The Chinese Garden Flora: Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora 9782759826995

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Current Natural Sciences

Hongwen HUANG

The Chinese Garden Flora Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora

This book was originally published by Science Press, © Science Press, 2021.

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Science Press, EDP Sciences, 2021

Editorial Committee of This Book

Chief Editor: HUANG Hongwen Associate Chief Editors: LIAO Jingping ZHAN Qingqing ZHANG Zheng Data Analyser: Zhang Yiqi Editors (in alphabetical order): CHEN Hengbin

CHEN Lei

CHEN Ling

CHEN Tao

CHEN Xinlan

CHENG Yajing

DENG Yunfei

DONG Wenke

DOU Jian

DU Ruirui

GAO Zezheng

GAO Qi

GUO Lixiu

HUANG Ruilan HUANG Hongwen

HU Qiming

LI Airong

LI De

LI Dongmei

LI Lan

LI lin

LI Xiaodong

LI Zhaowen

LIANG Zhenxu

LIAO Jingping

LIAO Lifang

LIN Qiaosheng

LIN Qinwen

LIU Hua

LIU Hongmei

LIU Li’an

LIU Xingjian

LU Qiongmei

NI Jingbo

NING Zulin

PENG Caixia

PENG Xiaoming

QIU Zhijing

SU Jianzhong

SUN Guofeng

TIAN Daike

WANG Hui

WANG Shaoping

WANG Zehuan

WEI Qi

WEI Qiang

WEI Yigang

WU Xing

XIA Nianhe

XIE Juan

XIE Siming

XING Quan

XU Bingqiang

XU Mingying

YANG Keming

YANG Leilei

YANG Qiner

YE Jianfei

YE Yushi

YU Qianxia

ZENG Xiaoping

ZHAN Qingqing

ZHANG Jingfeng ZHANG Lehua

ZHANG Li

ZHANG Zheng

ZOU Lijuan

ZHANG Lingling ZHANG Shouzhou

ZHOU Jing

The Chinese Garden Flora is the first integrative ex situ Flora, it will greatly benefit global ex situ conservation and provide needed basics and mega information services to agriculture, forestry, horticulture, as well as environmental and medicinal industries in future. ——HUANG Hongwen (Professor and Former Director, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences; General Secretary, International Association of Botanic Gardens)

For plants, there are many works such as Flora of China, Economic Plant Flora of China in China, but there is no garden flora or ex situ cultivated flora of China. The latter is more closely related to effective conservation of plant diversity and the sustainable use of plant resources, so compilation and publication of The Chinese Garden Flora are of great significance and very importance. ——XU Zaifu (Professor and Former Director, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences)

China has a long history of garden plants cultivation and richest ex situ flora. The compilation of The Chinese Garden Flora will enhance the expansion in depth and breadth of ex situ plant conservation in China and even the whole world. ——Vernon Heywood (Professor Emeritus, Reading University, UK)

The Chinese Garden Flora will provide scientific bases for plant ex situ conservation and in-depth discovery of plant resources under current challenges of global climate changes. ——Stephen Blackmore (Professor and Former Regius Keeper, Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh)

You are fortunate in that you have government support for your cultivated flora project. It is important and has many applications. ——Tom Elias (Former Director, US National Arboretum)

Note: Above are extracted from the meeting minute of International Consulting Meeting on Ex situ Cultivated Flora of China, November 16, 2012, Guangzhou, China.

Preface The mission and function of a botanical garden are plant living collections, botanical research, and public education. Over the past 500 years, as specialized research institutions of botany, the botanical gardens have always played a key role in basic biological research, collections, evaluation, exploration and sustainable utilization of plant resources, especially in assembling and maintaining living collections and discovering sustainable uses of plants for human society. These research activities are the soul of botanical gardens and the backbone of botanical garden development. The trajectory of scientific research of the world’s botanical gardens over the past 500 years is not only a microcosm of the whole history of biological sciences, but also an unremitting pursuit of mankind’s exploration and utilization of plant resources to benefit the development of economy and human society.

