The Geography of Contemporary China (World Regional Geography Book Series) 3031041577, 9783031041570

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World Regional Geography Book Series

Jing’ai Wang Shunlin Liang Peijun Shi

The Geography of Contemporary China

World Regional Geography Book Series Series Editor E. F. J. De Mulder, DANS, NARCIS, Utrecht, Noord-Holland, The Netherlands

What does Finland mean to a Finn, Sichuan to a Sichuanian, and California to a Californian? How are physical and human geographical factors reflected in their present-day inhabitants? And how are these factors interrelated? How does history, culture, socio-economy, language and demography impact and characterize and identify an average person in such regions today? How does that determine her or his well-being, behaviour, ambitions and perspectives for the future? These are the type of questions that are central to The World Regional Geography Book Series, where physically and socially coherent regions are being characterized by their roots and future perspectives described through a wide variety of scientific disciplines. The Book Series presents a dynamic overall and in-depth picture of specific regions and their people. In times of globalization renewed interest emerges for the region as an entity, its people, its landscapes and their roots. Books in this Series will also provide insight in how people from different regions in the world will anticipate on and adapt to global challenges as climate change and to supra-regional mitigation measures. This, in turn, will contribute to the ambitions of the International Year of Global Understanding to link the local with the global, to be proclaimed by the United Nations as a UN-Year for 2016, as initiated by the International Geographical Union. Submissions to the Book Series are also invited on the theme ‘The Geography of…’, with a relevant subtitle of the authors/editors choice. Proposals for the series will be considered by the Series Editor and International Editorial Board. An author/editor questionnaire and instructions for authors can be obtained from the Publisher. This book series is published in cooperation with the International Geographical Union (IGU). The IGU is an international, non-governmental, professional organization devoted to the development of the discipline of Geography. The purposes of the IGU are primarily to promote Geography through initiating and coordinating geographical research and teaching in all countries of the world.

Jing’ai Wang • Shunlin Liang • Peijun Shi

The Geography of Contemporary China

Jing’ai Wang Faculty of Geographical Science Beijing Normal University Beijing, China Peijun Shi Faculty of Geographical Science Beijing Normal University Beijing, China

Shunlin Liang Department of Geographical Sciences University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA Department of Geography University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, China

Qinghai Normal University Xining, Qinghai, China

ISSN 2363-9083     ISSN 2363-9091 (electronic) World Regional Geography Book Series ISBN 978-3-031-04157-0    ISBN 978-3-031-04158-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04158-7 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Picture Credit: Anton Balazh - Fotolia.com. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

In today’s world, knowing China may have insights into the critical changes of the largest developing country on earth. With its vast territory, huge population, long history, complex and diverse geographical environment, and rapid economic growth, China is the largest developing country and occupies a pivotal position in the world. In the context of climate change and globalization, the relationship between China and the world has undergone changes from “China in the world” to “China and the world” and “China with the world.” China’s rapid social and economic development has become an important driving force of global development, and its impact on the world has become increasingly extensive and deep. Therefore, in recent years, universities around the world, especially those that have geography departments or schools, have offered country-specific geography courses under the framework of world geography, especially the geography of countries with vast territories and a relatively large global impact, such as geography of China. Because of the rapid socio-economic and environmental changes in China and very few textbooks available in the global market, there is an urgent need to write textbooks on China’s Geography in English. There are four guiding principles for writing The Geography of Contemporary China. First, based on the Chinese version of the China Geography edited by Jing’ai Wang, this new book provides as much Chinese cultural background as possible for students who are non-native Chinese. Second, based on the spatial variations of China’s human-environment relations, this book focuses on the characteristics of the spatiotemporal patterns of China’s geography. Third, this book expounds the geographical processes of China through the idea of “region + integration + sustainability.” Fourth, this book elaborates the characteristics of China’s human-environment interactions, based on the regional integrated geography and its main geographical issues. Accordingly, it is expected to present a comprehensive and detailed English-language perspective of the geographical pattern and process of Contemporary China. The Geography of Contemporary China consists of 6 parts with 15 chapters. Part I, Geographic Overview, includes two chapters. Chapter 1, “Introduction,” briefly describes China’s location, population, economy, and development, and contains the most basic, important, and representative geographic features of China. Chapter 2, “Territory and Geopolitics,” introduces the historical evolution and geographical changes of China’s territory and related international politics Part II, Physical Geography, includes three chapters. Chapter 3, “Topography and Landforms,” presents the spatial pattern of China’s topographic features and landform structure. Chapter 4, “Climate and Climate Change,” introduces the climatic types, atmospheric circulation and major weather phenomena, and climate change. Chapter 5, “Hydrology and Water Resources,” describes the spatiotemporal patterns of surface water in China. Part III, Land and Natural Resources, includes two chapters. Chapter 6, “Land Cover and Land Use,” describes the types, structures, distribution patterns, and spatiotemporal changes of land cover (e.g., vegetation and soil) and land use. Chapter 7, “Natural Resources and Energy,” focuses on biological resources and their diversity, energy, and mineral resources and their development, utilization, and conservation. Part IV, Ecological and Environmental Remediation, has three chapters. Chapter 8, “Land Degradation and Ecological Construction,” elaborates the main types, causes, distribution, prev

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vention, and ecological construction of land degradation Chapter 9, “Environmental Pollution and Protection,” describes air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution and their causes and management measures. Chapter 10, “Natural Disasters,” explains the types, distribution, causes, and countermeasures of natural disasters. Part V, “Human and Economic Geography,” includes four chapters. Chapter 11, “Population and Urbanization,” describes total population and its changes, population structure, migration, and urbanization. Chapter 12, “Economic Geography,” introduces economic geography from the perspective of industrial structure and economic layout, development and layout of industry, agriculture, and transportation. Chapter 13, “China’s Opening up and Trade,” elaborates on China’s opening up pattern, “the Belt and Road” initiative, and international investment and trade cooperation. Chapter 14, “Tourism Geography,” focuses on China’s natural and cultural heritage, tourism zones, and attractions. Part VI has only Chap. 15, “Sustainable Development,”. It describes the ideology, strategy, and planning of sustainable development in China, as well as geographic synergism. The Geography of Contemporary China is co-authored by three of us from Beijing Normal University (BNU) in China and the University of Maryland (UMD) in the USA. We have a strong pedagogical and research background, as well as good long-term collaboration. Prof. Wang has been teaching the undergraduate-level “China’s Geography” in the Faculty of Geographical Science of BNU for more than 20 years. She presided over the national-level “China’s Geography” excellency course and the excellency MOOC, and edited China’s Geography and Geographic Atlas of China, both in Chinese, and A Comparative Geography of China and the U.S. Prof. Shi has participated in teaching the “China’s Geography” course and writing related textbooks. Prof. Liang has also been teaching China’s geography course for undergraduate students in the Department of Geographic Sciences at UMM for a decade, and has led UMD undergraduate students on research trips to visit several cities and regions in China through the summer Study Abroad program. After years of exchange and cooperation, we felt the need to strengthen our teaching cooperation between BNU and UMD, and one of the actions was to write The Geography of Contemporary China. In November 2012, we discussed the contents and the initial outline. From 2013 to 2015, we mainly wrote the first draft in Chinese, during which we revised the outline twice; from 2016 to 2018, we revised its content and formed the second draft in Chinese, then translated the first draft in English. From 2019 to 2021, the English manuscript was revised and edited, the figures were redrawn, and the manuscript was submitted to Springer in March 2021. After that, two major revisions were made according to the editor’s and reviewer’s comments, and the manuscript was finalized in February 2022. The first draft of The Geography of Contemporary China was completed by Prof. Wang in Chinese and refined by Professor Liang; the first draft in English was completed by Prof. Liang and refined by Prof. Wang; Prof. Shi completed the revision of the Chinese and English drafts; three of us jointly finalized the English draft. Writing The Geography of Contemporary China has been supported by the national excellency course “China’s Geography” project, the Faculty of Geographical Science at BNU and the Department of Geographical Sciences at UMD, and Geographical Science Platforms at BNU such as the Regional Geography Research Laboratory, the Key Laboratory of Environmental Change and Natural Disaster of MOE, the State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, and the Huang Danian Scholar Team Project of MOE. We express our sincere gratitude for the funding and support of the above projects and platforms! We would like to thank a group of experts and scholars who generously offered valuable advice and comments on this book writing. Special thanks to Prof. Christopher Justice and Prof. John Townshend of the Department of Geographical Sciences, UMD, for their consistent support and encouragement. We would like to thank Dr. Mila Zlatic and Dr. Rachel Haber for their extensive and helpful discussions with Prof. Liang during their undergraduate visits to China and their lectures on China’s Geography at UMD, and Mr. Tom Otwell for his help in

Preface

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editing the English manuscript. We thank three anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions. We thank Prof. Ji Zhao, Prof. Xiaoping Dong, and Prof. Fulin Chao of BNU for their guidance; Prof. Yun Su, Prof. Huasheng Zhu, and Prof. Tao Ye of BNU for their helpful discussions and assistance; Dr. Weixia Yin, Dr. Yuan Gao, and Dr. Hao Guo of BNU for their help; PhD students Ruohan Li, Diyang Cui, Xueyuan Gao, Aolin Jia, and Zhihao Wang at UMD for their help in collecting materials, processing data, and supporting English translations; PhD students Tian Liu and Yu Bai, and undergraduate student Ying Zhang at BNU for their contributions in making figures; and particularly graduate students Yu Bai and Peng Su for their great supports in revising figures and English document management. The references in this book are presented in three ways: footnotes on the current page, cited in the figures/ tables, and listed sequentially at the end of each chapter. We would like to express our sincere thanks to the original authors of some materials and information shared on the Internet and cited in this book. Due to our limited knowledge and expertise, and experiencing the special 3-year period of the global COVID-19 pandemic, this book may contain some inevitable mistakes and errors, and we would appreciate the readers’ criticism and corrections. Beijing, China

Jing’ai Wang

Maryland, USA

Shunlin Liang

Beijing, China March 30, 2022

Peijun Shi

Contents

1 Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1 1.1 Section 1. Overview���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1 1.1.1 Geography�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1 1.1.2 Territory and Territorial Waters���������������������������������������������������������������   3 1.1.3 Population �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   4 1.1.4 Economy and Development���������������������������������������������������������������������  11 1.2 Section 2. Geographical Divisions�����������������������������������������������������������������������  12 1.2.1 Physical Geography���������������������������������������������������������������������������������  12 1.2.2 Four Economic Regions���������������������������������������������������������������������������  17 1.3 Section 3. Government�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  20 1.3.1 State Structure�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  20 1.3.2 Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference�������������������������������  21 1.3.3 Capital and Administrative Divisions �����������������������������������������������������  22 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  23 2 Territory and Geopolitics�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  25 2.1 Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties�������������������������������������  25 2.1.1 The Pre-Qin Period (Ancient China: Twenty-First Century BC–221 BC)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������  25 2.1.2 The Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC–220 AD)��������������������������������������  27 2.1.3 Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin Dynasties, and Northern and Southern Dynasties (220–589 AD)�����������������������������  32 2.1.4 The Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties Period (581–960)�����������������������������  32 2.1.5 The Period of Song Dynasty, Liao Dynasty, Western Xia Dynasty, and Jin Dynasty (947–1279) �������������������������������������������������������������������  36 2.1.6 The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) �������������������������������������������������������������  39 2.1.7 The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)�������������������������������������������������������������  42 2.1.8 The Qing Dynasty (1636–1911) �������������������������������������������������������������  44 2.1.9 The Republic of China (1912–1949)�������������������������������������������������������  45 2.1.10 Qin Shi Huang (the First Emperor of Qin), Genghis Khan, and Zhu Di�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  45 2.2 Cradle of Civilization�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  48 2.2.1 Chinese Civilization���������������������������������������������������������������������������������  48 2.2.2 The “Three Major Projects” of Ancient China ���������������������������������������  49 2.2.3 Confucius and Mencius���������������������������������������������������������������������������  53 2.3 Boundaries and Geopolitics���������������������������������������������������������������������������������  54 2.3.1 Land Neighbors and Borders�������������������������������������������������������������������  54 2.3.2 Maritime Neighboring Countries and Marine Space Division ���������������  56 2.3.3 South China Sea���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  59 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  61

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3 Topography and Landforms �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  63 3.1 Landform Patterns�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  63 3.1.1 Geotectonics���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  63 3.1.2 Topography ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  68 3.1.3 Landforms �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  69 3.2 Qinghai-Tibet Plateau �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  71 3.2.1 Himalayas and Glaciers���������������������������������������������������������������������������  71 3.2.2 Biology and Ecology�������������������������������������������������������������������������������  73 3.2.3 Tibetan Culture ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  74 3.3 Loess Plateau�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  75 3.3.1 Loess and Climate Change����������������������������������������������������������������������  75 3.3.2 Loess and Soil Erosion����������������������������������������������������������������������������  76 3.3.3 The Red Capital and Local Folk Customs�����������������������������������������������  77 3.4 Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  77 3.4.1 Karst Plateau �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  77 3.4.2 Guilin Scenery�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  79 3.4.3 Cultural Customs and Practices���������������������������������������������������������������  79 3.5 Inner Mongolia Plateau���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  81 3.5.1 Profile�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  81 3.5.2 China’s Pasture�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  82 3.5.3 Folk Customs�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  82 References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  83 4 Climate and Climate Change�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  85 4.1 Climatic Variables �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  85 4.1.1 Solar Radiation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  85 4.1.2 Temperature���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  86 4.1.3 Precipitation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  88 4.1.4 Wind���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  90 4.2 General Atmospheric Circulation �����������������������������������������������������������������������  92 4.2.1 Monsoons�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  92 4.2.2 Plum Rain �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  96 4.2.3 Typhoons�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  97 4.2.4 Cold Waves ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  98 4.3 Climate Change Patterns and Causes�������������������������������������������������������������������  98 4.3.1 Historical Temperature and Precipitation Patterns�����������������������������������  98 4.3.2 Future Changes and Effects���������������������������������������������������������������������  99 4.3.3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions��������������������������������������������������������������������� 100 4.3.4 Urbanization��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100 5 Hydrology and Water Resources������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103 5.1 Surface Water Systems����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103 5.1.1 River Basins��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103 5.1.2 Major Rivers ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105 5.1.3 Lakes ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109 5.1.4 Reservoirs ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111 5.2 Water Resources��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 5.2.1 Water Cycle��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 5.2.2 Distribution and Utilization��������������������������������������������������������������������� 113 5.2.3 South-to-North Water Diversion Project������������������������������������������������� 115 5.2.4 Three Gorges Project������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119

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6 Land Cover and Land Use����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121 6.1 Land Cover����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121 6.1.1 Overview������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121 6.1.2 Vegetation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125 6.1.3 Soils��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129 6.1.4 Vegetation and Soil Zonation������������������������������������������������������������������� 131 6.2 Land Use ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138 6.2.1 Overview������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138 6.2.2 Changes in Land Use������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151 7 Natural Resources and Energy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153 7.1 Biological Resources������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153 7.1.1 Plants������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153 7.1.2 Wild Animals������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156 7.1.3 Biodiversity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 159 7.2 Energy Resources������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164 7.2.1 Petroleum and Natural Gas ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 164 7.2.2 Coal ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165 7.2.3 New Energy Sources������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165 7.2.4 Energy Production, Consumption, and Security������������������������������������� 171 7.3 Mineral Resources����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 171 7.3.1 Overview������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 171 7.3.2 Development ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174 7.4 Challenges in International Resource Markets ��������������������������������������������������� 176 7.4.1 Resource Management����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176 7.4.2 China’s Energy Imports and Exports������������������������������������������������������� 178 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180 8 Land Degradation and Ecological Restoration ������������������������������������������������������� 183 8.1 Overview of Land Degradation��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183 8.1.1 Spatiotemporal Pattern����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183 8.1.2 General Impacts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184 8.2 Types of Land Degradation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185 8.2.1 Soil Erosion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185 8.2.2 Desertification ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187 8.2.3 Grassland Degradation����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188 8.2.4 Salinization ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193 8.2.5 Rocky Desertification������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196 8.3 Ecological Restoration����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199 8.3.1 Example Projects������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199 8.3.2 Natural Ecological Protection Areas������������������������������������������������������� 209 8.3.3 Economic Aspects of Ecological Restoration ����������������������������������������� 209 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213 9 Environmental Pollution and Protection ����������������������������������������������������������������� 215 9.1 Characteristics of Environmental Pollution in China ����������������������������������������� 215 9.1.1 Causal Factors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 215 9.1.2 Characteristics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 216 9.2 Major Environmental Pollutants ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218 9.2.1 Water Pollution ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218 9.2.2 Air Pollution ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 220 9.2.3 Solid Waste Pollution, ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 221 9.2.4 Soil Pollution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222

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9.3 Environmental Protection ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222 9.3.1 Regulations, Policies, and Measures������������������������������������������������������� 222 9.3.2 Environmental Governance Case Studies ����������������������������������������������� 225 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229 10 Natural Disasters��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 231 10.1 Major Natural Disaster Types ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 231 10.1.1 Earthquakes and Surficial Movements��������������������������������������������������� 231 10.1.2 Extreme Precipitation and Flooding ����������������������������������������������������� 234 10.1.3 Droughts and Sandstorms ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 238 10.1.4 Typhoons����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 241 10.1.5 Marine Hazards������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 243 10.1.6 Forest and Grassland Fires��������������������������������������������������������������������� 245 10.2 Overview����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247 10.2.1 Basic Characteristics����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247 10.2.2 Hazard-Formative Environments and Disaster-Inducing Factors ��������� 248 10.2.3 Hazard-Bearing Bodies and Disaster Effects����������������������������������������� 253 10.3 Disaster Prevention and Mitigation������������������������������������������������������������������� 254 10.3.1 Disaster Prevention, Resistance, and Relief������������������������������������������� 254 10.3.2 Integrated Disaster Risk������������������������������������������������������������������������� 255 10.3.3 Case Study of National Disaster Response: 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake������������������������������������������������������������������� 257 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 261 11 Population and Urbanization������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263 11.1 The Population and Its Historical Changes������������������������������������������������������� 263 11.1.1 Total Population: Characteristics and Changes������������������������������������� 263 11.1.2 The Composition and Distribution of Population by Nationality���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 268 11.1.3 Language and Religion ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271 11.2 Household Registration and Urbanization��������������������������������������������������������� 273 11.2.1 Household Registration Management��������������������������������������������������� 273 11.2.2 Urbanization������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 275 11.2.3 Rapid Urbanization of Shenzhen����������������������������������������������������������� 280 11.3 Family Planning and Aging������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 281 11.3.1 Family Planning������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 281 11.3.2 Aging����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 283 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 286 12 Economic Geography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289 12.1 Industrial Structure and Economic Layout ������������������������������������������������������� 289 12.1.1 Aggregate Economy and Regional Differences������������������������������������� 289 12.1.2 Changes in Industrial Structure������������������������������������������������������������� 290 12.1.3 Economic Development by Region������������������������������������������������������� 290 12.2 Industrial Layout and Economic and Technological Development Zones������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 292 12.2.1 Industrial Development������������������������������������������������������������������������� 292 12.2.2 Energy Industry������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 294 12.2.3 Steel Industry����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 302 12.2.4 Mechanical and Electrical Industries����������������������������������������������������� 304 12.2.5 Light Industries ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 306 12.2.6 New and High-Tech Industries ������������������������������������������������������������� 307 12.3 Agricultural Development and Layout ������������������������������������������������������������� 308 12.3.1 Agricultural Production Patterns����������������������������������������������������������� 308

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12.3.2 Distribution of Grain Production����������������������������������������������������������� 313 12.3.3 Distribution of Commercial Crops (Cash Crops) ��������������������������������� 319 12.3.4 Major Livestock-Producing Areas��������������������������������������������������������� 321 12.3.5 Aquaculture Areas��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 324 12.3.6 China’s Agricultural Development Orientation and Optimization ������� 324 12.4 Transportation and Communication Industry ��������������������������������������������������� 325 12.4.1 Transportation Development and Structure������������������������������������������� 325 12.4.2 Layout of the Transportation Network��������������������������������������������������� 326 12.4.3 Development and Layout of the Post and Telecommunications Industry ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 335 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 336 13 China’s Opening Up and Trade��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 337 13.1 China’s Opening Up Pattern ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 337 13.1.1 Opening Up Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 337 13.1.2 Outcomes of 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up������������������������������� 339 13.1.3 International Exchanges and Organizations������������������������������������������� 343 13.2 The Belt and Road Initiative ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 345 13.2.1 Proposal and Significance of the B&R ������������������������������������������������� 345 13.2.2 Silk Road Economic Belt����������������������������������������������������������������������� 347 13.2.3 Maritime Silk Road������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 349 13.2.4 Regional Positioning and Openness������������������������������������������������������� 350 13.3 China’s International Investment and Trade ����������������������������������������������������� 351 13.3.1 Foreign Direct Investment��������������������������������������������������������������������� 351 13.3.2 China’s Outward FDI (OFDI)��������������������������������������������������������������� 355 13.3.3 China’s Foreign Trade��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 356 13.3.4 International Production by Multinational Corporations����������������������� 363 13.4 International Cooperation in Resource Development and Utilization��������������� 364 13.4.1 Energy Development and Utilization����������������������������������������������������� 364 13.4.2 Food Production and Consumption������������������������������������������������������� 365 13.4.3 Human Resources ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 369 13.4.4 Tourism ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 370 13.4.5 Currency������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 372 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 375 14 Tourism Geography ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 377 14.1 Natural and Cultural Heritage��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 377 14.1.1 Types of Heritage Resources����������������������������������������������������������������� 377 14.1.2 Distribution of Human Heritage Resources������������������������������������������� 381 14.2 Tourist Attractions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 383 14.2.1 Distribution of Tourism Resources ������������������������������������������������������� 383 14.2.2 Tourist Area������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 383 14.3 Tourism Products����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 416 14.3.1 Tea��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 416 14.3.2 Calligraphy and Painting����������������������������������������������������������������������� 423 14.3.3 Food and Drink ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 425 14.3.4 Customs in Costume and Adornment ��������������������������������������������������� 435 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 440 15 Sustainable Development������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 441 15.1 The Concept in Ancient China��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 441 15.1.1 Harmony Between Humanity and Nature��������������������������������������������� 441 15.1.2 Harmony ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 442

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15.1.3 Harmony in Culture������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 442 15.1.4 Sustainability����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 443 15.2 Strategy and Planning for Sustainable Development����������������������������������������� 444 15.2.1 China’s Agenda 21��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 445 15.2.2 National Outline of Ecological Environment Protection Program ������� 445 15.2.3 National Ecological Environment Construction Plan ��������������������������� 447 15.2.4 United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development����������������� 447 15.2.5 Building a Shared Future����������������������������������������������������������������������� 450 15.3 Geographic Synergetics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 450 15.3.1 Background ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 451 15.3.2 Human-Earth Synergy��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 452 15.3.3 Geographic Synergetics������������������������������������������������������������������������� 453 15.3.4 Application of Geographic Synergetics������������������������������������������������� 455 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 456 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 459

1

Introduction

Abstract

China is located in the east of Eurasia and on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean. China has a vast territory, a long coastal zone, a rugged terrain, a remarkable monsoon climate, a large population, a long history, and a complex and diverse geographical environment. This chapter provides an overview China’s territory, population, economy, and development. It highlights regional differentiation of physical environment (the eastern monsoon region, the northwest arid region, and the Qinghai-­ Tibet Plateau region) and economical development (the eastern region, the central region, the northwest region, and the northeast District), national management system, and major policies. This chapter essentially describes China’s most basic, important, and representative characteristics, paving the way for deeper explorations provided in subsequent chapters. Keywords

Territory and territorial sea · Population and economic power · Physical geographic region · Economic zone · Administrative region

China is a rapidly developing country with a vast territory, a large population, a long history, a diverse geographical environment, and a quickly growing economy. It is located in eastern Eurasia, mostly within the mid-latitude Northern Hemisphere, with an eastern border marked primarily by the western shore of the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1.1). These factors mean that China is playing an increasingly important role in the world. This introduction briefly describes China’s natural characteristics, social and economic development, and administrative system. It summarizes China’s most fundamental,

important, and representative characteristics, paving the way for deeper explorations provided in subsequent chapters.

