey lines (Section IV.C). The data recovered during these studies are summarized here. North.em Breakwater. The debris of the Northern Breakwater has a regular, rectangular outline, about 60-65 m wide (N/S), and over 2 00 m long (E/W). The tip is clearly defined by a conspicuous spill of huge kurkar blocks piled on top of the actual structure of the mole to a minimum depth of 1.4 m. The tumbled pile spills down in front of the original tip of the breakwater to a depth of over 9.0 m. This

2 80

V I .D .1: Northern B reakwater

t umb led s tructure ( Sect ion I I .C .1 ) was u ndoubted ly mass ive a nd v ery c onsp icuous when i n tact . T he u n ique h a lflap j o int a t t he t erm inat ion o f s ome o f t he h uge a sh lars a nd t he u se o f i ron c lamps s et i n l ead f or f asten ing t he m t o e ach o ther a re n ot t o b e f ound e lsewhere i n t he h arbour . T hey p robab ly i nd icate a s pec ia l f unct ion wh ich i mposed e xcept iona l p hys ica l s tress o n t he s tructure . T he l ocat ion wou ld n ot u sua l ly h ave b een e xposed t o t he f u l l f orce o f s torms , s o t he s tress m ight h ave b een c aused b y a nother f orce .

One p oss ib i l ity i s t ha t t hese u n ique c omponents were

p arts o f t he a nchor ing d ev ice f or c apstan s u sed f or p u l l ing h eavy i r on c ha ins a cross t he h a rbour e ntrance , e i ther o vern ight o r d ur ing p er iods o f e xterna l s eab orne t h reat ( for s uch a p ract ice i n t he Roman e ra , s ee B lackman 1 982 : 1 94 ) . A n a l ternat ive f unct ion m ight h ave b een f or moor ing s h ips a longs ide t he e dge o f t he e ntrance , b efore t hey e ntered t he b as in f or t he a dm in istrat ive p rocedu res o f c heck ing c redent ia ls , b i l ls o f l ad ing , a nd h arbour f ees b efore t hey were t owed t o t he ir b erths . T h is magn if icent s tructu re may h ave d i s in teg rated p r ior t o t he e ar ly s ix th c entury , when Anastas ius made h i s a ttempt t o r enovate t he h arbour . A wooden c rad le c arry ing a b lock , f ound i n t he E ntrance Channe l was d ated t o t h is p er iod b y c arbon-14 a na lys is ( Append ix I I .B , s amp le 1 ) .

T he r ubb le s p il l o ver t he i nner t h ird

o f t he Northern B reakwater may d ate t o t he s ame p er iod . I ts ee ms t o e xtend f rom t he b ase o f t he s tructure o n t he e ast a l l t he way t o t he h igh p i le o f h uge a sh lar b locks a t t he n orthernmost t i p o f t he S outhern B reakwater , a nd p robab ly a l so o ver t he t r iangu lar r ampart o f r ubb le e ast o f CAHEP 's A rea C . T he r ubb le s p i l l o n t op o f t he i nner e dge o f t he N orthern B reakwater r i ses t o a bout 3 .5-3 .8 m b e low MSL , wh i le t he r est o f t he b reakwater 's s urface i sa t p resent a t a n a verage d epth o f c a . 5 .0 m . Over t h is a rea t here a re t hree l a rge h o l lows o f g enera l ly r ectangu lar s hape wh ich m ight i nd icate t he manner i n wh ich t he b reakwater was b u i lt ( s ee b e low ) . T he r ubb le s p i l l s l opes s teep ly d own a long t he i nner f ace o f t he b reakwater . T he t renches i n A rea H e xposed s ome L ate Roman p o ttery b e low t h is s p i l l , b ut n o e v id ence wa s f ound f or a n i nner q uay . I t i s u n l ike ly t hat t here was n o s uch f eature a long s uch a w ide mo le . T he p resent w idth o f t he d ebr is f i ts J osephus ' f igures ( " 200 f eet ;" 6 1 m ) , a nd t he s uperstructure a nd o ther c omponents t hat J osephus d escr ibed s hou ld b e t here . T he e xterna l s i de o f t he Northern B reakwater h as a g ent le s lope a nd l acks t he e xterna l f eatures o f t he o ther b reakwater , s uch a s t he S ubs id iary B reakwater a nd t he l arge c oncrete b locks . A u n ique f eature wa s s tud ied b y CAHEP a t t he western e nd o f t he e xterna l s ide o f t he Northern B reakwater . T h is i s t he l argest a nd t he b est p reserved c onc rete b lock l ocated s o f ar . T he 1 2 x1 5 m b lock s urv ived t o ah e igh t o f o ver 2 m a nd was o r ig ina l ly t opped b y a n a sh la r p avement o f wh ich a f ew s labs r e ma in i n p lace . Al a rge p ort ion o f t he s leeper b eam o f t he o r ig ina l wooden f ormwork w ith in wh ich t he c oncrete was l a id s urv ived i n p lace , r est ing d irect ly o n t he s andy s ea f loor w ith n o r ubb le c ush ion ing . T he d es ign o f t he w ooden f orm i s d escr ibed a bove ( Sect ion I I .F ) , a nd t he way i n wh ich t he b lock wa s l a id h a s a l ready b een d i scussed i n s evera l p laces ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 97-99 ; R aban 1 988b :

1 87-89 ) .

O leson 1 985a ;

Hoh lfe lder 1 987a ;

C hapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 81

T he s leeper b eams w ere f ound a t ad epth o f j ust u nder 6 .0 m b e low MSL a nd t i lted s omewhat westwa rd . Cons ider ing t he o r ig ina l h e igh t o f t he f eature t o b e a bout 3 .0 m f rom i t s b a se t o t he t opp ing p avement , a nd t he t ecton ic s ubs idence t o b e o ver 5 .0 m s i nce t he H erod ian e ra i n t h is p art o f t he h arbour , i ti sp oss ib le t hat t he wooden f orm was l a id a t a n o r ig ina l wa ter d epth o f j u st o ver 1 m a nd t hat t he p ave ment o n t op o f t he b lock was a t a bou t 2m a bove s ea l eve l . T hese d ata , a nd t he f act t hat t h is b lock p ro jected o uts ide t he r egu lar o ut l ine o f t he b reakwater t o t he n orth a nd i sa d jacent t o av ert ica l a sh lar wa l l o f h eaders o n i t s s outhern s ide , may s uggest t hat i t was a f eature t hat was a dded s ome t ime a fter t he c omp let ion o f t he t wo ma in b reakwaters . I t may b e a rgued t hat s oon a fter t he f l ush ing c urr ent w ith in t he h arbour b as in was f unct ion ing , s and-bars b egan t o a ccumu late o uts i de t he e ntrance o n b o th s ides . I ft h is wa s t he e ase , t he f lank ing t owers h ere a nd i n A rea K may h ave b een l ocated a t t he s and-bars i n o rder t o s erve a s an av igat i ona l a id f or i nco m ing v esse ls . T he s outhern c oncrete b lock i n A rea G may h ave b een p laced o n s uch a s ha l low s and-bar a s ab r idg ing d ev ice t o t he o ther b lock , 5 .0 m t o t he n orth , wh ich must b e i n terpreted a s t he t ower o n t he p ort s i de o f s h ips e nter ing t he h arbour , ment ioned b y J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .338 ) . T he b ase o f t he n orthern b lock i s a bout 0 .5 m d eeper t han t he b ase o f t he s outhern o ne , a nd i t t i lts more t owa rd t he w est .

A ssum ing t hat b oth w ere l a id o n as and-bar , t hese f acts a re e as-

i l y c o mprehended a s t he o utcome o f u nder-trench ing . I ti s worth n ot ing t hat e ven a t p resent t he s andy s ea-f loor i n A rea G i sa t l east 2 .0 m s ha l lower t han t hat o f t he n earby Ha rbour E ntrance Channe l o r o f t he s ea f loor 2 0-30 m f arther t o t he n orth .

A lternat ive ly , t he d ifference i n e leva t ion m ight b e e xp la ined b y t he p res-

e nce o f what may b e b ed-rock b enea th t he s outhern s ide o f t he s outhern b lock a nd t he t hree c ourses o f b lock s a t t he e dge o f t he b reakwater p roper .

At h ird p oss ib le

e xp lanat ion o f t h is t opog raph ic d i screpancy i s t he p resence o f a nother f au lt l i ne ( F2 , a ccord ing t o Neev e t a l . 1 978 ) t hat c rosses t he h arbou r a t i t s e ntrance , o n t he NNE-SSW a x is . B ut s uch a f au lt w ou ld n ot e xp la in t he r e lat ive ly h igh e levat ion o f t he b ases o f b oth b locks . Harbow - E ntrance Channe l .

T he Harbour E ntrance Channe l i s c lear ly v is ib le

b etween t he western t i p o f t he N orthern B reakwater a nd t he e astern s ide o f t he s p il l o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter . I ti st he o n ly g ap i n t he e nt ire c ircumference o f t he s unken h a rbour a nd i t was t he o n ly s i te a t wh ich L ink 's e xped it ion c a rr ied o ut u nderwater e xcavat ion ( Fr itsch & B en-Dor 1 961 ) . T he a rea was s tud ied a nd e xcav ated b y CAHEP d ur ing s evera l s ea son s ( Sect ions I I .C ) . A t p resent , t he c hanne l i s af unne l-shaped s andy h ol low t ha t n arrows t oward t he n orth .

J ust i n s ide a nd SW

o f CAHEP A rea D 2 , t he c hanne l i s b locked a t i t s b a se b y as p il l o f s evera l l arge b lock s a nd r ubb le .

T he b ase o f t h is s p il l i sa t 8 .3 m b e low MSL , a nd i t was f ound

t o b e u nder la id b y as t ratum o f g rey s and , g rave l , mud a nd many a rt ifacts ( co ins , j ars , l a mps , e tc .) o f t he B yzant ine

p er iod .

T h is s tratum

c ont inued westward

u nderneath t he 3 .0 m t h ick s p i l l o f r ubb le o n t he w est f lank o f t he c hanne l , where t he D2 t rench was d ug . A t t he b ase o f t hese l ayers , u nder o ne t hat i nc luded many f ragments o f wood , t here was a l ayer o f c oarse s and w ith n o d atab le f i nds , a nd a t ad epth o f 1 0 .5-11 .0 m b e low MSL t here i sa nother l ayer o f f i ne c lay , l i ttered w ith a rt ifacts o f t he f i rst a nd e ar ly s econd c entur ies . T h is l owest l ayer i s more p rom in ent j ust o uts ide t he p art o f t he c hanne l n arrowest a t t he p resent , a l though we d o n ot k now where t he n arrowest p o int wa s i n a nt iqu ity . I t must r epresent t he h ar-

2 82

V I .D .2 : E ntrance Channe l

b our f loor a t t he t ime t he Outer B a s in was i n tact a nd p rotect ing a s t i l l b ody o f water . T he f act t hat t h is t h in , c ompact l ayer o f c lay was t raced a t v ar iou s s i tes w ith in t he Outer B as in ( Sect ions I I .C , D , E , G ) a nd n ever o uts ide o r b enea th t he d ebr is o f t he Herod ian s tructure ( except f or t he e n igmat ic c ase o f t he S unken P avement i n A rea F , S ect ion I I .E ) s upports t h is d educt ion . I ts ee ms a s i f t he c lay l ayer wh ich wa s e xposed a t t he b ottom o f t he e xcavated t rench i n A rea D r epres ents t he a rea where t he f lush ing o utf low c urrent met t he wave-dr iven water o uts ide t he h arbour . A t s uch a s i te , wh ich wa s s t i l l w ith in t he c onf inement o f t he c hanne l , a t l east s ome o f t he s i lt a nd d ebr is c arr ied b y t he f lush ing c urrent f ro m w ith in t he h arbour b a s in wou ld h ave b een d epos ited . A lthough t he t umb led s tructure a t t he t ip o f t he Northern B reakwater marks q u ite c lea r ly t he l oca t ion o f t he o r ig ina l e astern e dge o f t he h arbou r E ntrance Channe l , t he l ater s p il l o f r ubb le d isgu ises c omp lete ly t he l ocat ion o f t he w estern e dge . I n a n a ttempt t o l oca te t h is western e dge ( Area D 2 ) , a t rench wa s c ut t hrough t he h eavy s p il l f or a bout 1 2 m west o f t he p resent c hanne l , b ut n o s truct ura l f eatures were d etected t hat m ight i nd icate t he l ocat ion o f t he o r ig ina l weste rn f lank o f t he e ntrance .

S o f ar we d o n ot k now t he w idth o f t he o pen ing o r

whether i t was n arrow e nough t o make b lock ing w ith a c ha in p oss ib le . T he w ider t he e ntrance was , t he more d iff icu lt i t w ou ld h ave b een t o k eep t he h arbour f ree o f s i lt . Cons ider ing t he awareness o f Herod 's e ng ineers t o t he p rob lem o f s i lta t ion b y wave-carr ied s and , a s i s d emon strated b oth b y i t s ment ion b y J osephus ( AJ 1 5 .333) a nd b y t he way t he h arbour was b u i lt , o ne wou ld e xpect t he e ntrance t o h ave b een o f am in i mum w idth . T he c urrent e st i ma t ion o f 2 0-30 m f or t he w idth o f t he e ntrance , a s s uggested b y CAHEP 's c o-d irectors ( O leson e t a l .

1 984 : 2 97) ,

i s s t i l l j ust a work ing h ypothes is , b a sed o n s ome c omparat ive d ata f rom o ther R o man p orts ( B lackman 1 982 : 1 94 ) . T he western t owers , o uts ide t he h arbour b as in , j ust o ff t he n orthernmost t ip o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter , w ere f i rst t raced b y I UES d ivers i n t he l a te 1 960 's b ut were s tud ied f or t he f i rst t ime b y CAHEP i n 1 981 . T he ir l oca t ion , s ome 8 0 m NW o f t he e ntrance , i s much f arther f rom t he E ntrance Channe l t han t he e astern t ower a nd c ou ld s uggest t hat t he o r ig ina l w idth o f t he c hanne l was much g reater t han 2 0-30 m . B ut , i ft hey s erved a s an av igat iona l a id , a s s uggested a bove , o r a s a wave b reaker s erv ing a l so t o s cour s i lt , t he ir l ocat ion a t t he v ery t ip o f t he g reat b reakwater a nd a t as i te t hat m igh t h ave h ad a ccumu lated s and-ba rs i s l og ica l . I n f act , t hey may n ot h ave b een l ocated i m med iate ly b es ide t he c hanne l o pen ing . On ly t he l ower p a rts o f t he t wo t owers h ave s urv ived 2 0 c entur ies o f e ros ion . T hese b ases were

made o f c oncrete l a id w ith in wooden f ormwork , a s c an b e

a ttested b y t he h or izonta l i mpress ions a nd h o l lows o n t he s urv iv ing masses ( Sect i on I I .J ) . I n o ne c ase , f ragments o f t he wooden b eam were f ound s t il l i ns ide . The e astern o f t he t wo t owers h as

s urv ived t o at ota l h e ight o f o ver 6 .0 m a bove t he

p resent s ea-f loor , w ith i t s c rest a t 1 .6 b e low MSL . CAHEP 's p robe a long i t s e aste rn s ide went d own a s d eep a s 9 .3 m b e low MSL a nd e xposed a h or izonta l n otch a t ad epth o f 8 .2 m .

A lthough i t h as b een s uggested ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 93) t hat

t h is may b e as o lut ion n otch i nd icat ing s ea l eve l , t here i sn o e v idence e lsewhere i n Caesarea f or s uch a d egree o f s ubmergence o f t he s ea-bottom s ince t he H erod ian

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 83

e ra . T he p resent v ert ica l p os it ion o f t he h uge b lock s uggests t hat i t h as n ot s l umped f urther t han t he s urround ing s ea-f loor t h rough f l u idat ion o r u ndertrenchi ng o f t he s and u nderneath i t s b a se . I n c onsequence , t he h or izonta l n otch more l i ke ly r epresents a n e xtens ive ly e roded r ecess t hat f ormed a round a b eam f ro m t he o r ig ina l wooden f orm , n ow m iss ing .

T he u neven measurements o f t he s u rv iv-

i ng b lock i nd icate t hat i t l o st much o f i t s o r ig ina l v o lume a l l a round i t s v ert ica l s urface , a nd i ti sh ard t o r econstruct h ow b road i t was when i t was c a st . T he western t ower h a s r eta ined a w ide g roove a t i t s c rest .

T he g roove i s

a bout 1 m w ide a nd s eems t o b e t oo l arge t o h ave f ormed a round a c ross-beam o f t he wooden f orm ( though t he e ros ion m ight h ave w idened i t c ons iderab ly ) .

T he

e xtens ive e xcavat ions a nd p robes a round a nd b etween t he t wo t owers f a i led t o t race a ny r ema ins o f ab r idg ing d ev ice b etween t he t owers o r f rom t he t owers t o t he e dge o f t he S outhern B reakwater , wh ich i so n ly 6 .0 m s outh o f t he e astern o ne . I n terest ing ly , t h is i s a lso t he d istance b etween t he t wo c oncrete b locks o n t he o ther s ide o f t he Ha rbour E ntrance Channe l .

No r ema ins o f what m ight b e c ons id-

e red a s c o mponents o f t he u pper s tructures o f t he t owers o r t he ir s tatues c ou ld b e t raced . T here i s at umb led a rea o f h uge k urkar a nd c oncrete b locks o n t he s ect ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater n ext t o t he T owers . T he s cattered d ebr is c overs a l arge a rea o n t op o f t he b reakwater a nd o n t he s ea-f loor b e low . T he t op o f t he s p i l l i s u nder j ust 2 .0 m o f water , a nd t he b ottom was t raced b e low t he s and t o 9 .0 m b e low MSL . T he l argest o f t he measured b locks i s 7x 5x 2 .5 m ( s ee S urvey L ine 1 i n S ect ion I V .C) . I t i s q u ite p robab le t hat a c onsp icuous t ower o r ig ina l ly s tood t here , p erhaps t he D rus ion t hat J osephus r eferred t o a s t he most magn if icent o f t he

t owers wh ich d ecora ted t he med ia l wa l l o f t he Herod ian b reakwater ( AJ

1 5 .336 ) .

S uch a t ower m ight h ave b een u sed a s al i gh thouse , s uch a s t he P haros i n

A lexandr ia , o r t hat a t L ept is Magna . T he l a ter p a ra l le l was a lso l ocated a t t he t i p o f t he g reater mo le , a t t he c losest p oss ib le p o int t owa rd t he o pen s ea , a nd a t a d i stance f ro m t he h arbour e ntrance ( Bartoce in i 1 958 : 5 9-65 , p l . I I ) . S outhern B reakwa ter .

T h is f eature i s as i ng le a rch itectura l u n it i n t he f orm

o f ag reat a re o ver 5 00 m l ong . T he w idth o f t he s p i l l v ar ies f rom l ess t han 5 0 m a t i t s s outhwestern s ect ion ( between S urvey L ines 3 a nd 5 ) t o a lmost 2 00 m a t i t s n orthern p art ( between

S urvey L ines 8 a nd 1 0 ) . T he g enera l l ayout o f t h is b reak-

water was d escr ibed a bove ( Sect ion I I .B , M , I V .C ) a nd i n s ome e a r ly f ie ld-reports ( O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 90-93 ) . D esp ite t he marked d ifferences i n t he b readth o f t he s p il l o f d ebr is , t he b as ic c ross-sect ion i s q u ite r egu la r , a t l east i n t he p ort ion b etween S urvey L ines 3 a nd 9 . On t he i nner s ide t here wa s aq uay , n ow a c ourse o f a sh lar h eaders , w ith i t s b ase a t a bout 5 .0 m b e low MSL a t t he n orth e nd a nd a s d eep a s 8 .0 m o n t he s outh . About 1 0 m w est o f t he e a stern e dge o f t h is I nner Quay t here i s as p i l l o f l arge b locks , most o f wh ich a re f ragments o f l arger c oncrete b lock s b ear ing t he i mpress i ons o f t he l ong-decayed t i e-beams o f t he wooden f ormwork w ith in wh ich t he b lock s were c ast . I n many c ases t hese c hunks a re t i lted , a nd t he t ie-beam i mpress i ons a re f ound o n t he n ow a lmost v ert ica l f aces . T he a rea b etween t he s p i l l a nd t he q uay i sc overed b y at h in l ayer o f r ubb le , n owhere o ver 0 .5 m t h ick , w ith a s ter i le ( i .e . , l ack ing a rt ifacts ) s and u nderneath .

2 84

V I .D .3 : S outhern B reakwater

I n t he s ect ions where t he a sh lar c ourse o f t he q uay i sa t ah igher e levat ion ( Areas Ba nd C ) t here a re a dd it iona l c ourses , e i ther a d jacent t o i t , i n ap erpend icu lar o r ie ntat ion , o r i n ar andom s catter west o f t he ma in c ourse . O ther o ffset , s egmented c ourses a re l ocated i n t he d eeper a rea o n t he s outh p art o f t he q uay ( s ee BL m 1 25-65 i n f ig . 1 1 .3 ) . T he s p i l l west o f t h is l i ne i sl e ss r egu la r . I n o ne p lace t here i s ar ectangu la r h o l low ( SL n o . 6 ) a nd i n o thers t he s cattered d ebr is i nc ludes l arge r ock-cut b locks . I n s ome i n stances t hese b lock s a re p i led u p w ith t he ir e nds f ac ing t he o pen s ea . T he p robes a nd t he e xcavated t renches made b y CAHEP i n A reas A , B , a nd C i nd icated t hat i n s ome p laces t he q uay i sn ow we l l b e low i t s o r ig ina l r e la t ive l eve l a nd t hat s egments o f i th ad s ubs ided f urther t han o thers . I n most e ases t hese s egments a re a ssoc iated w ith l esser l ayers o f r ubb le , o r a re e ven l a id d irect ly o n s and ( Areas A , C 3 , C4 ) .

O ther s egments s eem t o h ave b een p ro jected o ver i n to t he

h arbour b as in , a s t he l ayer o f c o mpact c lay was f ound t o b e u nder ly ing t he ir p resent p os it ion . Nowhere w ere more t han t wo s uper i mposed c ourses o f a sh lars t o b e f ound , a nd e ven t hese d oub le c ourses were f ound o n ly i n v ery s hort s egments ( Area B ) .

A s s um mar ized

a t t he e nd o f S ect ion I I .B , i t i sp oss ib le t hat t he l ong

c ourse o f h eaders r epresents n ot t he b a se c ourse o f av ert ica l I nner Quay , b ut r ather i t s t op c ourses , o r t he f i rst c ourse f or t he p art wh ich was o r ig ina l ly a bove t he waterleve l . T h is s uggest ion f i ts t he f act t ha t i n p laces t he b ase o f t h is c ourse i sn ow i n l ess t han 5 .2 m o f water . S ince t h is f igure r epresents t he b est e st i mate o f t he amount o f t ecton ic s ubs idence s ince t he R oman e ra , i t i mp l ies t hat t he ir o r ig ina l l eve l was j u st a bove t he waves . Wh i le t he l ocat ion a nd c onf igurat ion o f t he i nner e dge o f t he S outhern B reakwater i sr easonab ly s ecure , t here i ss t i l l s ome amb igu ity a bout t he method o f c ons truct ion a nd f i na l a ppearance .