Scientific research in botanical gardens The research and discovery based on plant living collections have played a prominent role in the evolution of botanical sciences. Botanical research is the core and soul of botanical gardens. Botanical gardens are generally characterized as “common gardens” for various research purposes. Many plant taxa (species, genera and families) are cultivated and managed in a relatively consistent protocol under similar environmental conditions, which inspired many great scientists towards numerous theoretical and scientific discoveries and epochal change of early studies of plant classification, taxonomy, floristic studies, flora compilation, biogeography, etc. (see Chapter 1 for details). As the origin of plant taxonomy research, botany had a long historic origin that stemmed out from ancient Greece. Known as the Father of Botany, Theόphrastos (371 BC–287 BC), ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, established the original concept of botany. However, modern plant taxonomy is a product of the European Renaissance. In the early days of modern botanical research, the botanical gardens played a crucial role. For example, Luca Ghini (1490–1556), a famous naturalist and botanist, invented the specimens that were made from live plants and was credited with establishing the first herbarium in the world as the first director of Pisa Botanical Garden in 1544. Carl Linnaeus, the director of Uppsala Botanical Garden from 1741 to 1778, introduced the binomial nomenclature in 1753 in his Species Plantarum, which is recognized as the beginning of modern plant systematic nomenclature, and created a unified biological nomenclature and made original disordered cognition of the plant world in order. Botanical gardens in the 18th–19th centuries landmarked many events. A group of botanical garden directors and well-known botanists made great contributions to plant taxonomy and published many important monographs on families, genera and Flora. For example, the Swedish botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778–1841), director of Montpellier Botanical Garden in France, established a natural classification system of hundreds of plant families, and created the word “Taxonomy”. He was also the founder of natural classification system of “class” rank. The milestone of botanical gardens’ contribution in plant taxonomy is the Engler system founded by Adolf Engler (1844–1930) in Berlin Botanical Garden, Germany, which is still widely used in many herbaria around the world, known as the “plant taxonomy system from botanical gardens”. As innovative research platforms of basic biology, botanical gardens have made indelible contributions to scientific discoveries of biology and the establishment of theoretical systems since 18th century. For example, Augustin Pyramus de Candolle developed the concept of circadian rhythm or “biological clock”, and the concept of “natural war” for bio-origin and evolution. John Stevens Henslow (1796–1861) of Cambridge University, the

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The Chinese Garden Flora—Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora

supervisor and mentor of Darwin, designed the Cambridge Botanical Garden for both scientific verification and botanical teaching of biological hypothesis. During Darwin’s studying at Cambridge University, he was called the “shadow” of Prof. Henslow. They often walked together on campus discussing scientific questions. It was Henslow who recommended the young Darwin to take the global expedition of Beagle, and with Henslow’s thoughts of speciation, Darwin boarded the Beagle and made the five-year scientific expedition. There is no doubt that Henslow’s enlightenment and subsequent guidance were crucial to Darwin’s evolution theory during his stay in Cambridge Botanical Garden. Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911), one of the pioneers of the global botanical expeditions, launched botanical expeditions and collections in Antarctica, South Pacific, Himalayas, Indian subcontinent, southern Asia and Palestine, North Africa-Morocco and the western United States, which led to the discovery of many new species and made important contributions to the garden plants introduction to Europe. He also contributed greatly to floras of many other countries and regions, such as the epoch-making works Flora of British India, Flora of Antarctica, Handbook of New Zealand Flora, Niger Flora, Student’s Flora of the British Isles, and Handbook to the Ceylon Flora, etc. He and Bentham edited Handbook of the British Flora which established the formulation and standard of compiling flora that was used for more than 100 years. Lourens Baas Becking (1895–1963), famous Dutch botanist, microbiologist, director of Leiden Botanical Garden in the Netherlands, and director of Bogor Botanical Garden in Indonesia, originated the Baas-Becking hypothesis (1934) that “everything is everywhere, but the environment selects”, which so far has been still widely cited by many microbiologists. As the center of plant introduction, botanical gardens activated crop plants introduction, re-domestication and utilization across continents, regions and countries, which profoundly changed the world economic and social pattern and affected the rise and fall of many countries. Since the end of the 15th century, botanical gardens have played a major role in the introduction and domestication of crop plants. Botanical gardens, first established in Mediterranean coastal countries, are key to the introduction of major food plants and various crops into Europe. For example, Padua Botanical Garden, established in 1545, Italy, began to collect plants on a large scale since 1546, with 1800 species recorded at that time, including maize, potato, tomato, pepper, sunflower, green beans and many other plants from South America. These first botanical gardens were important bases for the introduction and re-domestication of food and crop plants in Europe. In the 16th–18th centuries, the introduction and re-domestication of crop plants in Mediterranean countries led to evolutionary changes of agricultural pattern and natural vegetation, and even changed agricultural, ecological and cultural landscape in southern Europe. In >200 years before the European industrial revolution in the 18th century, introduction and re-domestication of crop plants in Mediterranean countries had a profound impact on modern European civilization. From exploration and collection of plants to establishment of modern plant taxonomy and other disciplines, from the curiosity of exotic plants to changes of large-scale plantations and agricultural production, from changes of food crops production to changes of diet culture, introduced plants had completely changed the economy, social and cultural history of Europe. It’s hard to imagine a European meal nowadays without tomatoes and potatoes. Moreover, expansion of European colonialism in the 18th century gave birth to the rise of botanical gardens in Northern and Western Europe, and plant introduction and collection gradually became a mainstream, further promoting the collection of plants and botanical discovery in America, Africa and Asia. A large number of new plants have been introduced into Europe, while botany has become an independent discipline. For example, Royal Botanical Garden—Kew and Edinburgh and James Veitch & Sons sent or funded a large number of botanists to carry out expeditions and collections, such as David Douglas (1799–1834) hunted Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in North America; Robert Fortune (1812–1880) hunted Chinese tea; Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911) hunted Rhododendrons in Himalayan mountains; and Ernest Henry Wilson (1876–1930) hunted Davidia involucrata and Meconopsis in China. Furthermore, collecting activities of western plant hunters also made botanical gardens as windows for horticultural display, which in turn stimulated the development of European horticultural and nursery industries. As the center of plant ex situ conservation and biodiversity research, the advantage of numerous plant