1.1

Section 1. Overview

1.1.1 Geography China’s landmass is the fourth largest in the world, crossing nearly 50° of latitude (the most of any country) from 53.5° N to 3.9°  N, a north-south distance of 5500  km. However, nearly 98% of China’s land is located between 20°  N and 50° N. The large differences in solar incident angle and day-­ night length across this wide latitudinal range lead to differences in solar radiation and temperature, though its mid-latitudinal location overall provides abundant light and heat resources for its diverse landscapes. From south to the north, China (excluding the Tibetan Highlands) crosses six temperature zones: equatorial, tropical, subtropical, warm (southern) temperate, mid-temperate, and cold (northern) temperate. The subtropical and temperate zones are the largest, occupying 26% and 45% of China’s land, respectively. From west to east, China covers almost 62 lines of longitude over 5200  km, from 73°E to 135°E.  This produces a wide variety of climates and landscapes that gradually change (from west to east) from arid to semi-arid to semi-­ humid to humid. The country spans five time zones (UTC+05:00 to UTC+09:00), such that the time difference between east and west is over 4  h. However, China has adopted a single national standard time of UTC+08:00, based on the location of the capital, Beijing (120° E); this is known as Beijing time. China’s location on the boundary between the world’s largest continent and ocean, and near the Indian Ocean to the south (Fig. 1.2), provides a sharp land-ocean thermal contrast that allows several monsoon patterns to affect its weather; these include the southeast monsoon prevailing in the east, the Qinghai-Tibet plateau monsoon, and the southwest monsoon

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Wang et al., The Geography of Contemporary China, World Regional Geography Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04158-7_1

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1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1  Location of China

Fig. 1.2  Satellite imagery of China and the world (Global Satellite Image 2012). (Source: Shi Peijun and Roger Ksdperson 2015)

from the Indian Ocean. Western China’s far inland location isolates it from oceanic effects and produces an arid climate; for example, the Taklamakan Desert in northwestern China is the world’s second-largest shifting sandy desert. This region also features high-elevation areas including the Qinghai-Tibet

Plateau, known as the world’s “roof” or “third pole”; Mount Qomolangma (Mount Everest), the highest mountain in the world, lies on the border between China and Nepal. As part of East Asia, China has geographic advantages in trade and regional cooperation. China, India, and other

1.1 Section 1. Overview

emerging Asian economies have undergone rapid development in recent decades, and their positions in global economic governance have risen correspondingly. The economic rise of Asia has encouraged a reorganization of the global economy toward a more diversified three-part dominance between Europe, the United States, and Asia, and China now plays a pivotal role in the Asian-Pacific and global economy. In 2010, China’s gross domestic product (GDP) surpassed that of Japan, making it the second-largest economy in the world. In 2013, Chinese President Xi Jinping introduced the “Silk Road Economic Belt” and “21st Century Maritime Silk Road” initiatives (Fig. 1.3). Together referred to as the “Belt and Road Initiative,” these plans draw on the memory of the historic Silk Road trade corridor between China and the West to emphasize peaceful development by strengthening cooperative economic partnerships between China and other countries, jointly building a community with shared interests, responsibilities, and futures based on mutual political trust, economic integration, and cultural tolerance. China lies on vital maritime traffic lanes between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and plays a vital role in trade between North Asia, Northwest Asia, and the Pacific Rim countries as far as the Indian Ocean and Oceania. In addition, China lies at the east end of the “Eurasian Land Bridge,” a set of important rail transportation routes from East Asia to Middle Asia and Europe (part of the Silk Road Economic Belt). Given the important geographical location of Eurasian transport arteries and maritime gateways, China plays an important eco-

Fig. 1.3  Geographic outline of the Belt and Road Initiative

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nomic, political, and military role in the world’s development pattern.

1.1.2 Territory and Territorial Waters China’s 9.6  million km2 land area composes 7% of the world’s landmass (Table 1.1), the fourth-largest after Russia, Canada, and the United States. Its 22,147 km land border, the longest in the world, connects with 14 neighboring countries: North Korea in the northeast; Mongolia and Russia in the north; Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan in the northwest; Afghanistan and Pakistan in the west; and India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam in the south (Fig.  1.4). In addition, China’s maritime borders connect with South Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. China’s 18,400 km continental coastline extends from the North Korean border in the north to the Vietnamese border in the south, while its island coastline adds another 14,000 km. Its inland and marginal seas cover 4.7 million km2; from north to south these water areas include the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, the Pacific Ocean to the east of Taiwan, and the South China Sea. There are more than 150 relatively large gulfs and 7600 islands along the Chinese coast, while almost 85% of the islands are south of Hangzhou Bay. China considers Taiwan to be its largest island, with an area of 35,795  km2. Hainan, the second largest island, has an area of 33,900 km2.

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1 Introduction

Table 1.1 Top five countries by land area (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2012) Country Russia Canada United States China Brazil

Land area (km2) 17,098,200 9,984,700 9,632,000 9,598,100 8,514,900

% of global land area 12.72 7.43 7.17 7.14 6.33

Source: Hartmann Rudi and Wang Jing’ai (2014)

Fig. 1.4  Map of China and surrounding countries

1.1.3 Population 1.1.3.1 Population Size China has historically been a populous country and now comprises 18% of the world’s population (Fig. 1.5). China’s population was over 100  million at the beginning of the twelfth century, 200 million in the mid-eighteenth century, 300 million in the early nineteenth century, and 400 million at the end of the nineteenth century. The population of Mainland China reached 540 million in 1949 and 1.2 billion in 1995 (Fig. 1.6). China’s total population was 1.37 billion in 2010 and 1.44  billion in 2021 (including Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan).

1.1 Section 1. Overview

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Fig. 1.5  Proportion of 2018 global population for China and other countries. (Source: worldpopdata.org) Fig. 1.6  Historical trend of China’s population (Lu Yu and Teng Zezhi). (Source: Xie Gaodi et al. 2011)

Before 1949, especially during the feudal era, grain production was the main economic activity and was characterized by a household-based economy. The amount and strength of labor were the key determinants of economic effectiveness in ancient China. As a result, each Chinese dynasty paid great attention to human fertility and population in order to build and consolidate its reign. However, the population often decreased due to social unrest, war, natural disasters, famine, disease, and a lack of medical/health facilities and services. Interactions between these factors meant that China’s population tended to fluctuate under the influence of the “two highs and one low” pattern (high birth rate, high mortality rate, and low natural growth rate) before the creation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Throughout Chinese history, its population size followed periodic cycles rather than linear growth. For example, when a new dynasty was established and society enjoyed a period of peace and order, the number of newborns gradually outgrew the number of deceased. As the population expanded, it

reached a saturation point beyond which the food supply was insufficient. The slow development of agricultural technology meant that constant population growth led to increasingly intense competition for resources. Eventually, overpopulation led to wars, which temporarily relieved the pressure, and the population returned to the beginning of the cycle. Repeated cycles led to China’s historical population showing a spiral, rather than linear, growth pattern. China has conducted six population censuses since 1949. During the 69 years from 1949 to 2018, China’s population increased by more than 850  million, an average annual increase of 12 million. The implementation of family planning in China has had a significant impact, and China’s share of the global population has declined since the 1970s (Fig. 1.7), but the population size remains large.

1.1.3.2 China’s Unique Demographic Structure Unbalanced Gender Structure  China’s gender ratio (male:female) is higher than in other countries. In general,

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Fig. 1.7  World and China population (1949–2018) and proportion of China to world population. (Source: Hartmann Rudi and Wang Jing’ai 2014)

this is 10% has decreased from 9 There are also over 400 tribes in India, more than any other (Inner Mongolia, Anhui, Shandong, Guizhou, Yunnan, country in Asia. Each Indian nationality and tribe has its own Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia) in the 5th census to 4 language, religious beliefs, and traditional customs, all of (Guizhou, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai) in the 6th census. The which contribute to the nation’s cultural diversity. highest levels of illiteracy are concentrated in western China. In 2010, in the 12 provincial-­level regions of westPatterns in National and Regional Illiteracy  The biggest ern China, the total population ≥15 years old was 292.2 milchange in the cultural structure of China’s population has lion (24% of the national population), while the illiterate been the sharp fall in illiteracy. From the second population population was 19.4 million (35.8% of the national illitercensus in 1964 to the sixth population census in 2010, ate population). The illiteracy rate in the west was 7%, 2% China’s total population almost doubled, while the illiterate higher than the national average and 3% higher than in the population decreased from 233.3  million to 54.7  million, east (Fig. 1.13).

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1 Introduction

Fig. 1.12  Chinese illiteracy rate in each population census. (The 2015, 2017 data is from China Statistical Yearbook 2016 and 2018. The 2000, 2010 data is from statistics of the 5th and 6th national population census. The 1982, 1990 data is from Gu Mingyuan (2011). The 1964 data is from China Statistical Yearbook 1981)

Fig. 1.13  Regional disparities in China’s illiteracy rate in 2010. (Source: Statistics of the 6th national population census)

Fig. 1.14  College enrollment rates in China, the United States, Japan, and India over time (Overall enrollment rate at ISCED levels 5 and 6). (Source: World Bank Database)

From 1982 to 2010, China’s working population grew from 453 million to 761 million. During this period, primary According to World Bank statistics, the college enroll- workers dropped from 68% to 37%, secondary workers ment rate (overall enrollment in ISCED level 5 and 6 level increased from 18% to 28% with some fluctuations, and terprograms, roughly corresponding to 2- and 4-year post-­ tiary workers rose from 14% to 35%. Tertiary workers secondary degrees) of the United States and Japan (two eco- became more common than secondary workers, but primary nomically developed countries) was >50% in 2010, workers remained most common. representing the universal higher education stage. This was By the end of 2017, China’s working population reached highest in the United States (93%) and grew by 40% from 776.4  million, including urban employment of 424.6  mil1980 to 2010, 1.5 times the growth rate of that in Japan. The lion. Primary workers accounted for 27%, secondary workcomparable enrollment rates of China and India, two devel- ers 28%, and tertiary workers 45%. Therefore, tertiary oping countries, in 2010 were >15% but 50%, much from 1952 to 1982. During this period, the proportion of pri- higher than the global average (Fig.  1.16). In comparison, mary industry (raw material) workers dropped from 84% to developed countries such as the United States and Japan had 68%, that of secondary industry (manufacturing) workers a tertiary industry proportion exceeding 60%, much higher increased from 7% to 18%, and that of tertiary industry (ser- than the global average and demonstrating a modern employvice) workers fluctuated between 9% and 14%. All rates ment structure. In 2018, the primary industry proportion in changed slowly (whether growth or decline), while the pri- China and India was still higher than the global average, mary working population remained dominant. though with a clear decline (Fig.  1.17). China’s secondary

1.1 Section 1. Overview

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Fig. 1.15  Proportion of primary (raw materials), secondary (manufacturing), and tertiary (services) employment in China from 1952 to 2015. (Source: World Bank Database)

Rapid Urban Population Growth  The proportion of urban population in China increased from 13% in 1952 to 60% in 2018 (Fig.  1.18). The nonagricultural population in urban areas grew from 82.9  million in 1952 to 605.2  million in 2018. The urbanization level (the proportion of urban nonagricultural population to total population) increased from 15% to 43% during the same period. Since the 1980s, China’s urban population growth has shown obvious regional differences, with growth in the east clearly outpacing that in the central and western regions (Fig. 1.19).

Fig. 1.16  Proportion of primary (raw materials), secondary (manufacturing), and tertiary (services) employment for China, the United States, Japan, and India in 2000. (Source: World Bank Database)

Fig. 1.17  Proportion of primary (raw materials), secondary (manufacturing), and tertiary (services) employment for China, the United States, Japan, and India in 2018. (Source: World Bank Database)

industry increased slightly, exceeding the global average, while its tertiary industry remained below the global average and lagged far behind that of developed countries, though it had increased significantly since 2000.

China’s urban population in 1960 was less than 20% of its total population, while that in the United States reached 70% (Fig.  1.20). However, by 2018, China’s urban population proportion reached 59%, surpassing India and the global average, while Japan reached 91% (exceeding that of the United States). During this period, China’s urban population had the fastest rate of growth, increasing by 43% overall, with a relatively slow rate from 1960 to 1980 and a much faster rate afterward.

1.1.3.3 Overall Population Density and East-West Differences High Population Density  China’s land area accounts for 7% of global land area, but its population accounts for 18% of the global population. In 2010, the country’s overall population density reached 148 persons/km2, nearly 2.5 times the global average. In 1980, the United States’ population density was the lowest of the countries shown in Fig. 1.21, followed by China (104 persons/km2, even then higher than the global average). Japan’s small land area contributed to its 1980 population density being the highest (nearly 319 persons/km2). In 2018, the population density of the United States remained low, while India’s fast-growing population achieved the highest population density (455 persons/km2). During this period, the United States, China, and Japan grew slowly, while India grew more rapidly and doubled its population density.

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1 Introduction

Fig. 1.18  Proportion of urban population and urbanization in China from 1952 to 2018. (Source: (1) China Health and Family Planning Yearbook 2014; (2) China’s national economic statistics bulletin 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018)

Fig. 1.19  Regional differences in urban population (%) from 1982 to 2017. (Source: (1) China Statistical Yearbook 1983; (2) China Health and Family Planning Yearbook 2003, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017)

Fig. 1.20  Urban population proportion in China, the United States, Japan, and India (1960–2018). (Source: World Bank Database)

Within China, population density follows a striking decline from east to west (Fig.  1.22). Eastern China’s flat terrain, coastal proximity, and convenient transportation and external links have allowed it to attract a large number of residents.

Fig. 1.21  Population density in China, other countries, and globally (1980–2020). (Source: World Bank Database)

Fig. 1.22  Population density by region in China (2017). (Source: (1) Population Census Office under the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, Department of Population and Employment Statistics under National Bureau of Statistics of China (2018). (2) Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (2011). Administrative Division Brochure of the People’s Republic of China (2011))

1.1 Section 1. Overview

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Hu Huanyong Population Line  In 1935 (when China’s population was ~458  million, including Mongolia), Hu Huanyong, a Chinese population geographer, made the first Chinese population density map to show the extreme regional imbalance of China’s population distribution. He defined an imaginary line from Aihui (today’s Heihe), Heilongjiang Province to Tengchong, Yunnan Province, called the “demographic demarcation line” or “Hu Huanyong population line,” which divides China into southeastern and northwestern halves. The former is home to 96% of China’s population on only 36% of its land, while in the latter, only 4% of the population live on 64% of the land. For example, the Yangtze River Delta, the middle reach area of the Yangtze River, the Pearl River Delta, the Sichuan Basin, and the coastal plain of western Taiwan Island are densely inhabited areas of the southeastern half, while the vast Inner Mongolian Plateau, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and northwestern inland basins are sparsely populated areas.

Differences in Population Density Increase Between the Southeast and Northwest  After 1949, national population censuses confirmed the pattern defined by the Hu Huanyong population line. From this time onward, the sparsely-­ populated northwest has changed little while the southeast’s population has clearly grown even denser (Fig. 1.23).

1.1.4 Economy and Development 1.1.4.1 Rapid Economic Growth and the World’s Second-Largest Economy The global ranking of China’s gross domestic product (GDP) has risen from no. 20–30  in the 1950s to no. 10–20  in the 1980s and the top 10 in the 1990s. In 2018, China’s GDP was RMB 90 trillion (China National Bureau of Statistics), ranking second globally and first among developing countries. This rapid economic growth has gradually narrowed the gap between China’s GDP and that of major developed countries (Fig. 1.24). From 2001 to 2018, China’s annual average GDP growth was 9%, 6% higher than the world average during that period, 7% higher than that of the United States, and 3% higher than that of India (Fig. 1.25). China’s foreign trade has also grown rapidly (Table 1.3). Exports have grown from USD 9.8 billion in 1978 to USD 2.1 trillion (RMB 153.3 trillion) in 2017. Imports have grown from USD 20.0 billion in 1978 to USD 1.8 trillion in 2017 (China Statistical Yearbook 2018). China’s ranking in world exports and imports has risen gradually; in 2010 these ranked first and second, respectively.

Fig. 1.23  China’s population density in (a) 1953 and (b) 2010. (Source: Wang Jing’ai and Zuo Wei 2009)

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1 Introduction

Fig. 1.25  Average GDP growth rate for different countries from 2001 to 2018. (Source: World Bank Database) Fig. 1.24  Top 10 countries by GDP in 2018. (Source: World Bank Database) Table 1.3  World ranking of Chinese economic indicators over time Indicator GDP Value of imports and exports Exports Imports

1978 10 29 31 29

1990 11 15 15 17

2000 6 8 7 8

2005 5 3 3 3

2010 2 2 1 2

2015 2 1 1 2

2017 2 1 1 2

Source: China international statistical yearbook (2018)

1.1.4.2 Rich Natural Resources and Production China’s vast territory contains abundant natural resources, whose volume is among the highest of any country globally (Table 1.4). Since 1978, China’s ranking in the production of various major industrial and agricultural products has risen to near the top of world production (Table 1.5). In particular, China produces about one-third of the world’s major agricultural products. 1.1.4.3 A Developing Country with Lower GDP Per Capita For over 60  years (since the founding of the People’s Republic of China), GDP per capita has increased significantly, from RMB 119 in 1952 to RMB 64,644 in 2018. This growth can be divided into three stages. From 1952 to 1982, growth was slow, with GDP per capita reaching only RMB 533 by 1982. From 1982 to 2002, growth accelerated and GDP per capita reached RMB 9506 in 2002, ~18 times that of 1982. After 2002, GDP per capita grew even more rapidly, reaching RMB 64,644, seven times that of 2002 (Fig. 1.26). According to World Bank statistics, China’s GDP per capita remains much lower than that of developed countries such as the United States and Japan. In 2018, GDP per capita in the United States reached USD 62,641, over five times the

global average (USD 11,297), while China’s GDP per capita was only USD 9771. However, China’s GDP per capita has been higher than other developing countries such as India, reaching ~5 times that of India in 2018, especially as China’s has accelerated since 2000 while India’s has remained low (Fig. 1.27). Based on World Bank calculations using the exchange rate conversion method, in 2010, the world’s gross national income (GNI) per capita was USD 9097 and China’s was USD 4260, ranking 121st among 215 global economies and being classified as a lower-income country. In terms of purchasing power parity, China’s GNI per capita was USD 7570 in 2010, 69% that of the global average (USD 11,058), ranking 118th and being classified as lower-middle-income (Table 1.6).

1.2

Section 2. Geographical Divisions

1.2.1 Physical Geography China can be divided into three major physical regions (the Eastern Monsoon area, the Northwestern Arid area, and the Tibetan Highlands) based on latitude, land-sea distribution, terrain, geotectonic features, climate characteristics, ecology, and human activities (Fig. 1.28).

3.4 × 1011 t 6.76 × 108 kW 112.7 × 108 m3

Total 960 × 104 km2 1.3 × 106 km2 1.7 × 106 km2 4.0 × 106 km2 2.4 × 1012 m3

Global ranking 4 4 5 2 6 3 3 1

Percentage of global total (%) 6.4 6.8 3.4 9.0 5.6 14.6 11.0 16.7 260.00 t 0.52 kW 9.05 m3

Per capita availability 0.74 km2 0.10 km2 0.13 km2 0.31 km2 1846.00 m3

75 12.5

Per capita availability as a percentage of global average (%) 30 33 17 50 25 58

Source: (1) National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook (2005); (2) Li Runtian, Li Yongwen, Chinese Resources Geography (2003); (3) China’s Natural Resources Series (comprehensive volume) (1995)

Category Land Arable land Forest Grassland Water Mineral resources Coal Hydropower Forest stock (volume)

Table 1.4  World ranking of China’s major natural resources

1.2 Section 2. Geographical Divisions 13

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1 Introduction

Table 1.5  World ranking of China’s major industrial and agricultural products over time Indicatorsa Industrial Steel Coal Crude oil Electricity Cement Chemical fertilizer Cotton cloth Agricultural Grain Meat Unginned cotton Beans Peanuts Rapeseed Sugarcane Tea Fruit b

1978

1990

2000

2005

2010

2015

2017

5 3 8 7 4 3

4 1 5 4 1 3

1 1 5 2 1 1

1 1 5 2 1 1

1 1 4 1 1 1

1 1 4 1 1 1

1 1 5 1 1 1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2 3 2

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 2

3 2 2 7 2 9

3 2 1 4 2 4

4 1 1 3 2 1

4 1 1 3 1 1

4 1 1 3 1 1

4 1 2 3 1 1

4 1 2 3 1 1

Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2018, United Nations Database, FAO Database a Data from international organizations, for reference only b Excluding cucurbits

Fig. 1.26  China’s GDP per capita from 1952 to 2018. (Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China. http://data. stats.gov.cn/ks.htm?cn=C01)

1.2.1.1 Eastern Monsoon Area Part of the Asian Monsoon area, the Eastern Monsoon area makes up 45% of China’s land mass and hosts 96% of the country’s population. Its boundary with the Northwestern Arid area roughly follows the 1.2–1.5 aridity isoline, while its boundary with the Tibetan Highlands roughly follows the 2500–3000 m contour line. This area’s distinctive features (Fig. 1.29) include:

Climate: The humid and sub-humid monsoon climate has aridity mostly below 1.0 (small areas reach 1.5). There are clear seasonal changes in wind direction and precipitation throughout the year, and the region is significantly affected by a maritime monsoon in summer. Geology: The area has experienced little recent tectonic uplift, so most areas are 2.0), with annual precipitation RMB 75,000 in Beijing and Shanghai). The area also has China’s highest economic concentration, contributing 53% of China’s GDP and 49% of its job opportunities despite its small size. It has the highest levels of industrialization and urbanization in mainland China. The proportion of urban population to total population has increased to >64%, 10% higher than the national average. It has opened up to foreign trade the most, with the value of imports and exports accounting for 88% of China’s total. As China’s strongest economy, the region contributes 57% of the national fiscal revenue. It also enjoys well-developed transportation infrastructure.