I t i s c lear t hat t he

e dge

o f t he b reakwater

d irect ly b eh ind t he q uay was s and-f il led u p t o t he a nc ient s ea l eve l . T h is f i l l was t hen c overed b y al ayer o f r ubb le o n wh ich a p ave ment o f a sh lar s labs was l a id . T he p ave ment

most l i ke ly f ormed t he

p romenade

d escr ibed b y J osephus ( AJ

1 5 .337) . T he p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwa ter wh ich i s j ust e ast o f BL m 1 7 m ight h ave b een t he l ocat ion o f t he l ong itud ina l w a l l a long t he b reakwater .

I ft h is

i st he e ase , o ne c ou ld r econstruct t he wa l l a s f u rn ished w ith t owers o f a bout 1 0 m s quare s paced a bout 2 0 m a part ( s ee S ect ion I V .C , S L 1 7 ) .

The d ebr is o n e ither

s ide o f t h is p roposed l i ne c ou ld b e a ttr ibuted t o t he wal l , t he t owers , a nd t he " great n umber o f v au lts" t hat l i ned t he q uay ( Josephus , AJ 1 5 .337 ) .

I n t h is c ase ,

t he d ebr is o f e normous c oncrete a nd r ock-cut b locks a nd p i les o f r ubb le o n t he west s ide p robab ly r epresent t he p rokumat ia ( or p ro l cum ia , AJ 1 5 .335 ) , t he e xtern a l b reakwater . T h is s tructure p robab ly t ook t he f orm o f as egmented l i ne s et a s hort d istance o uts ide t he l i ne o f t he ma in b ody o f t he b reakwater , w ith o pen ings f or t he o utf low o f water f rom t he waves t ha t b roke a cross i t . T he l arge r ecesses i n i t s l ee wou ld h ave s erved t o a bsorb t he e nergy o f t he waves . One s uch h o l low m ight b e p reserved i n t he p resent r ecess o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he b reakwater . T he b est p reserved s ect ion , h owever , i s t hat o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater a long i t s s outh f ace ( Sect ion I I .D ) .

T h is wa l l h as s l op ing f aces o n b oth s ides . I ti sp ara l-

l e l t o t he ma in b reakwater , a nd t he ir c omb ined w idth ( f rom t he e xterna l s ide o f t he S ubs id iary B reakwater t o t he i nner e dge o f t he ma in o ne ) i se a . 6 5 m

r ese m-

b l ing t he f igure o f 2 00 f eet wh ich was a ttested b y J osephus f or t he o vera l l b readth

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 85

o f Herod 's mo le . S evera l a irjet p robes a nd s ub-bottom p rof i l ing w ith t he "Mud P enetrator" f a i led

t o t race

a ny

man-made

f eature

b r idg ing t he p resent g ap

b etween t he t wo s tructures . T he p resent e levat ion o f t he c rest o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwater ( 4 .8-5 .8 m b e low MSL ) s eems t o i nd icate t hat o r ig ina l ly i t was n ot much h igher t han t he a nc ient s ea l eve l , j ust t he r igh t l eve l t o c ause waves t o b reak w ithout u ndergo ing e xcess ive s tress . T he t renches i n CAHEP 's A rea E 1 a nd E 2 p roved t hat i t was b u i lt o n as ea-bottom t hat h ad a t t he t ime a d epth o f 3 -4 m , a nd was l a id o n a n a rt if ic ia l c ush ion o f smal r ubb le , p robab ly i n o rder t o a vo id u ndertrench ing a nd f l u id izat ion o f t he s and b e low .

L ike t he s ubs id iary b reak-

waters f arther n orth a long t h is b reakwa ter , t he s outhern p ort ion t oo was p robab ly f ash ioned w ith g aps a s o ut lets f or t he r ip-current s et u p b y waves b reak ing o ver t he o uter b arr ier . I t s w esternmost c ont inuat ion i s a t p resent i n af i na l s tage o f d ecay , l eav ing a w ide a nd d eep o pen ing t oward t he o pen s ea . T h is g ap m ight h ave f ac i l itated t he e vacuat ion o f t he t umb led b u i ld ing mater ia l s f rom t he h o l low a nd t herefore ma inta ined i t s o r ig ina l c haracter ist ics , u n l ike t he s i tuat ion e lsewhere a long t he b reakwater . T he d ebr is o f t he s outhwestern p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater i s more c oherent t han t hat o f t he western a nd n orthwestern s ect ions .

I t h as t he s ame

c o mponents a s t he o ther s ect ions , a l though t he a rea o n t he e x terna l s ide o f t he c entra l b ody o f t he b reakwater h as b etter p reserved t he o r ig ina l c onf igurat ion o f t he S ubs id ia ry B reakwa ter . T he ma in b ody o f t he b reakwater c ons ists o f af a ir ly l eve l p latform o f d ebr is , a bout 3 -4 m a bove t he a d jacent s ea-bottom , w ith a w idth o f 3 0-35 m . T he c ourse o f a sh lar b lock s t yp ica l o f t he I nner Quay , h owever , i s a bsent o n t he i n s ide . T he a bsence o f t h is f eature was s tud ied b y CAHEP i n 1 983 i n A rea N 1 , where s ome o f t hese a sh la r s labs w ere f ound t o b e b ur ied b e low t he n orthern e dge o f t he s p i l l a nd t i lted westwa rd . T he u nder ly ing s and a nd t he l ayer o f c ompact c lay 1 .0 m b e low t he b ase o f t hese b locks s uggest t hat t hey were p ushed f rom t he ir o r ig ina l p os it ion i n to t he h arbou r b as in b y wave a ct ion o r t ect on ic s ubs idence s ome t ime a fter S eba stos w ent o ut o f u se ( Sect ion I I .M ) . T hese o ffset b locks were n ot f ound i n t he e a stern t rench ( Area N 2 ) , a nd t here a re i nd icat ion s t hat most o f t he b etter b u i ld ing mater ia l i n t hat a rea was s a lvaged f rom t he b reakwaters b y l ater s ett lers , p robab ly t he C ru saders , who may h ave u sed t he b lock s f or t he f oundat ions o f t he ir Harbour C itade l . An e n igmat ic f eature o f t h is p ort ion o f t he S outhern B reakwater i s t he r ect angu lar s p i l l o f r ubb le o n i t s i nner s ide b y A rea N . S urvey L ine 3 ( Sect ion I V .C ) a nd t he p rob ing t rench i n N 1 d id n ot y ie ld c onc lus ive d ata f or e stab l ish ing e ither t he d ate o r t he e xact f unct ion o f t h is f eature . A t p resent , t he b est a ssu mpt ion i s t hat t h is s p i l l was p ro jected f rom t he d ecay ing u pper p arts o f t he b reakwater d uri ng t he w inter s torms i n t he l a ter p art o f t he R oman e ra . T he c orners o n i t s e aste rn s ide m ight h ave b een c reated b y t he C ru saders ' p lunder ing a ct iv it ies , wh ich were more e xtens ive c loser t o t he s horel ine . T he d ate o f t he s p i l l m igh t b e a ttested b y t he l umps o f s herd s , b a l last s tones a nd o ther r emnants o f L ate R oman w reck s i tes o n t op o f i t . The S unken P avement i n A rea F ( Sect ion

was a l ready u sed b y CMS s cho l-

a rs i n 1 976 t o make a c ase f or t he s ubmergence o f t he Outer B as in o f S ebastos . The f act t hat a p avement w ith s uch a p oor f oundat ion h as r eta ined i t s h or izonta l s urface a nd t hat a l arge p ort ion h a s s u rv ived s uggests t hat i t s s ubs idence r esu lted

2 86

V I .D .3 : S outhern B reakwater

f rom a n e ven , g radua l s ubmergence o f t he s ea-f loor o ver t he e nt ire s urround ing a rea . Y et t he f eature i t se lf r ema ins e n igmat ic . L ike o ther s tretches o f p av ing s labs a long t he i nner s i de o f t he S outhern B reakwater , i t l acks a ny s ubstant ia l f oundat ion . O therw ise , i t s l ocat ion , o r ientat ion a nd e levat ion m ight s uggest t hat i t was t he r emnant o f ap ier t hat p ro jected f rom t he S outhern B reakwater a nd was u sed a s ap art it ion b etween t he ma in h arbour b as in a nd t he I n termed iate B a s in . T he f act t hat t he n orthern e dge o f t he f loor c ons ists o f l arge a sh la r b locks i n a u n iform o rder o f h eaders s eems t o i nd icate t hat i ti st he o r ig ina l t ip o f t he s truct ure . Y et t h is s ing le c ou rse i sl a id o n o n ly a t h in l ayer o f smal l r ubb le w ith n oth ing b ut l oose s and u nderneath .

I ti st rue t hat s ome r e mnants o f ac ourse o f more s ub-

s tant ia l b locks i n al ower e leva t ion o n t he e ast s i de o f t he f loor m ight b e long t o t he o r ig ina l s ide wa l l t hat s upported i ta nd h e ld i n t he u nder ly ing s and f i l l , b ut t he wal l t hat wou ld h ave s upported t he p avement o n i t s n orthern s ide h as d isappeared , a s h as t he p ave ment i t se lf t o t he s outh . CAHEP e xcavat ion a nd s urvey d id n ot f i nd s uch r ema ins ,

a nd wh i le t he

a bsence o f t he s outhern p art o f t he f loor may b e d ue t o C rusader p lunder ing ( w ith t he r ema in ing p ort ion e scap ing s a lvage b ecause i t w as we l l b e low t he s and a t t he t ime ) , t he a bsence o f a ny r ema ins f rom t he n orth wa l l i ss t i l l a n u nso lved p rob lem . T he p resence o f ac lay l ayer b eneath t he s andy f i l l u nder t he p ave ment was n oted a bove a s a n i nd icat ion t hat t he s tructure may b e al a ter a dd it ion t o t he Herod ian h arbour . [ A .R . ]

V I .E : Tenta t ive Recons truct ion o f t he Hero c t ian Harbour . T he f o l low ing i s av ery t entat ive r econstruct ion o f h ow S ebastos was b u i lt , i t s g enera l p lan , a nd t he f unct iona l c omponents i tc onta ined .

I ti sb ased o n i deas c on-

t r ibuted b y a l l t he CAHEP d irectors i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavat ions a nd s urveys . S ince t h is t entat ive r econstruct ion i s mere ly a p re l im ina ry s ummat ion o f t he more d eta i led a na lys is t hat w il l b e i nc luded i n V o lume I V , n ot a l l t he a rguments a nd c o mparat ive mater ia l a re p resented h ere . When Herod h ad c a l led i n h is e ng ineers t o s urvey t he c oa sta l s i te o f S traton 's T ower a nd t o p repa re a master p lan f or h is h a rbour a nd t he c i ty t hat was t o b e a d jacent t o i t , t hey f ound a s tretch o f c oast t yp ica l o f t h is p a rt o f t he Med iterran ean c oastl ine o f P a lest ine . T he s i te c hosen i sc lose t o t he s outh e nd o f ac oasta l u n it e xtend ing f or a bout 4 0 km f rom A th l it i n t he n orth t o Hadera i n t he s outh , a nd i t r epresents t he o n ly s i te w ith a h inter land p rov id ing e asy a ccess t o t he Mount Carme l r ange . T he s horel ine was c haracter ized b y l ow a nd b roken l ongs hore k urkar r idges , t he westernmost o ne p art ly i nundated b y t he s ea , a nd i t s western h a lf a lready a braded a s aw ide r ocky p latform a t s ea l eve l . Occas iona l ly , t he s ea h ad p enetrated t he r idge , c reat ing sma l l s andy b ay s o r r eef-protected l agoons o n i t s l ee ( f ig . 1 . 12 , p l . 1 ) .

A t S traton 's T ower t hey k new t hat t wo o f t hese

c oves h ad b een u sed b y t he P hoen ic ians a nd h ad b een a rt if ic ia l ly i mproved t o s erve a s a nchorages . A lthough b oth t hese b as ins were i ncorpora ted w ith in a s ing le c ity wa l l ,

Herod 's e ng ineers i gnored t he n orthern o ne ,

s i nce

i t was p robab ly

a lready h a lf-f i l led w ith d ebr is , t oo s ha l low , a nd t oo d etached f rom t he n earby

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 87

o pen water b y a n e xtens ive s er ies o f r ocky r eefs . I ti sq u ite l i ke ly t hat t h is h aven was s t il l i n u se a t t hat t ime b y t he l oca l J ew ish p eop le a s af i sh ing h a rbour , a nd l eft t o b e u sed i n i t s d ecay ing s tate t hroughout t he b u i ld ing o f S eba stos , a s a n a l ternat ive moor ing p lace f or t he b u lk c a rr iers o f i mported b u i ld ing mater ia ls . T he o ther He l len ist ic h aven was a r ectangu lar , a rt if ic ia l , r ock-cut b as in w ith a water d epth o f o ver 2 .0 m , l i n ing u p w ith t he s outheast c orner o f t he c i ty wa l ls . T h is b as in was p rotected b y t wo r ocky p romontor ies t hat p rotruded westward i n to t he s ea f rom t he g enera l ly s tra ight l i ne o f t he s hore , o ver 3 00 m a part , f ram ing a sma l l b ay . The p ro montory t o t he n orth wa s t he s ou thern e nd o f t he r eef t hat e nc losed t he n orthern h aven a nd was w ide a nd f l at . T he o ne t o t he s outh was more c onsp icuou s a nd n arrow , c onnected t o t he l and b y as andy t ornbo lo a nd t he s outhw est s ect ion o f t he Hel len ist ic wa l l . B oth w ere s e lected a s b ases f or f ree-stand ing mo les t o b e b u i lt westwa rd i n to t he o pen waters .

T he s ea-f loor i n t hat a rea was

most ly s andy , c onstant ly s h ifted b y t he s urge a nd b y t he l ongshore c urrents . Wh i le p lann ing was t ak ing p lace a nd t he s ea-f loor s urveyed , s h ipments o f b u i ld ing mater ia l s s tarted c om ing i n f rom I t a ly , c arry ing

s oftwood l umber a nd

l arge q uant it ies o f v o lcan ic a sh a nd t ufa f rom t he b ay o f Nap les , p oss ib ly u s ing t he n orth h aven f or u n load ing - e i ther d irect ly o r b y means o f l i ghters . T he w reck o f t he merchantman i n CAHEP 's A rea Y m igh t h ave b een o ne o f t hese f re ighters . T he l ong itud ina l c ore o f t he b reakwater was p robab ly t he f i rst s ect ion t o b e b u i lt . A s er ies o f wooden f orms was p repared o n s hore o r i n s ha l low water ( see O leson 1 985b ) . E ach f orm was b ased o n ar ectangu la r f rame b u i lt u p o n h eavy s l eeper b eams , w ith v ert ica l u pr igh ts i n serted i n to t hem .

T he u pr ights were t hen

b raced b y as er ies o f h or izonta l c ross-beams a nd p lanked o ver o n b oth t he ir s ides . A b ottom less f orm was c reated , w ith d oub le wa ll s a l a round , d iv ided i n to n arrow c o mpartments b y t he u pr ights .

T hese c ompa rtments w ith in t he d oub le wal ls were

t hen f i l led w ith a l i qu id m ixture o f as pec ia l morta r - w ith a h igh p roport ion o f v o lcan ic a sh m ixed w ith l ime . Accord ing t o o ne p oss ib le i n terpretat ion ( Raban ) , t he p oured c ement was l e ft t o d ry o n t he s hore , s o i tb ecame l i ght e nough ( w ith a s pec if ic g rav ity o f o n ly 0 . 6 ; Append ix I I .D ) t o f loat . E ach f orm was t hen l aunched i n i t s t urn a nd t owed a f loat t o i t s d es ignated s i te . Reach ing t hat p o int , d ivers f i xed i t s f our l ower c orners w ith i r on c ha ins t o a nchors o n t he s ea-f loor 2 -3 m b e low .

T he morta r w ith in t he d oub le wa l ls was s oon s oaked b y t he s ea-water ,

g a in ing e xtra w e ight a nd c aus ing t he f o rm t o s i nk g radua l ly t o t he s ea-f loor , wh ich h ad b een c leared a nd l eve l led p rev iou s ly . A r ubb le b erm was t hen b u i lt u p a ga inst t he e dges o f t he f orm i n o rder t o p rotect t he b ase o f t he b lock a ga inst u ndert rench ing a nd f l u id izat ion .

Accord ing t o a n a l ternate e xp lana t ion ( O leson 1 985b ,

1 988 ) , t he f orms were b u i lt i n s ha l low water , t owed i n to p os it ion , a nd s unk b y a ddi ng l i qu id morta r t o t he wa l l c ompartments .

Once t he f orms s ecure ly r ested o n

t he s ea-f loor , t hey were f i l led w ith a m ixture o f sma l l r ubb le a nd h ydrau l ic mortar t hat c ured e ven i n c ontact w ith t he s ea-water . I n t h is way , t he c ore o f t he b reakwaters was c onstructed o f as er ies o f c onc rete b locks w ith r ubb le f i l l b etween . T he r eta in ing wa l l o n t he e xterna l s ide may t hen h ave b een s ecured b y s ett ing l ong k urkar b locks a t t he e dge o f t he r ubb le s p il l w ith t he ir s hort e nd s f ac ing o ut . T he work c ont inued w ith a s econd , p a ra l le l wa l l b u i lt w ith in t he c i rcumference o f t he s p ina l wa l l , a s t he b a se f or t he i nner

2 88

V I .E : Reconstruct ion o f Harbour

q uay . These t wo p ara l le l s tructures may p oss ib ly h ave b een c onnected b y s paced c ross-wa l ls , c reat ing a s er ies o f l arge wa l led c ompart ments r i s ing t o a bout waterl eve l . T hese c ompartments were t hen f i l led w ith s and e ither n atura l ly d epos ited b y t he s urge o r d redged f rom t he f loor o f t he h arbour b as in , o r f rom t he s ea-f loor o uts ide t he h a rbour . A t h ird wa l l wa s t hen b u i lt p a ra l le l t o t he ma in b ody o f t he b reakwater , b ut s ome 3 0 m o uts ide i t .

T he t h ird , e xterna l wa l l was b u i lt i n t he

s ame manner a s t he r est o f t he s tructure , b ut n o t a s ac ont inuous l i ne . Gaps were l eft a t i nterva ls f or t he o utf low o f r ip-currents . T h is e xterna l wa l l was p robab ly what

J osephus r eferred t o a s t he

p ro l cumat ia ( "wave-breaker" )

( B . '

1 .411 ;

AJ

1 5 .335 h as p roku m ia ) . The s and-f i l led h o l lows b etween t he s p ina l a nd t he i nner wa l ls may t hen h ave b een c overed w ith a l ayer o f r ubb le o n wh ich t he p ave ment a nd s uperstructure were b u i lt . A long t he c entra l l i ne o f t he b reakwa ter , as ea-wa l l wa s b u i lt w ith t owers , t i pped a t t he e nd o f e ach b reakwater a rm w ith a n e xcept ional ly l arge s tructure .

T he t erm ina l t ower o n t he Northern B reakwater may h ave b een t he

h eadquarters o f t he h arbour p i lot , t he c u sto ms h ouse , o r a Roya l a dm in istrat ive c entre ; t hat o n t he t i p o f t he S outhern B reakwater was most l i ke ly a l i ghthou se a nd a watchtower , p oss ib ly c a l led D rus ion . I ns ide t he s ea-wa l l , a long t he I nner Quay w ith i t s moor ing f ac i l it ies , s torage v au lts w ere e rected , w ith a p aved p ro me nade i n f ront o f t he m . Noth ing was a dded o uts ide t he s p ina l wa l l , e xcept f or s ome r ubb le f ac ing a t t he b a se o f t he s ea-wa l l . The s pace b etween t h is wa l l a nd t he e xterna l p rokumat ia was l e ft h o l low , i n o rder t o s erve a s a wave-ca tcher , a bsorb ing wave e nergy a nd m in im iz ing s tructura l d amage a nd t he p assage o f s pray o ver t he s ea-wa l l t o t he s torage v au lts a nd p romenade . T he Outer B as in e ncompa ssed a bout 2 00 ,000 m 2 o f p rotected water , w ith b erth ing s pace o f a bout 6 00 m a long t he i nner q uay o f b oth mo les . S h ips p robab ly were t owed t o t he ir b erths b y h arbour b oats a fter t hey h ad c hecked i n a t t he e ntrance . T he I ntermed iate Ba s in p robab ly h ad a s er ies o f f l ush ing c hannel s a cross t he mo le o n i t s s outh s ide a nd d ock ing f ac i l it ies a nd s h ipyard s o n i t s n orth p art . T he water a rea i n i t was a bout h a lf t he s ize o f t he Outer B a s in a nd p robab ly a p rop ort ionate f igure f or t he t ota l b erth ing s pace a t i t s v ar ious q uays a nd p iers . The I nner B as in h ad a water a rea o f j ust l ess t han 5 000 m 2 ,w ith a bout 2 50 m o f q uay ( f ig . V I .1) . I n a dd it ion t o t he s torage v au lts o n t he t wo ma in mo les , t here were s ix l arger v au lts o n l and e ast o f t he I nner B as in . T hese v au lts were b u i lt a ga inst t he s outhe ast c orner o f what i sp robab ly a s urv iv ing s ect ion o f t he o lder c ity wa l l o f S trat on 's T ower a nd were i ncorporated w ith in t he p od iu m o f t he t e mp le t hat Herod d ed icated t o Rome a nd Augu stus . T he c ity wa l l s o f S traton 's Tower may h ave d e l ineated t he b ounda r ies o f t he t errestr ia l p ort ion o f S ebastos , wh ich may h ave e n joyed s ome s pec ia l s tatus .

A long w ith t he g rea t n ew h arbour , w ith a l l i t s f ac il i-

t i es , t he wa l l may h ave e ncompa ssed a s we l l a s t he o ld f i sh ing a nchlrage i n t he n orth a nd most o f t he J ew ish q uarter .

[ A .R . ]

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 89

V I .F : The S outh B ay . An a dd it iona l s er ies o f v au lts was b u i lt o uts ide S eba stos ' t err itory , a long t he s horel ine t o t he s outh , t oward t he t heatre . T h is S outh B ay wa s f lanked o n i t s s outh s ide b y ab road a nd l ow p romontory c arry ing t he p isc ina a ssoc iated w ith Herod 's p a lace . T h is b ay may h ave b een u sed d ur ing t he s a i l ing s easons i n e ar ly s um mer a nd f al l a s a n a nchorage f or l oca l t raders who p referred t o a vo id r oya l c ustoms , t axes a nd h a rbour f ees . I t may h ave c onst ituted a s ort o f mun ic ipa l h arb ou r f or t he c i ty o f C aesarea , wh i le S eba stos f unct ioned a s t he Roya l o ne . T he s p i l l o f r ubb le o n t he n orthwest s ide o f t h is b ay , a l though n ot p roper ly d ated , i nd ic ates t hat s ome e ffort may h ave b een made i n a nt iqu ity t o a dd f urther p rotect ion t o t h is b ody o f water .

T he n orthwestern f eature c ons ists o f as p il l o f r ubb le t hat

may h ave b een a dded t o an atu ra l r ocky o utcrop p ro ject ing c a . 7 5 m s outhwest f rom t he s outh e dge o f t he l ater Ha rbour C itade l . I fp roper ly f i n ished , s uch a mo le wou ld h ave d im in ished t he f orce o f t he n orthwest waves s t irred u p b y s um mer w inds .