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species cultivated in the botanical garden is obvious. The botanical garden has become an ideal place and platform for biological research coping to global climate changes. Botanical gardens will still play a vital role in macro- and micro-plant biology research, as well as many other areas in the mega data era. First, in macrobiological fields of plant science, as the origin and focal point of plant taxonomy, botanical gardens have incomparable advantages for comparative or contrastive studies. For example, nowadays comparative floristic geography, comparative phylogeny, comparative functional physiology, and comparative adaptive evolution can still be focuses of research deployment in botanical gardens. The wide spectra of cross-genera, cross-flora and cross-habitat collections of living plants and controllable cultivation owned by botanical gardens provide special convenience for researches in biology, secondary metabolism biology, phytochemistry, epigenetics and other frontier disciplines. Most importantly, botanical gardens played and will be playing a leading role in the global plant inventory, cataloguing, documenting and diversity research. They will also be important research base for ex situ plant conservation and restoration/recovery of threatened and endangered plants. Second, in microbiological fields of plant science, many microbiological researches that rely on the real-time sampling and dynamic analyses of living materials can be effectively supported in botanical gardens. For example, chromosome research in cytogenetics usually needs real-time sampling to do the real-time analysis of mitosis and dynamic changes of chromosomes. Advantages of botanical gardens become more obvious especially in large-scale cross-family and across-genus comparative studies of chromosome behaviors of different plant taxa, and in embryology, cytology, population genomics, metabolomics and other related studies. Third, mega data and omics are becoming focuses and trends. Botanical gardens, as hub of basic biological data accumulated in the long term and research center of basic botany, will create a digitalized world of their living collections and herbaria. It can be foreseen that the construction of today’s botanical garden’s mega data platforms will promote the development of botanical research towards “Integrative Biology”. Multilevel data mining platform in genes, functions, patterns, processes, mechanisms and other comprehensive researches will break through existing cognitive limitations, contribute to the global online database and basic data sharing, and simultaneously support the data mining of mega data platforms for various macro- and microbiological researches, thus showing broad prospects and great vitality. Finally, against the background of global climate change, opportunities and challenges facing biosciences involve many research hotspots and scientific questions. Botanical gardens are not only an important part of global plant diversity conservation, but also important germplasm resources for human understanding of nature, exploring resources and sustainable utilization in responses to global climate changes, such as phenology, restoration ecology, plant migration and geobotany, alien invasive plants, etc.

World garden flora and living collections There are 2118 botanical gardens in the world, widely across different climatic zones and floristic regions. Most importantly they provide habitats for >100,000 vascular plants in ex situ cultivation, accounting for about a third of known world plant species, including many economically important taxa or groups. This ex situ cultivated flora contains an enormous amount of plant diversity in many well documented living collections in different botanical gardens and plays a critical role in the security of plant diversity, and in conservation, sustainable agriculture and other related bio-industries. Overall, Europe has 678 botanical gardens, North America 506 botanical gardens, Asia 499 botanical gardens, South America 173 botanical gardens, Africa 131 botanical gardens, and Oceania 131 botanical gardens, respectively accounting for 32.30%, 23.79%, 23.46%, 8.13%, 6.16% and 6.16% of the total number of botanical gardens in the world. The United States, China, and Australia have more than 100 botanic gardens. The top 10 counties have 56.6% of the total in the world, including the United States, China, Australia, France, India, Italy, Germany, Japan, Russia and Canada. In Africa, there are 131 botanical gardens in 41 countries or regions. African countries with the largest number of botanical gardens are South Africa (22 botanical gardens), Nigeria (18 botanical gardens), but 15 countries have no botanical gardens. Apparently, the lack of capacity of botanical gardens devoted to ex situ flora

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The Chinese Garden Flora—Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora