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Fig. 1.30  Typical landscapes of the Northwestern Arid area

Fig. 1.31  Typical landscapes of the Tibetan Highland

1 Introduction

1.2 Section 2. Geographical Divisions

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Fig. 1.32  China’s four economic regions. (Source: Kaka 2012)

1.2.2.2 Central This area accounts for 11% of China’s landmass and 29% of its population and is an important part of China’s inland economy. As the core source area for China’s traditional culture, this region is the cradle of Chinese civilization and contains rich cultural landscapes of world-renowned reputation, such as the Three Great Towers of Jiangnan, as well as well-­ known mountains including Mounts Lu, Huangshan, Wutai, and Heng. The area boasts abundant agricultural resources, with 24% of the country’s arable land and 16% of its forests. Forest coverage exceeds 50% in Jiangxi and 44% in Hunan. China’s largest, second-largest, and fourth-largest freshwater lakes are located in this area (Poyang, Dongting, and Chao Lakes, respectively). The area is also rich in mineral

resources, especially some world-renowned rare mineral resources. It is an important base for machinery manufacturing, serving as China’s largest medium-sized truck production base and second-largest automobile production base while also producing farm vehicles such as tractors. The area boasts important transportation hubs and major bases for grain (32% of national output overall and 42% of wheat), cotton (28%), and oilseeds (43%).

1.2.2.3 Western With a vast land area accounting for 72% of China’s landmass, this region is home to 29% of the national population and accounts for 19% of China’s GDP. A number of ethnic minorities and all five of China’s autonomous regions are

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1 Introduction

located in the region. This region includes the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (“the roof of the world”), Mount Qomolangma (Earth’s highest mountain), and Ayding Lake (China’s lowest point). It is rich in mineral resources, with over 80% of China’s discovered minerals. Energy resources are also abundant and have high exploitation potential, including petroleum, gas, coal, hydropower, wind, solar, and geothermal power. Xinjiang alone accounts for 19% of China’s onshore oil base reserve, 25% of its natural gas, and 5% of its coal. The region has a rich diversity of plant and animal species, such as the Giant Panda, Crested Ibis, Tibetan Antelope, and Snub-nosed Monkey. It boasts abundant tourism resources, such as the ancient Silk Road. The local infrastructure has been significantly improved through the completion of a series of major projects such as the Qinghai–Tibet Railway, the West-East Gas Pipeline, and the West-East Power Transmission Line, with a cumulative investment of over RMB 2  trillion. Priority has also been given to the implementation of ecological reconstruction projects such as the Natural Forest Protection, Grain for Green, and Grazing Forbidden Projects, resulting in clear improvements to the ecological environment.

1.2.2.4 Northeastern This region accounts for 8% of China’s land and 8% of its population. It is the cradle of industry in China and is a major traditional industrial base with multiple strategic, heavy, and chemical industries vital to the national economy, such as the Daqing Oilfield, the first large oilfield in the country, and the Changchun First Automobile Works, its first automobile manufacturer. This region has a solid foundation in the manufacturing and petrochemical industries. In addition, it contains 18% of China’s arable land and one of only three famous “Chernozem belts” (a type of especially fertile soil) in the world, making it an important grain production base that accounts for 17% of national grain production area, 18% of national grain output, and 33% of national commodity grain. Local agriculture is highly mechanized with 28% of the country’s large- and mediumsized tractors and 25% of implements. The Heilongjiang Reclamation Area is China’s largest, most modern, and productive grain production base.

1.3

Section 3. Government

1.3.1 State Structure 1.3.1.1 National People’s Congress The National People’s Congress (NPC) is the highest organ of state power, whose permanent body is the Standing Committee; together, these exercise the legislative power of

the state. The NPC is composed of deputies elected by the provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government and by the special administrative regions and armed forces. All minority nationalities are entitled to appropriate representation. Election of deputies to the NPC is conducted by its Standing Committee. The number of deputies to the NPC and the manner of their election are prescribed by law. The NPC is elected for a term of 5 years, meets in session once a year, and is convened by the Standing Committee.

1.3.1.2 President and Vice-President The President and Vice-President are elected by the NPC. Citizens who have the right to vote and stand for election, and who have reached the age of 45, are eligible for election as President or Vice-President. Both terms of office are the same as that of the NPC, and neither can serve more than two consecutive terms. The President, in pursuance of the decisions of the NPC and its Standing Committee, promulgates statutes; appoints and removes the Premier, Vice-Premiers, State Councilors, Ministers in charge of Ministries or Commissions, and the Auditor-General and Secretary-General of the State Council; confers state medals and titles of honor; issues orders of special pardons; proclaims martial law; proclaims a state of war; and issues mobilization orders. He receives foreign diplomatic representatives and, in pursuance of decisions of the NPC’s Standing Committee, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states. The Vice-President assists the President in his work, exercising whatever functions and powers are assigned by the President. Both serve until a new President and Vice-­ President are elected by the succeeding NPC and assume office. If the office of the President falls vacant, the Vice-­ President succeeds to the office. If the office of the Vice-­ President falls vacant, the NPC elects a new Vice-President to fill the vacancy. If both offices fall vacant, the NPC elects a new President and Vice-President. Prior to such an election, the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the NPC temporarily acts as the President. 1.3.1.3 State Council The State Council, the Central People’s Government, is the executive body of the highest organ of state power and is the highest organ of state administration. It is composed of the Premier, Vice-Premiers, State Councilors, Ministers in charge of Ministries, Ministers in charge of Commissions, Auditor-General, and Secretary-General. The Premier has overall responsibility for the State Council, while the Ministers have overall responsibility for the respective ministries or commissions under their charge. The organization of the State Council is prescribed by law.

1.3 Section 3. Government

1.3.1.4 Central Military Commission The Central Military Commission, which directs the country’s armed forces, is composed of the Chairman, Vice-­ Chairmen, and Members. The Chairman has overall responsibility for the commission and is responsible to the NCP and its Standing Committee. The term of office of the Central Military Commission is the same as that of the NPC. 1.3.1.5 Local People’s Congresses and Local People’s Governments People’s congresses and people’s governments are established in provinces, municipalities directly under the Central Government, counties, cities, municipal districts, townships, nationality townships, and towns. Their organization at different levels is prescribed by law. Other organs of self-­ government are established in autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, and autonomous counties. Deputies to the people’s congresses of provinces, municipalities directly under the Central Government, and cities divided into districts are elected by the people’s congresses at the next lower level; deputies to the people’s congresses of counties and cities not divided into districts, municipal districts, townships, nationality townships, and towns are elected directly by their constituencies. The term of office for people’s congresses of provinces, municipalities directly under the Central Government, and cities divided into districts is 5 years. Local people’s governments at different levels are the executive bodies of local organs of state power as well as the local organs of state administration at the corresponding level. Local people’s governments at different levels practice a system of overall responsibility by governors, mayors, county heads, district heads, township heads, and town heads. The term of office of local people’s governments at different levels is the same as that of the people’s congresses at the corresponding level. 1.3.1.6 Self-Government in National Autonomous Areas People’s congresses and people’s governments are responsible for the self-government of autonomous regions, prefectures, and counties. All nationalities inhabiting such areas are entitled to appropriate representation. The chairmanship and vice-chairmanships of the standing committee of such people’s congresses must include a citizen or citizens of the nationality or nationalities exercising regional autonomy in the area concerned. Similarly, the administrative head of such areas must be a citizen of a nationality exercising regional autonomy. These organs exercise the functions and powers of local organs of state as specified in Section V, Chapter Three of the Constitution. They also exercise the right of autonomy within the limits of their authority as prescribed by the Constitution,

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the law of regional national autonomy, and other laws, while implementing the laws and policies of the state. People’s congresses of national autonomous areas have the power to enact autonomy and other specific regulations with respect to the political, economic, and cultural c­ haracteristics of the nationalities in the areas concerned; these are submitted to the Standing Committee of the NPC for approval before going into effect. Regulations enacted by autonomous prefectures and counties are submitted to the standing committees of the people’s congresses of their provinces or autonomous regions for approval before going into effect and are reported to the Standing Committee of the NPC.

1.3.1.7 People’s Courts and People’s Procuratorates People’s courts are the judicial organs of the state. The Supreme People’s Court is the highest judicial level, followed by local people’s courts at different levels, military courts, and other special people’s courts. The Supreme People’s Court supervises the administration of justice by the local and special people’s courts at different levels; those at higher levels supervise those at lower levels. The Supreme People’s Court is responsible to the NPC and its Standing Committee, while local people’s courts at different levels are responsible to the organs of state power that created them. People’s procuratorates are the state organs for legal supervision. The Supreme People’s Procuratorate is the highest level, followed by local people’s procuratorates at different levels, military procuratorates, and other special people’s procuratorates. The Supreme People’s Procuratorate directs the work of the local and special people’s procuratorates at different levels; those at higher levels direct the work of those at lower levels. The Supreme People’s Procuratorate is responsible to the NPC and its Standing Committee, while local people’s procuratorates at different levels are responsible to the organs of state power that created them and to the people’s procuratorates at higher levels.

1.3.2 C  hinese People’s Political Consultative Conference Through long years of revolution and construction, the Chinese people have formed an extensive patriotic and united front of all socialist workers, builders of the socialist cause, patriots supporting socialism, and patriots supporting the reunification of the fatherland under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This effort has included participation from democratic parties, public personages without party affiliation, people’s organizations, ethnic minorities, and patriotic personalities from all walks of life, including compatriots from the Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions, Taiwan, and overseas Chinese.

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1 Introduction

The Constitution provides for a long-term system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CCP; this is China’s fundamental political system. As part of this, the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference provides a forum for carrying forward socialist democracy in the country’s political life through the two major themes of unity and democracy. This body works on the Party’s principle of “lasting coexistence, mutual supervision, working together with open minds, and sharing weal and woe” that promotes solidarity and cooperation among all political parties and nonparty personalities, bringing into full expression and display the features and advantages of China’s socialist political system. All such activities are guided by the Constitution. The national committee and local committees of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference protect the rights of all participating organizations and individuals through the implementation of its charter.

1.3.3 Capital and Administrative Divisions 1.3.3.1 National Capital Beijing (also known as Jing) is China’s capital, where the Central Committee of the CCP and the State Council (central government) are located. The metropolis is governed as one of four municipalities directly under the Central Government and is the nation’s political, economic, and cultural center as well as being a center for domestic and international exchange. It is one of China’s most famous historic and cultural cities as well as being an ancient capital. 1.3.3.2 Administrative Divisions The country’s administrative units are currently based on a three-tier system: 1. The country is divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities directly under the Central Government. 2. Provinces and autonomous regions are divided into autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous counties, and cities.

3. Counties, autonomous counties, and cities are divided into townships, ethnic minority townships, and towns. Municipalities directly under the Central Government and other large cities are divided into districts and counties. Autonomous prefectures are divided into counties, autonomous counties, and cities. All autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, and autonomous counties are national autonomous areas. Towns and townships are the most basic administrative units in China. All autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, and autonomous counties are national autonomous areas home to ethnic groups. China also contains two special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau) and considers Taiwan an inalienable part of the country.

1.3.3.3 Special Economic Zones China’s special economic zones are certain domestic areas where more open and flexible policies can be adopted with respect to foreign economic activity (Table 1.7). These were established to attract external investment, especially foreign capital, for development and construction. Such zones are experimental showcases representing the vanguard of efforts toward modernization, one important aspect of Deng Xiaoping’s theory of reform and opening up. As windows for foreign exchange, and given the preferential policies enacted by the Central Government, these special zones have enjoyed much faster economic growth than other areas, with GDP per capita close to or beyond that of moderately developed countries or regions. The success of these areas encouraged the creation of Shanghai’s Pudong New Zone and Tianjin’s Binhai New Area. On May 1, 2011, the Shantou Special Economic Zone was expanded to cover the entire urban area of Shantou. Within nearly 1 year, China’s four initial special economic zones (Shenzhen, Xiamen, Zhuhai, and Shantou) were all expanded. These expansions are not simply geographical extensions, but will facilitate the further development of these regions in terms of reform and opening up, enhancing the expansion of first-mover advantages (those accrued by the first entry into a market) within such zones and making new contributions to China’s regionally balanced economic development.

Table 1.7  China’s seven special economic zones No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Date approved 1980.08.26 1980.08.26 1980.10.07 1981.10.16 1988.04.13 2010.05.20 2014.06

Province/region Guangdong Province Guangdong Province Fujian Province Guangdong Province Hainan Province Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region

Name Shenzhen Special Economic Zone Zhuhai Special Economic Zone Xiamen Special Economic Zone Shantou Special Economic Zone Hainan Special Economic Zone Kashgar Special Economic Zone Khorgas Special Economic Zone

References

1.3.3.4 Special Administrative Regions China’s special administrative regions are special zones directly under the jurisdiction of the Central Government, established according to the Constitution and under the “One Country, Two Systems” principle for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. These were intended to enjoy a high degree of autonomy and retain their capitalist economic and political systems over a long period, while the rest of China used the socialist system. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region was established on July 1, 1997, and the Macao Special Administrative Region was established on December 20, 1999. This high degree of local autonomy as implemented in the special administrative regions enriches China’s local government system and represents the development of local autonomy. 1.3.3.5 One Country, Two Systems “One Country, Two Systems” was formulated by Deng Xiaoping for the reunification of China, based on the following principles: 1. There is only one China. Taiwan is an inalienable part of China, and the seat of China’s Central Government is in Beijing. The Chinese Government firmly opposes any attempt to split China’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, such as “two Chinas,” “one China, one Taiwan,” “one country, two governments,” or any attempts that could lead to the independence of Taiwan. 2. Coexistence of two systems. Under this premise, socialism on the mainland and capitalism on Taiwan can coexist and develop side by side over time without one absorbing the other. 3. A high degree of autonomy. After reunification, Taiwan will become a special administrative region distinguished from the other provinces or regions of China by its high degree of autonomy. It will have its own administrative and legislative powers, an independent judiciary, and the right of adjudication on the island. It will run its own party, political, military, economic, and financial affairs. It may conclude commercial and cultural agreements with foreign countries and enjoy certain rights in foreign affairs. It may keep its military forces and the mainland will not dispatch troops or administrative personnel to the island. On the other hand, representatives of the government of the special administrative region and those from different circles of Taiwan may be appointed to senior posts in the Central Government and participate in the running of national affairs. 4. Peace negotiations. It is the common aspiration of all Chinese people to achieve reunification of the country by peaceful means through contacts and negotiations. People on both sides of the Taiwan Strait are all Chinese.

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Quiz 1. How do you understand China’s geographical heterogeneity from the superposition of climate and landforms? 2. What causes China’s geographical differences between the east and the west from the perspective of natural factors and human activities? 3. What are China’s physical and socialeconomic conditions relative to the entire world? 4. How do you understand China’s “Belt and Road” development strategy from the perspective of global geopolitics? 5. What are the impacts of geographical locations of China and the United States on their geographic characteristics?

References Blanchard J-MF (2017) Probing China’s twenty-first-century maritime silk road initiative (MSRI): an examination of MSRI narratives. Geopolitics 22(2):246–268 Cai F (2010) Demographic transition, demographic dividend, and Lewis turning point in China. China Econ J 3(2):107–119 Chief Editor Committee of Encyclopedia of China (2002) Encyclopedia of China: geography of China. Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, Beijing China Development Gateway (2010) China’s special economic zones. http://cn.chinagate.cn/economics/tequ/node_7099387.htm. Accessed 26 Aug 2010 China News (2008) China celebrates 30th anniversary of reform, opening-­up. http://www.chinanews.com/gn/news/2008/12-­18/1492872. shtml. Accessed 18 Dec 2008 CPPCC (2012) Charter of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference. http://www.cppcc.gov.cn/zxww/2012/07/03/ARTI134 1300912828101.shtml. Accessed 3 July 2012 Erdem C (2018) Pax Sinica along the Silk Road: Avant-Garde perspectives on Eurasian geopolitics. Acta Via Serica 3(2):161–180 Fan Gang, He Liping (2012) Chinese financial reform and rebalance of international payments. Shanghai Far East Publishers, Shanghai Gu Mingyuan (ed) (2011) Chinese education science 2010. People’s Education Press, Beijing Hartmann Rudi, Wang Jing’ai (eds) (2014) A comparative geography of China and the U.S. Springer, Dordrecht He W, Goodkind D, Kowal PR (2016) An aging world: 2015: United States Census Bureau Washington, DC Historical Discipline Editorial Committee of People’s Education Press (2001) The experimental textbook of compulsory education curriculum: Chinese history (the 2nd volume of the 8th grade). People’s Education Press, Beijing Hu Jintao (2007) Report delivered at the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. The 17th National Congress of the CPC, Beijing, 15–21 October 2007 Jiang Zemin (1992) Report delivered at the 14th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. The 14th National Congress of the CPC, Beijing, 12–18 October 1992 Jiang Zemin (1997) Report delivered at the 15th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. The 15th National Congress of the CPC, Beijing, 12–18 September 1997

24 Kaka (2012) Overlook China’s regional economic map. China Youth 22:40–41 Lee HF, Zhang DD (2013) A tale of two population crises in recent Chinese history. Clim Chang 116(2):285–308 Lee HF, Zhang DD, Pei Q et  al (2017) Quantitative analysis of the impact of droughts and floods on internal wars in China over the last 500 years. Sci China Earth Sci 60(12):2078–2088 Lu X (2012) Social structure of contemporary. World scientific, China Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (2011) Administrative Division Brochure of the People’s Republic of China 2011. China Social Press, Beijing Monetary Policy Analysis Group of the People’s Bank of China (2012) China monetary policy report for the third quarter of 2011. China Financial Publishing House, Beijing People’s Daily Online (2004) Constitution of the People’s Republic of China. http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html. Accessed 22 Mar 2004 People’s Daily Online (2019) The great leap forward. http://cpc.people. com.cn/n1/2019/0919/c419242-­31361050.html. Accessed 19 Sept 2019 Population Census Office under the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, Department of Population and Employment Statistics under National Bureau of Statistics of China (2018) Major figures on 2017 Population Census of China. China Statistics Press, Beijing Portal of the Government of the People’s Republic of China (2005) The Taiwan question and reunification of China. http://www.gov.cn/ zwgk/2005-­05/25/content_661.htm. Accessed 25 May 2005 Portal of the Government of the People’s Republic of China (2009a) Land reform of the People’s Republic of China. http://www. gov.cn/test/2009-­08/20/content_1397342.htm. Accessed 20 Aug 2009

1 Introduction Portal of the Government of the People’s Republic of China (2009b) The cultural revolution. http://www.gov.cn/test/2009-­08/24/content_1399618.htm. Accessed 24 Aug 2009 Portal of the Government of the People’s Republic of China (2014a) Administrative division. http://english.gov.cn/archive/china_ abc/2014/08/27/content_281474983873401.htm. Accessed 26 Aug 2014 Portal of the Government of the People’s Republic of China (2014b) Capital. http://english.gov.cn/archive/china_abc/2014/08/27/content_281474983873414.htm. Accessed 26 Aug 2014 Rimmer PJ (2018) China’s Belt and Road Initiative: underlying economic and international relations dimensions. Asian-Pac Econ Lit 32(2):3–26 Shi Peijun, Roger Ksdperson (eds) (2015) World atlas of natural disaster risk. BNUP/Springer, Beijing The 6th Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC (1981) Resolution on certain questions in the history of our party since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. The 6th Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, Beijing, June 1981 Wang Jing’ai (ed) (2007) Tutorials for geography of China. Higher Education Press, Beijing Wang Jing’ai, Zuo Wei (eds) (2009) Geographic atlas of China. China Cartographic Publishing House, Beijing Xie Gaodi, Cao Shuyan, Lu Chunxia et al (eds) (2011) Study on China’s ecological carrying capacity. Science Press, Beijing Xinhuanet (2015) Start a new journey to jointly realize the dream of the Silk Road. http://www.xinhuanet.com/fortune/cjzthgjj/104.htm. Accessed 28 Mar 2015 Zhang DD, Jim CY, Lin GC et  al (2006) Climatic change, wars and dynastic cycles in China over the last millennium. Clim Chang 76(3):459–477

2

Territory and Geopolitics

Abstract

China has a long history and has gone through the evolution of dynasties. As one of the four ancient civilizations in the world, China has formed many famous historical and cultural heritages and traditional geographical thoughts of the relationship between human and earth, such as “harmony between heaven and earth, harmony between heaven and human.” China has a long land border and coastline and 14 neighboring countries. China has vast sea areas, including the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea. This chapter introduces the historical evolution and layout changes of China’s territory (including territorial seas) and provides a basis for further understanding of the temporal and spatial changes in China’s geographical pattern and the evolution of human-earth relations.

2.1

 volution of Territory in China’s E Successive Dynasties

China’s dynastic and other regimes, which also serve as the basis for its conventional historical periods, in succession from past to present, are the Xia (c. twenty-first–seventeenth centuries BC), Shang Dynasty (c. sixteenth–eleventh centuries BC), Zhou Dynasty (c. eleventh century–256  BC), Spring and Autumn Period (770–476  BC), Warring States Period (475–221  BC), Qin Dynasty (221–206  BC), Han Dynasty (206  BC–AD 220), Three Kingdoms (220–265), Jin Dynasty (265–420), Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), Sui Dynasty (581–618), Tang Dynasty (618– 907), Five Dynasties (707–960), Song Dynasty (960–1279), Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), Qing Dynasty (1636–1911), Republic of China (1912– 1949), and People’s Republic of China (1949–present) (Fig. 2.1).