The l ongshore f au lt l i ne t hat r uns a cross t he western s ide o f t he b ay h as

c aused t hat a rea t o s ink o ver 5 m b e low i t s l eve l a t Herod 's t ime , a nd most o f i t s o r ig ina l f eatures a re n ow c overed b y t he s andy s ea-f loor . T he merchantmen who u sed t he S outh B ay most l i ke ly d id n ot a tte mpt b erthi ng a t i t s s horel ine b ut l ay a t a nchor w ith in t he b ay , p robab ly i n t he n orthwest q uadrant , i n t he s he lter o f t he S outhern B reakwater . L igh ters a nd o ther h arbour b oats c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or t ransh ipments o f p eop le a nd g oods f ro m

t he

moored v esse ls t o t he s hore . S uch a p ract ice h a s b een c om mon a t L evant ine p orts t h roughout t he a ges , a nd i t was t he o n ly p oss ib le p rocedure a t h arbou r c it ies s uch a s Gaza , A shke lon , J affa , a nd Apo l lon ia . T he v au lted h orrea a long t he s hore o f t he S outh B ay s how t hat i t was i mportant f or t he s eaborne t rade o f t he c i ty . L ater o n , i n t he B yzant ine p er iod , t he n orthwest mo le may h ave d ecayed , a nd s h ip c apta ins p referred t he s ubmerged b as in o f S eba stos a s ab etter a nchorage . A t t hat t ime t he h orrea were n o l onger f unct ion ing . [ A .R . ]

V I .G : L ater Man-Made F eatures . T he g reat b reakwa ters o f Herod ian S eba stos f el l i n to d isrepa ir a nd t he Outer B as in e ventua l ly went o ut o f u se , p oss ib ly a s e a r ly a s t he t h ird c entu ry . T here a re s evera l p oss ib le e xp lanat ions f or s uch a f ate . I n t he f i rst p lace , S ebastos was b u i lt o n ag rand s ca le w ith e xtraord inary s oph ist icat ion . I t may h ave b een a n a ttempt b y Herod t o t ake a dvantage o f t he p o l it ica l s i tuat ion i n t he l a te 3 0 's o f t he l ast c entury B .C . a nd a ttract t he o ver land t ran s it t rade f rom t he I nd ian Ocean t o t he Med iterranean ( add ing t o i t h is o wn r oya l e xportat ion o f s a lt , a spha lt a nd my rrh f rom t he Dead S ea ) . A lternat ive ly , i t may r epresent t he mega loman ia o f ak ing whose amb it ions s urpassed t hose o f K ing S o lomon . I n a ny e ase , t he h a rbour h e b u i lt may h ave u l t imate ly t urned o ut t o b e t oo b ig f or t he n eeds o f l oca l s eaborne t rade , o r f or t he p rov inc ia l a uthor ity o f t he p ostHadr ian ic e ra o f p eace . I f , a s was s uggested a bove , S eba stos wa s n ot t he mun ic ipa l h arbour o f C aesarea , t he c i t izens o f t he c i ty wou ld n ot h ave p a id t he c osts o f i t s ma intenance . T h is t ask h ad t o b e t aken c a re o f b y t he Roman o ff ic ia ls o f t he

2 90

V I .G : L ater Man- Made F eatures

p rov ince . A fter s ubdu ing t he B ar Kochba r evo lt i n J udaea , t he Roman p rocurators who r es ided i n Caesarea h ad n o r ea l n eed t o ma inta in s uch a c ost ly h a rbour a nd may e ven h ave l acked t he t echno logy a nd t he f i nanc ia l r esources t o c ounteract t he e ver-g row ing r ate o f d ecay o f t he h arbour d ue t o t he n atura l p rocesses . The most d evastat ing o f t hese n atura l p rocesses was t he g radua l t ecton ic s ubmergence o f t he t wo g reat b reakweaters f ram ing t he Outer B as in . We d o n ot k now when t h is p rocess s tarted ; i t may a l ready h ave b een u nderway when t he h a rbour was u nder c onstruct ion a nd t he a dded b urden o f t he mo les h astened t he s ubs idence o f t he s ea-f loor , o r t hey may h ave t r iggered i t .

Once t he p roku mat ia ( the e ssen-

t ia l d ev ice t o r egu late wave e nergy ) f e l l i nto d isrepa ir , t he e ver i ncreas ing e ffect o f t he waves wou ld q u ick ly h ave i nf l icted s er ious d amage . I t i s u nderstandab le t hat s omet ime d ur ing t he L ate Roman p er iod p ort ions o f t he S outhern B reakwater a nd i t s s uperstructure h ad d isappeared b e low t he waves . A lthough Caesarea c ont inued t o t h r ive a nd t o b e t he ma in p ort o f e ntry t o t he c ountry , mar it ime a ct iv it ies must h ave b een a ffected .

Neverthe less , t he p rosper-

i ty o f t he c ity d oes n ot s eem t o h ave s uffered u ndue ly f ro m t he d ecay o f S ebastos . A rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o n l and d o n ot d ocument a ny c r is is i n t he u rban l i fe t hat m ight b e a ttr ibuted t o t he f act t hat S eba stos w ent o ut o f u se a s as afe , y earr ound h aven .

I f i t h ad n ot b een f or a s ing le h istor ica l d ocument , n o o ne wou ld

h ave c ons idered t he p oss ib i l ity t hat " the h arbour o f t he c ity n a med a fter Caesar h ad d is integ rated t h rough a ge , a nd l ay o pen t o e very t hreat o f t he s ea . I t s s truct ure n o l onger measured u p t o t he c ategory o f t he h arbour , b u t o f i t s f ormer c ond it ion i t k ept t he n ame a lone . You d id n ot i gnore h er a s s he a sked f or h e lp , c ont inua l ly b ewa i l ing t he merchant v esse ls t hat a fter e scap ing t he o pen s ea , o ften w recked i n t he h arbour ."

T h is d id t ake p lace w ith in t he t h r iv ing Byzant ine e ra o f

Caesarea . T h is e ntry i s f rom a p anegyr ic o f P rocop ius , t he B ishop o f Gaza , t o Ana stas ius ( 491-518 ) , who r enovated S ebastos ( Panegyr icus 1 9 , t rans lated b y O les on ;

O leson e t a l . 1 984 : 2 94 , n . 2 0 ) . E v idence g athered b y CAHEP n ot o n ly v a l idates t h is h istor ic t ext , b u t s ug-

g ests t hat t he s tate o f t he h a rbour a s d escr ibed b y P rocop ius wa s t he r esu lt o f a l ong p rocess o f d ecay .

I n t he f i rst p lace , g eo morph ic , s ed i mentary , a nd s trat i-

g raph ic d ata f ro m A rea L w ith in t he I ntermed iate B a s in o f S eba stos , i nd icate t hat t h is s i te was e xposed t o t he s ea t o much t he s ame e xtent a s a t p resent .

A

c rescent-shaped b each w ith a s teep g rad ient a nd d epos it ions o f c oarse s and , s h ing les , a nd wave-worn s herd s was f ound t o c over t he P ier , Quay , a nd a p laster f loor t hat was l a id a bove t he b ack o f t he P ier i n t he l ate s econd c entury . These o pen b each d epos its p redate a sh lar wa l ls o f L ate R o man b u i ld ings t hat were c ut i nto t he m i n t he t h ird o r e a r ly f ourth c entury ( Sect ion I I .K ) . S econd ly , n u merous w reck s i tes were f ound o n t op o f t he s ub merged b reakwaters .

T hese s i tes c onta in h eaps o f b a l la st s tones a nd p i les o f c oncreted s herds

o f amphoras a nd o ther v esse ls . T he e ar l iest d atab le s herds f rom t hese c ontexts b e long t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c entury , i nd icat ing t hat b y t hat t ime merch ant men were a tte mpt ing t o s a i l a cross t he a lready s ubmerged b reakwater . T h ird ly , t he s p i l l o f r ubb le a long t he i nner s ide o f t he Northern B reakwater a nd f arther t o t he west , a cross t he h arbour E ntrance Channe l a nd o n t op o f t he n orthern p a rt o f t he S outhern B reakwater , may h ave b een l a id t here b y Anasta-

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 91

s ius , e ar ly i n t he s ixth c entury . S herds t hat were f ound i n A rea H u nderneath t h is s p il l a re f rom t he L ate R oman a nd E a r ly B yzant ine e ras , p redat ing t he s p il l . No l a ter a ttempts t o r enova te t he s ubmerged p art o f S ebastos w ere e ver d ocumented b y e ither h istor ica l t exts o r a rchaeo log ica l d ata . On t he n orth s ide o f t he I n termed iate B a s in o n ly t he e astern , i nnermost s ide o f t he h a rbour was s t i l l f unct ion ing i n t he f ourth t hrough t enth c entur ies .

F arther

o ut , i n A rea L , t he b u ild ing s o f t hat p er iod were s ee m ing ly b u i lt w ith t he ir b acks t o t he s ea , w ith n o mar it ime f unct ion .

I n A rea S t here was a s er ies o f wa rehouses

f ac ing s outh t oward t he w ater , j ust w est o f t he s ea-wa l l W 1( Sect ion I I .K ) . T hese s tructures were s tud ied a l so b y L ev ine a nd Netzer ( 1986 : 5 8-65 ) who f ind e v idence t o d ate t he m f rom t he l a te t h ird c entury u p t o t he t enth . A t t he f i rst s tage , t he c entra l o ne h ad a n o pen ing w ith t wo s ta irs l ead ing t o t he waterfront . T hese wa reh ouses were r ebu i lt s evera l t imes d ur ing t he B yzant ine p er iod , a nd e ventual ly , i n t he Ea r ly Arab p er iod , t he t h ird f rom t he west was r emode led a s av at w ith s ix c ompartments , most p robab ly f or t he s torage o f o l ive o i l . S im i lar b ins ( o f s ix a nd f our c hambers ) w ere e xcavated b y Negev a t t he f oot o f t he T emp le P od ium , e ast o f t he I nner Ba s in . A lso o f B yzant ine d ate i s t he a sh lar p av ing i n t he r ock-cut b as in t hat s erved e ar l ier a s t he I nner B a s in . B y t hat t ime t he a lready l andlocked b as in was i nund ated b y t he r i s ing g round-water , d ue t o t he r i s ing s ea l eve l . A t t h is t ime , as egment o f t he b as in a t i t s n ortheast s ide was s e lected f or r efurb ishment a s a f reshwater t ank , p erhaps a s p art o f an ymphaeu m . T he o r ig ina l b ase o f t he h o l low was t hen l eve led a nd r a ised b y as er ies o f l oose lyla id a sh la r s labs . T he s urface o f t h is p av ing was b u ilt j ust a bove t he i n terface i n t he water-tab le b etween s eawater a nd t he f resh water f l oat ing a bove i t . S ome p art it ion wa l ls w ere s et o n t op o f t h is f loor d iv id ing t he a rea i n to a s er ies o f smal ler b a s ins . T he d ate o f t h is s tructure i s a ttested b y t he p ost-Byzant ine b each d epos it t hat c overs i t . Dur ing t he Med ieva l e ra t h is s i te was h igh a nd d ry , a s c an b e d educed f rom t he r emnants o f ap r ivate h ouse a t t he s i te . A lso o f t he B yzant ine e ra i s t he mass ive s ea-wal l i n A rea J ( Sect ion I I . ! ) . Over 3 0 m o f t h is 4 .6 m w ide wa l l s urv ive , a l though i n ad amaged c ond it ion . I t s h ighest s urv iv ing s urface i s a bout 1 .4 m a bove MSL , a nd i t wa s b u i lt w ith in a wooden f orm o f wh ich s ome r ema ins a re s t i l l v is ib le i n t he s outhwest c orner o f t he e astern s egment , u nder 0 . 5 i n o f water . T h is wa l l may h ave b een b u i lt t o r eta in t he l and s tructures a nd t o p rotect t hem f rom t he r i s ing s ea l eve l . A t a bout t he s ame t ime , o n t he s outh s ide o f t he s outhern p romontory , n ext t o t he P isc ina , t he westernmost s ect ion o f t he s outhern B yzant ine c i ty wa l l was b u i lt , p robab ly a s p art o f t he f ortress t hat was b u i lt a round t he s i te o f t he t heatre . E ast o f t h is wa l l , o n t he s outhern e dge o f t he p romontory 's l ee , t here i s aq uay o r l and ing s tage b u i lt o f a sh la r s labs , p oss ib ly t he r emnant o f a sma l l B yzant ine f i she rmen 's h aven ( Sect ion I V .D ) . Many s tructures were b u i lt a t t he s i te o f S ebastos d ur ing t he C rusader p er iod ( Sect ion I I .0 , R .2 ) . O f t hese , t he b etter c and idates f or a ma r it ime f unct ion a re t hose n ow i nundated , o r t he w a l ls wh ich were b u i lt o n ab a se c ou rse o f r eused c o lumns .

B ases o f t h is t ype c an b e s een o n t he t owers a round t he Harbour C itade l , a t

t he moat t hat s eparated t he C itade l f rom t he r est o f t he C rusader t own , o n t he

2 92

V I .G : L ater Man- Made F eatures

wa l l t hat o ver la id t he Herod ian q uay i n CAHEP 's A rea Q , a nd t he a rched s truct ures t hat p ro jected s outhwest o f t he Ha rbour C itade l , i n to t he S outh B ay . T he a rch itectura l r e ma ins o f t h is l ast s tructu re w ere d ismant led i n 1 949 , i nc lud ing a t unne l wh ich l ed a t waterleve l t oward t he s ou th .

A s im i lar p assage l ed f rom t he

w estern c ourtyard o f t he C itade l t oward t he s i te o f t he p resent h arbour . T h is p ass age may i nd ica te t hat t he I n termed iate B a s in o f S ebastos b ecame t he

ma in

a nchorage o f t he C rusaders . F arther e ast a long t he n orthern e dge o f t he p romont ory , j ust i n s ide t he n orthea st t ower o f t he C itade l , t here wa s a ma rb le s ta irca se l ead ing t o t he water . F urther t o t he e ast , o n t he l andward s i de o f t he moat , t here were t wo r ectang u lar t owers . About 5 0 m n orth o f t he North T ower , i n c a . 2m o f water , t here a re t he r ema ins o f a nother , h eav i ly r u ined t ower t hat h a s b een s tr ipped o f most o f i t s a sh lar f ac ing , p robab ly e ar ly i n t he n ineteenth c entury , o r l a ter o n b y t he B osn ia ns , s ea rch ing f or b u i ld ing mater ia ls f or t he ir n ew h ouses o r c lear ing a l and ing f or t he ir f i sh ing b oats . T h is t ower s tood a t t he e nd o f t he C rusader s ea-wa l l t hat c onf i ned t he t own o n t he west . S ome k ind o f q uay w as a d jacent t o t he e ast s ide o f t h is wa l l a t t he p resent ly s ubmerged s ect ion i n t he b ack o f t he I nner B as in , a l t he way f rom t he s quare t ower t o t he s i te o f W 2 20 i n A rea S ( Sect ion I I .Q ) . I ts ee ms a s i ft he C rusaders h ad s ome k ind o f s ha l low i nner b as in w ith in t he ir s ea-wal l , a nd a q uay n ext t o i ti n wh ich t he water was l e ss t han 1 .2 m d eep . T h is q uay was a bout 8 0 m l ong a nd j ust o ver 5 m w ide f ro m i t s o uter e dge t o t he e ast f ace o f t he s ea-wa l l . T he q uay h ad i t s b ase a t i t s n orth e nd , o n t he o ther s ide o f t he b ay i n A rea S , where i t was i ncorporated i n to a p aved r ampart o n t he w est s ide o f W 2 20 , wh ich i t se lf h ad b een r enovated b y t he C rusaders . T he p latform o f c e mented r ubb le c overed t he waterfront p ort ion o f t he f ormer warehouses . T hey m igh t h ave b een r eused f or t he ir o r ig ina l p urpose , e xcept f or t he w estern o ne , wh ich wa s i ncorporated i n to a b ast ion o r ac orner t ower o f t he C rusader s ea wa l l . B eh ind t hat c orner , t he s ea-wa l l c ont inues i t s c ourse n orthward , a nd i t s r emnants c an s t i l l b e t raced a cross t he Herod ian p ier i n A rea L .

A t t hat t ime t he s ea l eve l

was l ower t han t he p resent o ne a nd t he s horel ine i n A rea L wa s a t a bout t he l i ne o f t he mass o f b each-rock t hat c overs t he t i p o f t he Herod ian p ier . About 1 5 m d ue s outh t here i s t he s tem o f al ong j etty t hat was b u i lt o f r eused Roman c o lumns . T h is Co lumn J etty s tarted o ff f rom t he Med ieva l b each j ust o uts ide a n a l leged s ea-gate t hat was a d jacent t o t he n orth f l ank o f t he c orner t ower o f t he C rusader s ea-wa l l . T he b ase o f t he j etty wa s s ome 3 0 m west o f t he p ro jected c ourse o f t he s ea-wa l l . I t wa s 5 .5 m w ide ( p robab ly d ictated b y t he l ength o f t he R oman c o lumn d rums t ha t were p lundered f rom t he c o lonnaded s treets o f t he e arl i er c i ty ) a nd p roceeded d ue w est f or a bout 7 5 m , w ith t he b ases o f t he c o lumn s a t p resent i n a bout 0 .5 m o f water . I t was l a id o n a n a bras ive p latform o f ma r inec e mented d ebr is a l l t he way t o i t s w estern t i p . T here , t he j etty 's c ourse d iverged t oward t he s outhwest , i n t he d i rect ion o f t he t i p o f t he p romontory o n t he o ther s ide o f t he b ay . T h is s tretch o f t he j etty i sn ow w e l l b e low t he water , a nd i ts eems a s i ft he u nder ly ing p latform h as c rumb led s i nce i t wa s b u ilt . T he c o lumns o f t h is p art o f t he j etty a re n ow t i lted e a stward a nd s ome a re t u mb led o ff t he l i ne o f t he s tructure . T hese c o lu mns c an b e t raced f or a n a dd it iona l d istance o f c a . 5 0 m , g ivi ng t he j etty a t ota l l eng th o f 1 25-130 m .

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 93

T h is j etty e ncompa sses t he n orth a nd n orthwest s ides o f t he p resent b a s in , c onf in ing a water a rea f or t he C rusader h arbour o f a bout t he s ame a s t he modern o ne . T he water d epth o n t he west p art o f t h is b as in , a nd maybe n ext t o t he t ip o f t he Co lu mn J etty , wa s g reat e nough f or b erth ing t he s ea-go ing s h ips o f t he t ime , p robab ly f or n o more t han t wo o r t hree o f t hem a t o nce , i n o n ly a p art ly p rotected h aven , s afe e nough f or s hort-per iod moor ing o n ly .

F arther n orth , t he r emnants o f

t he b ase c ourse o f t he C rusader s ea-wa l l a re t o b e s een i n t he water a f ew metres o ff t he p resent s horel ine , b eh ind t he s tem o f t he modern n orth p ier , o n al i ne t hat l ed t o t he t i p o f t he n orthern c i ty wa l l a nd i n ap os it ion more e aster ly t han t he s outh s ect ion o f t hat s ea-wa l l . T h is r ecessed l i ne i nd icates t hat t he e xten s ive wave e ros ion a t t he n orthea st c orner o f t he I n termed iate Ba s in o f S ebastos t ook p lace a lready b efore t he Med ieva l e ra . [ A .R . ]

VLH : L and-Sea Re lat ions . Dur ing t he a rchaeo log ica l work b y CAHEP , CMS , a nd o ther g roups , d a ta h as b een g athered c oncern ing e v idence f or l and-sea r e lat ions d ur ing h i stor ica l p er iod s . S uch c hanges i nc lude r i s ing , s ubs id ing , t i lt ing , s lump ing , e tc . S ome ma jor work h as b een c arr ied o ut b y I s rael i g eo log ists s ince t he 1 960 's i n Caesarea a nd t he v ic in ity , o n l and a nd i n t he s ea , s tud ies o f t ecton ic a nd o ther c hanges t ha t r ad ica l ly a ffected t he l and-sea r e lat ions ( see N eev e t a l . 1 978 , 1 987 , a nd t he e xten s ive b ibl i ography t here ) . T hese d ea lt w ith g eo log ica l lylate p henomena wh ich c annot b e c a l ibrated w ith t he s ame p rec is ion a s h i stor ica l o nes . T he f u l l c r it ica l d iscuss ion o f t he i s sue w i l l b e i nc luded i n V o lume I V , w ith a n a ttempt t o s ett le t he d iscrepenc ies b etween v ar ious i n terpretat ions a nd s ets o f d ata . A s um mar ized l i st o f t he a rchaeo log ica l ly a ttested e v idence f or s uch c hanges i s p resented h ere , f or t he t ime t he s i te o f Caesa rea was s ett led . T he e ffect o f s uch c hanges o n t he p eop le o f Caesarea wou ld h ave b een ma jor , most o f a l l f or t he ir ma r it ime i n sta l lat ions , b ut a lso f or t he ir n ear-shore b u i ld ings , water-tab le , q ua l ity a nd a va i lab i l ity o f f reshwater s upp ly , a nd a gr icu lture . T h is l i st i sp resented w ith a m in imum o f a nnotat ion a nd i n t wo s ect ion s :

v er-

t i ca l c hanges a nd h or izonta l c hanges .

Re lat ive Changes o f Mean S ea L eve l .

T here i s ac ons iderab le amount o f

e v idence i n t he h a rbour f or r e lat ive c hanges o f MSL ( s ee F lem m ing e t a l . 1 978 ) . a . A r a ised a bras ive p latform i n A rea J i nd icates a s ea l eve l h igher b y a bout 1 . 2-1.3 m f or s o me p er iod p r ior t o t he t h ird c entury B .C . T he r e lat ive i n tegr ity o f t hat p latform i n t he s ect ions t hat were b u i lt u pon i n t he He l len ist ic e ra s uggests t hat t h is p latform was c reated n ot l ong b efore t hat p er iod .

T he s ame t ype o f e le-

v ated p latform was f ound o n t he s outh p romontory o f t he P isc ina , o ver 1 km f art her s outh , a nd a t K rokode i lonpo l is , s ome 3 .5 km t o t he n orth . S o , i t m ight b e c ons idered e i ther t he r esu lt o f at ecton ic u p l ift o f as egment o f t he c oast a t l east 5 -8 km l ong , o r a s a n i nd icat ion o f ae ustat ica l ly h igher s ea l eve l i n a n e a r l ier h ist or ica l p er iod .

