The Black Hole in Isaiah: A Study of Exile as a Literary Theme (Forschungen Zum Alten Testament) 9783161568626, 9783161568633, 3161568621

Citation preview

Forschungen zum Alten Testament Edited by

Konrad Schmid (Zürich) · Mark S. Smith (Princeton) Hermann Spieckermann (Göttingen) · Andrew Teeter (Harvard)

125

Frederik Poulsen

The Black Hole in Isaiah A Study of Exile as a Literary Theme

Mohr Siebeck

Frederik Poulsen, born 1984; 2014 PhD; currently Assistant Professor of Old Testament at the University of Copenhagen.

Denne afhandling er af Det Teologiske Fakultet ved Københavns Universitet antaget til offentligt at forsvares for den teologiske doktorgrad. Dekan Kirsten Busch Nielsen København, den 9. juli 2018 Forsvaret finder sted fredag den 29. marts 2019 kl. 13.00 på Det Teologiske Fakultet, Københavns Universitet, aud. 9A.0.01, Karen Blixens Plads 16, 2300 København S. The Faculty of Theology, University of Copenhagen, has accepted this dissertation for public defense for the doctoral degree in theology. Dean Kirsten Busch Nielsen Copenhagen, 9 July 2018 The defense takes place Friday 29 March 2019 at 13.00 at The Faculty of Theology, University of Copenhagen, Aud. 9A.0.01, Karen Blixens Plads 16, DK-2300 Copenhagen S.

ISBN 978-3-16-156862-6 / eISBN 978-3-16-156863-3 DOI 10.1628/978-3-16-156863-3 ISSN 0940-4155 / eISSN 2568-8359 (Forschungen zum Alten Testament) The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbiblio­graphie; detailed bibliographic data are available at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2019  Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany. www.mohrsiebeck.com This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic ­systems. The book was printed on non-aging paper by Gulde Druck in Tübingen, and bound by Groß­ buch­binderei Spinner in Ottersweier. Printed in Germany.

Til Maren

Preface The present monograph was written between July 2015 and November 2017. It was submitted in December 2017 to the Faculty of Theology at the University of Copenhagen for evaluation with the intent of defending it for the doctoral degree (dr.theol.). In July 2018 the Academic Council accepted it for defense. The oral defense will take place in March 2019. I am grateful to the members of the assessment committee Ulrich Berges, Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, and Jesper Høgenhagen for their evaluation and to the series editors of FAT for accepting this work for publication. With the permission of the dean, a number of small errors in the original manuscript have been corrected. The monograph was written thanks to a postdoctoral scholarship from the Independent Research Fund Denmark and its Sapere Aude program. The generous grant has offered me completely undisturbed time for studying the poetically rich and theologically challenging vision of Isaiah, arguably the most exciting book of the Bible. I did not think scholarships like these still existed, but they do, and I am very grateful to have been the recipient of one. My research was carried out at the Department for Biblical Exegesis at the Faculty of Theology, University of Copenhagen. I would like to thank my colleagues for their pleasant and inspiring company over the years. I am grateful to Hermann Spieckermann who first encouraged me to explore exile in Isaiah and Francis Landy who read and discussed an early version of the book. Parts of the initial chapters were written during my research stay at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in the Spring of 2016, and the manuscript was completed during my stay at the University of Bonn in the Fall of 2017. I would like to thank my local hosts, Ronnie Goldstein (Jerusalem) and Ulrich Berges (Bonn), for hospitality and stimulating talks. I am particularly thankful to Sarah Hussell for the excellent effort in proofreading and improving my English. Family and friends have continuously supported and encouraged me during the work on this book. I am most grateful to my wife Maren and our children Johan, Samuel, and Ada for their love and care. Living with you, Maren, is like eating raisin cakes and apples all day long. This book is for you. Frederik Poulsen October 2018

Contents Preface ...................................................................................................... VII

Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 Approaches to the study of exile ................................................................... 2 Recent studies on exile in Isaiah ................................................................... 7 Methodological considerations.................................................................... 13 The structure of the monograph ................................................................... 16

Chapter 1. Entering into the black hole ............................................ 19 1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40 ........................................................ 19 1.2. Entering down into Sheol (Isaiah 5:11–17) .......................................... 29 1.2.1. Isaiah 5:11–17: Text and translation ............................................ 32 1.2.2. Isaiah 5:11–12: Woe to the drunkards who neglect YHWH......... 33 1.2.3. Isaiah 5:13–17: Exile, death, and a ruined city ............................ 35 1.2.4. Summing up ................................................................................ 46 1.3. The hidden God .................................................................................... 47 1.3.1. YHWH’s hiddenness ................................................................... 48 1.3.2. YHWH’s anger ........................................................................... 54 1.3.3. YHWH’s silence ......................................................................... 59 1.4. Conclusion............................................................................................ 66

Chapter 2. Anticipating exile: Oracles of doom ............................. 67 2.1. The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile in the Old Testament .......... 67

X

Contents

2.1.1. Destruction and exile narrated and interpreted............................. 68 2.1.2. Destruction and exile anticipated ................................................. 70 2.2. Exile and vast emptiness (Isaiah 6:1–13) .............................................. 74 2.2.1. The vision (Isaiah 6:1–7) ............................................................. 79 2.2.1.1. Isaiah 6:1–7: Text and translation ................................... 79 2.2.1.2. Isaiah 6:1–4: The sovereign judge .................................. 80 2.2.1.3. Isaiah 6:5–7: The prophet’s reaction and cleansing ......... 82 2.2.2. The mission (Isaiah 6:8–13) ........................................................ 85 2.2.2.1. Isaiah 6:8–13: Text and translation ................................. 86 2.2.2.2. Isaiah 6:8–10: The sending of the prophet and his message ................................................................................. 87 2.2.2.3. Isaiah 6:11–13: Deportation and complete destruction .... 91 2.2.3. Summing up .............................................................................. 100 2.3. Jerusalem is doomed (Isaiah 22:1–14) ............................................... 100 2.3.1. Isaiah 22:1–14: Text and translation .......................................... 104 2.3.2. Isaiah 22:1–4: The besieged Jerusalem and the weeping prophet ............................................................................ 106 2.3.3. Isaiah 22:5–8a: The enemy attack ............................................. 112 2.3.4. Isaiah 22:8b–11: Defense rather than faith ................................ 116 2.3.5. Isaiah 22:12–13: Festival rather than fasting ............................. 118 2.3.6. Isaiah 22:14: Death without forgiveness .................................... 119 2.3.7. Summing up.............................................................................. 121 2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon (Isaiah 39:1–8) ................ 121 2.4.1. Isaiah 39:1–8: Text and translation ............................................ 125 2.4.2. Isaiah 39:1–2: The visit from Babylon ...................................... 127 2.4.3. Isaiah 39:3–4: The prophet’s interview ..................................... 129 2.4.4. Isaiah 39:5–8: The prophetic word of doom .............................. 131 2.4.5. Summing up .............................................................................. 136 2.5. Zion has become a wilderness (Isaiah 63:7–64:11) ............................ 136 2.5.1. Review of history and the confession of sin .............................. 140 2.5.2. Isaiah 63:17–19a: Enemies took control of the people’s land .... 142 2.5.3. Isaiah 64:7–11: Fire has destroyed the temple ........................... 147 2.5.4. Summing up.............................................................................. 152 2.6. Conclusion.......................................................................................... 152

Contents

XI

Chapter 3. Embodying exile: Typological figures ....................... 154 3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme .................................................... 154 3.1.1. Excurses on the figures of Cain and Jonah ................................ 155 3.1.1.1. Driven away from the land (Cain)................................. 155 3.1.1.2. Down into the deep of the sea (Jonah) .......................... 159 3.2. The naked prophet (Isaiah 20:1–6) ..................................................... 165 3.2.1. The literary genre of sign acts ................................................... 167 3.2.2. Isaiah 20:1–6: Text and translation ............................................ 170 3.2.3. Isaiah 20:1–4: Acting out exile .................................................. 171 3.2.4. Isaiah 20:5–6: Consequences for the audience........................... 175 3.2.5. Excurses on other prophetic sign acts about exile ...................... 178 3.2.5.1. Jeremiah’s isolation (Jeremiah 16:1–13) ....................... 178 3.2.5.2. Ezekiel’s departure from his house (Ezekiel 12:1–16) ...................................................................... 179 3.2.5.3. Nebuchadnezzar’s capture of Egypt (Jeremiah 43:8–13) .................................................................... 181 3.2.6. Summing up .............................................................................. 182 3.3. Shebna and Eliakim (Isaiah 22:15–25) ............................................... 183 3.3.1. Shebna ...................................................................................... 185 3.3.1.1. Isaiah 22:15–19: Text and translation ........................... 185 3.3.1.2. Isaiah 22:15–16: Shebna’s transgression ....................... 186 3.3.1.3. Isaiah 22:17–19: The punishment of exile and death..... 188 3.3.1.4. Excurses on parallel stories of exiled individuals .......... 191 3.3.1.4.1. Amaziah (Amos 7:10–17) ............................. 191 3.3.1.4.2. Pashur (Jeremiah 20:1–6).............................. 192 3.3.1.4.3. Jehoiachin (Jeremiah 22:24–30; 2 Kings 24:8–17) .......................................................... 192 3.3.2. Eliakim...................................................................................... 194 3.3.2.1. Isaiah 22:20–25: Text and translation ........................... 194 3.3.2.2. Isaiah 22:20–25: The call and fall of Eliakim ............... 195 3.3.3. Shebna and Eliakim as types for Judean kings........................... 197 3.3.4. Summing up .............................................................................. 200 3.4. Hezekiah (Isaiah 38:1–22).................................................................. 200 3.4.1. Previous studies on exilic imagery in Isaiah 38 ......................... 201 3.4.2. The narrative and psalm in Isaiah 38 ......................................... 205 3.4.2.1. Differences between 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isaiah 38 ..... 205 3.4.2.2. Interaction between narrative and psalm in Isaiah 38 .... 207 3.4.3. Isaiah 38:1–8: Narrative frame .................................................. 209

XII

Contents

3.4.4. Isaiah 38:9–20: The psalm of Hezekiah ..................................... 211 3.4.4.1. The textual form of the psalm ....................................... 211 3.4.4.2. Isaiah 38:9–20: Text and translation ............................. 211 3.4.4.3. The literary form and structure of the psalm ................. 213 3.4.4.4. Isaiah 38:9: The heading ............................................... 214 3.4.4.5. Isaiah 38:10–12a: Removal and isolation ...................... 214 3.4.4.6. Isaiah 38:12b–14: Destruction and complaint ............... 222 3.4.4.7. Isaiah 38:15–17a: Judgment and restlessness ................ 225 3.4.4.8. Isaiah 38:17b–20: Anticipation of salvation .................. 228 3.4.5. Isaiah 38:21–22: Narrative frame .............................................. 231 3.4.6. Summing up .............................................................................. 233 3.5. The suffering servant (Isaiah 52:13–53:12) ........................................ 234 3.5.1. Literary motifs of exile in the servant portrait ........................... 235 3.5.1.1. Isaiah 53:7–9: The servant’s deportation and grave ...... 236 3.5.2. Attempts to identify the figure in the context of exile ................ 241 3.5.2.1. King Jehoiachin in Babylonian captivity ...................... 242 3.5.2.2. The people of Israel in exile ......................................... 244 3.5.3. Summing up .............................................................................. 247 3.6. Conclusion.......................................................................................... 247

Chapter 4. Slavery and captivity: Political and spatial images . 249 4.1. A voice breaking the gap of silence (Isaiah 40:1–2) ........................... 250 4.1.1. Isaiah 40:1–2: Text and translation ............................................ 252 4.1.2. Isaiah 40:1–2: Heavenly comfort replaces heavy punishment .... 253 4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment ................................................... 257 4.2.1. Isaiah 14:1–4a: Slaves become masters ..................................... 258 4.2.2. Isaiah 42:6b–7: Liberating prisoners from dark dungeons ......... 263 4.2.3. Isaiah 42:22: A people robbed and trapped in holes .................. 266 4.2.4. Isaiah 51:13b–14: Fear of the oppressive tyrant ........................ 270 4.2.5. Isaiah 52:1–6: The bond of slavery shall be loosened ................ 273 4.2.6. Summing up .............................................................................. 279 4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH ......................................................... 279 4.3.1. Isaiah 43:1–4: Redemption through ransom .............................. 281 4.3.2. Isaiah 43:14–21: A way out of confinement .............................. 284 4.3.3. Summing up .............................................................................. 293 4.4. Conclusion.......................................................................................... 293

Contents

XIII

Chapter 5. Scattering and dispersion: Geographical images ..... 295 5.1. The motif of scattering in the Old Testament ...................................... 296 5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people (Isaiah 11:11–16) ...... 301 5.2.1. Isaiah 11:11–16: Text and translation ........................................ 302 5.2.2. Isaiah 11:11–12: Redemption and gathering of the dispersed .... 303 5.2.3. Isaiah 11:13–14: Reunification and reconquest ......................... 306 5.2.4. Isaiah 11:15–16: Splitting the river into streams........................ 307 5.2.5. Summing up .............................................................................. 309 5.3. The great shofar shall sound (Isaiah 27:7–13) ................................... 309 5.3.1. Isaiah 27:7–13: Text and translation .......................................... 312 5.3.2. Isaiah 27:7: Did Israel cease to exist? ........................................ 314 5.3.3. Isaiah 27:8–9: Blast away by the wind ...................................... 315 5.3.4. Isaiah 27:12–13: Gathering the harvest ..................................... 320 5.3.5. Summing up .............................................................................. 323 5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock ........................................... 324 5.4.1. Isaiah 40:10–11: The divine warrior and shepherd .................... 324 5.4.2. Isaiah 43:5–7: Brought home from far away.............................. 327 5.4.3. Isaiah 49:9b–12: The returning flock ......................................... 331 5.4.4. Summing up .............................................................................. 334 5.5. Conclusion.......................................................................................... 334

Chapter 6. Blindness and disorientation: Cognitive images ...... 336 6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament ................................. 338 6.1.1. Wisdom-like language in Isaiah ................................................ 341 6.2. The blind and deaf people (Isaiah 42:18–25)...................................... 344 6.2.1. Isaiah 42:18–25: Text and translation ........................................ 344 6.2.2. Isaiah 42:18–20: The blind and deaf servant ............................. 345 6.2.3. Isaiah 42:21–25: Understanding the past ................................... 349 6.2.4. Summing up .............................................................................. 352 6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people (Isaiah 48:1–8) .............................. 353 6.3.1. Isaiah 48:1–8: Text and translation ............................................ 354 6.3.2. Isaiah 48:1–5: Past events announced beforehand ..................... 354 6.3.3. Isaiah 48:6–8: The creation of new events ................................. 358 6.3.4. Summing up .............................................................................. 360

XIV

Contents

6.4. A people that walk in their own ways .................................................. 361 6.5. A vision of renewed divine guidance ................................................... 365 6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds (Isaiah 41:17–20) ............ 368 6.6.1. Isaiah 41:17–20: Text and translation ........................................ 369 6.6.2. Isaiah 41:17: The needy seeking wisdom .................................. 370 6.6.3. Isaiah 41:18–19: Transforming the wilderness .......................... 372 6.6.4. Isaiah 41:20: A complete understanding of YHWH’s acts ......... 375 6.6.5. Summing up .............................................................................. 377 6.7. Conclusion.......................................................................................... 378

Chapter 7. Abandonment and bereavement: Social images ...... 379 7.1. Female imagery and issues of destruction and exile ........................... 380 7.1.1. The lonely woman in Lamentations ........................................... 382 7.1.2. Zion as a woman in Isaiah and the abasement of Lady Babylon 384 7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother (Isaiah 49:14–21) ... 388 7.2.1. Isaiah 49:14–21: Text and translation ........................................ 389 7.2.2. Isaiah 49:14–16: God’s continuous attention to Zion................. 390 7.2.3. Isaiah 49:17–21: Restoration and repopulation of the empty city ..................................................................................... 393 7.2.4. Summing up .............................................................................. 398 7.3. The barren mother shall conceive (Isaiah 54:1–6).............................. 398 7.3.1. Isaiah 54:1–6: Text and translation ............................................ 400 7.3.2. Isaiah 54:1–3: A mother giving birth to innumerable children ... 401 7.3.3. Isaiah 54:4–6: A forsaken and rejected wife is called back ........ 405 7.3.4. Summing up .............................................................................. 409 7.4. Conclusion.......................................................................................... 409

Conclusion ............................................................................................. 411 Bibliography.............................................................................................. 415 Index of References ................................................................................... 437 Author Index ............................................................................................. 465 Subject Index............................................................................................. 470

Introduction Any study of exile in the book of Isaiah has to consider a peculiar contradiction. On the one hand, exile appears to be a central theme in the book; on the other, it is difficult to detect references to it. Francis Landy cogently writes: “Isaiah is all about exile – but in a way it is not about exile at all.”1 While other biblical writings explicitly depict the destruction of Jerusalem and the people’s deportation to Babylon in the early sixth century BCE, Isaiah is apparently silent. At the center of the book where readers would expect to find an account of these traumatic and defining events, there is just an abrupt break and a clear leap in time. Isaiah 39, which concerns the prophet’s encounter with King Hezekiah in the end of the eighth century BCE, predicts the fall of Jerusalem and its captivity to Babylon. The following vision in Isa 40, which seems to reflect a situation at least 160 years later, happily proclaims the end of exile and hope for future restoration. Yet the intermediate period – the exile itself – is not mentioned at all. Why this apparent absence? Hugh Williamson states: “Exile is certainly not characteristic of Isaiah himself.” 2 Although the statement concerns the historical prophet living in the eighth century, it could be seen to cover most of the scholarly engagement with the book as a whole. Isaiah is thought to be about something else. Pervasive themes in the prophetic corpus include YHWH’s protection and glorification of Zion, divine kingship, the issue of justice and righteousness, the inclusion of nations into the salvific realm, and the role of human agents such as the Messiah and the servant. However, even when the theme of exile is concerned, the primary focus lies on Isaiah’s proclamation of release and restoration from it. To many interpreters, so it seems, experiences of exile may historically have shaped the composition and editorial reworking of several passages in Isaiah, especially those found in Isa 40–55, but the book as a whole is about something else. Exile itself simply disappears in the break between Isa 39 and 40. The thesis of the present monograph is that exile in Isaiah hides itself as a “black hole” at the center of the composition and thereby has a decisive influence on the literary structure, poetic imagery, and theological message of the book. The gap between Isa 39 and 40 is like a black hole in space that, by its 1 2

Landy, “Exile,” 241. Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 368.

2

Introduction

tremendous gravity, pulls everything to itself. Even light cannot escape from it. As a result, one can only study a black hole by looking at its effects on the surroundings. In a similar manner, exile conceals itself at the center of the prophetic book. Apparently, nothing happens – there is just a blank space – but something decisive must take place. Exile is such a strong force that it absorbs life, light, and hope and only causes silence, darkness, and death. Therefore, one can only study exile in Isaiah by analyzing events and anticipations leading up to it and subsequent effects and reflections of it. As the first comprehensive treatment, this monograph investigates exile as a literary and theological theme in Isaiah. The following introduction provides an overview of recent approaches to the study of exile in the Old Testament and a review of past scholarly works on this topic in Isaiah to situate the present investigation within the larger field of studies. Then, I offer some methodological considerations and sketch the overall structure of the monograph.

Approaches to the study of exile Approaches to the study of exile

Until the late 1960s, the exile – commonly understood to be the Babylonian exile (587–538 BCE) – was largely seen as a time of degeneration in the development of Israelite/Jewish religion. 3 Julius Wellhausen, for instance, regarded the effects of the exile to be very negative and damaging, introducing an unconstructive period of priestly and legalistic thought. An important challenge to this dominating view, however, was Peter R. Ackroyd’s book Exile and Restoration (1968) and its thesis that the sixth century was a dynamic and creative age for the formation and editorial shaping of much of the Old Testament literature.4 Since the 1980s, a significant shift has occurred and in recent biblical scholarship the exile is studied not only as a historical event or period, but also as a broader social and cultural phenomenon. Three general approaches to the critical study of exile in biblical literature have emerged: historical-archeological, sociological, and literary.5 3 See the informative reviews of scholarship in Ahn, Forced Migrations, 8–27; Kelle, “Interdisciplinary Approach.” 4 Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration. 5 Cf. Ahn, “Exile,” 197, and the headings for grouping essays in Ahn and Middlemas, By the Irrigation Canals of Babylon. A fourth approach would be the reception-historical study of the interpretation of exile in later Jewish and Christian writings. Seminal works in this connection are Michael A. Knibb’s article “The Exile in the Literature of the Intertestamental Period” (1976) and the collection of essays in Exile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Conceptions (1997) edited by James M. Scott. Works that are more recent include the co-authored book From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition (2009) and the dictionary article “Exile” in Encyclopedia of

Approaches to the study of exile

3

The historical-archeological approach attempts to produce a critical and reliable reconstruction of the sixth century, centering on the Babylonian campaigns against Judah, the destruction of Jerusalem and deportation of its inhabitants, and the conditions for those who were deported and for those who remained in Judah. In addition to biblical texts, the examined material consists of archeological findings and Ancient Near Eastern sources and practices, including cuneiform texts from the Neo-Babylonian and Persian periods.6 Hans Barstad’s The Myth of the Empty Land (1996) largely initiated a reassessment of the history and archeology of the period and was soon followed by the collection of papers in Leading Captivity Captive (1998) edited by Lester L. Grabbe.7 A major outcome of this reexamination has been a growing awareness of the discrepancy between the biblical picture of the exilic period and historical reconstructions of it. This is clear in two recent collections of articles: The Concept of Exile in Ancient Israel and its Historical Contexts (2010) edited by Ehud Ben Zvi and Christoph Levin and Myths of Exile: History and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible (2015) edited by Anne Katrine de Hemmer Gudme and Ingrid Hjelm.8 Both volumes stress the literary creativity of biblical authors in their representations of the exile and its effects. Moreover, whereas past scholarship tended to reduce the period to one homogenous monolithic experience, recent works have emphasized the manifold and diverse aspects of this century in Judean history.9 Attention has been drawn to the fact that there were three different instances of deportation in the early sixth century (597, 587, and 582 BCE) which should not be conflated and which deserve equal treatment. Furthermore, Judean communities not only existed in Babylon and Judah, but also in Assyria (following King Shalmaneser’s capture of the Northern Kingdom in 722 BCE), Egypt, and several other places. The sociological approach draws on methodologies and insights from social-scientific disciplines and studies exile as a broader cultural phenomenon the Bible and its Reception (2014). Furthermore, Jörn Kiefer’s Exil und Diaspora: Begrifflichkeit und Deutungen im antiken Judentum und in der hebräischen Bibel (2005) offers a dense lexicographical study of exilic terminology in the Bible and its reception in antique sources. 6 See Lipschits and Blenkinsopp, Neo-Babylonian Period; Lipschits, The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem; Stökl and Waerzeggers, Exile and Return. 7 Barstad, The Myth of the Empty Land; Grabbe, Leading Captivity Captive. 8 Ben Zvi and Levin, Concept of Exile; Gudme and Hjelm, Myths of Exile, 1–4. See also the four essays devoted to historical issues in Ahn and Middlemas, By the Irrigation Canals of Babylon, 9–62. 9 Ahn, Forced Migrations, 27–34; cf. Gudme and Hjelm, Myths of Exile, 4: “There is not one Exile in the Hebrew Bible, there are many, and there is not one interpretation of or portrayal of Exile in the biblical texts, there are as many as there are biblical authors – sometimes even more.”

4

Introduction

across time. The approach is interdisciplinary in nature as it seeks to place the biblical texts in close dialogue with sociological, anthropological, and psychological analysis. This is often done by comparing the experiences of exile reflected in the Bible to contemporary experiences, patterns, and social realities, informed by various modern sub-disciplines such as disaster studies, refugee studies, and trauma theory. A pioneer in this approach is Daniel L. Smith-Christopher. His groundbreaking book The Religion of the Landless: The Social Context of the Babylonian Exile (1989) applies sociological methodology to the study of the exilic period and its literature, and his A Biblical Theology of Exile (2002) relates this concern to larger ethical and theological issues.10 A scholar who has followed in these footsteps is John J. Ahn. His Exile as Forced Migrations (2011) studies the social structures of forced migration. 11 Drawing extensively on contemporary theories of migrations, economics, and generation issues among refugees, he seeks to understand the distinct waves of forced migrations in the sixth century and the exilic experience and identity formation of each successive generation of Judeans living in Babylon. Several essays in the recent volume Interpreting Exile: Displacement and Deportation in Biblical and Modern Contexts (2012) edited by Brad E. Kelle, Frank Ritschel Ames, and Jacob L. Wright likewise examine the biblical experiences in conjunction with the general phenomenon of exile.12 The volume incorporates broader cross-disciplinary perspectives and offers a series of case studies which compare the stories of migration in the Bible with those of modern refugee crises and diaspora communities. The literary approach focuses on the textual representations and expressions of exile in the Bible. The object of study is the literary responses to the exile and its impacts on the poetic and theological reflection of biblical authors. Initially, it is striking to notice that separate books and passages speak very differently about exile and employ a whole range of literary genres, including historiography, laments, hymns, and prophecy. As was mentioned, Peter R. Ackroyd’s Exile and Restoration (1968) stresses the literary activity and creativity of the exilic period. He concentrates on thoughts rather than events and seeks to trace patterns of reflection and religious development in the reactions to the exile and exilic situation by examining the various texts from this period, including Jeremiah, the Deuteronomistic History, the Priestly work, Ezekiel, Deutero-Isaiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and poetic passages.

10 Smith, Religion of the Landless; Smith-Christopher, A Biblical Theology of Exile. See also his retrospective assessment of the development of the approach in Smith-Christopher, “Reading Exile Then.” 11 Ahn, Forced Migrations. 12 Kelle, Ames, and Wright, Interpreting Exile. See also the four essays devoted to sociological issues in Ahn and Middlemas, By the Irrigation Canals of Babylon, 125–89.

Approaches to the study of exile

5

Not surprisingly, subsequent scholarly introductions to the literature of the period share this way of ordering and presenting the biblical material.13 Rainer Albertz’s presentation of the history and literature of the sixth century in Israel in Exile (2003) likewise highlights the large-scale literary activity of this century: “Approximately half of the material in the Hebrew Bible came into being or was substantially shaped during this era.”14 The primary focus of this comprehensive introduction is a detailed examination of the genres and writings assigned to this period, including their literary reconstruction, their political and religious substance, and their socio-historical context. In contrast to Ackroyd’s interest in the development of religious thought, Albertz pays more attention to literary issues of form, composition, and origin. In particular, he emphasizes the role of editorial activity in the formation and reworking of biblical literature. With regard to literary representations of exile in biblical texts, Robert P. Carroll has written two important articles: “Deportation and Diasporic Discourses in the Prophetic Literature” (1997) and “Exile! What Exile? Deportation and the Discourses of Diaspora” (1998).15 While Ackroyd and Albertz stress the exilic period as a dynamic age for the production of literature, Carroll highlights the importance of exile as a literary motif in the biblical corpus as a whole: “The Hebrew Bible is the book of exile. It is constituted in and by narratives and discourses of expulsion, deportation and exile.”16 In the former article, he offers an informative survey of the range of the discourses of deportation, destruction, and return in prophetic texts.17 In the latter article, he considers the relation between the biblical language of exile and the historical events that this language may reflect. Carroll writes:

13

Ralph W. Klein’s Israel in Exile (1979) examines six literary works – “six exilic voices” – and their responses to the theological challenges of exile: Lamentations and exilic psalms, the Deuteronomistic History, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Second Isaiah, and P. More recently, Jill Middlemas’ The Templeless Age (2007) introduces the biblical literature of the exilic century along thematic lines and types of reactions. They include: a lack of future vision (certain psalms, Isa 63:7–64:11, Lamentations, and the Deuteronomistic History), the intermingling of judgment and hope (Jeremiah and Ezekiel), and a turn to hope (Deutero-Isaiah, Ezek 40–48, Haggai, Zech 1–8, and the Holiness Code). 14 Albertz, Israel in Exile, ix. The original German version appeared two years earlier (Die Exilszeit: 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr.) in Kohlhammer’s Biblische Enzyklopädie series. 15 Carroll, “Deportation”; “Exile.” 16 Carroll, “Deportation,” 64; cf. “Exile,” 63: “Exile and exodus: those are the two sides or faces of the myth that shapes the subtext of the narratives and rhetoric of the Hebrew Bible. Between these twin topoi (and their mediating notion of the empty land) is framed, constructed and constituted the essential story of the Hebrew Bible.” 17 Recent surveys of the rhetoric of exile in the prophets include David L. Petersen’s “Prophetic Rhetoric and Exile” (2015) and Cian Power’s “Constructions of Exile in the Persian Period” (2015) and “Images of Northern Exile” (2019).

6

Introduction

Exile is a biblical trope and, whether it may be treated as an event in the real socioeconomic historical world outside the text or not, it should be treated as a fundamental element in the cultural poetics of biblical discourses. It may have historical referents, but it is as a root metaphor that it contributes most to the biblical narrative.18

The main point is that the biblical representations of exile do not need to relate to history at all. The employed tropes may reflect historical events, but they do not have to. In several cases, it is difficult to determine whether we encounter reflections of real experiences or imaginative constructs.19 John Kessler’s article “Images of Exile” (2010) provides a highly informative overview of literary representations of “exile” and “empty land” in the sixth to fourth century literature. 20 Attention is drawn to the centrality of these motifs in biblical literature and the different form and function of them in various writings from the period.21 Martien A. Halvorson-Taylor’s Enduring Exile: The Metaphorization of the Exile in the Hebrew Bible (2011) studies the transformation of exile from geographical dislocation to a symbol of a variety of alienations, including political disenfranchisement and an existential alienation from God.22 She analyzes in depth the use of metaphors for exile in a series of passages from Jer 30–31, Isa 40–66, and Zech 1–8. Samuel Balentine’s article “The Prose and Poetry of Exile” (2012) offers insightful considerations on the significance of various genres for mourning and recording the suffering of exile.23 With regard to the prophetic literature, two recent collections of papers are of relevance. The first one is The Prophets Speak on Forced Migration (2015) edited by Mark J. Boda, Frank Ritchel Ames, John Ahn, and Mark Leuchter.24 The volume draws attention to the recurrent motif of exile-forced migration in Old Testament prophecy. The second is the volume Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature (2019) edited by Jesper Høgenhaven, Cian

18

Carroll, “Exile,” 64. Cf. Gudme and Hjelm, Myths of Exile, 3–4: “the theme of exile in the Hebrew Bible should not only be viewed as an echo of traumatic historical events, but also as a literary theme that is taken up and reworked in a variety of ways by the biblical authors in order to build specific identities and to express ideology.” 20 Kessler, “Images of Exile.” 21 Kessler (“Images of Exile,” 315–47) groups the examined texts in seven sections: 1. Texts favoring the 597 exiles (Jer 24; Ezek 11:14–21); 2. Inclusion of all the Babylonian exiles (Ezek 33:21–29); 3. Exclusion of the Egyptian Diaspora (Jer 40:7–41:18; 42:1–22; 43:1–13; 44:1–30); 4. Full emptying of the land as a result of Israel’s disobedience (Lev 26:14–45; Deut 28:15–68); 5. The Babylonian golah as the sole repository of authentic Yahwism (2 Kings 25:22–26; Ezra-Nehemiah); 6. Full return of those scattered in Yahweh’s judgment (Zech 1–8, Isaiah, Micah); and 7. No exile and no empty land (Haggai). 22 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile. 23 Balentine, “Prose and Poetry.” 24 Boda, Ames, Ahn and Leuchter, Prophets. 19

Recent studies of exile in Isaiah

7

Power, and myself.25 Several of the essays reflect on the language and metaphors that the prophets use to express the experience of exile.

Recent studies of exile in Isaiah Recent studies of exile in Isaiah

Two main factors have shaped past scholarship on exile in Isaiah. First, an important drawback of Bernhard Duhm’s division of the book into three major sections (Isa 1–39, 40–55, and 56–66) was that scholars have approached these sections in almost complete isolation from one another as if they are independent prophetic books. This division has implied that the study of exile in Isaiah throughout the twentieth century in practice has focused on Isa 40– 55 alone. A common assumption has been that these chapters should be assigned to an anonymous sixth-century author – “the Great Prophet of the Exile” – who lived among the Judean exiles in Babylon and addressed their needs.26 Second, the frequent observation that Isa 40–55 from the very outset looks back on the exile as something that is now over has made scholars concentrate on the proclamation of hope and restoration rather than on the experience of exile itself.27 With regard to exile, several of the works on Isa 40–55 are systematic presentations of the alleged response of this prophet to the theological problems of the exilic period.28 An illustrative example is Peter R. Ackroyd’s treatment of Isaiah in Exile and Restoration (1968) which because of its interest in the literature of the sixth century limits itself to Isa 40–55.29 He locates the prophetic author in Babylon and looks for those features in the chapters that illuminate the exilic 25

Høgenhaven, Poulsen and Power, Images of Exile. For an excellent overview, see Tiemeyer, Comfort, 13–51. Cf. also the recent essay “Provenance as a Factor in Interpretation” (2015) by Christopher R. Seitz in which he discusses the role of setting (historical reconstructions vs. canonical context) for reading Isa 40–55. 27 Cf. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 380: “the book of Deutero-Isaiah is the only prophetic book of the exilic period that contains nothing but prophecy of salvation.” 28 For instance, Ralph Klein (Israel in Exile, 97–124) interprets Isa 40–55 as one long response to the exiled people’s doubts about YHWH’s ability and willingness to save: “the author sang his message into the dark night of Israel’s exile.” Jill Middlemas (The Templeless Age, 94–111) also emphasizes the jubilant message that YHWH is acting salvifically in the midst of the exiles. In her opinion, Isa 40–55 has two goals: to stir the exiled community to leave Babylon and to comfort the despairing people. Rainer Albertz (Israel in Exile, 376–433) offers a rather technical examination of the historical development of the literary composition of Isa 40–55, proposing two editions, each of which has a distinctive theological message. 29 Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration, 118–37. Three pages in a subsequent chapter deal with selected texts from Isa 56–66 under the heading “Passages reflecting restoration”; see Exile and Restoration, 228–30. 26

8

Introduction

situation. In his presentation, Ackroyd initially makes a division between “the backward and forward looking of the prophet,” that is, between the understanding of disaster and the prospect of salvation.30 The first section – “The people’s present condition” – examines the exile as YHWH’s punishment of his people because of sin, thereby drawing more attention to their depressing condition in Isa 40–55 than other interpreters are perhaps willing to.31 The people themselves are seen to be wholly responsible for their present condition of humiliation: “The exile is at one and the same time a proper punishment for what Israel has been in the past and an act of discipline by which the future may be assured.” 32 The second section – “The future hope” – then presents the various images of redemption in Isa 40–55, including the release from captivity, the exodus-like return, and the complete restoration of the land by means of YHWH’s creative power. All of these ideals are expressions of hope formulated against the background of exile. While Exile and Restoration limits itself to Isa 40–55, Peter Ackroyd has dealt with passages in Isa 1–39 in later works.33 His article “An Interpretation of the Babylonian Exile” (1974) in particular is an excellent identification of literary motifs of exile in Isa 38–39 (cf. 2 Kings 20) and contains an informative discussion of the purpose of these chapters within the overall composition of Isaiah.34 As far as I am aware, the recent rediscovery of the unity of Isaiah has not yet resulted in elaborate examinations of the theme of exile in the prophetic composition as a whole. Nevertheless, one can find briefer treatments of this issue in some of the works referred to in the previous section. The opening of Robert P. Carroll’s four-page review (1997) 35 highlights the importance of the motif: Isaiah is the great scroll of diaspora discourses in the prophetic collection in the Hebrew Bible. It is shot through with images of devastation and deportation, of fugitives driven from their homeland and of abandoned territory which testifies to a disrupted cultivation, with loss of the civic centre.36

30 Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration, 121: “Here we may distinguish, in spite of obvious interrelationship, between the prophet’s understanding of how his people has come to be where it is, and the anticipation which he shows of events in which God is acting and will continue to act to effect his purposes.” 31 Cf. the criticism in Middlemas, The Templeless Age, 102. 32 Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration, 126. 33 Ackroyd, Studies. 34 The article was originally published in Scottish Journal of Theology; see Ackroyd, Studies, 152–71. 35 Carroll, “Deportation,” 73–77. 36 Carroll, “Deportation,” 73.

Recent studies of exile in Isaiah

9

Among others, he observes that the notion of the great return of the dispersed ones (e.g. 14:1–2; 19:18–25; 27:12–13; 43:5–6; 49:12) and the flow of nations to Jerusalem (e.g. 2:1–4; 66:12, 18) are pervasive themes in the book as a whole, contributing to its diasporic discourses: “the scroll itself represents a magnificent panorama of alienation, deportation and homecoming.”37 John Kessler’s three-page review (2010)38 likewise observes that “the motif of vast devastation followed by scattering and ultimately re-gathering of all Israel is […] a highly important motif in the Isaianic corpus.”39 As a test case, he examines Isa 6:1–11:16. Like bookends, Isa 6:11–13 and 11:11–16 “introduce and then resolve the matter of the exile and empty land in the section.” 40 Kessler draws attention to an important feature which forms a contrast to other biblical accounts of the exile. In Isaiah, there is no favored or excluded group. The basic polarity is not between various groups within the people (e.g. those who were exiled and those who remained in the land), but between the prophet as YHWH’s messenger and the population in toto: “The people of God consist of all the descendants of Israel […] All have disobeyed and as a result judgment has come upon all.” 41 He furthermore observes “the highly schematized vision” of these Isaianic texts.42 In Isaiah’s vision, the complete devastation and forsakenness of the land balance its complete restoration and repopulation. A series of recent studies on exile in Isaiah has engaged in shorter passages or sections. Bradley C. Gregory’s article, “The Postexilic Exile in Third Isaiah” (2007), offers a reading of Isa 61:1–3 in light of Second Temple hermeneutics.43 He attempts to demonstrate that this Isaianic passage is one of the earliest attestations to the concept of an enduring exile, that is, exile as an ongoing state beyond the geographical and temporal bounds of the Babylonian captivity.44

37

Carroll, “Deportation,” 76. Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 341–44. 39 Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 341. As examples of texts, he lists Isa 6:11–13; 11:11, 16; 14:2; 43:1–7; 44:24–28; 45:12–13; 48:20–21; 49:19–26; 51:9–11; 60:1–22; 62:1–8; 66:10– 16. 40 Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 342. 41 Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 343. 42 Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 343: “There is no distinction between various groups of Yahwists based upon their geographical location, their redemptive sufferings, or their fate during the period of Yahweh’s judgment upon the land. Neither is there any explicit mention of their repentance or responsiveness to Yahweh.” 43 Gregory, “Postexilic Exile.” 44 See also the essay “The Individualization of Exile in Trito-Isaiah” (2019) by Ulrich Berges in which he explores how exile is turned into an individual and existential condition which can only be overcome by a certain ethical behavior. 38

10

Introduction

Fredrik Hägglund’s dissertation Isaiah 53 in the Light of Homecoming after Exile (2008) aims at understanding what problem Isa 53 addresses and seeks to answer.45 He regards the specific historical problem behind this text to be a conflict regarding repatriation of the Judean exiles returning from Babylon in the late sixth century, because those who had remained in the land were reluctant to receive them. Isaiah 53, so he argues, encourages the people in the land to embrace the returnees as ones who have suffered on their behalf. Although Hägglund’s main approach is historical, he applies a series of theories and methodologies in his investigation of the text of Isa 53, its notions of vicarious suffering and of exclusion and embrace, and its literary, geographical, and social contexts. Notably, in line with Smith-Christopher, Hägglund draws from modern refugee studies and the issues they present about the problems of homecoming in order to shed further light on the social conflict reflected in the biblical text.46 The application of a contemporary, sociological perspective to Isaiah is also present in Gregory Lee Cuéllar’s monograph Voices of Marginality: Exile and Return in Second Isaiah 40–55 and the Mexican Immigrant Experience (2008). 47 He employs insights from postcolonial studies and diaspora theology. A central aim of the work is to compare the rhetoric of Isa 40–55 to the Mexican corrido ballad songs, a traditional type of folk song, the lyrics of which describe aspects of Mexican immigrant experiences in the United States. Cuéllar attempts to demonstrate that there are shared socio-political and socio-religious concerns between the corridos and Isa 40–55 and that both groups of texts share a series of themes (e.g. marginalization, longing for home, yearning to return). In his view, the biblical and Mexican experience can inform each other. Finally, two recent works, both of which are of particular significance to my own study, are devoted to the literary character of exile in Isaiah. The first one is Francis Landy’s essay “Exile in the Book of Isaiah” (2010) which offers some highly original and inspiring ideas about this issue in the prophetic composition as a whole. 48 His essay is both thought-provoking and demanding. As cited at the beginning of the introduction, Landy initially observes an apparent contradiction. Exile is central to the structure and message of Isaiah, but it is very hard to find. On the one hand, all of the major sections of the book are concerned with exile. Isaiah 1–39 foreshadows the disaster of the early sixth century and the restoration from it by the fall of Samaria and the deliverance of Judah in the eighth century. The feeling of deep loss and 45

Hägglund, Isaiah 53. Hägglund, Isaiah 53, 156–72. 47 Cuéllar, Voices of Marginality. 48 Landy, “Exile.” His approach is advanced in the essay “Metaphors of Death and Exile in Isaiah” (2019). 46

Recent studies of exile in Isaiah

11

the absence of political and sacred structure pervade Isa 40–55, whereas Isa 56–66 is about not feeling at home even when at home. On the other hand, none of these sections is located in exile per se. Isaiah 1–39 only adumbrates it. The perspective of Isa 40–55 is on the other side of the disaster, and Isa 56–66 is situated in a restored Jerusalem. Landy, then, draws attention to the significance of the literary gap at the center of Isaiah: “The most striking thing about the book is the immense aporia between chs. 39 and 40, between Isaiah’s prediction of the end of the Judean kingdom and the announcement of the return in ch. 40.”49 This is a chronological and generic gulf in the metanarrative of the book that cannot be disregarded.50 In the space between the reign of Hezekiah and the message of comfort is the catastrophe. With regard to the unity of the book, the empty space at the book’s center is of significance: “What one finds throughout the book is the attempt to insist upon the sacred centre despite its absence.”51 Exile is a caesura in the overall composition. Like the poetic language used to articulate and make sense of it, exile is thoroughly ambiguous. It is a null point pointing forward to future restoration and, at the same time, it is allencompassing because Isaiah’s vision of return and restoration is never quite accomplished.52 After these general considerations Landy looks at four cases where the imagery of exile is employed: 1. Isa 5:13 which contains the first occurrence of the term ‫ גלה‬in the sense of exile; 2. Isa 6:13 with its ambiguous mention of a remnant that shall return or repent; 3. Isa 20 about the sign act of the naked prophet who embodies the alienation and social marginalization of exile; and 4. Isa 45:13 about Cyrus who shall rebuild YHWH’s city and send forth his – or his community’s – exile (‫ָלוּתי‬ ִ ‫)ג‬.53 In the reading of 5:13–14, for instance, Landy notices the explicit link between exile and lack of knowledge, an effect of drunkenness and failure to observe YHWH’s actions. Furthermore, exile is paralleled to annihilation and the consequential descent into Sheol. These associations, established by the literary context of Isa 5:13, are important: “Exile (‫ )גלה‬is thus immediately transposed into a metaphor for unconsciousness, death, and alienation from God.”54 In sum, Landy stresses the role of prophetic imagination and poetic ambiguity in Isaiah’s literary representation of exile. The second work that has shaped my own approach significantly is Martien A. Halvorson-Taylor’s chapter on Isaiah in Enduring Exile (2011) 49

Landy, “Exile,” 242. See my treatment of this issue in Chapter 1. 51 Landy, “Exile,” 246. 52 Landy, “Exile,” 247. 53 Landy, “Exile,” 251–56. 54 Landy, “Exile,” 252. 50

12

Introduction

which focuses on the variety of metaphors that this book uses to render the experience of exile.55 Like other interpreters, she initially notices that Isa 40– 55, although located at the end of the exilic period, is remembered more for its ebullient images of return than its description of suffering during this period: “The prophet is intent on proclaiming that redemption has already begun, so that images of restoration eclipse those of the previous period.”56 Nevertheless, the anticipations of restoration implicitly reflect back on the exilic period and by studying them one can detect and identify images of exile. A dominant metaphor in Isaiah, according to Halvorson-Taylor, is that of slavery: “The exiles are rendered as prisoners and debt slaves; the exilic period is a period of servitude and a prison sentence.”57 The images primarily reveal the exiles’ need for divine deliverance: “these metaphors for the past serve ultimately to foreground the redemption of YHWH in the present; the multiple images of exile collaborate to describe exile, at its heart, as the dire state of needing a redeemer or ‫גֹ אֵ ל‬.”58 In “Exile and Redemption,” the first of three main sections, HalvorsonTaylor analyzes Isa 48:20–21 and 40:1–2.59 First, she highlights the state of need underlying the message of release in 48:20–21. The people are urged to go forth from Babylonian captivity because they have been redeemed. Then, she shows how the language of 40:1–2 draws from a number of different realms: debt slavery, sin and punishment, and economic exchange. All of these associations prepare for the repeated proclamation of YHWH as the people’s redeemer. The second section, “Exile and Death,” examines Isa 42:18–25 and 51:12–16. 60 Common to these passages is that “the prophet uses vivid metaphors to represent exile as a situation requiring aid. […] They describe exile as the state of being without a deliverer (‫ )מציל‬and as the condition of being hungry and imprisoned.”61 A strong image in these texts is that of captivity, imprisonment, and life-threatening incarceration. HalvorsonTaylor observes that the association of exile with the pit emphasizes the direness of the situation. It is a condition which is described as portending certain death. In the third main section, “Exile and the Mission of the Servant,” Halvorson-Taylor studies the shift in the way in which Isa 56–66 conceives ex55 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 107–49. See also the essay “Metaphor, Memory, and Reality of the ‘Exile’ in Deutero-Isaiah” (2019) by Hyun Chul Paul Kim in which he analyzes the employed images of exile such as darkness, blindness, prison, drought, and hunger and discusses the relation between metaphor, memory, and truth in the visions of Isa 40–55. 56 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 107, my emphasis. 57 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 107. 58 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 108. 59 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 109–27. 60 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 127–35. 61 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 127.

Methodological considerations

13

ile.62 Like Bradley Gregory, she attempts to demonstrate that these chapters mark a key moment in the metaphorization of exile. She argues that while the mission of the servant in Isa 42:5–9 and 49:7–13 concerns the exiles, Isa 56– 66 redirects the servant’s mission to the poor (Isa 61:1–3a) and extends it to the people in general (Isa 58:6–7): “exile itself becomes a metaphor for other social ills – for example, poverty and homelessness.”63 Halvorson-Taylor’s approach to exile in Isaiah is fruitful. Her meticulous attention to the variety of metaphors and the way in which their different systems of association draw from a common notion – the need for divine redemption – is relevant and illuminating. In my view, the only weakness of her brilliant study is that it is limited to a handful of passages from Isa 40–66 and that it only studies in detail images related to YHWH’s saving intervention as his people’s redeemer.

Methodological considerations Methodological considerations

The review of recent studies shows that exile in the book of Isaiah has been a rather under-appreciated theme in past scholarship. The present monograph seeks to shed light on this topic. It is my contention that despite the modest number of explicit references, exile is a key theme in this prophetic corpus. Although one should primarily look for it in the silent gap between Isa 39 and 40, it casts a shadow on the overall structure and message of the book (cf. F. Landy above). Many scholars regard the destiny of Zion to be the main issue in Isaiah.64 While this is arguably true, exile is Zion’s unrecognized “twin”. While Zion embodies the vision of divine protection and blessing, exile stands for the opposite: a state of destruction, darkness, and death. In order to illuminate this overlooked theme, some might feel that I overemphasize its importance. Given the massive attention to Zion in the book and in scholars’ reading of it, however, it seems necessary to place a strong focus on exile to draw it to the fore. This investigation approaches the book of Isaiah as a literary whole. Although I consider the book as we now have it to be profoundly composite in nature, it lies outside of the scope of this introduction to account for my own understanding of its formation. Here, it is sufficient to mention that I find the

62

Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 136–48. Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 146. 64 E.g. Berges and Beuken, Einführung, 16: “Vom Anfang bis zum Ende geht es um Jerusalem und Zion als Zentrum und Ziel der Gottesherrschaft über Israel und die Völker”; Stromberg, Introduction, 62: “Zion’s destiny is arguably the most pervasive theme in the book.” See also the review in Poulsen, Representing Zion, 25–35. 63

14

Introduction

image of the prophetic book as a “literary cathedral” illustrative.65 The book of Isaiah is like an enormous building which various artisans have worked on for centuries. While one is able to enjoy the atmosphere and beauty of a medieval cathedral without knowing anything about its history, critical analysis can enrich the experience of it by drawing attention to various building phases and the contribution and function of each of them in the construction as a whole. Similarly, with Isaiah, we must assume a complex history of growth in which an original core of material has been expanded and edited in light of the addition of new texts and in which larger literary strategies have been woven into the developing book to strengthen its coherence. Although this monograph approaches the book of Isaiah synchronically, it does not ignore the awareness of different sources and stages underlying its present form. In the reading of separate passages and chapters in the course of this study, the analysis typically offers a review of the proposals for historical background and textual development before turning to an interpretation of the final form. In my view, there should be little doubt that a considerable portion of the material in Isaiah is shaped by historical events and experiences outside of the book, including the Babylonian invasion of Jerusalem and the series of deportations in the early sixth century BCE. Without doubt, the prophetic texts are grounded in history. Nevertheless, the creative and poetic nature of biblical discourse suggests that we encounter theological interpretations rather than verifiable historical records (cf. e.g. R. P. Carroll above). Indeed, the imaginative and eschatological language of Isaiah appears to create a theological vision of its own. A good example is the idea of the empty land (e.g. 6:11–13). As was stressed by John Kessler, this notion in Isaiah serves to highlight the completeness of divine punishment, independently of the actual condition of the land.66 In the vision of Isaiah, exile is a critical stage – a null point – between the announcement of divine judgment and the promise of restoration. While plausibly echoing real traumatic experiences, “exile” is primarily a literary and theological motif which has a distinctive purpose in the overall structure and message of this prophetic book.67 65

Cf. Berges and Beuken, Einführung, 9–10. Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 343–44. 67 Recently, scholars have argued for a relabeling of the terms “exile” and “the exile” as a distinctive period in the history of Israel. Middlemas (The Templeless Age, 3–6) stresses that “the exile” does not encompass the variety of communities and their experiences, including those who remained in the land and those who voluntarily chose to flee. She proposes the term “the templeless age” because “each community, whether in the homeland or in voluntary or involuntary diaspora, had to deal with the loss of the Jerusalem temple.” Drawing on contemporary sociological insights from migration and refugee studies, Ahn (Forced Migrations, 28–30) proposes to use the narrower terms of “forced migration” and “the forced migrations period.” The issue of relabeling might be of relevance for a more adequate representation of the historical realities of this period. Nevertheless, I 66

Methodological considerations

15

The focus of this investigation is thematic. How does Isaiah speak about exile? How does this theme function theologically in the book? Recent scholarly works which approach a theme in the context of the whole book (e.g. food and drink, illness, divine violence, and hardening) tend to follow the literary flow of the book itself and describe how the chosen theme develops in its various sections.68 I have chosen another way of approaching the textual material by grouping it into different genres and distinctive images used to convey the state of exile. The benefit of this thematic ordering is that it invites a closer look at the language of Isaiah in relation to other biblical books. Several of the chapters of the present monograph open with larger examinations of a motif, phenomenon, or literary representation in the Old Testament as an informative framework for studying Isaiah. A particular concern is to explore the images and metaphors that the book of Isaiah uses to convey exile. 69 Like other biblical books, this prophetic corpus employs a variety of metaphors to express, to structure, and to cope with experiences of exile, including images of slavery and captivity, worldwide scattering, blindness, and abandonment. Modern metaphor theory has stressed the constitutive function of metaphors.70 Metaphors are not merely rhetorical flourish, but generate new meaning. Two observations are of relevance to this study (cf. Halvorson-Taylor above). First, images that are employed to say something about exile affect the concept and expand what a life in exile can mean. In the depiction of exile as blindness, for instance, this association with blindness colors the notion of exile as being a state of disorientation and spiritual confusion, expressing the fatal inability to orient oneself in the world. Exile is thus not merely geographical dislocation or physical confinement. Second, since Isaiah on the surface is less about exile itself than the promise of release from it, one can extract hints about the exilic situation by looking at images of restoration, especially those of God’s salvific intervention. For instance, the proclamation of YHWH as liberator, gatherer, guide, and restorer suggests that his people are in a state of slavery, dispersion, disorientation, and humiliation. The main contribution of this monograph consists in close readings of a series of relevant texts from Isaiah. The analysis of larger units or chapters have chosen to use the traditional terminology because I approach exile as a broader literary and theological motif in the vision of Isaiah. Cf. Gudme and Hjelm, Myths of Exile, 9. 68 See e.g. Abernethy, Eating in Isaiah; Kustár, Wunden; Obermayer, Göttliche Gewalt; Uhlig, Hardening. 69 For studies of metaphor in Isaiah, see e.g. Darr, Family of God; Dille, Mixing Metaphors; Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile; Low, Mother Zion; Lund, Way Metaphors; Nielsen, For a Tree. 70 For recent and manageable reviews of the classical works within this field (e.g. I. A. Richards, M. Black, G. Lakoff, M. Johnson, and M. Turner), see Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 15–21; Low, Mother Zion, 5–11.

16

Introduction

opens with exegetical comments about the literary context, structure, and form of the passage under consideration. Questions about supposed historical background and compositional development are also discussed, especially regarding clearly distinct oracles from Isa 1–39. With regard to Isa 40–66 which must derive from a considerably shorter period, I am generally less convinced about a high level of editorial activity or at least our ability to identify and isolate it.71 The presentation of the Hebrew text and a modern English translation are accompanied by comments about textual and philological issues. The translations here and elsewhere are based upon the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). Occasionally, however, I offer slight variations to render the expression closer to the Hebrew original or to stress certain aspects of a particular phrase. Most attention is devoted to a detailed verse-by-verse examination of the passage itself to detect and interpret motifs of exile and their theological function in the book as a whole.

The structure of the monograph The structure of the monograph

The monograph consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 investigates the “hole” between Isa 39 and 40. Initially, it examines how previous readers have understood the peculiar break at the center of the book before presenting my own thesis of regarding it as a black hole. Then, the chapter attempts to approach the silent gap by means of two entries. One entry occurs in Isa 5:11– 17 and its association of exile with the realm of death. Another entry into the black hole occurs in the theological statements about the hiddenness, anger, and silence of God. The next two chapters look at anticipations and reflections of exile and their influence on the literary structure of Isaiah. Chapter 2 analyzes three larger oracles of doom in Isa 6:1–13, 22:1–14, and 39:1–8 and the communal lament in Isa 63:7–64:11 which confirms the fulfillment of complete destruction in the gap between Isa 39 and 40. Chapter 3 studies a series of individuals whose experiences of exile can be interpreted as literary types for the fate of the people. These figures include the prophet Isaiah (Isa 20:1–6), the stew71

German scholars in particular have been devoted to a sophisticated application of redaction criticism to Isa 40–55 and 56–66 assuming that several phases of editorial reworking are discernable in these chapters; see e.g. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja; Steck, Studien; cf. the helpful reviews in Albertz, Israel in Exile, 376–433; Stromberg, Introduction, 27–54; Tiemeyer, Comfort, 32–43. According to Tiemeyer (Comfort, 42), however, “the lack of agreement between the different suggested schemes is a real argument against all of them. Likewise, the subjective element in the criteria for dividing a text into smaller components lessens their persuasive power.” Notably, over against the assumption of several editorial strands, Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 12) claims that “chaps. 40–66 are one coherent opus composed by a single prophet.”

The structure of the monograph

17

ard Shebna and his successor Eliakim (Isa 22:15–25), King Hezekiah (Isa 38:1–22), and the suffering servant (Isa 52:13–53:12). The last four chapters explore the different kinds of imagery that are used to convey the state of exile. Chapter 4 analyzes political and spatial images portraying exile as slavery and captivity. Chapter 5 investigates geographical images depicting exile as worldwide scattering and dispersion. Chapter 6 looks at cognitive images describing exile as spiritual blindness and disorientation. Chapter 7 studies social images casting the destroyed and forsaken Jerusalem as an abandoned wife and a bereaved mother. The conclusion draws the observations together and offers two proposals for the future study of Isaiah.

Chapter 1

Entering into the black hole This initial chapter approaches the gap between Isa 39 and 40 and its significance for interpreting exile in Isaiah. The first section reviews how ancient and modern readers have understood the curious break at the center of the book before presenting my own proposal that the gap can be compared to a black hole in space. Two possible entries into this black hole follow: first, a close reading of Isa 5:11–17 and its description of the exiled inhabitants of Jerusalem descending into Sheol; second, a theological study of the references to YHWH’s hiddenness, anger, and silence in Isaiah which, I argue, manifest in the dark and silent gap at the center of the book.

1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40 1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40

Reading through Isaiah as a literary whole, it is impossible not to notice an abrupt break or gap at the middle of the book: Then Hezekiah said to Isaiah, ‘The word of YHWH that you have spoken is good.’ For he thought, ‘There will be peace and security in my days.’ Comfort, O comfort my people, says your God” (Isa 39:8–40:1).1

1

However, there is evidence of readings in which the apparent change of situation does not seem to cause problems for their interpreters; see, for instance, Justin Martyr who cites Isa 39:8–40:17 in his Dialogue with Trypho (50.3). Likewise, the great Isaiah scroll from Qumran (1QIsaa) has no visible break in its rendering of Isa 39–40, insofar as column XXXII, which contains the text of Isa 38:8–40:2, ends with “cry to her,” and the first words of the next column continue the verse with the words “that she has served her term.” However, a curious gap of three empty lines is clearly visible at the bottom of column XXVII, containing the text of Isa 33:1–24; column XXVIII, then, begins with the text of Isa 34. Shortly after the discovery of the Qumran scroll, William Hugh Brownlee (Meaning, 247–59) mounted the case that this “deliberately large space” reflects an ancient understanding of the literary structure of the book, dividing it into two parts: Isa 1–33 and 34–66. Each of these two parts, in his opinion, consists of seven sections that correspond to each other. According to Brownlee, Isa 36–39 was inserted into the latter part to match the narrative in Isa 7–8 in the former one. Modern interpreters who have embraced and developed this observation include Craig A. Evans (“On the Unity”) and Marvin Sweeney (Isaiah 1–39, 39–48; Tanak, 270–73). Cf. also Lim, “History of Interpretation,” 381–82.