Keywords

Chinese historical dynasties · China’s territory changes · Territory evolution · Land boundary · Sea area

A glimpse into China’s territory and territorial changes over time can serve us a better understanding of China’s historical geography, geopolitics, and cooperation with neighboring countries. This chapter introduces the historical evolution of China’s territory, important historical figures, dynasties and regimes, and geopolitics (which involves inter alia neighboring countries, their relations with China, and disputes over territorial waters). In doing so, it furnishes a basis for further study of China’s natural geography, human (cultural) geography, economic geography, urban geography, and regional geography, as well as the law of regional differentiation.

2.1.1 T  he Pre-Qin Period (Ancient China: Twenty-First Century BC–221 BC) The Pre-Qin Period, during which China was a slavery society, stretches across the historical stages of the Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties as well as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (Table  2.1). This period witnessed cultural prosperity in the wake of the freedom of academic thought (known as the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought), represented by a wide array of philosophers, including Confucius, Lao Tzu, Han Fei Tzu, and Mo Tzu, the principal exponents of Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Mohism, respectively. The Xia-Shang-Zhou Period  Around 2070  BC, Yu, the reputed leader of a tribal alliance in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, established the first slavery

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Wang et al., The Geography of Contemporary China, World Regional Geography Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04158-7_2

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Fig. 2.1  Chronology of Chinese history. (Source: http://www.sinomaps.com)

Table 2.1  Dynasties and capitals in the Pre-Qin period Dynasty Xia Dynasty

Beginning and end About 2070–1600 BC

Shang Dynasty

1600–1046 BC

Zhou Dynasty

Western Zhou Dynasty Eastern Zhou Dynasty Spring and Autumn Period Warring States Period

1046–771 BC 770–256 BC 770–476 BC 475–221 BC

dynasty in the history of China—the Xia. The Xia Dynasty initially chose Yangcheng (in today’s southeast Dengfeng city, in Henan Province) as capital. Later, affected by floods and political struggles among aristocrats, the capital of Xia moved a number of times within the periphery of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. The Xia Dynasty also dominated the seigneur states of Guo, Han, Shang, Liu, Hu, etc. and the surrounding tribes of Lai Yi, Jiu Yi, San Miao, Xun Yu, and others (Fig. 2.1). The Dynasty of Xia collapsed in the tyranny of Jie, the last ruler.

Capital An Yi Yang Di Bo Yin Haojing Luo Yi

Present location Xia County, Shanxi Province Yu County, Henan Province Shangqiu, Henan Province Anyang, Henan Province Xi’an, Shaanxi Province Luoyang, Henan Province

Around 1600 BC, King Tang of Shang overthrew the Xia Dynasty and established the Shang Dynasty; he chose Bo (now Zhengzhou in Henan Province) as the capital, though it was, as previously, subject to repeated moves in the early years of the dynasty. In the fourteenth century BC, it was moved by King Pan Geng to Yin (now Anyang, in Henan Province), where it finally stabilized. Thereafter, the Shang Dynasty expanded its rule incessantly in all directions—east into Shandong Province, west into Shaanxi Province, north into Hebei Province, and south into the Yangtze River Basin, thus becoming one of the ancient world’s great empires.

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Many seigneur states and tribes clustered around the Shang, such as the circumjacent Guifang, Renfang, Huaiyi, and others, and Sushen, Qiang, Di, and Pu in the distance. The dynasty was ruined by the last ruler Di Xin’s notorious tyranny. In 1046  BC, King Wu defeated Di Xin, wiped out the Shang Dynasty, and established the Zhou Dynasty, also known as the Western Zhou Dynasty (c. eleventh century BC–771 BC), with its capital in Haojing (in the southwest of today’s Xi’an, in Shaanxi Province); it consolidated its rule by large-scale enfeoffment of vassals and the development of remote areas, and gradually developed into a powerful state. During the Western Zhou, the main vassal states were Lu, Qi, Yan, Wei, Song, Jin, Wu, and Chu. The surrounding tribes included Yanyun, Guifang, Sushen, Huaiyi, Pu, Yangyue, Qiang, and others. In 771 BC, Quanrong barbarians captured Haojing, and the Western Zhou Dynasty perished. In the Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties, rulers invariably set great store in agriculture, which at that time mostly relied upon wood and stone farm implements, and livestock husbandry flourished in the Shang Dynasty in particular. Handicraft industries included bronze casting, jade processing, ceramics, and lacquerware. There were many means of transportation during the Xia Dynasty, and people were adept at doing business during the Shang Dynasty. Spring and Autumn Period  In 770 BC, King Ping of Zhou moved the capital east to Luoyi (now Luoyang, Henan Province), and ushered in an era known as the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. The royal family of Zhou waned with the passage of time and was obliged to subordinate itself to powerful seigneurs. The Eastern Zhou Dynasty is divided into two periods: the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The Spring and Autumn Period derived its name from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the State of Lu, and was rife with incessant wars between the Eastern Zhou vassal states fighting for hegemony. The “Five Hegemons of Spring and Autumn Period” came to the fore, including Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, and King Zhuang of Chu. During this period, the surrounding tribes were Tung-hu, Shanrong, Sushen, Qiang, Baipu, Yangyue, etc. The Warring States Period derived its name from the wars year after year between the vassal states. Small states were constantly engulfed by the greater powers, which included Han, Wei, Zhao, Zhongshan, Qi, Lu, Song, Yan, Qin, Shu, Chu, and Yue. In time, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei, and Qin came to the fore; they are known as the “Seven Powers of the Warring States Period.” Through continuous wars, mergers, and economic and cultural exchanges, different nationalities saw a gradual integration that laid the founda-

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tion for the establishment of a unified multinational state (Fig. 2.2). In these two periods, the mainstay industries were agriculture, dependent on ironware, cattle farming, and water conservancy; and handicrafts including lacquerware, textiles, brewing, and others. The cities became bustling commercial centers.

2.1.2 T  he Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC–220 AD) Qin Dynasty  After the Shang-Yang Institutional Reform, the Qin state became increasingly powerful. By 221 BC, Qin exterminated the six other “Powers of the Warring States Period” and established the first unified multinational state in the history of China. The capital was Xianyang (in the northeast of the present-day city of Xianyang, in Shaanxi Province). Through a series of measures, such as a local administration system of prefectures and counties, Qin Shihuang (the first emperor of Qin) constantly consolidated and expanded the state’s territory and eventually formed a unitary feudal empire eastward to the East China Sea, west to Longxi (presently Lintao County, in the west of Gansu Province), north to the Great Wall and south to the South China Sea. Within this vast territory, various ethnic groups integrated. The surrounding tribes of Qin included the Huns (Hsiung-nu) and Tongus (Donghu) to the north and the Wusun (Uisin), Rou Zhi (Yueh-chih), and Qiang to the west (Fig.  2.3). The class contradictions intensified by Qin tyranny ultimately led to a peasant uprising and the perishing of the Qin in 207 BC.

Western Han Dynasty (206  BC–25  AD)  The peasant forces that overthrew the Qin were led by Liu Bang, who became Emperor Gaozu of Han, and Xiang Yu, who became King of Western Chu. They later fought a war, the Chu–Han War, for more than 4  years for supremacy over China. Eventually, Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu and founded the Han Dynasty in 202  BC, with its capital set in Chang’an (now the northwest part of Xi’an); its initial period is known as the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–24 AD). In the early Han Dynasty, a prefecture–kingdom parallel administrative system was adopted. During the reign of Emperor Wu, the kingdoms were divided into centrally controlled commanderies. Compared with the Qin Dynasty, the Western Han’s territory was much larger; the biggest change was that the vast area from the Hexi Corridor (today’s Gansu Province) to the “Western Regions” (today’s Central Asia) was incorporated into the territory. The peripheral tribes and regimes were the Huns (Hsiung-nu), Xianbei (Hsien-pei), Wuhuan,

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

Fig. 2.2  The seven powers of the Warring States Period. (Source: Tan 1991)

Fuyu (Puyo), Wusun (Uisin), etc. (Fig. 2.4). The late Western Han Dynasty saw social unrest and upheavals, whereupon Wang Mang, from the consort clan, usurped the throne in 9 AD and changed the title of the reigning dynasty to Xin.

that of the Western Han Dynasty. The surrounding tribes and regimes included Wusun (Uisin), Huns (Hsiung-nu), Xianbei (Hsien-pei), Fuyu (Puyo), Goguryeo (Koguryo), etc. (Fig. 2.5).

Eastern Han Dynasty  Liu Xiu, an imperial kinsman of the Western Han Dynasty, reestablished the Han Dynasty in 25  AD, with the capital in Luoyang. This is known as the Eastern Han Dynasty. After the “Revival of the Han in Emperor Guangwu’s Reign,” the Eastern Han Dynasty witnessed considerable development in politics, economy, and culture and gradually grew strong and prosperous. The territory of the Eastern Han Dynasty was roughly equivalent to

During the Western and Eastern Han Period, advances in agriculture were manifested in the promotion of farming practice, the expansion of cultivated areas, and the improvement of farming management techniques. The handicraft industry was characterized by large scale, fine division of labor, and refined crafts, including textiles, metallurgy, shipbuilding, and so forth. Transportation became more convenient, and gold and copper coins were the mainstay of the monetary system.

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.3  Panoramic view of China’s Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC). (Source: Tan 1991)

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Fig. 2.4  Panoramic view of China’s Western Han. (Source: Tan 1991)

2  Territory and Geopolitics

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.5  Panoramic view of China’s Eastern Han Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

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2.1.3 T  hree Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin Dynasties, and Northern and Southern Dynasties (220–589 AD) Three Kingdoms Period  With the Yellow Turbans uprising (Huangjin Rebellion) and Dong Zhuo’s interference in politics, the late Eastern Han Dynasty was fragmented by rivaling warlords. In 220, Cao Pi proclaimed himself Emperor, set the title of the reigning dynasty as Wei, and put the capital in Luoyang, and thus the Eastern Han Dynasty ended. In 221, Liu Bei proclaimed himself Emperor, set the title of the reigning dynasty as Han (known as Shu in history), and the capital in Chengdu; in 222, Sun Quan proclaimed himself Emperor, set the title of the reigning dynasty as Wu and the capital in Jianye (now Nanjing). The tripartite juxtaposition and subsequent confrontation of the Three Kingdoms took place over roughly the same territory as the Eastern Han Dynasty, while the surrounding areas were occupied by tribes and regimes such as Wusun (Uisin), Huns (Hsiung-nu), Xianbei (Hsien-pei), Fuyu (Puyo) and Goguryeo (Koguryo). In addition, during the time of the Three Kingdoms, Wu’s fleet arrived in Yi Zhou (I-chou, now Taiwan) and strengthened the ties between the mainland and Taiwan (Fig. 2.6).

Western Jin Dynasty  In the late Three Kingdoms period, the Wei Kingdom conquered and occupied Shu. In 266, the Wei minister Sima Yan usurped the throne and established the Jin Dynasty, with its capital in Luoyang, known as the Western Jin Dynasty. In 280, the Western Jin Dynasty exterminated Wu, unified the north and south, and ended the split situation that had prevailed since the end of the Eastern Han, ruling over the former territories of Wei, Wu, and Shu (Fig.  2.7). In 316, Hun (Hsiung-nu) aristocrats captured Chang’an and the Western Jin Dynasty perished.

Eastern Jin Dynasty  Sima Rui from the Western Jin Dynasty rebuilt the Jin Dynasty, with Jiankang (now Nanjing) as Capital, in 317  AD; this is known as the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Compared with the Western Jin Dynasty, the area of the state was greatly reduced, basically located south of the Huai River, downstream of the Han River, and south of the Yangtze River in the Sichuan Basin, while North China and the Central Plain (comprising the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River) were plunged into wars again, with new establishments of more than a dozen regimes in succession; these, together with Cheng Han in the southwest, are referred to as the “Sixteen Kingdoms” (Fig. 2.8).

2  Territory and Geopolitics

Northern and Southern Dynasties  Between 420 AD and 589 AD, China saw a confrontation between the North and the South. The Southern Dynasties changed in rapid succession, from Song to, Qi, Liang, and Chen, in succession, while the North was ruled by the Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou in succession (Table  2.2). This period also saw a grand integration of diverse nationalities. Ethnic minorities such as the Xianbei (Hsien-pei) and Huns (Hsiung-nu) in the north and the northwest continued to migrate to the interior. Some ethnic ­minorities also established their own political power. The tribes and regimes in the surrounding areas were mainly Wusun (Uisin), Rouran Khaganate, Gaoche (Kocsis, Qangqil), Qidan (Khitan), Tuyuhun, and Tangut (Dangxiang) (Fig. 2.9). In the Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, agriculture was characterized by the scaling-down of farming in the Central Plain (comprising the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River) and the scaling-up of animal husbandry. In terms of handicrafts, the textile industry was silk-based, smelting technology became mature, and the paper industry grew. At the same time, many cities were destroyed and commerce shrunk. However, the commodity economy was restored and protected by the Northern Wei Dynasty in the north and remained relatively active in the south.

2.1.4 T  he Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties Period (581–960) Sui Dynasty  In 581, Yang Jian (Emperor Wen of Sui) overthrew the Northern Zhou regime and established the Sui Dynasty, with its Capital in Chang’an (now Xi’an). In 589, Sui eliminated the Chen Kingdom and reunified the country. Sui territory reaches the East China Sea to the east; the South China Sea to the south; eastern Xinjiang to the west; Yunnan, Guangxi, and Northern Vietnam to the southwest; northern Inner Mongolia to the north; and the Liao River to the northeast. During the Sui Dynasty, tribes such as the Turks, Tiele, Shiwei, Khitan, Mohe, and Fuguo were living in the surrounding areas (Fig. 2.10).

Tang Dynasty  In 618, Li Yuan (Emperor Gaozu of Tang) established the Tang Dynasty and set Chang’an as capital. In the early Tang Dynasty, the eastern and western Turks surrendered to the imperial power, and the Anxi Protectorate (a military governorship) and Beiting Protectorate were estab-

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.6  Panoramic view (in 262 AD) of China’s Three Kingdoms Period. (Source: Tan 1991)

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Fig. 2.7  Panoramic view (in 281) of China’s Western Jin Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

2  Territory and Geopolitics

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.8  Panoramic view (in 382) of the Eastern Jin-Sixteen Kingdoms Period. (Source: Tan 1991)

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Table 2.2  Northern and Southern Dynasties and their capitals Dynasty Southern Dynasties

Northern Dynasties

Song Qi Liang Chen Northern Wei

Beginning and end 420–479 479–502 502–557 557–589 386–534

Eastern Wei

534–550

Capital Jiankang Jiankang Jiankang Jiankang Pingcheng Luoyang Ye

Northern Qi

550–577

Ye

Western Wei Northern Zhou

535–556 557–581

Chang’an Chang’an

lished in succession to strengthen Tang jurisdiction over the Western Regions. At the same time, an enlightened ethnic policy was implemented and won the respect of people of all ethnic groups. Uyghur and other tribes acknowledged allegiance successively to the Tang Dynasty. The early Tang Dynasty had a vast territory: east to the East China Sea, west to the Aral Sea, south to central Vietnam, and north to Siberia—far above the heyday of the Western Han Dynasty, when China was at its previous largest extent (Fig. 2.11). During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, agriculture was characterized by further development of the southern regions, the shift of economic centers to the south, and the elevated commercialization of agricultural products. Wide distribution, large-scale production, fine division of labor, and great variety characterized handicrafts. Water and land transportation developed. Throngs of merchants forged a developed national market. Five Dynasties Period  The Later Liang Dynasty (907–923) destroyed the Tang Dynasty in 907 and occupied most of northern China. Since then, the Later Tang Dynasty (923– 936), Later Jin Dynasty (936–947), Later Han Dynasty (947–951), and Later Zhou Dynasty (951–960) rose and fell successively; they are collectively known as the “Five Dynasties.” During the same period, various parts of southern China as well as Shanxi in northern China witnessed the rise and fall of the Kingdoms of Wu, Southern Tang, Wu Yue, Chu, Min, Southern Han, Former Shu, Later Shu, Nanping, and Northern Han in succession; these are collectively known as the “Ten Kingdoms.” During the Period of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, the regimes in various places were fragmented and the tribes and regimes in the surrounding areas were Shiwei, Mohe, and Liao in the northeast and Tangut, Tubo (the Tibetan regime), and Dali to the west (Fig. 2.12).

Present location Nanjing Nanjing Nanjing Nanjing Datong, Shanxi Province Luoyang Lin Zhang County, Hebei Province Lin Zhang County, Hebei Province Xi’an, Shaanxi Province Xi’an, Shaanxi Province

2.1.5 T  he Period of Song Dynasty, Liao Dynasty, Western Xia Dynasty, and Jin Dynasty (947–1279) Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)  The leader of the northern Khitan tribe Yelü Abaoji established the Khitan Empire (Liao Dynasty) in 916. In 960, senior General Zhao Kuangyin of the Later Zhou led a mutiny and established the Song Dynasty, with its capital set in Dongjing (now Kaifeng, in Henan Province); this period is known as the Northern Song Dynasty. The Northern Song eliminated in succession the other separatist regimes and ended the split situation. In 1038, Yuan Hao, leader of the Tangut (Dangxiang) tribe, established the Great Xia Kingdom, also known as the Western Xia regime (1038–1227). Northern Song, Liao, and Great Xia gradually entered into a tripartite confrontation with one another. During this period, peripheral tribes and regimes around Chain also encompassed Kamal Khan (Karakhanid), the Uighurs of Xizhou, Uighurs of Huangtou, Tubo (Tibet), Dali, and others (Fig.  2.13). During the Northern Song Dynasty, agriculture developed rapidly.

Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)  By the early twelfth century, Wan-yen A-ku-ta, the leader of the Jurchen people in northeastern China, had started to fight against the Liao Dynasty. In 1115, A-ku-ta claimed the throne and established the Jin Dynasty, wiping out the Liao Dynasty in 1125. In 1127, Jin extinguished the Northern Song Dynasty. In the same year, however, Prince Kang, of the Northern Song Dynasty, came to the throne and rebuilt the Song Dynasty, with Lin’an (now Hangzhou) as the capital. The Southern Song Dynasty took a line of defense from the Huai River to San-kuan Pass to confront the Jin Dynasty and sought partial recovery of sovereignty south of the Yangtze River (Jiangnan). During this period, coexisting regimes included the Western

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.9  Northern and Southern Dynasties of China. (Source: Tan 1991)

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Fig. 2.10  Panoramic view (in 612) of China’s Sui Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

2  Territory and Geopolitics

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

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Fig. 2.11  Panoramic view (in 669) of China’s Tang Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

Xia Dynasty, Western Liao (Kara-Khitan Khanate), and Dali, while the surrounding areas were dominated by Tubo (Tibet) and others (Fig. 2.14). In the Southern Song period, the national economic center moved from the north to the south.

2.1.6 The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) Genghis Khan established the Mongol Empire in 1206. Mongolia destroyed the Western Xia Dynasty and Jin Dynasty successively. In 1271, Kublai Khan established

the Yuan Dynasty, with a Capital placed at Dadu (now Beijing) in the following year. In 1276, Yuan extinguished the Southern Song Dynasty. Unprecedentedly vast, the territory of the Yuan Dynasty reaches the sea to its east, southeast, and northeast; west to Xinjiang; south to the South China Sea; southwest to Tibet and Yunnan; and north covering most of Siberia. To effectively manage the vast territory, the Yuan established a system of provinces. During the Yuan Dynasty, Tibet and Taiwan became inseparable parts of the Central Plains Dynasty, and ethnic integration further developed (Fig. 2.15).

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Fig. 2.12  Panoramic view (in 943) of China’s Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. (Source: Tan 1991)

2  Territory and Geopolitics

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.13  Panoramic view (in 1111) of China’s Liao Dynasty, Northern Song Dynasty, and Western Xia Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

Fig. 2.14  Panoramic view (in 1142) of China’s Jin Dynasty, Southern Song Dynasty, and Western Xia Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

The Liao, Western Xia, Jin, and Yuan Dynasty periods saw rapid development of agriculture. During the Song and Yuan, mining and smelting occupied an important position and the silk industry had a new development. The cotton textile industry expanded to vast areas south of the Yangtze River during the Southern Song Dynasty, and Chinese ­shipbuilding technology was in the leading position in the world. Some prosperous cities and commercial centers emerged.

2.1.7 The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor) proclaimed himself Emperor in Yingtian (now Nanjing) and established the Ming Dynasty. In 1421, Zhu Di (the Yongle Emperor) moved the capital to Beijing (Fig. 2.16). The territory of the Ming Dynasty was somewhat reduced from that of the Yuan Dynasty, reaching the sea to east and south (including the South China Sea Islands); north to northern Inner Mongolia;

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.15  Panoramic view (in 1330) of China’s Yuan Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

Fig. 2.16  Panoramic view (in 1433) of China’s Ming Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

northeast to the Outer Khingan Range; northwest to Kumul in Xinjiang, and southwest to Tibet and Yunnan. Concurrent Mongol-established regimes, such as Oyrad (Oirat, Wala), Tartar, and Ilibaliq (Yilibali) regimes, held the northern and northwestern parts of China.

2.1.8 The Qing Dynasty (1636–1911) In the late Ming Dynasty, Nurhaci unified the Jurchen tribes and established the Later Jin dynasty. In 1636, Hongtaichi claimed the throne in Shengjing (now Shenyang) and estab-

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

lished the Qing Dynasty. In 1644, the Qing army entered Shanhai Pass and established its capital in Beijing. Qing territory reached the Pamir Mountains to the west; Balkhash Lake to the northwest; Siberia to the north; Outer Khingan Range and Sakhalin Island to the northeast; the Pacific Ocean to the east; Taiwan and its affiliated islands, including the Diaoyu Islands and Chiwei Island to the southeast; and Zengmu Reef in the Nansha Islands to the south, thus becoming Asia’s largest country at that time. Han, Manchu, Mongolia, Hui, Tibet, and more than 50 ethnic groups all lived in Qing territory (Fig. 2.17). Agriculture in the Ming and Qing Dynasties saw the introduction of foreign high-yield crops such as corn and sweet potatoes and the development of cotton and tea into cash crops. The domestic market was expanding, long-­ distance trade was developing rapidly, dozens of large commercial cities appeared, and the commodity economy extended to rural areas.