2 94

V I .H : L and-Sea Re lat ions b . T he l eve l o f t he s l ab f loor a t t he He l len ist ic r ock-cut t anks i n A rea J , a nd

t he e levat ion o f t he d ra in h o les t hrough t he p art it ion wa l ls b etween t hem a nd t he s ea , m ight i nd icate a s ea l eve l l ower t han t he p resent MSL b y 0 .3-0 .4 m , o r more . The s ame t ype o f i nd icat ion c an b e d educed f rom t he e levat ion o f t he f oundat ion o f t he s outhern wa l l o f t he P od ium V au lt i n A rea 1 3 ( p robe 1 )a nd f rom t he l i ne o f O strea o n W 1i n A rea S . T hese d ata f i t i n w ith i n format ion f rom o ther s i tes a long t he c oa st o f I s rae l a nd m ight b e e ustat ic i n c haracter ( N ir & E ldar 1 987 , f ig . 5 ; Raban & Ga l i l i 1 985 , f ig . 2 6 ) . e . T he b ase o f t he r ock-cu t f lush ing c hanne l w ith s lu ice g ate i n A rea Q o n t he s outhwest t ip o f t he p romontory o f t he Ha rbour C itade l wa s r e lated t o as ea l eve l much l i ke t he p resent o ne . S im i la r c onc lus ions a re i nd icated b y t he e levat ion o f t he Herod ian l eve l i n A rea J ( both i n t he r ock-cut c hambers a nd t he c ourse o f b locks w ith d oveta i l c lamp mark s o n t op o f t he He l len ist ic q uay ) . d . S tructures o n t he waterl ine t hat were i n u se d ur ing t he l atter p a rt o f t he f i rst c entury a nd i n t he s econd c entury i nd icate t hat t he s ea l eve l was g radua l ly r i s ing , v ery p robab ly f or e ustat ic r easons ( s ee a lso B loch 1 981 ;

Raban & Ga l i l i

1 985 : 3 39-49 ) . T h is c an b e a ttested b y t he e levat ion o f t he P ise ina a nd i t s f eed ing c hanne ls i n A rea P , t he s o lut ion n otch o n t he f ace o f t he I nner Quay i n

I i ,

a nd t he

c e ment f loor o n t op o f t he e astern p art o f t he p ier i n A rea L . T he s ealeve l a t t hat t ime was 0 .2-0 .3 m a bove t he p resent o ne . e . T he e ustat ic r i se i n s ea l eve l c ont inued t h rough t he l ater R o man p er iod a nd a l l t hrough t he B yzant ine e ra . T he l a te Roman b each i n A rea L , w ith t he b eachr ock o n t op o f t he p ier a ttest s uch a t rend , a s we l l a s t he r e lat ive ly h igh e levat ion o f t he f oundat ion t renches o f t he n earby a sh lar wa l ls . T he e levat ion o f t he ma r ine f auna o n t he l ee s ide o f t he wal ls i n l ocus 2 19 i n A rea S i nd icates a s ea l eve l 0 .7 m h igher t han t he p resent i n t he B yzant ine p er iod . T he s ame f igure m ight f i t t he mass ive s ea-wa l l a nd w el l i n A rea J ( Raban & S t ieg l itz 1 987 ) . f . T he n umerous c isterns t hat w ere b u i lt d ur ing t he E a r ly A rab p er iod a re r e lated t o a water-tab le h igher t han t he p resent o ne b y a t l ea st 0 .4-0 .6 m . S uch a re t he c isterns i n CAHEP 's A reas S a nd M4 ( 1987 ) , a nd t hose e xcavated b y Negev a t t he f oot o f t he t e mp le p od ium . S ome o f t hese c i sterns b ea r e v idence o f h av ing b een d eepened i n as econd p hase , s uggest ing t hat t he waterleve l s ubs ided d ur ing t he t ime p er iod b etween t he e ighth a nd t he e leventh c entur ies . B ut t he MSL was h igher t han t he p resent o ne t h rough most o f t h is p er iod . g . Dur ing t he f i rst h a lf o f t he t h irteenth c entury , t he C ru saders i n C aesarea b u i lt s tructures t hat s ee m t o r e late t o as ea l eve l l ower t han t he p resent o ne . The b ind ing a sh lar f loor w ith in t he c o lumn j etty , wh ich i s n ow u nder 0 .3-0 .4 m o f water , i nd icates a s ea l eve l l ower b y a t l ea st 0 .6-0 .7 m t han t he p resent MSL . The s ame f i gure f i ts t he e levat ion o f t he i r on-c lamped c ourse o f b locks W 2 20 i n A rea S .

A s im i lar c onc lus ion c omes f rom t he p resent e leva t ion o f t he b ase c ourse o f

r eused c o lumns i n t he S outh Moat T ower a nd t he s outheast t ower o f t he Harbour C itade l i n A rea M a nd t hat o f t he p assage t hat wa s s urveyed i n 1 949 o n t he s outhwest s ide o f t he C itade l . h . T he p resent e levat ion o f t he s ubmerged q uay , t he s ea-wa l l a nd t he r ectang u lar t ower i n A rea T 2 i nd icates t he s ame t rend o f al ower s ea l eve l a t t he t ime o f t he C rusaders . Yet , a s h a s b een s uggested a bove , t here a re i nd icat ions o f o ther

Chapter V I : S um mary D iscuss ion

2 95

c auses f or t he s ubs idence o f t hese s tructures b es ide e ustat ie c hange i n s ea l eve l . T hese c auses m ight h ave b een s l ump ing , f lu id izat ion , a nd maybe e ven s ome t ect on ic d rop w ith in a v ery c onf ined a rea a t t he c entre p art o f t he I n termed iate B a s in .

Movement

o f

S hore-L ine .

Hor izonta l

c hanges

a re

a rchaeo log ica l ly

a ttested b y e ither t errestr ia l man-made s tructures wh ich a re n ow i nundated o ff t he s horel ine , o r b y ma r it ime i n sta l lat ions wh ich a re l and locked a t p resent t ime . T he c auses f or h or izonta l c hanges m ight b e e i ther v ert ica l c hanges i n l and-sea r e lat ions o f n atura l c haracter , o r ab y-product o f s uch c hanges r epresented b y f urt her wave e ros ion , o r a dd it iona l b each d epos its . S uch i n terrupted e qu i l ibr ium o f c oa sta l p rocesses m igh t b e t r iggered a l so b y h uman a ct iv it ies wh ich c hange t he c onf igurat ion o f t he c oastl ine ( s ee N ir 1 982a , 1 985 ) . I n Caesarea s evera l s uch c hanges were o bserved a nd a re s um mar ized b e low ( f rom n orth t o s outh ) . a . About 3 00 m o f t he H igh-Leve l Aqueduct wa s washed away b y t he s ea n orth o f t he o ut let o f t he Herod ian s ewer t unne l , s ome 7 00 m NE o f S ebastos ( f igs . 1 . 17 , a , 1 . 34 ) .

T he e xtent o f c oa sta l r etreat i sa t l east 5 0 m a nd s eems t o b e c ont inu ing

a t p resent . T he h istor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t hat t h is a queduct was f unct ion ing u nt i l t he e nd o f t he B yzant ine e ra may i nd icate t hat n eg l igence p lus a r i s ing s ea l eve l h ave c aused t he d estruct ion , p oss ib ly t r iggered b y t he c onstruct ion o f H erod 's h arbour ( N ir 1 985 ) . b . T he p resent waterl ine o n t he e a st s ide o f A rea J i sc lear ly p ost-Byzant ine . B oth t he He l len ist ic q uay a nd t he B yzant ine s ea-wa l l e nded 3 0 m west o f t he s outhea st c orner o f t he b ay , a nd i ts ee ms a s i f a t al a ter t ime ( maybe o n ly i n t he p ost-Crusader e ra ) t h is 3 0 m o f l and was washed a way b y t he waves . T he s teep c left a bove t he p resent n arrow , s easona l b each i n t hat c orner c onta ins d issected f l oors , wa lls , v ar ious o ther man-made i n stal lat ions , a nd a sma l l s egment o f a sh lar p aved s treet , d at ing t o p er iods u p t o t he B yzant ine . F a rther t o t he n orth , t he w estern e nd o f t he n orth c i ty wa l l i s m iss ing , a lso washed a way b y t he waves ( f ig . 1 . 17 , b ) . e . T he s horel ine a long t he n orthwest s ect ion o f t he C rusader t own , b etween i t s n orth wa l l a nd t he modern n orth p ier , i sr etreat ing c ont inuous ly . I ts ee ms a s i f t he C rusaders managed t o s top t h is p rocess t emporar i ly b y i n sta l l ing t he ir s eawa l l a cross t he s tretch o f s hore , b ut a t p resent t he r ema ins o f t h is wa l l a re i n t he water , a bout 1 0-15 m w est o f t he s teep s l ope o f t umb l ing l and s tructures ( f ig . 1 . 17 , f ) .

On t he o ther s ide o f t h is modern p ier , t here i s as ma l l s andy b each wh ich h as

f ormed t here s i nce t he c onstruct ion o f t h is f eature i n 1 961 .

T he p ier i sn ow i n a n

a dvanced s tate o f d ecay , w ith i t s b ase u ndertrenehed b y t he s urge o n i t s n orth s i de . T h is modern b each i so n t he s i te o f al arger a nc ient o ne , t hat l asted a t l east f rom t he t ime t he ma in H erod ian b reakwater h ad l ost i t s i n tegr ity u nt i l t he p ostC rusader p er iod . J udg ing f rom t he l ocat ion o f t he b a se o f t he ir c o lumn j etty , t h is b each was a bout 3 0 m w ide a nd t he s ea f ront t hat s ame d istance f arther west t han a t p resent ( f igs . 1 . 17 , g , 1 . 37 ) . d . We d o n ot h ave c lear d ata f or d ry l and t hat h as s ubmerged d ue t o t he a ct ive l ongshore f au lt l i ne t hat c aused t he s ubmergence o f t he Herod ian b reakwaters . N everthe less , o ne m ight a rgue t hat p r ior t o H erod 's t ime , t he t ips o f t he r ocky

2 96

V I .H : L and-Sea Re lat ions

p romontor ies o n wh ich t hese b reakwaters w ere b ased w ere a bove t he water f urt her t o t he w est . e . T he o ffset p lates o f b each-rock a t t he s outh s ide o f t he S outhern B ay i nd ic ate t hat t he c oa stl ine t here i s r etreat ing q u ite r ap id ly a t p resent .

T h is c an b e

a ttested b y t he c hunks o f r ecent ly t umb led b ed-rock o n t he n ortheast s i de o f t he p romontory o f t he P isc ina i n A rea P . Y et t here i sn o e v idence f or a ny r ea l c hange i n t he l ocat ion o f t he s horel ine a long t he r est o f t hat b ay s ince t he R oman e ra . S ome u ndated b each-rock o n t he f loor o f t hat b ay a nd i t s r ocky t opography c ou ld b e u sed t o s uggest t hat t here o nce were t wo sma l ler b ays h ere , w ith t he ir b eaches 2 0-30 m f a rther t o t he west . B ut s o f ar t h is t entat ive r econstruct ion c annot b e d ated ( f igs . 1 . 17 , e , I V .2-3 ) . f . S outh o f t he P isc ina a nd a l l a long t he s hore o f K ibbutz S edot Y am , t here a re r emnants o f B yzant ine s t ructures o n t he w ater a nd j ust o ff s hore ( Sect ion I V .D ) , b ut t hese r e mnants h ave n ot y et b een s tud ied a nd o ne c annot t e l l h ow f ar a nd h ow d eep i n to t he s ea t hey e xtend , o r what t he r easons a re f or t he ir s ubmerg ence . I n t he p resent s tage o ne c an o n ly a rgue t hat t h is s tretch o f c oast h as r etreated s omewhat s i nce t he B yzant ine e ra . T he a bove s urvey o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or c hang ing l and-sea r e lat ions e xc luded s uch man-made f eatures t hat m ight b e a rgued a s h av ing b een o ffset d ue t o t umb l ing o f t he b ase o n wh ich t hey w ere l a id . S uch a re t he s unken p avement ( ? ) n ea r t he P isc ina , o r t he C o lumn J etty a t t he n orthern s ewer o ut let .

T here i sg eo-

morpho log ica l e v idence f or a n a nc ient c oasta l b a s in a t t he s i te o f t he p resent n ear s hore water , a s i t i s a ttested b y t he s ub-bottom o f c lay i n A rea Y a nd o ff a nd u nder t he b each o f K ibbutz S edot Y am . Yet t he d a te o f t h is t errest ia l b as in i s much o lder t han t he e ar l iest s uggested d ate f or t he f oundat ions o f S traton 's T ower , s o i ti si r re levant t o t he p resent s urvey . We d id n ot ment ion i n t he a bove s urvey t he e ase o f s o-ca l led " up l ifted n atura l b each d epos its" o f s h ing les a nd s ea s he l ls t ha t were f ound o n t op o f t he s and d unes t hat c over t he B yzant ine s tructures a long t he s outh b ay , o r i n t he t renches o f t he J o int E xped it ion i n t he ir F ie ld C .

T hese p ost-Byzant ine , o r e ven p ost-Crusader

" H igh B eaches" a s i t h as b een a l leged b y N eev a nd h is c o l leagues ( Neev e t a l . 1 987 ; S ect ion I .A .2) , a re n ot a rchaeo log ica l ly d ocumented a nd m ight b e e xp la ined i n o ther ways , s uch a s b e ing n atura l d epos its o f d ecomposed man-made s t ructures . S ea s he ll s were c o m mon c omponents i n f loor f i l l s a nd i n b ind ing c ement , a t l east s i nce t he B yzant ine e ra , a nd were t o b e f ound i n s uch s tructures a l l o ver Caes a rea .

( A .R . ]

B IBL IOGRAPHY

Abe l , F ranQo is-Mar ie 1 914

" Le l i ttora l p a lest in ien e t s es p orts ."

Revue

B ib l ique

1 1 :

5 56-90 , p l s . 1 . 1-2 , 1 .1-2 , f i g . 6 . 1 923

" La l i st g eog raph ique d u p apyru s 7 1 d e Z enon ."

Revue B ib-

l i que 3 2 : 4 09-15 . ,a nd B a rro is , A . 1 931

" Fragments d e C esa ree l a metropo le ."

Revue B ib l ique 4 0 :

2 94-95 . Adam , J .-P . 1 982

L 'Arch itecture m i l ita ire g recque .

P a r is : P ica rd .

A lbert o f Aachen 1 879

" H istor ia H ieroso lym itana ." P p . 2 65-713 i n Recu i l d es H is tor i ens d es C ro isades . H is tor iens o cc identaux , P ar is : I mpr imer ie n at iona le .

A lbr iec i , A . 1 962

" L 'orehestra d ip inta d e l t eatro E rod iano d i Caesarea Mar it ima ."

B o l lett ino d 'Ar te d e l M in istero d e l la P ubb l ica I s truz-

l one 4 : 2 89-304 . A lt , D . A lbrech t 1 924

" Ep ig raph ische Nach lese ( Caesarea G rabste in ) ."

Z e itschr ift

d es Deutschen P a läs t ina-Vere ins 4 7 : 9 8-99 , n o . 1 0 . Am iran , D .H .K . 1 950-51

" A

R ev ised

E arthquake-Cata logue

o f

P a lest ine ."

I s rae l

o f

P a lest ine ."

I s rae l

E xp lorat ion J ourna l 1 :2 23-46 . 1 952

" A

R ev ised

E arthquake-Cata logue

E xp lorat ion J ou rna l 2 : 4 6-62 . App lebaum , S h imon 1 954

" Bu r sgar i i a nd b urg i i n E retzIsrae l ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc i-

e ty 1 8 : 2 02-208 . ( Hebrew ) A shkenas i , T ov ia B . 1 931

D ar , Caesarea a nd Wad i

Hawar ith .

B er l in/Te l Av iv :

A .Y .

S t iebe l . ( Hebrew ) Av itsur , S . 1 971

" Waterm i l ls i n E retzIsrae l a nd t he ir C ontr ibut ion t o Water P ower T echno logy ." P p . 3 93-99 i n T ransact ions o f t he 2 nd I n ternat iona l Conference o n Mo l ino logy .

May 1 969 .

L yngby .

2 98

B ib l iography

Av i-Yonah , M ichae l 1 956a

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd News ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

6 : 2 60-1 . 1 956b

" The E xcavat ions a t Caesarea i n 1 956 ."

I srae l E xp lorat ion

S oc iety 2 0 : 1 94-95 . ( Hebrew ) 1 957a

" Cesa ree ," i n " Chron ique a rcheo log ique ."

Revue B ib l ique 6 4 :

2 43-46 . 1 957b

" Jerusa lem a nd Caesarea ." P p . 7 9-84 i n J udah a nd J erusa lem : T he

Twe lfth

A rchaeo lg ica l

C onvent ion ,

I s rae l

E xp lorat ion

S oc ie ty . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc iety . ( Hebrew ) 1 960

L ou is M . Rab inow itz F und f or

" The S ynagogue a t C aesarea ."

t he E xp lorat ion o f Anc ient Synagogues , B u l let in 3 : 4 4-48 . 1 962

" A L ist o f P r iest ly C ourses f rom Caesa rea ."

I s rae l E xp lora-

t i on J ourna l 1 2 : 1 37-39 , p l . 1 3 , f i g . 1 . 1 964

" The Caesarea I n scr ipt ion o f t he Twenty-Four P r iest ly Cours es ." P p . 4 6-57 i n T he T eacher 's Y oke : S tud ies i n Memory o f Henry T rantham , e ds . E . J erry V ardaman , a nd J .L . Garrett . Waco : B ay lor U n ivers ity P ress .

1 966

" Luc ius V a ler ius

V a ler ianu s ,

Governor o f

S yr ia

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 1 6 : 1 35-41 , p l . XV I .

P a lest ina ."

Repub l ished i n

Hebrew i nI ES 3 0 .1-2 : 1 28-35 , p l . I X . 1 967

" The

L ead

Coff in

f rom

B eth

S he 'ar im ."

E retz

I s rae l

8 :

1 43-48 . 1 970

" The Caesarea P orphyry S tatue ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

2 0 : 2 03-208 . ,a nd Negev , A . 1 963a

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd News ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

1 3 : 1 46-48 . 1 963b

" Cesa ree ." Revue B ib l ique 7 0 : 5 82-85 .

B arag , D . 1 963

" A S urvey o f P ottery R ecovered f rom t he S ea o ff t he Coast o f I s rae l ." I srae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 1 3 : 1 3-19 .

R epub l ished

i n Hebrew i n Ye d ioth 3 0 : 1 42-44 . 1 964

" An

I n scr ipt ion

R econs idered ."

f r om t he H igh Aqueduct a t I srae l

E xp lora t ion J ourna l

1 4 :

Caesa rea

-

2 50-52 ,

p l .

4 5 .a-d . B artocc in i , R . 1 958

1 P or to Romano d i L ept is Magna .

B o l lett ino d e l

S tud i p er l a S tor ia d e l l ' A rch itettura , S upp le ment 1 3 . e nce :

C entro F lor-

Centro S tud i p er l a S tor ia d e l l ' A rch itettura .

Ba r-Yoseph , 0 . a nd N ir , D . 1 976

Man a nd L andscape i n E retzI srae l d ur ing t he Quaternar ian P er iod . T e l A v iv . ( Hebrew )

B ib l iography

2 99

B en-Dor , I m manue l 1 961

" A

Mar ine

E xped it ion

t o

t he

Ho ly

L and ,

S um mer

1 960 ."

Amer ican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 6 5 : 1 86 . B en-Tor , A ; P ortuga l i , Y . ; A v issar , M ir iam 1 979

" The S econd S eason o f E xcavat ion a t T e l Yogne 'am ,

1 978 :

P re l im inary R eport ." I srae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 2 9 : 6 5-83 . B enven ist i , Meron 1 970

T he C rusaders i n t he Ho ly L and .

J erusa lem : I s rae l U n ivers i-

t i es P ress . B is i , A .M . 1 970

L a C eram ica P un ica .

Nap les .

B lack man , Dav id J . 1 973

Mar ine A rchaeo logy .

C ol ston P apers ,

2 3 .

L ondon :

B utter-

worths . 1 982

" Anc ient Harbors i n t he Med iterranean ." I nternat iona l J ourn a l o f Nau t ica l A rchaeo logy 1 1 : 7 9-104 , 1 85-211 .

B lake ly , J effrey 1 984

" A S trat igraph ica l ly D eterm ined Date f or t he I nner F ort if icat i on Wa l l a t C aesarea Mar it i ma ." P p . 3 -38 i n H .O . T hompson , e d . , T he Answers L ie B e low : E ssays i n Honor o f L awrence E dmund T oombs . L anham , MD : U n ivers ity P ress o f Amer ica .

1 987

C aesarea Mar it ima , v o l . I V . T he P ottery a nd Dat ing o f V au lt 1 : H orreum , M ithraeum , a nd L ater U ses .

Queenston : E dw in

Me l len . 1 988

" Ceram ics a nd Com merce : Amphorae f rom Caesarea Ma r it ima ." B u l let in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f Or ienta l Research 2 71 : 3 1-50 .

B loch , M .R . 1 965

" Certa in p ara l le ls b etween s ea l eve l c hanges a nd h istor ica l p rocesses ." B emtzu lot-Yam , 5 -6 : 1 4-17 . ( Hebrew )

1 981

" Sa lt E conomy ."

P p . 4 61-78 i n K .D . F rey , e d . , T he E ncy-

c loped ia o f M inera logy .

S troudburg , PA : V an Nostrand R e in-

h o ld . B ra idwood , R .J . 1 940

" Report o n Two S ondages o n t he Coast o f S y r ia S outh o f T art ous ." S yr ia 2 1 : 1 83-226 .

B re itste in , S teve 1 985

" Some L og ist ic A spects o f t he E xcavat ions o f Caesa rea Harb our ." P p . 1 95-204 i n Raban 1 985b .

B rosh i , M . I . 1 936

" A N ew I n scr ipt ion f rom t he V ic in ity o f C aesarea ." 1A pr i l 1 936 . ( Hebrew )

D avar 4 :

3 00

B ib l iography

B u l l , Robert J . 1 971

" Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 3 9 : 1 9 . 1 972a

"M ithra ie Meda l l ion f rom C aesarea ." I srae l E xp lorat ion J ourn a l 2 2 : 1 87-90 .

1 972b

" Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 4 4 : 1 3-14 . 1 973a

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

2 3 : 2 60-62 . 1 973b

" Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 4 7 : 7 -8 . 1 974

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

2 4 : 2 80-82 . 1 975a

" Caesarea ." P .

1 20 i n T he I nterp reter 's D ict ionary o f t he

B ib le , S upp lementa ry V o lume . 1 975b

" Caesarea ."

Nashv i l le : Ab ingdon P ress .

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 5 6 : 2 6-27 . 1 976

" Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depa rtment o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 5 9-60 : 2 2-23 . 1 977

" Two T ycha i f rom C aesarea Ma r it ima ."

S oc iety o f B ib l ica l

L iterature S eminar P apers . 1 978a

" The M ith raeum o f Caesa rea Mar it i ma ."

E tudes M ithra iques ,

T extes e t mämo ires 4 : 7 5-89 . 1 978b

" Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depa rtment o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 6 7-68 : 2 6-27 . 1 982

" Caesarea Ma r it ima : T he S earch f or Herod 's C ity ."

B ib l ica l

A rchaeo logy Rev iew 8 : 2 4-40 . 1 984

" Caesarea Mar it ima 1 980 , 1 982 , 1 984 ."

E xcavat ions a nd S ur-

v eys i nI srae l 3 : 1 5-16 . ,a nd T oombs , L awrence E . 1 972

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

2 2 : 1 78-80 . B u l l , Robert J . e t a l . 1 985

T he

J o int

Reports .

E xped it ion

t o

C aesarea

Mar it ima :

P re l i minary

Mad ison : D rew U n ivers ity I n st itute f or A rchaeo log i-

c a l R esearch . ( m icrof iche ) . ;K rentz , E dgar ; S torv ick , O l in J . 1 986

" The J o int E xped it ion t o Caesa rea Mar it i ma : N inth S ea son , 1 980 ."

B u l let in

o f

t he

Amer ican

R esearch , S upp lement 2 4 : 3 1-55 .

S choo ls

o f

O r ienta l

B ib l iography

3 01

Ca lder in i , A r ist ide 1 963

" L ' inscr ipt ion d e P once P i late ä C sar e ."

B ib le e t T erre

S a inte 5 7 : 8 -18 . Carm i , I . 1 987

" Rehovot R ad ioca rbon Measurements I I ."

Rad iocarbon 2 9 .1 :

1 00-114 . ;Noter , Y . ; S ch les inger , R . 1 971

" Rehovot

Rad iocarbon

Measure ments ,

I . "

Rad iocarbon

1 3 .2 :412-19 . Casson , L ione l 1 971

S h ips

a nd

S eamansh ip

i n

t he

Anc ient

Wor ld .