in Africa and biased distribution of African botanical gardens will hamper ex situ conservation ability to cope with the high risk of rapid loss of plant diversity, especially in many hotspots of plant diversity in Africa. In Asia, there are a total of 499 botanic gardens in 37 countries or regions. Asian countries with the greatest number of botanical gardens are China (161 botanical gardens), India (90 botanical gardens) and Japan (78 botanical gardens). The number of botanical gardens in Asia is impressive, but the disproportionate distribution across Asian countries is still problematic. Many Asian countries with rich plant diversity and a large number of threatened and endangered species are behind of capacity for ex situ conservation and efforts in restoration and recovery initiatives. In Europe, a total of 678 botanical gardens are found in 41 countries. The European countries with the greatest number of botanical gardens are France (90 botanical gardens), Italy (86 botanical gardens), Germany (82 botanical gardens) and Russia (60 botanical gardens). European counties have a long history of botanical garden heritage and well-established capacity in plant conservation, botanical research and plant exploration. In addition, many leading botanical institutions are in Europe, such as Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew and Edinburgh, playing an important role in ex situ conservation worldwide. North America is a continent with the largest number of botanical gardens. A total of 506 botanic gardens are distributed in 25 countries or regions. The United States has the greatest number of botanical gardens (363), followed by Canada (45 botanical gardens) and Mexico (37 botanical gardens). The distribution of botanical gardens in North America reflects the socioeconomic development, instead of rationales of ex situ conservation and capacity for containing the current risk of rapid loss of plant diversity. Given that endemic threatened species should be held ex situ within their original countries and available for ecological or species restoration, the number of botanical gardens in Mexico would be greatly increased, in addition to many plants with crucial solutions to our future agriculture, horticulture and forestry, etc. In South America, there are a total of 173 botanical gardens in 18 countries or regions. Brazil, Argentina and Columbia have the greatest number of botanic gardens, which are 46, 30 and 26 respectively. The number of botanical gardens and conservation capacity are largely under-distributed, particularly in tropic regions with the highest plant diversity and risks of loss of a large number of important species. Many regional hotspots lack active ex situ conservation efforts to rescue threatened and endangered plants, primarily due to socioeconomic situations. In Oceania, Australia has 102 out of 131 botanical gardens in Oceania, followed by New Zealand with 10 botanical gardens. The unique position of botanical gardens in Australia and New Zealand with a great number of endemic plant species in the continent is still undervalued and needs to be re-recognized as a priority of the ex situ conservation as the botanical gardens are the main institutions in this regard. The geographic distribution of the botanical gardens worldwide revealed gaps and challenges of the unevenly distributed garden flora. Recent studies revealed that 91% of recorded accessions and 93% of recorded species are documented from ex situ collections in the Northern Hemisphere, suggesting the bias is largely due to the geographical distribution of botanical gardens and species richness in botanical gardens, including socioeconomic factors and metropolitan population size. The biased bio-geographical distribution of the world botanical gardens will hamper global conservation goals. A recent analysis showed substantial bio-geographic gaps in the representation of living collections, with 93% of species held in the Northern Hemisphere and an estimated 76% of species absent from living collections are tropical in origin. The mass extinction of plant species at present is the greatest challenge to humankind. Living collections ex situ in botanical gardens featured world garden flora not only provide security of rapid loss of plant diversity in the wild but also a comprehensive experimental base for research of specific plant groups. Inventory of world garden flora revealed that gymnosperms are highest covered in garden ex situ cultivation, and 90 out of 93 genera have been brought into ex situ conservation in botanical gardens, accounting for approximately 97% of total genera within gymnosperms. Only a few species of Araucariaceae, Cupressaceae and Podocarpaceae are absent from the botanical gardens. This is consistent with the traditional holding of tree species, particularly

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conifers in the history of botanical garden cultivation. Meanwhile, inventorying world garden flora in Angiosperms revealed that a total of 15,487 genera and 388 families have been brought into botanical garden ex situ cultivation, accounting for 75.3% of the total number of genera documented. However, there are as many as 26,892 species were missing from the botanical gardens of the world, although 8726 or 32.4% of the missing species are yet unresolved. A large number of unresolved angiosperm plants confront taxonomic dilemmas and ex situ conservation efforts. Currently, the large number of taxonomically unresolved species presents challenges to plant conservation both in situ and ex situ. Inclusion of all species of plant groups into botanical garden conservation should be encouraged for both taxonomic research and purposes of conservation to impede rapid loss of plant species in facing current Earth’s sixth mass extinction. Pteridophytes in the world garden flora are not as much coverage as that of angiosperms, with a total of 538 genera and 47 families held in botanical gardens, accounting for 69.3% of total genera within pteridophytes. One problem facing pteridophytes ex situ conservation in botanical gardens is that a high percentage of unsolved species involved, which made uncertainty for the conservation status of approximately 2000 species. Bryophytes were not historically attention for botanical garden collections, mostly because of not adequate research information and cultivation techniques available except taxonomic documentation. Therefore only 17.4% of known genera of bryophytes are presented in botanical gardens’ ex situ conservation. Obviously, in centuries of botanical garden development, the purposes and capacity built within the world botanical garden community have not quite fitted into current conservation needs to rescue the rapid disappearance of plant diversity. Traditional skills within the botanical garden community are mostly towards high vascular plants. It has been badly behind of cultivation skills for non-vascular, such as moss and lichen. Furthermore, botanic gardens should be more aggressively responding to the threat of species extinctions because of currently housing at least 13,218 species at risk of extinction, equating to just over 41% of the world’s known threatened flora.