2.1.9 The Republic of China (1912–1949) Due to the closed-door policy, in the late Qing Dynasty, national strength waned. With constant invasions by Western imperial powers, the Qing government was forced to cede territory and pay indemnities, and China slipped step by step into the abyss of a semicolonial and semifeudal society. The 1911 Revolution (Xinhai Revolution) overthrew the rule of the Qing Dynasty and ended more than 2000 years of feudal monarchy in China. On January 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen was sworn in as provisional president and proclaimed the founding of the Republic of China. The Republic of China basically inherited the territory of the late Qing Dynasty. In 1946, the National Government of the Republic of China recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia (Fig. 2.18).

2.1.10 Qin Shi Huang (the First Emperor of Qin), Genghis Khan, and Zhu Di The Emperor with the regnal name Qin Shi Huang (259  BC–210  BC), with family name (surname) Yin, and given name Zheng, was born in Handan. From his enthronement at 13 years of age by the age of 39 (in 221 BC) he had unified the seven kingdoms of China and established the Qin Dynasty, which was the first united, centralized, multinational state in Chinese history. He died at 50 years old on a tour of inspection. Qin Shi Huang introduced absolute monarchy and was the first Chinese ruler to use the title of Emperor (excluding Emperors with posthumously revered regnal names). Qin Shi Huang implemented a number of policies, such as writing with the same characters across China, using same-sized carriages, and using a uniform sys-

45

tem of measurement and legal system, with broad and far-­ reaching impact on future generations and the history of China. However, during the reign of Qin Shi Huang, the construction of a number of large-scale projects, including the Great Wall, the Epang Palace, and the Lishan Mausoleum, coupled with his despotic rule, added to the heavy use of corvee labor, which is one of the reasons why the Qin Dynasty collapsed suddenly after his death. Genghis Khan (“Genghis Emperor”, 1162–1227), the Yuan Taizu Emperor, birth name Temujin, was a Mongolian politician and military commander, and the founder of the Mongol Empire. He reigned from the spring of 1206 to August 25, 1227 and created an empire with the largest territory in the world. According to historical records, at that time the empire’s territory was equivalent to 30  million square kilometers, three times as much as China’s present territory. It reached east to the Korean Peninsula; west to Poland and Hungary; north to Siberia and the Russian Principalities; and south to Java and the Indochinese Peninsula, encompassing latitudes of 15°  N–60°  N and longitudes of 15° E–130° E. Bartholde, a famous Russian scholar, said that the establishment of the Mongol Empire was a unique and unprecedented event in world history: the unification of the civilized nations of the Far East and South Asia under a dynastic regime. The wars launched by Genghis Khan were unprecedented and have neither predecessors nor successors in terms of their large scale and wide range. Therefore, he is known in the annals by the title of “Conqueror of the World.” In December 1999, the US Time magazine named the World’s Greatest Men in the Millennium; Genghis Khan was ranked second in Asia (or 22nd globally). Mr. Di Zhu, the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, reigned for 22 years (1402–1424) under the name “Yongle.” Politically, he continued to implement the policy of cutting down the clans and strengthening centralization; reformed the management system by setting up the cabinet and the East Factory (a secret police agency); and moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing to strengthen the control over the north. On the military front, he made five personal expeditions to Mongolia and occupied Annam; he actively controlled the frontiers by setting up the Nurgan Capital Division in the northeast, the Hami Guard in the northwest, and the Guizhou Chengxuan Bujian Division in the southwest; actively led the South China Sea region; and implemented the policy of integrating polictics and religion in Tibet. In diplomacy, he sent Mr. He Zheng to the Atlantic Ocean to strengthen friendly relations between China and foreign countries. Culturally, he edited the Yongle Canon, the earliest and largest encyclopedia in the world. He also dredged the Grand Canal and built the Forbidden City in Beijing. During the reign, the economy was prosperous and the country was strong.

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Fig. 2.17  Panoramic view (in 1820) of China’s Qing Dynasty. (Source: Tan 1991)

2  Territory and Geopolitics

2.1  Evolution of Territory in China’s Successive Dynasties

Fig. 2.18  Panoramic view (in 1926) of the Republic of China. (Source: Tan 1991)

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2.2

2  Territory and Geopolitics

Cradle of Civilization

2.2.1 Chinese Civilization In the Eastern Hemisphere, Egypt, Mesopotamia, India(/ Pakistan), and China are generally referred to as the four cradles of civilization (Fig. 2.19). The oldest, the Egyptian civilization, made its debut about 5000 years ago in the Nile Valley, while the first Mesopotamian civilization—Sumer— appeared in the middle and lower reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers at roughly the same time. The Indian civilization originated in the middle and lower reaches of the Indus River about 4500 years ago, while the Chinese civilization emerged in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River at a time later than the first two civilizations, about 5000 years ago (starting with the Yellow Emperor, a legendary ruler). However, different from the former three civilizations, the Chinese civilization has continued to develop since its emergence, and despite its rise and fall, it has not been interrupted and has played an important role in promoting the development of world culture. The reason why Chinese civilization became the only original civilization that has continuously and incessantly moved forward is attributable to multiple factors, of which geographical environment is an important one. China is located in the North Temperate Zone, with pleasant climate

Fig. 2.19  Ancient civilizations of the world

and arable and habitable lands. Therefore, compared with other ancient cultures of the world, the emergence and continuance of Chinese culture have a uniquely superior environment, richly endowed by nature, which has led to the formation of diversified cultural models and ideas. As scholar Feng Tianyu once said: “The ancient Chinese culture is rooted in a semi-enclosed temperate continental environment, a natural agricultural economy and a patriarchal society of home-state integration. This environment has rendered the Chinese with a particular social mentality and national culture, such as being dutiful and industrious, simple and unadorned, peace-loving, self-sufficient and self-­complacent, respecting Moderation (the Doctrine of the Mean) and the traditions.” There are three direct cultural sources of Chinese civilization: the Yellow River civilization, the Yangtze River civilization, and the Northern Grassland civilization. The formation of the Yellow River civilization was roughly between 4000 BC and 2000 BC, mainly covering the dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, and concentrated in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River in the Central Plains region, with today’s Henan Province as the core. Its representative archeological culture incorporates Yangshao culture, Dawenkou culture, Shandong Longshan culture, etc. The Yangtze River civilization dated from 5000 BC. The “rice culture” in the Yangtze River region has had a particu-

2.2  Cradle of Civilization

larly far-reaching influence on civilizations in East Asia and around the world. The Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations are collectively referred to as the two major sources of Chinese civilization. The Yangtze River civilization can be rated the greatest in the world in terms of its wide area and numerous and high-density cultural sites. Grassland culture formed and developed within the specific geographical range of the grassland in the north of China—from the eastern foothills of the Khingan Range, to the east of the Pamir Mountains, the south of the Altai Mountains, and the north and south of the Kunlun Mountains. While unified agricultural-zone regimes were established in the Central Plains (comprising the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River), the Huns (Hsiung-nu), Xianbei (Hsien-­ pei), Rouran Khaganate, Turks (Tujue), Qidan (Khitan), Mongols, and other nomads similarly established unified nomadic regimes on the northern grasslands. The grassland culture accelerated the formation and integration of the Chinese nation and the diverse Chinese culture through long-­ term collision, exchange, absorption, and assimilation. Over thousands of years, the Chinese nation, with its indomitable willpower, courage to explore, and brilliant talents, has created an extremely splendid material and spiritual civilization. The Great Wall, the Grand Canal, the Forbidden City of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and diverse relics all reflect superb Chinese production techniques. Furthermore, countless outstanding figures have emerged in the areas of ideas and culture, science and technology, and created extremely profound achievements, including the “Four Great Inventions” of compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing, which have benefited all humankind.

2.2.2 T  he “Three Major Projects” of Ancient China The Great Wall, the Grand Canal, and the Karez are great works created by working people in ancient China and symbols of the cultural status of China; they are collectively called the “Three Major Projects” in Ancient China, and all three are still in use today.

2.2.2.1 The Great Wall The Great Wall is first and foremost a defensive military fortification, but its essence is to safeguard the interests of the country and the safety of the people. From the Qin Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, the main function of the Great Wall has been to defend China’s north from marauding northern nomads and protect this farming civilization. Han and non-­ Han dynasties and nationalities played a part in building the Great Wall: the Chu, Qi, Qin, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Zheng, Zhongshan, and other vassal states in the Spring and Autumn

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Period and the Warring States Period and, thereafter, the Dynasties of Qin, Western Han, Eastern Han, Northern Wei, Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, Sui, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. In the Qin, Han, and Ming Dynasties, the Wall outpaced 10,000 li (1 li  =  1/2  kilometer), hence the name the “Ten-Thousand-Li Great Wall.” 2.2.2.1.1

The Great Wall in the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) After the Huns (Hsiung-nu) retreated northwards in 214 BC, to defend against Hun and Tongus slave owners’ southward harassment of the Central Plains, the Qin Dynasty renovated, connected, and expanded the Great Wall previously built by vassal states, including Qin, Zhao, and Yan in the Warring States Period. It took 5 years to complete this great ancient building project of over 500 kilometers. Archaeological research shows that the Qin Great Wall starts in the west of present-day Min County, Gansu Province, goes by Lanzhou city and northward along the Yellow River, passes through the Ulan Buh Desert to Wolf Mountain, then goes eastward to Jining, in Xinghe County, and to Shangyi County, in Hebei Province, and then northeast via Zhangbei, Weichang, and other counties; after that, it goes eastward again past the cities of Fushun and Benxi in Liaoning Province, turns to the southeast, and ends northwest of Pyongyang, in North Korea, at the Chongchon River estuary (Fig. 2.20). 2.2.2.1.2

Great Wall in the Han Dynasty (206 BC– AD 220) The reign of Emperor Wu of Han lasted for 53 years and saw the rapid expansion of the Great Wall, laying down its basic scale and pattern of the Great Wall. Additional major new construction was done in the reigns of Emperor Zhao and Emperor Xuan. In the early years of Emperor Xuan, the Great Wall in the north reached its peak length; it starts from Kuben County, in Xinjiang, goes eastward through Gansu, Ningxia, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, and Liaoning, and ends north of the estuary of the Taedong River in North Korea. The Great Wall built by the Han is the longest in China’s history, with a total length of 10,000 kilometers (Fig. 2.21). 2.2.2.1.3 Great Wall in the Ming Dynasty Beginning in the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall was expanded again to consolidate the northern frontier and was worked on virtually nonstop during the 276-year rule of the Ming Dynasty. The walls of the Northern Wei, Northern Qi, and Sui Dynasties were rebuilt. In the late Ming Dynasty, the focus of defense was shifted eastward, and with it, the reconstruction and rerouting of the Great Wall began. The Great Wall of the Ming Dynasty starts from the east of the Yalu River, linking to the Great Wall of Qin, and then goes to Jiayuguan, winding more than 6000 kilometers (Fig. 2.22).

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

Fig. 2.20  Great Wall in the wake of the Qin unification of China. (Source: Yun Zhongtian 2007)

2.2.2.2 Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal Cut by the State of Wu to support their invasion of the State of Qi in the Spring and Autumn Period, the Canal was greatly expanded and repaired in the Sui Dynasty in order to connect the capital city of Luoyang with Zhuo County. In the Yuan Dynasty, it was renovated, taking Beijing as its new destination rather than Luoyang. It now stretches 1801  km, from Beijing in the north to Hangzhou in the south, crossing the municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin and the provinces of Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang. In addition, it connects five major river systems: the Hai River, Yellow River, Huai River, Yangtze River, and Qiantang River. Nearly as famous as the Great Wall, it is also the oldest and longest artificial canal in the world and has played and continues to play an important role in agricultural, industrial, economic,

and cultural development and exchange between the north and south of China, especially in the areas along the Canal (Fig. 2.23).

2.2.2.3 Karez (Kanat) Wells Kanats are enclosed culverts in arid areas, where horizontal tunnels are leveraged to guide subsurface flow to achieve surface gravity irrigation. Karez wells are huge underground water conservation network systems developed over thousands of years by ancient working people. The Karez wells in China are mainly located in the Turpan and Hami areas of Xinjiang. The construction of Karez wells is related to the local natural and geographical conditions. Turpan is one of the most arid regions in China, with an

2.2  Cradle of Civilization

51

Fig. 2.21  China’s Great Wall in the Han Dynasty. (Source: Yun Zhongtian 2007)

Fig. 2.22  Map of the Great Wall in the Ming Dynasty. (Source: Yun Zhongtian 2007)

annual rainfall of only 16 millimeters and an evaporation capacity up to 3000 millimeters, making it difficult to achieve long surface flow. Karez wells can transport water through underground culverts, which are not affected by the seasons and sandstorms and which have low evaporation and stable

flow rate to achieve gravity irrigation throughout the year. Although the basin is hot and lacks rainfall, it has Bogda Mountain in the north and Karawuquntag Mountain in the west. In summer, a large amount of snowmelt and rainwater flows into the basin, infiltrating the Gobi Desert and converg-

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

Fig. 2.23 Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal

ing into subsurface flow, thus providing abundant groundwater for the Karez wells. At present, there are three major accounts of the origin of Karez in Xinjiang: (1) evolved from well-canals in the Central Shaanxi Plain of the Western Han Dynasty; (2) cre-

ated by local people of all ethnic groups as per local conditions; (3) derived from Persia and introduced from Central Asia. It is estimated that there are over 1600 Karez wells in Xinjiang, with a total length of not less than 5000 km. Karez maximizes the protection and utilization of limited water

2.2  Cradle of Civilization

resources and supports the economic development of the Turpan Basin and Hami Basin, serving as the only source of water for local people to drink and irrigate—the “Spring of Life” for residents.

2.2.3 Confucius and Mencius In the more than two thousand years of Chinese feudal society, Confucianism always occupied an orthodox position in official ideology and had a widespread and profound impact on Chinese culture. It can be said that Confucianism is the mainstream of Chinese traditional culture. The Pre-Qin Confucianism, represented mainly by Confucius and Mencius, profoundly affected the Chinese general ethics and values. The basic features of Confucianism are to educate people with the ideas of Four Books and Five Classics; take up the idea of esteeming benevolence, righteousness, ethics, and morality as central tenets; expand the idea of benevolence to politics to implement the rule of virtue; set great store by the people’s livelihood; and practice education with a view to safeguarding the feudal society, with the hierarchical system, cardinal guides, and regular order as its core.

2.2.3.1 Confucius Confucius (551 BC–479 BC), with the given name Qiu and courtesy name Zhongni (“Confucius” is the Latinized form of an honorific title, a respectful form of address), was an educator, politician, and philosopher in the late Spring and Autumn Period and the founder of Confucianism, which did not immediately become mainstream thinking at the time of its creation. By the second century BC, however, China has become a powerful and unified centralized state, and the Han Dynasty rulers found that Confucius’ theory was very suitable for maintaining their rule and thus set it as the national orthodox doctrine. Confucius valued benevolence and demanded that the benevolent man should first and foremost restrain his selfishness with virtue and practice benevolence; then, one must put oneself in the place of another and treat other people as oneself, that is, take care of others; and leaders should rule the world by the same token. In order to realize this benevolence, Confucius emphasized study and reflection on ancient literature and knowledge, adopting an optimistic and enterprising attitude and positive pursuits in the secular world, as well as participation in political life and a strong sense of responsibility and mission to society. In this way, emphasizing the unity of politics, ethics, practice, and learning is the main feature of Confucianism. After Confucius died, his disciples compiled his sayings and conversations with his students into the collection The Analects of Confucius. This book is not only a philosophical

53

classic but also regarded as a holy book, akin to the Bible, in ancient China. Its role and influence in China are unmatched. The Analects mainly reflect Confucius’ thoughts; their language is very lively and vividly depicts the image of Confucius, his disciples, and other characters. The aphorisms are rich in imagery, inspiring, and philosophical; vivid and motivational, with concise words, and incisive, comprehensive meanings. They sum up rich social wisdom, are passed on to later generations, and become popular idioms: “A man without distant care must have near sorrow”; “Bitter medicine may have better effects; honest advice, though unpleasant to the ear, benefits conduct”; “Gain new insights through restudying old material”; “Guileful words disrupt virtue, Lack of forbearance in small matters upsets great plans”; “At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I was independent and steadfast in my pursuit. At forty, I understood the world as it is with no wishful thinking and superfluous doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of destiny and what Heaven demanded of me. At sixty, the truth shall never be unpleasant in my ear. At seventy I could follow my heart’s desire without transgressing the norms”; “Two heads are better than one”.

2.2.3.2 Mencius Mencius (about 385  BC–304  BC), a Latinization of Meng Ke, was a great philosopher who epitomized the thought of the Confucian school after Confucius and developed Confucianism in the Warring States Period. He viewed Confucianism as the ideal of life, and held Confucius in high esteem; as he stated, “since the inception of human beings, no one has surpassed Confucius in name, fame and maxim.” Mencius did not have any significant political influence during his life; however, his thought came to have a huge influence on the feudal society in China. In the Song Dynasty, he was revered as the “Second Sage” of Confucianism, after Confucius, and their thought was collectively referred to as the “Confucius-Mencius Doctrines”. The book Mencius, which was jointly compiled by Mencius and his brilliant disciples, reflects the ideological kernel of his work. Mencius extended Confucius’ theory of “benevolence” and “benevolent rule” (virtue politics) into a complete theory for a benevolent government. He believed that the world could only be reunified with benevolence, and put forward the idea that “The people are more important than the monarch”; “people being the most important, followed by the state, least is the monarch per se.” “He who wins the hearts of his people wins the rule (of the world)” was his maxim, and he believed that the principal measures needed to win popular support are “teaching people” and “raising people”: teaching via moral education, while raising people up by protecting their lives and prospects. Mencius believed that he who mishandles his people will surely miss his thorn.

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2.3

2  Territory and Geopolitics

Boundaries and Geopolitics

2.3.1 Land Neighbors and Borders 2.3.1.1 Land-Adjacent Countries Neighboring countries are those with adjacent territories, including the land, maritime space, rivers, and other borders. China is adjacent to 14 countries on land: Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Mongolia, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (Fig. 1.4). With a total land border length of more than 22,000 kilometers, China is the country with the longest land borderline, most neighboring countries, and most complex border situations in the world (Table 2.3). Upon the founding of the People’s Republic of China, there were 12 disputes over border issues between China and land-based neighboring countries. Over the following 50 years, China has, under the guidance of its Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and the foreign policy of good neighborliness and friendship, steadfastly, stepwise, and steadily solved the border issues left over by history with most neighboring countries through unremitting efforts. By the end of 2004, China had concluded border treaties or agreements with 12 neighboring countries, and the delineated borders covered about 90% of the total length of China’s land boundary lines.

The resolution of China’s border issues mainly occurred during two periods: (1) In the 1960s, China concluded border treaties or agreements with Myanmar, Nepal, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Afghanistan in succession; (2) since the 1990s, China has resolved border issues with Russia, Laos, and Vietnam, as well as the newly independent Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, etc. At present, China has border disputes only with Bhutan and India. The Chinese government treats the issues left over by history with a rational and practical mindset and settles the boundary disputes with the goal of upholding the interests of the nation, but also is widely praised by the relevant partner governments, peoples, and international media. After China’s reform and opening up, Deng Xiaoping proposed a 12-Chinese-character principle for handling issues of territories and borders, namely, “As sovereignty belongs to China, we will shelve disputes and develop together,” which opens up new ideas for the peaceful settlement of problems such as those of the Diaoyu Island and Nansha Islands.

2.3.1.2 Sino-Indian Border Issue The total length of the Sino-Indian border is about 1700 kilometers, consisting of three sections: the west, the middle, and the east, with lengths of 600, 450, and 650 kilometers, respectively. The total disputed area is about 125,000 square kilometers. In 1962, a border war broke out between the two countries because of the dispute. Although the governments

Table 2.3  China’s neighboring states on land Neighboring countries Russia

Boundary length (km) ≥4000 km

Kazakhstan

≥1700 km

Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Mongolia North Korea

≈1100 km ≈400 km 4710 km 1334 km

Vietnam Laos

≈1350 km 5,05 km

Myanmar India Bhutan

≥2000 km ≈1700 km ≈600 km

Nepal Pakistan

≥1400 km ≈600 km

Afghanistan

≈92 km

Natural demarcation Tannu Uriankhai area; south of Outer Khingan Range and north of Heilongjiang; the Sixty-Four Villages East of the Heilongjiang River; east of the Ussuri River and Sakhalin area; southeastern Balkhash Lake and Ili River basin Tarbagatai Mountains and Baluluk (Ba’erluke) Mountains, located in the Tacheng area Tianshan Mountains and Pamir-Alai Mountains

Heaven Lake of Changbai Mountain, Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin Province (the so-called “Gando” or “Kantao”), some islands in the Yalu River and the Tumen River Faka Mountain, Zheyin Mountain, and Laoshan Mountain area From Shiwandashan Mountain (Kela Mountain) to the Lancang-­ Mekong River main waterway center line at the junction of China, Laos, and Myanmar

Seven counties of the two prefectures of Ali and Shigatse in Tibet Located in the Kanjut area. Pakistani-controlled Kashmir region borders on northwest Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region

Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China (2017)

Date of establishment of diplomatic relations 1992.1.20

Border problem solved in 2004

1992.1.3

1994

1992.1.5 1992.1.4 1949.10.16 1949.10.6

1996 1999 1962 1962

1950.1.18 1961.4.25

1999 1991

1950.6.8 1950.4.1 Not yet established diplomatic relations 1955.8.1 1951.5.21

1960 Not Settled Not Settled 1960 1963

1955.1.20

1963

2.3  Boundaries and Geopolitics

of the two sides have been seeking ways and means for a fair and reasonable solution to the border dispute for decades, no breakthrough has been made so far. The controversy is concentrated in the east and west sections, with the largest disputed area, at 90,000 square kilometers, in the eastern section. The problem stems from the period of British rule over India: In 1913, the British Indian authorities held a meeting in Shimla in northern India during which Henry McMahon, the representative of the British government participating in the meeting, secretly concocted a so-called McMahon line with representatives of the local Tibetan authorities on the Sino-Indian border issue, and assigned to India 90,000 square kilometers of territory along the east section of the China–India border, which has always belonged to China. The inhabitants of this region are all Tibetans or ethnic groups closely related to Tibetans; they are inseparable from the Tibetan society in terms of race, culture, religion, and living customs. The Chinese people call this area South Tibet. No previous Chinese government has ever acknowledged the McMahon line. The disputed area in the west section is 30,000 square kilometers. China actually controls the Aksai Chin area in eastern Kashmir (belonging to Hetian County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), while India controls some 450 square kilometers in parts of Parigas. According to the Agreement between China and Pakistan on the Boundary between Xinjiang and Areas in Actual Pakistan Control of Their Defense concluded in 1963 by the Governments of the People’s Republic of China and Pakistan, the Pakistani side acknowledges that the areas under the jurisdiction of Xinjiang, and part of the areas assigned to the northern Pakistan region (Karakorum Corridor) belongs to China. At present, India claims sovereignty over these two areas controlled by China, but the Chinese government claims no territorial dispute over the western section. From the above, we can see that the focus of the Sino-­ Indian border dispute is the ownership of a large part of China’s territory. This can be considered a “battle of three lines”: first, to address the gap between the traditional Chinese–Indian line of customary practice advocated by the Chinese government and the illegitimate “McMahon line” that India upholds, to determine to whom the 90,000 square kilometers of disputed territory should belong; and second, the dispute over the line of actual control, which has a direct bearing on the status quo and stability of the border between China and India, who have held 18 rounds of border negotiations over the years. In March 2015, China and India agreed to maintain peace and stability on the Himalayan border. However, the border issues remain unresolved and the differences between the countries remain large.