P r inceton :

P r inceton Un ivers ity P ress . Chor ic ius o f Gaza 1 929

" Orat io I I : L audat io A rat i e t S tephan i ." I n R . F oerster , E . R ichtste ig , e dd . , Chor ic i i Gazae i Opera . L e ipz ig : T eubner .

Co lt , H .D . e t a l . 1 962

E xcavat ions a t Nessana .

V o l . 1 .

L ondon : B r it ish S choo l o f

A rchaeo logy i n J erusa lem . Conder , C laude R . 1 873

" The S urvey o f P a lest ine , Report X I I , T he S outh S ide o f Carme l ." P a les t ine E xp lorat ion Quar ter ly 5 : 8 2-86 .

1 874

" The S urvey o f P a lest ine , Report XV I ."

P a lest ine E xp lorat ion

Quar ter ly 6 : 1 3-15 . Conder , C laude R . , a nd K itchener , H .H . 1 882

S urvey o f Western P a lest ine , Memo ires o f t he T opography , O rography , Hydrography , a nd A rchaeo logy .

L ondon : P a lest ine

E xp lorat ion F und . V o l . I : p p . 1 3-29 , s heets V I I-XV I . Corn iek , Henry F . 1 959

D ock a nd Harbour E ng ineer ing , H : T he D es ign o f Harbours . L ondon : C . G r iff in .

C rowfoot , J .W . e t a l . 1 942-58

S amar ia-Sebas te . Repor ts o f t he Work o f t he J o int E xped it ion i n 1 931-1933 a nd o f t he B r it ish E xped it ion i n 1 935 .

3v o ls .

L ondon : P a lest ine E xp lorat ion F und . Da lman , D .G . 1 925

Hundert

d eutsche

f l iegerb i lder

a us

P a läst ina .

Güters loh :

S chr iften d es D eutschen P a lä st inaInst ituts . Dar , S h imon , a nd App lebaum , S h i mon 1 973

" The R oman R oad f rom Ant ipatr is t o Caesa rea ."

P a lest ine

E xp lorat ion Quarter ly 1 05 : 9 1-99 . D eg rass i , A . 1 964

" Sul l ' iscr iz ione d i P onz io P i lato ." A tt i d e l la Accade m ia Naz i-

3 02

B ib l iography o na le d e l L ince i , Rend icont i C lasse d i S c ienze mora l i , s tor i che e f i lo log iche .

1 9 : 5 9-65 .

D indorf , L . 1 831

Ma la las , Chronograph ia .

Corpus S er iptorum H istor iae B yzan-

t i nae , 2 8 . B onn : Weber . D ip lock , P . Ru ssel l 1 971

" The D ate o f A shke lon 's S cu lptured P ane ls a nd a n I dent if icat i on o f t he Caesarea S tatues ."

P a les t ine E xp lorat ion Quar-

t er ly 1 03 : 1 3-16 . 1 973

" Further

Com ment

S tatues ' ."

o n ' An I dent if icat ion

o f

t he

Caesarea

P a les t ine E xp lorat ion Quar ter ly 1 05 : 1 65-66 , p ls .

XV I I-X IX . D othan , M . 1 976

" Akko : I n ter im E xcavat ion R eport , F irst S eason ."

B u l let in o f

t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l Research 2 24 : 1 -48 . Downey , G . 1 975

" Caesarea a nd t he Ch r ist ian Church ."

P p . 2 3-42 i n F r itsch

1 975 . D rake , C .F .T . 1 873

" Letter f rom P a lest ine ."

P a les t ine E xp lorat ion Quarter ly 5 :

1 05-111. Duncan , J .G . 1 930

C orpus o f Dated P a les t in ian P ottery .

L ondon : B r it ish S choo l

o f A rchaeo logy i n E gypt . E del ste in , E . 1 975

" Caesarea - N orth ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depa rtment o f

Ant iqu it ies ) 5 6 : 2 5 . E ise man , C .J . 1 973

" Amphora s

f rom

t he

P ort ice l lo

S h ipwreck ."

I nternat iona l

J ourna l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 2 : 1 3-23 . E l l is , F .T . , a nd Murray , A .S . 1 896

" I nscr ipt ion F ound a t Caesarea ."

F und f or t he E xp lorat ion o f

P a lest ine , Quarter ly S tatement 2 9 : 8 7-88 . Emery , K .O . , a nd N eev , D . 1 960

"Med iterranean b eaches o f I s rae l ."

B u l let in o f t he Geo log ica l

S urvey o f I s rae l 2 6 : 1 -24 . F le m m ing , N .C . 1 972

C it ies i n t he S ea .

L ondon : NEL .

;R aban , Avner ; Goetsche l , C . 1 978

" Tecton ic a nd E ustat ie Changes o f t he Med iterranean Coast o f I s rae l i n t he L ast 9 000 Y ea rs ." P p . 3 3-93 i n P rogress i n Underwater S c ience .

L ondon : P enteeh P ress .

Repr inted a s

p p . 1 29-65 i n B eneath t he Waters o f T ime , P roceed ings o f t he 9 th C ongress o f Underwater A rchaeo logy , A ust in , 1 978 . Mar ino , CA : F athom E igh t .

S an

B ib l iography

3 03

F l inder , A lexander 1 976a

" A

P ise ina a t

C aesarea - A P re l im inary S u rvey ."

I s rae l

E xp lorat ion J ourna l 2 6 : 7 7-80 . 1 976b

" Anc ient

F ish-Tanks

a t

L ap ithos ,

Cyprus ."

I nternat iona l

J ourna l o f Naut ica l Archaeo logy 5 : 1 33-41 . 1 977

" The i s land o f J ez irat F a ra tun ." I nternat iona l J ourna l o f Naut i ca l A rchaeo logy 6 : 1 27-39 .

1 981-82

" The p oo l o f C leopatra a t Caesarea a nd h er Cypr iote s i ster ." B u l let in o f t he Ang loIsrae l A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety 1 981-82 : 2 5-7 .

1 985a

" The P isc inas a t C aesarea a nd L ap ithos ." P p . 1 73-78 i n Raban 1 985b .

1 985b

S ecrets o f t he B ib le S eas . An Underwater Archaeo log ist i n t he Ho ly L and .

L ondon : S evern House .

F oerster , G ideon 1 975

" The

E ar ly

H istory o f

C aesarea

Mar it ima ."

P p .

9 -22

i n

F r itsch 1 975 . F renke l , J . F orthcom ing

T rade i n P a les t ine d ur ing t he E ar ly Arab p er iod .

J erusa lem :

Yad B en-Zv i . ( Hebrew ) F r isch , Char les T . [ s ee F r itsch ] F r itsch , Char les T . 1 961

" Underwater E xcavat ion o f t he S unken Ha rbor o f Caesarea Mar it ima , I s rae l ."

Yearbook o f t he Amer ican P h i losoph ica l

S oc ie ty 1 961 : 5 41-45 . [ author 's n ame p r inted a s " Fr isch" ] 1 975

S tud ies i n t he H is tory o f C aesarea Mar it ima .

B u l let in o f t he

Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l R esearch , S upp lement 1 9 .

M is-

s ou la : S cho lars ' P ress . ,a nd B en-Dor , I . 1 961

" The L ink E xped it ion t o I s rae l , 1 960 ."

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log ist

2 4 : 5 0-59 . F rost , F .J . 1 985

" The ' Ha rbour ' a t Ha l ie is ." P p . 6 3-66 i n R aban 1 985b .

F rost , H . 1 973

" The o ffshore i s land h arbour a t S idon a nd o ther P hoen ic ian s i tes i n t he l i ght o f n ew d at ing e v idence ." I nternat iona l J ourn a l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 2 : 7 5-94 .

F rova , Anton io 1 959

" Caesarea

Ma r it ima ( I srae le ) .

c ampagna

d i s eavo

d e l la

R apporto p re l im inare d e l la I

M iss ione

A rcheo log ica

I t a l iana ."

R end icont i d e l l ' Is t ituto L ombardo , C lasse d i l e ttere , S c ienze Mora l i eS tor iche 1 959 : 1 -33 , p ls . I -X IX . 1 960

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ." 1 0 : 1 27-28 .

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

3 04

B ib l iography 1 961a

" L ' inscr iz ione

d i

P onz io

P i lato

a C aesarea ."

Rend icont i

d e l l ' Is t ituto L ombardo , C lasse d i l e ttere , S c ienze Mora l i e S tor iche 9 5 : 4 19-34 , f i gs . 1 -3 . 1 961b

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

1: 1 95-96 . 1 962a

" Cesaree

Ma r it ima ,"

i n " Chron ique a reheo log ique ."

Revue

B ib l ique 6 9 : 4 15-18 , p l . LX V I I I . 1 962b

" L ' iscr iz ione d e P onz io P i lato a C esa rea ."

S tud ia B ib l ijne i n

A rcheo log iczne 1 962 : 2 25-36 , f ig s . 2 4-26 . 1 962e

" G l i S cav i

d e l la M iss ione A rcheo log iea I ta l iana a C esarea

( I srae le ) ."

Annuar io

d e l la

S cuo la

A rcheo log ica

d i

A tene

3 9-40 : 6 49-57 . 1 962d

" La s tatua d i A rtem ide E fes ia a ' Caesarea Ma r it ima ' ."

B o l-

l e tt ino d 'A r te 4 : 3 05-13 . 1 962e

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

1 2 : 1 50-51 . 1 962f

" Campagna d i s cav i d e l la M iss ione A reheo log ica I t a l iana a C aesarea ( I srae le ) ." O r iens A nt iquus 1 : 1 40-41 .

1 963a

" I ta l ian

E xcavat ions

i n I s rae l :

Caesa rea ."

Chr ist ian News

f rom I s rae l 1 4 .3-4 : 2 0-24 , p l s . 1 -4 . 1 963b

" Campagna d i s cav i d el la M iss ione A reheo log ica I t a l iana a C aesarea ( I srae le ) ." O r iens A nt iquus 2 : 1 41-42 .

1 963e

" Quattr i e ampagne d i s cav i d e l la M iss ione A reheo log ica m i lan ese a C aesarea Ma r it ima ( I srae le ) , 1 959-1962 ." P p . 1 63-76 i n A tt i d e l Convegno L a L ombard ia e l ' Or iente ( 11-15 G u igno 1 962 ) .

1 964a

M i lan : I s t ituto L ombardo .

" Campagna d i s cav i d e l la M iss ione a rcheo log ica i ta l iana a C esarea ( I srae le ) ." O r iens Ant iquus 3 : 1 36-37 .

1 964b

" Excavat ing t he T heatre o f Caesa rea Mar it i ma ."

I l lus trated

L ondon News n o . 6 505 ( 4 Apr i l ) : 5 24-26 . 1 964c

" Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depa rtment o f Ant iqu i-

t i es ) 1: 1 9-20 . 1 970

" Ponz io P i lato e i T iber ieum a C esa rea ." P p . 2 16-27 i n L a V eneranda Ant icag l ia — I n memor ia d i A r ist ide Ca lder in i . P av ia : I s t ituto S tud i R oman i - S ez ione L o mbarda .

F rova , Anton io , e t a l . 1 965

S cc rv i

d i

Caesarea

Mar it ima .

M i lan :

I s t ituto

L omba rdo ,

A ceade m ia d i S e ienze e L ettere . Garstang , J ohn 1 924

" Note o n aS cu lptured Marb le S arcophagus f rom Caesarea ." B u l let in o f t he B r it ish S choo l o f Archaeo logy i n J erusa lem 6 : 7 7 , p l . 5 -6 .

B ib l iography

3 05

G ermer-Du rand , J . 1 895

" I nscr ipt ions r oma ins e t b yzant ines d e P a lest ine ." Revue B ibl i que 4 : 7 5-76 .

Gersh t , R ivka 1 984

" The T yche o f C aesarea Mar it ima ."

P a les t ine E xp lora t ion

Quar ter ly 1 16 : 1 10-14 . G ita i , A . 1 982

" I nf luence o f Coasta l S tructures o n t he S and B a lance a long t he Med iterranean Coast o f I s rae l ."

P . 3 3 i n M . I nbar , e d . ,

T he T h ird Annua l I srae l Coas ta l C onference .

H a ifa : Un iver-

s i ty o f Ha ifa . ( Hebrew ) G race V . 1 952

" T imbres amphor iques t rouves a D e los .

B u l let in d e Corre-

s pondence He l län ique 7 6 : 5 14-43 . 1 956

" S tamped W ine J ar F ragments ." P p . 1 17-90 i n Sma l l Ob jects f rom

t he P nyx , i .

H esper ia ,

S upp lement

1 0 .

P r inceton :

Amer ican S choo l o f C lass ica l S tud ies . ,a nd S arvat iannou-Petropou lakou , M . 1 970

" Les t imbres amphor iques G recs ." P p . 2 77-382 i n E xp lora t ion a rchio log ique d e I A los , v o l . 2 7 : & l iens .

L ' i lot d e l a Ma ison d es C om-

P a r is : D e B occa rd .

G reguss , P . 1 959

H o lzana tom ie d er e uropä ischen

L aubhö lzer u nd S träucher .

B udapest : Akadem ie Ka ido . Guer in , V ictor 1 875

D escr ip t ion g äograph ique , h is tor ique , e t a rchäo log ique d e l a P a les t ine , v o l . 1 .2 .

P a r is : I mpr imer ie I mper ia le .

Guy , P .L .O . 1 924

" Notes o n aS cu lptu red Ma rb le S a rcophagus f rom Caesa rea ." B u l let in o f t he B r it ish S choo l o f Archaeo logy i n J erusa lem 5 : 5 5-56 , p l . 4 .

Gv irtzman , G . , a nd K lang , A . 1 981

C aesarea 3 , R ecommendat ion f or D r i l l ing .

O i l E xp lora t ion

( I nvestments ) L td . , R ept . 8 1/28 . Haefe l i , L eo 1 923

C aesarea am Meer . T opog raph ie u nd Gesch ichte d er S tadt n ach

J ose p hus

u nd

Apos te lgesch ich te .

N eutestament l iche

A bhand lungen , 1 0 .5 . Mün ster : I .W . A schendorff . Hal l , T .E . 1 966

" The U se o f P roton Magnetometer i n Underwa ter A rchaeo l-

o g y . "

A rchaeome try 9 : 3 2-44 .

Hamburger , H erman 1 959

" A N ew

I n scr ip t ion f rom t he

E xp lorat ion J ourna l 9 :188-89 .

Caesa rea Aqueduct ."

I s rae l

3 06

B ib l iography 1 961

L 'ann e e p igraph ique 1 961 : 6 7 n o . 2 70 .

Hanson , J .A . 1 959

R oman

T heater-Temp les .

P r inceton :

P r inceton

Un ivers ity

P ress . Hazard , Ha rry W . 1 975

" Caesarea a nd t he C rusades ." P p . 7 9-114 i n F r itsch 1 975 .

Heyd , U r ie l 1 956

" A T urk ish Descr ipt ion o f t he Coast o f P a lest ine i n t he E ar ly S ixteenth C entury ." I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 6 .4 : 2 01-216 .

H irschfe ld , Y . , a nd S o lar , G . 1 981

" The R oman T hermae a t Hammat Gader . P re l im inary r eport o f t h ree s easons o f e xcavat ions ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l

3 1 : 1 97-219 . Hoh lfe lder , R obert L . 1 982

" Caesarea B enea th t he S ea ."

B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy R ev iew

8 .3 : 4 2-47 . 1 983a

" The Caesarea Mar it ima Coast l ine B efore Herod : S ome P rel im inary Observat ions ."

B u l let in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f

O r ienta l Research 2 52 : 6 7-68 . 1 983b

" Caesarea ," i n D .W .

R o l ler , " News letter f rom

t he L evant ,

1 981 ." Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 8 7 : 1 91-92 . 1 984a

" Caesarea Mar it i ma ," i n D .W . R o l ler , " News letter f rom t he L evant ." Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 8 8 : 2 25-26 .

1 984b

" Caesarea Ma r it ima i n L ate A nt iqu ity : An I n troduct ion t o t he N um ismat ic E v idence ." P p . 2 61-85 i n Anc ient Co ins o f t he G raeco-Roman Wor ld , e ds . W . Hecke l , R . S u l l ivan . Water loo : W i lfred L au r ier P ress .

1 985

" Byzant ine Co in F inds f rom t he S ea : A G l impse o f Caesarea Ma r it ima 's L ater H istory ."

1 987a

P p . 1 79-84 i n Raban 1 985b .

" K ing H erod 's C ity o n t he S ea : Caesa rea Ma r it ima ."

Na t iona l

Geograph ic Magaz ine 1 71 .2 : 2 61-79 . 1 987b

" The 1 984 E xp lorat ions o f t he A nc ient Ha rbors o f Caesarea Ma r it ima , I s rae l ." P p . 1 -12 i n P re l im inary Reports o f ASORS ponsored E xcavat ions 1 982-85 , e d . W .E . Ra st .

B ul let in o f

t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l Resea rch , S upp le ment 2 5 . P h i lade lph ia : Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l R esearch . 1 988

" Procop ius D e a ed if ic i is 1 . 11 .18-20 : Caesarea Ma r it ima a nd t he B u i ld ing o f Harbours i n L ate Ant iqu ity ."

P p .

5 4-62 i n

Med iterranean C it ies : H istor ica l P erspect ives , e d s . I . Ma lk in , R .L . Hoh lfe lder . L ondon : F rank Ca ss . ,a nd O leson , J ohn P . 1 980

" Sebastos , t he Harbor Comp lex o f Caesarea Mar it i ma , I s rae l ."

B ib l iography

3 07 P p . 7 65-79 i n O ceanography : T he P as t , e ds . Mary S ears , D . Merr iman .

New York : S pr inger Ver lag .

,a nd Raban , A . 1 981

" Underwater E xcavat ions a t S eba stos - T he Ha rbour C o mp lex o f Caesa rea Mar it i ma ( I srae l ) : T he 1 980 S eason ." P p . 2 67-75 i n Underwater A rchaeo logy : T he Cha l lenge B efore U s .

T he

P roceed ings o f t he 1 2th c onference o n Underwater Archaeo lo gy , O .P . Watts , e d . S an Mar ino CA : F athom E ight . ;O leson , J ohn P . ; Raban , A . ; V ann , R .L . 1 983

" Sebastos : H erod 's Harbor a t Caesarea Ma r it ima ."

B ib l ica l

A rchaeo log is t 4 6 : 1 33-43 . H o l land , D .L . 1 971-72

" The J o int E xped it ion t o Caesarea Ma r it ima , 1 971 ."

Amer i-

c an S choo ls o f O r ienta l Research News letter 1 : 1 -4 . 1 972

" The J o int A rchaeo log ica l E xped it ion t o Caesarea Mar it i ma , 1 971 , i n Wa lter J . B urgha rdt , " L iterature o f Chr ist ian Ant iq u ity :

1 972-73

1 967-1971 ." T heo log ica l S tud ies 3 3 : 2 75-77 .

" The J o int E xped it ion t o Caesarea Ma r it ima , 1 972 ."

Amer i-

c an S choo ls o f O r ienta l Research News letter 5 : 1 -4 . H o lum , K enneth G . ; Hoh lfe lder , Robert L . ; B u l l , R .J . , R aban , R . 1 988

K ing H erod 's D ream — Caesarea o n t he S ea .

New York a nd

L ondon : W .W . N orton . H opfe , L ew is Moore , a nd L ea se , Gary 1 975

" The C aesarea M ithraeum : A P re l im ina ry R eport ."

B ib l ica l

A rchaeo log ist 3 8 .1 : 1 -10 . H umphrey , J ohn 1 974

" Pro legomena t o t he S tudy o f t he H ippod rome a t Caesarea Mar it ima ."

B u l let in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l

Research 2 13 : 2 -45 . 1 975

" A S um mary o f t he 1 974 E xcavat ions i n t he Caesarea H ippod rome ."

B u l let in

o f

t he

Amer ican

S choo ls

o f

O r ienta l

Research 2 18 : 1 -24 . 1 986

Roman C ircus .

L os Ange les : Un ivers ity o f Ca l iforn ia P ress .

H usru , Nas ir i 1 951

J ourna l & L in v oyage ä t ravers l a S yr ie e t l a P a lest ine , e d . A . S ebast ianus Marmard j . 1 8th e d . s ur l a P a lest ine , 1 69 .

T extes g eograph iques a rabes

P ar is : J . Gaba lda .

I nman , D .L . 1 974

" Anc ient a nd modern h arbours : A r epeat ing p hy logeny ."

P p .

2 049-2067 i n P roceed ings o f t he 1 4th Coasta l E ng ineer ing Conference , C openhagen .

Copenhagen .

,a nd J enk ins , S .A . 1 984

" The N i le l i ttora l c e l l a nd man 's i mpact o n t he c oa sta l z one

3 08

B ib l iography o f

t he

S outhea stern

Med iterranean ."

O ceanography , R ef . S er ies 8 4-31 .

S cr ipps I ns t itute

o f

C laremont , CA : S cr ipps

I n st itute o f O ceanog raphy . J acot in , M . 1 822

Memo ire s ur l a c ons truct ion d e l a C arte d e l ' Egyp te , d es o bserva t ions e t d es r echerches q u i o nt i ti f a it e n £ gyp te p end ent l ' exped it ion d e l ' armie f ra f l ise : E ta t moderne , 1 .2 . F o l io 4 5 , C6saröe , a nd p . 9 1 . P a r is : I mpr imer ie R oya le .

J ameson , M .H . 1 969

" Excavat ions a t P orto Che l i a nd V ic in ity , P re l im inary R eport , I : Ha l ie is 1 962-1968 ." Hesper ia 3 8 : 3 11-42 .

1 973

" Ha l ie is a t P orto C he l i ." P p . 2 19-31 i n B lackman 1 973 .

J erema is , J oach im 1 931

" Der T arax ippos i m H ippod rom v on Caesa rea P a laest inae ." Z e itschr if t d es Deutschen P a läs t ina-Vere ins 5 4 : 2 79-89 , p l s . X I I-X I I I .

J ude ich , W . 1 931

T opograph ie v on A then . 2 d e d . Mun ich : B eek .

K adman , L eo 1 957

C orpus Nummorum P a laes t inens ium , I : T he Co ins o f Caes area Mar it ima . J erusa lem : S chocken .

K edar , Y eudah , a nd Z iv , Y ehudah 1 964

" The Water S upp ly a t Anc ien t C aesarea ."

Yed ioth 2 8 : 1 22-31 .

( Hebrew ) K ind ler , A . 1 969

" A Hoard o f R oman G o ld C o ins o f t he 1 s t-2nd Centu r ies A .D . ( f rom t he S ea B o ttom a t C aesa rea ) ."

A /on , B u l le t in o f t he

I s rae l Num ismat ic S oc ie ty 3 .3 : 6 9-101 . ( Hebrew ) K le in , S . 1 928

" Das

T anna it ische

G renzverze ichn is

P a läst ina s ."

Hebrew

Un ion C o l lege Annua l 5 : 1 97-256 . K n igh t , O .H . 1 920

" Notes o n Caesa rea a nd N e ighborhood ."

P a les t ine E xp lora-

t i on Quar ter ly 5 2 : 7 9-81 . K rav itsky , A . 1 966

I nven tory o f O ffshore S truc tures i n I s rae l S hore l ines .

Ha ifa :

M in istry o f T ran sport . K rae l ing , CH . , e d . 1 938

Gerasa : C ity o f t he D ecapo l is .