Ex situ Flora of China There are 161 botanical gardens in China (Figure 1), holding ca. 20,000 species in China. Ex situ Flora of China is a new initiative for the garden cultivated flora to address plant diversity conservation and germplasm discovery for sustainable agriculture and the bio-industries. Initiated in 2012, the project aims to catalogue and document the mega-diversity of plants that are currently cultivated in Chinese botanical gardens. The concept of Ex situ Flora of China is to build a brand new formulation for species found in living collections, rely on botanical garden cultivated individuals and populations to obtain better morphological descriptions, and provide multi-purpose applicability and a fundamental data service. Ex situ Flora of China emphasizes integrative information accurately collected from living collection across different botanical Chinese gardens, on biology, phenology, cultivation requirements and uses of plant germplasm, which are normally not available from traditional floras based on herbarium specimens. So in this way, the ex situ flora will provide better information coverage for taxonomy, biological and introduction and collection data, and color photos of the stem, leave, flower, fruit and seed, as well as useful information of cultivating protocols and main uses of each plant. In practice, the Ex situ Flora of China will provide significant support to botanical research and plant germplasm discovery and sustainable use. ① It will enhance taxonomic research with common garden-based living specimens, which are of crucial importance for both adequate and accurate descriptions and the delimitation of difficult taxa whereas traditional taxonomic revisions were based on herbarium specimens; ② It will support comparative biology and frontline plant science research. With increasing awareness of environmental and habitat changes in overall context of climate change on plant distributions in situ, the Ex situ Flora will provide intensive plant biological information from different gardens across a wide spectrum of different latitudes, regional climates and habitats in relation to the research on plant adaptive evolution,

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The Chinese Garden Flora—Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora

migration and distribution shifts and physiological or/and biochemical changes, etc.; ③ It will strengthen germplasm discovery and sustainability of plant resource, which should enhance the current programs in medicinal, industrial bio-energy, landscaping and ornamental plants, new functional fruits and vegetables and environmental meliorating plants, etc. The Ex situ Flora of China will include ca. 300 families, >3000 genera and approximately 16,000–20,000 species from ex situ living collections. Since the Ex situ Flora of China is a long-term project, the three-phase outputs of project have been planned and implemented. The checklist of ex situ cultivated plants in China was the first phase output and was published in 2014 as a benchmark species list of the project. The second phase of the three planned outputs of the Ex situ Flora of China was the 13-volume Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora which were completed and published by 2017. The encyclopedia aimed to concisely format each species with brief text description and color photographs from living collections so as to illustrate the main features of each species. The contents mainly include the Chinese name, Latin name, brief text of identification feature and an on-site photograph of the living plant. However, in view of long history and original records of ex situ living collections, some entries are not synchronized with updated taxonomic revisions, so that the editorial strategy of encyclopedia has been insisting on the principle of “respect historical facts and advance with the times”. Some taxa have reasonably been adjusted and combined according to updated revisions of systematics. The Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora includes one volume for pteridophytes and gymnosperms and 12 volumes for angiosperms, all arranged in alphabetical order by the Latin name of families. In each volume, each family is also arranged alphabetically by the Latin names of genera and species. For convenience, all books are indexed by Chinese plant names and Latin names. A total of 16,226 species belonging to 311 families and 3168 genera are included in the encyclopedia. The third phase is the core component of the project, Ex situ Flora of China. So far, sixteen family volumes have been published (Table 1). These sixteen out of approximately 80 volumes in the 15–20 years or even longer time frame have been considered pioneer volumes and trials of compilation formats. Many lessons have been learned that will lead to better understandings of status and facing problems of ex situ flora and garden living collections so that implementations of other volumes of the Ex situ Flora of China can be better organized in the future. Table 1 Information in the published volumes of Ex situ Flora of China Volume

Participating botanic gardens

Numbers of families

Numbers of genera

Numbers of species

Magnoliaceae

10

1

11

147

Myrsinaceae

6

1

6

90

Melastomataceae

9

1

16

40

Euphorbiaceae

6

1

58

176

Zingiberaceae

6

1

20

149

Acanthaceae

16

1

45

152

Aloe (Liliaceae)

8

1

1

180

Desert plant

2

30

79

133

Hamamelidaceae

9

1

17

53

Begoniaceae

4

1

1

173

Cactaceae

7

1

57

186

Urticaceae

4

1

14

101

Iridaceae

6

1

11

73

Lauraceae

10

1

18

112

Theaceae

8

1

11

112

Caprifoliaceae

16

2

16

165

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The Ex situ Flora of China is the multi-decade project. Although project initiation and progress in early phases were promising and have attracted much interest from both the botanical field and botanical gardens communities as well as the public, the project is still facing many challenges. Nevertheless, the Ex situ Flora of China is the first integrative ex situ flora and will greatly benefit global ex situ conservation and provide basic and mega information services to agriculture, forestry, horticulture and medicinal industries in the future. The financial support from the National Science and Technology Infrastructure Program of China “Compilation of Ex Situ Cultivated Flora of Botanical Gardens” (2015FY210100) and Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Ecology and Environment (No. 8-3-7-20-10) are gratefully acknowledged. HUANG Hongwen June 2020