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2.3.1.3 China-Bhutan Border Dispute The border between China and Bhutan is about 600 kilometers long and has never been officially delineated. There are altogether 6 border areas in dispute. From 1950, maps published in China drew certain parts of western and northern Bhutan into the territory of China, and hence, the dispute arose. Since 1984, the two countries have held border talks in Beijing and Thimphu in turn. In 1998, during the 12th talks, the two countries signed an Agreement between the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Royal Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan to Maintain Peace and Tranquility in the Border Areas of China and Bhutan. To date, however, the demarcation of the China–Bhutan borders remains largely incomplete. In 2004, the Treaty Series on Border Affairs of the People’s Republic of China—China-­ Bhutan Volume, edited by the Department of Treaty and Law of the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, pointed out that while there is no formal border, there is a traditional customary line between the two countries, and the border areas are basically stable. China disputes six areas under Bhutanese control: Lulin (Ronglin), Donglang, Chamapu, Jiwu, Baiyu, and ­Merag-­Sagteng. According to the King of Bhutan, the kingdom disputes the following areas under Chinese control: from Doklam in the west, stretching along Gamochen to Batangla and the Sinchela watershed, and then down to the Amo Chhu River. As of the end of 2016, there have been 24 rounds of border talks between the two sides. At present, the China– Bhutan relationship maintains sound momentum. The two sides have continuously expanded exchange in tourism, sports, and culture. Courtesy of the joint efforts of both sides, important progress has also been made in the China-Bhutan border negotiations in recent years; the two sides have successfully completed the joint investigation of the border disputed areas. Both parties hope that in the future, through friendly consultations, they will find a solution to the border issue that both parties can accept. 2.3.1.4 Kashmir Kashmir is a region in the northwest of the South Asian subcontinent, to the west of the Tibetan Plateau, a former state of British India with an area of 222,478 square kilometers. Presently, the region is subject to tripartite control by three countries: Pakistan controls the northwestern part (Azad Kashmir and northern Kashmir), India controls the central and southern regions (Jammu and Kashmir), and China controls the northeast (Aksai Chin and the Karakorum Corridor). The Siachen Glacier is controlled by both India and Pakistan, with India controlling most of them and Pakistan controlling the lower peaks.

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

Pakistan claims that all Kashmir, except for the parts con- 1. Treaty lines. After the Treaty of Nerchinsk came into trolled by China, is Pakistani territory, while India has never force, a boundary line relying on many unequal treaties formally recognized Chinese or Pakistani control of the area. formed between China and the Soviet Union (Russia). China generally believes that the “Kashmir” region only 2. USSR map-line. As the name suggests, this was a border includes the actual control zone in India and the actual conline marked by the Soviet Union, which deviated from the trol zone in Pakistan. Kashmir has long been regarded as one treaty line in many places, and in breach of treaties, of the most dangerous territorial disputes in the world, and assigned to the USSR an array of China’s territories, for three wars have been fought between India and Pakistan over instance, shifting midriver boundary lines in the it: the First Indo-Pakistan War in 1947, the Second Indo-­ Heilongjiang River and Wusuli River (Ussuri River) to Pakistan War in 1965, and the Third Indo-Pakistan War in the Chinese shore and thus appropriating all islands on 1971, along with the Kargil border conflict (also known as the Chinese half of the river. Since the founding of the the Fourth Kashmir War) that broke out in the Kargil district Republic of China, all Chinese governments have refused of India-controlled Kashmir in 1999. To avoid ambiguity, to recognize the USSR map-line. China refers to the Kashmir regions controlled by China, 3. The actual control line. The actual line of control on the Pakistan, and India as “China-controlled Kashmir,” USSR side not only greatly exceeded the treaty lines in “Pakistan-controlled Kashmir,” and “India-controlled many locations but also crossed the USSR map-line, Kashmir,” respectively. making it equivalent to the seizure of Chinese territory. India-Controlled Kashmir  India controls about 45.5% of Kashmir (101,387 square kilometers) and has established the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the area under its control, which consists mainly of four parts: the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, Ladakh, and the Siachen Glacier.

Pakistani-Controlled Kashmir  The Pakistani section, an autonomous region, can be divided into two parts: One is Azad Kashmir (about 13,350 square kilometers; and the other is northern Kashmir (about 72,496 square kilometers), covering a total area of about 85,846 square kilometers.

China-Controlled Kashmir  includes the following areas, which do not belong to the Kashmir region as deemed by China: Aksai Chin, about 37,555 square kilometers, and part of the Karakorum Corridor in northern Kashmir. In 1963, Pakistan delineated these areas to China.

2.3.1.5 Sino-Russian Border The border between China and Russia is more than 4300 kilometers long and is divided into two sections, east (4280 kilometers) and west (54 kilometers). For historical reasons, the two sides have different understanding of the alignment of the boundary lines for some areas, which has led to many disputed areas large and small. The border issues between China and Russia have a long history. Since the Treaty of Nerchinsk between the Qing government and Russia in 1689, Sino-Russian border conflict has never stopped. By 1949, there were already three “border lines” between China and the Soviet Union (Russia):

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, China and the USSR—and then four former USSR states since the disintegration of the USSR in December 1991, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan have held three border negotiations. The first was in 1964, the second was from 1969 to 1978, and the third ran from 1987 to 2004. In October 2004, the foreign ministers of China and Russia signed the Supplementary Agreement to the East Section of China-Russia Boundary; in June 2005, the agreement entered into force, ratifying the more than 4300-km border line between China and Russia and delineating the whole 7600-km border(s) with the former Soviet Union.

2.3.2 M  aritime Neighboring Countries and Marine Space Division 2.3.2.1 Marine Space Division China has a mainland coastline of more than 18,000 kilometers and an island coastline of over 14,200 kilometers; it has 6961 islands of more than 500 square meters, covering an area of over 80,000 square kilometers, and tens of thousands of rock islands below 500 square meters. Of all the islands, 433 are inhabited. Historically, the rise of the Chinese nation and its fall and shame are all closely related to the oceans. The territorial sea of the People’s Republic of China refers to the marine belt adjacent to the territorial land and internal waters of the PRC. The water area from the baseline of the territorial sea to the land is the internal waters of the PRC. The width of the territorial sea is 12 nautical miles. The outer limit of the territorial sea is a line whose distance at any given point to the nearest point at the baseline of the territo-

2.3  Boundaries and Geopolitics

57

Fig. 2.24  Schematic Diagram of the Structure of Chinese Territorial Waters

rial sea is equal to 12 nautical miles. The contiguous zone is adjacent to the territorial sea and also has a width of 12 nautical miles. Foreign non-military vessels enjoy the right of innocent (inoffensive) passage through the territorial waters of the PRC according to law. The entry of foreign military vessels into the territorial sea of the PRC, however, is subject to the approval of the national government. The structure of China’s territorial waters is as follows (Fig. 2.24): Internal waters. Legal status is equal to the national inland waterways and lakes, with absolute sovereign rights. Territorial sea. China has sovereignty over the living and nonliving resources of the territorial sea; ships of all countries have the right to harmless access to the territorial sea. Contiguous zone. China here has the right to prevent and punish violations of laws and regulations on safety, customs, finance, sanitation, or immigration controls on its terrestrial territories, internal waters, or territorial waters. Exclusive economic zone. The territorial state has the right to explore, develop, maintain, and utilize all the natural resources within the zone; other countries enjoy the freedom to fly, sail, and lay submarine cables and pipelines.

2.3.2.2 Maritime Neighboring Countries The eight maritime neighbors of the People’s Republic of China are, in clockwise order, from northeast to southwest: North Korea, South Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Vietnam, all with some territorial disputes with China (Fig. 1.4). Among them, only Vietnam has no sea dispute.

The main disputes can be divided into two types, the first one being sovereignty disputes over some islands and reefs, such as the Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands). Such problems are mainly caused by the unlawful occupation or control by the countries concerned of the territories and surrounding waters belonging to China. The second type is the maritime delimitation controversy, which goes back primarily to 1982’s United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), as it stipulates that coastal States may claim a 200-nautical-wide exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf. This law results in the emergence of multiple overlapping maritime claims by many maritime neighbors, and thereby the issue of maritime delimitation arises. The interaction and intertwining of these two types of disputes are greatly increasing the complexity of the issues. In these disputes, the Chinese government has consistently advocated negotiation and settlement through friendly discussions with the relevant countries on the basis of respecting historical facts and international law. 2.3.2.2.1

Disputes Over the Exclusive Economic Zone The exclusive economic zone, as a new system established in the 1982 UNCLOS, is the third type of sea in law, between territorial sea and the high seas (international waters). It is outside and directly adjacent to the territorial sea, with a width of not more than 200 nautical miles from the territorial sea baseline. In an exclusive economic zone, the coastal state enjoys sovereign rights of exploration, development, conservation, and management of natural resources; jurisdiction over the construction and use of artificial islands, facilities,

58

and structures; marine scientific research; and protection and preservation of the marine environment. Other countries have the freedom to navigate, fly over, or lay submarine cables and pipelines. China’s exclusive economic zone system was formally established by the Third Session of the Ninth National People’s Congress Standing Committee Conference in 1998 through the enactment of the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf.” It extends beyond the territorial waters of China to the adjacent sea area and extends to 200 nautical miles from a baseline measuring the breadth of the territorial sea. China is on the verge of the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea; these are enclosed and semienclosed seas, densely dotted with coastal islands and sea islands, and this makes it impossible to reach 400 nautical miles measuring from any cape (headland) or island to another headland or island, thus resulting in the overlapping of China’s exclusive economic zones with those of the neighboring countries. Yellow Sea (Huanghai Sea)  The Yellow Sea area is 470 nautical miles long from north to south and 360 nautical miles wide east-west, thus covering an area of about 380,000 square kilometers. The Shandong Peninsula dips into the Yellow Sea, and the line between its Chengshan Cape and the Changshan Archipelago of the Korean Peninsula roughly forms the maritime borderline between China and the Koreas. In the Yellow Sea, China is facing demarcation issues with both North and South Korea. As the width of the Yellow Sea is less than 400 nautical miles, there is bound to be overlap of the three nations’ exclusive economic zones, meaning that the principle of fairness, the length of the coastline, resource factors, historic fishing rights, and relevant current status must all be relied on to delineate the exclusive economic zones with fair results.

East China Sea  The East China Sea has a length of 630 nautical miles from north to south, an east-west width of 150–360 nautical miles (NM), and an area of about 770,000 square kilometers. Due to the inevitable overlapping of EEZs for China and Japan in the East China Sea, both parties should, in accordance with the principle of fairness, take into account factors such as the shape of the coast, geomorphic features, the length ratio of the coastline, and historical rights in order to draw up the boundaries of exclusive economic zones through consultation.

South China Sea  The South China Sea has a length of about 1800 NM north and south, an east-west width of 650 NM, and an area of about 3.5 million square kilometers. The

2  Territory and Geopolitics

South China Sea Islands are the Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands), Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands), Dongsha Islands (Pratas Islands), Zhongsha Islands (Macclesfield Islands), and others. China has promulgated a “nine-dashed line” or dotted line to encompass what it asserts to be its traditional maritime territories in the South China Sea and protect its historic rights within the circumscribed borderlines, asserting indisputable sovereignty over the South China Sea islands, which have been China’s territory since ancient times. In the spirit of resolving differences, full account should be given to China’s historic rights in the areas circumscribed by the nine-dashed line. The South China Sea issue is elaborated in the next section. 2.3.2.2.2 Disputes Over Continental Shelf Article 76 of UNCLOS states that “The continental shelf of a coastal State comprises the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend up to that distance.” This definition of the continental shelf, as adopted by UNCLOS, is intended to reduce disputes and ambiguities, but it has also become a new source of controversy per se. The demarcation of the continental shelf is a major issue that concerns the sovereign rights and vital interests of the countries concerned; like the exclusive economic zone, it requires the countries concerned to work hard to adopt a fair and reasonable solution through friendly consultations. Yellow Sea (Huanghai Sea)  The Yellow Sea is a neritic shelf sea with an average depth of 55 meters, and no deeper than 125 meters. Analysis of seabed sediment shows that one-third of the eastern Yellow Sea seabed is derived from the mountains of North Korea, while the remaining two-­ thirds, the western Yellow Sea, is from the mud brought by the Chinese rivers. South Korea proposes to divide the continental shelf with China by a middle-line approach; China, on the other hand, advocates an equiratio line based on the coastline to divide the continental shelf between China-­ North Korea and China–South Korea.

East China Sea  The East China Sea is an area with a broad continental shelf, the average depth of which is 72 meters, while the maximum depth is well above 2000 meters (the Okinawa Trough). The submarine topography of the East China Sea is consistent with that of the Chinese mainland: It gradually tilts from northwest to southeast until the Okinawa Trough, which is a special geographic unit in the East China Sea that separates the continental shelf from the Ryukyu Islands. The Chinese government believes that the Okinawa

2.3  Boundaries and Geopolitics

Trough proves that the continental shelf between China and Japan is disconnected and the trough serves as the dividing line between them. Japan, on the other hand, advocates the use of a middle line (that claims the area between the east of the East China Sea middle-line and the center line of the Okinawa Trough, which is an overlapping area of shelves between China, Japan, and South Korea, covering an area of about 300,000 square kilometers.)

Division of the Continental Shelf  In the Yellow Sea, South Korea advocates the adoption of the middle-line principle; while in the East China Sea, South Korea adopts the principle of natural extension of terrestrial territory.

South China Sea  The South China Sea lies between mainland China, the Philippines, Kalimantan Island (Borneo), Sumatra Island, and the Indochinese Peninsula. It is a typical marginal sea basin, surrounded by China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, Thailand, and other countries. The surrounding continental shelves (or insular shelves) extend to the basin center. The middle part is an ocean-crust type of deep ocean floor. The countries around the South China Sea require their continental shelves to overlap with China’s, circumscribed by the nine-dashed line. It has been suggested that there may be a part of this outer continental shelf that goes beyond 200 nautical miles in the northern part of China’s South China Sea. There may also be some areas of the continental shelves in Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines around the South China Sea that go beyond 200 nautical miles from the territorial sea baseline and go deep into China’s continental shelf, circumscribed by the nine-dashed line. In resolving these differences, due consideration shall be given to China’s historic rights enjoyed within the continental shelf circumscribed by the nine-­ dashed line.

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are marked by Chinese and foreign maps as belonging to China; after the Second World War, according to international legal documents such as the Cairo Declaration and the Potsdam Proclamation, the Diaoyu Islands were returned to China. The Japanese government considers the Diaoyu Islands to be Japanese territory and argues that they were discovered by Tatsushiro Koga in 1884 and are not included in the territories that Japan had to give up under the San Francisco Peace Treaty. With respect to the sovereignty of the Diaoyu Islands, from an international law point of view, China’s demands are justified, the grounds are sufficient, and the evidence is obviously stronger than that of Japan. First, the Diaoyu Islands are not terra nullius; China has met the requirement of “obtaining sovereignty through discovery.” Undoubtedly, China discovered the islands hundreds of years earlier than Japan and demonstrated official behavior by using the islands as a navigation marker. Second, Japan’s annexation of the Diaoyu Islands is closely linked with its victory in the Sino-­ Japanese War and the forced signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Thus, the merger has no legal effect on sovereignty. Third, although islands such as the Diaoyu Islands are included in the “Okinawa Return Agreement” signed by Japan and the United States in 1971, this cannot serve as the basis for Japan’s sovereignty over these islands.

2.3.3 South China Sea

The most complicated and thorny territorial issue China faces, the South China Sea dispute involves China, Taiwan of China, the Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia, and Vietnam. The South China Sea Islands include the Dongsha Islands (Pratas Islands), Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands), Zhongsha Islands (Macclesfield Islands), and Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands). China first discovered, named and exploited the South China Sea islands and related sea areas. With the earliest, and continued, peaceful, and effective, exercise of sover2.3.2.3 Diaoyu Islands eignty and jurisdiction over these islands and areas, China Subsidiary islands of Taiwan, the Diaoyu Island, and its affil- has established territorial sovereignty and related rights and iated Islands are located in the northeast of Taiwan Island of interests in the corresponding areas. China in the sea area between 123° 20′–124° 40′ east longiAccording to Chinese domestic law and international tude and 25° 40′–26° 00′ north latitude. They comprise laws including UNCLOS, China’s territorial sovereignty and Diaoyu Island, Huangwei Island, Chiwei Island, Nansiao maritime rights and interests in the South China Sea encomIsland, Beisiao Island, Nanyu Island, Beiyu Island, Feiyu pass sovereignty over all South China Sea Islands, their Island, and other islands and reefs, with a total area of about internal waters, territorial waters, contiguous areas, exclu5.69 square kilometers. The Diaoyu Islands present an issue sive economic zones, and continental shelf; and, last but not of territorial sovereignty dispute between China and Japan. least, the historic right in the South China Sea. The Chinese government believes that these islands are an China has always firmly opposed the illegal encroachintegral and indisputable part of China’s territory, terms of ment by certain countries over some islands and reefs in the history, geography, or jurisprudence, whichever. The ratio- Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands) of China as well as infringenales include the following: China first discovered, named, ment on the seas under the jurisdiction of China. China is and exploited the Diaoyu Islands; China has imposed long-­ willing to continue to work with the parties directly conterm jurisdiction over the Diaoyu Islands; the Diaoyu Islands cerned on settling disputes in the South China Sea peacefully

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2  Territory and Geopolitics

through negotiations and consultations on the basis of respecting historical facts and in accordance with international law.

ASEAN actively interfered with the dispute over the Nansha Islands and the demarcation of the South China Sea. These countries coordinated the ASEAN countries’ position with the intention of wielding the collective power of ASEAN to 2.3.3.1 Nine-Dashed Line (Nine-Dotted Line) deal with China. They also sought to “internationalize” the On maps of the world, Asia, or China published in China, Nansha dispute and hoped to urge major outsiders such as one can see a U-shaped dotted line in the South China Sea the United States and Japan into the dispute so as to ultiregion, commonly known as the “U-Shaped Line” or “Nine-­ mately achieve the purpose of restraining China and carving Dashed Line” (Jiuduan Line). Since ancient times, China has up the Nansha Islands and the South China Sea. had jurisdiction over the South China Sea islands. However, So far, more than 200 oil companies have engaged in oil entering the modern era, the Western powers not only repeat- and gas development activities in the South China Sea, from edly invaded China itself but also coveted the Chinese islands the United States, the Netherlands, Britain, Japan, France, in the border areas. To safeguard its sovereignty over them, Canada, Australia, Russia, India, Norway, South Korea, and the Republic of China set up a Land and Water Map Review so on. These oil companies have made substantial financial Committee to examine the Chinese and English names of the and technological investments in the South China Sea and islands and reefs of the South China Sea, and published a have undoubtedly increased the complexity of the above-­ Map of the South China Sea Islands. The southern boundary described dispute. of China has been identified at 4 degrees north latitude, where Zengmu Reef (James Shoal) is marked within the ter- Nansha Islands Dispute  The Nansha islands dispute ritory line. This marks the first appearance of the South involves five countries and six parties, namely China, China Sea territory line on a Chinese map, that is, the proto- Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei. type of the U-shaped line of today. The Nansha Islands are located in the southern half of the South China Sea, with reefs scattered from east to west China’s Propositions  When China marked the U-shaped for about 400 nautical miles and for about 500 nautical dotted line on the map of the South China Sea in 1947, the miles from south to north; the seas encompassed by the international community did not raise any objection, and the islands’ reefs amount to 800,000 square kilometers, surrounding Southeast Asian countries never proposed any accounting for 38% of the South China Sea waters; except diplomatic protest. However, in the 1970s, the dispute over for the Pyramid Rocks (Gaujian Shr), the reefs are all the South China Sea began to escalate. The Chinese govern- composed of coral. The Nansha Islands have an important ment’s legal claim for the Nine-Dashed Line is actually strategic position abreast of major maritime traffic in the based on a combination of the island ownership line and the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. At the same time, historic rights line. In this sense, it is an established, objec- they also have significant economic value: their seabeds tive reality existing for more than half a century and recog- abound in oil resources and natural gas; minerals like nized by many countries around the world. iron, manganese, copper, aluminum, and others; and many aquatic resources.

2.3.3.2 South China Sea Issue Since the signing of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea between China and the ASEAN countries in November 2002, the dispute over the waters under the South China Sea has been relatively calm and mild. However, the dispute has always existed, and its intricacy remains. It can be boiled down to two points: the dispute over the territorial sovereignty of the Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands) and the dispute over the demarcation of exclusive economic zones and the continental shelf in the South China Sea, as well as disagreements on the territorial sea baselines and the islands’ sovereignty with respect to the demarcation. At present, Vietnam has occupied 31 islands and reefs in the Nansha Island; the Philippines has occupied 9; and Malaysia 5. China, despite its strong claim, is only stationed in 6 islands and reefs. Some ASEAN countries hold that the South China Sea will become a “hot spot” in Southeast Asia. Therefore,

Vietnam’s invasion of the Nansha Islands began with the former South Vietnamese government in Saigon, which claimed ownership of all the waters of Nansha. The Philippine government tried to “confirm” its sovereignty interests in the South China Sea through domestic legislation and the aid of ASEAN forces to contain China. They also unilaterally announced maritime legislation that provided for a 200-­ nautical-mile economic zone and assigned 410,000 square kilometers of sea area east of Nansha into its territorial sea. Through various channels, Malaysia has fortified its proposition of “factual possession and actual control” in the international community, declaring that it has “indisputable sovereignty” over part of the Nansha Islands. Brunei occupied an island reef, announced a 200 NM exclusive economic zone, and issued a new map indicating its jurisdiction over the sea, claiming sovereignty over Nantong Reef (Louisa Reef), and carving out 3000 square kilometers from the Nansha sea areas.