20

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

In terms of language, style, and content, a sudden and significant change takes place between Isa 39 and 40. Furthermore, in terms of historical setting, a shift takes place from the prophet Isaiah’s encounter with King Hezekiah at the end of the eighth century BCE to, plausibly, a time at least 160 years later presupposing a situation of severe defeat and exile. 2 In the words of Sean McEvenue, We go from the court in Jerusalem to the heavenly court, without any warning or introduction. And we shift suddenly from narrative mode to drama, where no narrator intervenes between the reader and the direct speech of the players.3

Coming from the one side of the gap to the other, one witnesses an abrupt movement from the pronouncement of defeat and captivity to Babylon in 39:5–7 to the encouraging announcement of its end and the hope for restoration in 40:1–2. Apparently, readers of the second part of the book are presumed to know that Jerusalem has fallen and that its inhabitants have been forced away. 4 Yet the destruction itself and the exile are simply bracketed out. Readers of Isaiah have come up with very different explanations for the purpose and meaning of the gap at the center of the book. One of the earliest attestations to the rough shape of the book as we now have it is the book of Sirach from the second century BCE. This apocryphal writing also offers an important indication of how an early Jewish reader interpreted the prophet Isaiah and his task.5 In the extended review of Old Testament figures at the end of the book, the following description of the prophet occurs in Sir 48:22– 25: 22

For Hezekiah did what was pleasing to the Lord, and kept firmly to the ways of his ancestor David, as he was commanded by the prophet Isaiah, who was great and trustworthy in his visions. 23 In Isaiah’s days the sun went backward, and he prolonged the life of the king. 24 By his dauntless spirit he saw the future, and comforted the mourners in Zion. 25 He revealed what was to occur to the end of time, and the hidden things before they happened.

2

E.g. Goldingay, Message, 4: “Chapter 40 fits the situation of exile implied by what precedes and presupposed by some of the succeeding material.” 3 McEvenue, “Second Isaiah,” 216. He continues: “It is like a movie where we, the viewers, are watching some people inside a car for some moments, and then suddenly we find ourselves walking among clouds and hearing pervasive voices. We know right away that an accident has happened and we are now in heaven.” 4 Baltzer, Deutero-Jesaja, 21: “Das Exil (598/97 v. Chr.) und der Untergang Jerusalems (587/86 v. Chr.) werden vorausgesetzt.” 5 See Beentjes, “Relations”; Knibb, “Isaianic Traditions,” 648–50; Marböck, “Jesaja in Sirach”.

1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40

21

It is not difficult to relate the single references in these verses to the overall structure of the prophetic book. Along with the preceding verses in 48:17–21, Sir 48:22 rewrites Sennacherib’s unsuccessful siege against Jerusalem as narrated in Isa 36–37, and Sir 48:23 alludes to the miracle that accompanied Isaiah’s word to the ill King Hezekiah in Isa 38. Sirach 48:24–25, then, refers to Isa 40–66, including the consolation of the mourners in Zion (cf. Isa 40:1; 61:2–3) and the prediction of coming events (cf. Isa 42:9). Two observations are of initial relevance. First, vv. 24–25 clearly suggest that, in Sirach’s view, the latter part of Isaiah concerns “the future” (τὰ ἔσχατα), that is, events that will occur at the end of time, not in the days of Hezekiah and his kin. In other words, Sirach acknowledges that a change in terms of subject matter and addressee takes place at the center of the book. Second, the unity of the book is nevertheless warranted by the prophetic figure himself. The prophet Isaiah, who within the overall narrative of his book appears in Isa 39 for the last time, receives the content of the latter part by means of divine revelation. He sees the future “by his dauntless spirit” (πνεύματι μεγάλῳ) and is able to reveal hidden things before they occur. Throughout history and even in the present day, those who claim Isaianic authorship of the whole book base the primary argument on the visionary gift of the prophet and the idea of predictive prophecy. 6 A possible reading in accordance with such a view is that Isa 40–66 contains the words that Isaiah uttered to Hezekiah or the priests in the temple after the king’s self-assurance that he at least would not be affected by the coming capture and exile (39:8).7

6 E.g. Allis, Unity; Lessing, Isaiah 40–55, 12–20; Motyer, Isaiah, 25–30; Young, Isaiah III, 538–49; cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 26: “it is my conviction that the essential content of the book has come to us through one human author, Isaiah the son of Amoz. It is he who received the revelations from God and who directed the shaping of the book” (my emphasis). 7 Eusebius of Caesarea (Commentary, 191) comments on Isa 40:1–2: “And the Hebrew text again goes on to say that God did not approve of Hezekiah’s attitude. For he certainly cared about his own problems, but for the people he did absolutely nothing, and this appeared to be blameworthy to God. For this reason the prophet went on to say next: Comfort, O comfort my people, says God. For Hezekiah had spoken, thinking only on himself, and he did not even mention the people, but God was concerned to comfort his own people, and he encourages them to do precisely this.” Cf. the twentieth-century echo in Allis, Unity, 49: “What more natural, then, than the tender-hearted prophet, brooding over the calamities which it had been his painful duty as the Lord’s prophet to declare to his king, and impressed with the inadequacy of Hezekiah’s answer, should direct his gaze toward that future which seemed so weighted with disaster and should hear the voice of his God saying to him: ‘Comfort ye, comfort ye my people’?” A very recent representative for a shared view is Matthew Seufert. Reading Isa 40:1–11 historically in light of the Assyrian crisis in Isa 36–37, Seufert (“Reading,” 279–80) claims that the words of 40:1 are addressed to Hezekiah’s messengers: Eliakim, Shebna, and the senior priest (cf. 37:2)!

22

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

Despite a general acknowledgment of Isaianic authorship of the whole composition until the rise of critical scholarship, several interpreters have noted the curious shift at the center of the book. The church fathers recognized that Isa 40–66 differs from the preceding section and that the prophet introduces a new subject matter.8 According to Cyril of Alexandria, writing in the fifth century CE, “the word of the prophet now shifts to the time of Christ, and makes an explicit prophecy of the grace that comes from him. This is neither inappropriate nor anachronistic.”9 Nevertheless, Cyril initially renders doubt about the purpose of communicating this eternal vision in the context of the eighth century BCE: Admittedly, less highly trained readers of Scripture may ask why the prophet uses the words of Hezekiah to make a prediction about Christ that has to do with us. We offer the following explanation: now that he has given an account of the conquest of the land of the Jews and of the residents of Jerusalem (Isa 39), in a timely way the word of the prophet begins to discuss the comfort (Isa 40:1) that comes from God.10

At the opening of his lecture on Isa 40 from the late 1520s, Martin Luther divides Isaiah into two parts. In the first part, Isa 1–39, the prophet functions as a historical figure and leader of the army and prophesies about Christ and the defeat of the Assyrians. In the following part, Isa 40–66, the prophet treats prophecies about Christ the King and about Cyrus, the king of Persia, and the Babylonian captivity. According to Luther, “this second book is [in contrast to the first one] nothing but prophecy, first external, concerning King Cyrus, and then spiritual, concerning Christ.”11 Writing in the same century, Jean Calvin comments on Isa 40:1 that the prophet introduces “a new subject.” Up until Isa 39, the prophet has addressed the unfaithful generation of his own time, resistant to his threatening and admonition; now, he turns to posterity, to those who will suffer in captivity. Calvin states about the content of Isa 40–66: “What will afterwards follow will relate to the future Church, the revival of which was effected long after [the prophet’s] death.”12 Yet already during the Medieval Period, rabbinic interpreters cautiously began to question the supposed Isaianic authorship of the second half of the book.13 Toward the end of the eighteenth century, German scholars such as J. 8

Cf. Wilken, Isaiah, 265–66. Cf. the large extract of Cyril’s commentary on Isa 40:1–14 in Wilken, Isaiah, 267. 10 Cf. the large extract of Cyril’s commentary on Isa 40:1–14 in Wilken, Isaiah, 267. 11 Luther, Lectures, 3; cf. Poulsen, “Luthers fortolkning af Esajas,” 94. 12 Calvin, Commentary on Isaiah, 157. 13 Illustrative examples include the tradition recorded in the Babylonian Talmud b. Baba Batra 14b–15a which attributes the composition of the book of Isaiah to “the assembly of Hezekiah and his colleagues,” and the Jewish interpreter Abraham Ibn Ezra, who, in his Isaiah commentary from 1145 “in veiled, enigmatic language,” raised doubt about the Isaianic authorship of the second half of the book; see Mulzer, “Ibn Esra”; Simon, “Ibn Ezra”. 9

1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40

23

C. Döderlein and J. G. Eichhorn picked up these sparse adumbrations and developed them into a thesis concerning different authors living in different centuries: Isaiah of Jerusalem in the eighth century was responsible for Isa 1– 39, whereas an anonymous prophet in the sixth century was considered to be the author of Isa 40–66.14 An unfortunate consequence of this view, which spread rapidly and soon became close to a consensus position in critical scholarship, was the complete separation of the two parts of the book.15 W. Gesenius, for instance, in his Isaiah commentary from 1821, assigned Isa 40– 66 to “Pseudo-Isaiah” and dealt with these chapters in a separate volume. Prevalent ideas from these decades and onwards were that the two major parts of the book developed independently of each other as two separate collections of oracles and that the juxtaposition of the two on the same scroll should be regarded as a very late enterprise. According to Bernhard Duhm, for instance, an early and considerably smaller core of the sayings attributed to Isaiah of Jerusalem once existed as a discrete book concluding with the historical appendix of Isa 36–39, an arrangement similar to that of Jeremiah.16 The collections of Isa 40–55 and 56–66 developed in isolation of Isa 1–39 and originally stood without connection to the chapters. 17 According to Duhm, the fusion of these collections into one book was made as late as the third or second century BCE. 18 Various explanations for the fusion of the separate collections have been offered. Some proposed that Isa 40–66 did contain oracles originally uttered by Isaiah of Jerusalem that had been treasured and eventually considerably expanded by his pupils.19 Others proposed that the author of Isaiah 40–66 also carried the name “Isaiah” and that this very name caused the juxtaposition of his writings with those of the older Isaiah of Jerusalem; moreover, this would allegedly explain why Isa 40 opens 14

Cf. the review in Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 30–34; Lim, “History of Interpretation,” 387– 89; Vincent, Studien, 17–26; Williamson, “Isaiah,” 366–71. 15 Cf. Sweeney, Tanak, 284: “Although such a diachronic conclusion is undoubtedly correct, it has unduly influenced the synchronic literary reading of this material. Isaiah 40– 54/66 is designed to be read as a larger literary unit within the book of Isaiah. It is presented to the reader as part of the vision of Isaiah ben Amoz concerning the realization in the early Persian period of earlier prophecies of restoration from the Assyrian period. It is designed to convince its readers that YHWH is acting to restore Zion” (my emphasis). 16 Duhm, Jesaia, 9. See also the review in Buhl, Jesaja, xix–xxiii, 497–98. 17 Because the prophecy of Cyrus’ restoration of the temple in Isa 44:28 is ascribed to Jeremiah in 2 Chr 36:22–23, proposals were even made that, originally, Isa 40–66 was attached to the book of Jeremiah. In alignment with this idea, the author of these chapters was thought to belong to the group that travelled with Jeremiah to Egypt (cf. Jer 42–43); see the review in Barstad, Babylonian Captivity, 25–27. 18 Duhm, Jesaia, 8–9, 15. 19 Buhl, Jesaja, 497–98. In the nineteenth century, Samuel David Luzzato even claimed that, despite deriving from the historical prophet, Isa 40–66 was not published until after the exile had begun. Cf. Sweeney, Tanak, 270.

24

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

without a superscription.20 A rather extreme explanation is found in the 1941 Old Testament introduction by Robert Pfeiffer, who claims that Isa 40–66 was added onto a scroll following Isa 1–39 “only because sufficient space remained on the scroll.”21 Despite the variety of proposals, a significant claim of their shared view on the composition history of the book is that the creation of the gap between Isa 39 and 40, so to speak, is a pure historical accident of joining separate collections of discrete oracles. Within past decades, the most decisive shift with regard to the composition of Isaiah is “the rediscovery of the book’s essential unity.”22 Rather than a late and accidental phenomenon, the final form of the book has now become the starting point for exegetical analysis whether synchronic or diachronic in nature. Questions about the purpose and function of the single chapters and larger parts within the overall context of the book have become more prominent in scholarly discussion. In terms of redaction critical concerns, scholars now presuppose that the various parts of the book did not emerge in complete isolation from one another, eventually becoming fused into one book. Rather, the various parts of the present book testify to a dynamic process of growth in which earlier material was reinterpreted and reshaped by the later. Two general models for the book’s composition history dominate the current scholarly field. 23 A “model of combination” (Kombinationsmodell), represented, for instance, by J. Vermeylen and O. H. Steck, presupposes that larger units of the book at first developed somewhat in isolation, but that later editors established a huge number of transition-texts to create a sense of coherence between the single parts. A “model of continuity” (Kontinuitätsmodell), represented, for instance, by H. G. M. Williamson and J. Stromberg, presupposes that the author of Isa 40–55 and, after him, the author(s) of Isa 56–66, wrote their works in deliberate continuation of earlier versions of the book and, at the same time, edited these versions to strengthen the connections between the single parts of the emerging book. Common to both models is the decisive role of later editors and their attempts to establish literary bridges between the single parts of the composition. According to Williamson, for instance, the “literary deposit” that the author of Isa 40–55 took over and reworked from Isa 1–39 did not, in fact,

20

This idea was initially suggested by J. C. Döderlein. For a similar claim in the latter half of the twentieth century, see Fohrer, Jesaja III, 2; Knight, Deutero-Isaiah, 11: “It is quite feasible that if, owing to their common name, these two scrolls were later associated, a heading bearing the name Isaiah might have been dropped from before what is now ch. 40.” 21 Pfeiffer, Introduction, 447–48. 22 Williamson, “Isaiah,” 370. 23 Cf. the recent review in Berges and Beuken, Einführung, 26–28.

1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40

25

include chapters 33, (34–)35, and 36–39.24 These chapters are later insertions that – whether written for their present placement or extracted from a source outside of the book – serve to bind the major parts of the book together.25 Of relevance here is the observation that within the present composition of the book, editors have inserted Isa 36–39 to indicate a kind of transition between the major sections of the book. These chapters refer backwards to, and conclude, the former part of the book about the prophet Isaiah and his involvement in the events of the eighth century BCE.26 Yet the chapters, especially the subtle adumbrations of defeat and exile in Isa 38–39, also point forward to, and prepare the content of, the latter half of the book.27 Accordingly, the 24 Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 184–239. Beuken (“Spiegeltext”) has argued intensely that Isa 33 was composed to bridge the larger parts of the book, and Steck (Bereite Heimkehr) has devoted an entire monograph to showing that Isa 35 was composed by a “homecoming redaction” to fuse early versions of Isa 1–39 and Isa 40–55, 60–62. Whether Isa 36–39 at that time concluded an early section of Isa 1–39, Steck (Bereite Heimkehr, 58–59) states: “Auch wenn Jes 35 nicht nur Jes 34, sondern daran anschließend auch Jes 36–39 als Abschluß von Protojesaja vor sich gehabt hat, ist die Position dieser Brücke nach Jes 34 und nicht nach Jes 39 und unmittelbar vor Jes 40 schon verständlich: Protojesaja wurde eben an dieser Stelle um Jes 35 im Blick auf die Anfügung von Jes 40ff fortgeschrieben, um die zeitliche Eingrenzung von Jes 34 zu fixieren, die für Jes 35 im Blick auf Jes 40ff im Ablauf der Heilswende für die Heimkehr Israels notwendig ist. Jes 36–39 aber wurde jetzt offenbar als Verbürgung der Rettung betrachtet, von der Jes 33 und 35,4 sprechen, die ihrerseits die Voraussetzung der eschatologischen Heimkehr ist, in der Jes 35 den zentralen Inhalt der Weissagungen von Jes 40ff gesehen hat.” 25 Most scholars assume that Isa 36–39 was copied into the book either from 2 Kings 18–20 or from a shared source behind both books. Nevertheless, Seitz (Final Destiny, 207) claims that these narratives were written for an early version of Isaiah and that “Second Isaiah has been composed ‘with an eye’ on the Hezekiah-Isaiah narratives.” Against this claim, Williamson (The Book Called Isaiah, 197) rejects the possibility that Isa 36–39 was written for the context in Isaiah: “If [Isa 36–39 was written to serve as a bridge], we should surely have expected far more association with chapters 40–55. They may now function – and quite effectively – as such a bridge, but it would be surprising if anyone setting out to compose such a bridge would have come up with what we now have.” See further my analysis of Isa 39:1–8 in Chapter 2. 26 Some scholars claim that the insertion of Isa 36–39 happened in distinct stages; see e.g. Wagner, From Salvation to Doom, 92: “Since chapters 36–37 belong to a late 7thcentury or early 6th-century edition of the book, chapters 38 and 39 were added in the process of merging First and Second Isaiah in early post-exilic times”; cf. recently, Berges and Beuken, Einführung, 123–24. 27 See Peter Ackroyd’s famous essay “An Interpretation of the Babylonian Exile: A Study of II Kings 20 and Isaiah 38–39” (reprinted in Ackroyd, Studies, 152–71) and Melugin, Formation, 176–78. Many recent commentators have embraced this idea; see e.g. Childs, Isaiah, 286: “The major function of the chapter [Isa 39] turns on establishing a bridge from the Babylon of Merodach-baladan to the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar”; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 507: “In ch. 39, Isaiah delivers an announcement of punishment to Hezekiah in order to introduce concern with exile in Babylonia. This announcement helps

26

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

juxtaposition of Isa 36–39 and Isa 40–66 does seem to reflect a conscious attempt to relate the discrete parts of the book. Nevertheless, while emphasis on the bridge-function of Isa 36–39 might historically explain how the curious gap between Isa 39 and 40 came into being, it does not explain the function of the gap within the composition as we now have it. Why is there a gap at all? Why did later readers refrain from adding an account of the Babylonian defeat of Jerusalem and the deportation of its inhabitants to the growing corpus of the book? One attempt to explain the existence of the gap comes from a memory studies approach. Ehud Ben Zvi, in an article on Isaiah as a “site of memory,” asserts that to the Jerusalem-centered community of postexilic Yehud there was less interest in remembering the traumatic events of destruction and exile and that this period in the history of the people was simply left out of the book’s overall narrative.28 Developing Ben Zvi’s idea, Sonya Kostamo argues that skipping over these events in Isaiah is a way of de-emphasizing the memories about this span of the past.29 Even so, the painful nature of this narratively absent “period” is still indicated by the negative character of the allusions that frame the gap (prediction of doom in Isa 39:6–7 and reference to the end of a period of forced labor and punishment in Isa 40:2). To Kostamo, the gap thus reflects a complex memory formation in which the experiences of destruction and exile are “silenced” in order to move beyond, while at the same time being remembered as a period of past hardship that has definitively ended.30 In a subtle way, the lack of any temporal referto prepare the reader for the oracles beginning in ch. 40 that presuppose the Babylonian exile.” Earlier to these scholars, interpreters who think that virtually the entire book was derived from one author have also recognized that Isa 38 and/or 39 function as a bridge between the two main parts of the book; see e.g. Delitzsch, Jesaia, xxix: “Die Weissagung 39,5–7 steht zwischen beiden Hälften wie ein Wegweiser, dessen Arm die Inschrift ‫ בבל‬hat. Dorthin geht der weitere Weg der Geschichte Israels, dorthin ist Jesaia fortan mit seinem Volke im Geiste begraben, dort predigt er c. 40–66 den babylonischen Exulanten die nahe Erlösung”; Young, Isaiah II, 507: “This and the following chapter [Isa 38–39] serve as a transition to introduce the latter portion of the prophecy (chapters 40–66)” (my emphasis). 28 Ben Zvi, “Memorable Prophet,” 377: “Remembering Isaiah in this way shaped, in the main, a mnemonic narrative whose focus moves directly from the world encountered in Isa 39 to that of Isa 40. This is a narrative in which life under exile is bracketed to a large extent and as such, it is a narrative that tends to be preferred in the discourse of Yehud, in which actual references to life outside the land or the pre-‘restoration,’ post-586 Babylonian period in Judah tend to be marginal. Isaiah reflects well and reinforces the social mindscape of Yehud in terms of what is worthy of being remembered.” 29 Kostamo, “Mind the Gap,” 225: “Reading the book of Isaiah in which the Babylonian destruction and deportations are essentially ‘skipped over’ in the narrative arrangement of Isa 39:8–40:1 contributed to, and is reflective of, the perceived reduction in the saliency of that part of the past in comparison to other periods.” 30 Kostamo, “Mind the Gap,” 219–21.

1.1. The gap between Isaiah 39 and 40

27

ence at the opening of Isa 40 signalizes immediate temporal distance and distinction of the setting of Isa 40 from that of Isa 39: The absence of a superscription reveals that the prophecies of Isa 40:1 were remembered as temporally dissimilar to the previous prophetic epoch, and this aspect of dissimilarity functioned to create a temporal relationship connecting the book of Isaiah within which the event of the Exile functions as a major turning point.31

In other words, something decisive happens in the gap, but due to the concerns of the postexilic community in Jerusalem, its actual content is largely left untold. Another attempt to explain the gap at the center of the composition focuses on the theology of the book. A central theme in Isaiah is the idea of YHWH’s special protection of Zion.32 The mountain of Zion is his holy dwelling (e.g. 8:18) and the book frequently presents the city of Jerusalem and its temple as a highly protected place (e.g. 1:8–9; 14:28–32; 17:12–14; 29:1–8; 36–37; 54:14–17). Accordingly, the absence of an account about the destruction of Jerusalem and the deportation of its inhabitants (cf. 2 Kings 25; Jer 52) that we would expect to find in the gap between Isa 39 and 40 warrants the theological idea of Zion’s inviolability. Ulrich Berges states: Dass die Exilsereignisse im Jesajabuch ungenannt bleiben, kann somit kein Zufall sein, sondern muss mit der Aussageabsicht seiner Verfasser zusammenhängen. Es war die Vorstellung von Zion als uneinnehmbarem Schutzort für alle, […] die es ihnen verbot, die Einnahme und Zerstörung Jerusalems zu thematisieren.33

In their theology of history, so he argues, the authors of the book have emphasized the victory over Sennacherib (Isa 36–37) rather than the defeat under Nebuchadnezzar as the central event. In my view, the concern for Zion’s inviolability is certainly a possible explanation for leaving out an account of its fall. Nevertheless, there is still a gap which appears to have a crucial function within the overall narrative or drama of the book. Reading through the book as a literary whole, the gap does seem to carry significance. After all, it does say something about the fate of Zion. From a purely literary perspective, the composition of Isaiah can be regarded as, in the words of Christopher Seitz, “the drama of God and Zion,” which unfolds “as we walk through the chapters, all sixty-six, of the Book of Isaiah.”34 Among many rhetorical features, this literary drama is framed by 31

Kostamo, “Mind the Gap,” 222. See Poulsen, Representing Zion, 25–35, 88–102. 33 Berges, Prophet, 91, my emphasis. 34 Seitz, “Making Sense,” 122; cf. Berges, Prophet, 51–52: “Das Jesajabuch ist ein Zion-Drama, bei dem die Leser bsw. Hörer die Entwicklung Jerusalems vom Ort des Gerichts zum Ort des eschatologischen Heils für das Gottesvolk und die Völker miterleben.” 32

28

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

two visions of the glorification of Zion in 2:2–4 and 66:18–24. Zion shall be raised high above the hills and will become a worldwide center of justice, peace, and divine teaching. According to these visions, Zion shall be a place of life, light, salvation, and blessings (cf. Isa 60). As the mountain of YHWH, it rises to the heavens to become a center of divine presence and revelation. Within this imaginative and visionary frame and within the overall dynamic of the book’s drama, the gap between Isa 39 and 40 certainly constitutes a sort of anti-climax. Nothing is there. No light, no vision. All we have is a silent pause and a blank space in the composition – a disruption or collapse of time and narrative space. 35 Compared to the elevated Zion in the book’s frame, the gap represents its opposite: a desolate and empty Zion. The major locus of divine presence and protection has become a place of acute divine absence.36 The place of life and salvation has collapsed into nothingness. It has become silent and dark. From a literary point of view, the gap is really symbolic of an anti-Zion representation – an abandoned and Sheol-like place just at the center of the book.37 Francis Landy, in his article on exile in Isaiah, draws attention to the ambiguity of exile in this prophetic book. On the one hand, exile plays a crucial role in its composition and message exactly as an immense aporia between Isa 39 and 40. It signals “a null point” and a “collapse of metanarratives.”38 Everything breaks down and must await re-creation.39 On the other hand, the theme is hard to find in Isaiah. There is apparently little about the exile itself. It appears to be an unacknowledged or hidden reality. This is, according to Landy, the contradiction that one needs to face. Exile is central to the book and yet is almost not there. In continuation of Landy’s observations, I would like to introduce the metaphor of black holes. In astronomy, a black hole is a place in space with a gravity so strong that it pulls everything to its center; even light cannot escape from it.40 Since no light can get out, black holes are invisible and can only be studied indirectly from their effect on stars close to them and matter that falls towards them. Consequently, events occurring within them cannot be observed from outside and the ultimate fate of material that is drawn into such a hole is thus unknown. Scientists suppose that inside a black hole, space and time become completely distorted and that everything collapses to a single point at its center. 35

Cf. Park, Hezekiah and the Dialogue of Memory, 177–81. Burnett, Divine Absence, 153, 172. 37 Cf. my comparison of divine protection in Ps 48 and divine rejection in Ps 88 in Poulsen, “Zionteologien,” 106–9. 38 Landy, “Exile,” 247. 39 Landy, “Exile,” 245: “In exile all traditional political, social, sacred, and linguistic structures break down and have to be reconfigured.” 40 See e.g. the article “Black Hole” in Ridpath, A Dictionary of Astronomy, 60–61. 36

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

29

Returning to Isaiah, the gap between Isa 39 and 40 can be compared to a black hole. Just as space and time most probably collapse inside a black hole, the narrative structure of this prophetic book collapses in the anti-climax at its center. Apparently, nothing is there. Yet something critical and decisive must take place. Like a black hole, the exile – the destructive center of the book – hides itself. Within this gap of seemingly vast nothingness, exile is a force so powerful that, like a black hole or a strong magnet, it pulls everything to it. It absorbs life, light, and hope and signifies silence, darkness, and death. In the end, the only thing that is able to escape its gravity is the powerful word of God, crying “Comfort” (40:1). As with black holes, we can only detect and study the exile in Isaiah by looking at events and pronouncements leading up to it and at reflections of its effects outside of it. In light of these initial considerations, the rest of this chapter attempts to enter into this “black hole” of exile. The first entry occurs in Isa 5:11–17. Significantly, this passage contains the first explicit reference to exile in the book as a whole (‫ גלה‬in v. 13) and thus serves perfectly as an initial entrance into the matter. Due to the poetic structure of the passage, the deportation of the people of Jerusalem in v. 13 is interpreted and explained in v. 14 as a descent down into the realm of death. Sheol is portrayed as a voracious monster that absorbs the entirety of people sliding down into it. It is greedy like a black hole; nothing escapes its all-consuming jaws. The second entry is subtler because it attempts to enter into the divine reality of God. This entry complements rather than contradicts the first one; in the end, both focus on the themes of destruction and death. Although we cannot tell with certainty what happens between Isa 39 and 40, I would propose that at the center of this gap we find the full manifestation of divine wrath and punishment. The nature of this wrath is too harsh to be expressed with words and the destructive force so dark and massive that one can only sense and describe it from the distance.

1.2. Entering down into Sheol (Isaiah 5:11–17) 1.2. Entering down into Sheol

The woe-oracle in Isa 5:11–17 contains a harsh word of judgment against the inhabitants of Jerusalem. Rather than looking for the works of YHWH, they have devoted all of their attention to drinking and feasting all day long (vv. 11–12). Therefore, they shall be forced away and absorbed by the realm of death, whereas Jerusalem shall be left as an empty and desolate place (vv. 13–17).

30

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

The passage occurs as the second of six woe-oracles in 5:8–24 (seven if we include the one in 10:1–4).41 Within Isa 5 this series of oracles follows the famous song of YHWH’s vineyard in vv. 1–7 which reveals a fundamental break between YHWH and his people. Because of their failure to maintain justice and righteousness YHWH will remove his protection and divine judgment will come. The beautiful vineyard will become a waste or a ruin (‫)בָּ תָ ה‬. An important function of the woe-oracles is to explain and exemplify the vague statements about punishment and lack of justice in the allegory of the vineyard. 42 Although the woe-oracles specifically address the leading classes of Jerusalem, in practice they spell out the crimes of the people as a whole (cf. Israel and Judah in 5:7). Isaiah 5 closes in vv. 25–30 with the approach of terrifying enemies from a land far away, ready and committed to execute YHWH’s judgment. The woe-oracle is a common phenomenon in Old Testament prophecy and occurs both as individual words (e.g. Amos 5:18–20; Isa 1:4) and in series of words (Hab 2:6–20 and here).43 Importantly, rather than an appeal for divine intervention, the woe oracle affirms that doom will come upon those it concerns. As such it is unmistakably a word of judgment. The opening word “woe” (‫ )הוֹי‬evokes attention followed by the practice or people that the prophet attacks and criticizes and by a proper punishment. This twofold structure is easily detectable in 5:11–17: vv. 11–12 render the woe against the drunkards who are unwilling and incapable of perceiving the actions of God; vv. 13–17 depict the judgment of exile, the descent into Sheol, the humiliation of man, and a ruined territory. The compositional history of the passage and its placement in the present series of oracles is difficult to settle.44 Many scholars assume that the rough form of the woe goes back to the historical prophet, but the collection of the discrete sayings along with secondary additions likely stems from later edi-

41 The connection between 5:8–24 and 10:1–4 is widely recognized, although explanations for their present separation differ. The themes of the seven woe-oracles form a chiastic structure: economic oppression (vv. 8; 10:1), alcohol abuse (vv. 11, 22), affront to divine/true wisdom (vv. 18, 21), confusion of good and evil (v. 20); see Tull, Isaiah 1–39, 126; cf. also Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 88–89. 42 E.g. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 145: “V 8–24 legen das Lied als eine Katechese aus.” This is, for instance, the case with regard to the theme of eating and drinking; cf. Abernethy, Eating in Isaiah, 59: “The metaphorical vision of YHWH not sending rain on the vineyard due to Jerusalem’s injustice in Isa 5:1–7 sets the tone for the sort of food deprivation in the woes that follow (5:8–10, 11–17, 18–19, 20, 21, 22–24).” 43 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 28. For classical discussions of their origin and function in the prophetic literature, see Clifford, “Use”; Gerstenberger, “Woe-Oracles.” 44 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 213: “the section […] has had a troubled history”; Childs, Isaiah, 41: “there are numerous signs that the text of this series of oracles has suffered both expansions and contractions.”

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

31

tors.45 In the case of 5:11–17 there seems to be a widespread claim that vv. 11–13 form the original core that was later expanded with vv. 14–17, perhaps in more stages. Wildberger and Williamson, for instance, argue that the first addition consisted of vv. 14 and 17 and the second addition of vv. 15–16 (cf. 2:9, 11, 17), although they remain reluctant to fix an exact context for this editorial activity.46 Clements proposes a time soon after the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE,47 while Blenkinsopp questions whether the content of the verses is specific enough to date it after this event.48 This issue is not without relevance because it raises questions about the theme of exile in v. 13. In contrast to the majority of scholars, Kaiser interprets this verse as a historicizing comment from the postexilic period.49 Nevertheless, it is indeed possible that the prediction in this verse was uttered already in the eighth century and did not originally refer to the Babylonian exile.50 Deportation of people as a result of military defeat was a very common practice in the Neo-Assyrian empire and similar reflections are found in allegedly contemporary layers of Amos (e.g. Amos 1–2; 4:2–3; 6:7; see below).51 However, following Clements, this eighth-century pronouncement of exile regained new attention and vitality in light of the events of the sixth century. This apparent resonance also explains why the original oracle in vv. 11–13 grew out of proportion compared to the other ones in the series. The fall of Jerusalem and the deportation to Babylon were interpreted as the fulfillment of the prophet Isaiah’s old prediction and the additions in vv. 14–17 served to confirm it and tie it closer to these traumatic events.52 Whether or not one accepts this thesis, I will argue that the notion of exile in 5:13 plays a crucial role in the final form of Isaiah exactly as a piece of prophecy. According to its present function as pronouncement and type, 5:11–17 points beyond its immediate literary context to YHWH’s ultimate judgment that will occur later on in the book. In my exegesis, I will show that the key image used to spell out the meaning of exile – Sheol swallowing up the inhabitants of Jerusalem – foreshadows and illustrates the dark and silent gap between Isa 39 and 40 in a brilliant manner. 45

See the review in Korpel, “Structural Analysis.” Wildberger, Jesaja, 180–81; Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 367. Kaiser (Jesaja 1–12, 107) considers only v. 11 to be authentic, whereas Childs (Isaiah, 47) sees vv. 11–12 and 17 as being the original core that has been expanded by vv. 13, 14, and 15–16. 47 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 61, 64. 48 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 214. 49 Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 113. 50 Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 50; Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 368–69. 51 Cf. Gertz, “Military Threat.” 52 Cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 103: “Das Wehe hat sich in der Katastrophe des judäischen Reiches und in Sonderheit in der Eroberung Jerusalems durch die Babylonier im Jahre 587 erfüllt.” 46

32

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

1.2.1. Isaiah 5:11–17: Text and translation ‫הוֹי מַ ְשׁכִּ ימֵ י בַ בֹּ קֶ ר‬ ‫שֵׁ כָר ִי ְרדֹּ פוּ‬ ‫ְמאַ ח ֲֵרי בַ נֶּשֶׁ ף‬ ‫יַיִ ן יַדְ לִ יקֵ ם‬ ‫וְ הָ יָה כִ נּוֹר ָונֶבֶ ל תֹּ ף וְ חָ לִ יל‬ ‫ָו ַי ִין ִמ ְשׁתֵּ יהֶ ם‬ ‫וְ אֵ ת פֹּ ַﬠל יְ הוָה ל ֹא יַבִּ יטוּ‬ ‫וּמַ ﬠֲשֵׂ ה יָדָ יו ל ֹא ָראוּ‬ ‫ל ֵכן ָגּלָה ַﬠ ִמּי‬ ‫ִמבְּ לִ י־דָ ַﬠת‬ ‫ ָר ָﬠב‬a‫וּכְ בוֹדוֹ ְמתֵ י‬ ‫ַוהֲמוֹנוֹ צִ חֵ ה צָ מָ א‬ ‫ָלכֵן הִ ְרחִ יבָ ה ְשּׁאוֹל נַפְ שָׁ הּ‬ ‫וּ ָפﬠ ֲָרה פִ יהָ לִ בְ לִ י־חֹ ק‬ ‫וְ י ַָרד הֲדָ ָרהּ ַוהֲמוֹנָהּ‬ ‫וּשׁאוֹנָהּ וְ ָﬠלֵז בָּ הּ‬ ְ ‫ל־אישׁ‬ ִ ‫וַיִּ שַּׁ ח אָ דָ ם וַיִּ ְשׁ ַפּ‬ ‫וְ ֵﬠינֵי גְ בֹ הִ ים ִתּ ְשׁ ַפּלְ נָה‬ ‫וַיִּ גְ בַּ ה יְ הוָה צְ בָ אוֹת בַּ ִמּ ְשׁפָּט‬ ‫וְ הָ אֵ ל הַ קָּ דוֹשׁ נִ קְ דָּ שׁ בִּ צְ דָ קָ ה‬ c ‫וְ ָרעוּ כְ בָ ִשׂים כְּ דָ בְ ָרם‬ d ‫וְ חָ ְרבוֹת מֵ חִ ים גּ ִָרים י ֹאכֵלוּ‬ a

11

Ah, you who rise early in the morning in pursuit of strong drink, who linger in the evening to be inflamed by wine, 12 whose feasts consist of lyre and harp, tambourine and flute and wine, but who no not regard the deeds of YHWH, or see the work of his hands! 13 Therefore my people go into exile without knowledge; their nobles are famished, and their multitude is parched with thirst. 14 Therefore Sheol has enlarged its appetite and opened its mouth beyond measure; [Jerusalem’s]b nobility and her multitude go down, her throng and those who exult in her. 15 People are bowed down, everyone is brought low, and the eyes of the haughty are humbled. 16 But YHWH Zebaot is exalted by justice, and the Holy God shows himself holy by righteousness, 17 Then the lambs shall graze as in their pasture, fatlings, aliens, shall feed among the ruins.

The MT literally reads “men [‫]מתֵ י‬ ְ of hunger,” which refers to a state of famine, thus “famished or is famishing”; cf. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 143; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 210; Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 360. In light of Deut 32:24, it has been proposed to emend the word to ‫מזֵי‬, ְ that is, “wasted by hunger”; cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 101, note 7; Wildberger, Jesaja, 177. A different proposal, inspired by the LXX and other ancient versions, slightly changes the vocalization of the word to ‫מֵ תֵ י‬, that is, “dying of hunger”; cf. e.g. Hays, Death, 253, note 231, and the NRSV. This proposal, however, works less smoothly with the parallel phrase “parched with thirst” (‫ )צִ חֵ ה צָ מָ א‬in the next line. Furthermore, the LXX is not an unproblematic warrant for this reading, because its translation rather freely paraphrases the verse: “they have become a multitude of corpses [πλῆθος … νεκρῶν], because of famine and thirst for water.” b The referent of the suffixes in the latter half of the verse is not clear. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 210–211) simply assumes “Sheol” as in the former half (cf. Korpel, “Structural Analysis,” 58; Moberly, “Whose Justice,” 65, note 26), however interpreting the last two words as “[her throng] in the midst of their revels.” Most other interpreters assume that at least the suffixes of ‫הָ דָ ר‬, ‫ הָ מוֹן‬and ‫ שָׁ אוֹן‬refer to a personified city, Jerusalem/Zion, or to the land; see e.g. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 143; Emerton, “Textual Problems,” 135–37; Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 101, note 9; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 156, note 6; Wildberger, Jesaja, 177. The Targum has masculine plural suffixes; the LXX has female singular suffixes (αὐτῆς) which cannot refer back to ὁ ᾅδης because it is masculine. Regarding the last two words (‫;וְ ָﬠלֵז בָּ הּ‬

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

33

“he who exults in her”), Emerton (“Textual Problems,” 140–142) offers an alternative wording by transposing two letters in the Hebrew and dividing the words differently: ‫וְ עֹ ז‬ ‫“( לִ בָּ הּ‬and the strength of her [Zion’s] heart”), denoting the stubbornness or courage of the people. More persuasively, Williamson (Isaiah 1–5, 362) proposes to read ‫“( וְ ַﬠלִּ יזֵי בָ הּ‬those who exult in her”), thereby supplying the expected plural in accordance with the former three. c Some interpreters emend ְ‫ כּ‬to ְ‫בּ‬, but that the lambs shall graze in the ruined city as in their pasture makes good sense. d This line exposes more difficulties. The MT literally reads: “and ruins, fatlings, aliens, shall eat.” In order to align the line with the preceding one, it has been proposed to alter “aliens” to “kids/young beasts” (either by reading ‫ גְּ דָ ִים‬or ‫ גְּ ָר ִים‬from the Akkadian guru [“young animal, whelp”]) and “fatlings” to “those who have been wiped out” (‫ ְמ ֻח ִים‬of ‫)מחה‬, reading “and the young beasts shall eat up the waste places of those who have been wiped out”; cf. Driver, “Textual Problems,” 38–39. This proposal is in line with the rendering in the LXX: “and lambs shall feed on the wastelands of those who have been displaced [τῶν ἀπειλημμένων],” explicitly relating the verse to the theme of exile in v. 13. Alternative suggestions relate “fatlings/rich” to the preceding word: “strangers/kids will feed among the ruins of the rich” (Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 142; Childs, Isaiah, 39; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 157) or erase “aliens” as an explanatory gloss and take “fatlings/sheep” to be the subject of the verb: “fat sheep will feed among the ruins” (Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 209; Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 101; Wildberger, Jesaja, 178). Belonging to the latter group, Williamson (Isaiah 1–5, 364–65) considers whether ‫ גרים‬originally was ‫“( זרים‬strangers”), added in light of Isa 1:7. In my view, the best approach is to maintain “aliens” as an explanatory apposition to the subject “fatlings”; NRSV translates “fatlings and kids shall feed among the ruins.”

1.2.2. Isaiah 5:11–12: Woe to the drunkards who neglect YHWH The introductory interjection “woe” or “ah” (‫ )הוֹי‬is a common feature in Isaiah as it occurs 21 times, six times alone in the woe-oracles of this chapter. The first occurrence is found at the opening of the book. In 1:4, the prophet or YHWH cries out: “Ah, sinful nation!” The tone is as severe and harsh as in the laments for the dead (1 Kings 13:30; Jer 34:5),53 so far it is that the people have strayed from YHWH. No reversal seems possible; “woe” introduces a proclamation of inevitable judgment and death. The object of the prophetic “woe” here is those who engage completely in drinking and partying all day long. Apparently the oracle concerns the wealthy upper class who can spend the day as they like (note, however, that punishment will involve all the people in vv. 13–17; cf. 5:3, 7: “house of Israel, and the people of Judah”). They get up early in the morning and stay up late in the evening to pursue strong drinks and to be intoxicated by wine. All the time they indulge in feasts with music and alcohol. It is not, however, the elements of their desire and activity as such that are condemned. “Strong drinks” (‫)שֵׁ כָר‬, for instance, are used for cultic purposes (Num 28:7) and, 53

Cf. Clifford, “Use,” 459–60.

34

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

along with “wine” (‫)יַיִ ן‬, are deemed to be enjoyable (Deut 14:26). YHWH himself is hosting a “feast” (‫;מ ְשׁתֶּ ה‬ ִ Isa 25:6) and instruments mentioned here are used for praising God, for instance, in Ps 81:3: “sound the tambourine [‫]תֹּ ף‬, the sweet lyre [‫ ]כִּ נּוֹר‬with the harp [‫]נֵבֶ ל‬.” What is being condemned is the extreme devotion to these activities and the result of it. The pursuit for alcohol and entertainment becomes allconsuming, leaving no attention for other things. Notably, the verb “to pursue” (‫ )רדף‬and the object related to it are used elsewhere to point to something that one makes the whole object of life: knowledge of YHWH (Hos 6:3), peace (Ps 34:15), and righteousness (Isa 51:1).54 However, just like the rebellious princes who run after gifts (1:23), the people in v. 11 pursue strong drinks rather than righteousness. These all-absorbing activities leave no time for spiritual matters. The carelessness and lightness of being lead only to ignorance and blindness and, in the end, a complete hardening of one’s mind (cf. Isa 6:9–10; see Chapter 2).55 As such, vv. 11–12 offer a “satirical hint” at a hymn like Ps 92:2–5: “Whereas the psalmist rises early in the morning (‫)בקר‬ to praise his God and play the ‫ כנור‬and ‫ נבל‬to sing about his ‫ פעל‬and his ‫מעשׂי‬ ‫יד‬, the drunken leaders forget the work of YHWH.”56 The condemnation of heaving drinking occurs frequently in the Old Testament. Prophetic accusations are typical in books traditionally dated to the eighth century (e.g. Hos 4:11; 7:5; Amos 4:1; 6:6; Mic 2:11). In Isaiah, there are also woe-oracles against drunkenness in 5:22 and 28:1. The theme is also well-represented in wisdom literature, especially in Proverbs, often reflecting on the negative consequences of drinking wine (e.g. Prov 23:29–35). The recurrent association of drunkenness with ignorance and failing ability to perceive and judge correctly is of special relevance: “Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler, and whoever is led astray by it is not wise” (Prov 20:1); and “Wine and new wine take away the understanding [of my people]” (Hos 4:11). Another striking example is Isa 28:7–13. The passage elaborates on the reference to “the drunkards of Ephraim” in 28:1–4 and vividly illustrates how the image of unlimited enjoyment of alcohol visualizes the inability of sensing YHWH’s word.57 Even the religious leaders in Judah stagger with wine and strong drinks (cf. 5:11). The key word in v. 7 is “to go astray or err” (‫;שׁגה‬ cf. Prov 20:1). The priests and prophets reel, are confused, and are unable to give proper judgment. They have not simply been intoxicated by wine; literally, they have been “swallowed” (‫ )נִ בְ לְ עוּ‬by it. The wine is not only overwhelming as it makes those who drink it lose their self-control and con54

Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 370. Wildberger, Jesaja, 189. 56 Korpel, “Structural Analysis,” 58. 57 Høgenhaven, “Livets måltid,” 66–74. 55

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

35

sciousness; it is also depicted as a destructive power that is able to devour those who drink it and control them.58 Filthy vomit covers the tables and the imbibers are unable to understand the prophet’s message. Ironically YHWH attempts to address them “with alien tongue,” but they refuse to listen. A final word of judgment comes upon them and they are doomed: “they shall fall backward, and be broken, and snared, and taken” (cf. 8:15), echoing their behavior in v. 7. In total, 28:7–13 closely associates heaving drinking and feasting with a profound lack of sensitivity and perception. The people’s failure to perceive in 5:12 is expressed by two parallel statements: “but [ ְ‫ ]ו‬they do not regard the deed of YHWH and they do not see the work of his hands.” The emphasis on the failing sight resonates with blindness as a prominent metaphor for ignorance and cognitive disorientation in Isaiah (see Chapter 6). The people neither perceive nor recognize YHWH’s activity in the world. The exact reference of YHWH’s “deed” (‫ )פֹּ ﬠַל‬and “work” (‫ )מַ ﬠֲשׂה‬is debated. The proposals include YHWH’s control of history (cf. 5:19)59 and his general care for the nation in its past history.60 Alternatively, “deed” and “work” could refer to divine judgment itself, which the people are incapable of perceiving (cf. vv. 13–14 below).61 But perhaps the several occurrences of these words in Isaiah should serve as a caution not to think too narrowly about its reference.62 In any case, a main point is that the people have chosen to ignore the “deed” and “work” of YHWH (cf. 5:24: “they have rejected the torah of YHWH Zebaot and have despised the word of the Holy One of Israel”). The destiny for a people with such an attitude is spelled out in Psalms. According to Ps 28:5, those who do not regard “the works of YHWH” (‫ )פְּ ֻﬠ ת יְ הוָה‬and “the work of his hands” (‫ )מַ ﬠֲשֵׂ ה יָדָ יו‬will be broken down. Soon the noise of musical instruments shall be stilled and the drinking of wine and other strong drinks comes to an end (Isa 24:8–9). The proclamation of judgment in vv. 13–17 should not come as a surprise. 1.2.3. Isaiah 5:13–17: Exile, death, and a ruined city The punishment in vv. 13–17 consists of distinct yet closely intertwined elements: exile, hunger, death, abasement, and ruination. The scenes in vv. 13

58

Høgenhaven, “Livets måltid,” 72. Wildberger (Jesaja, 188) emphasizes the singular form of the nouns: “es geht nicht um einzelne Werke oder Pläne Jahwes, sondern um das eine Walten des einen Gottes nach seinem beschlossenen Plan”; Young, Isaiah I, 210: “In the fullest and broadest sense […] the work here referred to is that of God in history to accomplish His plan of salvation.” 60 Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 372 61 Cf. Landy, “Exile,” 252: “But what is the ‘work of YHWH’? In the context, it is death and exile itself.” 62 Cf. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 150. 59

36

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

and 17 in particular seem to assume a defeat in war. The population is being deported as war prisoners and their city is left in ruins. The introductory word “therefore” (‫ ) ָלכֵן‬relates the proclamation of judgment closely to the preceding verses. The occurrence of the same word at the opening of v. 14 suggests that vv. 13 and 14 form a parallelism, centering and elaborating on the same subject matter; in other words, exile mirrors death. The initial pronouncement is short: “my people go into exile without knowledge” (‫) ָגּלָה ַﬠ ִמּי ִמבְּ לִ י־דָ ַﬠת‬. The brevity of the statement underlines the harshness of its message. It is not entirely clear who the speaker is. The reference to “my people” can apply both to the prophet (e.g. Isa 22:4) and to YHWH (e.g. Isa 1:3). Assuming that YHWH is the speaker “my people” carries a sarcastic and repulsive tone: “my people are in fact not my people” (cf. Hos 1:9).63 YHWH banishes them and they are handed over in the hands of others, in the hands of Sheol (v. 14). Interestingly, the verb is in the perfect: “therefore my people went into exile.” Scholars have proposed that it is a prophetic perfect or that for rhetorical purposes the coming event is proclaimed as though it is occurring or had already occurred in the past. 64 There is no doubt, however, that due to its context it is an announcement of future judgment. The verb itself (‫ )גלה‬is a key term for designating exile and deportation in the Old Testament65 and occurs around 180 times across most of the books. Despite an extensive variety of specific meanings, the term, which is a verb of motion, refers to two basic concepts: “to go away, go into exile” and “to uncover, reveal, remove.” 66 These two meanings, however, can easily be intertwined insofar as exile can be interpreted as an uncovering of the land. In Lam 4:22, there is an elegant play on the double meaning of the term: “The punishment of your iniquity, O daughter Zion, is accomplished, he will keep you in exile [ ֵ‫ ]לְ הַ גְ לוֹת‬no longer; but your iniquity, O daughter Edom, he will punish, he will uncover [‫ ]גִּ לָּה‬your sins.”

63

Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 160. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 160, note 19; Young, Isaiah I, 211, note 14; Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 359. If one accepts Clements’ idea above, that vv. 14–17 were added in light of the fall of Jerusalem in the sixth century, the editors being responsible for these additions might have dwelled on the perfect form; cf. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 150. 65 Two nouns derived from the verb are used about the exile or the people in exile. The term ‫ גּוֹלָה‬which occurs 42 times (but not in Isaiah) refers either to the exile as a specific event in the history of Israel (e.g. 1 Chr 5:22: “until the exile” [‫ )] ַﬠד־הַ גּוֹלָה‬or to the exiles (e.g. Jer 28:6; Ezek 1:1; Ezra 1:11) and, in some cases, to the postexilic cult community in Jerusalem (Ezra 9–10; Neh 7:6). The term ‫גָּלוּת‬, which occurs 15 times, designates those in exile, mostly in relation to the exiles from Jerusalem and Judah dwelling in Babylon (e.g. Jer 24:5; Ezek 1:2). This term occurs twice in Isaiah (20:4; 45:13). 66 Zobel, “‫ ָגּלָה‬gālāh,” 477–78. 64

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

37

Regarding the first concept, the Qal form, as here, means “to go into exile,” for instance, in Lam 1:3, “Judah has gone into exile [‫ ]גָּלְ תָ ה‬with/from suffering and hard servitude,” and in Mic 1:16, “they have gone from you into exile [‫( ”]גָלוּ‬cf. 2 Kings 17:23; 25:21). In addition to Isa 5:13 there are four instances where the verb in this sense appears alone: Judg 18:30 (“until the time the land went into captivity”), Jer 1:3 (“until the carrying away captive of Jerusalem”), Ezek 39:23 (“the house of Israel went into captivity for their iniquity”), and Amos 5:5 (“Gilgal shall surely go into exile”). The Hiphil form means “to lead into exile” (e.g. 2 Kings 15:29; Amos 1:6; Jer 20:4). Regarding the second concept, the term has many nuances revolving on the idea of revealing or uncovering something. It can mean “to make known” and, in several cases, it refers to divine revelation (e.g. 1 Sam 9:15; Ps 98:2), or it can mean to uncover, for instance, the feet (Ruth 3:4, 7). Interestingly, the term is often associated with shame, that is, when something not meant to be seen is uncovered.67 It might be used in connection with shame (e.g. Ezek 16:36–37) or clothes (Jer 13:22; Nah 3:5). In Isaiah the term ‫ גלה‬occurs 17 times. We shall return to many of them in the course of this study, so I will only provide a short overview here. In addition to 5:13 there are three instances with the sense of exile or banishment: the gladness of the earth is “banished” (24:11); Hezekiah’s lifespan is plucked up (‫ )נסע‬and “removed” from him (38:12); and Jerusalem thinks of herself as “exiled” and put away (‫ ;סור‬49:21). A call to those who are in darkness to “show themselves,” that is, to make themselves visible by coming out of the prison (49:9) is a play on this meaning of the word. At the sight of approaching enemies Judah is defenseless because YHWH “has removed” his protection (22:8). In three instances the term refers to making something known: the fugitive (16:3), the destruction of the fortress of Tarshish (23:1), and the bloodshed of the earth (26:21). In another four instances it refers to divine revelation: YHWH reveals himself in the ears of his prophet (22:14) and reveals his glory (40:5), his arm (53:1), and deliverance (56:1) to the world. The connotation with shame is found in the judgment of Lady Babylon who shall remove her veil and uncover her legs; her nakedness shall be uncovered (47:2–3). Similarly, the unfaithful people who have violated YHWH’s covenant are said to have “uncovered” themselves (57:8).68 67

Wetter, “Balancing the Scales,” 37. The exact meaning of this phrase, however, is debated (cf. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 467– 68). The MT literally reads: “for from me you have uncovered and gone up, you have made wide your bed” ( ֵ‫)כּי מֵ ִא ִתּי גִּ לִּ ית וַתַּ ﬠֲלִ י הִ ְרחַ בְ ְתּ ִמ ְשׁ ָכּב‬, indicating that the people have uncovered themselves in front of, or away from, YHWH (see Young, Isaiah III, 401, 404–5). Some interpreters relate the verb to the final word, that is, they have uncovered the bed for a partner to get in (Childs, Isaiah, 460; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 323, however interpreting ‫ מֵ ִא ִתּי‬as “deserting me”; cf. NRSV). Others emend the Piel form (‫ )גִּ לִּ ית‬to a Qal form 68

38

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

In 5:13 the pronouncement of deportation is associated with the lack of knowledge: the Judeans are exiled “without knowledge” (‫)מבְּ לִ י־דָ ַﬠת‬. ִ There is certainly a play on words here due to the ambiguity of the phrase. It either offers the reason for punishment (because of the lack of knowledge) or renders the people’s failure to perceive what is going on (“unawares”). The word ‫“( ִמבְּ לִ י‬without”) generally points to the lack of something, for instance, “prey” (Job 4:11), “clothing” (Job 24:7), “inhabitants” (Jer 9:9–11), “shepherd” (Ezek 34:5), or “visitors” (Lam 1:4). The word ‫דַּ ﬠַת‬, which means “knowledge,” “insight,” or “discernment,” occurs frequently in the wisdom literature – 40 times alone in Proverbs. It can designate knowledge in a very broad sense (e.g. Exod 31:3) or in a more specific sense, particularly concerning the ability to discern good and evil (Gen 2:9, 17) and knowledge about God (Hos 4:1; cf. Prov 9:10). In Job, YHWH accuses the main character of uttering words “without knowledge” (‫ ;בְּ לִ י־דָ ַﬠת‬Job 38:2; cf. 35:16; 42:3).69 In Isaiah ‫ דַּ ַﬠת‬occurs an additional eight times, either in relation to a lack of knowledge (44:19), to human wisdom in contrast to divine wisdom (44:25; 47:10), to a righteous pursuit of knowledge (58:2) or to a quality of God’s being that can be shared with his faithful ones (11:2; 33:6; 40:14; 53:11). In the single cases, the literary context is an important factor for determining its specific sense. Returning to 5:13, “without knowledge” either explains or describes the fate of deportees. In favor of the first option is the lack of attention to YHWH’s work in v. 12b. Furthermore, the accusation of ignoring God opens the book in a programmatic way: “The ox knows its owner, and the donkey its master’s crib; but Israel does not know [‫]ל ֹא יָדַ ע‬, my people [‫ ] ַﬠ ִמּי‬do not understand” (1:3). This is in line with Hosea, where the people are punished because they have rejected knowledge and forgotten the law: “My people are destroyed for the lack of knowledge” (‫ ;נִ דְ מוּ ַﬠ ִמּי ִמבְּ לִ י הַ דָּ ַﬠת‬Hos 4:6), shortly before referred to as “the knowledge of God” (‫ )דַּ ַﬠת ֱא הִ ים‬in Hos 4:1. In favor of the second option is the people’s state of senseless intoxication depicted in vv. 11–12. Ironically, the people are so drunk that they do not even sense that they are being forced away. Their riotous revelries full of noise and music effectively prevent them from sensing their destiny or the reason for it. 70 Young states: “The nation has become so steeped in sin it does not know that the catastrophe which is to come upon it is the result of its own doings, and that in this catastrophe the judging and punishing hand of God is to be seen.

(‫ )גָּלִ ית‬in accordance with some manuscripts, reading “for from me they have gone away and gone up” (e.g. Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 127–28). 69 A similar phrase ‫ בִּ בְ לִ י־דַ ַﬠת‬occurs four times in the context of manslaughter in the sense of “unintentionally” or “without premeditation”: Deut 4:42; 19:4; Jos 20:3, 5. 70 Høgenhaven, “Livets måltid,” 68; Landy, “Exile,” 251.