Contents I Overview of Botanical Garden Based Research.......................................................................................................... 1 1 Botanical gardens and significance of plant living collections on biological discovery .................................. 1 1.1 Linnaeus and taxonomy .......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Henslow and Darwin on speciation and evolution............................................................................................. 2 1.3 Augustin Pyramus de Candolle on the concept of circadian rhythm or chronobiology ............................. 3 1.4 Hooker & son and Kew Gardens ........................................................................................................................... 3 1.5 Baas-Becking hypothesis and Leiden Botanical Garden ................................................................................... 4 2 Typical research activities in the history of botanical gardens ..........................................................................................5 2.1 Invention of plant specimens and herbaria .......................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Binomial nomenclature and taxonomy research in botanical gardens ........................................................... 5 2.3 Flora compilation and botanical gardens ............................................................................................................. 6 3 Center of plant introduction, re-domestication and dissemination of crop plants.................................................. 7 3.1 Introduction, domestication and spread of food and other crop plants in Europe in the 16th–17th centuries ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7 3.2 Introduction and spread of crop plants dominated by European colonialists since the 18th century ...... 9 4 Plant ex situ conservation and biodiversity research ............................................................................................... 11 4.1 Macrobiological fields of plant science ............................................................................................................... 12 4.2 Microbiological fields of plant science ................................................................................................................ 13 4.3 Research directions of the botanical garden in the age of mega data ............................................................ 13 4.4 Responses to global climate change ..................................................................................................................... 13 II World Garden Flora ............................................................................................................................................................ 19 1 Botanical gardens in the world ..................................................................................................................................... 19 1.1 Africa......................................................................................................................................................................... 20 1.2 Asia ............................................................................................................................................................................ 20 1.3 Europe ....................................................................................................................................................................... 20 1.4 North America ........................................................................................................................................................ 21 1.5 South America ......................................................................................................................................................... 21 1.6 Oceania ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21 2 Living collections and extent of plant diversity of the world garden flora ........................................................ 22 2.1 Inventory of world garden flora in Gymnosperms ........................................................................................... 23 2.2 Inventory of world garden flora in Angiosperms ............................................................................................. 24 2.3 Inventory of world garden flora in Pteridophytes ............................................................................................. 34 2.4 Inventory of world garden flora in Bryophytes ................................................................................................. 35 2.5 Specially assembled living collections ................................................................................................................. 41 III Ex situ Flora of China ......................................................................................................................................................... 46 1 Formulation of Ex situ Flora of China ....................................................................................................................... 46 2 Ex situ Flora of China compared with Flora of China........................................................................................... 49 2.1 Alien plants .............................................................................................................................................................. 49 2.2 Economic and useful plant species ...................................................................................................................... 50

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The Chinese Garden Flora—Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora

2.3 Taxa entry and boundary ...................................................................................................................................... 51 2.4 Passport data ............................................................................................................................................................ 52 2.5 Phenological data .................................................................................................................................................... 52 2.6 Taxonomic system .................................................................................................................................................. 53 3 Progress and outputs ....................................................................................................................................................... 53 3.1 Checklist of ex situ cultivated plants in China ................................................................................................... 53 3.2 Encyclopedia of Chinese garden flora................................................................................................................. 54 3.3 Ex situ Flora of China ............................................................................................................................................. 55 4 Editorial aspects in future .............................................................................................................................................. 55 IV Introduction to Families of Angiospermae ............................................................................................................. 57 1. Acanthaceae 爵床科 ................................................................................................................................................... 57 2. Aceraceae 槭树科 ....................................................................................................................................................... 63 3. Actinidiaceae 猕猴桃科............................................................................................................................................. 66 4. Agavaceae 龙舌兰科 .................................................................................................................................................. 68 5. Aizoaceae 番杏科......................................................................................................................................................... 71 6. Alangiaceae 八角枫科 ............................................................................................................................................... 75 7. Alismataceae 泽泻科 .................................................................................................................................................. 76 8. Amaranthaceae 苋科.................................................................................................................................................. 77 9. Amaryllidaceae 石蒜科.............................................................................................................................................. 79 10. Anacardiaceae 漆树科 ............................................................................................................................................. 81 11. Ancistrocladaceae 钩枝藤科 .................................................................................................................................. 83 12. Annonaceae 番荔枝科 ............................................................................................................................................ 84 13. Apocynaceae 夹竹桃科 ........................................................................................................................................... 87 14. Aponogetonaceae 水蕹科 ....................................................................................................................................... 91 15. Aquifoliaceae 冬青科 ............................................................................................................................................... 92 16. Araceae 天南星科 .................................................................................................................................................... 95 17. Araliaceae 五加科................................................................................................................................................... 102 18. Arecaceae 棕榈科 ................................................................................................................................................... 106 19. Aristolochiaceae 马兜铃科 ................................................................................................................................... 119 20. Asclepiadaceae 萝藦科 .......................................................................................................................................... 121 21. Balanophoraceae 蛇菰科 ...................................................................................................................................... 130 22. Balsaminaceae 凤仙花科 ...................................................................................................................................... 131 23. Basellaceae 落葵科 ................................................................................................................................................. 132 24. Begoniaceae 秋海棠科........................................................................................................................................... 133 25. Berberidaceae 小檗科 ............................................................................................................................................ 138 26. Betulaceae 桦木科 .................................................................................................................................................. 142 27. Bignoniaceae 紫葳科 ............................................................................................................................................. 144 28. Bixaceae 红木科 ...................................................................................................................................................... 147 29. Bombacaceae 木棉科 ............................................................................................................................................. 148 30. Boraginaceae 紫草科 ............................................................................................................................................. 149 31. Bretschneideraceae 伯乐树科 .............................................................................................................................. 151 32. Bromeliaceae 凤梨科 ............................................................................................................................................. 152 33. Buddlejaceae 醉鱼草科 ......................................................................................................................................... 158 34. Burmanniaceae 水玉簪科..................................................................................................................................... 159