References

China advocates that all parties concerned adopt a restrained, calm, and constructive attitude toward the issue of Nansha. China always persists in using diplomatic channels to engage in discussion with relevant countries in a peaceful manner to resolve the relevant issues. This reflects China’s sincerity in safeguarding regional stability and bilateral friendly relations. Huangyan Island (Scarborough Shoal) Dispute  Huangyan Island (Scarborough Shoal) is one of 33 islands and reefs in the Zhongsha Islands (Macclesfield Islands). Coral Beach Reef, one of the Zhongsha Archipelago, is the only island reef above water in the Zhongsha Islands. Huangyan Island (Scarborough Shoal), 215 kilometers from the Philippines’ Luzon Island, is an inherent territory of China: China first discovered it, named it, and incorporated it into Chinese territory, and implemented sovereign jurisdiction thereupon. China has thus been developing and utilizing Huangyan Island for a long time. To the east of Huangyan Island is Manila Trench, which serves as the natural geographical boundary between China’s Zhongsha Islands (Macclesfield Islands) and the Philippine Islands. Before 1997, the Philippines never raised any objection to the Chinese government’s exercise of sovereignty over Huangyan Island or to its development and exploitation thereof. However, since 2000, the Philippines have continually provoked incidents on Huangyan Island and coveted sovereignty over it. In April 2012, a Chinese fishing vessel was harassed by a Philippine warship during its normal operations in a lagoon on Huangyan Island. The warship attempted to arrest the fishermen but was stopped by two Chinese maritime surveillance ships that arrived in a timely fashion. Subsequently, the Chinese government sent fishery administration vessels to the relevant areas for protection of rights and lodged solemn representations to the Philippines. China has always maintained self-restraint on the Huangyan Island Dispute and does not encourage the involvement of armed forces. The dispatch of maritime surveillance vessels and fishery administration vessels from various countries shows that China’s handling of Huangyan Island affairs as its own internal affairs has conveyed its uncompromising attitude toward territorial sovereignty and fully demonstrated its goodwill to resolve the problem without resorting to armed force. Quiz 1. What are the geopolitics of China in Asia and the world? 2. How do you understand the relationship between China and neighboring countries with the evolution of dynastic territories? 3. The “Great Wall” and “Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal” in ancient China are called wonders of the world. How do

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you understand their regional human-environment harmony? What are their implications for the planning of the new development pattern? 4. What is the significance of the sustainable development of “Kare wells” in arid regions? 5. How do you understand the harmonics of “heaven and earth” and “heaven and human” from the perspective of traditional Chinese culture? 6. Of the four ancient civilizations in the world (ancient Egypt, Babylon, ancient India, and China), why has only theChinese civilization survived to this day?

References Administration of Cultural Heritage, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2011) Collection of the findings in the third national cultural heritage census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Science Press, Beijing Dong Yaohui (2004) Convergency: a collection of literary theories on Great Wall research. Science Press, Beijing General Office of the NPC Standing Committee of the People’s Republic of China (2008) Law of the Peoples Republic of China on territorial waters and contiguous zone. China Democracy and Law Press, Beijing Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2012) The white paper on “Diaoyu Dao, an inherent territory of China”. Ocean Dev Manage 29(10):24–28 Ji Guoxing (2009) China’s maritime safety and maritime jurisdiction. Shanghai People’s Publishing House, Shanghai Li Kaisheng, Xue Li (2012) Non-traditional security theory: concepts, genres and characteristics. Int Polit Q 49(2):93–107 Liu Enshu, Liu Huishu (2009) Research on the territory of modern China. World Affairs Press, Beijing Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China (2019) Brief summary of the date of establishing diplomatic relations between the People’s Republic of China and other countries. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/2193_674977. Accessed Sept 2019 Qiu Huafei (2009) Contemporary world economy and politics. Anhui University Press, Hefei Que Daolong (1994) Essentials of Chinese culture. China Youth Press, Beijing Tan Q (ed) (1991) Concise Atlas of Chinese history. China Cartographic Publishing House, Beijing Wang Jing’ai (ed) (2007) Tutorials for geography of China. Higher Education Press, Beijing Wang Yan (2014) The origin, solution and enlightenment of the border issue between China and Russia. Middle Sch Hist Teach Res 1:35–42 Wu Naigong (1988) Study on Confucianism. Northeast Normal University Press, Changchun Yang Liu (ed) (2010) Basic knowledge of the history of the Chinese Communist Party from 2009 to 2013. Hunan People’s Publishing House, Changsha Yun Zhongtian (ed) (2007) The Great Pioneer in Chinese history. China Three Gorges Publishing House, Beijing Zheng Tiesheng, Zhang Xiaoxi (2011) Overview of Chinese culture (Chinese-Japanese bilingual edition). Tianjin Education Press, Tianjin Zou Yilin (ed) (2005) Overview of Chinese history and geography. Shanghai Educational Publishing House, Shanghai

3

Topography and Landforms

Abstract

3.1

China’s terrain is high in the west and low in the east, with a ladder distribution, complex geological structures, and active neotectonic movement. The landforms are divided into mountains, plateaus, hills, basins, and plains, of which mountains and plateaus account for the largest proportion. The major geomorphic units are the Qinghai-­ Tibet Plateau, Inner Mongolia Plateau, Loess Plateau, and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau; Tarim Basin, Junggar Basin, Qaidam Basin, and Sichuan Basin; Northeast Plain, North China Plain and Middle and Lower Yangtze River Plain; Southeast Hilly, Shandong and Liaodong hills. This chapter mainly elaborates the spatial pattern of China’s topographic features and geomorphic structures. It lays a foundation for understanding the formation of China’s geographical environment and the development of regional natural resources.

3.1.1 Geotectonics

Keywords

Mountain landscape · The third pole · The three steps of China’s terrain · Chinese four Plateau · Chinese four Basin · China three great plains

Natural geographical environments are based on landforms. China is a mountainous country with multiple ranges trending in different directions, forming complex intersections with plateaus, basins, and plains. Regional climatic differences interact with tectonic, fluvial, desert, glacial, karst, and coastal processes to shape these landforms.

Landform Patterns

The patterns of Chinese landforms are based on geotectonic structures deep within the Earth, most obviously manifested as mountain ranges following major fault lines or plate boundaries. The basic contours of China’s landscape are therefore directly related to crustal movements that form major structural features such as folds and faults with related uplift and subsidence. One striking feature of China’s tectonic setting is the existence of dense lineaments related to strong crustal activity, such as the Songliao, Tarim, Qaidam, Ordos, and Sichuan Basins. The most developed lineaments tend to be influenced by the intersections of several active tectonic belts. Major geomorphic units tend to follow particular directions and boundaries consistent with major structural features (Fig.  3.1). For example, the Helan, Liupan, and Hengduan Mountains, which run from north to south, divide China into major eastern and western regions that have obvious differences in geological structure and landforms. Most major western landforms are aligned N-W or E-W, while most eastern landforms are aligned NE or NNE, with some local E-W mountains (Table 3.1).

3.1.1.1 Outline of China’s Geotectonic Structure Two important factors have influenced the development of China’s geotectonic structure: (1) tectonic interactions between the Indian subcontinent and Asia, developing features in an E-W orientation, and (2) the junction between continental and oceanic crust along the western Pacific margin, developing features in an NNE orientation. Interactions

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Wang et al., The Geography of Contemporary China, World Regional Geography Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04158-7_3

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between these two helped create China’s complex features and strong geologic divisions between the east, west, north, and south (Fig. 3.1).

3  Topography and Landforms

The Chinese platform is divided into the North China, Tarim, and Yangtze platforms, whose distribution is controlled by the aforementioned structures, such that the North

Fig. 3.1  Basic tectonic structure of China. (Source: Editorial Committee of Physical Geography of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1985)

3.1  Landform Patterns

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Table 3.1  Comparison of major geotectonic and landform features between eastern and western China Features Crustal thickness

Eastern Increases from 30 km in the east to 50 km in the west

Crustal stability

Considered a massif-­ dominant stable area

Dominant lineament directions

NE to NNE

Western 50–70 km thick in Tibet; the area south of the Kunlun Mountains boasts the thickest crust in the world. 55–60 km thick in the fault-block region north of the Kunlun Mountains Largely composed of geosynclinal fold belts with strong tectonic disturbance, except for some more rigid and stable intermediate massifs NW to NWW dominant, becoming N-S in southeastern Tibet, western Sichuan, and western Yunnan More developed fractures, densely distributed, with wide extent Very strong, creating major topographical relief over a wide range of elevations

basins, Fenwei and Hetao faulted basins, and the huge North China-Bohai continental margin basins. The Tarim platform is a diamond-shaped block between the Tianshan and Kunlun Mountains, formed 800  million years BP.  Much of this platform is covered by Cenozoic strata, except for some areas where pre-Sinian metamorphic basement rocks and Paleozoic sedimentary strata are exposed. The Yangtze platform was formed at the same time as the Tarim platform. Its western boundary follows the Longmenshan and Jinshajiang-Honghe deep fault systems, its northern boundary follows the Qinling fold system, and its southeastern boundary follows the Nanpanjiang, Xupu-­ Sibao, and Jiangshan-Shaoxing deep fault systems of the South China fold system. The Paleoproterozoic basement rocks that constitute the Yangtze quasi-platform are mostly exposed along the platform’s edge, while the central portion is covered by well-developed sedimentary rocks.

3.1.1.2 Evolution of China’s Geotectonic Structure Although pre-Mesozoic crustal movement is not directly related to modern landforms, China’s continental crust Generally relatively Vertical evolved from the Paleozoic onward through multiple tecweak except for movement northern China, since the tonic movements (Fig.  3.2). Prior to the Sinian (680– producing mostly minor Neogene 543 Ma), most of what is now China was occupied by the topographic relief at ocean and the crust was considerably unstable. Extensive relatively low elevations tectonic movement consolidated the Sino-Korean paraplatLarge basins constrained Landform Plains and plateaus form, Yangtze paraplatform and Tarim platform during the by mountains dominate types dominate north of the north of the Kunlun Qinling and Dabie ancient stage of the Chinese protoplatform’s creation. Mountains, while wide Mountains, while Throughout the Paleozoic, from the Cambrian (543–490 Ma) plateaus and high-­ mountains, hills, and to the Permian (295–250 Ma), tectonic movement was conelevation mountains small basins dominate tinuously reduced and the stable areas of the platform conbordered by deep to the south, with the canyons dominate to the exception of the tinuously expanded, with corresponding reductions in sea south Yunnan-Guizhou area and increases in land area. At this time, except for what Plateau is now southwestern China and Taiwan, most areas (north to Source: Editorial Committee of Physical Geography of China, Chinese Heilongjiang, south to the Nansha Islands, west from Pamir, Academy of Sciences (1985) and east to the coast) became part of the ancient Asian landmass. China and Tarim platforms are aligned E-W while the North The Mesozoic (250–65 Ma) included the Indosinian and China and Yangtze platforms are aligned NE. Yanshanian orogenies, representing a new stage of China’s The North China platform is the oldest, with a triangular geotectonic development. During the former (at the end of basement formed around 1.7  billion years BP.  Its northern the Triassic), strong compression between the Asian contiboundary follows deep fault systems along the northern mar- nent and the Pacific plate initiated intense tectonic activity in gin of the Yinshan Mountains and the Tianshan-Xing’an geo- eastern China along the eastern Sino-Korean paraplatform, synclinal fold zone, its southern boundary follows deep fault Yangtze paraplatform, and South China fold belt. This systems in the northern Qinling Mountains (separated from formed NE-NNE mountain ranges and faulted basins accomthe Qinling fold system by the Queshan-Feidong deep fault panied by extensive granitoid intrusions. system), and its eastern boundary follows the Tancheng-­ The Late Eocene to Early Pleistocene Himalayan moveLujiang and Jiashan-Xiangshui deep fault systems and is ment was the decisive factor in forming the pattern of modadjacent to the Yangtze platform. Its terrain is characterized ern Chinese landforms. This was divided into early and late by high-elevation mountains and basin-plain complexes, phases. The Early Himalayan movement resulted in a strong including the Ordos Mesozoic continental depositional collision along the Brahmaputra suture line between the Deep fracture

Few deep fractures, sparsely distributed

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Fig. 3.2  Tectonic evolution of China. (Source: Wang Jing’ai and Zuo Wei 2009)

3  Topography and Landforms

3.1  Landform Patterns

Indian plate and the Asian continent, during which the Indian subcontinent merged with Asia. At the same time, a rift developed between the eastern China plate and the Pacific plate. Elsewhere, subsidence formed fault basins such as the North China and North Jiangsu basins. The Late Himalayan movement occurred during the Pliocene-Pleistocene (5.3–0.01 Ma). Interactions between the Asian, European, Pacific, and Indian plates created strong vertical movements that increased in strength from east to west, resulting in large-­ scale vertical differentiation within China and creating a broad landform pattern similar to a staircase rising from east to west (Fig.  3.3). The Himalayas and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau experienced major uplift; the rapidly thickened crust here formed the first (highest) step in the staircase. The area between the Greater Khingan Mountains, Taihang Mountains, Xuefeng Mountains, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau lies in a transitional zone with strong extrusion and uplift in the west Fig. 3.3  The three major steps in China’s staircase-like morphology. (Source: Editorial Committee of Physical Geography of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences 1985)

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and expansion and settlement in the east, producing a crisscross or staggered distribution of medium-amplitude uplift and subsidence. The topography in this area is characterized by alternations between high mountains, mid-level mountains and plateaus, and basins that form the second (middle) step of the staircase. In eastern China, tectonic movement was mainly manifested as tension fractures and subsidence, eventually forming the South China, East China, Yellow, and Bohai Seas. A series of medium-altitude fault-block mountains and fault basins initially formed in this region, but ongoing erosion, transportation, and deposition formed the modern landscape of widely distributed flat and hilly land that forms the third (lowest) step of the staircase. In summary, the evolution of China’s tectonic structure was the decisive factor in shaping its modern landforms. During the Paleozoic, the Siberian plate was most active and moved southward as the Asian mainland was consolidated. During the Mesozoic, the Pacific plate was most active as

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3  Topography and Landforms

part of the east Asian Cathaysian tectonic system. During the Cenozoic, the Indian plate was most active, moving northward to collide with Asia and forming Earth’s highest altitude and thickest crustal area (the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau).

3.1.2 Topography 3.1.2.1 Topographical Features China’s average elevation of 875  m far exceeds the world average of 750 m, and land above 1000 m accounts for 57% of China’s total territory (Table 3.2). The average elevation of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which accounts for 1/4 of China’s total area, is 4500 m. Mount Qomolangma, the highest peak in the world, has an elevation of 8848.46 m. In 1717, the surveyors of the Qing Dynasty mapped the area of Mount Everest and named it “Jumlangma Alin,” where Ali means mountain in Manchu. In 1952, the Chinese government changed its name to Mount Everest. Other major differences in elevation between nearby terrain features include the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (4500 m) and the Sichuan Basin (500 m), the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (4500 m) and the Tarim Basin (1000 m), Namjagbrawa Mountain (7756 m) at the eastern end of the Himalayas and the Medog area (700 m) of the Brahmaputra River, Gongga Mountain (7556 m) in the western Sichuan region and the adjacent Dadu River (1600 m), and Yushan Mountain (3952 m) in Taiwan and the Tainan Plain (100 m). The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the source of many famous Asian rivers, including the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. Its general landform is characterized by large plateaus and shallow or dry lake basins bounded and intersected by mountain ranges trending roughly E-W or NW-SE (Fig. 3.4). The average elevation is 4500  m, while the mountains range from 5000  m to 6000  m and above. Internal ranges include the Hoh Xil, Bayan Har, Tanggula, Gangdese, and Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains. To the south are the Himalayas, to the north are the Kunlun, Altun, and Qilian Mountains, and to the east are the Longmen, Min, and Hengduan Mountains. The outer edge of the Plateau reaches the middle of the Greater Khingan, Taihang, Wu, and Xuefeng Mountains, which form the boundary with the second step’s vast plaTable 3.2  Elevation distribution in China by land area Elevation (m) 3000

Area (10,000 km2) 241.7 162.5 174.6 65.3 67.6 248.3

Share of China’s total area (%) 25.2 16.9 18.2 6.8 7.0 25.9

Source: Economic Geography Research Division, Institute of Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences (1980)

teaus, basins, and mountains to the north and east. Along the Plateau’s northwestern edge is the Tarim Basin (1000  m), while further north is the Junggar Basin (below 1000  m); these are separated by the Tianshan Mountains, the tallest range in northwestern China (4000–5000  m). Northeast of the Plateau are the Hexi Corridor and the Alashan Plateau (1500–2000  m). The Longmen and Hengduan Mountains (1000–2500  m) intersect with the Inner Mongolia, Erdos, Loess, and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateaus. The Sichuan Basin (900,000 km2, more than any other country in the world. This landscape has become a tourist resource due to its unique features, drawing visitors to places like the Guilin Scenery with Hills and Waters, the Lunan Stone Forest in Yunnan Province, and the Karst Stone Forest in Guizhou Province (Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8  Distribution of limestone in China of different ages. (Source: Liu Shengjia 1996)

3  Topography and Landforms

Around 200  million years ago, the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau was a marine gulf in which thick layers of calcareous sediment were deposited that would become the region’s limestone. Limestone covers about half of Guizhou, Yunnan, and Guangxi Provinces (~400,000  km2) to a thickness of >35 km, ~70% of the total sedimentary column. These formations were later uplifted by tectonic activity, forming a large plateau 1–2 km above sea level, which was conducive to surficial erosion and dissolution by flowing water. This uplift also created numerous faults, joints, and other structural features that encouraged the formation of “fault lakes” and which allowed rainwater to enter the rock and accelerate underground erosion and dissolution. The plateau’s warm and humid climate supports luxuriant vegetation growth. Along with high carbon dioxide production, these plants produce abundant acidic compounds through root secretions and decomposition. These combine with the abundant surface water and groundwater to dissolve

3.4  Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau

the carbonate rocks, especially along surficial fissures. Where such fissures are vertical, funnel-shaped pits are gradually formed that slowly expand until contacting each other, leaving behind isolated remnant rock pillars. Water reaching underground areas through such fissures can slowly dissolve the rock, eventually creating huge caves. When surface water encounters openings into such caves, it disappears underground to form “sinking” streams that become underground rivers. The result is this region’s distinctly beautiful features, including stone forests, deep caves, underground rivers, and natural bridges spanning valleys.

3.4.1.2 Stalagmites and Paleoclimate Water flowing through limestone contains carbon dioxide that reacts with calcium carbonate (dissolved from the surrounding rock) to form calcium bicarbonate. When such water drips from a cave ceiling, the calcium carbonate is redeposited in upward-pointing cones or pillars rising from the cave floor; these are known as stalagmites and are a common feature in karst landscapes. Stalagmite cross-sections form a series of rings (like a tree), which record differences in the calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide levels over time, such that stalagmites preserve natural chronological records of outside conditions. Starting in the 1980s, researchers began to make serious use of secondary cave deposits for paleoclimate research. For example, carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis of calcite veins in the United States’ Davis Cave and thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) age tests have been used to reconstruct paleoclimate and ancient vegetation up to 500,000 years ago. These structures have become one of the most important geological resources for paleoclimate research.

3.4.2 Guilin Scenery 3.4.2.1 Stone Forests Shilin, also known as stone forests, are groups of tall (20– 50 m) limestone columns that resemble forests at a distance. These are most typical in the Lunan Stone Forest, Yunnan Province, where their unique forms constitute a tourist resource. The Lunan Stone Forest is unique for two reasons: (1) the preservation and display of a much more complex evolution in form than other well-known examples and (2) the formation and preservation of more individual morphological types more than anywhere else. This abundance of morphological and distributional types can be attributed to the local combination of different limestones and dolomites with complex geologic origins. Yunnan Lunan Stone Forest National Park was the first national park announced by the Chinese government in 1982. The Stone Forest in Luonan County has a total area of

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350 km2. Two of the most famous formations, Greater Shilin (11 km2) and Naigu Shilin (8 km2), have been fully developed with tourism facilities attracting 1.5  million tourists each year. The area’s formations have a rich diversity of shape and color that reflect features found globally from tropical to semi-arid to humid temperate zones and have been called a “stone forest museum” by many scholars. The park is also home to thousands of inhabitants, dominated by the Yi and Sani people. The stone forests are associated with a long historical record of these people and their folk customs, adding a layer of cultural relevance to the unique natural landforms and increasing the area’s tourism, educational, and scientific value.

3.4.2.2 Paddy Terraces Terraced rice fields are quite common in hilly areas south of the Yangtze River. Historically, the Hani, Miao, Zhuang, Tujia, and Dong peoples in southern China have integrated slash-and-burn farming with rice agriculture in terraced fields. The Book of the Southern Nationalities states that “The Southern Nationalities are tremendously skillful at cultivating mountainous fields.” Rice cultivation in such terraced fields reached a high level of accomplishment in the Tang Dynasty. These cultures have developed profound insights into the ecological chain linking forests, water sources, and terraced agriculture that informed their methods for protecting forests and conserving water sources. The famous Hani Terraces were listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2013. The Hani people of Yunnan Province’s Ailao Mountain followed the laws of ecology in dividing their macrohabitat into three parts. The upper part of the mountains represented a “divine top” that nurtured countless pools and streams supplying continuous flow year-­ round, which were directed into ditches winding down the hills and flowing into the villages and stockades of the middle portion and the agricultural terraces of the lower portion. The resulting ecological environment allowed rice cultivation on terraces, regardless of elevation, that could be sustained from generation to generation.