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

39

[…] the nation cannot rightly interpret the signs of the times.”71 In my view, the difference between these two alternatives should not be overstated. That is to say, ignorance of God leads to banishment and ignorance continues to be an important characteristic of people in exile, a cognitive inability to orient oneself in the world (see Chapter 6). Deportation as punishment occurs also in Amos. Two passages explicitly link the drunk and arrogant behavior of the people to deportation: Amos 4:1– 3 and 6:1–7.72 These passages invite comparison and various scholars have even proposed that Isa 5:11–13 deliberately draws upon them.73 Amos 4:1–3 concerns the noble and luxurious women of Samaria (cf. Isa 3:16–4:1). They oppress the poor and constantly cry for drinking bouts (“bring something to drink!”). Yet YHWH will judge them. All of them shall be “lifted up” (‫ נשׂא‬in Niphal) with hooks and harpoons; no one shall remain. The image suggests that the women are like fish which are suddenly drawn up from the water.74 Enemies will conquer the city. The women shall leave (or be brought out of the city) through the breaches in the wall in a procession of prisoners, “each one straight ahead.” Finally, they shall be “flung” (reading ‫ שׁלך‬in Hophal) out into Hermon, in the direction of Assyria (cf. 5:27).75 Amos 6:1–7 opens with a “woe” (‫ )הוֹי‬and ends with a short pronouncement of deportation. Amos addresses the careless and frivolous upper class in Samaria and Zion – “the notables of the first of the nations [‫אשׁית הַ גּוֹיִ ם‬ ִ ‫”]ר‬ ֵ – who are abusive and arrogant and reject the threat that doom might come. The description of their extravagant life in vv. 4–6 is very close to that in Isa 5:11–12. In addition to fat and remarkable meals on “beds of ivory,” they sing and play idle music, comparing their talent to that of King David! The musical entertainment is accompanied by wine in considerable quantity (“bowls”)76 and the anointment of the finest oil. Just as the people in Isa 5:12 do not pay attention to YHWH’s work, the upper class here ignores the world

71

Young, Isaiah I, 211–12. In addition to these passages, deportation of neighboring nations and their kings occurs as punishment for war crimes in the opening chapter of Amos (1:5, 6, 9, 15). Interestingly, deportation is not mentioned among the disasters that shall strike Israel in 2:13–16. However, later in the book, YHWH will take his people into exile beyond Damascus (5:27). The theme recurs in Amos’ confrontation with Amaziah in 7:11, 17 (see Chapter 3). The preferred term for designating deportation or exile is ‫ גלה‬and regarding the destiny of Gilgal in 5:5, the following sophisticated play on words can be found: ‫“( הַ גִּ לְ גָּל ָגּ ה ִיגְ לֶה‬Gilgal shall surely go into exile”). See further in Gertz, “Military Threat,” 19–26. 73 Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 368–69. See also Fey, Amos und Jesaja, 10–22. 74 For similar imagery of hooks and fish in the context of the removal of people, see Jer 16:16; Ezek 29:4; Hab 1:14–15. 75 Gertz, “Military Threat,” 23; Wolff, Joel und Amos, 245. 76 According to Wolff (Joel und Amos, 321), the reference to “wine in bowls” (‫)מז ְְרקֵ י ַי ִין‬ ִ suggests unbridle drinking rather than abuse of pottery used for worship (e.g. Num 4:14). 72

40

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

outside and does not perceive the imminent danger of defeat. Like Isa 5:13, the proclamation of judgment in v. 7 is introduced by ‫ ָלכֵן‬: “therefore they shall now go into exile [‫ ] ִיגְ לוּ‬at the head of the exiles [‫]בְּ ר ֹאשׁ גֹּ לִ ים‬, and the revelry of the loungers shall pass away.” Full of irony the decadent upper class shall maintain its leading position (cf. v. 1) as they head the procession of deportees! The sound of their comfortable life (“Bettkultur”) will die out. Interestingly, the verse apparently imagines that the people as a whole will be forced away. Emphasis is on the deportation itself and not the place to which they shall go. The latter half of Isa 5:13 further describes the deportees. They consist of both the leaders (“[the people’s] glory” [‫ )]כְּ בוֹדוֹ‬and the crowd or masses (“[the people’s] multitude or tumult” [‫)]הֲמוֹנוֹ‬. Williamson claims that the crowd, along with their leaders, only designates the upper class depicted in vv. 11–12 and not the remainder of the people as such. 77 In my view, the reference to “my people” in v. 13a points to the population at large and not to a specific group within this population.78 High and low will go into exile (cf. Amos 6:7). In support of this interpretation is also the image of a ruined city in v. 17 that has been completely emptied of its inhabitants. Life in exile is associated with famine and thirst, eventually leading to death. It is not entirely clear, however, whether famine and thirst apply to the consequences of war and siege presupposed in the verse79 or to the procession of deportees marching days in chains without water and food. In any case, this punishment constitutes an ironic reversal of the extravagant drinking and feasting in vv. 11–12. Interestingly, the pairing of the terms “famine” (‫)ר ָﬠב‬ ָ and “thirst” (‫ )צָ מָ א‬also occurs in Deut 28:48. In this verse they depict the slavery under the enemy that YHWH will send against his people. It is a traumatic life in constant hunger and thirst, in nakedness and in lack of everything – with an iron yoke on the neck. Moreover, hunger and thirst are the basic conditions in the wilderness (cf. Ps 107:4–5). The dry desert is a place of judgment and points to the absence of God.80 Isaiah 49:10 reverses this motif by joyfully proclaiming a life where the people “shall not hunger and thirst” (‫ )ל ֹא ִי ְר ָﬠבוּ וְ ל ֹא ִיצְ מָ אוּ‬because YHWH leads them to life-giving springs of water. Being handed over in the hands of others and suffering from famine and thirst in 5:13 are clear signs that the people have been abandoned by their divine shepherd. Death awaits them.

77

Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 373. Cf. Høgenhaven, Gott und Volk, 32. 79 See e.g. 2 Kings 25:3 and Lamentations (1:11, 19; 2:11–12, 19–20; 4:5, 7–10; 5:9– 10). 80 Lund, Way Metaphors, 241–42. 78

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

41

The association of exile with death is abundantly clear in v. 14 which mirrors and elaborates on the thought in v. 13.81 Explicit connections include the introductory “therefore” (‫) ָלכֵן‬, the reference to “nobility” (‫ ;הָ דָ ר‬cf. ‫ )כָּבוֹד‬and “multitude” (‫)הָ מוֹן‬, and the grammatical construct with ‫בְּ לִ י‬. Moreover, the verb “to go down” (‫ )ירד‬parallels “to go away” (‫)גלה‬.82 Initially, v. 14 offers a destination of the deportation proclaimed in v. 13. The endpoint of the deportees is Sheol – the realm of death located deep in the earth – which enlarges its maw and swallows the people. The irony is striking. First, those who have been drinking and consuming without limits are themselves consumed. Second, it seems that their feast continues down into the sphere of death. So stunned by alcohol and busy in partying are the people that they do not even notice their removal to this dark and depressing place. The word “Sheol” (‫)שׁאוֹל‬ ְ occurs a handful of times in Isaiah as a strong metaphor for death.83 The image here is remarkable. The realm of death is likened to a wide-jawed and voracious monster with an insatiable desire. It has made wide its appetite, or better its “throat” (‫) ֶנפֶשׁ‬, and has opened wide its mouth (‫) ֶפּה‬. Similar wording appears in the description of the greediness of the Babylonian ruler in Hab 2:5: “He opens his throat wide as Sheol [ ‫הִ ְרחִ יב‬ ‫ ;]כִּ ְשׁאוֹל נַפְ שׁוֹ‬like Death he never has enough.” Furthermore, the rare verb “to open wide” (‫ )פער‬occurs elsewhere as a figure of demand (Ps 119:131; Job 29:23) or in the context of wild enemies that have gaped at the supplicant with their mouths (Job 16:10). Finally, the revolt of Korah, Daham, and Abiram against Moses results in this shocking event: “The earth opened its mouth and swallowed [‫ ]ו ִַתּבְ לַע‬them up, along with their household […] So they with all that belonged to them went down [‫ ] ַויּ ְֵרדוּ‬alive into Sheol; the earth closed over them, and they perished from the midst of the assembly” (Num 16:32–33; cf. v. 30). Greed is a common characteristic of a personified Sheol.84 According to Proverbs, Sheol can never be satisfied (Prov 27:20) and never says “enough” (Prov 30:15–16). The addition of “beyond or without measure” (‫ )לִ בְ לִ י־חֹ ק‬in Isa 5:14 likewise points to the all-consuming destructiveness of the underworld. At first glance, the phrase is related to the image of throat/mouth and Sheol as a monster swallowing everything. Yet the notion of “without measure or limit” has more connotations. In other texts, the establishment of limits or borders is an essential element in YHWH’s preservation of the world. In

81 Cf. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 150: “Sünde, Gericht und Tod [gehören an] einem einzigen Bereich und dass Exilierung [bedeutet] das Verstoßensein aus Gottes Nähe […] In diesem Weltbild sind poetische Sprachbilder und gemeinte Sache nicht zu trennen.” 82 Landy, “Exile,” 251. 83 Isa 5:14; 14:9, 11, 15; 28:15, 18; 38:10, 18; 57:9; see further in Chapter 4. For a recent treatment of the issue of death in Isa 1–39, see Hays, Death. 84 See Hays, Death, 255–56; Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 69–85.

42

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

an attempt to control the uncontrollable streams of water, YHWH has assigned to the sea its limit (Prov 8:29) and prescribed bounds for it (Job 38:10–11; cf. Ps 104:9). Without such borders, chaos will rule. The notion of no borders in Isa 5:14 implies chaos and disorder, a rebellion against YHWH’s order in the world. Significantly, the use of ‫ בְּ לִ י‬in vv. 13 and 14 suggests a subtle parallel: the anarchy of Sheol is equivalent to the unconsciousness of the people and their disregard of YHWH’s work. 85 In other words, the ignorance of YHWH’s activity is itself a dangerous threat to the stability of cosmos that eventually will result in the worldwide confusion of chaos. In the latter half of v. 14 the subject changes from Sheol to those sliding down into it. Literally, they “go down” or “descend” (‫)ירד‬. Traditionally, Sheol is thought to be the deepest imaginable place in the entire creation. The opposite of the depths of Sheol is the heights of heavens (Isa 7:11; Amos 9:2; Ps 139:8). “Going down” figuratively refers to an existential distancing away from God who is located in the high – down into the realm of darkness and death (see my interpretation of Jonah in Chapter 3).86 It is a standard expression for those who die, that is, those who go down to the pit or to Sheol (e.g. Gen 37:35; Job 7:9; Ps 88:5). In a couple of cases, the image of a swallowing Sheol parallels those who go down into it (see the pairing of ‫ בלע‬and ‫ ירד‬in Num 16:32–33 above; cf. Prov 1:12). In Isa 5:14, emphasis is solely on the descent of the people: “in their hubris, it is almost as though they make their own way consciously to their destination.” 87 In contrast to the Babylonian king in Isa 14:11 and 15 who is compelled to descend (“you are brought down [‫]תּוּרד‬ ָ to Sheol”), the idea here seems stronger: the people go down to the underworld voluntarily, or at least unaware of what awaits them. The inhabitants of Jerusalem who descend into Sheol are characterized by four words that continue the motifs of noise, nobility, and masses from the preceding verses. The first two words – “nobility” (‫ )הָ דָ ר‬and “multitude” (‫ – )הָ מוֹן‬mirror similar notions in v. 13, adding further evidence to the thesis that the population as a whole is thought to disappear. Yet the differences between high and low are about to be leveled out because there is no distinction of rank in the underworld: “all attempts to gain pride of place and power reach the same level in the grave.”88 Literally, the first word means “splendor” or “glory,” but it can also refer to the leading classes of society (cf. Lam 1:6: “From daughter Zion has departed all her majesty [‫] ָכּל־הֲדָ ָרהּ‬. Her princes have become like stags that find no pasture; they fled without strength before 85

Landy, “Exile,” 251. Cf. Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 75: “Sheol is the opposite theological extreme to Yahweh, and the dominant feature for its inhabitants is their separation from him.” 87 Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 374. 88 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 161. 86

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

43

the pursuer”). In the literary context of Isa 1–5, ‫ הָ דָ ר‬occurs three times in Isa 2:10, 19, 21 in reference to YHWH (“the splendor of his majesty”). That the people are now called the splendor of Jerusalem is a clear sign of their hubris (cf. vv. 15–16 below). The allusion to noise which is implicit in the reference to “multitude or tumult” (‫ )הָ מוֹן‬is further emphasized by the last two words. Jerusalem’s “throng” (‫ )שָׁ אוֹן‬is a term of strong sound. It designates the roaring of the seas and their waves (Ps 65:7) and the frightening uproar of enemies (Isa 17:12– 13; Ps 74:23). The final verb “to exult” (‫ )עלז‬occasionally refers to proud selfassurance (e.g. Zech 3:11; cf. my analysis of Isa 22:2 in Chapter 2). Taken in full, v. 14 renders the impression of a noisy and arrogant people. The referent of the suffix in the final word “in her” (‫ )בָּ הּ‬is most likely Jerusalem, but, as mentioned in the textual notes, it could also be Sheol. The latter would imply that the people’s busy and boisterous party continues down into Sheol. Eventually, however, their noise will be silenced. Just as drinking and playing music will end at the day of judgment, so shall “the noise of the jubilant” (‫)שׁאוֹן ַﬠלִּ יזִים‬ ְ cease (cf. Isa 24:8–9). In the end, Sheol is a place of silence. The annoying noise of Jerusalem will be absorbed by a black hole of silence and the city will be left in silent ruins. The themes of human pride and abasement are also present in vv. 15–16.89 By picking up phrases from Isa 2:9, 11, 17, the verses parallel the figure of “going down” to Sheol90 in an elegant way, and extend the perspective from the inhabitants of Jerusalem to humanity in general. What happens to the people in v. 14 will happen to anyone who exalts himself and attempts to live his life without regard for God. The notion of “the eyes of the highs” ( ‫ֵﬠינֵי‬ ‫)גְ בֹ הִ ים‬, which signifies the arrogance and haughtiness of man,91 points backwards to v. 12 and interprets the inability to “see” (‫ נבט‬in Hiphil and ‫)ראה‬ found there.92 A pride and self-centered perspective and the lack of interest in perceiving YHWH’s activity in the world are really two sides of the same coin. The counterpart of human humiliation is the exaltation of God in v. 16. The verse introduces YHWH’s exclusive exaltation and complete sovereignty to stress the fundamental contrast between his righteousness and his unrighteous people (notice the pairing of ‫ ִמ ְשׁ ָפּט‬and ‫ צְ דָ קָ ה‬in 5:7). It seems customary to understand the verse as a kind of theodicy, that is, by executing righteous 89

For an informative overview of this theme in Isaiah, see Kim, “Little Highs.” See also Isa 57:9: “you sent your envoys far away, and sent down even to Sheol [‫ד־שׁאוֹל‬ ְ ‫]וַתַּ ְשׁפִּ ילִ י ַﬠ‬.” Perhaps this verse renders an idea of subject abasement: “You have lowered yourself even down to Sheol”; cf. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 470. 91 Close parallels to this notion are found in the wisdom literature, for instance, in Prov 21:4: “Haughty eyes and a proud heart [‫ – ]רוּם־ ֵﬠי ַנ ִים ְוּרחַ ב־לֵב‬the lamp of the wicked – are sin”; cf. Prov 6:17; 16:5; Qoh 7:8; see also Isa 10:20; Ps 18:28; 101:5. 92 Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 151. 90

44

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

judgment, YHWH establishes his holiness or, indeed, he manifests himself as embodied glory (cf. the Niphal form of ‫קדשׁ‬: “shows himself holy”). 93 In Clements’ opinion, the addition of these words after the events in the early sixth century is precisely a means by which to emphasize that “the punishment of Jerusalem, when it came, was entirely right and deserved so that it fell within [YHWH’s] purpose for his people. The destruction of Jerusalem (in 587) did not reveal the powerlessness of Yahweh, but rather his holiness and righteousness.”94 Moreover, the exaltation and holiness of YHWH Zebaot here anticipate his glorious manifestation as judge in Isa 6 (see Chapter 2). It is interesting to notice that the two verbs in v. 15 which designate the abasement of humanity – “to be bowed down” (‫ )שׁחח‬and “to be low” (‫– )שׁפל‬ are elsewhere in Isaiah related to the fall of cities and buildings. Isaiah 2:6– 22, from where the language has been taken, utters threats against “every high tower” and “every fortified wall” that, so it seems, will collapse in the coming judgment of YHWH. More importantly, both verbs occur in the destruction of arrogant cities in Isa 24–27. YHWH will “lay low” (‫ )הִ ְשׁפִּ יל‬the pride of Moab and “the high fortifications of his walls he will bring down [‫]הֵ שַׁ ח‬, lay low [‫]הִ ְשׁפִּ יל‬, cast to the ground, even to the dust” (25:11–12). Furthermore, YHWH is the object of praise for “he has brought low [‫ ]הֵ שַׁ ח‬the inhabitants of the height; the lofty city he lays low [‫]י ְַשׁפִּ י ֶלנָּה‬. He lays it low [‫ ]י ְַשׁפִּ ילָהּ‬to the ground, casts it to the dust” (26:5; cf. 32:19). Due to their literary context, these passages clearly concern foreign cities in contrast to the strong city of Judah in 26:1. Nevertheless, the subtle play on humiliation of pride and the fall of great cities resonates with the judgment in vv. 13–17. The deportation and humiliation of the arrogant citizens of Jerusalem result in an empty and ruined capital as illustrated at the closure of the passage. The reference to grazing animals among the ruins in v. 17 most naturally takes up the trail of vv. 13–14 by depicting an empty and desolate Jerusalem. The inhabitants have been removed completely, swallowed up in death, and the only “inhabitants” that remain are lambs and temporary sojourners. In 93

E.g. Childs, Isaiah, 47; Wildberger, Jesaja, 190–92; Young, Isaiah I, 215–16. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 64; cf. Landy, “Exile,” 253: “the revelation of God’s transcendent righteousness and justice coincides with the destruction of his people.” Nevertheless, Moberly (“Whose Justice”) has challenged this common interpretation by understanding ‫ ִמ ְשׁ ָפּט‬and ‫ צְ דָ קָ ה‬as human moral qualities that YHWH has previously looked for in Israel (cf. 5:7). Accordingly, the purpose of 5:16 is not apologetic nor historicizing, as in Clements’ proposal, but didactic: “an explanation of the true sense of ‘being high’ – of human exaltation as something founded in the kind of moral practice characteristic of God, over against widely held, but mistaken, alternative construal (such as the possession of much property or the indulging of pleasure [in 5:8–10, 11–12]) which have disastrous consequences. In the attainment of such true exaltation God is exalted and his holiness displayed” (“Whose Justice,” 67). See also Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 151; Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 375–76. 94

1.2. Entering down into Sheol

45

Isaiah, the word “ruin” (‫ )חָ ְרבָּ ה‬refers almost exclusively to the ruins of Jerusalem95 and the scenario is comparable to that of the destruction of Zion in Mic 3:12 where the city shall become “a heap of ruins” (‫ )ﬠִ יִּ ין‬and the temple mount a wooded height (cf. Lam 5:18). However, the imagery of v. 17 also resonates with other verses in Isa 5. In the opening section, YHWH’s judgment against his vineyard will imply that “it shall be devoured [‫ ”]וְ הָ יָה לְ בָ ֵﬠר‬and become a “ruin” (‫ ;בָּ תָ ה‬5:6). Furthermore, a city in ruins echoes the reference to large and beautiful houses that shall be made desolate without inhabitants (5:10). Finally, it is possible that with the addition of vv. 15–16 the perspective has been enlarged so that the ruins of v. 17 do not refer only to one specific place, but also to the world at large as the object of divine judgment (cf. the central theme of Isa 24–27).96 Within the context of 5:11–17 the verse contains an ironic reversal. The animals that the decadent upper class likely ate at their extravagant feasts now sip upon their “leftovers”; the animals graze among the ruined city as though they were eating in their pasture. Formerly the people of Jerusalem bothered their God with “blood of lambs” (‫ )דַ ם כְּ בָ ִשׂים‬put to death (Isa 1:11); now these lambs feed undisturbed while the inhabitants have been led away (like sheep for slaughtering), entered into the realm of death. The quiet eating of lambs profoundly contrasts the restless energy that the inhabitants invested in drinking. Yet the aim of the animal imagery is not to depict a pleasant pastoral scene, but rather “to underline the completeness and irrevocability of the judgment.”97 The motif of grazing or wild animals in an abandoned city occurs frequently in the prophetic books. It applies both to Jerusalem/the land (Isa 7:25; 32:14; Jer 9:11) and to foreign cities such as Ammon, Babylon, Damascus, and Nineveh (Isa 13:20–22; 17:2; Ezek 25:5; Zeph 2:6; 2:14). An illustrative parallel to the scene in v. 17 is Isa 27:10. The city is not named but in light of Isa 24–27 is presumably Babylon or any other proud city that stands as “the symbol of world might arrayed against God” (cf. 24:10–12; 25:2–3; 26:5 above).98 According to this powerful verse, “the fortified city is solitary, a habitation deserted and forsaken [‫]משֻׁ לָּח וְ ֶנ ֱﬠזָב‬, ְ like the wilderness; the calves graze there, there they lie down, and strip its branches.” According to 5:17, a similar fate awaits Jerusalem. YHWH’s people are as arrogant and ignorant as the surrounding nations, even Babylon, and they will encounter a punish-

95 Isa 44:26; 49:19; 51:3; 52:9; 58:12; 61:4; 64:10; cf. Chapter 2. In Isa 48:21, the word seems to refer to the dry desert. Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 320) even argues that in this verse, “‫ בָּ ְ ָח ָרבוֹת‬is not to be derived from ‫ח ָרבוֹת‬/‫ה‬ ָ ְ ָ‫]…[ חָ ְרבּ‬, but rather from ‫חָ ָרבָ ה‬/‫חָ ֵרב‬, ‘dryness, dry ground,’ and should be vocalized ‫בֶּ חָ ָרבוֹת‬.” 96 Moberly, “Whose Justice,” 66. 97 Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, 376; cf. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 64. 98 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 497. See my analysis of Isa 27:7–13 in Chapter 5.

46

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

ment as harsh and complete as the evil empires of the world (cf. my analysis of Isa 22:1–14 in Chapter 2). As indicated in the textual notes, I understand “aliens” or “sojourners” (‫ גּ ִָרים‬of ‫ )גור‬to serve as an explanatory apposition to “fatlings.” Perhaps the addition is ironic: no one will make Jerusalem a permanent home, because sojourners will only stay there temporarily, or perhaps these sojourners are nomads shepherding the flocks (cf. Zeph 2:6). Yet the effect of this addition is a slight alteration of the imagery from animals to political enemies that have taken over the possession of the land. As noted, Williamson proposes that the original word was ‫“( ז ִָרים‬foreigners”). Even if this is not the case, the theme of aliens eating among the ruins resonates with “foreigners devour [‫ ]ז ִַרים אֹ כְ לִ ים‬your land” in Isa 1:7. At the time of restoration the image is reversed: the ruins of Jerusalem shall be built up and foreigners shall feed the flocks of the restored people. 1.2.4. Summing up Isa 5:11–17 contains several significant features with regard to the issue of exile. First, there is a curious association between the people’s ignorance of YHWH’s actions and their destiny as deportees as they shall be forced away “without knowledge.” This phrase likely points to both the reason for their exile and their subsequent condition of confusion and unconsciousness. Second, exile signifies a reversal of reality. The arrogant rulers of Jerusalem shall become subjugated to a foreign power. Those who have been drinking extravagantly shall be hungry and thirsty. The city full of the noisy and boisterous inhabitants shall be turned into a quiet and ruined location, only inhabited by grazing animals. Third, and most importantly, the parallel structure of vv. 13 and 14 suggests a close association between exile and death. YHWH’s banishment of his people involves their subjection to a foreign rule. They are drawn away from their home to a destination of despair and potential dangers. Notably, the realm of death is not only the end point of their removal, but is indeed thought to be a chaotic power that consumes life beyond limits and control. The social and ontological order collapses inside of it. Exile, according to 5:13–14, means to be absorbed or swallowed by a consuming force and to enter into a state of silence, darkness, and death. In my view, this prediction of exile and death points directly to the literary collapse at the center of Isaiah. Just as Sheol swallows the noisy inhabitants and leaves their capital in silent ruins, the black hole between Isa 39 and 40 stands for the absorption of life and a complete ruination of Jerusalem (see further in Chapter 2).

1.3. The hidden God

47

1.3. The hidden God 1.3. The hidden God

YHWH’s judgment against his people as announced in 5:11–17 is worked out fully in the empty space between Isa 39 and 40. It is the manifestation of a wrath so dark and massive that it can only be studied from a distance, that is, from the passages leading up to it and presupposing it. This hidden event mirrors YHWH’s own hiding. That YHWH hides himself or his face is a strong metaphor for rejection and distance. His judgment implies darkness and death. This dark side of divine punishment is captured by the term “the hidden God,” or deus absconditus, inspired by the phrase in Isa 45:15 about “a God who hides himself.” The notion has had a broad and fascinating reception in Jewish and Christian thought covering principal reflections on God’s inaccessible will and his mysterious and incomprehensible ways of acting.99 Without denying that these theological assertions are possible implications of the biblical concept, 100 I will claim that Isaiah’s way of speaking about divine hiddenness appears more limited as it primarily focuses on YHWH’s relation to his people. First, his hiddenness is closely associated with his anger and silence. It is seen as a response to the sin of his people rather than a general condition of divine-human relationships. God’s hidden face is an expression of punishment, resulting in destruction and exile. Second, and related to this, YHWH’s hiddenness occurs only for a limited period of time. It is temporary: “God is not described as being always hidden. Hiddenness is not the ‘normal’ situation.”101 By occasionally withdrawing his protective presence, YHWH is responsible for his people’s sufferings. According to Isaiah, YHWH alone is God and he is in total control of history. Everything comes from him (cf. Job 2:10; Lam 3:38; Amos 3:6). His self-presentation in Isa 45:6–7 leaves no doubt: “I am YHWH, and there is no other. I form light and create darkness, I make weal [‫ ]שָׁ לוֹם‬and create woe [‫;]רע‬ ָ I YHWH do all these things.”102 The statement emphasizes his sovereign power as creator. Three different verbs for creation are used: “to form” (‫)יצר‬, “to make” (‫)עשׂה‬, and “to create” (‫)ברא‬. It is worth noticing that ‫ ברא‬is used in connection with “darkness” and “woe.” As this verb designates God’s absolute and incomparable act of creation (only 99 For an overview of the theological reception of Isa 45:15, see Goldingay, Message, 286–288; Pilkington, “The Hidden God.” 100 For general treatments of God’s hiddenness and absence in the Bible, see Balentine, The Hidden God; Burnett, Divine Absence; Low, “Hiddenness of God”; Perdue, “Revelation.” 101 Balentine, The Hidden God, 72. 102 According to Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 161–62), these words “could only be spoken by God himself: as ‘statements made about God’ they could never stand up. […] we can only tremble and fall silent as we contemplate them.”

48

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

God is subject of ‫)ברא‬, the darkness and woe here are of such a kind that no one other than God is able to produce it. YHWH can bring one into darkness where there is no light (Lam 3:2), but he can also light up this darkness (Ps 18:29). He alone is responsible for the well-being (‫ )שָׁ לוֹם‬of his people and he alone is responsible for the disasters (‫)רע‬ ָ 103 that strike them. In the context of Isa 44:24–45:7, which is framed by the statements “I YHWH made all” ( ‫אָ נֹ כִ י‬ ‫ )יְ הוָה עֹ שֶׂ ה כֹּ ל‬and “I YHWH do all these things” (‫)אַנִ י יְ הוָה עֹ שֶׂ ה ָכל־אֵ לֶּה‬, ְ darkness and woe likely refer to the destruction of Jerusalem, Judah, and the temple and the scattering of the inhabitants as implied in 44:26–28 and in the earlier gap between Isa 39 and 40. Nevertheless, the experiences of weal and woe point to the complex nature of YHWH’s involvement in the history of his people: he judges and saves, he kills and brings to life. 1.3.1. YHWH’s hiddenness The tension of YHWH’s different attitudes towards his people is reflected in Isa 54:7–10. The overall theme of Isa 54 is YHWH’s return to desolate Jerusalem, initially portrayed as his abandoned wife (see further in Chapter 7). Verses 7–10 contain strong promises about peace and renewed protection. Although the words are mediated through the prophet, as indicated by the speech formulas in vv. 8b and 10b, the force of YHWH’s own voice in the first-person address is striking. These verses offer a slight glimpse of how YHWH from his point of view treated his people in the silent gap between Isa 39 and 40: “God’s own testimony here is that God did abandon Israel in exile.” 104 Yet the verses also offer a glimpse of how a radical change in YHWH has now taken place. His change of mind towards his people is solely dependent on his free and loving will and not on their potential repentance.105 Because the purpose of vv. 7–10 is to assure the people of divine mercy, the verses apparently downplay the significance of the period of exile. From God’s own perspective, this period, compared to his great compassion and everlasting love, was only brief and limited, perhaps similar to the figure of 70 years known from other prophets (e.g. Jer 29:10).106 The manifestation of his dark side only lasted “for a brief moment” (‫ )בְּ ֶרגַע קָ טֹ ן‬and “for a moment” 103

Paired with ‫“( שָׁ לוֹם‬weal, blessing, peace”) ‫ ָרע‬here signifies “bad experiences” rather than “moral badness”; see Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 405–6; Goldingay, Message, 270–72. A moral interpretation is nevertheless indicated in the version of the verse in 1QIsaa which substitutes ‫ שָׁ לוֹם‬with ‫( טוֹב‬cf. the pairing of ‫ טוֹב‬and ‫ ָרע‬in Isa 5:20). 104 Brueggemann, Isaiah 40–66, 153. 105 Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 274) calls this idea the heart of the matter in Second Isaiah’s proclamation: “with God himself and in God himself the change has already taken place, and therefore everything must alter. A change has come over God. He ceases from wrath, and again shows Israel mercy.” 106 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 363.

1.3. The hidden God

49

(‫)רגַע‬. ֶ His wrath and its effects have only been momentary. Regarding the former phrase, it is possible to understand it as a reference to his wrath (“fit of rage”) in contrast to his “great love” (‫)רח ֲִמים גְּ דֹ לִ ים‬. ַ 107 Not without irony YHWH appears to echo the people’s own confessions: “For his anger is but for a moment [‫;]רגַע‬ ֶ his favor for a lifetime” (Ps 30:6).108 First, YHWH says: “I abandoned you” ( ‫) ֲﬠזַבְ ִתּי‬. Due to the context, the immediate address is to Jerusalem which, in the preceding verse, is likened to “a wife forsaken” (‫)אשָּׁ ה ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬ ִ and which, according to 5:17, should be left desolate and empty of people. YHWH’s abandonment of his city or heritage as punishment occurs in the writings of other prophets, for instance, Jer 12:7: “I have forsaken my house” (‫יתי‬ ִ ֵ‫) ָﬠזַבְ ִתּי אֶ ת־בּ‬, and Ezek 8:12 and 9:9: “YHWH has forsaken the land” (‫) ָﬠזַב יְ הוָה אֶ ת־הָ אָ ֶרץ‬. Second, YHWH says: “in overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you.” The initial phrase suggests that YHWH’s punishing activity is compared to an all-devouring deluge or flood (cf. v. 9). The word ‫“( שֶׁ צֶ ף‬overflowing”) literally means “outburst” or “outpouring”. It only occurs here but is likely a variant spelling of “flood” (‫)שֶׁ טֶ ף‬.109 Elsewhere, YHWH’s punishment is depicted as a rushing flood (Nah 1:8; cf. Isa 8:7–8). The word ‫קֶ צֶ ף‬, which generally means “anger” or “wrath”, is also used in the context of frothing waves, for instance, in Hos 10:7: “Samaria’s king shall perish like foam [‫ ]קֶ צֶ ף‬on the face of the waters.” The notion of YHWH’s hidden face is of great theological importance and I will return to it shortly. Verses 9–10 compare the exile to the great flood in the days of Noah. Although the explicit focus is on the divine oath to affirm that such destruction will never recur, the comparison indirectly tells us something about the nature of the exile. No event in the history of Israel can match its brutality and extensiveness; one has to go all the way back to the primordial flood to find a suitable event for comparison. 110 The destruction of Jerusalem mirrors the destruction of the earth.111 However, just as YHWH made an oath not to de107

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 423. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 273–74; cf. Goldingay, Message, 530: “Yhwh asks them to believe the words of their prayers.” 109 Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 423. 110 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 275. 111 The Noah narrative as such can be read as a story about exile. The problematizing of “the land” which is introduced in the punishment of Cain (see Chapter 3) continues in the story about the great flood, yet here it concerns the world at large. Because of wickedness, everything has to be overflowed and purified before the proper state can be restored (cf. the idea of a Sabbath rest in Lev 26 and 2 Chr 36; see Chapter 2). The ark represents a kind of exile where Noah and his family as the holy remnant survive while everything is destroyed. According to Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 364), “the Isaiah passage [54:9–10] may provide a clue to reading Gen 1–11 as parabolic of the religious history of Israel repositioned in the early history of humanity and transposed into the language of myth.” 108

50

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

stroy the earth again (Gen 8:21; 9:15), he now has sworn never again to unleash his anger and rebuke. The first verb “to be angry” or “to rage” (‫)קצף‬ picks up the motif of v. 8 and due to its polyvalent meaning it might also mean: “I shall never again raise the foam and froth of the rushing flood.”112 The second verb “to shout” or “to rebuke” (‫ )גער‬designates a harsh form of accusation (cf. Isa 17:13; Zech 3:2). The noun (‫ )גְּ ﬠ ָָרה‬occurs in Isaiah in the context of YHWH drying up the sea (50:2), thus offering another sophisticated allusion to the flood story. In contrast to his past wrath and momentarily concealment, YHWH now promises to be present permanently and to protect his people, captured by the references to his “steadfast love” and “covenant of peace” in v. 10. YHWH’s statement “I hid my face from you” ( ֵ‫ )הִ ְסתַּ ְר ִתּי ָפנַי ִממּ‬in v. 7 is a strong expression for his judging wrath. The withdrawal of his life-giving presence from his people implies darkness and death. The phrase “hide the face” (‫ )סתר ָפּנִ ים‬with reference to God occurs 26 times in the Old Testament. 113 In addition to Deuteronomy (31:17–18, 32:20) and Job (13:24; 34:29), the phrase occurs 12 times in Psalms114 and nine times in the prophetic books.115 Regarding the latter two sections, there seems to be an important difference. In Psalms, YHWH is absent, apparently without reason; there is little mention of sin or anything else that might have caused him to conceal himself. As a result, the tone is often one of questioning and protest. In contrast, the prophets insist that YHWH hides himself as punishment for his people’s sins. To be sure, there is a clear link between sin and judgment, disobedience and divine hiding.116 The prophets claim that YHWH’s hiddenness eventually results in destruction and deportation. In Mic 3:4, YHWH withdraws because the leaders of Jerusalem have acted wickedly (‫ )הֵ ֵרעוּ מַ ַﬠלְ לֵיהֶ ם‬and consequently Jerusalem shall become a heap of ruins. In Jer 33:5, the Babylonian army shall kill the inhabitants of Jerusalem ruthlessly because YHWH has hidden his face from the city due to all their wickedness (‫ל־ר ָﬠתָ ם‬ ָ ‫) ָכּ‬. Looking back on the events, Ezek 39:23–24 explicitly links the hiding of God with the experience of exile: “the nation shall know that the house of Israel went into captivity [‫ ]גָּלוּ‬for their iniquity [‫]בַ ﬠֲוֹנָם‬, because they dealt treacherously with me. So I hid my face from them and gave them into the hand of their adversaries […] I dealt with them according to their uncleanness [‫ ]כְּ ט ְֻמאָ תָ ם‬and their transgressions 112

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 425. Balentine, The Hidden God, 45–79; “Isaiah 45,” 114–17. 114 Ps 10:11; 13:2; 22:25; 27:9; 30:8; 44:25; 51:11; 69:18; 88:15; 102:3; 104:29; 143:7. 115 Isa 8:17; 54:8; 59:2; 64:6; Jer 33:5; Ezek 39:23–24, 29; Mic 3:4. In Isaiah, the phrase occurs twice with reference to the servant figure (50:6; 53:3). 116 The same thought is found in Deut 31:17–18, where YHWH will hide his face and forsake his people because of all the evil they have done by turning to other gods (cf. 32:20). 113

1.3. The hidden God

51

[‫]וּכְ פִ ְשׁ ֵﬠיהֶ ם‬, and hid my face from them.” Notable in the case of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, however, is that the motif of divine concealment is followed by a promise of restoration (Jer 33:6; Ezek 39:29: “I will never again hide my face”; cf. Isa 54:7–10). The first reference to the hidden face of YHWH in Isaiah appears at 8:16– 18. The prophet says: “I will wait for YHWH who is hiding his face from the house of Jacob, and I will hope in him” (v. 17). The notion here confirms the coming judgment – divine rejection – which the prophet has just proclaimed (cf. 8:5–8, 12–15). His hope in a God who hides at first appears paradoxical. Yet the ambiguity is important. On the one hand, Isaiah loyally awaits the fulfillment of YHWH’s righteous punishment; on the other, the prophet maintains his faith in YHWH despite his concealment from his people. The emphasis on hope (‫ חכה‬in Piel and ‫ קוה‬in Piel) which frames the notion of YHWH’s hiddenness likewise indicates a confident belief that a prosperous, joyful future might come after the time of judgment (8:23–9:6; cf. Isa 54:7– 10). The relation between the disobedience of the people and the hiding of YHWH is clearly visible in the latter part of the book. In 57:17, YHWH states: “Because of their wicked covetousness I was angry; I struck them, I hid [my face]117 and was angry” (‫)בּﬠֲוֹן בִּ צְ עוֹ קָ צַ פְ ִתּי וְ אַ כֵּהוּ הַ ְסתֵּ ר וְ אֶ קְ צֹ ף‬. The sinful greed of the people is emphasized by placing the phrase at the opening of the verse. Noteworthy is the staccato-like listing of verbs designating the wrathful punishment by YHWH. His hiding is juxtaposed with his anger (‫)קצף‬ twice and the striking of his people (‫ נכה‬in Hiphil).118 YHWH’s hiddenness also occurs in human reflections on divine passiveness during and after the great destruction. An initial accusation is found in 40:27 in the people’s lament of YHWH’s apparent lack of attention: “My way is hidden [‫ ] ִנ ְס ְתּ ָרה‬from YHWH, and my right is disregarded by my God.” But the reverse is found in 64:6 where the people confess that because of their iniquity YHWH has hidden his face from them and delivered them into the hands of an evil power (see my analysis of 63:7–64:11 in Chapter 2). YHWH’s lack of intervention is not, so it is argued, due to a lack of power but a deliberate response to the sin of his people. In Isa 59:2, the prophet addresses his people and claims: “your iniquities have been barriers between you and your God, and your sins have hidden his119 face from you so that he 117

“My face” is absent in the MT, but added in the LXX and the Vulgate. The exact meaning of the diverging grammatical forms of the verbs in this verse is unclear. Literally, the verse reads: “I was angry [perfect], and I will strike them [imperfect] hiding myself [infinitive] and I will be angry [imperfect].” The footnote in BHS proposes to repoint ‫ וְ אַ כֵּהוּ‬to ‘‫( וָא‬consecutive imperfect) and ‫ וְ אֶ קְ ֹצף‬to ‫( וְ קָ ֹצף‬infinitive), perhaps suggesting that YHWH struck them by hiding in wrath. 119 The MT just has “face” (‫) ָפּ ִנים‬, but the face of God is nevertheless implied. The ancient versions have “his face.” 118

52

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

does not hear.” Again, emphasis falls on the iniquities (‫ )ﬠְ ַוֹנוֹת‬and sins (‫)חָ טָּ אוֹת‬ of the people. The idea that the transgressions of the people have hidden YHWH is remarkable. As a result, all kinds of interaction have been hindered. The people do not see God, and God does not hear the prayers of his people and, accordingly, does not respond. In a fascinating manner, the former half of the parallelism expresses this basic interruption by means of “barriers” (‫ )מַ בְ ִדּלִ ים‬between YHWH and his people. The root of the word which is a plural particle in Hiphil means “to separate” (‫)בדל‬, that is, a new but damaging separation has been made between heaven and earth (cf. Gen 1). In other words, the state of exile is a “separation from God in the extreme.”120 Finally, I would like to take up Isa 45:15 which is a classical passage discussing God’s hiddenness. An unidentified voice claims: “Truly, you are a God who hides himself, O God of Israel, the Savior” ( ‫אָ כֵן אַ תָּ ה אֵ ל ִמ ְסתַּ תֵּ ר ֱא הֵ י‬ ‫מוֹשׁי ַﬠ‬ ִ ‫)יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬.121 The general theme of Isa 45 is the uniqueness and superiority of God as creator and master of history. The frequent repetition of selfpredication formulas such as “I am YHWH” or “I am God” (e.g. vv. 5–7, 18– 19, 22) is striking. The address to God about his nature in this verse (“you are”) certainly stands out. Nevertheless, it is not clear who the speaker in v. 15 is. Some scholars suggest that we should read the verse in continuation of the nations’ acknowledgement of YHWH, Israel’s God, as the only true God (“God is with you alone”) in v. 14.122 This suggestion is unsatisfactory, however, because there is much to indicate that a complete shift in speaker and addressee takes place. In light of this shift, some propose that the verse is a comment by the prophet (or a later scribe) about YHWH’s completely free will and mysterious ways of acting.123 According to many of those who opt for this interpretation, the hidden ways of YHWH refer to the unexpected manner of his salvific intervention by calling the pagan emperor Cyrus to liberate his people. A third option which could encompass the prophetic figure as well is that the verse is “Israel’s own response to God’s repeated self-presentation in the preceding verses” (cf. the response by the heaven and earth in v. 8 and the nations in v. 14).124 The response or confession reflects the people’s experi120

Balentine, The Hidden God, 71. In my opinion, Paul’s (Isaiah 40–66, 266) alternative translation, “Truly you are a God who protects” to match “Savior” and with reference to Deut 32:38, Isa 4:6, and 16:4, is strained and discards the important contrast in the parallelism. 122 Goldingay, Message, 285; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 266. The proposal in the footnote in BHS to emend ‫“( אַ תָּ ה‬you”) to ָ‫“( ִאתּ‬with you”) accords with this view. 123 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 258; Brandscheidt, “Verborgenheit,” 5; Childs, Isaiah, 355; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 170–71; Young, Isaiah III, 208–9. 124 Balentine, “Isaiah 45,” 108; cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 423: “Es ist der prophetische Sprecher als Kollektiv, der das Bekenntnis der Völker bekräftigend und vertiefend aufnimmt.” 121

1.3. The hidden God

53

ences of God and their review of them (cf. 40:27; 49:14). In a remarkable manner the verse fuses lament and hope into one assertion and thereby offers a human response to the ambiguous nature of YHWH as seen in his selfpresentations in Isa 45:7 and 54:7–10.125 In my view, there are two major reasons in favor of reading the verse as an assertion about YHWH’s different attitudes towards his people. These relate to semantics and the immediate literary context. On the first, Samuel Balentine has offered a brilliant analysis.126 Of most importance is the linkage between ‫ ִמ ְסתַּ תֵּ ר‬and ‫מוֹשׁי ַﬠ‬. ִ The grammatical forms of the two words (participles in Hitpael and Hiphil, respectively) explicitly associate them with one another. The verbal roots of both often point to the activity of YHWH as God, but this is the only verse where they are paired. While ‫ ישׁע‬in Isaiah frequently designates divine salvation (e.g. 43:3, 11; 45:21), ‫סתר‬, as we have seen, refers to YHWH’s judgment and absence. There is no reason to believe that his hiddenness here should not carry the same negative undertones as in the instances already examined.127 The two words thus express a strong contrast. As a result, “the two verbal actions, hiding and saving, are joined in asserting a paradox of divine activity: God is both hidden from Israel and saving Israel. […] The two statements of God’s hiding and God’s saving, together, comprise the one assertion.”128 To my mind, this complexity is indeed theological: God both kills and brings to life. On the one hand, YHWH punishes his people because of their sin by hiding himself; on the other, he saves them by revealing himself in the events of history. A proper theological approach does not attempt to smooth out or neglect these contiguous, contrasting assertions but rather maintains the tension between them as a profound and critical reflection of God’s reality. Although none of the assertions in 45:15 seems to be superior to the other, their sequence indicates a basic movement from judgment to salvation (cf. 54:7–8 and the dynamic in Hannah’s prayer in 1 Sam 2:6).129 125 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 423: “Beide Eigenschaften, die des sich Verbergens […] und des Rettens, die in ihrem Nebeneinander auf den ersten Blick höchst paradox wirken, bringen letztlich die Erfahrungen Israels mit seinem Gott auf den Punkt.” 126 Balentine, “Isaiah 45,” 109–11. 127 Balentine, “Isaiah 45,” 109–10: “Isa. 45.15 represents the only occurrence of the root satar in the hithpael participial form with reference to God, although its meaning here cannot be very different than that which informs the collocation histtir panim.” The Hitpael form in fact only adds intensity to YHWH’s hiding, turning it into a critical and almost permanent state; cf. Brandscheidt, “Verborgenheit,” 9. 128 Balentine, “Isaiah 45,” 110–11. 129 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 424: “Als rettender Gott gibt er seine Verborgenheit auf und wird heilvoll erfahrt.” According to Balentine (“Isaiah 45,” 111–12), YHWH’s statement in 45:19 can be read as a reinterpretation of Israel’s assertion in 45:15. Here, YHWH stresses that “the norm defining divine activity” is righteousness and not chaos. I believe

54

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

The second major reason for favoring this reading is the immediate literary context of the verse. An important theme in vv. 14–17 is YHWH as God over against the nothingness of foreign gods and their idols (cf. 40:18–20; 41:6–7, 21–29; 44:9–20). 130 There is no god besides him. Unlike the static idols, carved in stone, YHWH is a living and dynamic God: he hides and he saves. Unlike the idols which are always visible, YHWH demonstrates his sovereignty by hiding himself. Yet unlike the idols, which despite their permanent presence among their worshippers (and makers) are powerless and unable to save, YHWH can reveal himself and his powerful and salvific actions to his people and the world. 1.3.2. YHWH’s anger YHWH’s hidden face is frequently associated with his anger.131 As was the case with hiddenness, the prophets interpret divine anger or wrath as a negative reaction to the people’s iniquity (cf. Isa 59:17 above). It does not occur without a cause but is provoked: “Yahweh’s anger is not a spontaneous loss of self-control […] but rather a rational, predictable response to sin.”132 In the prophets, divine wrath often implies harsh judgment, expressed in a variety of images: military defeat, famine, destruction, exile, and death. This is also the case in Isaiah.133 In the former part of the book, YHWH’s wrath implies future judgment against Judah (e.g. 9:7–10:4). In the latter part of the book in particular, the passages about divine wrath most frequently point backward to past events. The first explicit reference to YHWH’s anger after the great gap between Isa 39 and 40 is found at the end of Isa 42. Explaining the consequences of his people’s sin and failure to obey the law, the prophet states: “so [YHWH] there is another important implication of the statement “I did not speak in secret [‫]בַּ סֵּ תֶ ר‬, in a place in a land of darkness.” Not only has YHWH’s vision of liberation and salvation been proclaimed openly (cf. Isa 48:16), his pronouncement of judgment and complete destruction did not occur in secret (cf. 5:11–17). As we shall see in Chapters 2 and 3, passages in the former part of the book have repeatedly foreshadowed this fatal destiny. 130 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 423–25. 131 For general studies of the anger of YHWH, see Fretheim, “Theological Reflections”; Lamb, “Wrath.” 132 Lamb, “Wrath,” 880. Cf. Fretheim, “Divine Violence,” 373: “God’s anger is a sign that the relationship to Israel is being taken seriously, since apathy is not productive of anger. […] God is moved by what people do and shows that anger is a divine response and not a divine attribute.” 133 Cf. Locke, “Wrath of God,” 227–33. In addition to YHWH’s anger against his own people, which is the focus of my study, there are important passages about his punishing anger against enemies, nations, and their rulers, for instance, Assyria (Isa 10:5–19), Babylon (Isa 13–14; 46–47), and Edom (Isa 34; 63:1–6). For a recent treatment of divine violence in Isaiah, see Obermayer, Göttliche Gewalt.

1.3. The hidden God

55

poured upon him [Jacob] the heat of his anger and the fury of war” (42:25). The phrase “the heat of his anger” (‫)חֵ מָ ה אַ פּוֹ‬134 combines two typical terms for divine wrath among the sixteen words used for anger. 135 The juxtaposition with “the fury of war” (‫ )ﬠֱזוּז ִמלְ חָ מָ ה‬is interesting. First, it picks up the image of YHWH as warrior presented earlier in the chapter (42:13; see below). Second, the image implies that YHWH declared war on his own people and fought against them like an enemy (cf. 31:4; 63:10). A similar thought is found in Jer 21:5 where YHWH will fight (‫ לחם‬in Niphal) against his people “in anger, in fury, and in great wrath” (‫)בְּ אַ ף וּבְ חֵ מָ ה וּבְ קֶ צֶ ף גָּדוֹל‬. The rare word “fury” (‫ )ﬠֱזוּז‬elsewhere designates the power of God (Ps 78:4; cf. 24:8) and the might of his awesome works (Ps 145:6). Here, the full impact of YHWH’s destructive force has been turned against his people. The latter half of the verse relates the wrath to burning fire that surrounds the people. Fire is a common attribute of divine anger (e.g. Isa 5:24–25; 30:27, 30; 66:15) and Lamentations relates it explicitly to the fall of Jerusalem: “YHWH gave full vent to his wrath; he poured out his hot anger [‫]שָׁ ַפ חֲרוֹן אַ פּוֹ‬, and kindled a fire in Zion that consumed its foundations” (Lam 4:11).136 YHWH’s anger as the underlying cause for past defeat and humiliation is further elaborated in Isa 47:6. YHWH addresses Lady Babylon, his tool of punishment, and says: “I was angry [‫ ]קצַ פְ ִתּי‬with my people, I profaned my heritage, I gave them into your hand.” Out of wrath, God abandoned his people and handed them over to the enemies. This act is described as profanation or defilement (‫)חלל‬. Due to the parallelism, “my heritage” (‫ ) ַנ ֲחל ִָתי‬likely refers to the people as YHWH’s heritage (Isa 19:25; 63:17; cf. Deut 32:9).137 However, there might be a play here, because “heritage” elsewhere refers to YHWH’s temple (e.g. Jer 12:7).138 Moreover, in Isa 43:28, YHWH’s punishment consists of profaning “the princes of my sanctuary” (‫ )שָׂ ֵרי קֹ דֶ שׁ‬and delivering the people to utter destruction. Everything with a special status in the eyes of YHWH has been banished and destroyed. Divine punishment worked out in full is reflected in Isa 51:17–23 where the state of destruction and exile is associated with YHWH’s “cup of 134 1QIsaa has a construct form (‫ )חמת‬for the absolute form in the MT and it seems common to interpret their relation in that way. It is also possible simply to juxtapose them: “so he poured out on him rage, his anger, and the fury of war.” 135 For a brief review of terminology, see Lamb, “Wrath,” 878–79. 136 Interestingly, rabbinic tradition groups Isa 42:25 with Ezek 9:8 and Lam 2:4 and 4:11 as “God’s four bad outpourings that balance God’s four good outpourings” (e.g. Ezek 39:29); see Goldingay, Message, 184–85. 137 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 490. 138 Cf. Ezek 7:21–22: “I will hand it over to strangers [‫ ]וּ ְנתַ ִתּיו בְּ יַד־הַ זּ ִָרים‬as booty, to the wicked of the earth as plunder; they shall profane it [‫]חִ לְּ ֻל ֻה‬. I will avert my face from them, so that they may profane [‫ ]חִ לְּ לוּ‬my treasured place; the violent shall enter it, they shall profane it [ ָ‫]חִ לְּ לוּה‬.”

56

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

wrath.”139 The idea of a cup that contains divine anger is a common feature in the prophetic literature.140 The cup is always given to a people – Judah, foreign nations, or both – and the effects of drinking from it illustrate the suffering of judgment: drunkenness, staggering, reeling, shame, horror, and desolation.141 According to Jer 25:27, one can hardly rise again after having tasted its wine: “drink, get drunk and vomit, fall and rise no more.” Nevertheless, it is exactly from this drunkenness and unconsciousness that Jerusalem in vv. 17–18 is urged to rise. The repetition of ‫ עור‬in Hitpolel (“rouse yourself”) points to the intensity of the call; this is how one speaks to drunkards unable to wake up! Jerusalem did not only drink (‫ )שׁכר‬from YHWH’s cup, but indeed drained it to the very last drop (‫ ;מצה‬cf. Ezek 23:34; Ps 75:9). She did not receive it through the prophet (cf. Jer 25:15), but it was given to her directly by YHWH himself. The notion of “the cup of his wrath” (‫ )כּוֹס חֲמָ תוֹ‬indicates a subtle play because ‫ חֵ מָ ה‬in a few cases refers to poison (e.g. Deut 32:33). YHWH’s wrath is as deadly as poison from snakes. It is a cup that causes shaking or staggering (‫)תַּ ְר ֵﬠלָה‬, that is, unconscious and uncontrolled senses.142 Despite Jerusalem’s reeling, none of her inhabitants was able to guide and help her. Verses 19–20 look back on past afflictions caused by YHWH’s wrath. The initial reference to “these two things have befallen you” ( ִ‫)שׁתַּ יִ ם הֵ נָּה קֹ ְראֹ תַ י‬ ְ is not entirely clear. The participle of ‫ קרא‬indicates “experiences,” perhaps “disasters” (cf. e.g. Deut 31:29). The emphasis on “two” may pick up the references to “she has received double for her sins” in 40:2 or to Lady Babylon’s double humiliation by loss of children and widowhood in 47:9. In addition to these allusions, the number might refer to the two series of disasters in the verse itself: those that struck the city (“devastation and destruction”) and those that struck its inhabitants (“famine and sword”).143 In light of this totality of judgment, the questions about who can grieve with the city and who can console it can only be answered negatively: no one.144 Verse 20 elaborates on this painful experience. No one could console because all of the inhabitants 139

As is often observed, the images of Jerusalem’s sufferings in this passage are close to those in Lamentations, especially Lam 4; see Goldingay, Message, 440; Paul, Isaiah 40– 66, 376. 140 See Jer 25:25–29; 49:12; 51:7; Ezek 23:31–34; Hab 2:16; Zech 12:2; cf. Ps 75:9; Job 21:20; Rev 14:10. 141 Lamb, “Wrath,” 880; cf. the review in Low, Mother Zion, 90–96. 142 Goldingay, Message, 442: “the drink makes someone shake as if affected by alcohol or poison rather than fear.” 143 Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 175–76. 144 The latter question literally reads “how shall I comfort you?” ( ֵ‫)מי ֲא ַנחֲמ‬. ִ Nevertheless, 1QIsaa has a third person form (‫ )ינחמך‬which is shared by the ancient translations and followed by many modern translations and commentaries; see e.g. Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 141; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 239.

1.3. The hidden God

57

were fainting (‫ )עלף‬and lying senseless in the streets, perhaps fainting in thirst (Amos 8:13) and dizzy because of heat (Jonah 4:8). Therefore, they could neither guide nor mourn. Drawing from the image of drinking in v. 17, they were full (‫ )מלא‬of YHWH’s wrath (‫)חֲמַ ת־יְ הוָה‬. The comparison with “an antelope in a net” is initially applied to their reeling which is likened to “a trapped animal futilely attempting to escape until it has lost all of its strength to resist.”145 Yet the net (‫)מכְ מָ ר‬ ִ also suggests captivity or exile, as the treatment of the noble women of Samaria shows (Amos 4:1–3; cf. Hab 1:14–16). YHWH’s wrath in v. 20 parallels “the rebuke of your God” ( ִ‫) ַגּﬠ ֲַרת ֱא הָ י‬, as was the case in 54:9. The reference to “your” emphasizes two things. First, it was God himself who caused the past sufferings of his people; it was the manifestation of his anger that they experienced. Second, “your” suggests that despite of all these calamities he is still their God; the judge shall become the savior.146 The turning point at v. 21 is thus not surprising. YHWH addresses Jerusalem as “the wounded” (‫ ;ﬠֲנִ יָּה‬cf. 54:11), “who are drunk (‫)שׁכ ַֻרת‬, ְ but not with wine.” The references to “strong drinks” (‫ )שֵׁ כָר‬and “wine” (‫) ַי ִין‬ which occurred in the passages on drunkenness analyzed above (5:11, 22; 28:7) indicate a subtle irony. The people ignored YHWH by devoting themselves to drinking. Judged by YHWH, the people stayed drunk not with alcohol but with YHWH’s wrath which implied hunger, thirst (vv. 19–20; cf. 5:13), and complete devastation. Now YHWH has changed his mind; he will intervene and restore his people. According to vv. 22–23, he shall take the cup from their hand – or perhaps he already did so – and pass it on to their enemies, “your tormentors” (cf. Lam 4:21 and the extension of perspective from Judah to its neighbors in Jer 25:18–26). As was the case in the divine oath in 54:9, YHWH assures his people that they shall never again (‫ )עוֹד‬drink from his cup of wrath. Despite the intensity and brutality of YHWH’s judgment, other passages indicate that his anger will not last forever. In Isa 57:16, he states: “I will not continually accuse, nor will I always be angry [‫]אֶ קְּ צוֹף‬.” According to Isa 48:9–11, YHWH’s concern for his reputation kept him back from destroying his people. Curiously, this passage assumes that the people’s rebellion which provoked divine anger was not a single event but a permanent state; in fact, the people have always been rebellious (“from birth”; 48:8; cf. 1:2–4). YHWH should have unleashed his anger without limit and annihilated them completely because they deserved it, but to protect his honor, he has chosen

145

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 379. On the nature of this image, see Terian, “Hunting Imagery.” Cf. Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 178: “Die Radikalität des monotheistischen Gedankens tritt am Ende der Strophe klar zu Tage: Weil und insofern JHWH in seinem Zorn der eigentliche Grund für die tiefe Not Zion/Jerusalems ist, bleibt er als ‘dein Gott’ auch letzter Grund der Hoffnung.” 146

58

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

not to do so.147 Rather, he makes long (‫ ארך‬in Hiphil) his anger, that is, he controls it, and he restrains it (‫ )חטם‬in order that his people are not cut off: “Der zurückgehaltene Zorn bedeutet nichts anderes als der Nichtvollzug der gänzlichen Vernichtung.” 148 YHWH’s restraint does not occur because of mercy but out of concern for his name and himself (notice the triple repetition of ‫ לְ מַ ַﬠן‬in vv. 9 and 11).149 The profanation of his people (and their temple) was apparently not a problem; to be sure, he caused it (Isa 47:6). Yet the profanation of his name, his own divine essence, is different and his glory shall not be given to another god (v. 11). YHWH’s wrathful judgment also implies a process of refining, as v. 10 illustrates: “See, I have refined you, but not like silver; I have tested150 you in the furnace of adversity” (‫)הִ נֵּה צְ ַרפְ ִתּי וְ ל ֹא בְ כָסֶ ף בְּ חַ ְר ִתּי בְּ כוּר עֹ נִ י‬. The state of exile is compared to the process of refining metal (cf. Isa 1:25). The connection between this image and divine wrath is heat and fire.151 The burning fire of YHWH’s punishment is not only destructive (42:25) but also purifying (4:4–5; 6:13; 66:15–16): “God’s fire burns to refine.”152 The smelting image indicates a transformation of the people into something new and clean. Past and present afflictions are results of YHWH’s deliberate testing of his people in the “furnace of adversity,” a strong metaphor for the destruction of Jerusalem and the sufferings in the exile. The profound change in Isa 54:7–10 where YHWH’s eternal love replaced his momentary hiddenness and wrath is also witnessed in other passages about divine anger. A good example is Isa 60:10: “for in my wrath [‫ ]בְּ קִ צְ פִּ י‬I struck you down, but in my favor [‫ ]בִּ ְרצוֹנִ י‬I have had mercy on you.” As was argued above, the change of attitude is something that occurs within God himself. The judge becomes savior (cf. 45:15). Another example illustrating the fundamental reversal from judgment to salvation occurs in the hymn at the closure of Isa 1–12: “for though you were angry [ ָ‫ ]אָ נַפְ תּ‬with me, your

147 Dille, “Honor Restored,” 239: “If Israel is destroyed, YHWH is shamed in the light of the nations; and without a people, YHWH has no one to honor him.” 148 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 526. 149 Cf. YHWH’s statement in Ezek 20:13–14: “Then I thought I would pour out my wrath upon them in the wilderness, to make an end of them. But I acted for the sake of my name, so that it should not be profaned in the sight of the nations, in whose sight I had brought them out.” 150 The word ‫ בְּ חַ ְר ִתּי‬could also be translated as “I have chosen you” which would accord with earlier sayings (cf. Isa 41:8–9; 43:10; 44:1–2). Nevertheless, it is customary to take notice of, or adopt the reading in, 1QIsaa: “I have tested you” (‫ ;)בחנתיכה‬cf. the pairing of ‫ צרף‬and ‫ בחן‬in Zech 13:9. Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 312–13) derives the MT’s reading from the Aramaic verb ‫ בחר‬which allegedly denotes testing and refining. 151 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 527: “Wie große Hitze bei der Verhüttung notwendig ist, so auch JHWHs Gerichtshandeln an seinem Volk.” 152 Locke, “Wrath of God,” 232.