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35. Burseraceae 橄榄科 ................................................................................................................................................ 160 36. Butomaceae 花蔺科 ............................................................................................................................................... 161 37. Buxaceae 黄杨科..................................................................................................................................................... 162 38. Cabombaceae 莼菜科 ............................................................................................................................................ 163 39. Cactaceae 仙人掌科 ............................................................................................................................................... 164 40. Callitrichaceae 水马齿科 ...................................................................................................................................... 174 41. Calycanthaceae 蜡梅科 ......................................................................................................................................... 175 42. Campanulaceae 桔梗科......................................................................................................................................... 176 43. Cannaceae 美人蕉科 ............................................................................................................................................. 178 44. Capparaceae 山柑科 .............................................................................................................................................. 179 45. Caprifoliaceae 忍冬科............................................................................................................................................ 180 46. Cardiopteridaceae 心翼果科 ................................................................................................................................ 184 47. Caricaceae 番木瓜科 ............................................................................................................................................. 185 48. Caryophyllaceae 石竹科........................................................................................................................................ 186 49. Casuarinaceae 木麻黄科 ....................................................................................................................................... 188 50. Celastraceae 卫矛科 ............................................................................................................................................... 189 51. Ceratophyllaceae 金鱼藻科 .................................................................................................................................. 192 52. Cercidiphyllaceae 连香树科 ................................................................................................................................. 192 53. Chenopodiaceae 藜科 ............................................................................................................................................ 193 54. Chloranthaceae 金粟兰科 .................................................................................................................................... 196 55. Cistaceae 半日花科 ................................................................................................................................................ 197 56. Clethraceae 桤叶树科 ............................................................................................................................................ 197 57. Cochlospermaceae 弯子木科 ............................................................................................................................... 198 58. Combretaceae 使君子科 ....................................................................................................................................... 199 59. Commelinaceae 鸭跖草科 .................................................................................................................................... 200 60. Compositae 菊科 .................................................................................................................................................... 202 61. Connaraceae 牛栓藤科 ......................................................................................................................................... 218 62. Convolvulaceae 旋花科 ......................................................................................................................................... 219 63. Coriariaceae 马桑科 ............................................................................................................................................... 222 64. Cornaceae 山茱萸科 .............................................................................................................................................. 222 65. Costaceae 闭鞘姜科 ............................................................................................................................................... 224 66. Crassulaceae 景天科 .............................................................................................................................................. 226 67. Cruciferae 十字花科 .............................................................................................................................................. 231 68. Crypteroniaceae 隐翼科 ........................................................................................................................................ 234 69. Cucurbitaceae 葫芦科............................................................................................................................................ 235 70. Cunoniaceae 南蔷薇科 ......................................................................................................................................... 238 71. Cyclanthaceae 巴拿马草科 .................................................................................................................................. 238 72. Cyperaceae 莎草科................................................................................................................................................. 239 73. Daphniphyllaceae 虎皮楠科 ................................................................................................................................ 245 74. Datiscaceae 野麻科 ................................................................................................................................................ 246 75. Davidiaceae 珙桐科................................................................................................................................................ 246 76. Diapensiaceae 岩梅科............................................................................................................................................ 247 77. Dichapetalaceae 毒鼠子科.................................................................................................................................... 248 78. Didiereaceae 龙树科 .............................................................................................................................................. 248

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The Chinese Garden Flora—Introduction to Encyclopedia of Chinese Garden Flora