3.4.3 Cultural Customs and Practices 3.4.3.1 Ethnic Minorities The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau is an especially ethnically diverse part of China, with a total of 25 ethnic minorities that are mostly exclusive to this region; such diversity is an important aspect of the region’s identity. In Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces, Han Chinese account for roughly two-­ thirds of the total population while ethnic minorities account for the remaining third. The distribution of these minorities has two characteristics in common. First, most ethnic groups live together over

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wide areas while some live in concentrated communities in small areas. Second, the spatial distribution of these groups is influenced by the area’s deep valleys and complex landscapes. In Yunnan, the Bai, Hui, Naxi, Mongolia, Zhuang, Dai, Achang, Buyi, and Shui groups mainly live in  local plains in the hinterland and frontier valleys; the Hani, Yao, Lahu, Wa, Jingpo, Blang, De’ang, Jino, and part of the Yi live in the middle levels of the mountains; and the Miao, Lisu, Tibetan, Pumi, Nu, and Derung live in the high mountains of the northwestern Yunnan Plateau. 13 of these groups live along and across China’s border with Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. Overall, their distribution is staggered: at the same latitude and longitude, different groups may live at different elevations. However, in areas where people live in mixed communities, groups tend to remain within their own villages and maintain their own unique language and customs. The distribution of ethnic minorities in Guizhou is similar to that in Yunnan. The province’s 87 counties all have different proportions, but these groups are most concentrated in the southeast. The Buyi are mainly distributed in southern and southwestern Guizhou within the Nanpan, Hongshui, Sancha, and Caodu River basins. The Dong are mainly distributed in the east, within the Qingshui, Paiyang, and Duliu River basins. The Tujia live in the northeastern Wuling Mountain region. The Yi, Bai, and Manchu live in western Guizhou’s Wumeng Mountain region. The Shui mainly live in Sandu Shui Autonomous County and adjacent areas. The Yao and Zhuang live in the southeast. The Hui are concentrated in the Weining Yi and Miao Autonomous Counties in northwestern Guizhou. Most of the Buyi, Dong, Tujia, Shui, and Miao live in temperate regions with relatively low elevation, where agricultural production conditions are relatively good. However, some of the Yi and Miao live in less ­prosperous alpine zones of the Wumeng Mountains with high elevation and freezing weather.

3.4.3.2 Mountain Culture and Original Ecology The Yunnan-Guizhou ethnic groups, though differing in economic and cultural aspects, are all influenced by their mountainous environment, which directly affects their livelihoods and lifestyles. Many cultural phenomena have a strong mountain influence that can be regarded as a source of harmony between different cultures in the region and marks them as distinct from the national culture and other regional cultures based in plains, grassland, and coastal areas. The saying “living from what the land and sea can give and make good use of local resources” is a vivid and accurate expression of the relationship between people’s livelihoods and the mountains. Since ancient times, most cultures in this region have employed “slash-and-burn” cultivation. People formed settlements centered on local plains that were isolated by the mountains, forming many small entities that

3  Topography and Landforms

were separated from each other and called “creek caves” by the ancients. The traditional model of mountain economies in Yunnan and Guizhou was most notable for “men tilling the farm and women weaving for self-sufficiency,” also called the “creek cave economy”; these people highly valued their homelands and rarely went beyond their villages. These societies, therefore, lacked economic ties with one other, while agriculture, livestock husbandry, and handicrafts were firmly integrated into families and the commodity economy was extremely underdeveloped. Overall, these localized customs and practices of the creek cave economy produced distinctly different cultures within even a 5 km radius, resulting in an extraordinary splendor of diversity within the “symbiotic co-­ prosperity” of the “Thousand Islands of Culture.” One result of this isolated diversity has been a proliferation of rich, colorful, and distinctive handicrafts with individual strengths and styles, such as batik (wax printing), embroidery, ivory carving, paper cuts, silverware, and bamboo weaving. These products developed under specific geographic, historical, and social conditions such that each ethnic groups’ style cannot easily be imitated. Another adaption to these groups’ mountainous environments is found in their buildings, such as the bamboo houses of the Dai, the wooden houses of the Dong, the piling-­ supported dwellings of the Zhuang, the stilt-based houses of the Miao, the big houses of the Dulong, the slate houses of the Buyi, the wood-fronted houses of the Naxi, the soil palm houses of the Yi, and the three-buildings houses of the Bai (which have three room in two stories with a screen wall and a courtyard with five skylights). Forms of public buildings include cableways; rope, bamboo, wood, stone, and sheltered bridges; wells, weirs, waterwheels, and water mills; and specific structures such as the Drum Tower, Dali Chongsheng Temple Pagoda, Jinghong Manfeilong Pagoda, and Lamasery. These are high-value gems of national architecture representing unique ethnic styles and geographical relevance. Most of these peoples’ cultural traditions follow a distinct pattern of linear inheritance rather than variation, forming clear cultural “personalities” that developed in their unique mountain environments with only weak elements of foreign influence. Many cultural phenomena that have evolved or disappeared in the Central Plains, south of the Yangtze River, or in other more developed regions are still preserved in the depths of the mountains. For example, ancient sacrificial ceremonies, exorcising dances, and Nuo (exorcising) opera were once prevalent in the Central Plains as in Hubei Province, but over time these have disappeared elsewhere. However, in Guizhou, there are still quite a few ancient “Cuotunjie (Game of evolution of human beings, Gods and ghosts),” “Nuotang (exorcising) opera,” and “Di Opera (ground-opera)” performed, which can be considered “living fossils of culture.”

3.5  Inner Mongolia Plateau

Each mountain culture is rooted in a specific geographical environment with unique values, aesthetics, and ways of thinking and expression, thus forming a unique cultural system. The most valuable aspect of these cultures is the traditional concept of “harmony between man and nature”, which emphasizes the importance of a healthy ecological environment. Today, as industrialization continues to pollute and otherwise harm the environment, this ancient and simple environmental awareness has become particularly precious, making the cultures of these mountain peoples a treasure of world culture. Their significance lies not only in letting people understand the origin and development of human civilization but also in preserving many vitality-rich cultures and playing an important role in promoting the development of modern material and spiritual civilization. The key to the effective protection of these cultures lies only in their development.

3.5

Inner Mongolia Plateau

3.5.1 Profile The Inner Mongolia Plateau, China’s second-largest plateau, is located in the country’s north (40°20′N to 50°50′N, 106° to 121°40′E). It stretches from the Greater Khingan and Sukexielu Mountains in the east to the Mazong Mountains in the west, and from the Qilian foothills and the Great Wall in the south to the People’s Republic of Mongolia in the north, with an E-W length of 2000 km and an area of 340,000 km2. Its administrative divisions include the western Hulunbuir League, most of the Xilin Gol League, the Ulanqab League, and the northern part of the Bayannur League. The plateau’s landscape is open with moderate relief, being mainly ­composed of the Hulun-Buir Plateau in the east, the Alashan Plateau in the west, and the Ordos Plateau in the south. The area has a very arid climate that accounts for 38% of China’s desert area, including the Badain Jaran, Tengger, Ulan Buh, and Kubuqi Deserts. In winter, the plateau is cold under the influence of stable high pressure, with no rain. In summer, it becomes hotter as low pressure builds and attracts southerly winds. However, the tall mountains ringing the area intercept most water vapor carried by these winds, producing a rain shadow effect and keeping conditions dry. This area is also China’s largest natural pastureland.

3.5.1.1 Geology and Geomorphology The Inner Mongolia Plateau has a general elevation of 1000– 1200 m, tending to be higher in the south and descending to form an E-W lowland in the north with a minimum elevation of ~600 m. Intermittent dry-eroded remnant hills occur along the China-Mongolia border with a local height of ~100 m. Overall, the plateau’s ground has a distinctly planar surface

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due to past erosion, being broad and level with only minor variations in local elevation. Windblown sand is widespread, leading to its ancient name of “Hanhai” (Big Desert). The region was uplifted by tectonic activity, with large-scale basalt eruptions filling low-lying areas and forming stepped lava platforms with slight undulations that are widely distributed in the eastern plateau. Five planar surface levels can generally be defined on the plateau, forming a layered effect in the landscape. The Gobi desert and sandy land areas are slightly arc-shaped from northwest to southeast. The northwest plateau is gravelly Gobi, the southeastern is sandy Gobi, and the central and southeastern are submerged sand (Fusha) and exposed sand (Mingsha). The submerged sand (Fusha) belt is distributed along the northern foot of the Yinshan Mountains and the western foot of the Greater Khingan Mountains, connected intermittently in an arc shape. The exposed sand (Mingsha) belt mainly covers the Bayingobi, Hailisi, and Baiyinchagan Deserts as well as the Hunshandake, Wuzhumuqin, and Hulun-Buir Sandy Lands.

3.5.1.2 Climate and Hydrology The Inner Mongolia Plateau has a weak wet summer monsoon and strong dry winter monsoon and an overall dry climate with a cold winter and plentiful sunshine. The average annual temperature is 3–6 °C, higher in the west and lower in the east. In January, the average temperature is −28 to −14 °C, reaching as low as −50 °C. In July, the average temperature is 16–24  °C, though hot weather rarely occurs. During the forage growing season, the temperature is >10 °C and the active accumulated temperature is 2000–3000 °C. The plateau has an annual total solar radiation of 500–670 kJ/cm2 and annual sunshine of 2600–3200  h, ranking among the highest of any region in China. In terms of annual precipitation, the eastern plateau receives more rains than the west (150–400 mm), and 70% of all rainfall occurs between June and August with substantial interannual variability. The plateau is one of the windiest areas in China, with an average annual wind speed of 4–6  m/s that increases from east to west. Windstorm days above Grade 8 range from 50 to 90 day annually, with 60% of such days occurring in winter and spring. Wind speeds of 6–7 m/s can be sufficient to start sand transportation. The western plateau experiences sandstorms for 10–25 day annually. Frequent and intensive wind is hazardous to animal husbandry but is an important driving force on the plateau. There are no large rivers within the plateau. What rivers do exist developed along disc-shaped depressions formed by flexing action and are mostly intermittent with no flow in spring and torrential flow during the rainy season. Some rivers disappear halfway along their length, with larger rivers ending in lakes with no outlet. The plateau has many lakes of different forms, including wind erosion lakes, seasonal lakes,

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and tectonic lakes. Most tend to be small with shallow water, some merely seasonal wetlands. Only two lakes (Dalai and Buir) have areas >500 km2; these are shared by China and Mongolia.

3.5.1.3 Soil and Vegetation The eastern edge of the Inner Mongolia Plateau has soils typical of forested grasslands, while the internal eastern region has typical grassland soils; to the west, these transition to desert calcic soils and pure desert soils at the far western edge. Grassland covers 80% of the plateau’s area, forming part of the Eurasian temperate grassland zone. The plant species are dominated by temperate herbaceous plants, especially tussock grass, followed by rhizomatous grass, miscellaneous grasses, drought-tolerant shrubs, and small halfshrubs. The composition, height, coverage, yield, and nutrient composition of the plateau’s grassland also changes from east to west. Forage grasses in the forest steppe zones are tall and dense with many species. The height of the grass sward is 50–60 cm and the coverage is 65–80%. The forage grass height in the typical steppe zone ranges from 30 to 40  cm with a coverage of 35–45%, dominated by forage grass. Forage grass in the desert steppe zone is low and sparse, with a grass sward height of 10–15 cm and a coverage of 15–25%. Drought-tolerant shrubs, tussock grasses, and small half-­shrubs play the role of protoplasia. Small half-shrubs have a clear advantage in the desert zone, where the grass sward height is 15–50  cm with a coverage of 5–10%. 3.5.1.4 Residents The average population density of the Inner Mongolia Plateau is only three people/km2, primarily composed of the Mongolian, Daur, Ewenki, Oroqen, and Han ethnic groups with long histories of animal husbandry in the region. Local breeds, including Sanhe horses, Sanhe cattle, and Inner Mongolian sheep, are well-known at home and abroad. Before the 1950s, herdsmen lived a nomadic life in search of water and grass, and animal husbandry was relatively primitive. Since then, the amount of livestock has grown rapidly, and conflicts between the demand for more livestock and limited grassland forage have intensified. The region’s grasslands are also rich in medicinal herbs such as Licorice, Astragalus, Red paeonia, and Ephedra and >70 kinds of mineral resources such coal, iron, niobium, and rare-earth ores. Hailar City, the location of the Hulunbuir League government office, is the largest industrial center in the plateau. The Yimin River coalfield in the south of the city is one of the five largest open-pit mines in China.

3  Topography and Landforms

3.5.2 China’s Pasture The Inner Mongolia Plateau’s 880,000 km2 of grassland represents China’s single largest pastoral area (25% of the country’s total), stretching eastward from the Greater Khingan Mountains to Ejina Gobi in the west. Nearly 1000 kinds of grasses grow in this region. Its 40 million head of livestock rank first in China, beef and mutton output ranks second, milk production ranks fourth, and sheep wool, goat hair, and camel hair output rank first. Changes in precipitation level from west to east result in different types of grasslands and livestock products. The forage grasses of the eastern forest steppe zones are large and dense, producing 3–4.5 t/ha of fresh grass that is rich in carbohydrates and suitable for raising cattle and horses. Typical central grassland areas produce 1.5–3 t/ha of fresh grass with a higher protein content, and are thus China’s largest sheep and goat grazing areas. Forage grasses in the desert grassland belt are low and sparse, producing only 0.75–1.5 t/ha of fresh grass, but high fat and protein content suitable for sheep and goat herding. The desert zones’ small half-shrubs have poor forage quality with high ash content, thorns, and salts, yielding 220 W/m2). This peak area extends northeastward to the Hexi Corridor and Inner Mongolia Plateau, forming a secondary high-ATR zone aligned NE-SW with values generally 180–220  W/m2 that can be attributed to the region’s high elevation and dry climate. In contrast, the Sichuan Basin and the mountainous areas of Guizhou have far lower ATR (generally 260 W/m2) are centered from the Brahmaputra River to the southern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, while the lowest values

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 J. Wang et al., The Geography of Contemporary China, World Regional Geography Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04158-7_4

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Fig. 4.1  Distribution of annual average total solar radiation flux density in China (W/m2). (Source: Ding Yihui et al. 2013)

(48 °C) (Fig. 4.3). Compared with the annual temperature ranges of other countries at the same latitude, China’s annual difference is larger. This is especially true in eastern China, where isothermal lines run roughly parallel to latitude. China’s mid- to low-latitude location includes vast temperate and subtropical areas. Most of the country experiences

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four seasons; however, some places don’t have four distinct seasons. Southern China has a long hot summer without a cold winter, the Greater and Lesser Khingan Mountains and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have no hot days in summer, the northwestern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau experiences year-round cold weather, and central Yunnan feels like spring year-­ round. In areas that do experience four distinct seasons, spring and autumn become shorter from south to north. China’s annual average temperature follows a pattern roughly parallel with elevation; areas where this is 50). China is rich in wind energy resources, which have great development potential. Areas rich in such resources include When a Station observed an instantaneous wind speed at or above 17.0 m/s, or a visual observation estimated a wind strength reaching or exceeding 8, the wind is called gale. Each day with the occurrence of gale shall be recorded as a gale day.

1 

Shandong, the Liaodong Peninsula, the Yellow Sea coast, the South China Sea coast (west of Nanao Island, Hainan Island, and the South China Sea islands), Inner Mongolia north of the Yinshan Mountains to north of Greater Khingan Mountains, Daban City, Alataw Pass, the Hexi Corridor, the lower reaches of the Songhua River, and the northern part of Zhangjiakou City. Most such areas are in the three-north region in China: northeastern, northwestern, and northern China. China is gradually building and improving seven 10 GW wind power bases in eastern and western Inner Mongolia, Hami in Xinjiang, Jiuquan in Gansu, the Bashang Plateau in Hebei, western Jilin, and offshore areas of Jiangsu. Wind power will become an important part of China’s energy and power structure in the future.

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4  Climate and Climate Change

Fig. 4.6  China’s annual precipitation. (Source: Climatological Atlas of the People’s Republic of China Editorial Board 2002)

4.2

General Atmospheric Circulation

4.2.1 Monsoons 4.2.1.1 Monsoon Circulation The different physical properties of land and sea (especially in terms of thermal effects) mean that continental areas act as sources of cold air in winter, forming cold high-pressure centers from which cold air spreads to surrounding areas. In summer, land heats rapidly, forming low-pressure centers that draw warm and humid air from the surrounding ocean. This inversion of prevailing winds in summer and winter brings about obvious seasonal climatic changes, forming monsoon circulation. Changes in this circulation are also related to year-on-year changes in the planetary wind system. As China’s huge plateaus rise above the free atmosphere, these can form their own distinct plateau monsoon circulation.

India and eastern China form remarkable monsoon patterns that are divided by China’s Sichuan and eastern Yunnan Provinces. India’s monsoon has a limited impact on China, only affecting Yunnan, western Sichuan, eastern Tibet, and the Brahmaputra River basin. China’s monsoon region can be divided latitudinally into tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones (Fig. 4.9). A cold high-pressure system usually forms over the Asian continent in September, centered in Mongolia, where cold and dry northwesterly or northeasterly winds blow into northern China and then the Yangtze-Huaihe River basin and further south. The winter monsoon strengthens monthly, peaking in January. As the average elevation of the Qinghai-­ Tibet Plateau is >4000 m, cold air has difficulty crossing it, such that the winter monsoon flows along the eastern side of the plateau into eastern China. This often shifts southward with cold fronts, with many windy and sunny days in northern China, passing slowly along the Yangtze-Huaihe River

4.2 General Atmospheric Circulation

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Fig. 4.7  China’s major precipitation zones. (Source: Wu Shaohong et al. 2005)

basin and further south, occasionally with moderate to heavy rain. In the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, a stationary front often develops that produces many rainy days. In April and May, the temperature in mainland Asia rises rapidly, forming a thermal low-pressure system centered on the west side of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Warm and humid airflow diverging from the Pacific subtropical high spreads north from the southeastern coastal areas as a southeastern or southern monsoon that is characterized by a hot, humid climate and thunderstorms. China’s summer monsoon is derived from three sources: (1) the southwest monsoon from the southern Indian Ocean; (2) the southwestern trade winds from northern Australia, which cross the equator through Indonesia or the Malay Peninsula, then meet northeastern trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere in an equatorial convergence zone; and (3) airflow originating from the North Pacific subtropical high. The southeastern and southern monsoon mainly affects eastern China, with the northwest-

ern part of northeastern China and the northern part of Inner Mongolia forming the summer monsoon’s northern boundary. When the summer monsoon encounters cold air from the northwest, a heavy rain belt forms that can last for four months from southern to northern China. The formation and evolution of China’s climate are affected by general circulation (including the monsoons) and seasonal variations. Its basic features include: 1. Obvious wet and dry seasons with four distinctive seasons. The winter, controlled by the northerly monsoon from high latitudes, is dry and windy. The summer, mainly affected by southerly airflow coming from the ocean, is hot, humid, and rainy. The transitional seasons, affected by the interaction of these patterns, alternate between cold, hot, clear, and rainy.

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Fig. 4.8  Distribution of annual gale days in China. (Source: Ding Yihui et al. 2013)

2. Regular beginning and ending of the rainy season. This starts early and ends late in the south and east and starts late and ends early in the north and west. 3. Eastern coastal areas tend to be wet and rainy while west areas are arid; the south is wetter than the north. The quantity and timing of monsoon rains have a profound impact on agricultural production, while causing wide variations between flood and drought conditions. 4. Northern China is dry and cold in winter but hot and humid in summer, with greater annual and diurnal temperature changes than southern China. The temperature and humidity differ greatly between these regions, with greater differences in winter than in summer. 5. In winter, the temperature in eastern China is lower than that of other regions at similar latitudes. In summer, the temperature is relatively higher, but the difference is less pronounced.

4.2.1.2 Effects of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau The large-scale uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the most prominent regional event in China’s environmental evolution since the Cenozoic. The plateau’s rapid uplift not only changed atmospheric circulation patterns within the plateau but also affected the formation of the modern monsoon in the east and exacerbated downdrafts in the northwest, completely changing China’s climatic differentiation pattern and physical geographical processes. It is generally considered that when the plateau’s elevation reached 3000 m, its dynamic and thermal effects on airflow became sufficient to change general circulation patterns throughout East Asia. The uplift of the plateau can be divided into three main stages: (1) uplift from 10–9 Ma corresponded to the formation of the Asian monsoon, (2) uplift accelerated from 3.6– 2.6 Ma, strengthening the winter and summer monsoons, and (3) since 2.6 Ma, the plateau has continued to rise and the variability of Asian winter and summer monsoons has

4.2 General Atmospheric Circulation

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Fig. 4.9  China’s monsoon zones. (Source: Jiang Shizhong 2011)

increased with the winter monsoon strengthening. During uplift, precipitation in mountainous areas along the plateau’s edge increased, while the interior became cold and dry. Most ancient lakes in the interior were converted from exorheic freshwater lakes to endorheic salty lakes. This uplift created three major regions with unique climatic characteristics that became the basis of the macro-natural landscape pattern in China (Table 4.1). The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau acts as a huge obstacle to atmospheric circulation that diverts westerly flow and blocks the transport of warm, humid air from the Indian Ocean to inland Asia, thus greatly aiding the expansion of the winter monsoon further south and increasing the aridity of inland Asia. In the northern part of the plateau, the winter monsoon splits near 95°E; one cold airmass moves along the Altun Mountains into the Tarim Basin, while another moves along the Qilian Mountains to the Hexi Corridor with westerly or northwesterly winds. Subsequent southward movement

forms a channel that intensifies the force of the winter monsoon in the southeast. When the Indian monsoon arrives in the Bay of Bengal and advances northward, it encounters the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and is divided into two parts: one blows westward along the Himalayas and the other flows eastward toward southwestern China, intensifying the role of the southeastern plateau as a channel for water vapor transport that leads to higher precipitation along the plateau’s edge and enhancing aridity within the plateau due to the rain shadow effect. In the western part of the plateau, the winter westerly winds (caused by the southerly movement of the westerly belt) are blocked by the plateau, such that air currents below 3–4 km altitude are divided into two branches. These merge again in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River to form the Southwest Quasi-stationary Front, which causes cloudy and foggy weather in Sichuan.

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Table 4.1  Impacts of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau uplift on regional climate differentiation in China Regional evolution trend Eastern Formation and strengthening of the East Asian monsoon system

Previous conditions Marine and land monsoons, relatively humid

Northwest Climate becomes drier (aridification)

Deep inland, relatively dry; desert, desert steppe, and dry steppe environments

Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Climate becomes colder and drier

Plateau surface