1.3. The hidden God

59

anger turned away [ ְ‫]יָשֹׁ ב אַ פּ‬, and you comforted me [‫”]וּת ַנחֲמֵ נִ י‬ ְ (12:1). After a period of anger and darkness, divine comfort will break forth (cf. 40:1). 1.3.3. YHWH’s silence We have already observed that YHWH’s powerful cry for comfort in 40:1 escapes the black hole between Isa 39 and 40. This silent gap in the composition of the book of Isaiah is analogous to the restrained silence of YHWH during and after the great destruction. The association of divine hiddenness with silence is clear in the proclamation of judgment in Mic 3:4: “he will not answer them; he will hide his face from them.”153 Similarly, YHWH’s hiddenness in Isa 8:16–18 parallels the motif of silence, expressed by means of a “sealed” book. No further words will be added; indeed, no further words will be spoken by God at all until his judgment has been carried out. Just as he hides his face, he will keep silent for a certain amount of time. Isaiah 40:1 marks a turning point. From now on YHWH will intervene and respond to his people’s prayers (cf. 41:17; 58:9; 65:24); he will speak. A radical illustration of YHWH’s intention to break his own silence is found in Isa 42:13–14. The two verses center on sound or noise by means of two types of similes: YHWH will shout “like a soldier” (‫ ) ַכּגִּ בּוֹר‬and “like a warrior” (‫ )כְּ ִאישׁ ִמלְ חָ מוֹת‬and cry out “like a woman in labor” (‫)כַּיּוֹלֵדָ ה‬.154 Common to both images – a military attack and a child birth – is the element of surprise: no one can anticipate when it will come. 155 Similarly, YHWH’s renewed activity towards his people is both surprising and overwhelming. It is an aggressive outburst of extraordinary noise that stands in sheer contrast to his remoteness and self-restraint in the past. It is a dramatic and dynamic release of energy that has been built up throughout the period of passivity. The narrator in v. 13 sets the scene: “YHWH goes forth like a soldier, like a warrior he stirs up his fury; he cries out, he shouts aloud, he shows himself mighty against his foes.”156 The verse opens with ‫יְ הוָה‬, adding emphasis to YHWH as the one who will initiate new actions. His warrior-like appearance 153

See also Ps 27:7; 69:18; 102:3; 143:7; cf. Balentine, The Hidden God, 151–55. Darr, “Like Warrior,” 564: “the warrior and travailing woman similes, different though they be, share both profound intensity and a markedly auditory quality.” 155 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 256: “Der Überraschungseffekt, der sowohl beim militärischen Angriff als auch beim Einsetzen der Wehen eine Rolle spielt, muss hier mitgedacht werden.” 156 This translation assumes that the function of ‫ אַ ף‬is to add intensity. It is, however, also possible to interpret the word as “anger,” that is, “he shouts aloud [in] anger.” The effect of this alternative reading is to introduce the motif of wrath. This is emphasized further in the translation of Goldingay (Message, 169), who alters the Masoretic division of the verse: “YHWH is one who will go out like a warrior, arise like a man of battle. He will shout in fury, roar in anger, against his enemies he will prove himself a warrior” (my emphasis); cf. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 194–95. 154

60

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

here is far from unique. According to Deut 10:17, YHWH is “the great God, mighty [‫ ]הַ גִּ בֹּ ר‬and awesome,” while in Isa 10:21 he is “the mighty God” ( ‫אֵ ל‬ ‫)גִּ בּוֹר‬. The verb “to go out” (‫ )יצא‬has military connotations (cf. Isa 43:17; Amos 5:3) and suggests that YHWH will come from a distant place, perhaps even marching in front of a procession. Such an idea is expressed in Isa 30:27–33. YHWH comes from far away (‫)ממֶּ ְרחָ ק‬ ִ to slaughter the enemies, his tongue is like devouring fire, and he fights to the sound of tambourines and lyres; his “majestic voice” (‫ )הוֹד קוֹלוֹ‬shall be heard. Isaiah 42:13 also recalls the hymnic references to “YHWH is warrior” (‫ )יְ הוָה ִאישׁ ִמלְ חָ מָ ה‬in Exod 15:3 and “YHWH mighty in battle” (‫ )יְ הוָה גִּ בּוֹר ִמלְ חָ מָ ה‬in Ps 24:8. According to Westermann, the allusion to these (old) psalms and the salvific events of ancient days that they praise is deliberate: “things are to be as they were in days of old, when God came to his chosen people’s aid in its extremity.”157 Another important implication of this allusion is that the God who now speaks and acts is the same who did so before the traumatic period of divine silence. Although he was silent for some time, he is still alive and will intervene now to battle the enemies. Indeed, he is alive and, once again, he will stir up his fury. “Fury,” or better, “zeal” (‫ )קִ נְ אָ ה‬refers to his “dynamic energy expressing deeply felt passion.”158 The zeal of YHWH installs the messianic figure (Isa 9:6) and saves a remnant of survivors on Zion (Isa 37:32); his zealous love burns for his people (Isa 26:11). It is this past passion which shall wake again to deliver the people and destroy their enemies. YHWH will show himself to be mighty and victorious (‫ גבר‬in Hitpael) over them. His passionate activity is further stressed by two verbs relating to extreme sound. The verb “to cry out” (‫ רוע‬in Hiphil) elsewhere designates the war-cry (Jos 6:10, 16; 1 Sam 17:20) and its sound is as strong as the alarm of trumpets (Joel 2:1). The verb “to shout aloud, roar” (‫ צרח‬in Hiphil) likewise suggests a warrior’s cry (Zeph 1:14). In continuation of the divine shouts, v. 14 sketches a fundamental shift from silence to sound, from past to present. YHWH describes his past selfrestraint using three verbs and uses another three to describe his present cry: “For a long time I have held my peace, I have kept still and restrained myself; [now] I will cry out like a woman in labor, I will gasp and pant.” “To hold one’s peace,” or better, “to be quiet or inactive” (‫חשׁה‬, here in Hiphil) is the antonym of talking as seen in Qoh 3:7: “a time to keep silence [‫] ַלחֲשׁוֹת‬, and a time to speak [‫]לְ דַ בֵּ ר‬.” The verb is used about humans (e.g. Judg 18:9; 2 Kings 2:3; Ps 39:3) and about God (e.g. Isa 57:11; 62:1; 64:11; see below). The next verb (‫חרשׁ‬, also in Hiphil) has a similar meaning of being dumb or deaf and being still and passive, often used in reference to YHWH (e.g. Ps 83:2; Hab 1:13). Psalm 28:1 combines both verbs and explicitly links divine 157 158

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 104. Goldingay, Message, 170.

1.3. The hidden God

61

silence to death: “do not refuse to hear [‫ ]אַ ל־תֶּ ְ ֶח ַרשׁ‬me, if you are silent [‫]תֶּ ְ ֶח שֶׁ ה‬ to me, I shall be like those who go down to the Pit.” The third verb (‫אפק‬, always in Hitpael) is rare. It designates Joseph’s attempt to control his feelings at the reunion with his brothers (Gen 43:31; 45:1) and, likewise, it is used in relation to Haman at his encounter with Mordechai (Esth 5:10). Furthermore, Saul “pulls himself together” to make the unlawful offering during the attack of Philistines (1 Sam 13:12). The remaining three instances of the word are found in Isaiah about YHWH (42:14; 63:15; 64:11). These occurrences suggest that the verb refers to an inner struggle to control one’s emotions. In the context of divine silence this is not insignificant. YHWH was not silent because he did not care or because he was indifferent to the sufferings of his people. Rather, he had to actively limit himself to be passive. He had to restrain himself for a deeper purpose. The verb suggests an emotional struggle or inner dialogue in God about his way of relating to his people and the world (cf. Hos 11:8–9). For a long time, he chose to be silent and hide, but now he has changed his attitude. He will speak! The three words which designate his renewed involvement are all rare, the former two (‫ נשׁם‬and ‫ )פעה‬being hapax legomena. The simile of a birthing woman indicates that the words express loud screams and intense breathing, such as gasping and panting. The third verb (‫ )שׁאף‬is elsewhere associated with the mouth (Ps 119:131) and when it appears with ַ‫ רוּח‬concerns animals snuffling for air (Jer 2:24; 14:6). There is, however, another word with the same letters which, in a handful cases, means “to tremble or crush” (e.g. Ezek 36:3; Ps 56:2–3). This ambiguity adds an element of destruction to YHWH’s renewed activity which is elaborated in the wasting of hills and drying up of rivers in v. 15. Insofar as ‫ נשׁם‬plays on ‫“( שׁמם‬to be or make desolate”), an alternative translation of the last line in v. 14 is: “I will devastate and crush all at once.”159 This rendering elegantly picks up the motif of the divine warrior in v. 13. In any case, YHWH’s involvement also means renewed guidance of his people in v. 16 (see Chapter 6). He concludes the unit by assuring that he will do as he promises: “I will not forsake them” (‫ ;ל ֹא ﬠְ ַזַבְ ִתּים‬cf. 41:17). The period of divine silence and inactivity is also reflected in the people’s perception of their situation. In 49:14, Zion laments: “YHWH has forsaken me [‫]ﬠְ ַזָבַ נִ י‬, my Lord has forgotten me [‫”]שׁ ֵכחָ נִ י‬ ְ (cf. 40:27).160 Even more in159

Goldingay, Message, 171. Some of the psalms juxtapose YHWH’s hidden face with ‫( שׁכח‬Ps 10:11; 13:2; 44:25) and ‫( עזב‬Ps 27:7); cf. Balentine, The Hidden God, 137: “God’s forgetting, forsaking, hiding are all part of a similar lament in which the supplicant protests against his experience of the aloofness of God.” See also the complaint in Lam 5:20: “Why have you forgotten us [‫]תּ ְשׁ ָכּחֵ נוּ‬ ִ completely? Why have you forsaken us [‫ ]תַּ ַﬠזְבֵ נוּ‬these many days?” 160

62

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

tense are the complaints in 63:7–64:11 which pick up central vocabulary of 42:13–14. Perhaps the lament reflects the people’s suffering immediately after the great destruction or perhaps it reflects the mood of a later generation which felt that the promises of 42:13–14 had not yet been fulfilled (see my analysis of Isa 63:7–64:11 in Chapter 2). In 63:15, the people beg YHWH to look down from his heavenly abode and pay attention. The plea emerges from a desperate experience of his remoteness: “Where are your zeal and your might? The yearning of your heart and your compassion? They are withheld from me.” The references to “your zeal” ( ‫ )קִ ְנאָ ְת‬and “your might” or “your acts of might” ( ֶ‫)גְּ בוּרֹ ת‬161 point back to YHWH’s warrior-like passion in 42:13. The intense or noisy excitement, literally “the roar of your insides” ( ‫)הֲמוֹן מֵ ֶﬠי‬, might carry military connotations as well, although the juxtaposition of this phrase with “your compassion” ( ‫)רחֲמֶ י‬ ַ suggests womb rather than warrior, that is, a mother’s compassion.162 Literally, these divine blessings “have restrained themselves towards me” (‫)אֵ לַי הִ ְתאַ ָפּקוּ‬,163 picking up the rare verb from Isa 42:14 (‫ אפק‬in Hitpael). YHWH’s protection – his passion and compassion – seem far away. Furthermore, in 64:11 the people question whether YHWH will continue to be silent in light of all their sufferings: “After all this, will you restrain yourself [‫]ת ְתאַ ַפּק‬, ִ O YHWH? Will you keep silent [‫]תֶּ ְ ֶחשֶׁ ה‬, and punish us so severely?” Will YHWH humiliate his people endlessly? Despite these painful laments YHWH repeatedly assures that he will break the silence and engage in his people’s sufferings. At the opening of Isa 62 he cries: “For Zion’s sake I will not keep silent, for Jerusalem’s sake I will not rest, until her vindication shines out like the dawn, and her salvation like a burning torch.” 164 YHWH’s refusal to be silent (‫ )חשׁה‬and to rest (‫ )שׁקט‬is notable. The meaning of the latter term also fluctuates between quietness and inactivity, as seen in Isa 18:4: “I will remain quiet/inactive and look from my 161

The MT has a plural form, whereas 1QIsaa and the ancient versions have a singular

form. 162

Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 403. The wording in the MT makes good sense. Nevertheless, there are many proposals for emendation, including ‫“( אַ ל ִי ְתאַ ָפּקוּ‬Let [them] not be held back”) and ‫“( אַ ל ִת ְתאַ ָפּק‬Do not restrain yourself”); see Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 577. The LXX has “you have held back from us [or you have endured us]” (ἀνέσχου ἡμῶν). 164 Many commentators understand the speaker in vv. 1–7 to be the prophet or the prophetic-servant figure introduced in Isa 61; cf. Childs, Isaiah, 510: “the prophet announces that he will not be silent or inactive until God once again intervenes. Moreover, he places his watchmen on the walls of Jerusalem [cf. v. 6] so that God will have no rest until the time of favor is evoked”; see also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 233–34; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 373–74. I follow Goldingay (Isaiah 56–66, 340), who argues that YHWH (or alternatively the prophet on behalf of him embodying the divine first person) speaks in vv. 1 and 6a and that vv. 2–5 and 6b–7 are prophetic comments or reflections on the implications of YHWH’s words. 163

1.3. The hidden God

63

dwelling.” Powerfully YHWH states that he will not refrain from action but will keep on speaking and acting until the vindication (‫ )צֶ דֶ ק‬and salvation (‫ )יְ שׁוּ ָﬠה‬of his people shines forth. Interestingly, the latter half of the verse introduces a light metaphor. The people’s vindication will shine like brightness or dawn (‫ )נֹ גַהּ‬and like a blazing torch (‫)לַפִּ יד ִיבְ ﬠָר‬. The contrast between the darkness of doom and the brightness of salvation is explicit in Isa 60: in a land or world covered by darkness, Jerusalem shall arise and shine so that foreigners shall see it and come to “the brightness of [its] dawn [ ֵ‫”]נֹ גַהּ ז ְַרח‬ (60:1–3). The theme of silence reappears in the watchman motif in 62:6–7. 165 YHWH states that he has posted sentinels or watchmen (‫ )שֹׁ ְמ ִרים‬on the walls of Jerusalem: “all day and all night they shall never be silent.” Literally it reads “continually they do not keep silent” (‫)תּמיד ל ֹא ֶיחֱשׁוּ‬, ִ explicitly pointing back to YHWH’s word at the opening of the chapter. The activity of the watchmen mirrors that of YHWH: “their non-silence will be like Yhwh’s (v. 1), and will indeed be the implementation of Yhwh’s non-silence, as they take the action that will ensure the city’s interim safety and it proper restoration.”166 The watchmen are further addressed as “you who remind YHWH” (‫)הַ מַּ זְכִּ ִרים אֶ ת־ ְיהוָה‬. Apparently, God has placed them on the walls to continuously and insistently remind himself of his promises to restore. Neither the watchmen nor YHWH shall rest until the reestablishment of Jerusalem and its glory have been completed. Literally the line reads: “silence [is] not for you and you shall not give silence to him.”167 The term for “silence” (‫ )דּ ֳִמי‬occurs only here, in Hezekiah’s prayer in Isa 38:10 (see Chapter 3), and in Ps 83:2. The psalm shares more of the key words in Isa 62:1, 6–7 and it expresses what the watchmen are supposed to cry out day and night: “O God, do not keep silence [ ‫ ;]אַ ל־דּ ֳִמי־ ָל‬do not keep silent [‫]אַ ל־תֶּ ח ֱַרשׁ‬, and do not be still [‫אַ ל־‬ ‫]תּ ְשׁקֹ ט‬, ִ O God!” In addition to Isa 62:6–7, the theme of silence and the watchman motif are combined in the strange oracle in Isa 21:11–12, which is not easy to interpret.168 The oracle appears to concern a location in the Arabian desert called “Dumah” (cf. vv. 13–17 concerning Arabia).169 Yet the reference to Seir in the next line might suggest Edom insofar as Seir is the name of a mountain in this region (e.g. Judg 5:4) and the LXX, in fact, reads “Idumea”. Because 165 Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 373) points to a similar structure of vv. 1 and 6–7: vv. 1a and 6 concern silence, whereas vv. 1b and 7 concern the coming of the salvation of Jerusalem, in both cases introduced by the word “until” (‫) ַﬠד‬. 166 Goldingay, Message, 339. 167 The MT has “for him” (‫)לוֹ‬, whereas 1QIsab, along with the LXX and Peshitta, has “for you/yourselves” (‫)לכם‬. 168 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 328: “Everything about this […] maśśā’ is problematic.” See the excellent review of textual issues in Macintosh, Isaiah XXI, 39–53. 169 See e.g. Wildberger, Jesaja, 789–93.

64

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

Dumah also means “silence” or “destruction,” some have proposed that the wordplay points to the utter devastation of Edom.170 There is certainly a symbolic meaning at stake but I would suggest that it is more far-reaching and genetic than this. Rather than a specific location, 21:11–12 is truly about “the burden of silence” (‫)מַ שָּׂ א דּוּמָ ה‬, that is, the pain of suffering from being under the judgment of YHWH.171 This is the closest we get to what it must be like inside the center of the black hole. Verse 11 pictures a mystical and frightening atmosphere of darkness and death. First, outside of its use here, the term “silence” (‫ )דּוּמָ ה‬occurs twice in Psalms where both uses explicitly link silence with the realm of death. In 94:17, without YHWH’s help “my soul would soon have lived in the land of silence,”172 and in 115:17, “the dead do not praise Yah, nor do any that go down into silence [‫( ”] ָכּל־יֹ ְרדֵ י דוּמָ ה‬cf. my comments on Isa 5:14 above). Dumah is a synonym for Sheol, a terrifying symbol of oppression and annihilation. Second, the word “Seir” (‫ )שֵׂ ﬠִ יר‬plays on the wild and uncultivated domain of the desert. The cognate word ‫ שָׂ ﬠִ יר‬designates a wild goat or a demon in a goat form. In the oracle against Edom in Isa 34:14, these goat-demons parallel the female night demon Lilith (‫ )לִ ילִ ית‬who wanders about through the desert. Both are powers of darkness and evil. Although Lilith is not mentioned in Isa 21:11, there are two words for night (‫ ַל ְילָה‬and ‫ )לַיִ ל‬and, moreover, night symbolizes a terrifying state of suffering and despair (see below). Third, the voice of the one who calls from this realm of silence and fear is not identified. It could be anybody. Furthermore, the indefinite particle “one is calling” (‫ )קֹ ֵרא‬lends “a distant, ghostly quality to the call.”173 The first-person voice (“to me”) is the watchman (‫ ;שֹׁ מֵ ר‬cf. 62:6) who is being addressed by someone who cannot sleep and is tormented by fear. The question is repeated twice with a slight variation: “what of the night?” (‫מלֵּיל‬/‫ָה‬ ִ ‫ה־מ ַלּ ְיל‬ ִ ַ‫)מ‬. The meaning must be: how far gone is the night? How much is still left? The repetition of the question indicates a severe and desperate feeling that the night will never end. As night is no doubt a symbol of suffering, pain, and destruction, the question is when this period of distress and hardship will end. A very good illustration of the metaphorical meaning of the night is found in Mic 3:6: “it shall be night [‫ ] ַל ְילָה‬to you, without vision, and darkness [‫ ]חָ ְשׁ ָכה‬to you, without revelation.” The coming of the night here symbolizes the cessation of divine revelation. It is another result of the hidden face of God (Mic 3:4). No longer will God make himself known. No 170

Macintosh, Isaiah XXI, 137. Cf. Landy, “Exile,” 250. 172 Literally, the line reads “my soul would soon have lived/laid down [in] silence” (‫)כִּ ְמ ַﬠט שָׁ כְ נָה דוּמָ ה נַפְ ִשׁי‬. The LXX has “in Hades” (τῷ ᾅδῃ), and the Vulgate has “in hell” (in inferno). 173 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 397, note 2. 171

1.3. The hidden God

65

longer will he speak. He will hide and be silent. Fear and anguish will rule. The day – the symbol of divine presence and protection – shall be black. In Isaiah, night and darkness also refer to the judging wrath of YHWH. Again, YHWH is the creator of darkness and woe (45:7). Darkness and distress are signs of his day of judgment when “the light grows dark with clouds” (5:30; cf. 13:10; Joel 2:2; Amos 5:18–20; Zeph 1:15). Enemies are laid to waste in the night (15:1). Living under God’s judgment means the gloom of anguish; the people will “be thrust into thick darkness” (8:21–22) and will wander around “in a land of deep darkness” (9:1). That light will come eventually is a strong hope for YHWH’s redemption and salvation (cf. 60:1–3). A similar hope of deliverance is indicated by the watchman’s reference to morning in 21:12. No doubt, morning symbolizes hope and the dawning of salvation (cf. 62:1 above): God will help his people “when the morning dawns” (‫ ;לִ פְ נוֹת בֹּ קֶ ר‬Ps 46:6; cf. Isa 17:13–14; 37:36). Yet his answer is enigmatic: “morning comes and also the night” (‫)אָ תָ ה בֹ קֶ ר וְ גַם־ ָל ְילָה‬. The proposed interpretations are many.174 Some say that only morning and night have come, that is, there is no news at all.175 Others say that morning is coming, but another night will come,176 or that there will be a morning of salvation for some and a night of destruction for others. 177 Another option which I find most attractive is that “while morning will come, it is still dark.”178 According to this interpretation, an utterance of hope emerges in the middle of the long and terrifying night. Although a night of death covers the world, there is still a faithful anticipation that dawn will come (cf. 8:17 above). The storms of doom might rage, but after that, a new future will come. Perhaps the mysterious answer indicates that even inside a black hole, a hope of light can break forth. According to the last words of 21:11–12, “If you will inquire, inquire; come back again,” it is still too early to say when. There is no timetable to consult and the question must be continually asked.179 Just as in 42:13–14, dawn will come unexpectedly when YHWH chooses to break the silence and bring light into his people’s lives.

174

See Macintosh, Isaiah XXI, 45–48. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 285. 176 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 181. 177 Young, Isaiah II, 78; cf. the paraphrase in the Targum: “the righteous will be rewarded and the wicked punished.” 178 Høgenhaven, Gott und Volk, 155; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 99; cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39: “Der Morgen kommt, wenn es auch Nacht ist!” The function of ‫ גַם‬here is concessive; cf. Isa 49:15. 179 Childs, Isaiah, 153. 175

66

Chapter 1: Entering into the black hole

1.4. Conclusion 1.4. Conclusion

The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile of YHWH’s people hide in the empty space between Isa 39 and 40. This curious gap is not simply a historical accident in the process of joining separate collections of prophetic material into one book. Rather, it carries significance in itself as the literary collapse that this gap represents offers an important indication of what exile in Isaiah is all about. Exile in this prophetic book is like a black hole in space that absorbs light. It is hardly visible. Nevertheless, it seems to play a pivotal role in the structure and message of the book. In Isaiah’s overall vision of a glorified Zion full of life and people (Isa 2:2–4; 66:18–24), the gap between Isa 39 and 40 stands for the opposite: a destroyed Zion that has been turned into a place of silence, darkness, and death. An important implication of the metaphor of black holes is that exile in Isaiah can only be studied by looking at events leading up to it and later reflections of it. I made two attempts in this chapter to enter into the matter. First, the close reading of the prophetic pronouncement in Isa 5:11–17 showed that exile is closely associated with death. In fact, being forced away into exile is described by the image of Sheol as a greedy monster that swallows people up. Just like a black hole, the chaotic power of death absorbs life. Jerusalem, so the prophet predicts, shall be left behind as abandoned and empty ruins while its inhabitants are drawn away to an uncertain destiny. Within the larger structure of Isaiah, this motif of desolation and emptiness foreshadows the empty space between Isa 39 and 40. Second, the analysis of theological assertions about YHWH made reasonable the idea that what hides in the gap at the center of the book is the full manifestation of divine judgment. YHWH had temporarily hidden himself or his face. He had punished in anger and remained silent. Yet a notable feature in the assertions made in particular in Isa 40–66 is the radical and decisive change that is proclaimed to have taken place (42:13–14; 51:17–23; 54:7–10). YHWH himself looks back on the gap between Isa 39 and 40 as a period of abandonment and passiveness that is now over. He will no longer hide as he had done in this gap. He will reveal himself as the savior of his people. He will no longer be angry. He will show his people mercy and care for them. He will no longer be silent as he was in the silent gap. He will speak.

Chapter 2

Anticipating exile: Oracles of doom An important implication of interpreting exile in Isaiah as a black hole is that we can only study this literary theme by looking at events and pronouncements leading up to the gap between Isa 39 and 40 and later reflections pointing back to it. The exegesis of Isa 5:11–17 demonstrated that this passage awaits and illustrates the power of the empty space at the center of the book. The present chapter studies further anticipations of exile in Isaiah in depth. An analysis of Isa 6:1–13, 22:1–14, and 39:1–8 draws attention to the motifs of doom and deportation present in these passages that point toward the black hole. Furthermore, an analysis of 63:7–64:11 shows that this communal lament found almost at the end of the book looks back on the tragic events and confirms the ultimate fulfillment of the predictions of judgment in Isa 1–39. Initially, the chapter offers a broader introduction to literary representations of destruction and exile in the Old Testament as a background for studying the witnesses to these matters in Isaiah.

2.1. The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile in the Old Testament 2.1. The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile The Babylonian captivity after the capture of Jerusalem in the early sixth century BCE is far from the only event of exile in the Old Testament. Nevertheless, it is the incident to which the biblical authors have devoted most attention. The richness and diversity of representations and reflections referring to these traumatic matters are fascinating. 1 However, it is astonishing that hardly any biblical text specifies what actually happened during this period. Analogous to the black hole in Isaiah’s composition, the exilic period represents “a huge lacuna” in the historical narrative of the Old Testament. In the words of Albertz, “It stands as a murky, gaping hole in the history of Yahweh and his people, illuminated only briefly by isolated beams of light.”2 Several passages and books reflect on the aftermath of destruction and deportation. Poetic texts, such as Lamentations and certain Psalms (e.g. Ps 74; 1 2

See the illuminative review in Kessler, “Images of Exile.” Albertz, Israel in Exile, 3–4.

68

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

79; 89), offer a sensitive response to the disaster by mourning and grieving (see my analysis of Isa 63:7–64:11 below), and Ps 137 imitates the pain of singing YHWH’s song in a foreign land, over “there” (‫)שָׁ ם‬. Some prophetic books presuppose a destroyed and depopulated city and envision a glorious return of the inhabitants and a magnificent restoration of the ruined temple (Haggai, Zechariah). The historical narratives set in the Persian period begin with the end of the Babylonian captivity and King Cyrus’ edict, looking back on the exile as a completed episode (Ezra, Nehemiah), or take place among the Jews living in the diaspora (Esther). In addition to these narratives reflecting the other side of destruction and exile, we have a handful of texts that narrate the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kings 24–25; 2 Chr 36; cf. Jer 39; 52) or predict it (Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Lev 26, Deut 28). I will briefly examine these texts before turning to Isaiah’s anticipations of exile. 2.1.1. Destruction and exile narrated and interpreted Accounts that explicitly narrate the fall of Jerusalem in the sixth century and the consequent exile to Babylon are found in the historical works. At the end of 2 Kings, we are told about the Babylonian conquest and the deportation of the Jerusalem elite. 2 Kings 24–25 sketches two campaigns that presumably took place around 597 and 587 BCE.3 During the first siege, narrated in 2 Kings 24:10–19, the Babylonians deport King Jehoiachin and his family. Furthermore, they carry away treasures and gold along with the people of the leading classes and skilled men, including warriors, artisans, and smiths; indeed, “no one remained, except the poorest people of the land.” Finally, they install Zedekiah as vassal king. The second siege, narrated in 2 Kings 24:20–25:21, is provoked by Zedekiah’s rebellion against the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar. Following severe famine and the king’s failed attempt to escape the Babylonian capture of the city, the enemies burn the temple, palaces, and houses and break down the walls around Jerusalem. The remaining population – “the rest of the people who were left in the city and the deserters who had defected the king of Babylon” – are carried into exile. Again, “some of the poorest people of the land” are left to be vinedressers and tillers of the soil. Furthermore, the Babylonians plunder the treasures of the temple, including bronze, gold, and precious vessels used for worship. The leading priests, some guardians, and the king’s counselors are all killed. The account concludes with this summarizing

3

Becking, “In Babylon,” 6–9.

2.1. The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile

69

and laconic statement: “So Judah went into exile out of its land” ( ‫ַו ִיּגֶל יְ הוּדָ ה‬ ‫)מֵ ַﬠל אַ ְדמָ תוֹ‬.4 Despite the plausible historicity of these two campaigns, the account we have in 2 Kings also reflects a certain theological interpretation. In fact, the account may have been edited in more stages to express the theological interests of later times.5 Striking, for instance, is the notion of YHWH’s rejection of his people and the recurrent emphasis on a land emptied of its (significant) inhabitants (cf. also 2 Kings 25:26). The first issue accords with a key idea of Deuteronomistic theology: violence against YHWH and his covenant results in punishment and death. In the end, the destruction of Jerusalem and the loss of the promised land are outcomes of the people’s own transgressions. This pattern, which dominates the Deuteronomistic History, culminates in the Babylonian attack on Jerusalem in 2 Kings 24–25. YHWH will remove Judah out of his sight because of its sin and King Nebuchadnezzar is his tool of judgment. This thought peaks in 2 Kings 24:20: “Indeed, Jerusalem and Judah so angered YHWH that he expelled them from his presence [ ‫ַﬠד־הִ ְשׁלִ כוֹ‬ ‫]אֹ תָ ם מֵ ַﬠל ָפּנָיו‬.” In the Historian’s mind, the destruction of Jerusalem is the absolute judgment of YHWH, the end of history, the end of everything.6 The considerably shorter account of these events in 2 Chr 36:9–21 roughly follows the structure of 2 Kings. King Jehoiachin and “the precious vessels” of the temple are brought to Babylon, and Zedekiah is installed as his replacement. According to this author, Zedekiah not only rebels against Nebuchadnezzar but also refuses to humble himself before the prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 37–38) and hardens (‫ אמץ‬in Piel) his heart from turning to YHWH. The priests and the people copy his arrogant behavior and “pollute” (‫ טמא‬in Piel) the consecrated temple. Despite YHWH’s salvific intentions, they kindled his wrath for which “there was no remedy [‫]מַ ְר ֵפּא‬.” He brings up the king of the Chaldeans against them and shows them no mercy. The foreign king carries away the temple’s vessels and treasures and we read that “all of these he brought to Babylon” (‫)הַ כֹּ ל הֵ בִ יא בָ בֶ ל‬. The temple and palaces are consumed by fire and the walls and precious items are destroyed. The survivors are taken into exile to become servants (‫ )ﬠֲבָ ִדים‬at the Babylonian court. Compared to the version in 2 Kings 24–25, there are certain distinctive features at the closure of the account in 2 Chr 36. First, while 2 Kings only vaguely relates the fall of Jerusalem to former prophecies (2 Kings 24:3–4; cf. 21:1–18; 23:26–27), 2 Chronicles explicitly interprets the event as the fulfillment of a prophecy uttered by Jeremiah. According to this, the land 4

A similar phrase concludes the account of the fall of the Northern Kingdom: “So Israel was exiled from their own land to Assyria until this day” ( ‫שּׁוּרה ַﬠד‬ ָ ַ‫ַו ִיּגֶל ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל מֵ ַﬠל אַ דְ מָ תוֹ א‬ ‫ ;הַ יּוֹם הַ זֶּה‬2 Kings 17:23), stressing the loss of land as a key theme. 5 See the detailed analysis in Levin, “The Empty Land in Kings.” 6 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 8–11.

70

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

should lay desolate for 70 years, keeping Sabbath (see below). Second, and related to this, whereas 2 Kings only raises a vague hope for future restoration of the Davidic monarchy (2 Kings 25:27–30), 7 2 Chronicles casts the exile as a limited period of 70 years. Exile will only last “until the establishment of the kingdom of Persia.” Moreover, 2 Chr 36:22–23 ends on a positive note with the ascension of King Cyrus and his proclamation of liberty for the exiles. In contrast to 2 Kings, the point of view has changed fundamentally: exile is a well-defined period which one can look back on and review (cf. Ezra 1:1–3).8 2.1.2. Destruction and exile anticipated As indicated by the Chronicler, the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile in Babylon have already been foretold, especially in the prophetic books. Jeremiah and Ezekiel are full of predictions and reflections of what in their minds are considered to be decisive events. More explicitly and extensively than in Isaiah, anticipations of the demise of Judah and deportation to Babylon pervade the books of these prophets. The harshness of YHWH’s judgment against Judah and Jerusalem according to Jeremiah is striking.9 YHWH will destroy the daughter of Zion (6:2). He will make Jerusalem “a heap of ruins” (‫ )גַּלִּ ים‬and the towns of Judah “a desolation” (‫)שׁמָ מָ ה‬ ְ without inhabitants; he will scatter the inhabitants among the nations (9:10, 15). He has forsaken his house and given his beloved into the hands of their enemies (12:7). Approaching the climax in Jer 25, the enemies are not simply portrayed as unidentified kings or by animal metaphors. They are consequently referred to as Babylonians or Chaldeans under the rule of King Nebuchadnezzar. In Jer 21:3–10, the prophet tells King Zedekiah about the imminent future (cf. Jer 37) in which YHWH will bring the Chaldeans to the center of Jerusalem. They will strike down the inhabitants, including the king and his servants. The city is doomed to destruction. It will be given into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar and he will burn it with fire. All these predictions culminate in the detailed prophecy in Jer 25:8–14, which has probably been shaped by the events they speak about.10 YHWH himself will send for the tribes of the north who will serve as his tool; remarkably, YHWH even refers to Nebuchadnezzar as “my servant” (cf. Jer 27:6; 43:10). YHWH’s purpose with his people is brutal: “I will utterly destroy them [‫]הַ ח ֲַר ְמ ִתּים‬, and make them […] an everlasting desolation [ ‫חָ ְרבוֹת‬ ‫]עוֹלָם‬.” The destruction is ultimate: “this whole land shall become a ruin and a waste” (‫)וְ הָ יְ תָ ה ָכּל־הָ אָ ֶרץ הַ זּ ֹאת לְ חָ ְרבָּ ה לְ שַׁ מָּ ה‬. Along with its neighbors, Judah 7

See Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration, 79–83. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 12. 9 Cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 122–27. 10 E.g. Carroll, Jeremiah, 490. 8

2.1. The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile

71

shall serve (‫ )עבד‬the Babylonian king. Yet, as indicated in 2 Chron 36:21, there is a limit to this period of servitude. After 70 years, YHWH will punish the Babylonians. Ezekiel contains similar predictions.11 YHWH will judge Jerusalem in the sight of the nations and with a brutality that is unseen; the city will be “a desolation” (‫ )חָ ְרבָּ ה‬and a mockery, a warning, and a spectacle of horror to the surrounding nations (5:8–9, 14–15). Destruction will be complete: “I will stretch out my hand against them, and make the land a desolation and a waste [‫וּמשַׁ מָּ ה‬ ְ ‫] ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬, throughout all their settlements, from the wilderness to Riblah” (6:14). Strangers shall plunder and profane the treasured places, and disaster will come upon disaster (7:21–27). The land shall be stripped of all it contains: “the inhabited cities shall be laid waste [‫]תֶּ ח ֱַרבְ נָה‬, and the land shall become a desolation [‫( ”] ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬12:19–20). Only in exile will people survive. Central to Ezekiel is YHWH’s abandonment of his city. He literally departs from his temple (8:6; 11:23). Without divine protection, the city can be conquered and destroyed. The message of Jeremiah and Ezekiel is explicitly related to the events in the first decades of the sixth century BCE. Yet within the canonical composition of the Old Testament there are other anticipations of YHWH’s rejection of his people and their loss of land. In the Pentateuch, in the distant past, so to speak, two texts predict this scenario as the possible outcome of the people’s behavior: Lev 26 and Deut 28. The foreshadowing of exile found in these texts is striking in light of the literary setting. Even before YHWH’s people actually enter the land to possess it, there are clear predictions that they shall lose it again. The literary form of both Lev 26 and Deut 28 resembles the vassal treaties in Assyrian sources in which the great king offers protection of the vassal king if he promises to be loyal and obedient.12 In the biblical material, a call for correct worship (Lev 26:1–2) and obedience to the divine laws (Deut 28:1) introduces each section. If the people remain loyal to YHWH, he promises wealth and fertility. However, if they fail to maintain exclusive loyalty to him, all sorts of disasters will strike them. Despite the conditional form of the blessings and curses that apparently should warn the addressees against breaking the law, there is no doubt that the predictions of future disasters point directly to their actual fulfillment in (later) history.13 As Reinhard Mül-

11

Cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 132–35. Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 21–38. 13 Despite the predictive function of the final form of Lev 26 and Deut 28, it is possible, based on the comparison with Ancient Near Eastern material from the seventh century and earlier, that “the canonical text […] provides a witness to early conceptions of exile in those portions that form the older core of the covenantal curses in Deut 28 and Lev 26” (Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 21). 12

72

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

ler correctly argues, the content and purpose of Lev 26 in the middle of the Pentateuch should be interpreted as “a piece of prophecy” that deals with the exile and its meaning from the first to the last.14 Rather than simply instructing the audience about rightful behavior, Lev 26 and Deut 28 also foreshadow and explain why exile had to occur.15 There are certain similarities between the two texts in terms of both structure and literary placement at the end of larger collections of legislation (the Holiness Code and the Deuteronomistic Law Code, respectively), but there is also a significant difference related to the speaker. In Deut 28, as in Ancient Near Eastern parallels, the blessings and curses are rendered by a human, Moses, who proclaims in what manner YHWH will respond to the people’s attitude. In Lev 26, however, YHWH himself speaks and Moses only occurs in the framework (Lev 25:1–2; 26:46).16 In Lev 26, the promised pleasantries of peace and prosperity in the land through YHWH’s continued presence and blessing – the counterpart to exile – are presented in vv. 3–13. Four threats of disaster in vv. 14–26, including terror, agricultural collapse, ravage of wild animals, pestilence, and hunger, prepare and foreshadow the final threat of exile and the empty land in vv. 27–45.17 First, the land will be utterly destroyed. YHWH will personally punish his people: “I will lay your cities to waste, will make your sanctuaries desolate [‫ ]…[ ] ַוה ֲִשׁמֹּ ִתי ֲאנִ י אֶ ת־הָ אָ ֶרץ‬I will devastate the land [ ‫וְ נָתַ ִתּי אֶ ת־ ָﬠ ֵריכֶם חָ ְרבָּ ה‬ ‫ת־מקְ דְּ שֵׁ י ֶכם‬ ִ ֶ‫מּוֹתי א‬ ִ ‫] ַוה ֲִשׁ‬.” Furthermore, “you I will scatter [‫ ] ֱאז ֶָרה‬among the nations […] your land shall be a desolation, and your cities a waste [‫וְ הָ יְ תָ ה אַ ְרצְ כֶם‬ ‫] ְשׁמָ מָ ה וְ ָﬠ ֵריכֶם יִ הְ יוּ חָ ְרבָּ ה‬.” Fear shall torture the remaining survivors; even the sound of a driven leaf shall put them to flight. As a logical result of the complete devastation, the land is left completely empty. A particular characteristic of the priestly interpretation of the exile and the empty land is the idea of a “Sabbath rest” (cf. 2 Chr 36:21). While its inhabitants dwell among their enemies in foreign territory, the land itself, as long as it lies desolate, shall rest and enjoy its Sabbath years. The explicit thought is that due to the people’s wickedness, they have ignored the law that in the seventh year there shall be a complete rest for the land (Lev 25:1–7). In a word, the land is emptied out of theological necessity. As Kessler says, “the just demands of the covenant require a complete devastation, and the possibility of renewal likewise cannot be achieved without the sufferings of exile, 14

Müller, “A Prophetic View,” 228. Turner, “Deuteronomy’s Theology of Exile,” 195: “exile is the result, not of a violation here and there, but of complete abandonment of the covenant itself […] and total rejection of Yahweh’s commands.” 16 Müller, “A Prophetic View,” 208. 17 Müller, “A Prophetic View,” 212–16. 15

2.1. The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile

73

repentance notwithstanding.”18 YHWH shall punish his people and compensate the land for their sin, which “shall be deserted by them” (‫)הָ אָ ֶרץ תֵּ ָﬠזֵב מֵ הֶ ם‬. Among the nations, the people shall wander off (‫ )אבד‬19 and the land of their enemies shall devour (‫ )אכל‬them. Yet according to Lev 26, suffering in foreign places is also a step towards purification of sinful people. Some will recognize and confess their iniquities. A central metaphor in this process of repentance is “their uncircumcised heart” (‫ )לְ בָ בָ ם הֶ ָﬠ ֵרל‬that shall humble itself. Israel will repent and YHWH will remember his covenant. He will not break it and, accordingly, will not reject them completely. The final notion of his remembrance of the exodus of Egypt vaguely indicates that something similar to this salvific act may occur again. Deuteronomy 28 initially presents a series of blessings in vv. 1–14. The considerably longer series of curses follows in vv. 15–68, which reaches its peak in prediction of exile in the final section. The curses in vv. 15–25 mirror the blessings in vv. 3–14 and then move on to disasters of a general nature in vv. 26–46. Among these, sons and daughters will be given to another people, and anyone attempting to find them will look in vain. YHWH will bring (‫הלך‬ in Hiphil) the people and their king to an unknown nation where they will become an object of horror among all the peoples where YHWH will lead (‫ נהג‬in Piel) them. Verses 47–57 sketch a future of invading enemies: “YHWH will bring a nation from far away [‫]גּוֹי מֵ ָרחוֹק‬.” The invaders will consume the fruit of the land and make YHWH’s people perish. They will besiege them in all their towns throughout the land. The climax of the chapter occurs in vv. 58–68 and offers a detailed description of future destruction and exile. The general dynamic of these verses is a trope of reversal in that blessings formerly promised to the people and enjoyed by them throughout their history will be taken away.20 YHWH will no longer take away from them sickness and evil diseases; on the contrary, he 18

Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 327. In the early 1990s, scholarly interest in the condition of Judah during the sixth century and the number of people who actually were exiled (hardly more than 10–25% of the population) recurred (cf. the classical treatment in Janssen, Juda in der Exilzeit). Robert Carroll (“The Myth of the Empty Land”) and Hans Barstad (The Myth of the Empty Land) wrote two of the most significant contributions to this renewed discussion. Interestingly, while Barstad primarily analyzed historical and archeological sources, Carroll analyzed the biblical literature as such, and called for a profound deconstruction of the priestly ideology on the empty land: “A land empty over a lengthy period of time is simply a construct derived from the ideology of pollution-purity values in the second temple community” (“The Myth of the Empty Land,” 90). 19 NRSV has “perish”. According to Halvorson-Taylor (Enduring Exile, 35–36), a secondary meaning of the word is “to wander off, run away” which was perhaps the basis for its primary meaning “to perish”. She continues, “Like an animal lost in the wilderness, Israel cannot survive; the people are forsaken and abandoned, left to die” (Enduring Exile, 36). 20 See Head, “Curse of Covenant Reversal.”

74

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

will strike them with “severe and lasting afflictions and grievous and lasting maladies.” The severity of the situation and its extent are remarkable with diseases inflicting the people “until you are destroyed” ( ָ‫) ַﬠד הִ שָּׁ ְמד‬. The people that were meant to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens will be reduced to only a few. They will lose their distinctiveness among the nations and, like them, will worship gods of wood and stone. YHWH will even take delight in annihilating his people. He will bring them to ruin and destruction and they shall be plucked off (‫ נסח‬in Niphal) from their land. Indeed, “YHWH will scatter you [ ְ‫ ] ֶוהֱפִ יצ‬among all peoples from one end of the earth to the other.” The people are pulled up by the roots. In a condensed and horrifying manner, vv. 65–67 depict what a rootless life in exile is like. Among foreign nations, there shall be a lack of ease, rest, and assurance. Fear, anxiety, hopelessness, and restlessness shall rule. YHWH will give his people “a trembling heart, failing eyes, and a languished spirit.” The final verse expresses “a fundamental reversal of Israel’s exodus.”21 The people once liberated from slavery in Egypt are brought back, but now they are of absolutely no worth; no one will buy them. The chapter ends with this dark scenario. Unlike Lev 26, there is no hope for the future, no possible repentance and no chance to return to the land.22

2.2. Exile and vast emptiness (Isaiah 6:1–13) 2.2 Exile and vast emptiness Isaiah 6 accounts for the vision and mission of the prophet Isaiah. Encountering the overwhelming presence of the heavenly judge, the prophet is terrified, yet the purification of his sins sets him apart from his rebellious people and prepares him for the role as the messenger of God (vv. 1–7). His mission is to prevent his people from repenting; divine judgment will last until the population has been deported and Judah has become an empty land (vv. 8–13). Isaiah 6 is one of the chapters of the book which has received much attention in the history of reception and scholarship. The literature is vast and the number of issues dealt with cannot be counted. Initial questions concern the kind of material we encounter in this chapter. Is it an autobiographical account by the prophet himself or the product of later tradition which sees the

21

Head, “Curse of Covenant Reversal,” 225. Cf. Turner, “Deuteronomy’s Theology of Exile,” 194; Kessler, “Images of Exile,” 329: “In Deut 28 (and in Deuteronomistic literature in general) the land is the primary gift of the covenant. When the covenant is violated beyond repair, the gift is revoked, the nation is deprived of the protection afforded by land and covenant, and it becomes subject to merciless exploitation and ultimate destruction.” 22

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

75

prophet as a role model?23 Does the chapter narrate Isaiah’s inaugural call to become YHWH’s prophet or a later encounter between the two to reveal instructions about a specific task? Does the call concern Isaiah’s ministry or is it limited to his engagement during a specific historical episode? Answers to these interrelated questions largely depend on the determination of the chapter’s function and context. A dominant approach in historicalcritical exegesis has understood the function of Isa 6 within the context of 6:1–8:18 (or 6:1–9:6), the so-called Denkschrift, and has determined the chapter to be a reflection of the historical prophet’s perception and perhaps self-evaluation of his task during the Syro-Ephramite war (734–732 BCE). An illustrative example is Odil Hannes Steck’s influential article from 1972, “Bemerkungen zu Jesaja 6.”24 According to his interpretation, the prophet’s task was limited to this period and is reflected in Isa 7–8 where the central motif of hardening unfolds in the reaction of King Ahaz and his people towards the present dangers. 25 The purpose of Isa 6 is thus not to report an inaugural vision of Isaiah. According to Steck, the chapter’s genre and content do not fit those of a call narrative, but rather what he designates as “Vergabe eines außergewöhnliche Auftrags in der himmlischen Thronver-

23

Many scholars assume that the chapter (or at least vv. 1–11) is an autobiographical account, e.g. Wildberger, Jesaja, 239: “Jes 6 trägt alle Zeichen der Echtheit auf der Stirn, es ist ein Bericht genuiner Erfahrung, der von Jesaja selbst verfaßt oder diktiert sein muß”; cf. e.g. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 71; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 176; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 137; Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 36. This claim is understandable in light of the chapter’s literary form, including the specific date in v. 1 and the first person speaker. See, however, Landy, “Strategies,” 60: “The date, as in any history book, gives us confidence in the narrative, as does the autobiographical stance; a story with a temporal reference point is part, we feel, of ‘real’ history.” Scholars, such as Kaiser (Jesaja 1–12, 123), have questioned authentic authorship and have instead argued that the chapter is a later construct influenced by the Deuteronomistic school and deriving from the exilic or postexilic era: “der Erzähler [steht] jenseits der Katastrophe, auf die seine Schrift scheinbar hinausblickt, um im Gewand des Propheten Jesaja die Vergangenheit lebendiger aufzurufen. So ist die Form des Selbstberichtes hier so wenig wie anderwärts eine Garantie für die tatsächliche Identität des redend Eingeführten mit dem Verfasser, und die heute noch herrschende Ansicht, wir hörten in diesem Kapitel unmittelbar die Stimme des Propheten Jesaja, preiszugeben.” 24 Steck, “Bemerkungen.” A more recent example is Reinhard Müller’s Ausgebliebende Einsicht, which interprets the (core) material of Isa 6 and the motif of hardening in close relation to the events during the reign of King Ahaz. 25 Steck, “Bemerkungen,” 203: “Is 6 ist […] der Anfang der Denkschrift, durch den Jesaja unterstreicht, daß das im Fortgang berichtete Scheitern seiner ihm von Jahwe aufgegebenen Verkündigung an König und Volk im syrisch-efraimitischen Krieg von vornherein sein Auftrag war.”

76

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

sammlung.”26 The prophet never refuses his commissioning but rather volunteers and is assigned more narrowly to a special task. In recent years, however, the growing attention to Isaiah as a unified composition has enlarged the proposed literary context for interpreting the scene in Isa 6. 27 Within this broader context, the commissioning scene forms a structurally central element in the book’s composition. It takes up some elements from the preceding chapters (e.g. the chronological setting in 1:1 and references to a first-person speaker in 5:1, 9) and points forward to future events in historical contexts (Isa 7–8; 20; 36–39) and beyond. In a word, it is “a program for the book of Isaiah.”28 The function of the chapter is both to introduce and legitimize its central character, the prophet, 29 and to present and prefigure key themes in the book as a whole.30 Within Isa 1–66, Marvin Sweeney describes the chapter as “a paradigm for Isaiah’s entire prophetic career.”31 Although he recognizes that in terms of form and content Isa 6 does not easily fit into the typical pattern of call narratives (cf. e.g. Exod 3–4; Judg 6:11–17; Jer 1:4–10; Ezek 1–3),32 Sweeney nevertheless takes it to be so: 26

Steck, “Bemerkungen,” 191–92. Steck points to parallel scenes in 1 Kings 22:19–22; Zech 1:7–17; Job 1:6–12 and describes their shared feature as “ein Abgesandter zur Ausführung des Auftrags [muß] erst gesucht werden, dem der Auftrag erst nach einer Bereitserklärung seinerseits vergeben wird.” For similarities between Isa 6 and 1 Kings 22, see e.g. Habel, “Form,” 310; Melugin, Formation, 83; Wildberger, Jesaja, 235–38, the latter of which designates the form of Isa 6 as “Thronratsvision.” Cf. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 54: “Isaiah 6 is a prophetic commissioning within the framework of a throne scene.” 27 See e.g. Rolf Rendtorff’s classical article (“Jesaja 6”) on the function of Isa 6 within the larger composition of the book; see also the recent review in Wagner, “Source.” 28 Landy, “Strategies,” 58. 29 On this function, Wildberger (Jesaja, 238) agrees: “Jes 6 ist Jesajas prophetischer Legitimationsausweis.” 30 Examples include the interconnections between Isa 6 and 40 (e.g. Melugin, Formation, 82–86; see Chapter 4), the theme of hardening (e.g. Uhlig, Hardening; see Chapter 6), and the theme of the remnant (e.g. Hasel, Remnant, 216–372; Pfaff, Entwicklung). 31 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 136. 32 Classical arguments against Isa 6 being a call narrative are that the narrative is not located at the beginning of the book and that Isaiah is not reluctant to the divine call, unlike Moses (Exod 4:10–11), Gideon (Judg 6:15–16), and Jeremiah (Jer 1:6). Despite these objections, there are some features similar to the call narratives of other great prophets like Jeremiah and Ezekiel. These include, for instance, words associated with the prophet’s mouth (6:6–7); see Phinney, “Call/Commission Narratives,” 66. Although the form of Isa 6 apparently deviates from the expected form, it contains many of the central features as demonstrated by Habel, “Form,” 309–12: divine confrontation (vv. 1–2), the introductory word (vv. 3–7), the commission (vv. 8–10), the objection (v. 11a), and the reassurance (vv. 11–13). However, determining the genre of call narratives on formal similarities alone has recently been criticized by, for instance, Landy (“Strategies,” 59, note 5), who claims that the model used to settle the matter is “too rigid.” In line with this, Phinney (“Call/Commission Narratives,” 70) notices that there is still too much diversity among the

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

77

ch. 6 sums up the essential activity or vocation of the prophet in terms of preparing the people for judgment. In this respect, ch. 6 functions as the call narrative […] of the prophet. Whether it represents an authentic account of his experience at the beginning of his career or is the result of later reflection is irrelevant. In its present context, it is meant to be understood as the prophet’s call or commission to his vocation.33

Taking the final form of the passage and its placement in the present form of the book as the primary object of interpretation does not imply that its compositional history is irrelevant. Many of the scholars who are confident in finding the words of the historical prophet in this chapter nevertheless acknowledge that the present form is the result of editorial expansions. Few would doubt that the last three words in v. 13 (which translate as “The holy seed is its stump”) reflect a very late editor.34 However, the rest of vv. 12–13 are seen to reflect secondary additions, perhaps added in more stages during the exilic and postexilic ages.35 biblical stories to argue for a consistent literary form. Rather, what we have are “narratives that are united by their subject matter, broadly considered, and […] by the fact that they are theologically shaped by a shared tradition.” Cf. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 95: “Trotz der Eigenheiten, besonders die der freiwilligen Bereitschaft zur Indienstnahme durch JHWH, muß Jes 6 als Berufungsbericht verstanden werden.” 33 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 136. 34 Against the majority opinion, Nielsen (For a Tree, 147) questions this splitting-up of v. 13b, because it leads to the division of what is, according to Nielsen, a cohesive image being split into two parts (see further below). In her opinion, the proper Sitz im Leben of this verse is the renewed hope in the Davidic dynasty after the accession of King Hezekiah around 715 BCE. Moreover, those who argue for Isaianic authorship of the entire chapter will, of course, also refute the possibility of an editor’s involvement; see e.g. Engnell, The Call, 20–24; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 187, note 4. 35 Steck, “Bemerkungen,” 191, note 10: “V. 12 und 13 [müssen] im ganzen als nachjesajanischer Zusatz betrachtet werden.” The typical arguments are that v. 11 forms a comprehensive closure of vv. 1–11; that v. 12 only modifies the content of v. 11; and that v. 12 is about YHWH’s actions (third person). Kaiser (Jesaja 1–12, 125, 134) assumes three stages of expansion: v. 12, v. 13a (“das eschatologische Gericht”), and v. 13b (“heilseschatologischer Zusatz”). There is no scholarly consensus as to when these expansions were made and whether some of them were made by the historical prophet himself. Sweeney (Isaiah 1–39, 139) assumes that the prophet composed the additions “sometime between the beginning of Hezekiah’s reign in 715 and the Assyrian attack of 701” (accordingly, the message of vv. 1–11 concerned the Northern Kingdom, which after its fall was redirected to Judah). Wildberger (Jesaja, 257–58) argues that v. 12 was added after the deportation of the people of the Northern Kingdom in 721 BCE, that v. 13a was added later, perhaps by the same hand, and that v. 13b was added later still. Clements (Isaiah 1– 39, 72) says that vv. 12–13a were added during the sixth century and v. 13b even later, “towards the latter part of the exilic age.” Williamson (The Book Called Isaiah, 35–36) relates vv. 12–13a to the exilic period and v. 13b to the postexilic period. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 226) thinks vv. 11 and 13b were added after 701 BCE, v. 12 after 587 BCE, and v. 13b in the Persian era (cf. Ezra 9:2). In contrast to these proposals, Seitz (Isaiah 1– 39, 57–58) remains skeptical of seeing in vv. 12–13 secondary additions reflecting later

78

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

This plausible history of composition has, in my view, at least two important implications. First, at an early stage, later interpreters and editors have read the scene in Isa 6 as pointing beyond the context of the eighth century. 36 The message of divine judgment, which is a central element of the chapter, and its close connection with the prophetic figure have been applied to new contexts. Later experiences of destruction and exile are tied to the original announcement of Isaiah.37 As a result, the final destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and the following exile are seen as YHWH’s ultimate judgment against his people because of their hardened and ignorant minds. Second, and related to this, the value ascribed to the scene by later editors emphasizes that it is appropriate to interpret Isa 6 as a program of the whole book. As we now have it, the mission of Isaiah points beyond its (possible) pristine function as the opening of 6:1–8:18. The words in 6:11–13 sketch the rough dynamic of the book’s structure and indeed of divine economy: YHWH will certainly punish. He will destroy his people and their land, again and again. He will exile them and leave everything destroyed and empty (the gap between Isa 39 and 40). But, eventually, a new hope will emerge (40:1–2). Despite later additions, Isa 6 appears as a unified composition. Regarding its literary structure, the chapter is easily divided into two larger parts: vv. 1– 7 about the vision of Isaiah and vv. 8–13 about his mission. Disregarding the historical perspectives and assumes that these verses render “graded judgment inherent in Isaiah’s message.” Landy’s aim is to show that vv. 12–13 are “highly integrated into the poetic structure of the entire composition, especially its last part” (“Strategies,” 57, note 50; cf. Kirsten Nielsen, above). Recent redaction-critical studies question the authenticity of vv. 9–11 as well and only attribute vv. 1–8 to the original account; see Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 97–98; de Jong, Isaiah, 76–79. The level of complexity in Becker’s conclusion is astonishing: “Als Grundbestand der Inauguralvision konnten die v.1–8 (ohne v.5aβ) herausgearbeitet werden. Dieser Kern ist sukzessive zunächst durch v.9+11, dann durch v.10 und schließlich durch v.12–13bα und 13bβ erweitert worden” (Jesaja, 89; cf. 298– 99). He attributes the layer consisting of vv. 5aβ, 9, and 11 to the early postexilic period. See also the complex model in Müller, Ausgebliebene Einsicht, 23–25. In remarkable contrast to these recent redaction-critical studies, Prokhorov (Isaianic Denkschrift) denies any signs of editorial layers and ascribes the entire composition of Isa 6:1–9:6 to a single author in the Persian period. 36 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 241: “Die starke Glossierung des Abschnittes ist ein Zeichen dafür, wie sehr Jesajas Berufungserzählung die Leser beschäftigt hat.” 37 Childs (Isaiah, 54) refers to this kind of literary activity as “retrospect readings.” In his view, a divisive disagreement among scholars is how to evaluate this sort of activity. Are these “readings” simply improper additions to the text that should be removed or at least ignored in the interpretation of the passage? According to Childs, such “retrospect readings,” often creating or reflecting connections to other parts of the biblical book(s), point to larger concerns: “the elements of intertextual linking of the parts of scripture do not arise simply as literary constructs of self-serving editors, but from a profound wrestling with the coercion of the biblical text, continually instructing a community of faith in the meaning of its historical experience, both past and future.”