79. Dilleniaceae 五桠果科 ........................................................................................................................................... 249 80. Dioscoreaceae 薯蓣科 ........................................................................................................................................... 250 81. Dipentodontaceae 十齿花科 ................................................................................................................................ 252 82. Dipsacaceae 川续断科 ........................................................................................................................................... 253 83. Dipterocarpaceae 龙脑香科 ................................................................................................................................. 254 84. Droseraceae 茅膏菜科........................................................................................................................................... 255 85. Ebenaceae 柿科 ....................................................................................................................................................... 256 86. Elaeagnaceae 胡颓子科 ......................................................................................................................................... 258 87. Elaeocarpaceae 杜英科 .......................................................................................................................................... 259 88. Elatinaceae 沟繁缕科............................................................................................................................................. 261 89. Ericaceae 杜鹃花科 ................................................................................................................................................ 261 90. Eriocaulaceae 谷精草科 ........................................................................................................................................ 267 91. Erythroxylaceae 古柯科 ........................................................................................................................................ 268 92. Eucommiaceae 杜仲科 .......................................................................................................................................... 268 93. Euphorbiaceae 大戟科........................................................................................................................................... 269 94. Eupteleaceae 领春木科.......................................................................................................................................... 279 95. Fagaceae 壳斗科 ..................................................................................................................................................... 279 96. Flacourtiaceae 大风子科 ....................................................................................................................................... 284 97. Gentianaceae 龙胆科 ............................................................................................................................................. 286 98. Geraniaceae 牻牛儿苗科 ...................................................................................................................................... 288 99. Gesneriaceae 苦苣苔科 ......................................................................................................................................... 289 100. Goodeniaceae 草海桐科 ..................................................................................................................................... 297 101. Gramineae 禾本科 ............................................................................................................................................... 297 102. Guttiferae 藤黄科 ................................................................................................................................................. 316 103. Haemodoraceae 血皮草科 ................................................................................................................................. 318 104. Haloragaceae 小二仙草科 .................................................................................................................................. 319 105. Hamamelidaceae 金缕梅科................................................................................................................................ 319 106. Hernandiaceae 莲叶桐科.................................................................................................................................... 322 107. Hippocastanaceae 七叶树科 .............................................................................................................................. 322 108. Hippocrateaceae 翅子藤科................................................................................................................................. 323 109. Hippuridaceae 杉叶藻科 .................................................................................................................................... 324 110. Hydrocharitaceae 水鳖科 ................................................................................................................................... 325 111. Hydrophyllaceae 田基麻科 ................................................................................................................................ 326 112. Icacinaceae 茶茱萸科 .......................................................................................................................................... 327 113. Illiciaceae 八角科.................................................................................................................................................. 328 114. Iridaceae 鸢尾科 ................................................................................................................................................... 329 115. Juglandaceae 胡桃科............................................................................................................................................ 331 116. Juncaceae 灯心草科 ............................................................................................................................................. 333 117. Juncaginaceae 水麦冬科 ..................................................................................................................................... 334 118. Labiatae 唇形科 .................................................................................................................................................... 335 119. Lardizabalaceae 木通科....................................................................................................................................... 343 120. Lauraceae 樟科...................................................................................................................................................... 345 121. Lecythidaceae 玉蕊科 .......................................................................................................................................... 352 122. Leguminosae 豆科................................................................................................................................................ 353

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123. Heliconiaceae 蝎尾蕉科 ..................................................................................................................................... 370 124. Lemnaceae 浮萍科 ............................................................................................................................................... 371 125. Lentibulariaceae 狸藻科...................................................................................................................................... 372 126. Liliaceae 百合科.................................................................................................................................................... 373 127. Linaceae 亚麻科.................................................................................................................................................... 386 128. Loganiaceae 马钱科 ............................................................................................................................................. 387 129. Loranthaceae 桑寄生科 ...................................................................................................................................... 388 130. Lowiaceae 兰花蕉科 ............................................................................................................................................ 389 131. Lythraceae 千屈菜科 ........................................................................................................................................... 390 132. Magnoliaceae 木兰科 .......................................................................................................................................... 392 133. Malpighiaceae 金虎尾科..................................................................................................................................... 396 134. Malvaceae 锦葵科 ................................................................................................................................................ 398 135. Marantaceae 竹芋科 ............................................................................................................................................ 400 136. Melastomataceae 野牡丹科................................................................................................................................ 403 137. Meliaceae 楝科 ...................................................................................................................................................... 405 138. Melianthaceae 密花科 ......................................................................................................................................... 408 139. Menispermaceae 防己科..................................................................................................................................... 408 140. Menyanthaceae 睡菜科 ....................................................................................................................................... 410 141. Molluginaceae 粟米草科 .................................................................................................................................... 411 142. Moraceae 桑科 ...................................................................................................................................................... 412 143. Moringaceae 辣木科 ............................................................................................................................................ 416 144. Musaceae 芭蕉科.................................................................................................................................................. 417 145. Strelitziaceae 鹤望兰科 ....................................................................................................................................... 418 146. Myricaceae 杨梅科............................................................................................................................................... 419 147. Myristicaceae 肉豆蔻科 ...................................................................................................................................... 419 148. Myrsinaceae 紫金牛科 ........................................................................................................................................ 420 149. Myrtaceae 桃金娘科 ............................................................................................................................................ 423 150. Najadaceae 茨藻科 ............................................................................................................................................... 427 151. Nelumbonaceae 莲科 .......................................................................................................................................... 428 152. Nepenthaceae 猪笼草科 ..................................................................................................................................... 428 153. Nyctaginaceae 紫茉莉科..................................................................................................................................... 429 154. Nymphaeaceae 睡莲科 ........................................................................................................................................ 430 155. Nyssaceae 蓝果树科 ............................................................................................................................................ 431 156. Ochnaceae 金莲木科 ........................................................................................................................................... 432 157. Olacaceae 铁青树科............................................................................................................................................. 433 158. Oleaceae 木犀科 ................................................................................................................................................... 434 159. Onagraceae 柳叶菜科 ......................................................................................................................................... 438 160. Opiliaceae 山柚子科 ............................................................................................................................................ 439 161. Orchidaceae 兰科 ................................................................................................................................................. 440 162. Orobanchaceae 列当科 ..............................................................................................