New Haven : Y a le U n ivers ity

P ress . L afaye , G . 1 916

" V iva r ium ." P p . 9 57-62 i n D ict ionna ire d es a n t iqu i täs g rec-

309

Bibliography

ques et romaines, vol. V, eds. C. Daremberg, E. Saglio, Paris:

Hachette. Landels, J .G. 1978

Engineering in the Ancient World. London: Chatto & Windus.

Lange, M.E., and Burkitt, R.C. "An Inscription from Maimas." Palestine Exploration Quar­ 1920 terly 52: 47. Laperrousaz, E.M. 1974

"Remarques sur les pierres estine." Syria 51: 105-108.

a bossage pre-Herodiennes de Pal­

1979

"Encore l'Acra des Seleucides et nouvels remarques sur les pierres bossage pre-Herodiennes de Palestine." Syria 56: 99-144.

1982

"Apres le 'Temple de Salomon', la BAMAH de Tel-Dan, !'utili­ sation de pierres bossage phenicien dans la Palestine preexi­ lique." Syria 59: 223-37.

Lawrence, A. W. 1973

a

a

Greek Architecture. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Penguin Books.

Lehmann-Hartleben, Karl 1923 Die antiken Hafenanlagen des Mittelmeeres. Klio, Beitrage zur alten Geschichte, Beiheft 14. Wiesbaden: Klio. Levine, Lee I. 1973

"A

propos de la foundation de la Tour de Straton." Revue Biblique 80: 75-81.

1974

"The Hasmonean Conquest of Straton's Tower." Israel Explo­ ration J oumal 24: 62-69.

1975a

Roman Caesarea: An Archaeological-Topographical Study. Qedem, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, 2. Jerusalem: Hebrew University.

1975b

Caesarea Under Roman Rule. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

-----, and Netzer, Ehud 1986 Excavations at Caesarea Maritima, 1975, 1976, 1979 - Final Report. Qedem, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, 21. Jerusalem: Hebrew University. Levy, S. 1964 Lewis, J.D. 1973

"A Hoard of Abbasid Coins from Caesarea." Eretz-Israel 7: 47-68, pls. 10-14. (Hebrew) "Cosa: An Early Roman Harbour." Pp. 233-58 in Blackman 1973.

Lewy, Z.; Neev, D.; Prausnitz, M. "Late Holocene Tectonic Movements at Akhziv, Mediterra1986

310

Bibliography

nean Coastline of Northern Israel." Quate rnary Re se arch 25: 177-88. L'Hour, M.; Long, L.; Pomey, P., eds. 1985 Archeologie sous-marine. dues de Bretagne.

Nantes: Musees du Chateau des

Lifshitz, Baruch J. 1957 "Une inscription byzantine de Cesaree en Israel." Revue des Etudes Grecques 70: 118-32, pl. 1. 1961

"Inscriptions grecques de Cesaree en Palestine." Revue Bib­ lique 68: 115-26, pls. I.a-d, 11.a.c.

1963

"Inscriptions latines de Cesaree." Lato mus 22: 783.

1964a

"Einige Amulete aus Caesarea Palestinae." Zeitschrift des Deutschen Pali:istina-Vereins 80: 80-84, pl. IV.a-c.

1964b

"La necropole juive de Cesaree." Rewe Biblique 71: 384-87, pl. XVIl.1-7.

1965

"Inscriptions de Cesaree en Palestine." Revue Biblique 72: 98-107, pl. VII. a-c.

1967

"Inscriptions de Cesaree." Revue Biblique 74: 50-59, pl. IV.a-g.

Linder, Elisha 1967 1974

"La ville phenicienne d'Athlit, a-t-elle eu l'un des plus anciens ports artificiels de Mediterranee." Archaeologica 17: 25-9. "Underwater Archaeology; A New Stage in the Archaeological Research of our Past." Qadmoniot 14: 48-49. (Hebrew)

-----, and Leenhardt, Olivier 1964 "Recherches d'archeologie sous-marine sur la cote mediterra­ neenne d'Israel." Revue Archeologique 1: 4 7-51. -----, and Raban, Avner 1965 "Underwater Archaeological Survey at the Ancient Harbour of Akko." Pp. 180-94 in The Western Galilee and the Coast of the Galilee. Proceedings, 19th Annual Conferenee of the Israel Exploration Society, Nahariya. Jerusalem: Israel Explo­ ration Society. 1966 1974 Link, Edwin A. 1956 Link, Marion C. 1973

"The Harbour of Akko: The Story of an Expedition." Bemizulo t-Yam 7: 23-27. (Hebrew) Marine Archaeology. London: Cassel. Survey Trip. to Israel: (a) The Po rt of Caesarea. New York: Privately Published. Windows in the Sea. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution

Press.

Bibliography

Liou, B. 1974

311

"L'Epave romaine de l'anse Gerba! a Port-Vendres." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres 197 4: 414-33.

Liphschitz, N.; Lev-Yadun, S; Waisel, Y. "Dendroarchaeological 1981

Investigations in

Israel (Masada)."

Israel Exploration Journal 31: 230-34, pls. 36-38.

MacLeish, K. 1961

"Sea Search into History at Caesarea." Life 50.18 (5 May): 72-82.

McDonald, William A. 1943 The Political Meeting Places of the Greeks. The Johns Hop­ kins University Studies in Archaeology, 34. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Manoujian, S., and Migniot, C. 1975 Sedimentological studies in three dimensional model. Paris: Laboratoire Centrale Hydrologique de France. Mansell, A.L. 1863 Maoz, Z. U. 1985

"Carte de Cesaree." Paris: Depot des cartes et plans de la marine fran�aise. "On the Hasmonean Town Plan in Jerusalem." Eretz-Israel 18: 46-57. (Hebrew)

Marcus, Ralph, and Wikgren, Allen 1963 Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books XV-XVIII. MA: Harvard University Press. Mazor, E. 1974

McKee, E.D. 1979

Cambridge

"On the Stability of the Mediterranean Coast of Israel since Roman Times: A Discussion." Israel Journal of Earth Sci­ ences 23.4: 149-50. A Study of Global Sand Seas. Introduction to a Study of Global Sand Seas. U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper

no. 1052. Washington D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey.

Migne, J.P. 1844-79

Patrologiae Cursus, Series Latina. Pari : Garnier.

Meiggs, Russell 1973

Roman O tia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Moulton, W. 1919-20

"Gleanings in Archeology and Epigraphy: A Caesarean Inscrip­ tion." Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 1.

312

Bibliography

Mukaddasi 1886

Description of Syria.

ety.

London: Palestine Pilgrim's Text Soci­

Miilinen, E. Graf von 1908 "Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Karmels." Zeitschrift des Deut­ schen Paliistina-Vereins 30: 117-207; 31: 1-258. Ne'eman, Y . 1970 1972 Neev, D. 1974

-----, et al. 1973

"Survey of Menasheh Region." Be'ezor Menashe. Menasheh: Regional County Publications. (Hebrew) Hadera - from the Stone Age to the End of the Crusader Kingdom. Hadera: Municipality of Hadera. (Hebrew) "A Reply to Mazor's On the stability of the Mediterranean Coast of Israel since Roman Times: A Discussion." Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 23.4: 150-51. "Recent Faulting along the Mediterranean Coast of Israel." Nature 245: 254-56.

-----, and Greenfield, L. L. 1981 Oil possibilities of the continental margin off Israel, based on seismic interpretatfon. Oil Exploration (Investments) Ltd., Report 81/54. -----; Bakler, N.; Emery, K. O. 1987 Mediterranean Coasts of Israel and Sinai, Holocene Tectonism from Geology, Geophysics, and Archaeology. New York: Tay­ lor and Francis. -----; Shachnai, E.; Hall, J.K.; Bakler, N.; Ben-Avraham, Z. 1977 "The Caesarea Structure." Marine Geological Division, Geo­ logical Survey of Israel Report no. 6/77. 1978 Negev, Avraham 1960a

"The young (Post Pliocine) geological history of the Caesarea structure." Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 27: 43-64. "Caesarea Martima." Christian News from Israel 9.4: 17-22, pls. I-IV.

1960b

"Caesarea Maritima." Christian News from Israel 11: 50-59.

1961

"Caesarea," in "Notes and News." Israel Exploration Journal 11: 81-83.

1962

"Cesaree Maritima," in "Chronique archeolog ique." Revue Biblique 69: 412-15, pls. XL VI-XLV II.

1963a

"Where Vespasian was Proclaimed Emperor, Caesarea Mari­ tima on the Coast of Israel." Illustrated London News no. 6482 (26 October): 684-86.

1963b

"The Palimpsest of Caesarea Maritima." Illustrated London News no. 6483 (2 November): 728-31.

B ib l iography 1 964

3 13 " The H igh L eve l A queduct a t C aesarea ."

I srae l E xp lorat ion

J ourna l 1 4 : 2 37-49 , p l . 1 7e . 1 966a

" New I n scr ip t ions f rom t he H igh L eve l Aqueduct a t Caes a rea ."

Ye d ioth , B u l let in o f t he I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc iety

3 0 .1-2 : 1 36-41 , p l . X . 1 966b

" A rchaeo log ica l I nvest igat ion s a t C aesarea ."

Mada ( Sc ience )

1 0 .6 : 3 41-44 , f ig s . 1 -4 . ( Hebrew ) 1 966c

" Cae sarea a t t he B eg inn ing o f t he R oman E poch ."

Mada ( Sc i-

e nce ) 1.3 : 1 36-44 . ( Hebrew ) 1 967

C aesarea . T e l-Av iv : L ew in-Epste in .

1 969

" Two N ew I n scr ipt ions f rom C aesarea 's T heater ." A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depa rtment o f Ant iqu it ies ) 3 0 : 1 4-15 .

1 972

" A N ew I n scr ip t ion f rom t he H igh L eve l Aqueduct a t Caes a rea ." I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 2 2 : 5 2-53 .

1 975

" Caesarea ." P p .

2 70-85 i n E ncyc loped ia o f A rchaeo log ica l

E xcava t ions i n t he H o ly L and , e d . M . A v i-Yonah .

J erusa lem :

I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc iety a nd Massada P ress . N etzer , E . 1 976

" Caesarea , 1 975-1976 ." A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f A nt iqu it ies ) 5 7-58 : 2 0-21 . ( Hebrew )

1 977

" The W in ter P a laces o f t he J udean K ings a t J er icho a t t he E nd o f t he S econd T emp le P er iod ."

B u l let in o f t he Amer ican

S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 28 : 1 -14 . 1 982

" Caesarea , 1 979 ." E xcavat ions a nd S urveys i nI srae l 1 : 1 4-15 .

,a nd L ev ine , L . 1 976

" Caesarea 1 975-1976 ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f

A nt iqu it ies ) 5 7-58 : 2 0-21 . N eubauer , D . 1 868

L a g äograph ie d u T a lmud .

P a r is : M iche l L evy .

N ewman , J ohn P h i l ip 1 864

F rom D an t o B eersheba . N ew York : Harper & B rothers .

N ewman , T homas D . 1 971

" Mosa ic

F loors a t

T ra in ing G round ."

Caesa rea

Mar it ima :

An

A rchaeo log ica l

T he B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 3 4 : 8 8-91 , f ig s .

6 -7 . N ir , D . 1 959

" A rt if ic ia l Ou t lets o f t he Mount Ca rme l V a l ley s t h rough t he C oa sta l K urkar R idge ." I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 9 : 4 6-54 .

N ir , Yaaeov . 1 973

G eo log ica l H is tory o f t he r ecent a nd s ubrecent s ed iments o f t he I s rae l Med iterranean s he lf a nd s lope . o f I s rae l , R epor t n o . MG/10/73 . v ey o f I s rae l .

Geo log ica l S urvey

J eru sa lem : Geo log ica l S ur-

3 14

B ib l iography 1 980

Recen t s ed iments i n Ha ifa B ay . R eport

n o .

MG/11/80 .

Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l ,

J erusa lem :

Geo log ica l

S urvey

o f

I s rae l . 1 981

" Destruct ion o f Caesarea 's Aqueduct a s a Resu lt o f K ing Hero d 's Ha rbour ."

1 982a

O ffshore

Cathedra 1 8 : 5 0-56 . ( Hebrew )

A rt if ic ia l

S tructures a nd

t he ir I nf luence

I srae l a nd S ina i Med iterranean B eaches .

o n

t he

M in istry o f E nergy

a nd I nfrastructure , Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l :

Mar ine Geo l-

o gy a nd Geomathemat ics D iv is ion . R eport MGG/4/82 .

J eru-

s a lem : Geo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l . 1 982b

" As ia ,

M idd le E ast , Coasta l

Morpho logy : I s rae l a nd S ina i ."

P p . 8 6-98 i n M .L . S chwartz , e d . , E ncyc loped ia o f B eaches a nd Coasta l E nv ironments . 1 984

" Recent s ed iments o f t he I s rae l s he lf a nd s lope ."

1 985

S troudsburg , PA : Hutch inson Ross . Med iterranean c ont inenta l

P h .D . d iss . , Goteborg Un ivers ity .

" The Destruct ion o f t he R oman H igh L eve l Aqueduct ."

P p .

1 85-94 i n Raban 1 985b . ,a nd E ldar , I . 1 987

" Anc ient We l ls a nd t he ir Geoarchaeo log ica l S ign if icance i n Detect ing T ecton ics o f t he I s rae l

Med iterranean

Coast l ine

R eg ion ." Geo logy 1 5 : 3 -6 . Oestre icher , B aruch 1 962

" A Contemporary P icture o f Caesarea 's Anc ient

Harbour ."

I s rae l Num ismat ic B u l let in 2 .2 : 4 4-47 , p l . 1 . 17-18 .

Repr inted

i n Hebrew i n Ye d ioth Num ismat iot 2 : 3 9-41 , p l . 1 . 17-18 . O lam i , Ya 'acov , a nd R inge l , J oseph 1 975

" New I nscr ipt ions o f t he T enth L eg ion F rentens is f rom t he H igh L eve l Aqueduct o f Caesarea ."

I srae l E xp lorat ion J our-

n a l 2 5 : 1 48-50 , p l . 1 3 .b . ,a nd P e leg , Yehuda 1 973

" Caesarea 's Aqueducts ."

Archaeo log ica l News ( Department

o f Ant iqu it ies ) 4 6 : 6 -8 . ( Hebrew ) 1 977

" The

Water S upp ly S ystem

o f Caesarea

Ma r it ima ."

I s rae l

E xp lorat ion J ourna l 2 7 : 1 27-37 . O leson , J ohn P eter 1 982a

" Excavat ion

i n

t he

Roman

I s rae l : 1 982 S eason ."

Harbor

o f

Caesarea

Mar it i ma ,

Amer ican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 8 7 :

2 48 . 1 982b

" The Anc ient P ort o f Caesarea ."

Naut ica l A rchaeo logy S oc i-

e ty News letter Dec . 1 982 : 5 . 1 983a

" A R o man S heave B lock f rom t he Harbour o f Caesarea Ma r it ima , I s rae l ."

I nternat iona l J ourna l

o rNautical

A rchaeo logy

1 2 : 1 55-70 . 1 983b

" The

C aesarea

Anc ient

Harbor

E xcavat ion

P ro ject

B ib l iography

3 15 ( C .A .H .E .P . ) :

1 982 S eason o f E xcava t ion ."

C lass ica l V iews

2 7 : 1 59-67 . 1 983e

" The C aesa rea A nc ient Ha rbor E xcava t ion P ro ject : 1 982 S eas on ." I s rae l E xp lora t ion J ourna l 3 3 : 19-21 .

1 984a

" The

C aesa rea

( C .A .H .E .P . ) :

A nc ient

Ha rbour

E xcavat ion

P ro ject

1 984 S ea son ." O ld Wor ld A rchaeo logy News let-

t er 1 3 .2 : 9 -11 . 1 984b

" A R oman Water M i l l o n t he C rocod i l ion R iver N ear Caes a rea ."

Z e itschr if t

d es

Deutschen

P a läs t ina-Vere ins

1 00 :

1 37-52 , p l s . 9 -14 . 1 984e

G reek

a nd

Roman

Mechan ica l

Dev ices .

Wa ter l if ti ng

T oron to : U n ivers ity o f T oronto P ress . 1 985a

" Herod a nd V itruv ius : P re l im inary T hough ts o n Ha rbor E ng in eer ing a t S ebastos ." P p . 1 65-72 i n R aban 1 985b .

1 985b

" Caesarea Anc ient H arbou r E xcava t ion P ro ject , 1 984 S eason ." C lass ica l V iews 2 9 : 2 39-42 .

1 988

" The T echno logy o f R oman Harbours ."

I nternat iona l J ourna l

o f Nau t ica l A rchaeo logy 1 7 : 1 47-57 . O leson , J .P . ; Hoh lfe lder , R .L . ; R aban , A . 1 984

" Underwater E xcava t ion a t S ebastos , t he R oman Harbor o f Caesarea Mar it ima ( I srae l ) : T he 1 981 S eason ." P p . 4 1-46 i n Underwater A rchaeo logy : P roceed ings o f t he 1 3th C onference o n U nderwater A rchaeo logy , e d . D ona ld H . K e ith .

S an Mar-

i no , CA : F athom E ight . O leson , J .P . , Hoh lfe lder , R .L . ; R aban , A . ; V ann , R .L . 1 982

" Caesarea A nc ient Ha rbour E xcavat ion P ro ject : 1 982 S eason o f E xcava t ion ." O ld Wor ld A rchaeo logy News letter 1 1 : 1 2-14 .

1 984

" The

C aesarea

( C .A .H .E .P . ) :

A nc ient

Harbor

E xcavat ion

P ro ject

P re l im ina ry R eport o n t he 1 980-1983 S eason s ."

J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 1 : 2 81-305 . O l iphant , L aurence 1 886

" Excava t ions o n C arme l ."

P a les t ine E xp lora t ion Quarter ly

1 8 : 7 -15 . Ooteghe m , J .v . 1 968

" P isc ina r i l ." E tudes C lass iques 3 6 : 4 1-46 .

Ovad iah , A sher 1 970

C orpus o f t he B yzan t ine Churches i n t he H o ly L and .

B onn : P .

Hanste i n . P a l lares , F . 1 975-81

" La mare r omana d e l g o lfo d i D iano Ma r ina ." Ant iqu i 1 1-12 : 7 9-107 .

F orma Mans

3 16

B ib l iography

P a squa l-Guash , R . 1 962

" Un

N uevo T ipo d e

A nfo ra

P un ica ."

Arch ivo

E spaf to l

d e

A rqu k,l og ia 4 2 : 1 2-19 . P e leg , J ehuda , a nd R e ich , R . 1 986

" Caesarea - S edot-Yam ." A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f Ant iqu it ies ) 8 7 : 2 3-24 .

P ereg r ine , D . 1 983

" Break ing

Waves

o n

B eaches ."

Annua l

Rev iew

o f

F lu id

Mechan ics 1 5 : 1 49-78 . P irazzo l i , P . A . 1 988

" Sealeve l c hanges a nd c rusta l movements i n t he H e l len ic A re ( Greece ) ; T he c ontr ibut ion o f a rchaeo log ica l a nd h i stor ica l c hanges ." P p . 1 57-84 i n R aban 1 988a .

P lom mer , Hugh 1 983

" Scy thopo l is ,

Caesa rea a nd V itruv iu s :

S ound ing V esse ls

i n

A nc ient T heaters ." L evant 1 5 : 1 32-40 . P ococke , R icha rd 1 745

A Descr ipt ion o f t he E as t a nd S ome O ther Countr ies .

L on-

d on : W . B owyer . P o idebard , A . , a nd L auffray , J . 1 951

S idon : Amänagemen ts a nt iques d u P or t d e S a ida . B e irut : M ini s t &e d es T ravaux P ub l iques .

P omey , P . 1 982

" Le n av ire r oma ine d e l a Mad rague d e G iens ."

C omp tes Ren-

d us d e l ' Aca am ie d es I nscr ip t ions e t B e l les L ettres 1 982 : 1 33-54 . P orat , Y . 1 965

" Sarcophagu s f rom

C aesarea-South ."

A rchaeo log ica l

News

( Depa rtment o f A nt iqu it ies ) 1 5 : 1 5 . 1 975

" The Ga rdens o f Caesa rea ." Q admon iot 8 : 9 0-93 . ( Hebrew )

P rausn itz , M .W . 1 971

" The C aesarea C entra l Coasta l D unes ," i n " No tes a nd N ews ." I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 2 1 : 2 27 .

1 973

" Survey o f t he s and s s ou th o f S edot-Yam ."

A rchaeo log ica l

N ews ( Depa rtmen t o f A nt iqu it ies ) 4 5 : 1 3-14 . P r ing le , Deny s 1 985

"Med ieva l

P ottery f rom

C aesarea :

T he

C rusader

P er iod ."

L evant 1 7 : 1 71-202 . P ropst , H . 1 927

D ie g eograph ischen V erhä ltn isse S yr iens u nd P a läs t inas n ach W i lhe lm v on T yros . 2v o ls . L e ipz ig : J .C . H inr ich s .

B ib l iography

3 17

Q u inn , A lonzo d e F . 1 961

D es ign a nd

C onstruct ion

o f P or ts a nd

Mar ine S tructures .

N ew Y ork : McGraw-H i l l . R aban , Avner 1 973

" The mercury c arr ier f rom t he Red S ea ." I nternat iona l J ourn a l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 2 : 1 79-83 .

1 978

" New Underwater E xcavat ions a t Akko , D or a nd Caesarea ." I nternat iona l J ourna l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 7 : 2 23-26 .

1 980

" The S i t ing a nd D eve lopment o f Med iterranean Harbours i n A nt iqu ity ." P p . 7 50-64 i n Oceanography : T he P ast , e ds . M . S ea rs , D . Merr i man . N ew Y ork : S pr inger Ver lag .

1 981a

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd News ."

I nternat iona l J ourna l o f

Nau t ica l A rchaeo logy 1 0 : 1 57-60 . 1 981b

"Ma r it ime A rchaeo log ica l R esea rch i n I s rae l ."

I nternat iona l

J ourna l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 1 0 : 2 87-308 . 1 983a

" C .A .H .E .P . 1 983 ." I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 3 3 : 2 62-64 .

1 983b

" Recent Mar it ime A rchaeo log ica l Research i n I s rae l ."

I nter-

n at iona l J ourna l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 1 2 : 2 41-51 . 1 983c

G u ide t o S ebas tos : T he Anc ient Harbours o f C aesarea Mar it ima . T e l A v iv : S cha lg i P ub l ish ing House .

1 983d

" Archaeo log ica l E v idence f or Anc ient S ea L eve ls a long t he Med iterranean C oa st l ine o f I s rae l ."

P p . 2 1-23 i n B .Z . B eg in

a nd D . G inzbu rg , e ds . , A rchaeo log ica l a nd Geo log ica l Data

f o r Quate mar ian S tud ies . J eru sa le m . 1 984

" Caesarea Mar it ima , 1 984 ." Revue b ib l ique 9 1 : 2 46-52 .

1 985a

"Ma r ine A rchaeo logy i n I s rae l ." Oceanus 2 8 .1 : 5 9-65 .

1 985b

H arbour A rchaeo logy : P roceed ings o f t he F irst I nternat iona l Workshop o n Anc ient Med iterranean Harbours . Caesarea Mari t ima .

B r it ish

A rchaeo log ica l

Reports ,

I n t .

S er ies ,

2 57 .

Oxford : B .A .R . 1 985e

" Caesarea Mar it ima , 1 983-84 ." I nternat iona l J ourna l o f Naut i ca l A rchaeo logy 1 4 .2 : 1 55-77 .