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

79

rather precise indication of time given by the death of King Uzziah, both parts are introduced by key verbs: “I saw” (‫ )וָאֶ ְראֶ ה‬in v. 1 initiates the vision scene and “I heard” (‫ )וָאֶ ְשׁמַ ע‬in v. 8 initiates the call and response scene. Sight and hearing are central themes of the passage. In addition, the designation of YHWH as “Lord” (‫ ) ֲאדֹ נָי‬is the object of what the prophet sees (‫ )אֶ ת־ ֲאדֹ נָי‬in v. 1 and hears (‫ )אֶ ת־קֹ ול ֲאדֹ נָי‬in v. 8. My analysis will concentrate on the latter part because of its explicit reference to destruction and exile in vv. 11–13. Nevertheless, there are good reasons for a briefer treatment of the former. First, the latter part does not make sense apart from the former; in a word, the call and mission of Isaiah both derive from his vision.38 Second, the description of Isaiah and the cleansing of his sin in particular introduce important themes in the book as they set the prophet apart from his people. Having experienced divine atonement as YHWH’s prophet, he is in a proper position to rebuke and criticize his people. 2.2.1. The vision (Isaiah 6:1–7) The former part of the chapter consists of two minor units (vv. 1–4 and 5–7) which render Isaiah’s vision of God and his reaction to it. In v. 1, the prophet sees (‫ )וָאֶ ְראֶ ה‬God, and in v. 5, he responds to the vision, he speaks (‫)וָאֹ מַ ר‬. 2.2.1.1. Isaiah 6:1–7: Text and translation ‫בִּ ְשׁנַת־מֹ ות הַ מֶּ ֶל ֻﬠ ִזּיָּהוּ‬ ‫וָאֶ ְראֶ ה אֶ ת־ ֲאדֹ נָי יֹ שֵׁ ב ַﬠל־כִּ סֵּ א ָרם‬ ‫וְ נִ שָּׂ א‬ ‫וְ שׁוּלָיו ְמל ִֵאים אֶ ת־הַ הֵ יכָל‬ ‫ְשׂ ָרפִ ים עֹ ְמ ִדים ִממַּ ﬠַל ו‬ ‫שֵׁ שׁ כְּ ָנ ַפיִ ם שֵׁ שׁ כְּ ָנ ַפיִ ם לְ אֶ חָ ד‬ ‫בִּ ְשׁתַּ יִ ם ְיכַסֶּ ה ָפנָיו‬ ‫וּבִ ְשׁתַּ יִ ם ְיכַסֶּ ה ַרגְ לָיו וּבִ ְשׁתַּ יִ ם‬ ‫יְ עֹ ו ֵפף‬ ‫וְ קָ ָרא זֶה אֶ ל־זֶה וְ אָ מַ ר‬ ‫קָ דֹ ושׁ קָ דֹ ושׁ קָ דֹ ושׁ יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬ ‫ְמל ֹא ָכל־הָ אָ ֶרץ כְּ בֹ ודֹ ו‬ ‫ורא‬ ֵ ֹ‫ַו ָיּנֻעוּ אַ מֹּ ות הַ ִסּפִּ ים ִמקֹּ ול הַ קּ‬

1

In the year that King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord sitting on a throne, high and lofty; and the hem of his robe filled the temple. 2 Seraphs were in attendance above him; each had six wings: with two they covered their faces, and with two they covered their feet; and with two they flew. 3

And one called to another and said: “Holy, holy, holy is YHWH Zebaot; the whole world is full of his glory.” 4 The pivots on the thresholds shook at the voices

38 Wildberger, Jesaja, 252: “aus der visio folgt die missio.” Cf. Batchelder, “Undoing,” 175–76: “What is seen in verses 1–5 is critical for understanding 9–13 as an outworking of Yahweh’s sovereignty, and the outworking of the seraphim’s declaration of the true nature of earth in its relation to YHWH. […] Only when the see-er has seen the Lord ‘high and lifted up,’ in the Lord’s true relation to earth, is he able to see the coming destruction as an aspect of that sovereignty.”

80

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

‫וְ הַ בַּ יִ ת יִ מָּ לֵא ָﬠשָׁ ן‬ a ‫יתי‬ ִ ֵ‫וָאֹ מַ ר אֹ וי־לִ י כִ י־נִ דְ מ‬ ‫א־שׂ ָפתַ יִ ם אָ נֹ כִ י‬ ְ ֵ‫כִּ י ִאישׁ טְ מ‬ ‫וּבְ תֹ ו ַﬠם־טְ מֵ א ְשׂ ָפתַ יִ ם אָ נֹ כִ י יֹ ושֵׁ ב‬ ‫כִּ י אֶ ת־הַ מֶּ ֶל יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹ ות ָראוּ‬ ‫ֵﬠינָי‬ ‫ַו ָיּ ָﬠף אֵ לַי אֶ חָ ד ִמן־הַ ְשּׂ ָרפִ ים‬ ‫וּבְ יָדֹ ו ִרצְ ָפּה בְּ מֶ לְ קַ חַ יִ ם לָקַ ח מֵ ַﬠל‬ ַ‫הַ ִמּזְבֵּ ח‬ ‫ַו ַיּגַּע ַﬠל־פִּ י וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר‬ ‫ל־שׂ ָפתֶ י‬ ְ ‫הִ נֵּה ָנגַע זֶה ַﬠ‬ b ‫את ְתּ ֻכ ָפּר‬ ְ ָ‫וְ סָ ר ﬠֲוֹ ֶנ וְ חַ טּ‬

of those who called, and the house filled with smoke. 5 And I said: “Woe is to me! I am lost, for I am a man of unclean lips, and I live among a people of unclean lips; yet my eyes have seen the King, YHWH Zebaot!” 6

Then one of the seraphs flew to me, holding a live coal that had been taken from the altar with a pair of tongs. 7

The seraph touched my mouth with it and said: “Now that this has touched your lips, your guilt has departed and your sin is blotted out.”

a

The translation in NRSV (“I am lost”), along with most modern translations and commentaries, assumes the meaning “to destroy” (‫)דמה‬, whereas others assume the meaning “to be silenced” (Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion have εσιωπησα and the Vulgate has tacui); see further in the exegesis of the verse. b Literally, “your guilt has withdrawn and your sin has been covered up.”

2.2.1.2. Isaiah 6:1–4: The sovereign judge The opening of v. 1 places the vision of Isaiah in the context of King Uzziah’s death, presumably around 740 BCE. The purpose of the accurate date is to tie the revelation of God’s holy and eternal reality to a specific moment in Israel’s history. 39 All descriptions in vv. 1–4 serve to emphasize divine presence and sovereignty. 40 Initially, the object of Isaiah’s vision is “the Lord” (‫) ֲאדֹ ָני‬, the sovereign master, a term which pervades the chapter as a whole (cf. vv. 8 and 11). He sits on a throne, “high and lofty” (‫)רם וְ נִ שָּׂ א‬, ָ which indicates his majestic and divine height.41 As in 5:15–16, YHWH is the only exalted one over against the world and its inhabitants. His six-winged servants, the seraphim, surround his throne and praise his holiness that as a sovereign ruler sets him apart from the human realm. The triple repetition of “holy” (‫ )קָ דוֹשׁ‬in their hymn stresses that he is utterly holy. 42 Their voices

39 40

Childs, Isaiah, 54. For an analysis of divine attributes in vv. 1–4, see Wagner, Gottes Herrschaft, 87–

109. 41 This word pair also occurs in 57:15, where it introduces YHWH’s own description of his holy and eternal place. The suffering servant who in 52:13 shall be “exalted and lifted up” (‫ )יָרוּם וְ ִנשָּׂ א‬apparently takes part in this divine transcendence. Cf. Kim, “Little Highs.” 42 Goldingay, Theology, 97. For a review of the concept of holiness in Isaiah, see Hrobon, Ethical Dimension, 37–52. Landy (“Strategies,” 64) argues that the threefold repetition points to the failure of language, which is reduced to tautology: “The three

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

81

make the pivots on the threshold shake and smoke fills the temple (cf. a similar theophany in 1 Kings 8:10–11). The vision is set in the temple (‫)הֵ יכָל‬. Interestingly, the five occurrences of this term in Isaiah sketch the entire narrative of YHWH’s relation to his people. Initially, he is present in his temple where he gives instructions and one is supposed to worship him there just as the seraphim do (6:1). Yet, in a near future, the sons of the Judean king shall not serve in Jerusalem, but in the “palace of the king of Babylon” (39:7). Nevertheless, this foreign palace will eventually fall and be emptied (13:22) and a new and proper one will be established in Jerusalem (44:28), from where YHWH again will make himself known to the world (66:6). Within the book as a whole, the very occurrence of ‫ הֵ יכָל‬here points forward to concerns that occur later in the book. In a similar manner, the notion that YHWH is “sitting on a throne” ( ‫יֹ שֵׁ ב‬ ‫ ) ַﬠל־כִּ סֵּ א‬is not without significance. Most commentators understand the notion as a reference to the image of YHWH as king.43 There is much to support this interpretation. The context fits the depiction of a king and in v. 5 the prophet explicitly responds to the vision that he has seen “the King” ( ‫)הַ מֶּ ֶל‬. Furthermore, it accords with other descriptions of YHWH’s divine throne.44 Nevertheless, the notion of a throne also points to a more distinct image of YHWH as judge,45 although it would be wrong to set up a contrast between the king and the judge as they are often considered the same person (e.g. 1 Kings 7:7; Ps 122:5). The most obvious parallels are the judgment scenes in Ps 9 and Joel 4. In the psalm, YHWH “sits enthroned [‫ ]יֵשֵׁ ב‬forever” and “has established his throne for judgment [‫( ”]ל ִַמּ ְשׁ ָפּט כִּ סְ אוֹ‬9:8; cf. v. 5). In Joel 4:12, YHWH, who has urged all the peoples of the world to come, states, “I will sit to judge [‫ ]אֵ שֵׁ ב לִ ְשׁפֹּ ט‬all the neighboring nations.” More features in Isa 6 suggest that the throne indicates judgment. The seraphim who are portrayed in other texts as snake-like creatures (e.g. Num 21:6; Isa 14:29; 30:6) here appear threatening. Moreover, the trembling of the building and the filling of it with smoke may indicate that “the hiding of YHWH is an aspect of his judgment.”46 Isaiah interprets his encounter with God as having only one possible ‘holy’s’ are screen words, which converge – merge into each other – somewhere beyond articulation.” 43 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 224–25; Childs, Isaiah, 55; Wildberger, Jesaja, 244–45. 44 The location of YHWH’s throne, however, differs. Some texts place it in the heavens (Isa 66:1; Ps 11:4; 103:19), whereas other texts, as here, place it on the earth, that is, in the temple (Isa 6:1; Ps 47:9; 93:2). Some texts refer to the temple or Jerusalem as “YHWH’s throne” (Jer 3:17; 17:12; Ezek 43:7). 45 Steck, “Bemerkungen,” 194–95; Young, Isaiah I, 237–38. 46 Uhlig, “Too hard to understand,” 65. See especially Hartenstein’s Unzugänglichkeit (109–216) for a very careful analysis of the motifs of trembling, smoke, and seraphim as symbols for the judging presence of God (“Gerichtspräsenz Gottes”), including a list of several parallels in biblical and extra-biblical literature.

82

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

outcome: death (“I am lost”). Furthermore, the final verses of the chapter explicitly reveal the terrifying nature of YHWH’s judgment that will last until everything has been destroyed. 2.2.1.3. Isaiah 6:5–7: The prophet’s reaction and cleansing Isaiah’s reaction to the magnificent yet terrifying vision follows in vv. 5–7. More issues in v. 5, however, are vague and much depends on the construal of the main verb and the relation between the separate lines of the verse. The main verb (‫יתי‬ ִ ֵ‫ )נִ דְ מ‬occurs in Isaiah’s cry following the introductory woe. As indicated in the textual notes, it is common to understand the verb as deriving from ‫ דמה‬in the sense of being destroyed (“I am lost”). There are a dozen parallels in the Old Testament, where a form of this verb designates destruction, especially destruction which is divinely authored. The Niphal form is used to express the destruction of YHWH’s own people (“the king of Samaria” in Hos 10:7, “the king of Israel” in Hos 10:15) and of foreign nations and their rulers (Pharaoh in Ezek 32:2, Ar and Kir in Isa 15:1, Ashkelon in Jer 47:5). Psalm 49 employs the verb to state that man will perish like the animals (vv. 13, 21). In two cases, the Qal form renders YHWH’s judgment against his own people. In Jer 6:1, he will destroy daughter Zion.47 Furthermore, Hos 4:5–6 presents YHWH’s declaration: “I will destroy [‫יתי‬ ִ ‫ ]וְ דָ ִמ‬your mother [or people]. My people are destroyed [‫ ]נִ ְדמוּ‬for lack of knowledge.” Yet another option is to derive the main verb from a proposed homonymic word in the sense of being silenced (which is implicit in the former option, however). Plausible cognate roots would be ‫ דום‬or ‫דמם‬, the latter of which, in a handful of verses, designates someone who is silent or motionless (e.g. Exod 15:16; Lam 2:10; 3:38). More features in the literary context suit this interpretation. 48 Isaiah hears the wonderful praise of the seraphim, but his initial response is silence (“I will be silent or silenced”). He cannot join their worship and is incapable of praising God. The reason follows immediately: he has unclean lips! Francis Landy, in his article on exile, relates this alternative interpretation to the overall idea of silence in Isaiah.49 Initially, the prophet’s loss of speech makes him incapable of excising his prophetic office as divine spokesman. Notably, in his sign act in Isa 20, the prophet likewise remains silent and illustrates the humiliation of exile with his body alone (see Chapter 3). His muteness in Isa 6, however, may be seen as a mirror or adumbration of the silence of God. A possible parallel is found in Ezekiel. In the years leading up to the final destruction of Jerusalem, YHWH makes Ezekiel dumb by letting 47 See, however, alternative readings, assuming ‫ דמה‬in the sense of likening: “I have likened daughter Zion to the loveliest pasture”; cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 139. 48 Wildberger, Jesaja, 232. 49 Landy, “Exile,” 249–50, 257.

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

83

Ezekiel’s tongue fuse to the roof of his mouth (3:24–27). The prophet’s muteness illustrates YHWH’s decision to punish ultimately; there will be no words of comfort.50 The dumbness continues until after the fall of Jerusalem. Ezekiel then speaks and is able to admonish his people (24:25–27; 33:21–22). As we observed in Chapter 1, the notion of a “sealed book” (Isa 8:16–18) serves to illustrate divine silence until complete judgment has occurred, and the prophet’s divinely imposed muteness in Isa 6 could likewise anticipate the period of divine silence and inactivity which is manifested in the black hole between Isa 39 and 40. Some scholars, however, remain skeptical of interpreting the main verb as a reference to silence per se. Childs, for example, states that “The frequent translation of nidmêtî as ‘silent’ is far too weak for this verb.”51 In my view, one should not make the contrast between the two alternatives too decisive. First, the motif of silence is present in the idea of being cut off or destroyed (it has even been proposed that both meanings derive from a common one originally referring to “the holding of the breath”). Second, the ambiguity of the main verb is a crucial element of the passage which allows the verse to work on more levels. As God’s prophet, Isaiah’s silence indicates the frightening period of divine silence – exile – that awaits YHWH’s people. As a member of the Judean people, Isaiah’s fear of his own destruction indicates the future destruction of his nation (cf. 6:11–13). Just like the rest of his people, he is lost and corrupt. Following the latter strain of interpretation, Isaiah’s cry in v. 5 is really a desperate one as he, in front of the heavenly judge, expects to be cut off and destroyed. Initially, he states “woe is to me!” (‫)אֹ וי־לִ י‬, a phrase which indicates severe lamentation and despair (cf. Isa 24:16; Jer 10:19; 15:10). Previously in the book, the “woe” (‫ )אוֹי‬introduced the prophet’s rebuke of his people (e.g. 3:9, 11). Now, he recognizes that disaster is about to fall upon himself: “woe is to me.” He thinks he is going die. In addition to unclean lips, Isaiah says that his eyes have seen the King, YHWH Zebaot. A different interpretation has been proposed by rendering the final ‫כִּ י‬, which introduces the sentence about seeing the king, as a contrastive “yet”. In other words, although Isaiah has unclean lips and dwells among an unclean people, he has nevertheless been granted the privilege of seeing God. In my opinion, it is more reasonable to understand the statements about unclean lips and seeing God, both of which are introduced by ‫כִּ י‬, as forming a parallelism; Isaiah is not only a man of sin, but now he has also seen his creator to whom he owes his life. 52 The contrast between Isaiah and God is portrayed in an explicit 50

See e.g. Vogt, “Lähmung”; Wilson, “Ezekiel’s Dumbness.” Childs, Isaiah, 50. Clements prefers “I am finished, doomed” (Isaiah 1–39, 75). 52 Kaiser (Jesaja 1–12, 120) assumes three parallel statements explaining the initial “woe”: “Wehe mich, daß ich schweigen muß; daß ich ein Mensch unreiner Lippen bin und 51

84

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

manner in that YHWH sits (‫ )יֹ שֵׁ ב‬on his holy throne whilst Isaiah dwells (‫)יוֹשֵׁ ב‬ among a sinful people. Certainly, there is an infinite distance between YHWH and his creation. Unlike the seraphim who cover their faces to protect themselves in the presence of God, Isaiah’s eyes have seen YHWH (cf. v. 1). According to important Old Testament witnesses, the outcome of this event is certain death. See, for instance, Exod 33:20: “no one shall see me and live!” (‫)ל ֹא־ ִי ְראַ נִ י הָ אָ דָ ם וָחָ י‬. Noteworthy is the description of Isaiah as having unclean lips (‫א־שׂ ָפתַ יִ ם‬ ְ ֵ‫)טְ מ‬. The expression is often understood as a kind of moral sin that relates to speech (cf. Ezek 22:5: “unclean of name” in the sense of having a bad reputation).53 In Isaiah, it seems obvious to point at the statement in 59:3 that “your lips have spoken lies” (‫)שׂפְ תוֹתֵ יכֶם דִּ בְּ רוּ־שֶׁ קֶ ר‬. ִ Accordingly, the prophet does not fulfill the ethical code to enter the temple (cf. Ps 24:3–4). The term ‫טָ מֵ א‬, however, is closely connected with priestly theology and its concept of cultic uncleanness and the language of v. 7 suggests that his sin is of a much more fundamental nature.54 Encountering the holiness of YHWH, the prophet is made abundantly aware of his own uncleanness which prohibits him from participating in the cult. In other words, his encounter with the Holy One of Israel makes him realize the severity of his own sin.55 He has been too close to the presence of God. Only a sacramental act can save him from death.56 The seraph cleanses his lips not with blood, but with a piece of hot coal from the altar. As noted, the words in v. 7 point to his sinful existence. His “sin” (‫ )חַ טָּ את‬is not a particular sin, but sin in general, that is, a kind of sphere which surrounds the sinner.57 It must be atoned (‫)כפר‬.58 His guilt (‫) ָﬠוֹן‬, which stands as a hindrance for divine forgiveness, must be turned aside (‫)סור‬.

mitten in einem Volk unreiner Lippen wohne; daß meine Augen den König Jahwe Zebaot sahen.” See also Uhlig (“Too hard to understand,” 65), who argues that the three reasons correspond to the three holies of the seraphim. 53 Wildberger (Jesaja, 251) suggests that “unclean lips” could refer to the “unclean food” (unreine Nahrung) that one has eaten before entering the temple, but concludes: “Aber Jesaja hat den Ausdruck im übertragenen Sinn verwendet: unrein sind seine Lippen, weil sie Unlauteres, Unwahres gesagt, vielleicht auch, weil sie angemessen von Gott gesprochen hat.” 54 Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 130: “Die unreinen Lippen stehen für die Unreinheit der ganzen Person.” See also the discussion of sin and uncleanness as cultic phenomena in Engnell, The Call, 39–40. 55 Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 55: “In the presence of the Holy One of Israel, [Isaiah] perceives his true state.” 56 Hrobon, Ethical Dimension, 47: “the revelation of YHWH’s holiness not only exposes but is also hostile toward every impurity, as Isaiah realized to his horror. The only solution to how to be in the presence of the Holy One and stay alive is purification.” 57 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 253: “die sündige Haltung Jesajas überhaupt.”

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

85

The cleansing of Isaiah’s lips has at least two implications. First, he is capable of serving as YHWH’s spokesman. Now he can speak properly on YHWH’s behalf. In this manner, the scene is comparable to the calls of Moses and Jeremiah, both of who lament their inability to speak (Exod 4:10; Jer 1:6), but by divine guidance or inspiration are prepared for their task (Exod 4:15; Jer 1:9). Moreover, the removal of sin implies that Isaiah, unlike his people, can hear the voice of God and respond to it in faith (see below).59 Second, and more importantly, the prophet is now clearly separated from his sinful people and stands in opposition to their continuous behavior.60 They will continue to be “a people laden with guilt” (‫) ַﬠם ֶכּבֶ ד ָﬠוֹן‬. He can now rebuke them with full force and reveal to them what they refuse to see. In a way, Isaiah’s personal experience in this former part of the chapter presents a pattern that is mirrored in its latter part. The prophet was cleansed by the burning coal and, eventually, his people will be cleansed by the purging fire of divine judgment.61 2.2.2. The mission (Isaiah 6:8–13) The latter part of the chapter also consists of two minor units (vv. 8–10 and 11–13) which render the dialogue between YHWH and his prophet. Both units open with Isaiah’s first-person voice: “I heard” (‫ )וָאֶ ְשׁמַ ע‬in v. 8 and “I said” (‫ )וָאֹ מַ ר‬in v. 11. Verses 8–10 concern the sending and message of the prophet, whereas vv. 11–13 concern the period of hardening and judgment.

58 The basic meaning of ‫ כפר‬is “to cover,” perhaps reflecting a sacrificial practice where, for instance, blood is used to cover and thereby cleanse impurity (cf. Lev 16). According to Milgrom (Leviticus 1–16, 1083–84), in rituals, the subject of such an act is typically a priest and the object is a contaminated thing (e.g. the altar or temple). In nonritual literature, as here, YHWH is usually the subject and the direct object is sin itself (cf. Isa 22:14; Ezek 16:63; Ps 65:4; 78:38; 79:9). Although the seraph as a priest performs the ritual, God is ultimately the warrant for its effect. In this more abstract use, ‫ כפר‬is easily translated with “to atone” or “to expiate”. In Milgrom’s view (1084), Isa 6 displays a mixture of both ritual and nonritual elements: “Isaiah is purged by contact with a sacred detergent (the altar coal), and at the same time his sins are expiated.” 59 Cf. Landy, “Strategies,” 66: “If the prophet and his people are impure, if all their words are pervaded by impurity, then the possibility of communicating with God vanishes, since impurity is essentially that which separates one from God.” 60 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 75: “The reference to the guilt of the people generally is used to emphasize that the prophet felt that he had hitherto been no different from the rest of his nation, but that he was now being called upon to fulfil a task which required him to be quite separate from them.” 61 Batchelder, “Undoing,” 160–61: “In Isaiah 6, the ‘see-er’ sees and hears Yahweh and is ‘sent.’ Judah refuses to see and hear Yahweh and will be ‘sent far away’ (into exile).”

86

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

2.2.2.1. Isaiah 6:8–13: Text and translation ‫וָאֶ ְשׁמַ ע אֶ ת־קֹ ול ֲאדֹ נָי אֹ מֵ ר‬ ‫וּמי ֵי ֶל ־לָנוּ‬ ִ ‫ת־מי אֶ ְשׁלַח‬ ִ ֶ‫א‬ ‫וָאֹ מַ ר הִ נְ נִ י ְשׁלָחֵ ִני‬ ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר ֵל וְ אָ מַ ְרתָּ ָל ָﬠם הַ זֶּה‬ ‫ִשׁ ְמעוּ שָׁ מֹ ו ַﬠ וְ אַ ל־תָּ בִ ינוּ‬ ‫ְוּראוּ ָראֹ ו וְ אַ ל־תֵּ דָ עוּ‬ a ‫הַ ְשׁמֵ ן לֵב־הָ ָﬠם הַ זֶּה‬ ‫וְ אָ ְזנָיו הַ כְ בֵּ ד וְ ֵﬠינָיו הָ שַׁ ע‬ ‫ֶפּן־ ִי ְראֶ ה בְ ֵﬠינָיו‬ ‫וּבְ אָ ְזנָיו ִי ְשׁמָ ע‬ ‫וּלְ בָ בֹ ו יָבִ ין‬ ‫וָשָׁ ב וְ ָרפָא ו‬ ‫וָאֹ מַ ר ַﬠד־מָ תַ י ֲאדֹ נָי וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר‬ ‫ַﬠד ֲאשֶׁ ר ִאם־שָׁ אוּ ﬠ ִָרים מֵ אֵ ין יֹ ושֵׁ ב‬ ‫וּבָ ִתּים מֵ אֵ ין אָ דָ ם‬ ‫ ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬b‫וְ הָ ֲאדָ מָ ה ִתּשָּׁ אֶ ה‬ c ‫וְ ִרחַ ק יְ הוָה אֶ ת־הָ אָ דָ ם‬ ‫וְ ַרבָּ ה הָ ﬠֲזוּבָ ה בְּ קֶ ֶרב הָ אָ ֶרץ‬ ‫וְ עֹ וד בָּ הּ ﬠ ִ ֲ֣שׂ ִריָּה‬ ‫וְ שָׁ בָ ה וְ הָ יְ תָ ה לְ בָ ֵﬠר‬ ‫כָּאֵ לָה וְ כָאַ ון‬ ‫ֲאשֶׁ ר בְּ שַׁ ֶלּכֶת מַ צֶּ בֶ ת בָּ ם‬ e ‫ז ֶַרע קֹ דֶ שׁ מַ צַּ בְ תָּ הּ‬ a

8

Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?” And I said: “Here am I; send me!” 9 And he said: “Go and say to this people: ‘Keep listening, but do not comprehend; keep looking, but do not understand.’ 10 Make the mind of this people dull, and stop their ears, and shut their eyes, so that they may not look with their eyes, and listen with their ears, and comprehend with their minds, and turn and be healed.” 11 Then I said, “How long, O Lord?” And he said: “Until cities lie waste without inhabitant, and houses without people, and the land is utterly desolate; 12 until YHWH sends everyone far away, and vast is the emptiness in the midst of the land. 13 Even if a tenth part remain in it, it will be burnt again, like a terebinth or an oak whose stump remains standing when it is felled.” The holy seed is its stump.

The version of v. 10 in the LXX has past tenses, indicating that the people have hardened themselves: “For this people’s heart has grown fat, and with their ears they have heard heavily, and they have shut their eyes so that they might not see with their eyes and hear with their ears and understand with their heart and turn – and I would heal them.” b A footnote in BHS proposes to substitute ‫ ִתּשָּׁ אֶ ה‬with ‫( ִתּשָּׁ אֵ ר‬cf. καταλειφθήσεται in the LXX), reading “the land will be left desolate.” Wildberger (Jesaja, 231), for instance, follows this proposal: “und der Acker (nur noch) als Wüste ‘übrigbleibt.’” c The version of v. 12 in the LXX changes the scenario of judgment to one of slight hope: “And after these things, God will send people far away, and those who have been left will be multiplied on the land.” d The Hebrew text of v. 13 is problematic (cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 223: “v 13 is probably damaged beyond repair”) and has received numerous proposals for emendation; see Wildberger, Jesaja, 233–34. In general, the discussion concerns the meaning of the words ‫“( שַׁ ֶלּ ֶכת‬felling of trees”) and ‫“( מַ צֶּ בֶ ת‬stump”), the latter of which some translate with “pillar” (cf. 2 Sam 18:18). Some emend ‫ ְאַשֶׁ ר‬to ‫“( ְאַשֵׁ ָרה‬an Asherah pole”) and ‫ בָּ ם‬to “high place” (‫)בָּ מָ ה‬. Alternative translations include: “Like a terebinth, or an oak, or an Asherah, when flung down from the sacred column of a high place” and “Now, just as the terebinth and as the oak, which at Shallekhet were a sacred pillar among them, (a holy offspring will be its sacred pillar)”; cf. Prokhorov, Isaianic Denkschrift, 200–9. The LXX has “And still a

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

87

tenth part is on it, and it will be plundered again, like a terebinth or an acorn tree when it falls from its station.” See also the extended reviews in Emerton, “Translation”; van der Kooij, “Stump or stalk.” e The final line of v. 13 is omitted in the LXX.

2.2.2.2. Isaiah 6:8–10: The sending of the prophet and his message Isaiah has seen the King and has been cleansed. Now, he hears the voice of the sovereign Lord. YHWH moves from the background of the scene to its very foreground. He speaks. The questions are brief: “Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?” Emphasis is on “who” (‫)מי‬ ִ which is repeated twice. The plural form “for us” could indicate that YHWH discusses the matter with himself (or perhaps takes advice from his council). Isaiah’s response, however, suggests that the questions are directed to the public. Who will volunteer? The immediateness of Isaiah’s response shows that he is now ready to commit himself entirely to the service of YHWH: “Here am I; send me!”62 The commissioning is further explained in vv. 9–10. The command relates to a specific task: “Go and say!” ( ָ‫) ֵל וְ אָ מַ ְרתּ‬. Isaiah shall serve as a messenger. A similar form occurs elsewhere in the sending of Isaiah (Isa 20:2; 38:5) and other prophetic figures (Nathan in 2 Sam 7:5; Gad in 2 Sam 24:12). Although I share Sweeney’s idea that in the context of the book as a whole the scene in Isa 6 functions as a call narrative, the command in v. 9 does seem to refer to a limited task rather than the prophetic office itself. The prophet must go to a specific group of people and communicate a distinct message. The addressee of the message is “this people” (‫) ָﬠם הַ זֶּה‬. Notable is the adjective this, indicating distance and alienation. YHWH does not identify them. Perhaps the reason is more profoundly theological; no longer does he identify them as his people, so severe is their sin. There is “a note of divine rejection.” 63 The preceding chapters are full of harsh words of judgment against “a people laden with iniquity” (‫ ; ַﬠם ֶכּבֶ ד ָﬠוֹן‬1:4) and “the people of Gomorrah” (‫ ; ַﬠם ﬠְ ַמֹ ָרה‬1:10). But despite the content of these oracles, there are plenty of references to YHWH’s special relation to them: they are “my people” (1:3; 3:12; 3:15; 5:13) and “his people” (3:14; 5:25). The prophet previously identified them as “a people of unclean lips” (6:5), but here, their rebellion against God, including ignorance, hardening, and alienation, reaches its peak. YHWH’s people are reduced to “this people,” a term which occurs

62 Interestingly, the word ‫“( הִ ְנ ִני‬Here I am”) occurs 15 times in Isaiah, of which this instance in 6:8 is the only one where YHWH is not the subject of the actions. The idea of confidence, loyalty, and readiness which is implicit in Isaiah’s answer is present in YHWH’s response in the latter part of the book: “[my people] shall know that it is I who speak; here am I” (52:6); “you shall cry for help, and [YHWH] will say, Here I am” (58:9); and “I said, ‘Here I am, here I am,’ to a nation that did not call on my name” (65:1). 63 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 76.

88

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

frequently in the following chapters.64 The use of ְ‫ ל‬instead of ‫ אֶ ל‬might even underline the aggressive tone (“against this people”), although its primary function is to single out the audience to which the following statement should be addressed. The message that Isaiah shall communicate is “Keep listening, but do not comprehend; keep looking, but do not understand.” The statement is clearly ironic. The people that so many times are accused of not listening or paying attention are urged to do so even more intensively (see e.g. 28:12; 30:9, 15).65 Thus the primary function of the statement is to display the incapability of the people to hear, see, and understand the will of God.66 No matter how good their intensions, the people will keep refusing to look for YHWH and his work. It is of significance that not only the inability to listen to the prophet’s words is mentioned, but also the inability to see. The statement picks up the accusation in 5:12 that the people do not regard YHWH’s deeds or see the work of his hands. The pairing of ‫“( אַ ל־תָּ בִ ין‬do not comprehend”) and ‫“( אַ ל־תֵּ דָ עוּ‬do not understand”) in the parallelism is worth paying attention to. This word pair occurs only in two other places in Isaiah. Most prominently, it opens the book in the intense rebuke that sets the tone of the succeeding chapters: “Israel does not know [‫]ל ֹא הִ ְתבּוֹנָן‬, my people do not understand [‫( ”]ל ֹא יָדַ ע‬1:3).67 As noted, “my people” has now turned into “this people.” Ignorance and hardening have reached their climax. YHWH’s people will be ultimately judged, apparently even without sensing it (cf. 5:13; 42:21–25). Verse 10 elaborates on the theme of hardening by introducing the notion of the heart. 68 In Old Testament texts, the heart is generally perceived as the center of human will, emotions, and knowledge. The eye and ear as symbols of perception and comprehension are subdued to the heart; some passages even indicate that the heart stands for the human being as a whole and embodies human life as such (e.g. Prov 4:23). The heart reflects the relationship 64 Isa 8:6, 11, 12; 9:15; 28:11, 14; 29:13–14. See the review in Høgenhaven, Gott und Volk, 34–36. 65 Regarding the first instruction, “keep listening” (‫)שׁ ְמעוּ שָׁ מֹ ו ַﬠ‬, ִ the combination of an imperative form and an infinitive absolute is not unique. In Job, this form designates attention and careful listening to words or the divine voice (13:17; 21:2; 37:2; cf. Isa 55:2). 66 Wildberger, Jesaja, 254. 67 The third instance of the word pair occurs in Isa 32:3–4 in the vision of a future where the blind will see and the death will hear and “the minds of the rash will have good judgment [‫]יָבִ ין לָדָ ַﬠת‬.” 68 The idea of the audience’s hardening and hostility towards the prophet is present in the calls of Jeremiah and Ezekiel as well. Jeremiah shall expect that the people will fight against him (Jer 1:19). In the case of Ezekiel, YHWH prepares him for the rejection of his words: “the house of Israel will not listen to you, for they are not willing to listen to me; because all the house of Israel have a hard forehead and a stubborn heart” (Ezek 3:7).

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

89

between God and man (Deut 6:4–5). A stubborn heart will not and cannot perceive nor understand God’s call. The combination of heart, ears, and eyes here, beautifully arranged in a concentric form, points to the total insensitivity of the people. They will never see and comprehend things as they really are, that is, that they are a people laden with sin and in desperate need of repentance.69 Yet there is a double movement or polarity at stake in v. 10. On the one hand, the people have already hardened themselves which has made them unable to communicate with God (cf. Isa 1:3–4).70 To be sure, the repeated emphasis on the people’s continuous rebellion and insensitivity in Isa 1–5 peaks in these verses. 71 On the other hand, YHWH will keep them in this state; in the end, he is “der Urheber der Verhärtung” (cf. Exod 10:1: “I have hardened [‫[ ]הִ כְ בַּ ְד ִתּי‬Pharaoh’s] heart”).72 In fact, he will increase their stubbornness to make sure that they never will comprehend and repent. Accordingly, YHWH instructs Isaiah to make their hearts “dull” (‫ שׁמן‬in Hiphil; liter69

Young, Isaiah I, 258. Cf. Rendtorff, “Jesaja 6,” 77: “Insofern gibt Kap. 1 dem Leser schon eine Verstehenshilfe an die Hand, die ihm dann den Verstockungsauftrag von Kap. 6 verständlich macht; denn ohne daß es dort explizit gesagt wird, weiß der Leser, daß dieses Nichtverstehen, das jetzt als Verhängnis auf Israel gelegt wird, seine Wurzeln in Israels eigener Sünde hat.” 71 Cf. Beuken, “Manifestation,” 78–79; and recently Campbell, “Placement,” 92–97; Cole, “Context,” 161–71. 72 Wildberger, Jesaja, 256; Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte: 140: “Durch die Verstockung wird das, was das Volk ursprünglich selbst herbeigeführt hat, zu einem Dauerzustand” (my emphasis). It lies outside the scope of this study to consider the larger consequences of the concept of divinely-authored hardening and its relation to God’s salvific purpose. Apparently, considerations of these matters are reflected already in the LXX where the translator altered the imperatives of v. 10 to indicative forms to avoid the problem (see textual notes). Several scholars have argued that vv. 9–10 reflect a secondary explanation or justification, either by the prophet himself or by his disciples, of why his message was rejected (cf. e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 224; Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 77; Uhlig, “Too hard to understand,” 81). Childs (Isaiah, 57), however, rightly asserts that these psychological or redactional theories of retrospective explanation misconstrue the entire chapter and destroy its theological import; cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 188. Similarly, the claim that the real intent of the commission is to make the people pay attention – a rhetorical use of persuasive irony – appears strained to me; see recently Wong (“Irony”) and Smith (“Spiritual Blindness,” 167–71) for a review of similar proposals. From a theological point of view, the idea of divine hardening belongs to the mystery of God’s inscrutable will; cf. Young, Isaiah I, 259: “In His mysterious wisdom God had foreordained that this people would not respond to the blessed overtures of the gospel.” The attempts to limit the significance of Isa 6:9–10 to the events of the latter half of the eighth century BCE are at least undermined by the history of reception in which new readers have found a prophecy in these words that could receive new fulfillments (e.g. in the New Testament: Matt 13:14–15; John 12:40; Rom 11:8). 70

90

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

ally, to make or cover with fat as a sign of unreceptivity; see Deut 32:15; Jer 5:28), to “stop” their ears (‫ כבד‬in Hiphil; literally, make them heavy), and to “shut” their eyes (‫ שׁעע‬in Hiphil; literally, besmear or glue). It is notable that the center of the concentric structure in this verse, to which attention is naturally drawn, is not the heart of the people (‫)לֵב‬, but the conjunction ‫“( ֶפּן‬lest”). In other words, the chiastic arrangement puts emphasis on YHWH’s purpose of Isaiah’s preaching. The primary task of his prophet is not to glorify, but to cover YHWH’s glory (notice the use of ‫ כבד‬in v. 3).73 He is not supposed to reveal him, but to hide him (cf. v. 4).74 Salvation is not a possible outcome. The final line in v. 10 makes this thought explicit. Maintaining the people in a state of hardening ensures that they do not change their ways and become healed. Regarding the last two words (‫)וְ ָר ָפא ו‬, YHWH might be the implicit subject of the action: (lest) he will heal them.75 The notion of healing draws from the imagery of sickness and physical injury (symbolized here by the heart, ears, and eyes).76 It is striking that the image of sickness forms an important element in the initial description of the people in the opening of the book. In Isa 1:5–6, the people are represented by the image of a wounded person, who suffers from bruises and bleeding wounds. The people are a sick nation: “the whole head is sick, and the whole heart is faint” (‫ָכּל־ר ֹאשׁ ָלחֳלִ י וְ ָכל־‬ ‫)לֵבָ ב דַּ וָּי‬. No medical treatment is at hand, that is, YHWH will not bind their bruises or heal the blows of their wounds (like in Isa 30:26).77 There is not even a call for their repentance. Such calls to the people to return and be healed occur frequently in other prophetic books (e.g. Hos 14:2: “Return [‫]שׁוּבָ ה‬, O Israel, to YHWH your God”). Some of these books associate the imagery of sickness/healing with the call for repentance.78 Illustrative examples are Jer 3:22: “Return, O faithless children, I will heal your faithlessness” (‫)שׁוּבוּ בָּ נִ ים שׁוֹבָ בִ ים אֶ ְר ָפּה ְמשׁוּבֹ תֵ יכֶם‬ and Hos 14:5, “I will heal their disloyalty” (‫)אֶ ְר ָפּא ְמשׁוּבָ תָ ם‬. YHWH’s healing

73 Landy (“Strategies,” 71) suggests that ‫ כבד‬could play on “the self-glorification of the people, or [on] the perversion of the divine glory among them.” In general, he notices the metaphorical overdetermination and ambiguation of the employed verbs that indicate both enrichment and torpidity. 74 Uhlig, “Too hard to understand,” 68. 75 The exact grammatical construal of the line (‫)וָשָׁ ב וְ ָרפָא ו‬, however, is open to more interpretations; see Wildberger, Jesaja, 233. While the people most likely are the subject of ‫שָׁ ב‬, there are more options regarding ‫ר ָפא‬,ָ including YHWH, the heart, or an impersonal form. If the people are the subject of ‫ ָר ָפא‬as well, the latter ‫ ו‬might be taken as a reflective form: “and they will find healing for themselves.” See also the discussion in Müller, Ausgebliebene Einsicht, 5–9. 76 Cf. Kustár, Wunden, 60–62. 77 Similar imagery occurs in the description of Hezekiah in Isa 38 and the suffering servant in Isa 53 (see Chapter 3). 78 Cf. Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38:21,” 76.

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

91

of his people is a strong metaphor for redemption and restoration (e.g. Jer 30:17; 33:6; Hos 6:1). The closest we get to this thought in Isaiah is at 19:22: “YHWH will strike Egypt, striking and healing [‫;]רפוֹא‬ ָ they will return [‫]שָׁ בוּ‬ to YHWH, and he will listen to their supplications and heal them [‫]רפָאָ ם‬.” ְ However, it is significant that this passage concerns Egypt and not YHWH’s own people and that it is placed within an eschatological vision (“on that day”). In contrast to these examples, YHWH reveals no intentions in Isa 6:9– 10 to heal and save his people. The message of ultimate judgment cannot be misunderstood. Apparently, everything must be turned into desolation and emptiness. Only the experience of exile will pave the way for divine cure. 2.2.2.3. Isaiah 6:11–13: Deportation and complete destruction The brevity of Isaiah’s response to YHWH’s commissioning is remarkable. In v. 8, the prophet’s answer was also short (“Here am I”), but colored by eagerness and enthusiasm. The prophet remains loyal. Unlike Abraham in Gen 18, he does not question the purpose of YHWH’s decision to judge. Yet the tone of his commitment has changed: “How long, O Lord” will this last? It is not entirely clear to what this question refers. Options include the duration of Isaiah’s preaching, the stubbornness of the people, or the harshness of divine punishment. In light of the preceding verses, it seems most likely that the question refers to the hardening of the people.79 The end of the divinelyauthored hardening and hope towards a new future will not occur until houses, cities, and the land have been wasted completely. As a consequence, the situation described in vv. 11b–13 points beyond Isaiah’s own time to the end of a still indefinite period of divine retribution.80 Isaiah’s question “how long?” (‫ ) ַﬠד־מָ תַ י‬draws from liturgical material, primarily from the Psalms (e.g. Ps 6:4; 80:5). This observation has at least two implications. First, a central feature in the portrait of the prophetic figure is his inability to speak. This was the case in vv. 5–7 where the mouth of Isaiah was cleansed from sin to prepare him for service. Verse 11 continues this motif as the prophet, responding to the revelation of YHWH’s destructive intensions, has no language of his own and can only imitate or repeat tradition.81 Second, the question itself brings Isa 6:11–13 close to other passages in the Old Testament. In Psalms, these words often sound in a context where the 79

Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 133. Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 133: “der Erzähler [blickt] über die Lebzeiten Jesajas auf die Katastrophe von 587 hinaus.” Regarding the function of Isa 6 within the larger composition of the book, Rendtorff (“Jesaja 6,” 79) stresses that the question in v. 11 and the scenario of vv. 11–13 testify to a basic “openness” of the chapter towards latter parts of the book. 81 Landy, “Strategies,” 74. 80

92

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

psalmist begs that his sufferings will have an end.82 The appearance of the question in psalms, in which Israel collectively complains of the presence of enemies and the inactivity of YHWH, is significant (Ps 74; 79; 90; 94). In particular, there are striking parallels in terms of the subject matter between the scenario of Isa 6:11–13 and that of Ps 74 and 79, both of which are generally considered to presuppose and reflect the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile.83 Enemies have defiled and destroyed the sanctuary and burned everything to the ground. In these psalms, the question “how long?” concerns the period of time before YHWH intervenes and ends the scoffing of the enemy (Ps 74:9–10) or the period of YHWH’s burning and desolating anger (Ps 79:5). In Isaiah, the duration of the people’s hardening is also, of course, related to the wrath of YHWH which keeps them in this state. Perhaps even closer to its function in Isaiah is the opening of Zechariah where the angel asks, “O YHWH Zebaot, how long will you withhold mercy from Jerusalem and the cities of Judah, with which you have been angry these seventy years?” (Zech 1:12). In light of these instances, the real purpose of Isaiah’s question might actually be a prayer for mercy. In Isaiah’s view, YHWH’s judgment is righteous, yet his question might indicate a plea that this judgment not be the final word from YHWH to his people. Notably, in the final line of vv. 11–13, a glimmer of hope emerges (see below). The prophet’s question of duration indicates that YHWH’s answer in vv. 11b–13, introduced by “until” (‫) ַﬠד ֲאשֶׁ ר ִאם‬, will refer to a process or a larger temporal period. This is of importance because it implies that the following verses should be read as a continuum, depicting the totality of judgment. Rather than simply adding something to the (original?) situation depicted in v. 11b, as argued by many critics (see above), vv. 12–13 do more. Verses 11– 13 as a whole suggest “an accumulation of disaster, a process of divergence that radiates from the heart in v. 10 outwards.”84 The key themes in v. 11b are desolation and emptiness. This latter half of the verse is organized chiastically. The frame repeats the term “to be desolate/ruined” (‫ )שׁאה‬85 designating the fate of the cities (‫) ָﬠ ִרים‬, houses (‫)בָ ִתּים‬, and the cultivated land (‫)הָ ֲאדָ מָ ה‬. The center contains the statements which sketch the end of civil life: the cities and the houses within them will become 82

Elsewhere, YHWH is the subject of the question to the hardened Pharaoh about the release of his people (Exod 10:3), to Moses and Aaron about the wicked congregation (Num 14:27), and to all humanity about its violence against his honor (Ps 4:3). 83 See the review in Albertz, Israel in Exile, 142–44. 84 Landy, “Strategies,” 76. Cf. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 57: “6:11–12 pursues the same essential image.” 85 Apart from these two instances in 6:11 (the former in Qal, the latter in Niphal), the only other occurrence of this verb is the Hiphil form in Isa 37:26 (cf. 2 Kings 19:25): “you should make fortified cities crash [‫ ]לְ הַ ְשׁ ִאוֹת‬into heaps of ruins.” The root ‫ שׁאה‬occurs elsewhere with different meanings: “to gaze” (Gen 24:21) and “to roar or rage” (Isa 17:12–13).

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

93

empty ghost towns without inhabitants (‫ )מֵ אֵ ין יֹ ושֵׁ ב‬or, indeed, without any people at all (‫)מֵ אֵ ין אָ דָ ם‬. The final line of the verse forms a climax. Literally, the cultivated land will be “ruined in desolation” (‫)תּשָּׁ אֶ ה ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬. ִ Several of these images are present elsewhere in Isaiah, either pointing forward to Isa 6 or following immediately after it. The opening of the book sets the scene: “Your country lies desolate [‫]שׁמָ מָ ה‬, ְ your cities [‫ ] ָﬠ ֵריכֶם‬are burned with fire; in your very presence aliens devour your land [‫ ;]אַ דְ מַ ְתכֶם‬it is desolate [‫]שׁמָ מָ ה‬, ְ as overthrown by foreigners” (1:7). This scene is followed by the motif of the spared capital, however. The judgment proclaimed in Isa 3 ends with an image of Jerusalem as a woman. Her gates lament her losses and emptied (‫ )נִ קָּ תָ ה‬of men, she will sit upon the ground (3:26). In the verses which explain the punishment announced in the song of the vineyard, YHWH has sworn to the prophet that “Surely many houses [‫]בּתּים‬ ִ shall be desolate [‫]לְ שַׁ מָּ ה‬, large and beautiful houses, without inhabitant [‫( ”]מֵ אֵ ין יוֹשֵׁ ב‬5:9). Finally, in the chapter following the commission of Isaiah there is a larger description of the collapse of the land and its products (7:23–26). Significantly, many linguistic and thematic links exist between v. 11 and other biblical texts that portray the destruction of Jerusalem, the cities, and the land of Judah.86 This is certainly the case within Jeremiah. This prophetic book describes Judah after the Babylonian conquest as “a desolation without human beings” (‫;שׁמָ מָ ה הִ יא מֵ אֵ ין אָ דָ ם‬ ְ Jer 32:43), and “a waste without human beings” (‫ ;חָ ֵרב הוּא מֵ אֵ ין אָ דָ ם‬Jer 33:10, 12). The term “desolation” (‫)שׁמָ מָ ה‬, ְ which forms the climax of Isa 6:11, is a prominent word in Jeremiah’s prophecies. The initial announcement of complete destruction includes a destroyer who comes “to make your land a waste; your cities will be ruins without inhabitant” (Jer 4:7; cf. 6:8; 32:43).87 The text continues in the same vein to say that the cities of Judah will be made a desolation without citizens (Jer 9:10; cf. 34:22; 44:6). The ruination of the land is spelled out in Jer 12:10–11, where YHWH’s vineyard is destroyed and his pleasant portion is turned into a desolate wilderness. Similar images occur frequently in Ezekiel, with the land and the inhabited cities being threatened with desolation and waste (Ezek 6:14; 12:20; 15:8; 33:28–39; 36:34). Again, the number of intertextual connections is striking. Some have argued that Isa 6:11 depends on the events of the sixth century to which the

86

For a discussion of parallel material in Assyrian texts from the same period, see Müller, Ausgebliebene Einsicht, 72–80. 87 “Desolation” (‫)שׁמָ מָ ה‬, ְ however, can designate the fate of foreigners as well, including the Chaldeans/Babylon (Jer 25:12; 50:13; 51:26, 62), Ammon (Jer 49:2), and Hazor (Jer 49:33). Similarly, the phrase about a city or a place which is turned into a ruin “without inhabitant” (‫ )מֵ אֵ ין יוֹשֵׁ ב‬appears to be a standard formula which can also be applied to foreign nations: Egypt (Jer 46:19), Moab (Jer 48:9), Babylon (51:29, 37), and foreign peoples in general (Zeph 2:5; 3:5).

94

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

other instances refer,88 but this does not have to be the case. For instance, another option is that Jeremiah and Ezekiel inherited and developed the language of this verse in Isaiah. Certainly, its description is quite general in nature. Nevertheless, the dense use of these images in the two other major prophets suggests that their books depict the fulfillment of the prophecy once given to Isaiah. As YHWH once proclaimed to Isaiah, no salvation will be possible before the entire land has been wasted completely. Accordingly, the words of Isa 6:11 function as prediction in the same way that Lev 26 and Deut 28 do. As was noticed above, both of these texts speak of waste cities and desolate land from which the inhabitants have been extinguished (Lev 26:31–33; Deut 28:7, 21, 63; cf. 2 Kings 25:11, 26). While the overall theme of v. 11 is complete desolation of the land, the key themes of v. 12 are deportation and forsakenness. There are more connections between v. 11 and v. 12 which together render the totality of destruction. The empty cities and houses correspond to the removal of their inhabitants. The utter devastation of the cultivated areas mirrors the forsaken land. The notion of exile in v. 12a is of a general kind: “[until] YHWH sends everyone far away” (‫)וְ ִרחַ ק יְ הוָה אֶ ת־הָ אָ דָ ם‬. First, the verse has “everyone” or “every human being” rather than a specific reference to the people of Judah. Second, the verse employs the term ‫ רחק‬rather than a more specific one for the act of deportation (e.g. ‫ גלה‬in Hiphil). The verb in Qal means “to be distant or far away” (e.g. Isa 49:19), whereas the Piel and Hiphil forms designate the removal of something, for instance, dead bodies (Ezek 43:9) or transgressions (Ps 103:12). In the sense of deportation of people, there are three other instances of relevance in addition to the one in Isa 6:12. In Jer 27:10, the verb occurs in YHWH’s treatment of those who listen to the false message of the prophets about the failure of Babylonian siege: “You will be removed far from your land; I will drive you out [‫ נדח‬in Hiphil], and you will perish.” In Ezek 11:16, which is a central verse about YHWH’s presence among his exiles in foreign lands, he states: “I removed them far away among the nations, and I scattered [‫ פוץ‬in Hiphil] them among the countries.” Finally, in Joel 4:6, YHWH will judge Tyre, Sidon, and all the regions of Philistia because they have sold the people of Judah and Jerusalem to the Greeks, “removing them far from their own border.” In Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the verb is most likely used to match other more familiar words of deportation (‫ נדח‬and ‫ )פוץ‬because both verses consist of two parallel statements. In Joel, however, the verb is certainly used to underline great distance, far away from the borders of their land. Emphasis is thus on distance and geographical dislocation.

88 Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 133–34; Becker, Jesaja, 74–79; de Jong, Isaiah, 76: “The likeliest origin of the thought that Yahweh was determined to destroy his land and people is the experience of destruction and disaster of the early sixth century BCE.”

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

95

John Oswalt has proposed an interesting translation of v. 12a, which differs from most translations: “The Lord will make mankind distant.”89 Rather than expressing distance in terms of space (a removal far away), this translation accentuates the increasing spiritual distance between YHWH and his people, or, put more universally, between God and humanity. Exile means alienation. It implies abandonment of the land and unsecure living in foreign places. Theologically, the state of exile expresses the most profound and radical alienation between the Creator and his creation. 90 Moreover, the change from a first-person voice in v. 11 to a third-person form in v. 12 (which is often seen to indicate the work of an editor) undergirds and elaborates the feeling of distance. YHWH is not present in the midst of his people anymore; he does not speak. One can only speak about his actions. This thought has been prepared in the preceding verses by the reference to the people as “this people” and YHWH’s deliberate will to prevent repentance. Hardening will last until a total and complete devastation and alienation between YHWH and his people have occurred.91 The close relation between the people’s hardening and exile as punishment is by no means unique to Isaiah, but apparently reflects the pattern presented already in the Pentateuch (e.g. Lev 26; Deut 28; see above). It appears to be a common concept in other prophetic books as well. In Jeremiah, we find more passages that explicitly relate the rebellious and insensitive people to the destruction of Jerusalem and scattering in foreign countries. A good example is Jer 9:10–15.92 Verse 10 contains YHWH’s destructive intentions; he will make the cities of Judah “a desolation, without inhabitants” (‫)שׁמָ מָ ה ִמבְּ לִ י יוֹשֵׁ ב‬. ְ Why would YHWH ruin the land? The answer for this punishment follows immediately in vv. 12–13: the people did not obey the law, they did not listen to his voice, but followed “the stubbornness of their hearts” (‫)שׁ ִררוּת לִ בָּ ם‬. ְ Because of this, YHWH will scatter (‫ פוץ‬in Hiphil) them among nations and kill them by the sword. Similarly, in Jer 16:10–13, answers to the question “Why punishment?” include violation against the law and stubbornness of an evil heart. Such acts will cause YHWH to hurl (‫ טול‬in Hiphil) his people into a foreign land. In addition to these examples, it is notable in Jeremiah that despite plenty of calls for repentance, no one repents. The option of repentance is but an illu89

Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 187. Another aspect of divine judgment regarding the motif of distance is the notion of enemies which YHWH has called “from a distance” (‫ ;מֵ ָרחוֹק‬5:26). See also my analysis of Isa 22:11 below. 91 Landy (“Strategies,” 76) points to the integrated function of time and space in vv. 11– 12. The increasing distance between YHWH and his people is expressed temporarily by the indication of a period of time (“until”) and spatially by the destruction and abandonment of the land: “Waste time corresponds to waste space.” 92 Cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 124–27. 90

96

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

sion. What is more, texts such as Isa 6:9–10 indicate that YHWH has made a decision about judgment and that this decision cannot be retracted no matter what: “I have spoken, I have purposed; I have not relented nor will I turn back” (Jer 4:28). A similar pattern is present in Ezek 5:5–17, where the rebellious acts of the people lead to all kinds of divine punishment, including the scattering (‫ )זרה‬of them to every wind and the turning of Jerusalem into a desolation (‫ ;חָ ְרבָּ ה‬cf. Lev 26:31).93 Initially, YHWH’s people is presented as “impudent and stubborn” (‫ ;קְ שֵׁ י ָפנִ ים וְ חִ זְקֵ י־לֵב‬2:4), having “a hard forehead and a stubborn heart” (‫ ;חִ זְקֵ י־מֵ צַ ח וּקְ שֵׁ י־לֵב‬3:7). A final example is Zech 7:8–14. This passage has been called “an integrated historical essay, exploring the demise of the Judahite state.”94 Summarizing and imitating other prophetic material (notice “the former prophets” in v. 12), it looks back on the events. The structure of the passage reflects the sequel of events: divine commandments were given (vv. 8–10), but the people did not obey (vv. 11–12a). YHWH became full of wrath (v. 12b) and punished them (vv. 13–14). Zechariah’s depiction of the people’s eagerness not to receive the word of God is striking. Self-consciously, they manipulated their bodies to prevent response to him: they turned “a stubborn shoulder” (‫ )כָתֵ ף סֹ ָר ֶרת‬and “stopped their ears in order not to hear” (‫;אָ ְזנֵיהֶ ם הִ כְ בִּ ידוּ ִמ ְשּׁמוֹ ַﬠ‬ cf. Isa 6:10). Furthermore, they made “their hearts adamant” to listen to YHWH’s word through his prophets. As a result, YHWH “stormed” (‫ סער‬in Piel) the people away and left their land desolate (‫)שַׁ מָּ ה‬. Returning to Isa 6, the removal of the people in v. 12a forms the background for v. 12b. Ironically, what is now great or many (‫ )רבב‬in the midst of the land is not the population or its wealth, but “forsakenness” or “emptiness” (‫)הָ ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬. This central word is sometimes translated into “forsaken places,” assuming that the feminine singular represents a group of places or cities; cf. Jer 4:29: “all the towns are forsaken [‫] ָכּל־הָ ﬠִ יר ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬, and no one lives in them.” Additional instances of this specific form of the verb occur in the context of depopulated cities (Isa 17:9; Zeph 2:4). There are three other instances in Isaiah, however, which use the feminine singular in the metaphorical description of Jerusalem as a woman: as YHWH’s wife she shall no more be termed “forsaken” (Isa 60:15; 62:4; cf. 54:6). It is probable that these verses in the latter part of the book draw from this particular verse in Isa 6, thus unveiling its potential meaning(s).95 The occurrence of this specific verb

93

Cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 132–33. Petersen, Haggai and Zechariah 1–8, 296. 95 Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 53–54; cf. also Rendtorff, “Jesaja 6,” 79, commenting on this larger theme in Isaiah: “Hier wird klar erkennbar, daß Jes 6 nicht nur zeitlich auf die Zerstörung Jerusalems und das Babylonische Exil voraus- (bzw. zurück94

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

97

“to forsake” (‫ )עזב‬may suggest an inner logic in the overall message of the book: just as the people have forsaken YHWH (1:4), their land will be wasted and forsaken (cf. Lev 26:43).96 The scenario of v. 13 is not so easy to understand, not at least because of a difficult Hebrew text and several ambiguous words. According to the Masoretic text and the interpretation of it in the NRSV, the idea seems to be that the (few) survivors of the catastrophes of vv. 11–12 will be the objects of further disasters. Whatever is left will again be laid waste. Even the stump of great trees that remain after the intense damaging will be burned again. Desolation will be complete. Yet, from this burned stump, which can be considered as the holy seed, a new hope will arise. The high level of ambiguity, however, presents several challenges to this common interpretation. First, the identification of the “tenth” (‫ )ﬠ ֲִשׂ ִריָּה‬is not certain. Some interpreters see the “tenth” as a conventional fraction, which in light of Amos 5:3 and 6:9 points to an extreme decimation of the people.97 Others identify it with the tribe of Judah, which is traditionally thought to constitute a tenth of Israel (e.g. 1 Sam 11:8).98 Sweeney, for instance, proposes that the use of this term “relates to the practice of dedicating or sanctifying one-tenth or a tithe of one’s income and belongings for use in the temple (cf. Lev 27:30–33; Num 18:21–24; Deut 14:22–29; 26:12–15). Judah as the surviving ‘tenth’ of Israel is the portion that is dedicated to YHWH and thereby sanctified.” 99 In his view, vv. 1–11 are directed to all Israel, including the Northern Kingdom, but after its fall in 722 and by the addition of vv. 12–13, are redirected to Judah as the surviving remnant. We should, however, be cautious in relating the material so closely to these postulated events behind the text, including a change of addressee in light of the proposed historical circumstances. As Seitz has pointed out, the content of v. 13 appears to reflect an idea of graded judgment.100 YHWH has already judged immensely, but his anger has not yet turned away. This idea is embodied in the notion of YHWH’s “outstretched hand” (5:25; 9:12, 17, 21; 10:4; 14:26). Despite severe smiting, his hand is stretched out still. Unremittingly, he will punish his people. Accordingly, “this image is quite close to the ‘tenth part remains and is burned again’ language at 6:13.”101 Whether or

)blickt, sondern daß es auch innerhalb des Jesajabuches auf die Fortsetzung in Kap. 40ff angelegt ist.” See my treatment of these passages in Chapter 7. 96 This is, at least, the case in Jeremiah: “As the people have abandoned YHWH’s torah, they will abandon their land and houses”; see Poulsen, Representing Zion, 124–25. 97 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 78; Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 134; Wildberger, Jesaja, 258. 98 Engnell, The Call, 51–52; Nielsen, For a Tree, 148. 99 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 141. 100 Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 58. 101 Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 58.

98

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

not we understand the “tenth” to be Judah as a minor part of Israel or take it to be a minor part within Judah, a grave decimation is taking place. Second, the word ‫שָׁ בָ ה‬, which is often translated as “again,” may mean “return” or “repent,” suggesting either that the exiles return to the land or that the remainders in the land finally repent/return to God (cf. v. 10; 7:3).102 Assuming a slightly different interpretation of the preceding line, an alternative translation would be: “But a tenth will still remain in it (i.e. the land), and it (i.e. the tenth) will repent/return, and it will be burned.” This image of a repenting remnant that is cleansed by purifying fire (as is the prophet in v. 7!) apparently accords with the thought in Isa 4:2–6 that “whoever is left in Zion and remains in Jerusalem will be called holy” and will be “cleansed […] by a spirit of burning [‫( ”]רוּחַ בָּ ֵﬠר‬cf. 1:21–28; 33:14–24). Yet the problem with this interpretation is that it seems to contradict the emphasis in vv. 11–12 upon a land wasted and depopulated; the sense of “again” is thus preferable. Alternatively, one could argue that the subject of the verbs in the feminine singular (‫ שָׁ בָ ה‬and ‫ )הָ יְ תָ ה‬is not the tenth (exiles or remainders), but the land itself (‫ הָ ְאַדָ מָ ה‬in v. 11; ‫ הָ אָ ֶרץ‬in v. 12; ‫ בָּ הּ‬in v. 13). Repeated burning of the land will make sure that it is left completely deserted. Third, and related to this, the word ‫ בער‬in Piel can mean “to burn” and “to graze”. “Burning” fits the idea of the “tenth” being a stump that is burned and it corresponds to other tree images in Isaiah (1:29–31; 9:17; 10:17; 40:16; 44:15). “Grazing,” however, works well with the land as the subject of the verb, that is, “the land will be grazed” or “the land will become a field for grazing.”103 Other instances of this aspect of the term are found in connection with the mention of YHWH’s vineyard (Isa 3:14: “It is you who have devoured [‫ ]בִּ ﬠ ְַרתֶּ ם‬my vineyard; 5:5: “I will remove its hedge, and it shall be devoured [‫)”]וְ הָ יָה לְ בָ ֵﬠר‬. The image of grazing animals is commonly used to illustrate destroyed civilization (Isa 17:2; 32:14; Ezek 25:5; Zeph 2:6) and assuming the same to be the case here would bring the verse in close contact with the scene in Isa 5:11–17 (cf. 7:25), where the deportation of the population (5:14; 6:12) results in open fields where lambs graze among the ruins (5:17; 6:13). Fourth, it is not clear how definitive judgment is thought to be in the latter half of the verse. Wildberger understands ‫ מַ צֶּ בֶ ת‬as “new growth or shoots” (“Triebe”) rather than the more commonly suggested “stump” and argues that the image must be understood against the background of the grazing animals: 102

See the discussion in Landy, “Strategies,” 77–78. Wildberger, Jesaja, 231; cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 223: “If but a tenth of the land is left it will revert to pasture”; Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 121: “Und ist noch ein Zehntel in ihm, sol les wieder als Weide dienen.” Some of the ancient traditions might support this interpretation, for instance, the LXX’s εἰς προνομὴν (“for foraging”); see the excurses in Nielsen, For a Tree, 151–52. 103

2.2 Exile and vast emptiness

99

“Nachdem der Holzfäller seine Arbeit getan hat, wird das Weidevieh durch Abfressen der Jungtriebe das Zerstörungswerk vollenden. […] 13a.bα läßt keinen Raum mehr für eine Heilszukunft übrig.”104 (The same can be said if the stump is consumed by fire.) In his view, the last three words about the holy seed are a conscious correction, that is, a protest against the announcement about the final end of Israel. Kirsten Nielsen adopts Wildberger’s idea about “shoot” for “stump” but argues in favor of the integrity of the image. For Nielsen, the felling of the tree represents judgment, but is also a necessary precondition for the rise of new shoots (cf. the similar dynamic in Isa 10:33–34 and 11:1).105 The close interrelation between judgment and salvation is an attractive aspect of her reading: “the image has precisely the function of prophesying the judgment as a necessary transition before the salvation, and the salvation as ‘organically’ linked to the judgment.”106 Seeing the terebinth and oak as holy trees associated with life, power, and religious beliefs, Nielsen further claims that the future hope primarily refers to the Davidic king and his family. 107 The house of David is the “holy seed”. She thereby creates a contrast between Judah, which will suffer from punishment, and the Davidic dynasty, which will survive the catastrophe after all. Despite Nielsen’s good arguments for the organic connection between punishment and hope, I am not convinced about the allusion to holy trees and the narrow reference to the royal institution. In my opinion, her reading is too limited to the Denkschrift-hypothesis and the proposed events of the late eighth century BCE (cf. Sweeney above). Reading Isa 6 in the context of the entire book, the prediction of destruction here also points beyond the perspective of the eighth century and forward to the black hole between Isa 39 and 40, as I attempt to show. In light of this, it is tempting to follow Wildberger’s claim of “an ultimate work of destruction,” either by grazing animals or by fire. The land will become empty. There is a clear break between judgment and renewed hope, between death and life.108 The consequence of this, however, is not that the last three words are simply an addition that should be ignored. Rather, they stress that despite the totality of divine punishment, a blasted stump is still there. 109 And as sovereign creator, God can make it sprout whenever he wants (cf. Isa 43:19). The notion of “holy seed” (‫)ז ֶַרע קֹ דֶ שׁ‬ is a strong hope that “the offspring who do evil” (‫ ;ז ֶַרע ְמ ֵרﬠִ ים‬Isa 1:4), that is,

104

Wildberger, Jesaja, 258. Nielsen, For a Tree, 149. 106 Nielsen, For a Tree, 149. 107 Nielsen, For a Tree, 150–53. 108 Childs, Isaiah, 58: “There is no continuity from the old to the new.” 109 Batchelder, “Undoing,” 164: “Judah as Judah is must be ‘undone.’ […] But Judah’s death will plant a seed of holiness which will spring up with new vigour.” 105

100

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

“this people,” will be altered completely by God’s creative power and that, in the end, this seed shall triumph and glory in YHWH (Isa 45:25). 2.2.3. Summing up The prophet Isaiah’s encounter with the sovereign and heavenly judge in Isa 6:1–13 is significant for the structure and message of the book as a whole. The chapter points beyond its literary setting in the eighth century BCE to the full outworking of divine punishment that occurs in the black hole between Isa 39 and 40. Initially, YHWH’s throne in the temple, the trembling of the building, the smoke that fills it, and the appearance of seraphim present us with a scene of judgment. The scenario itself is a foretaste of the severe judgment that will strike the people and their land. The prophet fears for his life and his initial response is one of silence – perhaps an adumbration of divine silence during the period of destruction and exile. Yet, Isaiah receives purification to serve as YHWH’s spokesman and to reprove his people. Their rebellion, ignorance, and insensitivity have reached a climax. Judgment is inevitable, and YHWH even instructs his prophet to keep them in a state of hostility to prevent repentance. This state of hardening shall last until cities and the land have been wasted completely. There is an explicit emphasis on desolation, deportation, and forsakenness in 6:11–13. The language of exile is general in nature and, in addition to spatial distance and geographical dislocation (“far away”), the words likely point to a deeper and critical alienation between YHWH and his people. God will make them distant and withdraw his presence from them. The only thing that remains in the land is vast emptiness. Even the slightest signs of survivors – a stump or a stalk – will be cut down and burned. The land shall be completely empty.

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed (Isaiah 22:1–14) 2.3. Jerusalem is doomed Isaiah 22:1–14 announces the doom of Jerusalem. The oracle opens with the prophet’s astonishment at his fellow inhabitants’ reaction to the dangers of invasion and laments the destruction of his people (vv. 1–4). Powerful enemies are ready to capture the city and, critically, YHWH has withdrawn his support (vv. 5–8a). The inhabitants desperately attempt to enforce the defense system or to ignore the coming defeat (vv. 8b–13), yet their crime against YHWH is too severe and only death awaits them (v. 14). Isaiah 22:1–14 occurs in the collection of oracles concerning the nations (Isa 13–23). The general themes of these chapters concern the judgment against the nations’ pride and the destruction of their power to emphasize YHWH as king of the entire world. Since the passages are directed mainly to

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

101

a Judean audience to illustrate YHWH’s activity in world events, the oracles are about rather than against the foreign nations. 110 In a word, the overall purpose of such oracles is “to explain events in human affairs as acts of YHWH.”111 As in similar collections found in other prophetic books (e.g. Jer 46–51; Ezek 25–32), the single passages in Isa 13–23 are of very different lengths and genres and primarily form a group because of their shared content: the fate of foreign nations. Compared to other collections, however, this collection from Isaiah reveals some distinct peculiarities. 112 First, it contains the passage presently discussed which does not concern a foreign nation, but YHWH’s own people (cf. however, Amos 2:4–5, 6–16). Second, it contains an oracle against named individuals serving in Jerusalem (22:15–25). Third, it contains a narrative about the sign act of Isaiah (20:1–6) which interrupts the stream of otherwise poetic material. Some kind of connection linking each of the single chapters of Isa 13–23 is established by the term ‫מַ שָּׂ א‬, which occurs in most of the headings.113 The general meaning of the word is “burden” from the verb “to carry” or “to raise” (‫)נשׂא‬. Some interpreters have argued that it refers to a special genre of judgment oracles, whereas others have argued that it is a neutral term for prophetic pronouncement.114 Regardless of its exact meaning, the ten occurrences of the term throughout Isa 13–23 indicate a certain structure of the literary block. Five are found in Isa 13–19 and five are found in Isa 21–23, leaving the sign act in Isa 20 as the center of the composition.115 Kaiser observes that the first part concerns concrete nations or clearly named cities, whereas the second part concerns places whose names are mostly vague or symbolic (“the wilderness of the sea” in 21:1; “the desert plain” in 21:13; “the valley of vision” in 22:1).116 The dominating position of the judgment 110

Childs, Isaiah, 114. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 213. 112 Cf. the review of similarities and differences between Isa 13–23 and other collections of oracles against the nations in Kim, “A Crux or a Clue,” 3–5. 113 Isa 13:1; 14:28; 15:1; 17:1; 19:1; 21:1, 11, 13; 22:1; 23:1. A final occurrence is found in 22:25, where it means a “burden”; see Chapter 3. 114 See the discussion in Childs, Isaiah, 113–14; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 212. In light of the general meaning “burden,” Wildberger (Jesaja, 505) writes: “Das scheint damit übereinzustimmen, dass meist der Gedanke an eine Katastrophe, an Zerstörung, Strafe, Gottesgericht vorlieget, wo prophetische Ankündigungen als ‫ משׂא‬bezeichnet werden (so gerade im Jesajabuch).” 115 Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 142. Cf. Schmid (Jesaja I, 150), commenting on Isa 20 as the theological center of Isa 13–23: “Zum einen zeigt sie an, dass alle Materialien in Jes 13–23 mit dem Propheten Jesaja verknüpft sind (vgl. 13,1). Zum anderen aber macht sie deutlich, dass bei JHWH allein Rettung liegt – Hoffnungen auf fremde Mächte erweisen sich als irrig.” 116 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 5. 111

102

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

against Babylon which introduces both parts (Isa 13:1–14:23; 21:1–10) is notable. The passage under consideration occurs in the latter part of Isa 21–23. Here, the oracle about the fate of Jerusalem has been placed between those of two other important cities in the region, Babylon to the east (Isa 21:1–10) and Tyre to the west (Isa 23), both of which are, or have been, criticized for their arrogance and self-pride (cf. Isa 13–14). The oracle concerning Jerusalem is followed by a passage about Shebna and Eliakim, which, due to its form and content, likewise stands out in the context of oracles about foreign nations. This latter part of Isa 22 mirrors and illustrates the topic of the earlier half. While vv. 1–14 focus on the forthcoming destruction of the city of Jerusalem and its people, vv. 15–25 foreshadow the defeat of individual figures symbolizing the demise of the Davidic monarchy (see further in Chapter 3).117 These initial observations about the literary context of Isa 22:1–14 have important interpretative implications. First, because the overall purpose of these chapters is to reveal YHWH’s actions in world events, we should expect that he stands behind the enemy attack on Jerusalem as the creator and master of history (cf. 22:8a, 11b below). Second, as Childs argues, the corpus of Isa 13–23 as a whole envisions the ultimate victory of YHWH and is basically oriented toward the future, where all nations will become subdued to his sovereign rule. 118 In a word, the perspective is profoundly eschatological. Despite possible references to past events and the employment of past tenses, the aim of the final form of Isa 13–23 is to point to the future. Third, the rather surprising appearance of Judah and Jerusalem among the doomed nations and cities of the world emphasizes that, in light of their arrogance, disloyalty, and ignorance, YHWH’s own people are as wicked and evil as the surrounding peoples.119 Few passages expose the sin of Judah as severely as this one and the oracle in 22:1–14 thus rightly belongs in the context of God’s worldwide judgment. Despite the complex poetic form of Isa 22:1–14, I will argue for the following structure largely based on observations made from the passage’s content. Verses 1–4 inform readers about the besieged Jerusalem, the peculiar 117 I agree with Sweeney (Isaiah 1–39, 289–90) and others that 22:1–14 and 22:15–25 form a coherent whole and that, ideally, both parts should be analyzed closely together and in light of each other. Nevertheless, I have chosen to interpret vv. 1–14 in this chapter to show links between this part and primarily Isa 6 and 39, whereas I will interpret vv. 15–25 in the next chapter about typological figures of exile, because Shebna and Eliakim, like the prophet Isaiah and King Hezekiah, are excellent representatives of individual characters whose fates point to larger communal concerns. 118 Childs, Isaiah, 116. 119 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 405–6: “the people of Israel are no better off than the Gentiles around them. Their perspective is the same as the world’s and therefore they fall under the same judgment as the world.”

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

103

behavior of its inhabitants, and the prophet’s mourning of the (coming) destruction of his people. The following units elaborate on the theme of the destruction presented in the final statement of v. 4: vv. 5–8a describe the enemy attack on the city and the lack of divine protection; vv. 8b–11 portray one type of reaction towards the danger of defeat, namely the strengthening of the city’s defense; and vv. 12–13 portray another type of reaction, namely a hedonistic attempt to ignore the darkness of the near future. Verse 14 is a summary of the passage with its divine word about death as the only possible outcome of the scenario. An internal dynamic pervades the verses because the final statement in each unit (vv. 4b, 8a, 11b, 13b) forms a climax which points forward to the ultimate climax in v. 14. Most scholars assume an eighth-century setting for at least some parts of the oracle, but there is huge disagreement about its compositional history. Seitz, Sweeney, and Wildberger do not recognize the evidence for a substantial later redaction of the passage and consider the whole text to have been authored by the late Isaiah during or after Sennacherib’s failed attack on Jerusalem in 701 BCE.120 By contrast, Clements and Kaiser regard only vv. 1b–3 or 1b–4 and 12–14a to reflect the original prophecy of the historical prophet. In their view, the large middle section was added gradually in the context of the catastrophe of 587 BCE.121 Bosshard-Nepustil goes a step further by arguing for extensive editorial reworking and expansion in the exilic and postexilic periods.122 Childs opts for another approach.123 On the one hand, in line with Seitz, Sweeney, and Wildberger, he assumes an eighth-century context of the oracle as a whole, although he remains skeptical of correlating “the biblical text too closely with one putative historical event whose reconstruction provides the key to the interpretation.”124 On the other hand, he argues that editorial activity is indisputable because the passage now occurs as part of a later literary composition (Isa 13–23). According to its present canonical role within this section and in the book of Isaiah as a whole, the chapter foreshadows the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem. As Childs says, “Not only does the superscription reveal a visionary dimension in the future, but the harsh indictment of Judah in v. 14 could only be understood as pointing to its fulfillment in 120

Wildberger, Jesaja, 813; Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 159; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 296: “The setting of 22:1b–14 must be during Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem in 701, not after the siege was lifted”; cf. Hardmeier, “Geschichtsblindheit”. Berges (Das Buch Jesaja, 148) and Oswalt (Isaiah 1–39, 408) locate the core of the passage in the context of Sargon’s attack on Ashdod in 711 BCE. 121 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 182–83; Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 113–14. 122 Bosshard-Nepustil, Rezeptionen, 42–67. 123 Childs, Isaiah, 157–59. 124 Childs, Isaiah, 157. This view accords with his position forty years earlier in Assyrian Crisis, 22–27.

104

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

587. […] canonically speaking the text functions prophetically toward the future, not the past.”125 I follow Childs here. In my opinion, the primary purpose of Isa 22:1–14 is not to account for one specific historical event, but rather to anticipate and justify the defeat of Jerusalem which will eventually come due to the selfprudent people of YHWH continuing to ignore their God. Moreover, their reaction towards the danger of defeat in this passage is not untypical in Isaiah as we have already seen in Isa 5:11–17 and 6:9–10. As my exegesis will show, many intertextual links exist between this complex passage and other texts dealing with the final defeat of Jerusalem, especially in 2 Kings, Jeremiah, and Lamentations. Perhaps Isa 22:1–14 was shaped in light of these texts (and the events they reflect) or perhaps our passage could have functioned as a generic text which other biblical authors used to portray the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in the early sixth century BCE. The links between Isaiah and other biblical books definitely invite comparison, but it lies outside the scope of my interpretation to determine possible ways of influence in the formation of these texts. 2.3.1. Isaiah 22:1–14: Text and translation ‫מַ שָּׂ א גֵּיא חִ זָּיֹ ון‬ ‫מַ ה־ ָלּ אֵ פֹ וא כִּ י־ ָﬠלִ ית‬ ‫ֻכּ ָלּ ַלגַּגֹּ ות‬ ‫ְתּשֻׁ אֹ ות ְמלֵאָ ה‬ ‫ומיָּה קִ ְריָה ַﬠלִּ יזָה‬ ִ ֹ‫ﬠִ יר ה‬ ‫ֲח ָללַיִ ל ֹא חַ לְ לֵי־חֶ ֶרב‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא מֵ תֵ י ִמלְ חָ מָ ה‬ a ‫ָכּל־קְ צִ ינַיִ נ ְָדדוּ־יַחַ ד‬ ‫ִמקֶּ שֶׁ ת ֻאסָּ רוּ‬ ‫ָכּל־ ִנ ְמצָ אַ יִ ֻאסְּ רוּ יַחְ דָּ ו‬ ‫מֵ ָרחֹ וק בָּ ָרחוּ‬ ‫ַﬠל־ ֵכּן אָ מַ ְר ִתּי‬ ‫ְשׁעוּ ִמנִּ י ֲאמָ ֵרר בַּ בֶּ כִ י‬ ‫אַ ל־תָּ ִאיצוּ לְ ַ ֽנחֲמֵ ִני ַﬠל־שֹׁ ד בַּ ת־ ַﬠ ִמּי‬ ‫וּמבוּכָה‬ ְ ‫וּמבוּסָ ה‬ ְ ‫כִּ י יֹ ום ְמהוּמָ ה‬ ‫לַאדֹ נָי יְ הוִ ה צְ בָ אֹ ות בְּ גֵיא חִ זָּיֹ ון‬ b ‫ְמקַ ְרקַ ר קִ ר‬ ‫וְ שֹׁ ו ַﬠ אֶ ל־הָ הָ ר‬

1

The oracle concerning the valley of vision. What do you mean that you have gone up, all of you, to the housetops, 2 you that are full of shoutings, tumultuous city, exultant town? Your slain are not slain by the sword, nor are they dead in battle. 3 Your rulers have all fled together; they were captured without the use of a bow. All of you who were found were captured, though they had fled far away. 4 Therefore I said: Look away from me, let me weep bitter tears, do not try to comfort me for the destruction of my people’s daughter. 5 For a day of tumult and trampling and confusion has the Lord YHWH Zebaot in the valley of vision, a battering down of walls and a cry for help to the mountains.

125 Childs, Isaiah, 159, my emphasis. Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 408: “a prophetic utterance referring to the destruction in 586 although prompted by the unspecified event in 711.”

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed c

‫וְ ֵﬠילָם נָשָׂ א אַ ְשׁ ָפּה בְּ ֶרכֶב אָ דָ ם‬ ‫פּ ָָר ִשׁים‬ ‫וְ קִ יר ֵﬠ ָרה מָ גֵן‬ ‫וַיְ הִ י ִמבְ חַ ר־ﬠֲמָ קַ יִ מָ לְ אוּ ָרכֶב‬ ‫וְ הַ ָפּ ָר ִשׁים שֹׁ ת שָׁ תוּ הַ שָּׁ ﬠְ ָרה‬ ‫ אֵ ת מָ סַ ְיהוּדָ ה‬d‫וַיְ גַל‬ ‫וַתַּ בֵּ ט בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא אֶ ל־נֶשֶׁ ק בֵּ ית‬ ‫הַ ָיּﬠַר‬ ‫וְ אֵ ת בְּ קִ י ֵﬠי ﬠִ יר־דָּ וִ ד ְר ִאיתֶ ם כִּ י־‬ ‫ָרבּוּ‬ ‫ו ְַתּקַ בְּ צוּ אֶ ת־מֵ י הַ בְּ ֵר ָכה הַ תַּ חְ תֹּ ונָה‬ ‫וְ אֶ ת־בָּ תֵּ י ְירוּשָׁ לַם סְ ַפ ְרתֶּ ם‬ ‫ו ִַתּ ְתצוּ הַ בָּ ִתּים לְ בַ צֵּ ר הַ חֹ ומָ ה‬ ‫וּמקְ וָה ﬠ ֲִשׂיתֶ ם בֵּ ין הַ חֹ מֹ תַ יִ ם‬ ִ ‫לְ מֵ י הַ בְּ ֵרכָה הַ יְ שָׁ נָה‬ ָ‫וְ ל ֹא הִ בַּ טְ תֶּ ם אֶ ל־עֹ שֶׂ יה‬ ‫וְ יֹ צְ ָרהּ מֵ ָרחֹ וק ל ֹא ְר ִאיתֶ ם‬ ‫וַיִּ קְ ָרא ֲאדֹ נָי יְ הוִ ה צְ בָ אֹ ות בַּ יֹּ ום‬ ‫הַ הוּא‬ ‫לִ בְ כִ י וּלְ ִמסְ ֵפּד‬ ‫וּלְ קָ ְרחָ ה וְ ַלחֲגֹ ר שָׂ ק‬ ‫וְ הִ נֵּה שָׂ שֹׂון וְ ִשׂ ְמחָ ה‬ ‫הָ רֹ ג בָּ קָ ר וְ שָׁ חֹ ט צ ֹאן‬ ‫אָ כֹ ל בָּ שָׂ ר וְ שָׁ תֹ ות יָיִ ן‬ ‫אָ כֹ ול וְ שָׁ תֹ ו כִּ י מָ חָ ר נָמוּת‬ ‫וְ נִ גְ לָה בְ אָ ְזנָי יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬ ‫ִאם־יְ ֻכ ַפּר הֶ ָﬠוֹן הַ זֶּה ָל ֶכם ַﬠד־‬ ‫ְתּמֻתוּן‬ ‫אָ מַ ר ֲאדֹ נָי יְ הוִ ה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬ a

6

105

Elam bore the quiver with chariots and cavalry

and Kir uncovered the shield. 7 Your choicest valleys were full of chariots, and the cavalry took their stand at the gates. 8 He has taken away the covering of Judah. On that day you looked to the weapons of the House of the Forest, 9 and you saw that there were many breaches in the city of David,

and you collected the waters of the lower pool. 10 You counted the houses of Jerusalem, and you broke down the houses to fortify the wall. 11 You made a reservoir between the two walls for the water of the old pool. But you did not look to him who did it, or have regard for him who planned it long ago. 12 In that day the Lord YHWH Zebaot called to weeping and mourning, to baldness and putting on sackcloth; 13 but instead there was joy and festivity, killing oxen and slaughtering sheep, eating meat and drinking wine. “Let us eat and drink for tomorrow we die.” 14 YHWH Zebaot has revealed himself in my ears: Surely this iniquity will not be forgiven you until you die, says the Lord YHWH Zebaot.

Verse 3 has been the object of many emendations. In terms of structure, altering the sequence of lines has been proposed so that they read in the order of 1, 4, 3, 2. Blenkinsopp’s reading (Isaiah 1–39, 331–22), in which plausible references to capture are neglected, is an interesting one. He presupposes ‫( הֻסָ רוּ‬Hophal of ‫ ;סור‬cf. footnote in BHS) for ‫ ; ֻאסָּ רוּ‬he reads ‫( אַ ִמּיצַ ִי‬cf. the LXX’s οἱ ἰσχύοντες ἐν σοὶ) for the MT’s ‫ ; ִנ ְמצָ אַ ִי‬and he omits the latter ‫ ֻא ְסּרוּ‬on account of dittography. His translation reads: “your leaders have fled, one and all, withdrawn out of range of the bow, your strongest warriors have fled far away.” b The precise meaning of ‫ ְמקַ ְרקַ ר קִ ר‬is difficult to determine. NRSV understands ‫ קִ ר‬as “wall” (a defect form of ‫ )קִ יר‬and translates the uncertain particle ‫ ְמקַ ְרקַ ר‬in the sense of “battering or tearing down.” Others derive the meaning of both words from a Semitic word in the sense of “to make noise,” allegedly forming a parallel to the subsequent “cry”. See, for example, Wildberger, Jesaja, 806–7: “[Das Visionstal] war durchbraust von Lärm”; cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 112; Childs, Isaiah, 115 (although he assumes “battering down” in

106

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

his exegesis of the verse!). 1QIsaa reads ‫ מקרקר קדשו על ההר‬which is open to more interpretations, for instance, “a battering down of his holiness on the mountains” or “with making noise/crying to his holy place on the mountain,” the latter of which is preferred by Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 331–32). c Some interpreters (e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 331–32; Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 185) read ‫ ְא ַָרם‬for ‫אָ דָ ם‬, that is, “with chariots of Aram”; cf. the pairing of Aram and Kir in Amos 1:5; 9:7; 2 Kings 16:9. d The LXX has a plural form (ἀνακαλύψουσιν), taking the subject to be the enemies mentioned in the preceding verse. Sweeney (Isaiah 1–39, 291, 296) proposes that the original form was in plural, but that an editor of the Masoretic text changed it into a singular form to indicate YHWH’s active role in the events.

2.3.2. Isaiah 22:1–4: The besieged Jerusalem and the weeping prophet The heading of v. 1a designates the passage as “an oracle about the valley of vision” (‫)מַ שָּׂ א גֵּיא חִ זָּיֹ ון‬. It probably reflects a very late editorial hand, adding ‫ מַ שָּׂ א‬to integrate the oracle into the pattern of Isa 13–23 and adopting the notion of “the valley of vision” from v. 5. In this verse, the valley is the scene of YHWH’s terrifying judgment (cf. the symbolic “valley of Jehoshaphat” in Joel 4). The enigmatic “valley of vision” appears to be a synonym for Jerusalem. Some interpreters have argued that it refers to either the valley of Hinnom, known for its Moloch cult (2 Kings 23:10; Jer 32:35)126 or the valley of Kidron,127 but in light of the oracle as a whole, it rather serves as a reference to the city itself. The same technique is employed in Isa 29:1–8, where “Ariel” in v. 1 is later explained to be a name for the capital of David. Jerusalem is the place where revelation is given (cf. the cognate ‫ חָ זוֹן‬about the vision given to the prophet Isaiah in Isa 1:1). If one allows the notion in v. 1a to carry a specific meaning, there are more options of what it refers to.128 From the surrounding hills of, for instance, the Mount of Olives or Mount Scopus where the enemies would be standing (cf. “Nob” in Isa 10:32), Jerusalem might appear as a valley. Better, however, is to consider the valley as a symbolic representation of the isolated inhabitants of Jerusalem; shut off from the world and surrounded by enemies on the hills, they can only look to the heavens for help.129 As was indicated, it is common to interpret vv. 1b–2a in the context of Sennacherib’s unsuccessful siege of Jerusalem in 701. 130 Accordingly, the verses are seen to reflect the reaction of the surviving inhabitants. They as-

126

E.g. Wildberger, Jesaja, 813–14. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 299–300. 128 See Young, Isaiah II, 85–86. 129 Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 409: “[Here] Jerusalem is not a mountain from which a long view is possible, but a valley from which nothing can be seen.” 130 See recently Hardmeier, “Geschichtsblindheit.” 127

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

107

cend their roofs to observe the withdrawal of the Assyrians and rejoice. 131 The main problem in this interpretation is that nowhere in the oracle do we hear about the withdrawal of enemies. In fact, the purpose of ascending to the roofs in v. 1a is never explicitly spelled out. In my view, there are good alternatives to the suggested reading which do not assume unexpected rescue but rather enervating siege and unavoidable defeat. In line with the overall topic of the oracle, I will propose that the scenario in v. 1b–2a is one of idolatrous and irrational behavior. The inhabitants do not look to YHWH for help (v. 11b), but behave as the doomed upper class in 5:11–17. They eat, drink, and shout, neglecting the present dangers. In v. 1b the prophet addresses Jerusalem. The repeated forms in the second person feminine singular and the reference to “daughter” in v. 4 indicate that the city in this unit is presented in the image of a woman.132 In light of the severe situation depicted in vv. 2b–3, the prophet’s question is full of astonishment and disappointment: “What is the matter with you?” (literally, “What [is] to you” [ ‫]מַ ה־ ָלּ‬, with the adjective ‫ אֵ פֹ וא‬adding emphasis and seriousness to the statement). Apparently, the object of the prophet’s frustration is that all of the city’s inhabitants have gone up to the roofs. The words “to go up” (‫)עלה‬ and “roof” (‫ )גָּג‬are common in biblical Hebrew, the former of which covers a very broad semantic field of meanings. If we envision a scenario of enemies surrounding the city’s walls, the action can reflect more purposes than we might initially anticipate. The inhabitants might have ascended to watch the approach (or withdrawal) of the hostile army or to watch the people of the land flee to the city for safety.133 Verses 2b–3, however, indicate that enemies have been there for a while. In light of the noise in 2a, a better option is that the people have ascended their roofs to lament or worship. First, the verb ‫ עלה‬in some cases designates the act of going up to the sanctuary, for instance, in 1 Sam 1:3, where Elkanah goes up “to worship and to sacrifice” ( ַ‫ )לְ הִ ְשׁתַּ חֲוֹת וְ לִ זְבֹּ ח‬to YHWH at Shilo (cf. Exod 34:24; Ps 24:3) and in Hezekiah’s crucial question in Isa 38:22 about entrance to the temple (see Chapter 3). Second, according to more passages, the roof is the place of mourning and prayer (Isa 15:3; Jer 48:38; cf. Acts 10:9). In a handful of verses, the roof is furthermore a place for illegitimate worship and idolatry (Zeph 1:5; 2 Kings 23:12). Two verses in Jeremiah are of special relevance. In the sign act in Jer 19:1–13, which is

131

E.g. Childs, Isaiah, 160; Wildberger, Jesaja, 814. Cf. Tull, Isaiah 1–39, 344. 133 Young, Isaiah II, 88. Other options are suggested by Kim (“Little Highs,” 141): “the taunt seems to be directed at the callous leaders [of Judah] who are unaffected – or became more obdurate – even by the downfalls of the more powerful surrounding nations [in Isa 13–21]”; Oswalt (Isaiah 1–39, 409): “they [the people] could be looking for the messengers bearing news of Babylon’s defeat.” 132

108

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

set in the valley of Hinnom (!), the prophet illustrates the coming destruction of Jerusalem because of the idolatry of its inhabitants. They have forsaken YHWH, profaned his city, and brought child offerings to the Baals. Jerusalem will be defiled along with “all the houses upon whose roofs [‫ ] ַﬠל־גַּגֹּ תֵ יהֶ ם‬offerings have been made to the whole host of heaven, and libations have been poured out to other gods” (19:13). According to Jer 32, this prediction of doom was later fulfilled. The Babylonians captured the city, set it on fire, and burnt it, “with the houses on whose roofs [‫ ] ַﬠל־גַּגּוֹתֵ יהֶ ם‬offerings have been made to Baal and libations have been poured out to other gods” (32:29). The two verses from Jeremiah not only highlight idolatry as the main reason for YHWH’s final destruction of Jerusalem, but also point to “private” offerings on the roofs as a significant example of this. The same may be the case in Isa 22:1. Even in the most difficult hour of distress, the inhabitants do not look to YHWH for help, but continue their idolatrous worship. They go to their roofs rather than to the temple as faithful people would have done (cf. Hezekiah in Isa 37:1). The noise in v. 2a refers either to the desperate mood of the besieged city facing the enemies or to the idolatrous practice of worship. The structure of the verse puts emphasis on its initial word “shoutings” (‫)תּשֻׁ אֹ ות‬. ְ The city that was formerly “full of justice” (cf. 1:21: ‫)מ ֵל ֲא ִתי ִמ ְשׁ ָפּט‬ ְ is now full of shoutings. Apart from this instance, the term occurs only in Job 36:29, 39:7 and Zech 4:7. The interpretation of it as a joyful cry is influenced by Zech 4:7, in which Zerubbabel’s bringing of the temple capstone is accompanied by shouts of rejoice. In Job 36:29, however, the term denotes the sounds (“thunderings”) from YHWH’s heavenly pavilion and in 39:7 the term parallels “tumult” (‫ )הָ מוֹן‬which is the noun form of the following word in Isa 22:2. All of these instances assume that the word derives from the verb ‫ שׁאה‬in the sense of “to roar” as the unnamed enemies do in Isa 17:12–13. There might be a subtle play here as the verb elsewhere in Isaiah means “to crash to ruins”. In 6:11, for example, the cities and the land shall lie desolate and in 37:26, the term denotes the Assyrian king’s devastation of fortified cities into heaps of ruins. The city is thus full of destruction. Yet another option is to derive the term from the root ‫שׁוא‬, which means “emptiness” or “vanity” (cf. the noun ‫ )שָׁ וְ א‬and which sometimes occurs in the context of idolatry (e.g. Jer 18:15; Ps 31:7). In Isaiah, the noun occurs four times, of which the reference to “worthless offerings” (‫)מנְ חַ ת־שָׁ וְ א‬ ִ in 1:13 offers an illustrative example of ineffective cultic practice. This sense of the line would accord with the scene in v. 1b. Deriving the word from ‫ שׁאה‬in the sense of making noise, however, is preferable because it then parallels the participle and adjective in the latter half of v. 2a. Moreover, it brings the verse into close contact with Isa 5:13–14 (see below). First, Jerusalem is called “a tumultuous city” (‫)ﬠִ יר הוֹ ִמיָּה‬. The verb ‫ המה‬refers to all sorts of noise, for instance, by bears, dogs, and the sea.

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

109

It often designates the invasion of enemies (Isa 17:12; Jer 6:23; Ps 46:4, 7). Likewise, the noun form (‫ )הָ מוֹן‬occurs in the description of the attack of the enemy army on Jerusalem (Isa 17:12; 29:5; 31:4) or in the description of worldwide judgment (see especially Joel 4:14). The verbal form, however, can also signify moaning (Ps 55:18; 77:4) and restlessness (Prov 7:11) Prominent in Jeremiah’s sorrowful reaction towards the sound of the attacking army in Jer 4:19 is that “my heart pounds within me” (‫)הֹ מֶ ה־לִּ י לִ בִּ י‬. Then, Jerusalem is called “an exultant town” (‫)קִ ְריָה ַﬠלִּ יזָה‬. This phrase is thought to be a key reason for reading vv. 1b–2a as an account of the surviving inhabitants rejoicing over the withdrawal of enemies.134 Certainly there are instances of the adjective ‫ ַﬠלִּ יז‬with rejoicing in a positive sense (Isa 13:3; 24:8) and the verbal form (‫ )עלז‬is frequently used in this sense (e.g. Ps 28:7; 68:5; 96:12). Yet a closer glance at other occurrences reveals that in several cases the term is closely related to the motif of haughtiness. The oracle in Isa 23 negatively reviews Tyre as “a rejoicing one” (‫ ; ַﬠלִּ יזָה‬v. 7). More importantly, Zephaniah portrays the arrogance of Nineveh using this word. The prophet rhetorically asks: “Is this the exultant city [‫ ]הָ ﬠִ יר הָ ַﬠלִּ יזָה‬that lived secure, that said to itself, ‘I am, and there is no one else’?” Now, so the book tells, it is completely devastated. Moreover, in the judgment of Zion according to Zephaniah, YHWH will remove the arrogant leaders of the city referred to as “your proudly exultant ones” ( ֵ‫ ; ַﬠלִּ יזֵי ַגּ ֲאוָת‬Zeph 3:11). 135 In light of these instances, the idea of “a rejoicing city” carries a negative tone.136 This observation is strengthened by the remarkable parallel in the description of the descending people in 5:14: Jerusalem’s “multitude” (‫)הֲמוֹנָהּ‬, her “throng” (‫)שׁאוֹנָהּ‬, ְ and “those who exult [‫ ] ָﬠלֵז‬in her.” Although the forms are different, there are striking similarities between the inhabitants in 22:2 and those in 5:14 who were drunk and in a state of confusion before they descended into hell without any sense of reality. Profoundly irrationally, they continue their foolish acts, not knowing the unescapable destiny they are facing. A similar scenario is found in 22:2. The people’s noisy reaction to the danger of invasion stands in sheer contrast to the quietness, rest, and trust demanded by God (Isa 30:15). Even in the true hour of decision, they do not change their idolatrous and irrational behavior. Verses 2b–3 indicate the imminence of defeat. Those who have died during the siege – “your slain” ( ִ‫ – ) ֲח ָללַי‬have not died on the battlefield but, it seems to be implied, by pestilence and starvation behind the city walls.137 As is explicitly stated, all of Jerusalem’s leaders have fled away in cowardice, eventually to be taken prisoner without the use of force. The term ‫אסר‬, which 134

Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 159. See my exegesis of Zeph 3 in Poulsen, Representing Zion, 109–11. 136 Cf. Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 251. 137 Young, Isaiah II, 90. 135

110

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

should neither be emended nor erased, generally means “to bound” or “to tie,” often in the context of imprisonment (Gen 42:24; Judg 16:7). In Isaiah, the term also occurs as a Qal passive participle about “prisoners” (‫סוּרים‬ ִ ‫) ֲא‬ parallel to “those in darkness” in 49:9 and to “captives” (‫ ) ְשׁבוּיִ ם‬in 61:1. By maintaining “all of you who were found” ( ִ‫ ) ָכּל־נִ ְמצָ אַ י‬rather than following the proposed emendations which brings it into alignment with “rulers,” the latter part of v. 3 expands the perspective.138 The enemy has captured not only the rulers but also common citizens who have attempted to flee, even to a great distance. No one escapes YHWH’s judgment. Although it is wise not to read the present oracle too rigidly in light of one specific historical event, the number of shared motifs in other books dealing with the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE is remarkable. 139 Hunger inside the walls of the city is a recurrent motif in Lamentations. The priests seek food (1:19) and the people faint (2:12, 19). Children must beg for food (4:3–5) and are eventually eaten by their mothers (4:10). As Lam 1:20 states, “in the house it is like death.” Compared to the motif in Isa 22:2b, Lam 4:9 offers this interesting comment: “Happier were those slain by the sword than those slain by hunger.” Apart from Ezekiel, the phrase “slain by the sword” (‫חַ לְ לֵי־‬ ‫ )חֶ ֶרב‬occurs only in Isa 22:2, Lam 4:9, and Jer 14:19, the latter of which compares the destiny of those who died on the field to that of those in the city who are “sick with hunger” (‫)תַּ חֲלוּאֵ י ָרﬠָב‬. Jeremiah 14:17–18 as a whole portrays the prophet weeping over the treatment of “the virgin daughter of my people” (‫)בְּ תוּלַת בַּ ת־ ַﬠ ִמּי‬, a treatment which includes destruction, death, and deportation to a foreign land (see below). Furthermore, the accounts of the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem in 2 Kings 25 and Jer 39 invite comparison. According to 2 Kings 25, the monthlong siege is first completed when “the famine became so severe in the city that there was no food for the people of the land” (v. 3). Despite the massive presence of Babylonian conquerors, Zedekiah and his men manage to escape (or “flee” [‫ ]ברח‬in Jer 39:4) all the way to the plains of Jericho where they are taken and brought to Nebuchadnezzar (vv. 4–6). Zedekiah is bound (!‫)אסר‬ with bronze fetters and deported to Babylon (v. 7; cf. Jer 39:7; 40:1). The Babylonians then break down the walls around Jerusalem, burn down its temple and houses, and exile a substantial part of the population. Among them are five men of the kings’ council “who were found” (‫ ) ִנ ְמצְ אוּ‬in the city (v. 19). In Isa 22:4, the prophet’s reaction to the idolatry and shamefulness of the city is deep-felt weeping. Literally, he is “bitter in weeping.” Ironically, he actually does what YHWH demands: he weeps and mourns the oncoming devastation (cf. v. 12). The motif of the weeping prophet is not unfamiliar. 138 139

Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 244. Cf. the predictions in Lev 26 and Deut 28.

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

111

Lamentation or despair over the destruction of Moab and Babylon appears in Isa 16:11 and 21:3. Closer to the thought in 22:4 is Jeremiah’s sorrow over the capture and deportation of YHWH’s people. He will weep bitterly in secret (Jer 13:17) and, as noted, day and night his eyes shall run down with tears (Jer 14:17). The language describing the terrible tragedy in v. 4b is emotional as the prophet laments “the destruction of my people’s daughter” (‫)שֹׁ ד בַּ ת־ ַﬠ ִמּי‬, a poetic synonym of Jerusalem. In line with the preceding verses, Jerusalem is pictured as a woman who will be ruined (cf. Isa 49–54; see Chapter 7). While the term ‫“( שֹׁ ד‬devastation, ruin”) occurs a handful times in Isaiah,140 the expression “my people’s daughter” is unique.141 Interestingly, the fourteen occurrences of this phrase in addition to the one in Isaiah are all found in Jeremiah and Lamentations in the context of the fall of Jerusalem.142 “My people’s daughter” must lament because “the destroyer” (‫ )הַ שֹּׁ דֵ ד‬will come upon her (Jer 6:26), and the prophet weeps exactly because “the virgin daughter of my people” is struck down and grievously wounded (Jer 14:17). Similar tropes are present in Lamentations. The mourner’s eyes are spent with tears “because of the crushing of my daughter’s people” (‫ ) ַﬠל־שֶׁ בֶ ר בַּ ת־ ַﬠ ִמּי‬in 2:11 and 3:48 (cf. 4:10). Finally, the lament in Jer 8:18–23 contains this phrase. It is uncertain whether the first-person speaker in these verses is God or his prophet (the same could apply to Isa 22:4). Grief is upon him and he is hurt “because of the hurt of my people’s daughter (‫ ; ַﬠל־שֶׁ בֶ ר בַּ ת־ ַﬠ ִמּי‬v. 21). He only wishes to weep day and night “for the slain of my daughter’s people” (! ‫חַ לְ לֵי‬ ‫)בַ ת־ ַﬠ ִמּי‬. Reading Isa 22:4 in light of these instances suggests that the prophet laments the ultimate ruin of his home city not only in a theological sense (that is, idolatry in vv. 1b–2a), but also in a very physical sense.143 The prophet asks his audience or the people attempting to comfort him to look away. Like Jeremiah, he wishes to weep alone and undisturbed, away from public attention. This trope is a typical element in lamentation (e.g. Job 7:19; 14:9) and its function here is to stress the brutality of the approaching events.144 Defeat and death will come. No effort should be done to try to comfort him – literally, “do not hurry to comfort me” (‫ – )אַ ל־תָּ ִאיצוּ לְ ַנחֲמֵ נִ י‬because no human comfort will help. Destruction is inevitable. On this side of the catastrophe, only the prophet can see that mourning and grief are the only 140

Isa 13:6; 16:4; 51:19; 59:7; 60:18. There are, however, six references to “daughter Zion” (Isa 1:8; 10:32; 16:1; 37:22; 52:2; 62:11) 142 Jer 4:11; 6:26; 8:11, 19, 21, 22, 23; 9:6; 14:17; Lam 2:11; 3:48; 4:3, 6, 10. See also Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, 142–43. 143 Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 160: “To understand the idiom [‘the ruin of the daughter of my people’] as depicting only physical destruction, and thus fulfilled only in 587, is being overly literalistic.” 144 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 116; Wischnowsky, Tochter Zion, 65–66. 141

112

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

appropriate things to do. On the other side of the catastrophe, the city itself will eventually realize that grief is the only option and that no divine comfort is present (Lam 1:2, 9, 17, 21). In Isa 22:4, the prophet seems to assume that the ruin of Jerusalem will be as “vast as the sea” so no comfort will reach him (cf. Lam 2:13). Nevertheless, within the book as a whole, this verse subtly awaits and points forward to the divine comfort (‫ )נחם‬of “my people” (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמּי‬in Isa 40:1. After destruction and darkness, there will be a time for consolation. 2.3.3. Isaiah 22:5–8a: The enemy attack Verses 5–8a unfold the “devastation” (‫ )שֹׁ ד‬announced in v. 4b. The introductory “for” (‫ )כִּ י‬suggests that the unit serves as an explanation or illustration. The enemy attack on the city is interpreted as the realization of YHWH’s Day of Judgment (cf. Isa 2; Amos 5:18–20).145 This association is familiar in Isaiah as the terrifying and invincible army of enemies approaches “on that day” in 5:25–30. Here, the day is described by three words which together form a poetically sophisticated assonance (‫וּמבוּכָה‬ ְ ‫וּמבוּסָ ה‬ ְ ‫)מהוּמָ ה‬, ְ partly reflected in Blenkinsopp’s translation: “a day of tumult, trampling, and turmoil.” 146 A threefold repetition is also found in 37:3, where Hezekiah calls the Assyrian assault on Jerusalem “a day of distress, of rebuke, and of disgrace” ( ‫יוֹם־צָ ָרה‬ ‫)וְ תוֹ ֵכחָ ה וּ ְנאָ צָ ה‬. All words suggest chaos. The Hebrew term for “tumult,” “confusion,” or “panic” (‫)מהוּמָ ה‬ ְ is used elsewhere in the context of attacking enemies (Ezek 7:7; Zech 14:13). “Trampling” (‫)מבוּסָ ה‬ ְ can reflect the enemies’ approach or the future state of defeat because the verbal form (‫ )בוס‬in Isaiah often designates the victorious trampling of enemies (14:25: Assyria; 63:6: the peoples) or of the Jerusalem temple (63:18: “our adversaries have trampled down your sanctuary”). The term for “confusion” or “perplexity” (‫)מבוּכָה‬ ְ is largely synonymous with the first term and in the only other instance of it in Mic 7:4, the word is also associated with the day of divine punishment. Its verbal form (‫ )בוך‬likewise points to moving around aimlessly (Exod 14:3; Joel 1:18) or to a city being in a state of confusion (Esth 3:15). In total, the three words point to a chaotic situation full of fear, despair, and uncertainty, not unlike the anxiety that fills King Ahaz in Isa 7:2 as his nation faces possible invasion.147 The notion of a day of such chaos along with the general scene’s setting in a valley brings v. 5a close to other biblical passages describing divine judgment. In Joel 4, both YHWH’s judgment and battle against all the peoples of the world take place in “the valley of Jehoshaphat” (vv. 2, 12) and in “the valley of decision” (v. 14), the names of which play on the divine judge. The

145

See my analysis in Poulsen, Representing Zion, 82–83. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 331. 147 Young, Isaiah II, 94. 146

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

113

statement in 4:14 is noteworthy: “Tumult, tumult [‫]הֲמוֹ ִנים הֲמוֹנִ ים‬, in the valley of decision. For the day of YHWH is near in the valley of decision.” Similarly, the mythological enemy known as Gog of the land of Magog, whom YHWH defeats in a glorious battle scene, along with his horde (‫)הֲמוֹנֹ ה‬, shall be buried in “the valley of Hamon-gog” (Ezek 39:11). As we have seen, cognate words describe the situation in Jerusalem (22:2, 5). Unlike Ezekiel and Joel, however, YHWH’s judgment is here directed against his own people using their enemies as his punishing instrument. As the textual notes reviewed, there is some uncertainty about how to construe the latter half of v. 5. Assuming a successful capture of the city, the notion of “a battering down of walls” makes good sense. Although there is no linguistic overlap, a comparable situation is described in 2 Kings 25:10, in which the Babylonians break down the walls of Jerusalem (cf. Neh 1:3). The final line of v. 5 literally reads “a cry to the mountain(s)” (‫)שֹׁ ו ַﬠ אֶ ל־הָ הָ ר‬. The cry is likely a cry for help (cf. e.g. Job 19:7; Ps 18:7), although it is hardly directed towards YHWH’s temple mount as some have proposed (cf. 1QIsaa).148 It is rather tempting to understand the cry here as a continuation of the exegesis of vv. 1–4; even in this desperate situation the cry for help continues to be directed not upwards to God in the heavens, but to the surroundings or to the nations behind the mountains (e.g. Egypt).149 Alternatively, the cries and the tremendous noises in the valley are so loud that they will reach the hills or reverberate against them, creating stereophonic sound.150 A similar thought may be implied in the description of the great disaster approaching Jerusalem in Ezek 7:7: “tumult, not reveling [on or to?] the mountains” (‫)מהוּמָ ה וְ ל ֹא־הֵ ד הָ ִרים‬. ְ Verses 6–7 describe the enormous and well-prepared army of enemies. The mentioning of Elam and Kir in v. 6 is a good example of why Isaiah’s oracle should not be equated verse by verse to one historical event. Elam refers to a nation far to the east on the other side of the great river of Tigris and is fighting Babylon along with Media in Isa 21:2. Kir is the place to which Aram is exiled (2 Kings 16:9; Amos 1:5; 9:7). Its location is unknown, but it is common to assume it to be somewhere near Mesopotamia, perhaps close to Elam. Some interpreters claim that Elam and Kir must have served as auxilia-

148 See Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 253–54; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 331; Young, Isaiah II, 95; cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 818: “Hilfsgeschrei schallt gegen den Zionsberg, da Jahwe wohnt.” 149 In contrast to Isa 22:5, Ps 121:1–2 offers an illustration of faithful behavior. The psalmist lifts up his eyes “to the mountains” (‫)אֶ ל־הֶ הָ ִרים‬, perhaps representing the danger in front of him or, better, cults or divine dwellings on the mountains as a possible place of refuge, and then asks “from where will my help come?” Will it come from the mountains? Certainly not! “My help comes from YHWH who made heaven and earth!” 150 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 410.

114

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

ry troops during the Assyrian siege in 701 BCE; 151 others claim that they were part of Nebuchadnezzar’s army in 587 BCE.152 This matter cannot be settled.153 In my opinion, Elam and Kir are mentioned here to stress that the enemies come from very distant places. The motif of enemies from far away is common in texts describing the attack on Jerusalem. 154 In Isa 5:26, the unidentified army comes “from far away” and “from the ends of the earth.” Likewise, in Jeremiah’s almost mythological portrayal of the enemy from the north, the army arrives “from a distant land” (4:16), “from far away” (5:15), and “from the farthest parts of the earth” (6:22). The same thought lies behind Isa 22:6. As an aside, the emphasis on distance is an important argument against emending “chariots with men” to “chariots of Aram,” that is, a local enemy from just the other side of the river. The enemies are well-equipped. Elam are known for their skills in handling the bow (Jer 49:35; cf. Isa 13:18), they bring forceful infantry, and Kir uncovers their shields to fight. The portrayal of the magnitude of the army continues in v. 7, which is addressed to Jerusalem. The city’s choicest or most precious valleys are now filled up with chariots, and the cavalry stand at its gates. The singular “gate” (‫ )הַ שָּׁ ﬠְ ָרה‬is a pars pro toto pointing either to the city’s walls or to the city itself. The absolute infinitive ‫שֹׁ ת‬, which adds emphasis to the action, shows how determined the enemies are. They are confident of victory. The unit reaches its climax in v. 8a. Despite its brevity, the meaning of the statement is controversial and scholars have offered numerous suggestions.155 More problems are involved. First, it is unclear who the subject is. It might be indefinite, referring to the enemy invaders of the preceding verses, as the Greek translation suggests (see the textual notes).156 Accordingly, they have removed the defense of Judah or Jerusalem by force. Another option is that the referent is YHWH (“he”).157 If so, he has withdrawn his protection or let his city lie open to disgrace. Second, it is unclear to what “the covering of Judah” (‫ )מָ סַ יְ הוּדָ ה‬refers. Because of the notion of Judah rather than Jerusalem, some take it to refer to

151

Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 295; Wildberger, Jesaja, 818. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 185. 153 Cf. Schmid, Jesaja I, 156: “Im vorliegenden Jesajabuch ist dies Ambiguität wahrscheinlich durchaus beabsichtigt: Die Vorgänge der assyrischen und babylonischen Bedrängung Jerusalems entsprechen sich in der höheren theologischen Perspektive des Buches: Die Babylonier führen zu Ende, was die Assyrer begonnen haben.” 154 See Poulsen, Representing Zion, 84. 155 See Young, Isaiah II, 97–98; Wildberger, Jesaja, 820–21. 156 E.g. Wildberger, Jesaja, 805: “[Man] legte den Schutz Judas bloß.” Cf. Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 255. 157 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 335; Childs, Isaiah, 160; Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 185. 152

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

115

the destruction of the cities and land of Judah, while Jerusalem was spared.158 This interpretation, however, hardly fits the context in Isa 22 where enemies now stand at the gates of Jerusalem. Wildberger suggests that “the covering of Judah” refers to Jerusalem, just as Samaria is the fortress of Ephraim (Isa 17:3).159 Much depends on the nature of the “covering” ( ָ‫)מָ ס‬.160 Apart from this instance, the term occurs twenty-three times in the Old Testament. In 2 Sam 17:19, it designates a covering or carpet that is used to hide Jonathan and Ahimaaz in a well. Significantly, all other instances occur in connection with YHWH’s protection or holy dwelling: “a cloud for covering” ( ָ‫ ) ָﬠנָן לְ מָ ס‬at day time (Ps 105:39; cf. the similar motif in Isa 4:5–6); the screen for the gate of the court161 or for the entrance of the tent or tabernacle;162 the screen of the “Holy of Holies”;163 and “the curtain of the screen” ( ָ‫)פָּרֹ כֶת הַ מָּ ס‬.164 It is fair to conclude that theologically, it is a highly loaded term. Accordingly, the verse could allude to YHWH’s abandonment of his temple, a motif which we encounter frequently in other prophetic books (e.g. Jer 12:7; Ezek 7:22; 8:6; 11:23).165 Because YHWH leaves his city, it can be conquered. As such, the statement in v. 8a anticipates and partly explains the final fall of Jerusalem.166 The allusion to ultimate destruction is further supported by the use of ‫גלה‬, insofar as the removal of YHWH’s presence and protective shield results in the defeat and removal of the city’s inhabitants.167 Yet the term ‫ גלה‬contains more connotations. The Piel form of the verb generally refers to revelation or exposure, for instance, of divine peace and justice (Ps 98:2; Jer 33:6), of secrets (Prov 11:13; 25:9), or of guilt (Isa 26:21; Job 20:27). In a few cases, it denotes the enabling of sight (Num 158

Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 159. Wildberger, Jesaja, 821. 160 Duhm (Jesaia, 160) emends it to ‫“( מַ סַּ ד‬foundation”; cf. 1 Kings 7:9) in the sense of uncovering the foundation of the gates (cf. Mic 1:6: “I will uncover her foundations” [‫)]וִ י ֹסדֶ יהָ ְאַ ַגלֶּה‬. Others derive its meaning from ‫“( מַ סֵּ ָכה‬covering, sheet”) and argue that God removes the covering that had prevented his people from seeing and recognizing the coming danger (cf. Isa 25:7; 2 Cor 3:12–18). Yet nothing in the passage indicates that Judah does not remain blind to the very end. The other meaning of ‫“( מַ סֵּ כָה‬image, idol”) hardly makes sense: “God has unveiled Judah’s idolatry” (?). 161 Exod 27:16; 35:17; 38:18; 39:40; 40:8, 33; Num 4:26. 162 Exod 26:36–37; 35:15; 36:37; 39:38; 40:5, 28; Num 3:25–26; 4:25. 163 Num 3:31. 164 Exod 35:12; 39:34; 40:21; Num 4:5. 165 Poulsen, Representing Zion, 122–35. 166 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 335: “we are being offered another theological explanation of the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by the Babylonians”; Childs, Isaiah, 160: “the text begins to resonate the ultimate destruction of Judah.” 167 Cf. the creative play on words in Jer 9: because the people have forsaken (‫)עזב‬ YHWH’s law (v. 13), they have been punished by leaving (‫ )עזב‬the land (v. 18). 159

116

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

22:31; Ps 119:18). In most cases, however, the verb is closely associated with the public exposure of shame and social disgrace.168 Interesting is YHWH’s treatment of his people using the image of a woman (Jerusalem in Ezek 16:37, Oholah in Ezek 23:10, Israel in Hos 2:12) whose nakedness he will uncover to peoples from all around (see Chapter 7). Even more interestingly, in the three other instances in which the verb refers to taking away a covering, the covering is a piece of clothing: “outer garment” (Job 41:5), “veil” (Isa 47:2), and “skirts” (Nah 3:5). In the latter two cases, YHWH’s stripping of the clothes of Babylon and Nineveh creates an image of public disgrace following defeat and decline. Taking into account that Jerusalem elsewhere in Isa 22 is likened to a woman (vv. 1b–4), the same could be the case in v. 8a. It is true, though, that ָ‫ מָ ס‬never refers directly to clothes. Nevertheless, whatever the exact nature of this “covering” is, the withdrawal of it implies that Jerusalem is now open to conquest and disgrace. 2.3.4. Isaiah 22:8b–11: Defense rather than faith Verses 8b–11 inform readers about the first of two kinds of reactions to the invading enemies. Rather than having faith in YHWH, the inhabitants of Jerusalem desperately attempt to fortify the strongholds of their city and prepare for a long siege. The unit is easy to separate from its context. While v. 8a contains a third person masculine form, v. 8b is addressed to the inhabitants by means of a second person masculine form (although reference to a collective is intended as is explicit in the following verses). The verbs “to look” (‫ נבט‬in Hiphil) and “to see” (‫ )ראה‬in vv. 8b–9a and 11b frame the unit. The notion of a “day” (“on that day” [‫ )]בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬at the opening of v. 8b accords with the structure of other units in the oracle (vv. 5a and 12a). Similarly, the concluding statement in v. 11b forms a climax (cf. 4b, 8a, 13b) and anticipates the overall death sentence in v. 14. Faith in human activity and human strength is a familiar theme in Isaiah. However, while the famous Ahaz-episode only contains a slight allusion to reinforcement in the context of attacking enemies (Isa 7:3), vv. 8b–11a of this passage render a meticulous description of the inhabitants’ eagerness to strengthen their defense. The abundance of details and specific locations stands in sheer contrast to the brief and general instruction in v. 11b of what they should have done. In the time of crisis, they did not look to YHWH, but to their armory and fence. The “House of the Forest” refers to a huge building (1 Kings 7). Although other passages designate it as an official building or treasury (e.g. 1 Kings 10:16–17), the notion of ‫“( נֵשֶׁ ק‬weapon, armor”) suggests that its function is as an arms depot, which is intended here. The observation of the city itself confirms the hopeless situation: there are many 168

Lev 18:6–19; 20:11, 17–21; Deut 23:1; 27:20.