1 985d

" The a nc ient h arbors o f I s rae l i n B ib l ica l t imes ." P p .

1 0-44 i n

R aban 1 985b . 1 987

" The C ity Wa l ls o f S traton 's T ower : S ome New A rchaeo log ica l D ata ."

B u l let in

o f

t he

Amer ican

S choo ls

o f

O r ienta l

R esearch 2 68 : 7 1-88 . 1 988a

T he

A rchaeo logy

o f

C oas ta l

Changes .

Oxford :

B r it ish

A rchaeo log ica l R eports . 1 988b

" Coa sta l P rocesses a nd Anc ient Harbour E ng ineer ing ." 1 77-200 i n R aban 1 988a .

P p .

3 18

B ib l iography ,a nd Ga l i l i , Uhud 1 985

" Recen t Ma r it ime A rchaeo log ica l R esea rch i n I s rae l - AP rel im ina ry R eport ."

I n ternat iona l J ourna l o f Naut ica l A rchae-

o logy 1 4 : 3 21-56 . ,a nd Hoh lfe lder , R obert L . 1 981

" The A nc ient Harbors o f Caesa rea Mar it ima ."

A rchaeo logy

3 4 .2 : 5 6-60 . ,a nd L inder , E l isha 1 978

" Underwater E xcavat ion s a t A kko , Dor a nd C aesarea ." I n tern at iona l J ourna l o f Naut ica l A rchaeo logy 7 : 2 38-43 .

,a nd S te ig l itz , R .R . 1 987

" Caesarea

Mar it ima ,

C .A .H .E .P .

1 986 ."

I srae l

E xp lorat ion

J ourna l 3 7 : 1 87-90 . 1 988

" Caesarea Mar it ima ,

CAHEP

1 987" i n " Notes a nd

N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lorat ion J ourna l 3 8 : [ i n p ress ] . ;T ur-Ka spa , Y . ; Ad ler , E . ; S ivan , E . ; K ap lan , G . 1 976

Mar ine A rchaeo log ica l R esearch i n C aesarea .

CMS P ub l ica-

t i on 2 /76 . Ha ifa : Center f or Ma r it ime S tud ies . R e ifenberg , Ado lf 1 950

T he B att le b etween t he Cu lt ivated-Lands a nd t he

D eser t .

J erusa lem : Mosad B ia l ik . ( Hebrew ) 1 95 0 -5 1

" Caesarea : A S tudy i n t he Dec l ine o f aT own ." I srae l E xp lor at ion J ourna l 1 :2 0-32 .

1 955

T he S trugg le B e tween t he Deser t a nd t he S own .

J erusa lem :

P ub l ish ing Depa rtment o f t he J ew ish Agency . R e isner , G .A . ; F isher , C .S . ; L yon , D .G . 1 924

Harvard E xcavat ions a t S amar ia , 1 908-1910 .

2v o ls . C am-

b r idge , MA : Harvard U n ivers ity P ress . R icha rds , E .E . , a nd Hart ley , K .F . 1 960

" Spectograph ic Ana ly s is o f Romano-Br it ish P ottery ."

Nature

1 85 .4707 : 1 96 . R ickman , G .E . 1 985

" Towa rds t he S tudy o f R oman P orts ."

P p . 1 05-114 i n R aban

1 985b . R i ley , J ohn A . 1 975

" The P ottery f rom t he F irst S ess ion o f E xcava t ion i n t he C aes e a n r te a l aR H i es pe po ar d c rom h 2 1 e . 8 " : 2 5 B u l 6 l3 e . t in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f

O r i

R im , M . 1 949

" Dune s and movement a nd t he f ormat ion o f r ed s o il s i n P a lest i ne ." P h .D . d iss . , H ebrew U n ivers ity .

1 ( ' 0 51

" Sand a nd S o i l i n t he C oa sta l P la in o f I s rae l ." I s rae l E xp lorat i on J ourna l 1 : 3 3-48 .

B ib l iography

3 19

R inge l , J oseph 1 975

C äsaräe d e

P a les t ine :

E tude

h is tor ique

e t

a rchäo log ique .

P a r is : A ssoc ia t ion d es P ub l icat ions p res l es Un ivers ites d e S trasbourg . 1 988

" L itera ry

S ources

a nd

Num isma t ic

E v idence

o f

Ma r it ime

A ct iv ity i n Caesarea d ur ing t he Roman P er iod ." P p . 6 3-73 i n Med iterranean C it ies : H is tor ica l P erspect ives , e ds . I . Ma lk in , R .L . H ohHe lder . L ondon : F rank C ass . R öh r icht , R . 1 887

" S tud ien z u r m itte la lter l ichen Geog raph ie u nd T opog raph ie S yr iens ."

Z e itschr if t d es

D eutschen P a läs t ina-Vere ins

1 0 :

1 95-345 . R o l ler , Duane W . * 1 982a

" The W i lfr id L aur ier Un ivers ity S u rvey o f N ortheastern Caes a rea Ma r it ima ." L evan t 1 4 : 9 0-103 .

1 982b

" The N orthern P la in o f S ha ron i n t he H e l len ist ic P er iod ." B u l let in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l Research 2 47 : 4 3-52 .

1 983

" The P rob lem o f t he L oca t ion o f S tra ton 's T ower ."

B u l let in

o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 52 : 6 1-66 . R osh , A . 1 964

C aesarea 1 921 — C hapters o f a D iary .

Ha ifa : T s ir ikover .

( Hebrew ) R ouge , J . , e d . 1 966

E xpos it io t o t ius mund i e t g en t ium .

S ou rces C hret iennes , 1 24 .

P a r is : E d it ion s d u C erf . R yan , F ranc is R ita 1 969

F u lcher o f Char tres : H is tory o f t he E xped it ion t o J erusa lem 1 095-1127 . K noxv i l le : U n ivers ity o f T ennessee P ress .

S auzy , G . ; G i la t , C . ; Me l tzer , M . ; C ourto is , G . ; F renke l , I . ; L ev in , A . ; B l it , S . 1 974

S tudy o f s ed imen t t ranspor t o n t he b ed a nd o n t he b each a t t he s i te o f t he Hadera P ower P lan t .

I s rae l A tom ic E nergy

C omm iss ion . S ch i ler , E . 1 981

" Caesarea a nd i t s S i tes ." Qardom 1 8 . ( Hebrew )

S ehm iedt , G . 1 972

f t l i ve l lo a n t ico d e l

Mar T irreno . T es t imon ianze d e l r est i

a rcheo log iche . F lorence : O l schk i . S chne ider , K . 1 950

" P isc ina ." Co ls . 1 783-90 i n Rea l-Encyc lopäd ie d er k lass ischen A lter tumsw issenschaf t , v o l . 2 0 :2 , e d s . A . P au ly , G . W issowa . S tuttgart : Metz ler .

3 20

B ib l iography

S chumacher , G ott l ieb 1 887

" Researches

i n t he

P la in

N orth

o f

Caesa rea ."

P a lest ine

E xp lorat ion Quar ter ly 1 9 : 7 8-90 . 1 888

" Recent D iscover ies a t C aesarea , Umm e l J ema l , a nd Ha ifa ." P a les t ine E xp lorat ion F und Q uar ter ly S ta tement 2 0 : 1 34-41 .

S chwabe , Moshe 1 950a

" The S ynagogue o f C aesarea a nd i t s I n scr ipt ion s ." P p . 4 33-50 , p ls .

1 -4 i n A lexander Marx J ub i lee V o lume .

N ew York : J ew-

i s h T heo log ica l S em inary o f Amer ica . ( Hebrew ) 1 95 O b

" The B owvos I n scr ipt ion f rom

Caesa rea P a laest inae ."

P p .

2 73-83 i nJ .N . E ps te in J ub i lee V o lume . J erusa le m . ( Hebrew ) S chwe ingruber , F .H . 1 978

Ana tomy o f Wood .

B irmernsdorf : Sw iss F edera l I ns t itute o f

F orest R esearch . S ega l , A . 1 987

" Sha 'ar Ha 'amag im 1 986-1987 ."

E xcavat ions a nd S urveys i n

I s rae l 7 . S ha lem , N . 1 956

" Se ism ic t ida l waves ( t sunam is ) i n t he e a stern Med iterran ean ."

B u l let in o f t he Geo log ica l S oc iety o f I srae l 3 : 7 9-91 .

( Hebrew ) S haron , I . 1 987

" Phoen ic ian a nd G reek A sh lar C on struct ion T echn iques a t T e l D or , I s rae l ."

B u l le t in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l

R esearch 2 67 : 2 1-42 . S haw , J oseph W . 1 967

" Sha l low Water E xcavat ion a t K ench rea i ."

Amer ican J ourna l

o f A rchaeo logy 7 1 : 2 23-31 . S h i lon i , Y . , a nd B ogoch , R . 1 971

" Dune s and f or t he g lass i ndustry a t t he Caesa rea r eg ion ." G eo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l , R eport MP/529/71 .

J erusa lem :

G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I s rae l . ( Hebrew ) ,a nd S haha r , Y . 1 964

" Sands f or c onstruct ion p u rposes ."

I n N . B ak ler , e d . , Z ifz if

C omm ittee f i na l r epor t . J erusa lem . ( Hebrew ) S hukr i , N .M . , a nd P h i l ip , G . 1 960

" The m inera logy o f s ome r ecent d epos its i n t he A r ish-Gaza a rea ."

B u l let in o f t he F acu lty o f S c ience , Ca iro Un ivers ity

3 5 : 7 3-85 . S idebotham , S teve 1 986

R oman E conom ic P o l icy i n t he E rythra T ha lassa 3 0 B .C .-A .D . 2 17 .

L e iden : B r i l l .

B ib l iography

3 21

S iege lmann , A r ie l 1 973

" A Mosa ic F loor a t Caesa rea ." A rchaeo log ica l News ( Department o f Ant iqu it ies ) 4 7 : 9 .

1 974a

" A Mosa ic F loor a t C aesarea Mar it ima ."

I s rae l E xp lora t ion

J ourna l 2 4 : 2 16-21 . 1 974b

" A S arcophagus i n Caesarea ."

A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depart-

ment o f Ant iqu it ies ) 5 1-52 : 1 5 . ( Hebrew ) 1 983

" A R oman S a rcophagus a t O r ' Aq ivah ."

A rchaeo log ica l News

( Depa rtmen t o f A nt iqu it ies ) 8 2 : 2 1 . ,a nd Yanke lev itch , S . 1 981

" Te l T an in im ." A rchaeo log ica l News ( Depa rtmen t o f Ant iqu it i es ) 7 7 : 1 3-14 .

S ima ika , W .M . 1 970

" Deg radat ion o f t he N i le b ed d ue t o t he i n tercept ion o f s i lt i n t he H igh A swan R eservo ir ."

C om m iss ion I n ternat iona l d es

G rand e s B arrages , l Ome C ongress , Mon trea l .

Mon trea l .

S k ibo , J .M . , a nd S ch iffer , M .B . 1 987

" The E ffects o f Wa ter o n P rocesses o f Ceram ic Abras ion ." J ourna l o f Archaeo log ica l S c ience 1 4 .1 : 8 3-96 .

S p iro , Ma r ie . 1 981

" Recent Mosa ic D iscover ies a t C aesarea Mar it ima :

W inter

a nd S pr ing ." Amer ican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 8 5 : 2 19 . S tern , E . 1 982

" He l len ist ic Dor ."

B u l le t in o f t he A ng loIsrae l i A rchaeo log i-

c a l S oc ie ty 1 982 : 1 7-82 . S tewart , Aubrey 1 896

J acques d e V itry , T he H is tory o f J erusa lem A .D . 1 180 .

L on-

d on : P a lest ine P i lg r ims ' T ext S oc iety . S trange , Guy L e 1 892

Mukaddas i , Descr ipt ion o fS yr ia i nc lud ing P a les t ine .

L ondon :

P a lest ine P i lgr ims ' T ext S oc iety . 1 893

N as iri-Khusrau , D iary o f aJ ourney t hrough S yr ia a nd P a lest i ne . L ondon : P a lest ine P i lg r ims ' T ext S oc iety .

S t inespr ing , W .F . 1 939

" Had r ian i n P a lest ine , 1 29-130 A .D ."

J ourna l o f t he Amer i-

c an O r ienta l S oc iety 5 9 : 3 60-65 . S tu iver , M . ; P earson , G .W . 1 986

" H igh P rec is ion C a l ibrat ion o f t he R ad iocarbon T ime S ca le A .D . 1 950-500 B .C ." R ad iocarbon 2 8 , 2 B : 8 05-38 .

S tu iver , M . ; P earson , G .W . ; B raz iumas , T .F . 1 986

" Rad ioca rbon A ge Ca l ibrat ion o f

Mar ine S amp les b ack

9 000 Ca l Y r B P ." R ad iocarbon 2 8 , 2 B : 9 80-1021 .

t o

3 22

B ib l iography

S udr i , D . ; I l an i , S . ; S h irav , M . 1 973

P otent ia l o f c onstruct ion-sands i n t he Caesarea r eg ion . l og ica l S urvey o f I s rae l , Report MP/73/542 .

Geo-

J erusa le m : Geo-

l og ica l S urvey o f I s rae l . S ussmann , Y . 1 976

" The

B oundar ies

o f

E retz

I s rae l ."

T arb itz

4 5 :

2 13-57 .

( Hebrew w ith E ng l ish s um mary ) Thackeray , H . S t . J . 1 927

J osephus , T he J ew ish War , B ook s I -H I .

Cambr idge MA : Har-

v ard Un ivers ity P ress . Thatcher , W . 1 985

" The e arthquake d eformat ion c yc le a t t he s outhwest

J apan ."

J ourna l

o f

Nanka i T rough ,

Geophys ica l

Research

8 9 :

3 087-3101 . Tho mson , W i l l iam McC lure 1 862

The L and a nd t he B ook .

L ondon : T . Ne lson a nd S ons .

1 880-86

The L and a nd t he B ook .

3v ol s .

N ew York : Ha rper a nd B roth-

e rs . Too mbs , L awrence E . 1 978

" The

S tra t ig raphy

o f

Caesarea

Mar it i ma ."

P p .

2 23-32

i n

Archaeo logy i n t he L evant : E ssays f or Kath leen Kenyon , e ds . P .R .S . Moorey a nd P eter J . P a rr .

Warm inster : A ns a nd P h i l-

l i ps . V ann , Robert L ind ley 1 980

" Prob le ms a nd P rocedures i n A rch itectura l Record ing a t Cart hage ."

P p . 1 25-34 i n J . Humph rey , e d . , E xcavat ions a t Car-

t hage , 1 977 , v o l . V . New De lh i : T ho msons P ress . 1 983a

" News f rom t he F ie ld : Herod 's Ha rbor Construct ion Recove red Underwater ."

1 983b

B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy Rev iew 9 .3 : 1 0-14 .

" Byzant ine S treet Construct ion a t Caesa rea Mar it ima ." P p . 1 61-74 i n C ity , T own , a nd Countrys ide i n t he E ar ly B yzant ine E ra , e d . Robert L . Hoh lfe lder . 1 20 ,

B yzant ine S er ies ,

1 .

E ast E uropean Monographs ,

B ou lder :

Un ivers ity o f Co lorado

P ress . f orthcom ing

Recen t Research o n Caesarea Mar it i ma : A S ympos ium He ld i n Connect ion w ith t he E xh ib it " K ing Herod 's D ream" ( Washi ng ton

D .C . ) .

B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l

R eports ,

I nt l . S er ies .

Oxford : BAR . V i lnay , L ev 1 928a

" A New I nscr ipt ion f rom

t he

N e ighbourhood o f Caesa rea ."

P a lest ine E xp lorat ion Quar ter ly S tatement , 1 928 :

4 5-47 , p l .

8 . 1 928b

" Another Roman I nscr ipt ion f rom t he Ne ighborhood o f Cae-

B ib l iography

3 23 s a rea ."

P a les t ine

E xp lorat ion

F und

Quar ter ly

S tatemen t ,

1 928 : 1 08-109 , p l . 6 . V o lkmann , Hans 1 968

" D ie P i la tus inschr ift v on C aesarea Mar it ima ."

Gymnas ium

7 5 : 1 24-35 , p l s . X I I I-XV . Wa l l is , M ichae l 1 980

" A C rea t ive E ng ineer o f A ir a nd Ocean W ins a S igna l Honor ." Sm ithson ian 1 1 .2 : 1 51-58 .

Weber , W . 1 907

Untersuchungen

z ur

Gesch ichte

d es

Ka isers

H adr ianus .

L e ipz ig : T eubner . Wegman , A . 1 950 1 981

" New f i nds i n Caesarea ." A lon 2 : 7 . " F irst d ays i n C aesarea a nd t he Museum i n S edot Y am ." Qard om 1 8 : 1 04-109 . ( Hebrew )

Wenn ing , R . 1 986

" D ie

S tadtgö tt in

v on

C aesarea

Ma r it ima ."

B oreas :

Mün-

s tersche B e iträge z ur A rchäo log ie 9 : 13-29 . W iemken , Robert , a nd Ho lum , K enneth G . 1 981

" The J o int E xped it ion t o Caesa rea Mar it i ma : E igh th S eason , 1 979 ." B u l le t in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f Or ien ta l Research 2 44 : 2 7-52 .

W i l l iams , C .K . 1 979

" Cor inth

1 978 :

T he

F orum

S outh

West

- A P re l im ina ry

R eport ." Hesper ia 4 8 : 1 05-144 . W inter , F .E . 1 971

G reek F or t if icat ions . T oronto : U n ivers ity o f T oronto P ress .

Y e iven , S amue l 1 950-51

" Caesarea ," i n " Notes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lora t ion J ourna l

1 :2 49 . 1 952

" Caesarea ," i n " No tes a nd N ews ."

I s rae l E xp lora t ion J ourna l

2 : 1 43 . 1 955

" Excava t ions a t Caesa rea Ma r it ima ." A rchaeo logy 8 : 1 22-29 .

1 957

" C6sa r6e ," i n " Chron ique a rch6o log ique ."

R evue B ib l ique 6 4 :

2 59-60 . Y orke , R .A . , a nd D av idson , D .P . 1 985

" Survey o f B u i ld ing T echn iques a t t he

R oman Harbours o f

C arthage a nd s ome o ther N orth A fr ican P orts ." P p . 1 57-64 i n R aban 1 985b . Z aha ron i , M . 1 977

C aesarea a nd i t sS tory .

R amat Gan . ( Hebrew )

3 24

B ib l iography

Z iek , R . 1 987

" The A rch itectura l R ema ins a t CAHEP 's 1 987 A rea M-4 ." U npub l ished r eport s ubm itted t o CDC a nd I DA M , 1 987 .

Z u lay , M . 1 936

" L iturg ica l P oems o n v a r ious h i stor ica l e vents ." P p . 1 51-83 i n S tud ies o f t he R esearch I ns t itute f or Hebrew P oe try , V o l . 3 . B er l in : S chocken . ( Hebrew )

I LLUSTRAT IONS

1 . 1

L ocat ion map o f Caesarea i n t he E astern Med iterranean .

325-

3 26

I l lus trat ions B E IRUT

A POLLON IA

J OPPA

A SHDOD

1 . 2

•

J ERUSALEM •

L ocat ion map o f a nc ient h arbours i n t he L evant .

3 27

I l lus trat ions

1 . 3

T opograph ic map : c oastl ine n orth o f Caesarea ( 1 km g r id ) [ Topograph ic S urvey o f I s rae l ] .

T o p o g r a p h i c a n d g e o l g i c a l f e a t u r e s n o r t h a n d e a s t o f C a e s a r e a .

3 28 I l lus trat ions

I l lus tra t ions

3 29

3 30

I l lus trat ions

T ERR ITORY OF

CAESAREA ekm

0

Do t Cho rseos R iver g aSabbar ird Da ms C rocod i le R iver C rocod i lonpo l is

CAESAREA

( Made ra R ive r)

1 . 6

Anc ient t err itory o f Caesarea , w ith r oad s ystem .

I l lus tra t ions

3 31

I l lustrat ions

3 32

1 39 5 00

1 40 0 00

7 1

1 40 5 00

1 4 1000

$ 0

9

6 / L OW L EVEL A QUEDUCT H IGH L EVEL A QUEDUCT

2 13053 5

L ATE C ITY WALL

1 3

MED ITERRANEAN S EA S H IPWRECK'

6 E ARLY C ITY WALL

1 2

1 6 GATE

5 00

1 7

2 12500

AMPH ITHEATER

1 8

C RUSADER F ORT IF ICAT IONS

1 4 2 12000

1 9

tit

H IPPODROME

•

1 5 • N e. ,

•

•

3 1 2 1 1500

, 500

3 0 )

THEATER

2 8

3 1 3 2 W5 00

E5 00

10 00

CAESAREA MAR IT IMA L OCAT IONS O F E XCAVATED S ECTORS S INCE 1 9 50 O THER T HAN C AHEP

1 . 8

L ocat ion map : f eatures i n a nd n ear Caesarea , a nd e xcavat ions s ince 1 950 ( except CAHEP ) ( f or k ey , s ee Append ix I .A ) .

3 33

I l lus trat ions

7 ) /

B YZANT INE C ITY WALL

S I GH ( E . v i .

AQUEDUCTS

/

7

1 -"j

NORTH

GATE

\ LO W L EVEL AQUEDUCTS

,

ANC IENT

S R I

W,T E.

CRUSADER

NORTH 1 . 9

B AY

,O PT ,,

cAT IoNS

0

S ' CALE

North B ay : a nc ient f eatures a nd e xcavat ion a reas .

1 00

2 00

-

C A E S A R E A

H a r b o u r : l o c a t i o n m a p o f e x c a v t i o n a r e a s .

S o u t h B a y : a n c i e n t f e a t u r e s a n d e x c a v t i o n a r e a s .

U S A D E R

3 34 I l lustrat ions

— 8

f s r > :

o r I2 1

0, ,

L I J

0 0 — J

2

•

b -,

C • 3

3 35 I l lus tra t ions

Harbour a nd N orth B ay : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom s outh ( 1984 ) .

3 36

I l lus trat ions

3 37

I l lustrat ions

1 00

0

EMO

r ,1 •

MC6LEM C EMETERY

e e r e C IA I ICNS

T ANTURA GATE -

. „1 11 .___ __

j• 1 11 •• 1 1

/_

' , 300

•

•

. . _

N 20ü

i . 1

.

I

MN'

a w I i l

1

, _

1

i l l

N , 3 , 0

"v • •J

/

-T at

1

B AKER Y

/ gu E tE NG NO GV ER N IENT

1 l erg/

,i . , z , • _

/i te .,

/

/ I

,

1

l i 1

A

i l

i

, 16 ;

P

l i t

1 00 4 AFFA G ATE

A

.. g o i e r im irl e

CONVEN T

t

l a r

f

0•7 1

4s o i . ,-

B OSN IAN CAESAREA I N 1 930 1 . 14

k

1 1

. .

c u s Tw s HDUS I

GROCERY S TORE

6,

Map : B osn ian Caesarea i n 1 930 .

II

W

e A T CNS

3 38

1 . 15

I l lus trat ions

Harbour a nd B osn ian v i l lage : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom e ast ( ca . 1 925 ) .

1 . 16

Harbour : o b l ique a er ia l v iew f rom e ast ( 1984 ) .

3 39

I l lus tra t ions

A l eD /2 , z, R i ze rz

L i

SZA

( ) 1
z )

C

w a s l u a N o l

P C ' C D

£

r n r • Tr*rr is r ly . ,,,, 77 7 .777 W

5

r c . 17 : 1 r

C O 3

P 1

( D

NO -

D i

n

1

C

I

: ;

C D

•

•

•

0 I

H I

c n ; I D

o z c r q

gI

C A

c r )

3 42

1 . 21

I l lust r at ions

Channe ls o f H igh-Leve l Aqueduct , l ook ing s outh t o b reak [ D .N . , K .O .E . 1 .

1 . 22

Channe l o f L ow-Leve l A queduct , l ook ing n orth [ D .N . , K .O .E . 1 .

3 43

I l lus trat ions

1 . 23

S ed i mentary s equence o ver B yzant ine a nd e ar ly Mos lem s tructures s outh o f C rusader wa l ls [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

1 . 24

Deta i l o f 1 . 23 : h or izonta l l am inat ion i n s wamp s ed iments [ D .N . , K .O .E ] .

3 44

1 . 25

I l lus trat ions

D eta i l

o f

1 . 23 :

b urrows

s uggest ing

b ioturbat ion

o r

a erob ic

c ond it ions

[ D .N . , K .O .E . [ .

1 . 26

D eta i l o f 1 . 23 : s he l l l enses w ith in p ost-Byzant ine s equence [ D .N . , K .O .E . [ .

3 45

I l lus trat ions

1 . 27

Deta i l

o f

1 . 23 :

s he l l

l enses

w ith in

p ost-Byzant ine

s equence ;

d om inant

c oncave-downward o r ientat ion [ D .N . , K .O .E . ] .

1 . 28

Deta i l

o f

1 . 23 :

s he l l

l enses

w ith in

p ost-Byzant ine

s equence ;

l ent icu lar

l ayer o f i mbr icated f ragmented s he l ls a nd p ebb les 1 D .N . , K .O .E . 1 .

3 46

I l lustrat ions

A

—W — 1 5-

—

W—

—E

I 0— m B yzant ine C ity

1 0

L ate B yzant . B reakwater

1 -5

^

+5

( Ruins)

A braded T errace & R oman S luice

0— M .S .L .

H erodian B reakwater

—5

0— M .S .L .

' K urkar ( Cemented E o lianite) . —

1 0

5 ,

1 5

1 0

• ' . . • •, »•

20

1 5

1

1

1

I

1

1

.•

•

•

-•

I

I

w-

—E —

1 5— m 1 0-

1

5-

0— M .S .L .

— 5-

777 -7 1777

1 0—

••

• •

1 5—

i

I

I

I

t 0

I

I

50

50 m

0

•

1

1

1 .

1

1 50

1 m

I

m

I l lus tra t ions

1 . 30

3 47

S ate l l ite i mage o f d une f i e lds s outh o f C aesarea [ NASA ] .

I l lus trat ions

3 48

1 . 31

A er ia l p hotograph o f d une f i e lds a round Caesarea [ Survey o f I s rae l ] .

I l lus trat ions

1 . 32

3 49

Aer ia l p hotograph o f d une f i e lds s outh o f S edot Y am [ Survey o f I s rae l ] .

3 50

1 . 33

I l lustrat ions

Aer ia l p hotograph :

B yzant ine

b ath b u i ld ing ( JEC M

L eve l a nd H igh-Leve l Aqueducts [ J .W . Myers ] .

E -F ie ld ) ,

a nd

L ow-

3 51

I l lus trat ions

1 . 34

Aer ia l p hotograph : t erm ina t ion o f a queducts n orth o f C rusader wa l ls [ J .W . Myers ] .

I l lus trat ions

3 52

1 . 35

A er ia l p hotograph : n orth g ate w ith t w in r ound t owers [ J .W . Myers ] .

3 53

I l lus trat ions

1 . 36

Aer ia l p hotograph : n orth g ate t o A rea J [ J . W .Myers ] .

I l lus trat ions

3 54

1 . 37

A er ia l p hotograph : n orth C rusader wa l l , C o lumn J etty , A rea L , A rea S [ J .W . Myers ] .

3 55

I l lus trat ions

1 . 38

Aer ia l p hotograph : I nner B as in ( Area I ) , modern b each , s outh C rusader wa l l , J EC M C -F ie ld P .W . Myers ] .

A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h : J E C M C F i e l d , d u n e s , c o a s t o f S o u t h B a y [ J . W . M y e r s ] .

3 56 I l lus trat ions

C r 3 Ce

3 57

I l lustrat ions

1 . 40

Aer ia l p hotograph : c oast o f S outh B ay , P ise ina , B yzant ine wa l l , Theatre [ J .W . Myers l .

3 58

I l lustrat ions

1 . 41

1 . 42

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : e ast f ace [ Y .P . ] .

H igh-Leve l A queduct : west f ace [ Y .P . ] .

3 59

I l lus trat ions

1 . 43

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : b roken s outh e nd s how ing t wo c onstruct ion s tages [ Y .P . 1 .

1 . 44

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : d eta i l o f a rches s how ing t wo c onstruct ion s tages [ Y .P . ] .

3 60

I l lustrat ions

1 . 45

1 . 46

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : Kabbara marsh b y-pass [ Y .P . ] .

H igh-Leve l Aqueduct : t r ip le p ipe l ine i n Kabbara marsh s ect ion [ Y .P . 1 .

3 61

I l lus trat ions

I .1

North g ate w ith t w in r ound t owers : o b l ique a er ia l .

1 .2

North g ate : e ast t ower , f rom e ast .

I l lus tra t ions

3 62

1 .3

1 .4

North g ate : b lock ing wa l l b etween t owers .

N orth g ate : c i ty wa l l e ast o f e ast t ower , o uter f ace .

3 63

I l lustrat ions

1 .5

1 .6

North g ate : c i ty wa l l e ast o f e ast t ower , i nner f ace .

L ink 's s h ip S ea D iver a t t he h arbour o f C aesarea [ C .T . F r itsch ] .

I l lus trat ions

3 64

S UBMERGED NORTH B REAKWATER

E NCLOSED B AS IN O F H EROD IAN H ARBOR NA TURALR EEF S UBMERGED S OUTH B REAK WATER

e 4 4 0 t i 0 W

. C . e

C P J W % i

< 0 -

4 23

I l lus trat ions

1 V M H I r l O S

0

A r e a 1 3 : e a s t w a l o f v a u l t , a c t u a l s t a e d r a w i n g .

H O R E A . E A S T W A L

N o r t h c i t y w a l , i n s i d e f a c e a s t o f e a s t e r n r o u n d t o w e r .

4 24 I l lus trat ions

t ie 00 •

4 25

I l lus trat ions

7m

6m _ .

5m _

4m _

3m _

2m -

TRENCH S HELF ASH

-

L IGHT

R EDD ISH B ROWN

S ILTY S AND

i m DARK GREY-BRO WN C LAYEY S ILT -- GREY S ILTY S AND

MSL

SOUTH

P LAN

P ROBE

5 1,20

1 1 .86

A FH

A rea 1 3 : p robe I 3a ( south wa l l ) , p lan a nd s ect ion .

4 26

I l lus trat ions

6

4

GREY-BRO WN C LAYEY S ILT ASH E --- CARBONACEOUS L ENSE 4 --- R ED-BRO WN S ILTY SAND

_

DR OW N - GREY S ILTY SAND

2

CARBON F RAGMENTS DARK R ED- BRO WN S ILTY CLAY

> 1 -3 C D A D I . 1 •• I r

i

. 1

0 0

'

( 1 ) I I

C r • •

c r 0

c l C D 0 0 ' 3 4 -4 .

e 1 . — — 0 m ( 1 . , , •

I t I . . 1 . . • 0 0 C10

› .

f r ' S C D P O

CZ •• 'C I 1 -3 0 Cr

C D

, . . 3 . , e ' c r . A , u , c o o

o z 5 P >• 0 Z PI

. .•

.

a q

. 4 -

4 27

4 28

I l lustrat ions

1 1 .90

1 1 .91

A reas J , Y , a nd n orth c ity g ate : a er ia l p hotograph .

A rea J : waves b reak ing o n r eefs w est o f q uay ( at a rrow ) .

A rea J : g enera l s i te p lan ( 1982 ) .

3 N I N V Z . l E I

4 29 I lus trat ions

4 30

I l lus trat ions

1 1 .93

A rea J : v iew o f q uay a nd a ssoc iated wa l ls a t l ow water , f rom e ast .

1 1 .94

A rea J : v iew o f q uay w a l l , f rom NE .

4 31

I l lus trat ions

1 1 .95

A rea J : d eta i l o f c entra l p ort ion o f q uay wa l l , f rom west , s how ing s econd r ow o f h eaders s outh o f t he f i rst .

1 1 .96

A rea J : a sh lar b locks a bove h eader b locks o f q uay .

I l lustrat ions

4 32

1 1 .97

A rea J : a sh lar b locks a bove h eader b locks o f q uay , d eta i l o f c lamp mark .

1 1 .98

A rea J : r ock-cut b as in , f ro m n orth .

I lus trat ions

4 33

. 6 m

. 4

-

M SL , .

. 2

4

S ECT ION

A -A A

0 t it ',

ö 0 : z ,Q 0 0.0 00.00° 0•0 b C b 9. 0 0. , c; • 0 ' b. ( ) 06 .0 % 9). o • zoo t, o . •0 : ° cAo 0 ze, .O . c f r . 60 . :e ye D

. 3D .

. 51 , , ) e. . . .D

. .0 . . -• o 0• • .lo

t P ° ._0•. . o. ° .6

' P o . . . , . 0 -

0

"" ' . 0 .• • > k r • < 2 > w o p 0

0 . g e:' 4 ;9O . of , . 5. 4 31 e r ;

I

CI , C" . . _De r, :‘ . . _ 7 .- be ( 399 1 t 5 ,

0 0 00

_

•z 2w . i z. , p , 0 .0 00

c k .

. , 0 Q .o .

% p 6.

9., .•

0 . t o6

oc z, • r,

0 O peZfe. .0 u 0.p c' , , i z i

•Ob ,

P

9 _3 )

..

• .• . " 9

C 9 00

•

•

° O

t Pc .o -

ar )53':2)C e‘ ,

0

e e •

0

c i •

c ).

0 Zopc ) 0 0 50

P LAN S CALE

1 1 .99

J ULY 1 982

( 5

6

A

. 0

1 . 1 0

0 0 c \

.

D

9 0 e ;

0

0

S MM

M ETERS

A rea J :r ock-cut b as ins , p lan a nd s ect ion A-A .

4 34

S ECT ION

I l lus trat ions

B- B

SMM

. 6m

-

.4

_

. 2

MSL

-

S ECT ION

C -C

SMM

-

. 6m

-

.4

-

.2

MSL

. 2

I I .100

A rea J : r ock-cut b as ins , s ect ions B -B , C -C .

•2

-

.4

-

.6

4 35 I l lus trat ions

A rea J : r ock-cut b as in , f rom s outh .

A rea J : r ock-cut b as in , d oub le e nded j ar i ns i tu .

4 36

I l lustrat ions

( 6 . 30 )

WEST TOWER

E AST T O WER

L IM IT o f SOUTH BREAK WATER

AREA

K

2

4

J UN E ( j I _L

1 1 .103

A rea K : p lan .

MSL

CAV IT IT IES WOODEN

O F

F OR M WORK

-

2

-

4

EROS ION NOTCH

—

WEST

1 1 .104

T O WER

EAST

T O WER

A rea K : E ast a nd West T owers , e levat ion d raw ing f ro m s outh .

I l lus trat ions

4 37

: > • : . .u k i e z

• •

Z . •

•

• . * *.

•,

•z•

•. .U . .

•

••

•

•: • / ' • •

•• C :

• •

. th .

• •

• • . .4 %. • • ••

• * 1 . ' : • • . i • . . '. i . • • . . k . ;• ! .•

.•

•

•'f 3 .% •‘ 4.

•

•

• ••

. ." .;

• ' •

• . : t

4. , ,• • 1 .

•

•

-

• .•••

.• •

•

• . .

, 0 I MP

1 2 = BU M

. 3 4 Mo m

1 . 1 1 1 1 13 1 11 1

1 1 .105

1 1 .106

A rea K : a ctua l s tate d raw ing f rom NW .

A rea K : g roove a nd h o le f rom f ormwork t i e b eams o f E ast T ower .

4 38

I l lus tra t ions

1 1 .107

A rea K : West T ower , f rom w est .

lek e : 9 4,

1 1 .108

A rea K : s outheast f ace o f West T ower .

4 39

I l lus tra t ions

, . . . , , „ . , . „ . „ , , . „ . , . , . , . , „ . . . , , . , . . „ i , w ,1 0

•

A REA

ekUM

• '

' -• . ., .. I .

. . . . %

gee,

el ! . ' «W4

1 9 87 E XCAVAT IONS

L

-

2 0

H EROD IAN giAMP

! Of

• 0

. z ee* *••

E1 0

WE

d i ,h

I le p

e

i p

N2 10

•

APEA E XCAVATED B Y

•mum • • • •. a i m am. %w e Mu m

N ET ZER A ND L EV INE

W2 1 mmo u

N200

^ S UBMERGED COLUMNS

F ALLEN R UBBLE

a 1 7 1 1 e r . « .W8 etI 9

WELL W14

W r J

PAVED S TREET

, t7

S TORAGE V ATS

f. -

" • *

. if : • . 7 : . : :

N1 70

.„I l„ . e • b. h . , . : : 1 ; . • 1. 1

MEAN S EA L EVEL "

4 A

s i p "

A REA S

. ; " • : .

W 12

—. • q 1 • :1 . :

e . . , , i , . . . . , _ . 4 4 , . / . . i , , e.

. . „ , e . .. 0 „ e „ . .

T l iRESHOLD B LOCK

• W13 WELL

R LF IR I2 5

N1 60

b, gz '

T ÜM

e n iN W7 C LAMPED WALL

-

eu t i f ik

N1 50

A REA T

C AESAREA MAR IT IMA

I NNER H ARBOUR A REAS S A ND L 1 1 .109

A reas L a nd S : p lan .

EL '

5

SCALE

Illustrations

-

Clj t.. Cl) Clj

-

Cl) ::3 CT'

.c 0

ci3 'O C: Clj

�

tl)

Clj Cl) t..

�

4 41

I l lus trat ions

' 41 0 .58

0 .62

W22 -/

# 4. 1 e i s p e o r c e ' 1

*

0 .03

H EROD IAN C LAMP g i 0 .34

1 1 1 1 2 I 0 4 4 r. s ir e e% i d

A lb -

1 2%

'

4„ , ( 1 4 .

. , r3 . .

i

W4

0 .63

+ 0 .6 1

1 986 S1 D ATUM

R UBBLE 1 986

AREA S -1 J UNE 1 986 R OZ SMM

I I .111

1 1 .112

A rea L ( l ater S 1 ) : p lan .

A rea L ( l ater S 1 ) : n orth e dge o f p ier , b locks w ith d oveta i l c lamp s ett ing .

4 42

I l lustrat ions

1 1 .113

1 1 .114

A rea L ( l ater SO : p ier , f rom e ast .

A rea L ( l ater SO : wa l ls a t b ase o f p ier , f rom e ast .

4 43

I l lus tra t ions

(A U, :ARC ARI A

St

LOCI S 1 02 2

1 1 .115

It e -

e. , : 14.0 2 . ,-

o •

I

A rea L ( l ater SO : l ocus 1 02 .

.. 4 ,.;. . ' ••e " 7 -; ? s:'' : . , , . , . . ; , . .-. . • , • , ' -7 '

. . , . • ' . ,(} : : • .' * -

_.

' i " . « : : : .4 "

.

06

' . 7 . , ; ,7: . . .v .i ,

-» , -. v . le i r ,; 7g. : , zez, , ,

, . 0• o , • •• • - . 0 • • . . 0•• • 0

•

e it)

a'

0. : 1

0

' ;' , •

0

°

"

4,: . , • ; . ; , , -. ,-

. « — 4, _ --, 1 . 5 •

. * .

B EACH D EPOS ITS 1 . 0

B AULK

A 1 .116

0 .5

A rea L ( l ater S 1 ) : b au lk A , d raw ing .

4 44

I l lus trat ions

C i

B i

l i gi l r i n

i

A

ma

1 1 1 1 1 l ia %

b a u g i m u r e e t t am e en g i i m i t aK imm ii r o . , -mat u u nw i r

imp

w a r

B

A

1 1 .117

A rea L ( l ater S 1) : n orth-south q uay wa l l ( W 2 1 ) , a nd l a ter s t ructures t o t he e ast ; p lan , s ect ion , a nd e levat ion .

I l lus trat ions

1 1 .118

4 45

A rea L ( l ater S 1 ) : n orth-south q uay wa l l ( W 2 1 ) , a nd l ater s tructures t o t he e ast , v iew f rom w est .

1 1 .119

A rea L ( l ater S i ) : n orth-south q uay wa l l , s outh e nd , a nd C o lumn J etty , f rom e ast .

4 46

1 1 .120

I l lus trat ions

A reas M a nd Q : r ema ins o f C rusader C itade l a nd k urkar h ead land , f rom S E .

•

1 1 .121

A rea M : d eta i l o f C rusader v au lt ing west o f C itade l .

V 3 E I V S 3 V 0

4 47 I lus trat ions

F 1

P lan o f modern s outhern b reakwa ter , w ith A reas M a nd Q .

2 1

4 48

I l lus trat ions

1 1 1 1 1 1. 1 e i f lä 01 1 1 1 1 13 1. 1 11 8 d i e OM B » I K1 ,

mmuis

W eb 1 1 1. 1 1 1 1 e mi l l Mg 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .•

a v j g M I R* e i di s ib m al Ma> m ga in e , -4 al i k e* ou r t i l lel t ed l i n b ga mo ora ld r a ma . = a l r g e Wi ta i i rmi l l 11 10 1K o w e I B

M

I

eels a r e ikar . an i ma r .

C >

4 1 % 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1k « 1 1 1 1 3 1

1 : 4 1 1 1 1 1 1

a min i s mu mm iume

4

4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1I I I I M gua lt 11 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 M MW

S ECT ION

2_

e z t i , , @ v e t I N 4e d

e l' r e-1 4 T

1 4 1 : 2 ; i i i 4 7 ;: e i l je l

I . 1 1 1 1 1. 1 1. .. 1e . ' 17 , . ,eIt t e l ". > 1 6:::Fie .,, Z ie j A lg r it i r 21

o %

B -B

m u

;

. 1 4. # I natfäl l e *ir

C AESAREA C AHEP P LAN J UL Y 1 9 82

1 1 .123

MAR IT I MA C RUSADER C I TADEL I 5 0

S C ALE 0

I 2

M E TER S 4

c e )

A rea M : S outheast T ower , p lan a nd s ect ions A -A ' , B -B ' .

4 49

I lus trat ions

e r "rle , t 9 10 14•3 1 1 1 1 1 1a

n a h .i

i r*

e l re ih e

f e e a l. aa ' t

* t

a l n g i t l . t

je t A g

:

I i;

I I

8 4 : ; 14

ee &

d i z

4 / 4°7 16 4121 4

.: 2 1e 19

i l i .

di l i g n e t

%

N

a

e

l e r « M z ar i

4

l j e

ai lM * e _. . ez e ic e g e

twe480et • i i m e i m m e i e r i t %t w J Ä 4i (d ite d ä f r e ir e a r gr i t t ob i r te r e tv g.-e geg a

‘2 " 1 3 12

181 1 1 18 4 -

.1

4

>13 4Z 4 .4 14

1

. 1 : 1

2411 1 2 1 1 ä

0

2

3

5

h o m e

S CALE

1 1 .124

1 1 .125

M ETERS

A rea M : S outheast T ower , w est e levat ion .

A rea M : s outh f ace o f S outheast T ower f rom w est , w ith t i e b eam c o lumns .

W E S T ( B )

4c o

s e c t i o n o f s o u t h f a c e .

E L V A T I O N

4 50 I l lus tra t ions

1-

0

I l lus trat ions

4 51

1 1 .128

A rea M : Northwest T ower a nd C itade l , f rom n orth .

1 1 .129

A rea M : Northeast T ower f rom n orth .

I l lustrat ions

4 52

MODERN

WALLS

SOUTHEAST MOAT

CRUSADER

AREA M -CRUSADER S E T O WER

150

1 1 .130

1 983

TO WER

COLUMN J ETTY

MOAT SMM

I s

A rea M : C rusader Moat , p lan .

2

I OW

4 53

I l lus trat ions

0 ' O ej :4 1 A, Alt ee. * PA • ‚S o • ed i

MOAT

t

R ECONSTRUCT ION R E C O N S T R U C T I O N P ROPOSAL

1 1 .131

A rea M : C rusader Moat , r econstruct ion p roposa l , p lan .

4 54

I l lus trat ions

A

2

A REA N

i m

>A

1 1 .132

A rea N 1:p lan .

4

as METERS

4 55

I l lus trat ions

S ECT ION A -A MSL

— 1

—2 —3 —4 i5

—6

S ECT ION B -B MSL

3 4

5

6

1 1 .133

A rea N 1 : s ect ions A -A , B -B .

4 56

I l lustrat ions

1 1 .134

1 1 .135

A rea N 1 : c lay l ayer .

A rea P : o b l ique a er ia l o f P isc ina , f rom west .

t,... ar., "111::1'

..... � Cl)

�

-._

'-:;, I I,

'"'

'\.�

II t__

�

'�

\(

\g JUNE 1983

_,(/'

·M,'�...-.1 !­ l' ,....,

1/

; ;

fl, J >)

v

A

7 �

(

._·

i

r-

J

v'�)�_,,·--� '.

- -·, , · '• . ' \ \

�

�

-

:,,

r -) . •. t-;,

l

'

... ,.

; 1.

•C••

• ;L)'"

?. �

,'•

-· �

•J

• •

..,X

.

4

•

I

j

1,

1·

6

,

½,_} ,,·.,

I'

, 1,_J

;

L

METERS

8�

'I I �••--✓

· � "·

�!

.... ' , .;�, K+;< ,fr- - :

2

SC-ALE

0

. I'·;'.· · .·, ·...: 3

2

1

MSL

1

-

S LU ICE GATE 1 1 .157

S ECT ION A -A

A rea Q : s lu ice a nd s lu ice g ates , s ect ion A -A .

2

3

4 69

I l lus trat ions

1 1 .158

1 .159

A rea Q : n orth f ace o f modern s outh b reakwater , f rom west .

A rea Q : a sh lar q uay wa l l , d eta i l f rom e ast .

A rrows i nd icate v i s ib le j o ints .

4 70

I l lus trat ions

2

0

3

P L AN MIND

i ( )

- 2

MODERN R OAD

R EUSED COLUMN CRUSADER WALL j CEMENT

- 2

_ 3

A REA 0 1 1 .160

S ECT ION

A -A

K J

A rea Q : a sh lar q uay wa l l , p lan a nd s ect ion o f p robe .

I l lustrat ions

4 71

1 1 .161

A rea Q : a sh lar b locks n ear s lu ice .

1 1 .162

A rea R : m ixed s and a nd s he l l f i l l .

4 72

I lus trat ions

e

E >

3 -

5-

7-

9-

S ECT ION A -A




-4

---

� ��

60

-

l'IIOK

20

10

0

� I(

50

16

�

17

SECTION LINE �

..

40

30

20

IO

K

I

I

I

I

I

0

C

r:30.

0

I

I

40

30

20

10

SE CTION LINE

SECTION LINE 15

I

I

I

0

80

70

-8

K

-8

I

220

230

-o -4

-8

IO

20

30

40

I

60

I

70

I

90