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

117

breaches! To prepare for the month-long siege, waters have been collected from “the lower pool” (‫ ;הַ בְּ ֵרכָה הַ תַּ חְ תֹּ ונָה‬cf. Isa 7:3: “the upper pool” [ ‫הַ בְּ ֶרכָה‬ ‫)]הָ ֶﬠלְ יוֹנָה‬. The inhabitants have registered the number of houses, perhaps to house refugees from the land that have fled to the city or simply to know which ones to demolish in order to secure the wall. Jeremiah 33:4 indicates a similar activity in the context of the Babylonian attack: houses were torn down to make a defense. Interestingly, the only other occurrence of the rare verb ‫ בצר‬in Piel indicates a motif of hubris and offers a delicate parallel. In Jer 51:43, YHWH speaks: “Though Babylon should mount up to heaven and though she should fortify [‫]תבַ צֵּ ר‬ ְ her strong height, from me destroyers would come upon her.” Even if Jerusalem’s inhabitants should manage to repair the damages in time, the walls would never stand the pressure of enemies controlled by YHWH. The first half of v. 11 is subtle. Taken at face value, the verse tells that the citizens made a reservoir between the two walls for the water of the old pool and, accordingly, it continues the theme of securing water supplies (cf. v. 9b).169 Emphasis is put on this “reservoir” as it occurs as the first word in the sentence. Apart from here, the term ‫ ִמקְ וֶה‬occurs eight times: three times in the sense of “collection of water” or “pool” 170 and five times in the sense of “hope”.171 A good illustration of the latter sense appears in the confession to YHWH in the context of drought (!): “O hope of Israel [‫]מקְ וֵה יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬, ִ its savior in time of trouble” (Jer 14:8; cf. 17:13). In light of the Jeremiah passage, an alternative translation of v. 11a would read: “Hope! You made [‫]ﬠ ֲִשׂיתֶ ם‬ (your own) between…” Rather than hoping for YHWH’s help, the inhabitants put their hope in what they could do with their own hands. They relied on the waters of Jerusalem and not on the divine source of life. The use of ‫ עשׁה‬about the inhabitants in v. 11a and God in v. 11b confirms this contrast. Verse 11b informs readers about what the inhabitants of Jerusalem did not look for. They did not look for God or put their trust in him. This is a typical accusation in Isaiah. Despite the call for faith in YHWH (7:9; 28:16), the people continue to look elsewhere for help (e.g. Egypt in 31:1–3). A close parallel is 5:12, in which Jerusalem’s inhabitants “do not regard [‫ ]יַבִּ יטוּ‬the deeds of YHWH or see [‫]ראוּ‬ ָ the work of his hands [‫]מַ ﬠְ ַשֵׂ ה יָדָ יו‬.” Here, they did not observe “the one who did it” ( ָ‫ )עֹ שֶׂ יה‬and “the one who created it” (‫)יֹ צְ ָרהּ‬. A major question is what the female suffixes in these words refer to.172

169 This location occurs in the description of Zedekiah’s escape route in 2 Kings 24:4 and Jer 39:4. 170 Gen 1:10; Exod 7:19; Lev 11:36. 171 1 Chr 29:15; Ezra 10:2; Jer 14:8; 17:13; 50:7. Jer 17:13 clearly plays on these two meanings of the word: “O hope of Israel [‫]מקְ וֵה ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬. ִ O YHWH […] they have forsaken the fountain of living water [‫]מקוֹר מַ ִים־חַ ִיּים‬, ְ YHWH.” 172 See the discussion in Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 245–46.

118

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

Reference to the female “reservoir” hardly makes sense. It is possible that they are a reference to “the city” in vv. 2 and 9 or “Jerusalem” in v. 10, that is, YHWH is the maker of the city. However, it is better to assume that the female suffixes relate to the present crisis portrayed up until this verse, or that they relate to history in general. It is YHWH who creates history (notice the verb ‫יצר‬, which in Isa 40–48 denotes YHWH’s activity in creation and history). The enemies are his instrument and he is responsible for the present dangers. The word ‫ מֵ ָרחוֹק‬mostly refers to distance, but in a few cases, it can signify temporal matters (e.g. 2 Sam 7:19; Ezek 12:27). Notable is Isa 37:36, where YHWH’s actions through the Assyrian king have been determined “long ago” (cf. the pairing of ‫ עשׂה‬and ‫)יצר‬.173 Another option, however, is to interpret the reference as spatial or qualitative. YHWH acts “from far away,” that is, he stands or hides behind the enemies fulfilling his righteous judgment.174 The creator of life now brings death! 2.3.5. Isaiah 22:12–13: Festival rather than fasting Verses 12–13 show the second kind of reaction to the danger of invasion. Instead of returning to YHWH, the inhabitants devote themselves to careless rejoicing. The structure of the unit follows that of the preceding two. It opens with the notion of “on that day” (‫ )בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬and reaches its climax in the final statement. Verse 12 describes YHWH’s call for obedience. The appearance of enemies and the coming ruin of Jerusalem should themselves have evoked reflection and self-criticism among the inhabitants of the city. The initial reaction towards these events as portrayed in the previous unit has only confirmed the people’s self-confidence. In a final attempt to reach his people, YHWH himself speaks up (“and he called” [‫ )] ַו ִיּקְ ָרא‬and demands sincere fasting and obedience. Four words describe the demanded behavior. The rather common “weeping” (‫ )בְּ כִ י‬stands parallel to the stronger “wailing” (‫)מ ְספֵּה‬, ִ the latter of which often occurs in the context of mourning for a dead person (Gen 50:10; Zech 12:10). These two words are coupled in Joel 2:12 as well. The third and fourth words refer to physical signs of repentance: “baldness” (‫)קָ ְרחָ ה‬, that is, shaved heads, and “the wearing of sackcloth” (‫ )חְ ַגֹ ר שָׂ ק‬are both required. These actions are often paired in passages dealing with public mourning (Isa 15:2–3; Ezek 7:18; 27:31).

173

Cf. Clement’s (Isaiah 1–39, 186) comment on Isa 22:11: “The phrase long ago appears to recognize the interval of time which separated Isaiah’s prophecies from their (later) fulfillment in the fate which overtook Jerusalem at the hands of the armies of Babylon.” 174 Wildberger, Jesaja, 825–26.

2.3. Jerusalem is doomed

119

The scenario of v. 12 is close to that of the first two chapters of Joel, especially 1:13–14 and 2:12–17. In these passages, YHWH demands authentic and heart-felt repentance in terms of fasting, weeping, and wailing. In Joel 1:14 and 2:15, the priests shall “call a solemn assembly” (‫ )קִ ְראוּ ﬠֲצָ ָרה‬and the people as a whole faithfully respond in prayer (cf. the Ninevites in Jonah 3:6– 9). In Isaiah, however, YHWH himself calls for return, but with the exception of the prophet (cf. v. 4), no one cares about the call. In fact, the inhabitants of Jerusalem do the exact opposite! The introductory “but see!” (‫ )וְ הִ נֵּה‬marks the profound contrast between what God requires his people to do and what they actually do. The people’s attitude in this verse is again very close to that of the upper class in Isa 5:11– 13. Instead of looking to YHWH and living in trust of his power and help, they already consider themselves to be defeated. They will soon die and therefore they will enjoy the remaining time: “Let us drink and eat for tomorrow we die!” It is another way of saying that there is no salvation, and that death will have the last word (cf. Paul in 1 Cor 15:32). The elements in their seemingly carefree rejoicing are customary. It is certainly not joy, eating, and drinking that the prophet despises. It is the occasion or reason for doing so that he takes issue with. The inhabitants do not celebrate because of YHWH and his redemptive purpose (notice the pairing of “joy” [‫ ]שָׂ שׂוֹן‬and “festivity” [‫]שׂ ְמחָ ה‬ ִ in Isa 35:10; 51:3, 11). They hedonistically celebrate to enjoy what is left of their miserable earthly lives, for soon “we will die” (‫)נָמוּת‬. Again, not even on the way down to darkness and death will the inhabitants raise their heads and look to YHWH, the creator of life, for help (cf. v. 11b; 5:14). The self-centered and hopeless tone points forward to YHWH’s conclusion in v. 14. 2.3.6. Isaiah 22:14: Death without forgiveness The drama culminates in v. 14. Throughout the oracle, each unit has pointed forward to the ultimate climax: destruction (v. 4b), withdrawal of divine protection (v. 8a), no attention to God (v. 11b), and no hope for divine intervention (v. 13b). Up until this point, YHWH has not uttered his voice. But now, through his prophet, he declares defeat and death to be unavoidable. The first-person voice of the prophet which we encountered in v. 4 recurs in v. 14. Something has been revealed (‫ גלה‬in Niphal) in his ears. Literally, the line reads: “YHWH Zebaot has revealed himself.” A similar formulation occurs in Jacob’s encounter with God in Bethel (Gen 35:7). Other passages, however, suggest that God reveals himself by means of words.175 In a similar manner, some interpreters think that “this message” or “these words,” re175

See 1 Sam 3:21 (“YHWH revealed himself to Samuel at Shiloh by the word of YHWH”) and Dan 10:1 (“a word was revealed to Daniel”).

120

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

vealed by YHWH, should be assumed here.176 The motif of YHWH speaking directly to the ears of the prophet is found in Isa 5:9 as well (‫)בְּ אָ ְזנָי ְיהוָה צְ בָ אוֹת‬, also in the context of proclaiming divine judgment. Elsewhere in Isaiah, the Niphal form of ‫ גלה‬is used to render positive aspects of YHWH’s purpose: “his glory” (40:5), “his arm” (53:1), and “his deliverance” (56:1). Here, it introduces his final rejection of his people. The future destruction of the nation is certain. Yet the divine utterance is not only a harsh word of judgment. It has the form of an oath. YHWH swears that there will be no future for his people. As long as they live, their sins will not be atoned for. Literally, the oath states: “Certainly this iniquity will not be atoned for until you die.” The idea is not that their death will atone sin, but that they will die without being atoned at all. Sin will only increase and death is inevitable.177 Nothing indicates that they will have the loyalty, faithfulness, and fear of YHWH that can (elsewhere) atone for sin (Prov 16:6). The final line stresses that this is the way it is going to be. God has spoken. It is hardly deliberate that the only other occurrences of the specific form “you will die” (‫)תּ ֻמתוּן‬ ְ are found in Gen 3:3–4. Nevertheless, the parallel is striking. Violence against God’s word is fundamental. Not observing him and his rule, not knowing of him, is a sin so severe that no atonement is possible. Just as eating the forbidden fruit implies death and expulsion from God’s sight, not looking to him in times of danger results in disaster. Other verses in Isaiah suggest that exile and death are the only proper punishment of the people’s iniquity (27:8–9; 50:1). While the prophet’s sin has been blotted out (Isa 6:7), his fellow citizens continue to be “a people laden with iniquity” (‫ ; ַﬠם ֶכּבֶ ד ﬠָוֹן‬1:4). In fact, the situation depicted in Isa 22:12–14 is the realization of the prophecy given to Isaiah in 6:9–13.178 The people look, but in the wrong direction, and they do not understand. Despite the divine call, they do not return to YHWH. Destruction and deportation await them.179 The dark and depressive prospect is definitive. Yet, in light of Isaiah as a whole, there are small indications that God can change the future. Iniquities can be atoned for (27:9; 33:24). Indeed, as proclaimed in 40:1–2, there might 176

E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 332: “This message has been revealed in my hearing [Yahweh of the hosts].” The Greek translation of Isa 22:14 likewise assumes “words” or “these things” (ταῦτά), although the overall understanding of the content apparently differs from the Hebrew version: “And these things are revealed in the ears of the Lord Sebaoth.” 177 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 829: “Das Schuldverhängnis nimmt unfehlbar seinen Lauf, die Schuld wird sich auswirken mit ihrem wollen Gewicht.” 178 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 267: “die Verstockung Israel, die JHWH in Kap. 6 als Wirkung der Verkündigung Jesajas angekündigt hatte, [ist] Wirklichkeit geworden.” 179 Childs, Isaiah, 161: “For readers of the whole canonical corpus of Isaiah, there can be little doubt that the threat [in Isa 22:14] anticipates the future destruction of the nation.”

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

121

be a future where sin has been atoned for and penalties have been paid (cf. the allusion to comfort for “my people” in 22:4). 2.3.7. Summing up Isaiah 22:1–14 pronounces the doom of Jerusalem. The oracle is basically oriented toward the future and should not be correlated to one specific event, whether in the eighth or in the sixth century BCE. Its key purpose in the final form of the book is to adumbrate the fall of Jerusalem and explain why this terrible incident had to come. The literary placement of the oracle among those which concern foreign nations underlines that in terms of arrogance and wickedness, YHWH’s people are no different than their neighbors. They consistently disregard their God and never look to him for help. In danger of invasion, they go up to the roofs to worship idols, devote their attention to noisy and careless partying, or covertly attempt to flee from their destiny. Yet no one escapes divine judgment. The prophet alone laments the destiny that awaits his beloved city, and his refusal to receive consolation adds emphasis to the situation: defeat and destruction are unavoidable. YHWH himself will initiate a day of chaos and confusion, and well-equipped enemies from distant regions shall serve as his tool of punishment. He will withdraw his protection; literally, he will uncover his chosen city and its downfall shall become an object of public disgrace. Doom will come upon its inhabitants and they shall die without atonement for their sins. This, YHWH has sworn. The city of shouts and haughtiness shall collapse into a silent ruin of death – just like the gap at the center of the book.

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon (Isaiah 39:1–8) 2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon Isaiah 39 contains the enigmatic story about the visit of the Babylonian delegation. On the occasion of King Hezekiah’s illness, so it seems, the Babylonian king, Merodach-baladan, sends envoys with letters and a gift to Judah. Hezekiah welcomes them and shows them everything in his reign (vv. 1–2). The prophet Isaiah appears and interviews Hezekiah about the visit, asking where the visitors came from and what they saw (vv. 3–4). Responding to Hezekiah answers, the prophet makes a prophetic pronouncement. In the future, Hezekiah’s descendants and wealth shall be carried to Babylon, but there shall be peace and security during the time of his rule (vv. 5–8). The visit of the Babylonian envoys forms the last of three episodes in Isa 36–39 centering on the reign of King Hezekiah. Anterior to the visit, Isa 36– 37 accounts for the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem and Isa 38 renders the story about Hezekiah’s illness and his psalm (see my analysis of this chapter in Chapter 3). The introductory verses of Isa 38 and 39 contain the phrases “in

122

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

these days” (‫ )בַּ יּ ִָמים הָ הֵ ם‬and “at that time” (‫)בָּ ֵﬠת הַ הִ וא‬, which suggest at least a loose temporal relationship between the single episodes. Scholars devoted to historical matters have pointed out that the events in Isa 38 and 39, if they ever took place, would have occurred before the siege of Jerusalem narrated in Isa 36–37.180 Therefore, the arrangement reflects concerns other than those related to strict chronology, 181 but no matter what, the episodes have been brought together deliberately, and readers are being asked to read them together.182 A rather similar version of the Hezekiah-complex is found in 2 Kings 18:13–20:19. Scholars generally assume that the version in Isaiah was taken over from that in 2 Kings.183 Some of the alterations, omissions, and additions in Isaiah’s version most likely stem from conscious shaping by its editor(s).184 However, attempts to bring the two versions into alignment in their subsequent history of transmission could have erased or fostered further alternative readings. In the case of Isa 39 and its duplicate version in 2 Kings 20:12–19, there are a dozen variations, some of which may be of importance (see the textual notes and exegesis below).185

180

E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 482. Oswalt (Isaiah 1–39, 672) refers to the relation between the episodes as logical rather than chronological; cf. Young, Hezekiah in History and Tradition, 146: “Rather than disrupt the flow of the foregoing chapters by inserting the separate story of Hezekiah’s illness into its purportedly proper temporal location, the editor instead chose to juxtapose the heterogeneous texts while marking their simultaneity.” 182 Ackroyd, Studies, 156. 183 E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 459; Konkel, “Sources”; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 476– 85; Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 189–211. A minority voice has argued for Isaianic provenance subsequently taken over by the Historian. See especially Smelik, “Distortion” and Seitz, Final Destiny. A third option is that both versions draw from a common source independently of one another. See the recent and extended reviews in Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 266–77; Park, Hezekiah and the Dialogue of Memory, 133–95; and Young, Hezekiah in History and Tradition, 123–50. 184 Perhaps most remarkable is that the report on Hezekiah paying tribute to the Assyrians (2 Kings 18:14–16) is lacking from Isaiah, thereby avoiding the negative image of Hezekiah as a submissive vassal and highlighting the importance of YHWH’s salvific intervention. Moreover, the account for Hezekiah’s illness in Isa 38 has been altered substantially by splitting up the narrative into two minor parts and by inserting a psalm; see Chapter 3. 185 See the synopsis of 2 Kings 20:12–19 and Isa 39:1–8 in Wildberger, Jesaja, 1494– 95. The episode is only briefly mentioned in 2 Chr 32:31, following the description of Hezekiah’s illness and renewed prosperity: “So also in the matter of the envoys of the officials of Babylon, who had been sent to him to inquire about the sign that had been done in the land, God left him to himself, in order to test him and to know all that was in his heart.” 181

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

123

A significant difference between 2 Kings 20:12–19 and Isa 39 concerns their present literary contexts.186 In 2 Kings, the story of the Babylonian envoys, with its concluding prediction of deportation of the royal house and its wealth, points forward to its actual fulfillment in the figure of Jehoiachin and the vague hope for a future restoration of the Davidic dynasty that centers on this character (2 Kings 24–25). The main focus thus lies on the prophecyfulfillment motif.187 As discussed in Chapter 1, Isa 39 marks the transition between the two major parts of the book of Isaiah by establishing “a bridge from the Babylon of Merodach-baladan to the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar.”188 As in 2 Kings, the story’s primary function in Isaiah is to render the prediction of future events (cf. Isa 6:11–13). Yet, the prophetic book is not at all concerned with the fate of Jehoiachin,189 but rather with the Babylonian exile in general. The prediction of the Babylonian deportation of the Judean kings and their treasures and the implied end of the Southern Kingdom point immediately to the dark period of death and divine silence, illustrated by the literary gap or pause between Isa 39 and 40. Because of its subject and supposed references to the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in the early sixth century, several scholars date the composition of the story to this period or later. Clements claims that the narrative reflects the events of 598/7 and has been “consciously composed to serve as an apologia for the painful experience which Judah and Jerusalem received in that year;” however, the narrative cannot reflect anything after this time because it lacks references to the destruction of the temple.190 Sweeney follows Clements’ dating but argues that the version in 2 Kings was slightly modified when it was inserted into Isaiah in the late sixth century.191 Kaiser considers the entire narrative to be legendary, presumably building on vague and limited memory about King Merodach-baladan carrying gifts to Jerusalem, but that it was composed in the late exilic or, more likely, the Persian period – a far distance from the traumatic events of the early sixth century.192 Assuming an exilic date or later, the central purpose of the narrative is to root later experiences of destruction and exile in the past by means of a prophetic prediction.

186

Cf. Park, Hezekiah and the Dialogue of Memory, 177–79. Childs, Isaiah, 286; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 509. 188 Childs, Isaiah, 286. 189 See Chapter 3, however, for the questionable attempts to identify the suffering servant in Isa 53 with King Jechoiachin. 190 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 293–94. 191 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 508–10; cf. Childs, Isaiah, 286: “It is difficult to imagine the shaping of Isaiah 39 apart from knowledge of 587.” 192 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 324–25: “Von einem frischen Schmerz ist so wenig zu spüren wie von einem eschatologischen Überschwang, obwohl die Geschichte ein Stück Schicksalsdeutung versucht.” 187

124

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

In other words, the narrator will show that, already in Hezekiah’s time, events had determined the fate of Judah.193 Other scholars, although recognizing the work of editors during the exilic and postexilic periods, argue that beneath the present form there are hints of an earlier version. In the words of Blenkinsopp, “beneath the surface of the narrative […], and not far beneath the surface, we can detect indications of a different interpretative framework.”194 This idea is fully developed by Wildberger.195 He argues that the core of the narrative originated shortly after 701 BCE and reflects Isaiah’s attempt to dissuade Hezekiah from making political alliances with the Babylonians against the Assyrians (cf. a possible parallel in Isa 7:1–9). Such a meeting between the Judean king and a Babylonian delegation, though not attested in external sources, could have taken place in 703 BCE during Merodach-baladan’s short return as king of Babylon. 196 The assumption of this event as the real background to the episode builds primarily on the ostensible reason for the visit (to console Hezekiah), the king’s apparently unmotivated display of his treasury to the visitors, and the direct and suspicious tone in Isaiah’s succeeding interview. Later, the narrative was reworked: the introductory words “at that time” and the reference to Hezekiah’s illness were added to relate the narrative to the preceding chapter; v. 6 was rewritten in light of 587; and vv. 7–8, about the demise of the Davidic dynasty, were added in the exilic or postexilic period. As a result, the original message has been completely reworked to perform a new function as a prediction and explanation of the events of the sixth century.197 On the one hand, there is definitely something attractive in the approach of Blenkinsopp and Wildberger as they attempt to explain some obvious opaci193 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 294; cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 324: “Die Plünderung des judäischen Königsgutes durch Nebukadnezar und die Verschleppung der Davididen nach Babylon soll auf eine Episode im Leben des Königs Hiskia und damit letztlich auf ein durch den Propheten Jesaja vermitteltes Jahwewort zurückgeführt werden” (my emphasis). 194 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 488. Some scholars refuse secondary editorial activity, e.g. Begg (“Element,” 29): “2 Kgs 20:12–19 is basically one piece, dating from a time not too long after the event it records; it is a unit which the Deuteronomist has taken over without significant modification.” 195 Wildberger, Jesaja, 1471–74. 196 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 489; “Hezekiah and the Babylonian Delegation,” 115–16; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1474–75. 197 Wildberger, Jesaja, 1480: “die Erzählung [ist] im starkem Maß in ihrer ursprünglichen Aussage durch Überarbeitungen verändert worden und [hat] damit je neuen Funktionen übernommen.” Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 489: “an original prophetic condemnation of Hezekiah’s planned alliance with Babylon, similar to the condemnations of overtures to Egypt in chs. 28–33, has been rewritten in the interest of the Historian’s rehabilitation of Hezekiah.” In general, Blenkinsopp attributes the editorial activity to the Deuteronomists and rejects proposals that locate some of the alterations to the late exilic and postexilic periods.

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

125

ties in the narrative and the apparent tensions in the portrait of King Hezekiah (very positive in Isa 36–38, yet seemingly negative in Isa 39). An attempt to read the narrative in a straightforward manner easily runs into trouble because so many things are left unsaid. On the other hand, the lack of external evidence for such a political meeting, along with the commentators’ own observation that such a historical event certainly lies in the background of the present text, raises serious questions about the purpose of working with this putative layer of the narrative in the interpretation of the passage as a whole. The wish to form military alliances against the Assyrians is secondary at best, whereas the primary focus of the narrative is on the deportation of the descendants and wealth of Hezekiah to Babylon.198 A clear sign of this, as Peter Ackroyd has demonstrated persuasively in his interpretation of Isa 39, concerns the two major themes that pervade all sections of the narrative and form its climax: Babylon and the repeated emphasis on “everything” (see further below).199 As will soon be apparent, Ackroyd’s interpretation is an important resource for my own analysis. 2.4.1. Isaiah 39:1–8: Text and translation ‫בָּ ֵﬠת הַ הִ וא שָׁ לַח ְמרֹ דַ בַּ לְ ֲאדָ ן‬ a ‫בֶּ ן־בַּ לְ ֲאדָ ן מֶ ֶל ־בָּ בֶ ל ְס ָפ ִרים‬ ‫וּמ ְנחָ ה‬ ִ b ‫אֶ ל־חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ ַו ִיּ ְשׁמַ ע כִּ י חָ לָה ַו ֶיּ ֱחזָק‬ ‫וַיִּ ְשׂמַ ח ֲﬠלֵיהֶ ם חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ ַויּ ְַראֵ ם‬ ‫־בֵּ ית ְנכֹ תָ ה אֶ ת־הַ כֶּסֶ ף‬c‫אֶ ת‬ ‫וְ אֶ ת־הַ ָזּהָ ב וְ אֶ ת־הַ בְּ שָׂ ִמים‬ ‫־בֵּ ית‬c‫וְ אֵ ת הַ שֶּׁ מֶ ן הַ טֹּ וב וְ אֵ ת ָכּל‬ ‫ֵכּלָיו‬ ‫וְ אֵ ת ָכּל־ ֲאשֶׁ ר נִ ְמצָ א בְּ אֹ צְ רֹ תָ יו‬ ‫ל ֹא־הָ יָה דָ בָ ר ֲאשֶׁ ר ל ֹא־הֶ ְראָ ם‬ d ‫חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ בְּ בֵ יתֹ ו וּבְ ָכל־מֶ ְמשַׁ לְ תֹּ ו‬ ‫ַויָּב ֹא יְ שַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ הַ נָּבִ יא אֶ ל־הַ מֶּ ֶל‬ ‫חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ‬ ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר אֵ לָיו מָ ה אָ ְמרוּ הָ ֲאנ ִָשׁים‬ ‫הָ אֵ לֶּה‬ ‫וּמֵ אַ יִ ן יָבֹ אוּ אֵ לֶי‬ ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ‬ ‫מֵ אֶ ֶרץ ְרחֹ וקָ ה בָּ אוּ אֵ לַי ִמבָּ בֶ ל‬

198 199

1

At that time King Merodach-baladan son of Baladan of Babylon sent envoys with letters and a present to Hezekiah, for he heard that he had been sick and had recovered. 2 Hezekiah welcomed them; he showed them his treasure house, the silver, the gold, the spices, the precious oil, his whole armory, all that was found in his storehouses. There was nothing in his house or in his realm that Hezekiah did not show them. 3 Then the prophet Isaiah came to King Hezekiah and said to him, “What did these men say? From where did they come to you?” Hezekiah answered, “They have come to me from a far country, from Babylon.”

Childs, Isaiah, 286; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 508. Ackroyd, Studies, 155–64.

126

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

ֶ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר מָ ה ָראוּ בְּ בֵ ית‬ ‫יתי‬ ִ ֵ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ אֵ ת ָכּל־ ֲאשֶׁ ר בְּ ב‬ ‫ָראוּ‬ ‫יתים‬ ִ ‫ל ֹא־הָ יָה דָ בָ ר ֲאשֶׁ ר ל ֹא־הִ ְר ִא‬ ‫בְּ אֹ וצְ רֹ תָ י‬ ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר יְ שַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ אֶ ל־חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ‬ ‫ְשׁמַ ע דְּ בַ ר־יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬ ‫הִ נֵּה י ִָמים בָּ ִאים וְ נִ שָּׂ א ָכּל־ ֲאשֶׁ ר‬ ֶ‫בְּ בֵ ית‬ ‫ַו ֲאשֶׁ ר אָ צְ רוּ ֲאבֹ תֶ י ַﬠד־הַ יֹּ ום‬ ‫הַ זֶּה בָּ בֶ ל ל ֹא־ ִיוָּתֵ ר דָּ בָ ר אָ מַ ר ְיהוָה‬ ‫ ֲאשֶׁ ר‬e ‫וּמבָּ נֶי ֲאשֶׁ ר יֵצְ אוּ ִמ ְמּ‬ ִ ‫תֹּ ולִ יד יִ קָּ חוּ‬ ‫יסים בְּ הֵ י ַכל מֶ ֶל בָּ בֶ ל‬ ִ ‫וְ הָ יוּ סָ ִר‬ ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ אֶ ל־יְ שַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ‬ ָ‫טֹ וב ְדּבַ ר־ ְיהוָה ֲאשֶׁ ר דִּ בַּ ְרתּ‬ f

a

‫כִּ י יִ הְ יֶה שָׁ ום ֶו ֱאמֶ ת בְּ יָמָ י‬f ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר‬

4

He said, “What have they seen in your house?” Hezekiah answered, “They have seen all that is in my house; there is nothing in my storehouses that I did now show them.” 5

Then Isaiah said to Hezekiah, “Hear the word of YHWH Zebaot: 6 Days are coming when all that is in your house, and that which your ancestors have stored up until this day, shall be carried to Babylon; nothing shall be left, says YHWH. 7 Some of your own sons who are born to you shall be taken away; they shall be eunuchs in the palace of the King of Babylon.” 8 Then Hezekiah said to Isaiah, “The word of YHWH that you have spoken is good.” For he thought, “There will be peace and security in my days.”

The MT has “letters” (‫)ס ָפ ִרים‬ ְ in plural (cf. 2 Kings 20:12) as is also the case in Isa 37:14: “Hezekiah received the letters [‫ ]אֶ ת־הַ ְסּ ָפ ִרים‬from the hand of the messengers.” The LXX reads ἐπιστολὰς (however, it adds “and the elders” [καὶ πρέσβεις]) and the Vulgate has libros. It has been proposed to read “scribes” (‫ ) ֹספְ ִרים‬or to derive the word from the Akkadian word “envoy” (šapīru); cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 486: “envoys”; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1469: “Beamte”. See also the rewriting of the episode in 2 Chr 32:31, which speaks about “the envoys of the officials of Babylon” (‫)מלִ יצֵ י שָׂ ֵרי בָּ בֶ ל‬. ְ b 2 Kings 20:12 reads ‫חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ‬, that is, “Hezekiah was/had been sick,” whereby a reference to his healing or full recovery lacks. 1QIsaa has “but he had lived” (‫)ויחוה‬, which employs the word used for healing in Isa 38:9, 16, 21 (see Chapter 3). c 2 Kings 20:13 has “all his treasure house” (‫)אֶ ת־כָּל־בֵּ ית ְנכֹ תֹ ה‬, but just “his armory” ( ‫אֵ ת בֵּ ית‬ ‫) ֵכּלָיו‬, adopted by Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 486. Wildberger (Jesaja, 1470) maintains the version of Isa 39:2 in the MT, but thinks that both instances of ‫ ֹכּל‬are secondary: “es ist wieder die typische Steigerung, die so oft im Überlieferungsprozeß des alttestamentlichen Textes zu beobachten ist.” d 1QIsaa has “his kingdom” (‫)ממלכתו‬. e 1QIsaa has “from your loins” (‫)ממעיכה‬. f-f 2 Kings 39:8 has a different Hebrew form: ‫( הְ ַלוֹא ִאם־שָׁ לוֹם ֶו ֱאמֶ ת ִיהְ יֶה בְ יָמָ י‬followed by Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 487). Although the purpose of the statement in both cases is open to interpretation, the tone of that in Isa 39:8 is more asseverative (Sweeney, Isaiah 1– 39, 510) (see the exegesis of this verse).

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

127

2.4.2. Isaiah 39:1–2: The visit from Babylon The introductory phrase “at that time” (‫)בָּ ֵﬠת הַ הִ וא‬, which is a familiar phrase in Deuteronomistic writings, and the reference to Hezekiah’s illness loosely relate the events of Isa 39 to the preceding chapter. Verse 1 sets the scene of the narrative: King Merodach-baladan, son of Baladan, who periodically ruled Babylon in the last decades of the eighth century BCE, sends envoys with letters and a gift to the Judean king, apparently on the occasion of his illness. Hezekiah receives them gladly (‫ שׂמח‬in Hiphil) and shows them everything in his house and realm. The profound way in which v. 2 states that Hezekiah showed his visitors everything (notice the repetition of ‫ ראה‬in Hiphil and ‫ )כָּל‬is significant. The initial notion of “the treasure house” (‫ )בֵּ ית ְנכֹ תָ ה‬and the following list of items give the impression of wealth and prosperity. In addition to gold, silver, precious spices and oil, the list includes “all the house of his vessels/implements” (‫) ָכּל־בֵּ ית ֵכּלָיו‬200 and all that was found in his “storehouse” (‫)אוֹצָ ר‬. The latter half of the verse emphasizes the totality of the display: there was nothing, not a thing (‫)ל ֹא־הָ יָה דָ בָ ר‬,201 that he did not show them in all his dominion. However, it is by no means clear why Hezekiah acts as he does and, related to this, why the prophet reacts so intensely to this action in v. 3. Reading the narrative at face value, the king’s display of all his wealth could reflect either naïveté or pride: the king of the small and insignificant kingdom of Judah is so astonished and amazed by the attention and honor of such a fine visit from the distant and exotic Babylon that he “rejoices” over his visitors and shows them all his prosperity to make an unforgettable impression. Perhaps Hezekiah is just naïve and does not expect that the report on his remarkable wealth would kindle a covetous desire in the Babylonian king. Or perhaps Hezekiah makes himself guilty of self-boasting pride. Accordingly, Isaiah rebukes his pride – his hubris – and announces the suited nemesis. 202 200 The translation of ‫ בֵּ ית כְּ לִ י‬in commentaries mostly depends on the overall interpretation of the passage by its translator. Those who imagine a political alliance against the Assyrians to be the primary purpose of the visit of the Babylonian delegation assume “armory” as an indication of Hezekiah’s military power (e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 486; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1469), whereas those who want to emphasize the splendor and extravagance of Hezekiah’s treasures (spices, fine oil) assume “wine cellar” (Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 324, following Dahood, “Textual Criticism,” 162–64); see further, below. 201 Apart from the instance in this narrative (2 Kings 20:13, 15; Isa 39:2, 4), this phrase is present only in Jos 8:35 and 1 Kings 10:3, the latter of which also occurs in the context of foreigners visiting Israel’s king. It is said about Solomon, who has just received the Queen of Shaba along with her spices and gold and was tested by her difficult questions, that he was able to answer them all: “there was nothing [‫ ]ל ֹא־הָ יָה דָּ בָ ר‬hidden from the king that he could not explain to her.” 202 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 326–27.

128

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

Yet, if pride is his motivation, it would not, according to Seitz, be inappropriate at all, because “these treasures are – like [Hezekiah’s] recovery from illness that the envoys have come to honor – signs of God’s blessing.” 203 Moreover, read in light of the Hezekiah presentation in Isa 36–37, the presence of treasures is also a positive indication that “the Assyrian assault on Jerusalem failed miserably.”204 As noted, some interpreters find it very unlikely that the purpose of the visit was simply a social call.205 The primary purpose must have been political, either to form an alliance or at least for the Babylonians to gather aid for a rebellion against the Assyrians. 206 The gift or tribute (‫)מנְ חָ ה‬ ִ is meant to establish a political friendship between Hezekiah and the Babylonians (cf. e.g. 1 Kings 5:1) and the king’s joyful welcome207 of them as a future ally illustrates his reception of their gift.208 Assuming that the presence of Babylonian officials suggests negotiations about military collaboration, Hezekiah’s uncensored exhibition of his treasure and weapons serves to underline his resources and credibility as a future alliance partner. Theologically speaking, Hezekiah attempts to depend on his wealth and on trust in foreign nations as represented by Babylon rather than relying on YHWH alone. This is a classic theme in the first major part of the book of Isaiah, and the prophet’s rebuke and announcement of punishment would emerge from this concern (cf. my analysis of Isa 20 in Chapter 3). 203

Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 265; cf. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 295: “There is […] nothing to suggest that Hezekiah was guilty of any misplaced pride in his possession of [such treasures].” 204 That Hezekiah gives a substantial part of his treasures to the Assyrians in 2 Kings 18:14–16 to avoid conquest and that the treasury was supposed to be empty at the succeeding visit of the Babylonians apparently created problems for the logic of the account in 2 Kings 18–20, but not in Isa 36–39, where a reference to this incident is absent. Interestingly, Hezekiah’s treasures in 2 Kings 18:14–16 include “all [‫ ]כָּל‬the silver that was found [‫ ]הַ ִנּ ְמצָ א‬in the house of YHWH and in the treasuries [‫ ]בְ אֹ צְ רוֹת‬of the king’s house.” 205 The version in Isaiah actually reads “and he heard [‫ ] ַו ִיּ ְשׁמַ ע‬that he was/had been sick…”, whereas that in 2 Kings 20:12 has “for he heard [‫ ]כִּ י שָׁ מַ ע‬that…” This alternative wording could imply that the Babylonian king first learned about Hezekiah’s condition after the arrival of his envoys. In other words, they left Babylon unaware of the king’s illness. 206 E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 488–89; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 693–95; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1473–77. 207 To support the idea of a definite diplomatic purpose of the visit, Begg (“Reading,” 339–40) considers the opening of 2 Kings 20:13 (“and he heard” [‫ )] ַו ִיּ ְשׁמַ ע‬to be the most original reading which, in light of 1 Kings 15:20 and 2 Kings 16:9, should reflect the initial step in establishing political alliances. 208 If so, there might be a subtle contrast at stake. Shortly before this incident, we are informed about envoys and letters that were sent to him, not by the Babylonians, but by the Assyrians. Hezekiah did not welcome them happily, but went to the temple to present their communication in front of YHWH (Isa 37:14).

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

129

I believe there is a third option which presupposes that Hezekiah is still sick and that the Babylonian delegation comes to cure him. It is interesting that the version of the verse in 2 Kings 20:12 does not refer to the recovery of the king (see the textual notes). That Hezekiah has not yet been healed would accord with the narrative of his illness in Isaiah’s version. As a unique feature in Isa 38 compared to 2 Kings 20:1–11, it is never explicitly stated that the king was healed and at the end of this chapter he still awaits full recovery (see Chapter 3). The Babylonians were famous for their treatises on astronomy and medicine. Their gift could refer to their medical treatment (cf. “a lump of fig” in 38:21) and Hezekiah’s display (and donation?) of his wealth is a token of gratitude. In accordance with the preceding option, the prophet Isaiah therefore reproves the king for not looking to YHWH as the ultimate source of healing. However, this would stand in sheer contrast to his faithfulness as portrayed in 38:1–8 and this proposal seems to cause more problems than it solves. Nevertheless, it is striking that the narrative is so silent about Hezekiah’s motivation and the reason for the following pronouncement of judgment. The result is that full emphasis is placed on the visit itself, rather than the motivation behind it, as a purposeful opening to the later developments in the narrative. As noted above, Peter Ackroyd has rightly pointed out that vv. 1–2 introduce two major themes which recur later in the passage: Babylon and the repeated emphasis on “everything, not a single item to be left” along with the verb “to see.” It is significant to notice that key words related to each of the two themes are present in all three sections of the passage. References to “Babylon” (‫ )בָּ בֶ ל‬are present in vv. 1, 3, 6, and 7; the quadruple repetition of ‫ כָּל‬is found in vv. 2, 4, and 6; and the important verb ‫ ראה‬is repeated no less than five times in vv. 2 and 4. As Ackroyd claims, “it is extremely improbable that such repetition is without particular meaning.”209 According to the structure of narrative itself, these two themes deserve full attention from readers. 2.4.3. Isaiah 39:3–4: The prophet’s interview The prophet Isaiah’s appearance in v. 3 occurs as a reaction to the events portrayed in vv. 1–2 (cf. the movement from 7:1–2 to 7:3 in the confrontation with King Ahaz). The tone of his interview is determined and the implied reason seems to be Hezekiah’s display of his wealth. Few commentators doubt that Isaiah approaches the king because he thinks he has done something wrong,210 yet nothing specific is said (in light of the above considera209

Ackroyd, Studies, 161. An exception is Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 266: “the emphasis need not be on the disobedient actions of Hezekiah – which would represent an obvious departure from his portrayal elsewhere […] The king’s actions [are] never condemned by the prophet.” 210

130

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

tions, Isaiah’s purpose might be to rebuke Hezekiah’s pride or disloyalty towards YHWH for looking to the east for help). Again, the vagueness redirects attention to the two major themes of Babylon and “everything” which unfold nicely in the two exchanges between Isaiah and Hezekiah in vv. 3–4. The first exchange consists of two questions and one answer. Initially, the prophet asks: “What did these men say?” The question carries a suspicious tone, but hardly expresses a feeling of disappointment, as in Isa 22:1b. The prophet continues: “From where did they come to you?” Hezekiah only responds to the second question which, in light of the overall focus of the passage and its two major themes, should not come as a surprise. Literally, he answers, “From a far country they have come to me, from Babylon,” putting emphasis on the initial description of the place. Some interpreters propose that his reference to “a far country” is an attempt to downplay the importance of their visit (and the intentions of forming an alliance) but that he nevertheless changes his mind and adds “Babylon”.211 Rather, the parallelism in the statement underlines the importance of the place and dynamically moves from an initially nameless location to a clearly identified place. Moreover, the notion of “a far country” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ ְרחֹ וקָ ה‬introduces the theme of exile as “this expression […] and other similar wordings are particularly used with reference to the remote places to which men may be exiled, or to places from which the exiled members of the community will return.” 212 There is a resonance with texts that predict captivity and exile of the people. Deuteronomy foreshadows the appearance of “a nation from far away” ( ‫גּוֹי‬ ‫ ;מֵ ָרחוֹק‬28:49) which will besiege and destroy the land, and Solomon, in his prayer of dedication of the temple, foresees that sin against YHWH will result in deportation “to the land of the enemy, far off” (‫)אֶ ל־אֶ ֶרץ הָ אוֹיֵב ְרחוֹקָ ה‬. In Jeremiah, the besiegers come “from a distant land” (‫ ;מֵ אֶ ֶרץ הַ מֶּ ְרחָ ק‬Jer 4:16) and YHWH will bring “a nation from far away” (‫ ;גּוֹי ִממֶּ ְרחָ ק‬Jer 5:15) to serve as his punishing agent. A similar thought is found in Isa 10:3, where “the calamity will come from far away” (‫)שׁוֹאָ ה ִממֶּ ְרחָ ק תָּ בוֹא‬. Furthermore, a place “far away” occurs as a parallel to “the land of captivity” (Jer 30:10; 46:27), and the return of YHWH’s people to Jerusalem “from far away” is a recurring motif in the latter part of Isaiah (43:6; 49:12; 60:4, 9; cf. Zech 6:15; 10:9; see Chapter 5). It is also worth recalling that the Hiphil form of ‫ רחק‬designates the act of deportation in Isa 6:12 (cf. Jer 27:10; Ezek 11:16; Joel 4:6). In light of all these instances, the place “far away,” even identified with Babylon, carries the overtone of “land of exile”. The second exchange consists of one question and one answer. The prophet asks: “What have they seen in your house?” Hezekiah’s response repeats several of the words from v. 2. Literally, he says “all that is in my house [‫ָכּל־‬ 211 212

Wildberger, Jesaja, 1477. Ackroyd, Studies, 160.

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

131

‫יתי‬ ִ ֵ‫ ] ֲאשֶׁ ר בְּ ב‬they have seen,” placing weight on the initial words of the sentence. Indeed, “there is nothing” (‫ )ל ֹא־הָ יָה דָ בָ ר‬in Hezekiah’s storehouse (‫)אוֹצָ ר‬ that he did not show them. They have seen everything! The repetition of the verb ‫“( ראה‬to see”) is noteworthy. The verb occurs in the prophet’s question and twice in Hezekiah’s answer, first in Qal (“they have seen”), then in Hiphil (“I showed”; cf. v. 2). Peter Ackroyd, in his illuminating article, has mounted the case that “seeing is to be recognized as having a fuller significance here than mere observation.”213 In general terms, “to see the land” in Deut 32:1–4 involves a foretaste of occupation. Drawing on a monograph-study by David Daube,214 Ackroyd argues that, due to ancient laws, the deliberate viewing of a house or piece of land implies the legal act of taking possession of it. To see something means to become the owner of it (cf. Gen 13:14–18; Deut 3:27–28; Matt 4:8–9). In accordance with the prophetic pronouncement in vv. 5–7, Hezekiah’s showing of all his property to the Babylonians implies that the land is already lost: Hezekiah has handed over the possession of everything in Judah to the enemy and has anticipated the exile. Though the disaster itself belongs to the future […] the essential legal take-over has already ensured that exile will take place.215

I find Ackroyd’s idea about “significant seeing” very persuasive. Yet even if it cannot be accepted, the appearance of Babylon and “everything” in Hezekiah’s answers in vv. 3–4 certainly takes up the traits of vv. 1–2 and points forward to the explicit prediction of deportation in vv. 5–7. 2.4.4. Isaiah 39:5–8: The prophetic word of doom Following these exchanges, Isaiah readdresses Hezekiah with a prophetic word of judgment. The pairing of “listen” (‫ )שׁמע‬with “the word of YHWH” (‫ )דְּ בַ ר־יְ הוָה‬also introduces the announcements of judgment in Isa 1:10 and 28:14. The notion of YHWH’s word and the phrase “says YHWH” (‫)אָ מַ ר יְ הוָה‬ at the end of v. 6 underlines that future deportation is anchored in the divine will. In contrast to the version in 2 Kings, God is called YHWH Zebaot. The same title was used about the heavenly judge whom the prophet saw (6:5) and whose message about the fate of his people referred to certain death (22:14). In 6:9–10, a dominant thought was that the people should “not listen with their ears.” Here, Hezekiah is urged to do so. Perhaps he has been hardened? Or perhaps he is actually the first one to really listen and understand the irreversible outcome of his people’s sin?

213

Ackroyd, Studies, 161. Daube, Studies in Biblical Law. 215 Ackroyd, Studies, 162. Cf. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 316: “Es geht um ein Sehen im Sinne einer rechtmäßigen Inbesitznahme.” 214

132

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

The verse does not explicitly charge Hezekiah with any wrongdoing that would explain why this pronouncement of doom has been related to his person. As was noted above, some commentators suggest pride or failing trust in YHWH, but this is impossible to settle. More important is the question of whether the actions of Hezekiah in the first part of the narrative are seen to cause the forthcoming deportation or rather to be the occasion of the prophecy. In accordance with the majority of interpreters, I believe the second option to be most likely.216 As Blenkinsopp has pointed out, the scenario here is close to Huldah’s prophecy in 2 Kings 22:14–20: YHWH’s wrathful judgment against Jerusalem and Judah is certain (vv. 15–17), but because of the deep-felt humiliation and prayer of the great King Josiah, it will be delayed or at least the king escapes it (vv. 18–20).217 Similar to Josiah, Hezekiah will not live long enough to experience deportation to Babylon. In the context of the overall message in 2 Kings, Hezekiah is exonerated, judgment is postponed, and the responsibility of the deportation is not placed on him as the recipient of the pronouncement but on others, principally on Manasseh (2 Kings 21:1– 18; 23:26–27; 24:3–4; cf. Jer 15:4). Likewise, in the context of Isaiah, this destiny of YHWH’s people has been foreshadowed already in 5:11–17, 6:11– 13 and 22:1–14 and it culminates here.218 Verses 6–7 describe the fate that awaits the Davidic house and its treasures. In an undefined future (“look, days are coming”), all that is in Hezekiah’s house ( ֶ‫ל־אַשֶׁ ר בְּ בֵ ית‬ ְ ‫ ; ָכּ‬cf. v. 4), all that his ancestors have stored until now, shall be carried to Babylon. Indeed, “nothing shall be left” (‫;ל ֹא־יִ וָּתֵ ר דָּ בָ ר‬ cf. vv. 2 and 4). Moreover, some of his sons shall be taken away and shall serve as eunuchs at the palace or temple (‫ )הֵ יכָל‬of the Babylonian king. Humiliation is even greater if “eunuchs” (‫ )סָ ִריסִ ים‬refers to castrated men rather than minor officials at the court (e.g. Gen 37:36; Esth 2:3) and the prophecy thereby implies the end of the royal line of Judah.219 This would fit the context in Isaiah where this passage really suggests the end of human kingship as there are no references to its reestablishment in the latter part of the book (in contrast to the vague hope in 2 Kings 25:27–30). It is also significant that the verbs in both verses hide the agent. Verse 6 has a passive form (“shall be carried away, lifted up”; ‫ נשׁא‬in Niphal; cf. Amos 4:2) without the agent and 216

E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 488; Young, Isaiah II, 536. According to Oswalt (Isaiah 1–39, 696), Hezekiah’s act is not causal but typical: “Rather, [his] sin is illustrative of the kind of pride and refusal to trust that the entire nation would manifest and that would ultimately result in captivity.” 217 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 488; “Hezekiah and the Babylonian delegation,” 112–15. 218 Childs, Isaiah, 287: “The writer’s emphasis falls on establishing a link from one event to another. The judgment that was shortly to occur was not by accident or even directly evoked by the king’s misdeed, but unfolded according to a divine plan.” See also Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 265–66. 219 Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 262; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1479.

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

133

v. 7 has an unspecified subject of ‫ לקח‬in Qal, that is, “they” will take away some of the sons (however, mostly rendered with a passive form in modern English translations as “shall be taken away”). In 2 Kings, as was noted above, this prophecy is fulfilled in the final two chapters of the book. This is particularly clear in 2 Kings 24:13, where the removal of all treasures (‫ ;אוֹצְ רוֹת‬cf. Isa 39:2, 4) of the temple and the king’s house, even the vessels of gold that the great ancestor Solomon had made (cf. Isa 39:6), is seen to take place “just as YHWH had foretold” (‫) ַכּ ֲאשֶׁ ר דִּ בֶּ ר ְיהוָה‬. Furthermore, the prediction of the deportation of Hezekiah’s “sons,”220 broadly understood as either his grandsons or descendants, is fulfilled in the exile of King Jehoiachin. 2 Kings 24:12 states that “The king of Babylon took [‫ ]וַיִּ קַּ ח‬him” (cf. Isa 39:7), and 24:15 states that “He carried away [‫ ] ַו ֶיּגֶל‬Jehoiachin to Babylon.” Both motifs recur in a subsequent fulfillment in the ultimate emptying of the temple in 2 Kings 25:13–17 and the deportation of Zedekiah in 2 Kings 25:7. The alternative context of the passage in Isaiah implies other links within the book as a whole. The statement in 39:6, that everything shall be taken and absolutely nothing shall be left behind, accords with the message of 6:11–13, that the entire land must be left empty and deserted. The presence of the verb ‫“( יתר‬be left, remain”) creates an allusion to the famous theme of the remnant: Zion, along with a few survivors, is left untouched while the land and its cities are destroyed (1:8–9; 4:3). Here, however, nothing shall be left; everything shall be deported to Babylon. Furthermore, the use of ‫ לקח‬to designate the taking away of peoples occurs already in the speech of the Assyrian commander on behalf of his king who, in case of Jerusalem’s surrender, promises to take them to a land of prosperity (Isa 36:17). The term likewise points forward to similar uses found in the latter part of the book (49:24–25; 52:5; 53:8; see Chapters 3 and 4). In the preceding part of the book there is a passage which employs the term not with regard to deportation away from Jerusalem, but in connection with the return to the city: the nations will take the people of Israel and bring them to their place (Isa 14:2). This observation leads to a significant difference between the contexts of 2 Kings and Isaiah, that is, the image of Babylon. In 2 Kings, the only references to Babylon before those in 2 Kings 20:12–19 occur in 2 Kings 17:24, 30. In a rather neutral manner, these verses describe how the Assyrians, after

220 Ackroyd (Studies, 163–64) proposes that the destiny of Manasseh in 2 Chr 33:11 draws from the prophecy in Isa 39:7. As Hezekiah’s own son, Manasseh is taken captive by the Assyrians to Babylon (and not Nineveh), where he repents and from where he returns to Jerusalem to restore the city. In 2 Chr 33:1–20, in severe contrast to the very negative assessment of him in 2 Kings, Manasseh becomes a type or paradigm for the punished, repenting, and restored Israel after the return from exile. See also Gudme, “Barnemorderen Manasse,” 81–84.

134

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

the conquest of the Northern Kingdom, replace their population with people from Babylon, among other nations. Readers of Isaiah are not unfamiliar with the character of Babylon and its king. References to Babylon in the book are distributed primarily in three areas: Isa 13–14(23); 39; and 40–48. 221 The image in Isa 13–14 is a very negative one. Babylon is portrayed as a supremely rich, proud, and oppressive nation, a portrait which anticipates the empire’s role in Isa 39 as the future despoiler and enslaver of Judah. Begg, in his short yet informative article on Babylon in the book of Isaiah, observes: Readers mindful of the portrayal of the ‘king of Babylon’ in Isa 14:4–21, e.g., will immediately realize – as Hezekiah himself does not – that nothing good can come from dealings with Merodach-baladan, ‘king of Babylon’ (39:1) and so are prepared for the word of judgment in which the episode issues.222

We noted above that the verbs in 39:6–7 hide the agent. Implied are the Babylonians, but behind them stands YHWH as they simply serve as a tool of his judgment. This is made clear in Isa 47:6, where YHWH, because of his anger, gave his people into the hands of the Babylonian king. Yet readers who recall Isa 13–14 also know “that Babylon, Israel’s future oppressor according to Isaiah 39, is itself doomed to destruction.” 223 Underlying the prophecy in Isa 39 is therefore also an immediate feeling that deportation cannot be the final word about Babylon. It too will be doomed. In light of Isa 13–14, readers of Isa 39 are thus not wrong to anticipate the defeat of Babylon and the new hope for Israel that begins to sound in Isa 40. Hezekiah’s response in v. 8 to the pronouncement of judgment is curious. First, he seems to fully accept the truth of Isaiah’s message in his response, “good [‫ ]טֹ וב‬is the word of YHWH that you have spoken,” putting emphasis on “good,” or more appropriately translated “right” or “just”. Hezekiah obeys the will of God. However, the narrator then makes a puzzling addition: “and Hezekiah said [perhaps to himself, that is, he thought], ‘For there will be peace and security in my days.’” Interpreters have been perplexed by this ambivalent comment and there are at least three different ways that it may be understood.224 The first approach assumes that the comment emerges from a selfish concern of the king. Future deportation and demise of the royal house are inevitable, but at least in the king’s own time there will be prosperity. Wildberger, for instance, reproduces this negative image of the king. The prophecy responds to Hezekiah’s eagerness of possession (“eitle Besitzfreude”) and the

221

See Begg, “Babylon”; Franke, “Reversals of Fortune,” 105–7. Begg, “Babylon,” 123. 223 Begg, “Babylon,” 123. 224 Cf. Ackroyd, Studies, 157–60. 222

2.4. Everything shall be carried off to Babylon

135

king is satisfied as long as he is not affected by the disaster.225 Wildberger acknowledges that this portrait of Hezekiah departs from that in Isa 36–38, but explains it as the result of editorial activity. Accordingly, v. 8 expresses the experience that the exilic generation had to face: they had to bear the punishment for a sin that they did not commit (cf. Jer 31:29; Ezek 18:2; Lam 5:7). The major problem with this approach is that it creates a contrast between the positive response to the prophetic word in v. 8a and the allegedly selfish comment in v. 8b. The second approach understands the final words of Hezekiah as a kind of prayer. Acknowledging the righteous purpose of judgment, the pious king nevertheless prays to be spared from witnessing such disaster. This idea accords with the portrait of Hezekiah in Isa 38, which presents Hezekiah as remaining faithful to YHWH and praying for his help despite his deathly illness. Jeremiah 26:17–19 actually recounts that upon facing the danger of defeat, Hezekiah and all of Judah repented and sought YHWH’s favor and the word of judgment was withdrawn. However, this interpretation works better with the version in 2 Kings 20:19, “is it not if” (‫)הְ ַלוֹא ִאם‬, which could be rendered: “May there not be peace and security in my days!” It is more difficult to pair with the wording in Isaiah, where the introductory ‫ כִּ י‬seems to express certainty (“for” or “surely”). The third approach does not accept the assumption of a negative portrait of the king. In 2 Kings, Hezekiah is, after all, perceived as the great reformer who trusted YHWH and prospered as no king before or after him had ever done (18:3–7). As was noted above, Hezekiah is not judged but rather exempted from judgment precisely because of his unmatched loyalty towards YHWH. His acceptance of YHWH’s word in v. 8a, and perhaps the episode as a whole, bears witness to this profound obedience.226 Therefore, the initial response clarifies that Hezekiah is a righteous king and that, because of his overall faithfulness, he shall be spared from the coming punishment of Judah. Like Josiah, he shall experience divine mercy and blessings in terms of peace and security, albeit with the knowledge that his kingdom will come to an end.227 225

Wildberger, Jesaja, 1479. Drawing on the version of the episode in 2 Chr 32:31 which seems to imply a sort of test, Ackroyd (Studies, 159–60) and Seitz (Isaiah 1–39, 263) argue that Hezekiah passes the test insofar as he responds positively to YHWH’s judgment. Seitz even adds: “precisely by showing the Babylonian envoys his great wealth, and all that was in his realm, he passed the test for which God had left him to himself.” 227 One of the most engaged defenders of Hezekiah’s reputation is Young (Isaiah II, 539), who writes: “There is no egoism in this thought […] for the king is not attributing these blessings to his own merit. In reality the words constitute a childlike acknowledgement of the truth of the prophecy and also of the mercy with which it is intermingled. […] ‘There will be peace and truth at least in my days,’ we may paraphrase this thought, ‘but I 226

136

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

In my opinion, the third approach is the most persuasive. Regardless of the exact purpose, however, Hezekiah’s final comment offers a distinct look further ahead. There might be peace in his days, but after that, what will happen? Isaiah 39:1–8 has an open ending that in a sophisticated way keeps the attention of readers – what is going to happen next? 2.4.5. Summing up The story of the visit of the Babylonian delegation in Isa 39:1–8 forms a transition between the two parts of the book. By its literary setting at the end of the eighth century, the prophetic pronouncement of future defeat and deportation is anchored in the days of the great prophet Isaiah. Two themes are intertwined in the passage: Babylon and “everything.” Initially, King Hezekiah receives the envoys from Babylon and shows them everything in his house. The prophet subsequently interviews Hezekiah, asking from where the delegation came and what exactly they saw. Hezekiah responds to say that they came from Babylon and they saw everything. The final word of judgment pronounces that, in an indefinite future, everything shall be carried off to Babylon. The descendant of Hezekiah shall be deported, and the royal Davidic line will end. Nothing will be left. Everything is being drawn into the black hole.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness (Isaiah 63:7–64:11) 2.5. Zion has become a wilderness A complete destruction of Jerusalem as it is foreshadowed in Isa 1–39 is a fundamental precondition for Isa 40–66. Yet the destruction itself is something left untold. It is certainly there, but only indirectly as an empty space between the two parts of the book. As we have seen, central passages in the first part lead up to and anticipate it. What we find in the second part are slight reflections of it. Several of the reflections of the fall of Jerusalem in these chapters contain a deliberate play on words presented in the initial prediction of ruination in Isa 6:11–13.228 Significantly, these references mostly occur in the context of restoration promises where YHWH will create a new city out of its ruins: the empty Jerusalem shall be “inhabited” (‫ )תּוּשָׁ ב‬and the “ruins” (‫ )חָ ְָרבוֹת‬of the cities of Judah shall be raised (44:26). Jerusalem’s “temple” (‫ )הֵ יכָל‬shall be rebuilt (44:28). The “land” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ‬shall be raised and “the desolate heritages” (‫ )נְ חָ לוֹת שֹׁ מֵ מוֹת‬apportioned (49:8), and “the waste and desolate places” (‫ )חָ ְָרבֹ ות וְ שֹׁ ומֵ ִמין‬and “the devastated land” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ ה ֲִריסוּת‬will be am not spared the misfortune of the knowledge that my descendants will go into captivity.’” 228 Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 51–55.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

137

crowded by inhabitants (49:19). “All waste places” (‫ )כֹּ ל־חָ ְָרבֹ ות‬of Zion and her “desert” (‫ )ﬠְ ַָרבָ ה‬will be turned into a fertile garden (51:3), and Jerusalem’s “ruins” (‫ )חָ ְָרבֹ ות‬will burst out into songs of joy (52:9). The “ancient ruins” (‫ )חָ ְרבוֹת עוֹלָם‬and “former devastations” (‫ )שֹׁ ְממוֹת ִראשֹׁ נִ ים‬will be rebuilt (61:4; cf. 58:12). People will inhabit the “desolate towns” (‫ ; ָﬠ ִרים נְ שַׁ מּוֹת‬54:3; cf. 65:21–22), and no more shall Zion be termed “desolate” (‫;שׁמָ מָ ה‬ ְ 62:4; cf. 54:1).229 In addition to these examples, a larger passage among the final chapters of the book stands out: Isa 63:7–64:11. This psalm-like text intensively portrays the present condition of a destroyed and humiliated Jerusalem. Interestingly, the poetic composition draws on and mirrors several of the motifs that we have dealt with so far in this chapter. Using words and themes from Isa 6 in particular, the passage is not only a clear testimony to the fulfillment of former predictions of ruination, it also contains critical reflections on the sin and hardening of the people and its rebellion against YHWH that ultimately led to Jerusalem’s shocking and traumatic fate. Although the passage is a unified composition, it is easily divided into two blocks: 63:7–14 tells about the glorious actions of YHWH in the past, whereas 63:15–64:11 contains laments and prayers addressed to YHWH. The frame of the latter block urges YHWH to intervene on behalf of his people (63:15; 64:11). The key question raised in the final verse, of whether YHWH will remain silent, is left unanswered within the composition itself. Nevertheless, within the larger literary context, Isa 65–66 can be read as a kind of answer to this question, although these chapters only partly engage with the issues set forth in 63:7–64:11. For a long time, it has been noticed that the structure of the composition resembles the traditional genre of communal laments and that its content relates thematically to liturgical texts reflecting on the destruction of Jerusalem and its sanctuary. In recent introductions to the literature of the exilic period, it is customary to treat 63:7–64:11 among communal laments from Psalms and Lamentations.230 Moreover, the combination of historical recital with confession invites comparison with Ps 106 and Neh 9.231 Despite similarities with other canonical psalms, the structure of Isa 63:7–64:11 is unique and its combination of genres and literary forms appears to be rather free.232 Regarding the date and pristine context of the composition, opinions divide immensely. If one considers Isa 56–66 to be an authorial unity, the date and setting of 63:7–64:11 depends, of course, on the profile of this alleged author 229

See further in Chapter 7. E.g. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 140–60; Middlemas, Templeless Age, 28–51. 231 Cf. Williamson, “Isaiah 63:7–64:11,” 55–56. 232 See, for example, the analysis in Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 383–84; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 392. 230

138

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

and the time of his activity, commonly set in the postexilic period. In recent times, however, a growing number of interpreters view Isa 56–66 as a composite collection of older material, literary reworkings, and Fortschreibung, likely to be labeled “scribal prophecy” (“Schriftgelehrte Prophetie”).233 In light of this, many scholars, especially commentators in the second half of the twentieth century devoted to form criticism, have argued that 63:7– 64:11 originated shortly after 587 BCE to serve liturgically as a collective lament at the ruined site of the temple (cf. 63:18; 64:9–10) which was later incorporated into the developing section of Isa 56–66.234 Those who follow this idea do not agree, however, on the level of possible connections between the passage and the remainder of Isaiah. Some interpreters claim that there are hardly any and that 63:7–64:11 is only very loosely linked with its present literary context. 235 Others posit that although the passage originated independently of the Isaiah tradition, it was known by the authors who composed (parts of) 40–55 and 56–66 and thereby indirectly had an influence on the books’ themes and content even before its incorporation into the material.236 There are also scholars who argue that 63:7–64:11 did not primarily emerge from a liturgical setting, but that it was a literary creation made by an editor or a group to serve a specific purpose within the composition of Isaiah. Anneli Aejmelaeus, for instance, does not deny that an older psalm from the early exilic period could have functioned as a literary Vorlage of this passage; nevertheless, its present form derives from a prophetic editor who was familiar with the Isaiah tradition and worked around 530–520 BCE.237 Similarly, Paul Hanson argues that the passage reflects an internal conflict in postexilic Yehud and that the utterances in this text come from a Levitical-prophetic group which remained in Jerusalem after 587 and whose authority and partic-

233 See the reviews in Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 2–8; Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 1–9. 234 E.g. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 300–301. This view was repeated and reinforced in Williamson, “Isaiah 63:7–64:11”; cf. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 146–47; Middlemass, Templeless Age, 41–42. 235 Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 286–87: “Das Stück […] hat kaum Verbindungen zum Kontext. […] tatsächliche Querverbindungen [bestehen] hauptsächlich zu Texten außerhalb des Jesajabuches.” 236 Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction, 47: “It is possible […] that the lament in 63:7–64:11 was the particular lament which was the background of [Trito-Isaiah’s] proclamation of salvation, perhaps because of its use in early post-exilic services of lamentation”; Tiemeyer, “Lament,” 69: “it is probable that the authors of Isa 40–55 were familiar with the lament, given its likely liturgical function, and sought to respond to the type of complains voiced by the lament and to the key theological issues that it raises.” 237 Aejmelaeus, “Der Prophet als Klageliedsänger,” 46–49. She observes that the reference in 64:10 to “a house where our ancestors praised you” indicates that the text was written at least a generation after the destruction of the temple.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

139

ipation in the cult the returning Zadokite community did not acknowledge.238 Furthermore, Hanson claims that the lament “was written from within the visionary tradition which stemmed from Second Isaiah and was summarized programmatically in Isaiah 60–62.”239 Odil Hannes Steck has proposed a considerably later date in the Hellenistic period. To him the psalm is a purely literary piece of work, composed by the “Jesajatradenten” who completed the second last redaction of the book, and reflects their experiences in light of Ptolemy’s sack of Jerusalem in 302/301 BCE. 240 Advancing Steck’s analysis, Johannes Goldenstein concludes his monograph on this passage by stating: “Jes. 63f. [ist] ein Stück prophetischer Literatur und als solches verfaßt worden: als Bestandteil des Jesajabuches.”241 Accordingly, simply to isolate 63:7–64:11 as an “alien” element in Isaiah’s overall composition is to deny crucial internal links between this passage and the remainder of the book. A significant outcome of viewing Isa 63:7–64:11 as a purposeful part of the prophetic book is the increasing attention to the function of this passage within the final product and its interaction with preceding and succeeding chapters. 242 Goldenstein’s monograph in particular contains a very detailed study of all kinds of literary connections to other Isaianic material and is thus helpful to my exegesis.243 Needless to say, 63:7–64:11 contains an abundance of images and issues and it will be necessary to limit my analysis to a few specific themes and verses. First, I will look at the people’s confession of sin that pervades the composition. I will then analyze the sections of 63:17–19a and 64:7–11 which explicitly reflect on the destruction of Jerusalem, the hardening of the people, and God’s continuing silence.

238

Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 93–96. Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 99. 240 Steck, Studien, 238: “Sie haben unter dem Druck massiver Gegenerfahrungen der jüngsten Zeit an der Wende vom 4. zum 3.Jhdt. v.Chr. die radikale Infragestellung Jahwes und der aus dem Jesajabuch vorgewiesenen Heilsperspektiven wahrgenommen und das Prophetenbuch mit der Anfügung dieses Gebets enden lassen, das diese Infragestellung geltend macht.” For criticism of Steck’s proposal, see Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 495–96; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 259. 241 Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 249. In fact, he believes that Isa 63:7– 64:11 was originally composed as a closure to the developing book of Isaiah by those who were responsible for the fifth of nine (!) editorial stages in the production of Isa 56–66. 242 Cf. Aejmelaeus, “Der Prophet als Klageliedsänger,” 48–49; Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 485–97; Steck, Studien, 238–41; Tiemeyer, “Lament,” 57–69; Uhlig, Hardening, 296– 311. 243 Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 152–231. 239

140

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

2.5.1. Review of history and the confession of sin The review of both past events and the people’s confessions of their sin constitute central themes in the passage as a whole and, importantly, draw on treatments of these themes found elsewhere in Isaiah. Isaiah 63:8–10 reflects on the relationship between God and his people. Initially, v. 8a presents YHWH’s past election and blessing of his people. He said, “Surely they [‫]הֵ מָּ ה‬ are my people [‫] ַﬠ ִמי‬, children [‫ ]בָּ ִנים‬who will not deal falsely.” Identifying the people as YHWH’s children is not uncommon (see e.g. Exod 4:22–23; Hos 1:11). An important element in this metaphor is the issue of loyalty. As YHWH’s sons, his people are expected to remain loyal to him. This is exactly YHWH’s expectation here; he cannot imagine that they will “deal falsely” or “trick” (‫ שׁקר‬in Piel) him (cf. Ps 44:18). Nevertheless, their answer to his blessings is not praise, but rebellion. Verse 10 forms the counterbalance to v. 8: “But they [‫ ]הֵ מָּ ה‬rebelled and grieved his holy spirit.” The two verbs “to be obstinate, rebel” (‫ )עצב‬and “to grieve, offend” (‫ מרה‬in Piel) also occur alongside one another in Ps 78:40, reflecting the constitutive rebellion in the wilderness. The object of the people’s offence is “his holy spirit” which likely stands for YHWH’s protective power or YHWH himself (cf. “his face” in v. 9).244 The imagery and dynamic of vv. 8a and 10a are close to those of Isa 1:2– 4. 245 In this programmatic opening of the book, the people are also called “sons” (‫ )בָּ נִ ים‬who have been raised and protected by YHWH but have eventually rebelled against him. “My people” (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמי‬do not understand; they are “children who do evil” (‫יתים‬ ִ ִ‫ )בָּ נִ ים מַ ְשׁח‬and have forsaken and despised their God. A similar thought is found in Isa 30, where the people are said to be “rebellious children” (‫סוֹר ִרים‬ ְ ‫ ;בָּ נִ ים‬v. 1) and “a rebellious people [‫] ַﬠם ְמ ִרי‬, faithless children [‫]בָּ נִ ים ֶכּחָ ִשׁים‬, children who will not hear YHWH’s torah” (v. 9). At a distance, and indeed having become distant from God, they realize that YHWH became their “enemy” (‫ )אוֹיֵב‬because of their own sin. Other passages compare YHWH’s dealings to those of an enemy (“like an enemy”; Jer 30:14; Lam 2:4–5), but here, the experience of divine destruction is ultimate: he is the enemy. Rather than protecting his people by battling their enemies (e.g. Isa 30:32), he has fought (‫ לחם‬in Niphal) against them as one. The growing self-recognition among the people not only leads to a renewed understanding of history, but also to their past and proper relation to him as “sons”. They have recognized what a life without God, or with God as an enemy, implies. Isaiah 63:16 introduces the father metaphor to motivate YHWH to show paternal compassion despite their sin (cf. Ps 103:13). Twice the people confess: “You are our father!” (see further in the exegesis of 64:7). 244 245

Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 291. Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 48–50.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

141

Words of confession and accusation are intertwined in 64:4b–6. The unit opens with a straight statement: “Look, you were angry [ ָ‫]אַ תָּ ה קָ צַ פְ תּ‬, and we sinned [‫] ַו ֶנּחֱטָ א‬.” Although we would perhaps expect divine anger to respond to human sin, the immediate logic of the statement makes good sense.246 In light of Isa 6:9–10, the people’s initial sin led to YHWH’s hardening of their hearts, which in turn resulted in total alienation.247 Identifying destruction and exile as the outcome of divine anger and hiddenness is an essential feature in Isaiah (see my discussion in Chapter 1).248 Verse 5 renders the people’s self-perception by means of two groups of images that center on uncleanness and inconstancy. First, they confess that all (‫ ) ֻכּלָּנוּ‬have become “like an unclean” (‫ )כַטָּ מֵ א‬and that their acts have become filthy like a polluted garment, literally, “a clothing of periods” (‫)כְ בֶ גֶד ﬠִ ִדּים‬, a rag used for menstrual blood. The connection of sin and uncleanness provides a link to “a people with unclean lips” (‫ ) ַﬠם־טְ מֵ א ְשׂ ָפתַ יִ ם‬in Isa 6:5 and reflects the shamefulness of the present state of the people. Second, the people say that all have withered like a leaf and that their iniquities, like a wind, have taken them away. Implied in the first image is that the connection with the fountain of living waters has been cut (cf. Jer 2:13).249 This thought is apparent in Isa 1:30, where those who worship trees shall become “like an oak whose leaf withers, and like a garden without water” (cf. Isa 40:7–8). Being blown away follows naturally from withering. Like a wind, the people’s sins have swept them away. Implied in the second image is the idea of scattering (see Chapter 5). The broken relationship between God and his people indicated in 63:10 is fully elaborated upon in v. 6a. All contact has died out. There is no worship, only a failing hope: “there is no one who calls on your name, or attempts to take hold of you.” The introductory ‫ כִּ י‬in v. 6b explains the underlying reason for the painful state of sin (v. 5) and the broken relationship (v. 6a). In continuation of v. 4 (and Isa 6:9–10), the relationship has broken down not only because of the people’s sin, but also because of YHWH’s hiddenness. The people have faced the full range of divine punishment of concealment. YHWH has made them melt away.

246

Childs, Isaiah, 525: “the power of the verse lies in the unexpected sequence, which is an ad hoc formulation, and its literary function lies exactly in its outrageous formulation.” 247 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 584) refers to a “destructive circle”: “the nation’s sins bring about God’s anger, which, in turn, causes the nation to stubbornly persist in their wayward course.” 248 The text and meaning of the final phrase of v. 4b is debated. Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 584) emends the text to match the preceding phrase: “When You have hidden Yourself, we have acted wickedly/rebelled” (‫)בְּ הֵ ָﬠל ְֶמ ונרשע|ונפשע‬. 249 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 396.

142

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

2.5.2. Isaiah 63:17–19a: Enemies took control of the people’s land ‫לָמָּ ה תַ ְת ֵﬠנוּ יְ הוָה ִמדְּ ָרכֶי‬

a

ֶ‫תַּ קְ ִשׁיחַ לִ בֵּ נוּ ִמיִּ ְראָ ת‬ ‫שׁוּב לְ מַ ַﬠן ﬠֲבָ דֶ י‬ ֶ‫ִשׁבְ טֵ י ַנ ֲחלָת‬ ֶ‫ל ִַמּצְ ﬠָר י ְָרשׁוּ ַﬠם־קָ דְ שׁ‬a ֶ‫צָ ֵרינוּ בֹּ וסְ סוּ ִמקְ דָּ שׁ‬

‫הָ יִ ינוּ מֵ עֹ ולָם ל ֹא־מָ שַׁ לְ תָּ בָּ ם‬ b

‫ל ֹא־ ִנקְ ָרא ִשׁ ְמ ֲﬠלֵיהֶ ם‬

17

Why, YHWH, do you make us stray from your ways and harden our heart so that we do not fear you? Turn back for the sake of your servants, for the sake of the tribes that are your heritage. 18 For little they took possession of your holy people, our adversaries have trampled down your sanctuary. 19a We have long been like those whom you do not rule, like those not called by your name.

a-a Both the form and meaning of this line are the object of intense scholarly debate (see the discussion in the exegesis of the verse). The translation offered here differs markedly from that of NRSV: “Your holy people took possession for a little while; but now adversaries have trampled down your sanctuary.” b With the LXX, Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 579) proposes to emend the suffixes to first person plural forms: “We have become as though You never ruled us [‫]בנו‬, as though Your name was never attached to us [‫]עלינו‬.”

This minor unit consists of two questions (v. 17a), a plea (v. 17b), and a protest (vv. 18–19a).250 It opens with an interrogative “why” (‫ )לָמָּ ה‬which introduces two central questions in v. 17a about YHWH’s treatment of his people. The questions are addressed to YHWH and carry a tone of accusation. Several other verses introduced by this word concern YHWH’s forsakenness, silence, or inactivity (e.g. Ps 22:2; 44:24; 74:1; Lam 5:20). Here, it refers to what is perceived as YHWH’s active participation in the people’s rejection of him (cf. 64:4, 6). He has made them stray from his ways and has hardened their heart so that they do not fear him. The speakers now raise questions about the purpose of this hardening. Despite the lack of linguistic overlaps apart from “heart” (‫)לֵב‬, the reference back to Isa 6:9–10 is clear in terms of its subject matter.251 The hardened people have experienced the total destruction of their land and cities (6:11; cf. 64:9–10). They can finally recognize the divinely-authored hardening and begin to ask complaining questions about its purpose. The first complaint is that YHWH has made “us” stray from his ways. The Hiphil form of ‫ תעה‬conveys a strong image of disorientation (see further in Chapter 6). It is not their leaders that have led them astray (cf. Isa 3:12; 9:15; 250

Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 384. Cf. Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 163: “In 63,17 wird – zwar mit eigenen Worten, aber in sachlicher Übereinstimmung mit 6,9f. – die Verstockung des Volkes durch Jahwe noch einmal formuliert, und zwar nun als vorwurfsvoll klagende Frage.” 251

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

143

Jer 50:6), however, but God himself (cf. Job 12:24–25: “He makes [the leaders] wander [‫ ] ַויּ ְַת ֵﬠם‬in a pathless waste. They grope in the dark without light; he makes them stagger [‫ ] ַויּ ְַת ֵﬠם‬like a drunkard”). Within the prayer itself, this complaint stands in sheer contrast to the retelling of YHWH’s past guidance in vv. 12–14. YHWH has intentionally made his people depart from his “ways,” that is, he has made them ignorant of his commands. The second complaint is that YHWH has hardened “our” heart. Apart from here, the verb ‫ קשׁח‬occurs only in Job 39:16, where it refers to the ostrich’s rough treatment of its young. In light of the parallel complaint in the preceding line, it has been proposed that the verb should be interpreted in the sense of “removing” or “turning away from,” that is, “[why] do you turn our heart away from fearing you.” 252 A better alternative is to interpret its meaning synonymously to that of ‫ קשׁה‬in Hiphil (“to harden”).253 The combination of this verb with “heart” occurs four times (Exod 7:3; Ezek 3:7; Ps 95:8; Prov 28:14; cf. also Deut 2:30) in addition to this instance. YHWH is accused of manipulating the heart of his people so that they are unable to “fear” him, just as the “fattening” (‫ )שׁמן‬of their heart made them unable to comprehend (Isa 6:10). As was noted, the heart is the center of human will and knowledge. Fearing YHWH, that is, worshipping him and living one’s life according to his will, expresses the proper attitude towards him and thus the proper relation between God and his creation. This motif is not unfamiliar in Isaiah as the “fear of YHWH” expresses a state of blessing and prosperity. The ideal Davidic king who acts out YHWH’s rule is entrusted with “the spirit of knowledge and the fear of YHWH; his delight shall be in the fear of YHWH” (Isa 11:2–3), and the treasure of the restored Zion is “the fear of YHWH” (Isa 33:6). The inability to fear YHWH accords with the inability to return to him, as stated in 6:10. Salvation is no possibility, unless YHWH changes his mind. A logical consequence of this is that the only thing the people can do is to beg YHWH to return to them, “Nur vom ihm kann die Wende zum Heil ausgehen. Umkehren muß er,”254 hence, the sincere appeal to “turn back” (‫!)שׁוּב‬255 The appeal for YHWH’s return emerges from his supposed concern for his people. For their sake he should change his mind. The speakers refer to themselves as “your servants” ( ‫)ﬠֲבָ דֶ י‬, pointing to an important theme in Isa 54– 66, and as “the tribes of your heritage” ( ֶ‫)שׁבְ טֵ י ַנ ֲחלָת‬. ִ The latter reference

252

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 578. Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 99–100; Uhlig, Hardening, 312. The LXX has σκληρυνω, and the Vulgate has induro. 254 Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 250. 255 Goldingay (Isaiah 56–66, 408) notices that the verse appears to turn the scenario of Isa 6 upside down: “In 6.9–10 the prophet is seeking to provoke the people to respond to Yhwh; here the prophet is seeking to provoke Yhwh to respond to the people.” 253

144

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

recalls YHWH’s special relationship with his people in their tribal days which he is now asked to restore. The notion of “heritage” recalls and contrasts YHWH’s own statement in Isa 47:6 that “I was angry with my people, I profaned my heritage [‫ ;] ַנ ֲחל ִָתי‬I gave them into [the] hand [of the Babylonian king].” The formula “the tribes of my heritage” occurs almost identically in Jer 10:16, 51:19, and Ps 74:2, the latter of which explicitly connects the phrase with the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. Verses 18–19a offer the background to the foregoing appeal: enemies have desecrated the temple and the people feel that God has abandoned them. The language and tone are those of a protest. The first half of v. 18 has evoked much scholarly debate regarding the Hebrew text256 and I will briefly comment on its latter half first: “our adversaries have trampled down your sanctuary” ( ֶ‫וססוּ ִמקְ דָּ שׁ‬ ְ ֹ‫)צָ ֵרינוּ בּ‬. The line describes the defilement of YHWH’s temple by enemies (cf. Ps 79:1; Lam 2:7). The image is violent and physical: they have trampled down (‫ בוס‬in Polel). The grammatical form of the verb occurs only here and in Jer 12:10, where it is used in relation to the shepherds’ destruction of YHWH’s vineyard. Notable also is the linguistic overlap of this phrase and one found in Ps 74, in which “the enemy” (‫ )צָ ר‬reviles YHWH’s name (v. 10) and has set “your sanctuary” ( ֶ‫)מקְ דָּ שׁ‬ ִ on fire (v. 7). The specific form “your sanctuary” occurs only in Isa 63:18, Ps 74:7, and Dan 9:17. Verse 18a apparently reads “For a little while they took possession of the people of your holiness” ( ֶ‫)ל ִַמּצְ ָﬠר י ְָרשׁוּ ַﬠם־קָ דְ שׁ‬, taking “adversaries” in the next line as the implicit subject of the verb.257 Yet the exact meaning of ‫ל ִַמּצְ ﬠָר‬ is disputed. It is not certain whether it can refer to temporal matters, such as a brief period of time (“for a short time”). Even if this were the case, it would certainly downplay the severity of the painful situation of the speakers (“only briefly”). Responding to this, some interpreters, including many modern translations (e.g. NRSV), have proposed to take “people” as the subject of the verb: “For a little while your holy people took possession.”258 Not surprisingly, Hanson opts for this interpretation as it fits his overall thesis of an internal conflict in postexilic Judah. Accordingly, the speakers are the Levitical-prophetic group that “in a little while” was in charge of the ruined temple, whereas the “adversaries” in the following line refers to the Zadokite group. 259 However,

256 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 255: “MT of this verse bristles with problems”; Childs, Isaiah, 521: “The meaning of the sentence is obscure, and the text appears damaged.” 257 Rendered faithfully by Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 101: “Für eine kleine Weile haben unsere Feinde dein heiliges Volk in Besitz genommen, dein Heiligtum zertreten.” 258 E.g. Young, Isaiah III, 490. 259 Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 96, cf. 84–86, note j.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

145

there are good objections against this interpretation. First, it ignores the plural form of the verb (‫ )י ְָרשׁוּ‬which is incompatible with the singular “people” (1QIsaa, however, has a singular form of the verb: ‫)ירש‬. Second, taking “people” as the subject leaves no obvious object, although “land” may be assumed or “sanctuary” in the following line. Third, this interpretation sets up a contrast between the two lines of the verse, indicated by the addition of “but now” in NRSV, but there is no waw or any other explicit letter/word in the Hebrew text to warrant this alleged contrast. Several proposals of emendation have attempted to solve the problem.260 Among the more widespread accepted suggestions are (‫למה צערו רשעים )עם‬ ‫“( קדשך‬why have evildoers made light of/afflicted your temple [alt. your holy people]?”) 261 and ‫“( למה צעדו רשעים קדשך‬why have evildoers walked [into] your temple?”).262 Undoubtedly, the introductory ‫ לָמָ ה‬would match the opening of v. 17 well and ‫ ְרשָׁ ﬠִ ים‬would provide a good parallel to ‫ צָ ֵרינוּ‬in the next line. The parallelism of ֶ‫ קָ ְדשׁ‬and ֶ‫מקְ דָּ שׁ‬, ִ however, works less smoothly.263 In any case, the level of emendation is considerable and the proposals have no support in the ancient versions. Sticking to the Masoretic text, the question about the meaning of ‫ ל ִַמּצְ ﬠָר‬recurs. As noted, it is debated whether it can refer to temporal matters since the other occurrences of the word refer to size or number (“little or few”; Gen 19:20; Ps 42:7[?]; Job 8:7; 2 Chr 24:24). Klaus Koenen argues for this meaning of the word, but proposes a slight emendation of the verb by reading ‫דשו‬ (of ‫“[ דושׁ‬trample or thresh”]) for ‫ידשו‬: “Zur Kleinheit haben sie dein heiliges Volk gedroschen.”264 In my opinion, a better solution is simply to understand ‫ ל ִַמּצְ ﬠָר‬as a reference to something of less significance or worth: “Für wenig haben sie dein heiliges Volk in Besitz genommen.”265 This thought is very close to Isa 52:3,

260

See e.g. Koenen, “Zum Text von Jes 63,18,” 407–8. E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 578–79; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 390, note c; cf. footnote in BHS. 262 See Gesenius and Buhl, Handwörterbuch, 453. 263 The LXX, however, altering the meaning of the verse completely, actually reads “[a small part of] your holy mountain” (τοῦ ὄρους τοῦ ἁγίου σου) for “your holy people” which would make a better parallel. Nevertheless, the translation of this verse has likely been colored by Isa 57:13: “but [he] shall inherit my holy mountain” (‫ירשׁ הַ ר־קָ ְד ִשׁי‬ ַ ‫ וְ ִי‬/ κληρονομήσουσιν τὸ ὄρος τὸ ἅγιόν μου). 264 Koenen, “Zum Text von Jes 63,18,” 409. 265 So Aejmelaeus, “Der Prophet als Klageliedsänger,” 43, note 55, my emphasis; cf. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 490. Lau (Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 298) claims a reference to humiliation or scorn: “Aus Verachtung haben sie dein Volk vertrieben.” Similarly, Goldingay (Isaiah 56–66, 409) translates the phrase as “As something small, they dispossess your holy people” and comments on the meaning of ‫ל ִַמּצְ ָﬠר‬: “it denotes ‘something small,’ with the implication of something trivial and insignificant. Israel’s foes have thought 261

146

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

“You were sold for nothing” (cf. Ps 44:13), and suits the accusing tone of these verses about God’s careless treatment of his people. Another option in line with this is to interpret ‫ ל ִַמּצְ ָﬠר‬as “with (only) a little effort,” that is, easily or without notable (divine) resistance did the enemies complete their hostile actions. If so, we might consider the precise sense of ‫ ירשׁ‬here. In several cases where the object of this verb is “nations” or a certain group of people, the proper meaning is rather “dispossess,” that is, to force the initial owners to give up their property. A very good illustration is Deut 2:12: “the Horim had formerly inhabited Seir, but the descendants of Esau dispossessed them [‫ירשׁוּם‬ ָ ִ‫]י‬, destroying them [‫ ] ַויּ ְַשׁ ִמידוּם‬and settling in their place.” In light of this, YHWH’s people, according to Isa 63:18, were not only deprived of the control of their own homes, but were driven out, expelled, exiled. The speakers’ self-identification as “your holy people” emerges naturally from the references to “servants” and “the tribes of your heritage” in the preceding verse. In Deuteronomy, an almost similar expression (‫ ) ַﬠם קָ דוֹשׁ‬points to the special nature of YHWH’s chosen people. There is likewise a play on the new name of the people (‫ ) ַﬠם־הַ קֹּ דֶ שׁ‬revealed in the final and climaxing verse of Isa 60–62. Yet, in 63:17–19a, this holy people feels abandoned by their holy God. In light of the terrible events reflected in v. 18, they can no longer recognize themselves as YHWH’s people. Verse 19a elaborates on the painful feeling that divine rule and ownership have ended and that foreign kings now rule the people instead. In fact, the verse seems to render doubts that YHWH has ever ruled his people. The word ‫מֵ עֹ ולָם‬, which often signifies the distant past (“from antiquity”; Isa 51:9), refers either to “for a long time” or perhaps even “forever” to emphasize the idea of YHWH’s eternal absence: “[Israel] has been isolated to such an extent as to question whether in truth it ever was under God’s care and sovereignty and bore the name of God.”266 In light of Isa 6, the ultimate alienation between YHWH and his people has reached its peak. The people feel abandoned and totally alien to their God. YHWH, “the King” (6:5), is experienced as one who does not rule (‫ )משׁל‬them as a proper king would do, that is, one who by his active presence leads and protects his people (cf. Ps 59:14; Isa 40:10). “This people” (6:9) feels that they are a nation over whom YHWH’s name has never been proclaimed, a nation that never enjoyed the blessings of being YHWH’s chosen people or the object of his devoted care (cf. Deut 28:10; Jer 14:9). In their own view, they have become a nameless people of no unique significance in the eyes of YHWH – just one among the nations. This self-perception actually accords nothing of Yhwh’s people in dispossessing them; or Yhwh is treating that dispossessing as if it is something insignificant.” 266 Childs, Isaiah, 525; cf. Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 410.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

147

with the judgment against Jerusalem in Isa 22:1–14 in the context of Isa 13– 23 (see my exegesis above). YHWH’s own people are considered to be as arrogant and disloyal as the surrounding peoples and are thus destined to doom like all the other nations of the world. 2.5.3. Isaiah 64:7–11: Fire has destroyed the temple ‫ יְ הוָה אָ בִ ינוּ אָ תָּ ה‬a‫וְ ַﬠתָּ ה‬ ‫ֲאנַחְ נוּ הַ חֹ מֶ ר וְ אַ תָּ ה יֹ צְ ֵרנוּ‬ ‫וּמַ ﬠֲשֵׂ ה י ְָד ֻכּלָּנוּ‬ ‫ד־מאֹ ד‬ ְ ‫ל־תּקְ צֹ ף יְ הוָה ַﬠ‬ ִ ַ‫א‬ ‫וְ אַ ל־ ָל ַﬠד ִתּזְכֹּ ר ָﬠוֹן‬ ‫הֵ ן הַ בֶּ ט־נָא ַﬠ ְמּ ֻכלָּנוּ‬ ‫ קָ דְ ְשׁ הָ יוּ ִמדְ בָּ ר‬b‫ﬠ ֵָרי‬ ‫צִ יֹּ ון ִמדְ בָּ ר הָ יָתָ ה יְ רוּשָׁ ַל ִם ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬ ‫בֵּ ית קָ ְדשֵׁ נוּ וְ ִתפְ אַ ְרתֵּ נוּ ֲאשֶׁ ר‬ ‫ִ ֽהלְ לוּ ֲאבֹ תֵ ינוּ הָ יָה לִ ְשׂ ֵר ַפת אֵ שׁ‬ ‫ הָ יָה לְ חָ ְרבָּ ה‬c‫וְ ָכל־מַ חֲמַ דֵּ ינוּ‬ ‫הַ ַﬠל־אֵ לֶּה ִת ְתאַ ַפּק יְ הוָה‬ ‫ד־מאֹ ד‬ ְ ‫וּת ַﬠנֵּנוּ ַﬠ‬ ְ ‫תֶּ חֱשֶׁ ה‬

7

Yet, YHWH, you are our Father; we are the clay, and you are our potter; we are all the work of your hand. 8 Do not be exceedingly angry, O YHWH, and do not remember iniquity forever. Now consider, we are all your people. 9 Your holy cities have become a wilderness, Zion has become a wilderness, Jerusalem a desolation. 10 Our holy and beautiful house, where our ancestors praised you, has been burned by fire, and all our pleasant things have become ruins. 11 After all this, will you restrain yourself, O YHWH? Will you keep silent, and punish us so severely?

a

1QIsaa reads “and you” (‫)ואתה‬. The LXX and the Vulgate both have a singular form: πόλις τοῦ ἁγίου σου and civitas sancti tui. c A footnote in BHS proposes to read a singular form (“our pleasant place/thing”; ‫)מחמדנו‬ which is supported by many Hebrew manuscripts, as well as the Peshitta and the Targum. It is also a better match to the singular form of the verse (‫)הָ יָה‬. b

Against the background of a broken relationship between God and his people in Isa 64:6 (see above), v. 7 opens with a renewed and urgent cry to YHWH as father. The address to “our father” (‫ )אָ בִ ינוּ‬picks up the assertion in 63:16: “you are our father.” The explicit connection between this divine role and the one as creator present here also occurs in Isa 45:11: “Will you question me about my children [‫]בָּ נַי‬, or command me concerning the work of my hands [‫( ”?]פֹּ ַﬠל יָדַ י‬cf. Deut 32:6).267 Underlying the language of the latter part of v. 7 is the image of God as a potter. The word “potter” (‫ )יֹ צֵ ר‬is a specific sense of the verb “to create, form” (‫ )יצר‬which often designates YHWH’s creative activity (e.g. Gen 2:7; Isa 45:7). The image is used elsewhere in Isaiah to express YHWH’s sovereignty and autonomy (Isa 29:16; 45:9) and is prominently at play in Jer 18– 19. Here, not only does it illustrate YHWH’s supreme power over his people 267

See Niskanen, “Yhwh as Father.”

148

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

as their potter, but also the weakness and fragility of the material: it can easily be broken and thrown away (cf. Lam 4:2: “how [the precious children of Zion] are reckoned as earthen pots, the work of a potter’s hand!”). A similar tension undergirds Job’s complaint in 10:8–9: YHWH’s hands fashioned him like clay, but now YHWH will destroy him and turn him to dust. Unlike the arrogant attitude of the “clay” in Isa 29:16 and 45:9 which questions the intentions of its Maker and wishes to inherit his position, the people in 64:7 have learned and recognized what they really are and how they relate to YHWH: “we are clay, and you are our potter!”268 The parallel statement in the final line of the verse offers interesting links to other passages in Isaiah. The people as a whole confess that they are “the work of your hand” ( ְ‫)מַ ﬠֲשֵׂ ה יָד‬. Elsewhere, the people are referred to as YHWH’s handiwork (29:23; 45:11; 60:21). Yet more importantly, the phrase alludes to the principal accusation in the first part of the book. In 5:12 the inhabitants ignored the deeds of YHWH and “the work of his hands” (‫)מַ ﬠְ ַשֵׂ ה יָדָ יו‬. Likewise, in 22:11, they did not look to “the one who created it” (‫)יֹ צְ ָרהּ‬. Now the people’s attitude has changed. They have begun to look not only beyond themselves to the work of YHWH, the Creator, but also to perceive themselves to be that very work.269 They have finally understood that their destiny and present condition depend entirely on the rule of YHWH as their father and potter. Yet, an important aspect of the image of the potter is precisely YHWH’s ability to change, reform, and recreate his material. The people’s profound insight of guilt and dependence provides the background for their appeal to YHWH in v. 8: “Do not be exceedingly angry [with us], and do not remember [our] iniquity forever.” The former phrase occurs with a similar wording in Lam 5:22: divine restoration is possible “unless you are angry with us beyond measure” (‫ד־מאֹ ד‬ ְ ‫)קָ צַ פְ תָּ ָﬠלֵינוּ ַﬠ‬. 270 The people will only prosper again if YHWH changes his mind (cf. 63:17). The idea that God’s anger (‫ )קצף‬resulted in rejection and profanation can be found several more times in the preceding chapters of Isaiah (e.g. 47:6; 54:8; 57:17). The latter phrase about remembrance of iniquity draws from the confidence in YHWH as one who is willing to forgive and forget his people’s sin (Isa 268 The play and perhaps direct literary dependency on Isa 45:11–13 in 64:7 has often been noticed and highlighted by those who argue that Isa 63:7–64:11 originated in close contact with the Isaiah tradition; see e.g. Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 131– 33, 157; Aejmelaeus (“Der Prophet als Klageliedsänger,” 44–45): “Unsere Stelle [Isa 64:7] bietet die Umkehrung dessen zu einer positive Einstellung und zum Bekenntnis zu Jahwe und könnte so als Antwort auf Jes 45,9–11 interpretiert werden, falls Kenntnis des Deuterojesaja und insbesondere dieser Stelle bei unserem Verfasser angenommen werden kann.” 269 Young, Isaiah III, 498: “In looking to their origin, the suppliants do not find it in themselves but in God’s mercy.” 270 Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 306–7.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

149

43:25; 44:22; cf. 38:17 in Chapter 3). The notion of “iniquity” (‫ ) ָﬠוֹן‬continues the thought of the first part of the book: the people “laden with guilt” (1:4) that would die without being atoned for their sins (22:14) have finally recognized it and might hope to be cleansed as Isaiah did (6:7). In line with this, the final plea, “behold look now [‫ ]הֵ ן הַ בֶּ ט־נָא‬we are all your people,” reverses the initial thought of the book. The prophet rebuked his people for not “looking” (Hiphil of ‫ )נבט‬to their Creator (5:12; 22:11), but now the people sincerely urge YHWH to look to his creation. “This people” identify themselves as “your people”. Verses 9–10 depict the present and desperate state of the land. Verse 9 focuses on the cities and the capital, whereas v. 10 depicts the temple and its interior. The content of these verses motivates the prayer as a whole and, along with v. 11, forms the climax of it. Gradually the prayer has approached this harsh description. Strong words depict the ruined state of the cities and the sanctuary: “wilderness” (‫)מ ְדבָּ ר‬, ִ “desolation” (‫)שׁמָ מָ ה‬, ְ and “ruin” (‫)חָ ְרבָּ ה‬. These terms are customary in the prophetic pronouncements of divine judgment and destruction, for instance, in Jer 22:5, “the land will become a ruin,” and Ezek 35:4, “I will lay your cities in ruins; you shall become a desolation.” More crucially, the chosen words resonate with predictions in the initial part of Isaiah, including the desolate land and burned cities (1:7), desolate houses (5:9), and ruins with grazing animals (5:17). As noted above, the reference to the prediction in Isa 6:11 stands out. The current state of the land is a fulfillment of YHWH’s response to Isaiah’s question about the duration of judgment.271 The point of ultimate annihilation has been reached. In terms of subject matter, vv. 9–10 parallel similar descriptions in Lam 2:1–10, Ps 74:3– 8, and Ps 79:1. For some interpreters, the plural form of “your holy cities” ( ‫ )ﬠ ֵָרי קָ דְ ְשׁ‬in v. 9 is disturbing because it is the only instance of its kind in the Old Testament. As mentioned in the textual notes, the Greek and Latin versions have a singular form, taking it as a synonym to Zion/Jerusalem (cf. Isa 48:2; 52:1). The plural form, however, is significant. First, it provides a clear link to the cities in 6:11. Second, the plural form suggests that the region surrounding Jerusalem is in view (i.e. the cities of Judah), not solely the capital. Calling the cities “holy” emphasizes the importance of the land as a whole: the entire land is holy and ought to be restored (cf. Isa 11:9; 65:25; Zech 2:12). 272 Third, the plural form introduces a rhetorical structure that concentrates and intensifies the movement from cities to Zion/Jerusalem to the temple to its “pleasant things.”273

271

Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 496; Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 145–46. Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 421. 273 Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 307–8. 272

150

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

The capital has been turned into a wilderness and a desolation. The combination of ‫ ִמ ְדבָּ ר‬and ‫ ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬also occurs in the shepherds’ destruction of YHWH’s vineyard in Jer 12:10: “they have made my pleasant portion a desolate wilderness [‫]לְ ִמ ְדבַּ ר ְשׁמָ מָ ה‬.” The parallel statements in 64:9 create a similar impression of total annihilation. The tone and subject here stand in sheer contrast to former promises of restoration to Zion/Jerusalem in Isaiah (note especially 51:3: “he will make her wilderness [‫]מדְ בָּ ָרהּ‬ ִ like Eden”). It is as if God had never issued these promises. Verse 10 concentrates on the fate of the temple (cf. 63:18). While v. 9 speaks about your holy cities, v. 10 opens with our holy and beautiful house (‫)בֵּ ית קָ דְ שֵׁ נוּ וְ ִתפְ אַ ְרתֵּ נוּ‬. This unique description of YHWH’s sanctuary draws from 63:15 (“your holy and glorious habitation” [ ֶ‫)]מ ְזּבֻל קָ ְד ְשׁ וְ ִתפְ אַ ְרתּ‬. ִ It might also allude to the notion of “my glorious house” (‫ )בֵ ית ִתּפְ אַ ְר ִתּי‬in 60:7 (cf. ‫ בֵ ית הַ קֹּ דֶ שׁ‬in 1 Chr 29:3). This positive and splendid presentation of the house, where the ancestors praised God continually, differs immensely from its present state: it has been burned by fire.274 It is worth noticing that according to Deut 29:22, in the foretelling of punishment because of violation against the covenant, the whole land shall be “a burned waste” (‫)שׂ ֵר ָפה‬ ְ of sulfur and salt. Accounts of the burning of YHWH’s temple are found elsewhere. In the narrative section, Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest of Jerusalem culminates in the temple’s destruction: “he burned the house of YHWH” (2 Kings 25:9; cf. 2 Chr 36:19). Likewise, in Psalms, the people lament the defilement of the temple: “the enemy has destroyed everything in the sanctuary. […] They set your sanctuary on fire; they desecrated the dwelling place of your name” (Ps 74:3–7). Lamentations repeatedly mourns this destiny: “[Jerusalem] has even seen the nations invade her sanctuary […] The Lord has scorned his altar, disowned his sanctuary; he has delivered into the hands of the enemy the walls of her palaces” (Lam 1:10; 2:7). The final line of v. 10 intensifies the thought: “all our pleasant things have become ruins.” The exact meaning of “our pleasant things” is uncertain. As noted above, it has been proposed to emend the plural form to a singular and then interpreting it as another reference to the temple: “our pleasant place.” In support of this reading is primarily the singular form of the verb. In addition, there is a reference in Ezek 24:21 to “the delight of your eyes” (‫)מַ חְ מַ ד ֵﬠינֵיכֶם‬ which as a poetic expression explicitly parallels YHWH’s “sanctuary” (‫)מקְ דָּ שׁ‬. ִ A similar meaning exists if one interprets the plural form as “pleasant places.” In both cases, however, the line functions as a parallel to, or summary of, the already mentioned places.

274 The similar phrase in the vision of Isa 9:4, where the boots and garments of enemies “shall be burned as fuel for the fire” (‫)וְ הָ ְיתָ ה לִ ְשׂ ֵר ָפה מַ ֲא ֹכלֶת אֵ שׁ‬, is accordingly only something the supplicants can wish for.

2.5. Zion has become a wilderness

151

In light of the overall poetic movement within these verses, it makes better sense to interpret the plural form as “pleasant things,” that is, relating to vessels and perhaps also decorations (note the foes’ destruction of the temple’s “carved work” in Ps 74:5–6).275 The plural form of ‫ מַ חְ מָ ד‬occurs in this sense in 2 Chr 36:19, which describes the destruction of the temple and its “precious objects” by the Babylonians. In Lam 1:10, enemies have stretched out their hands over all the precious things of Jerusalem. Finally, in Joel 4:5, hostile nations have carried YHWH’s “rich treasures” to their temples. If the same is implied in Isa 64:10, that is, that the pleasant things have not only been damaged but also removed, the verse also fulfills the prophecy of Isa 39:6 that the wealth of Hezekiah’s house would be carried away. In any case, these precious things have gone; they have become “ruins” (‫)חָ ְרבָּ ה‬. The temple and the things associated with its worship have likely been reduced to a field where animals graze (cf. Isa 5:17; Lam 5:18). The lament and prayer in v. 11 form the climax not only of the description of the present distress, but of the psalm-like composition as a whole.276 The verse consists of two question-like statements with the addressee “YHWH” at its center. Initially, “after all this” (‫) ַﬠל־אֵ לֶּה‬, that is, after, at, or despite such calamities just described, “will you [still] restrain yourself?” The verb ‫אפק‬ occurs only in Hitpael and generally refers to restraining oneself or controlling one’s feelings as Joseph does in the encounter with his brother in Gen 43:31 (see Chapter 1). Here, the word designates YHWH’s silence and passiveness over against the terrible events that have struck his people. Astonishment and accusation dominate the tone: how could such pain and suffering not affect the mind of God? The second line contains two verbs. “Will you keep silent and humiliate us so severely?” The first verb (‫ )חשׁה‬refers particularly to YHWH’s silence, that is, his ostensible refusal to hear and answer the prayers of his people. This verb, along with the one in the preceding line, occurs in former promises of salvation and renewed divine activity (42:14; 62:1).277 As was the case in v. 9, the situation reflected in v. 11 indicates that these promises have not yet been fulfilled. The final words intensify the language. The verb ‫ ענה‬in Piel means “to oppress or humiliate.” A close parallel to the thought here is found in Ps 90:15, where the supplicants beg YHWH to turn affliction and evil into joy. In Deuteronomy, it signifies God’s trial of his people (Deut 8:2–3, 16). Yet the many occurrences of the verb reveal a handful of nuances, pointing to gross 275

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 398; Young, Isaiah III, 499. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 398: “the entire psalm is designed as a question put to God by men who waited anxiously for him.” 277 Lau (Schriftgelehrte Prophetie, 308–14) makes a comprehensive argument for a direct literary relationship between Isa 42:14–17 and 63:11. 276

152

Chapter 2: Anticipating exile

and cruel actions. It designates a man’s rude treatment of his wife (e.g. Gen 31:50) or the rape of women (Judg 19:24; Lam 5:11; Ezek 22:11). In this instance, it stresses the severity of YHWH’s treatment of his people. As Goldingay says, “By letting Jerusalem stay in its devastated state, Yhwh is personally continuing to humble it.”278 The last phrase “so severely or beyond measure” (‫ד־מאֹ ד‬ ְ ‫ ) ַﬠ‬adds emphasis to the verb (cf. v. 8; Lam 5:22). The final phrase has another function insofar as it draws from the question of Isaiah in 6:11: “how long?” (‫) ַﬠד־מָ תַ י‬.279 Just as the prophet’s question in Isa 6 introduced YHWH’s detailed depiction of coming devastation, the anxious question in 64:11 closes the detailed depiction of a devastated community. The observable play on words and motifs from 6:9–11 in these verses suggest that the prayer itself relates to YHWH’s hardening of his people as announced in Isa 6. Goldenstein rightly states: “die Frage nach der Wiederzuwendung Jahwes in 64:11 [ist] letztlich nichts anderes als die Bitte, er möge die Verstockung zurücknehmen.”280 2.5.4. Summing up The poetic composition of Isa 63:7–64:11 reflects a complete destruction of Jerusalem. Within the overall structure of Isaiah, the purpose of this passage is to confirm that the anticipations of destruction and doom in the first part of the book came true. Enemies took control of the people, their land and cities were turned into wilderness and desolation, and YHWH’s precious temple was defiled and burned by fire. All these calamities occurred in the gap between Isa 39 and 40. Jerusalem was destroyed and humiliated. Yet, as a result of these catastrophes, something has changed. The people have begun to review their past and recognize their wickedness and rebellion. Isaiah 6:11– 13 proclaimed that the divinely imposed hardening and total alienation would last until absolutely everything was destroyed. This moment has been reached now. The people are finally realizing that what they have experienced was the full manifestation of divine judgment. YHWH made them go astray and hardened their heart from fearing him. He rejected them. The only thing left to do is to repent and pray.

2.6. Conclusion 2.6. Conclusion What is striking about Isaiah’s anticipation of destruction and exile is the emphasis on the totality of judgment. According to 6:1–13, Jerusalem and its 278

Goldingay, Isaiah 56–66, 423. Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 496. 280 Goldenstein, Das Gebet der Gottesknechte, 163. 279

2.6. Conclusion

153

surrounding land shall be completely desolated and the surviving people shall be deported to remote locations. YHWH will ravage repeatedly to make sure that nothing remains. According to 22:1–14, Jerusalem is doomed and escape is not a possibility. Enemies will crush the city, and its pride and selfconfident inhabitants will die without having been atoned for their sins. According to 39:1–8, the divine word of judgment is indisputable: everything from the heirs to the Davidic throne to the abundance of treasures will be brought far away to Babylon. Jerusalem will be left emptied of life, wealth, and significance. These anticipations all point forward to the execution of divine judgment in the black hole between Isa 39 and 40. What is more, the anticipations illustrate and mirror this very gap. Exile is an empty land, an empty treasury, a silent ruin of death, an empty space at the center of the literary composition. Exile is vast emptiness. The desperate lament in Isa 63:7–64:11 on the other side of the catastrophe bears witness to the brutality and completeness of divine punishment. YHWH’s hardening of his people lasted. They did not look to him. They did not repent. Land and cities have become desolate. Zion has become a wilderness. The temple – the symbol of divine presence and protection – has been defiled and burned by fire. Nothing remains. Isaiah’s anticipation of destruction and exile implies an ultimate null point. Everything is removed or destroyed. Everything is turned into chaos. Only a divine act of restoration will offer a new beginning. Just as the clear division between the pronouncement of judgment in Isa 39 and the proclamation of salvation in Isa 40, there is a definitive break between punishment and consolation, between death and life. Embedded within the harsh words of judgment, however, are slight signs of hope. The blasted stump may sprout again and initiate the rebirth of the holy nation. Comfort that the mourning prophet refused to receive may be offered from the heavens. Even Babylon, the great and greedy empire to the east, may suffer defeat and be forced to set the exiles free. YHWH who prevented his people from repenting and restrained himself from intervening on their behalf, may again break the gap of silence and reveal himself as the true leader and protector of his people.

Chapter 3

Embodying exile: Typological figures This chapter studies a series of what I consider to be typological figures of exile. The idea emerges from the observation that we encounter a handful of literary characters in Isaiah which embody the experiences of removal, separation, and social marginalization. These include the prophet Isaiah (20:1–6), the steward Shebna and his successor Eliakim (22:15–25), King Hezekiah (38:1– 22), and the suffering servant (52:13–53:12). Common to these figures is that they point beyond themselves and their immediate context to larger concerns in the overall message of the book. As far as I know, a thorough comparison of the individual destinies of these characters and their literary function within the structure of the book has not been carried out before. Because of the novelty of this endeavor, I shall seek to relate the literary phenomenon in Isaiah to other texts in the Old Testament. The chapter therefore opens with a brief overview of biblical figures of exile and an extended review of the figures of Cain and Jonah. The main sections of the chapter consist of close readings of Isa 20:1– 6, 22:15–25, 38:1–22, and selected verses of Isa 52:13–53:12. The purpose is to study how the behavior or fate of each of the depicted characters relates to exile and what roles their individual destinies play in the literary structure and message of the book.

3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme 3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme

The Old Testament contains a wide spectrum of individuals who experience expulsion and deportation.1 Figures such as Ruth, Daniel, and Esther, and the books associated with them, reflect on the theme of living as a stranger among foreign nations.2 Significantly, the lives of central figures in the Pentateuch are shaped by constant journeys in and out of countries and territories. These characters can be perceived as literary figures that embody and point forward to the experiences of estrangement and loss of home by Israel as a people and by humanity at large.

1 2

Carroll, “Deportation,” 64–65; “Exile,” 63–64. See Halvorson-Taylor, “Displacement.”

3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme

155

From the very beginning, Adam and Eve are driven out of Eden into the dry and brutal world, suffering from the absence of God’s life-giving presence. Abraham and his family travel as strangers. On YHWH’s command, the great ancestor leaves his safe homeland to begin the unsecure life of a nomad. The opening chapter of his story (Gen 11:27–12:20) establishes the fundamental coordinates of the entire history of Israel, a history that unfolds between Babylon in the east and Egypt in the west – the two locations of the largest Jewish communities in the diaspora after the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Abraham’s first encounter with the Promised Land is that of a tourist or pilgrim who passed through several holy places but quickly moves on – indeed, flees – because of famine. In brief, Abraham’s story anticipates or prefigures diasporic identity. For later Jewish and Christian interpreters, Abraham presents “the role model for all believers who cannot confess their faith in their native country.”3 Jacob, his grandson, flees from his homeland, returns, but in the end chooses to settle in Egypt, to which his son Joseph has been deported. Even Moses is a figure of exile. He is a stranger within every land or people he encounters and he only finds home in the wilderness outside the civilization of man.4 He never touches the soil of the Promised Land, but dies and is buried outside of it.5 3.1.1. Excurses on the figures of Cain and Jonah The figures of Cain and Jonah in particular exhibit many features of exilic existence, and there is a rich potential for interpreting their characters as symbolic or representative of the experiences of deportation and residence among foreign nations that the people of Israel had. Furthermore, the images of exile in the hymn of Jonah are of special relevance to the interpretation of Hezekiah’s psalm in Isa 38. I will therefore offer a closer look at the destinies of Cain and Jonah before turning to Isaiah. 3.1.1.1. Driven away from the land (Cain) Expulsion and exile as punishment constitute a central theme in the narrative about Cain and Abel (Gen 4:1–16). The paradigmatic nature of these figures was recognized already by early Jewish and Christian reception and the figure of Cain has been interpreted as an archetype of all wicked people.6 In a similar manner, Cain’s punishment embodies archetypical features of exilic existence.

3

Weinberg, “Abraham,” 223. Olson, “From Horeb to Nebo,” 89–92. 5 See, however, Olson (“From Horeb to Nebo,” 92): “Moses ends his life as he began it, in exile, an alien, a ‫גר‬, but somehow also at home in the midst of homelessness, buried by God whom Moses knew face to face (Deut 34:10), outside the land but at home in the presence of God.” 6 See Byron, “Cain and Abel.” 4

156

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

Both God’s trial and his judgment against Cain occur in the latter part of the narrative in vv. 9–16. Verses 11–12 introduce the divine sentence with the word “now” (‫)וְ ַﬠתָּ ה‬. The punishment consists of two elements. First, he is “cursed [‫ ]אָ רוּר‬from the ground, which has opened its mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand” (v. 11).7 Cain’s former work as a farmer is made impossible because the ground will no longer yield its wealth (v. 12a). In the preceding chapter, the serpent and the ground were cursed (3:14, 17), but here, Cain himself is the object of the curse. As Coats observes, Cain is alienated from the ground and therefore becomes a homeless wanderer.8 Second, Cain is condemned to live as “a fugitive and a wanderer” (‫ )נָע ָונָד‬on earth (v. 12b). One could also construe the Hebrew phrase as a hendiadys: “a wandering vagrant” or “a wandering fugitive”. The first verb ‫ נוע‬means “to shake” or “to wander”. It is the uncontrolled movement of a drunk man (Ps 107:27) or of those who are dizzy due to hunger and thirst (Amos 4:8; 8:12). Other occurrences of the verb underline the unpleasant and humiliating meaning of this kind of wandering. In Ps 109:10, the children of the wicked shall wander about and beg. In Lam 4:14–15, God’s wrathful punishment forces his people to wander through the streets blindly; they shall become “fugitives and wanderers” (‫ )נָצוּ גַּם־נָעוּ‬with no place to stay. The association of the verb with exile is also indicated in Amos, where the Hiphil form designates YHWH’s shaking and scattering of Israel among the nations (9:9). The second verb ‫נוד‬ means “to flee” or “to move hither and thither”. It designates the flitting of birds (Prov 26:20) and the flight of people (e.g. Jer 4:1). The specific phrase ‫ נָע ָונָד‬occurs only in Gen 4:12, 14. The two words, however, are also coupled in the description of an earthquake: “The earth staggers like a drunkard, it sways like a hut” (Isa 24:20). In light of this verse, the pairing of these words in Genesis indeed emphasizes the restless and aimless life of Cain as a fugitive and outlaw. In the words of Westermann, “Es ist eine gejagte, gehetzte Existenz gemeint; beiden Verben bringen das ‘hin und her’, das Unstete zum Ausdruck.”9 The extreme and dangerous life that these terms suggest makes it clear that Cain is not simply condemned to a nomad’s life.10 The two verbs are never used about the life of the nomads and such a life could hardly be seen as a curse. As a lonesome wanderer, Cain will face opposition and potential death everywhere he goes.

7

Cassuto (Genesis I, 219–20) interprets the curse as coming upon Cain from the ground. Accordingly, one should read the motif here in light of other texts in which the underworld as a creature swallows up humans (cf. e.g. Num 16:30, 32; Isa 5:14; Hab 2:5): “Cain slew his brother, and the netherworld greeted his deed with joy, greedily opening its mouth to drink his brother’s blood from his hand.” 8 Coats, Genesis, 64. 9 Cf. Westermann, Genesis 1–11, 419. 10 Wenham, Genesis 1–15, 108.

3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme

157

Verse 14 sums up the fate of Cain. God has driven him away from the ground or soil (‫ הָ ֲאדָ מָ ה‬as in vv. 10–11). The verb ‫“( גרשׁ‬to drive away”) echoes its use in Gen 3. Just as Cain’s father, Adam, was driven out of the Garden of Eden to harsh work as a farmer (3:24), Cain is driven out to a wandering life on earth. Perhaps the echo suggests that Cain is now being distanced even further from God than his parents were.11 “From the soil” is often understood as the cultivated and secure area of human existence in contrast to the uncultivated and dangerous wilderness to which Cain is being banished. This interpretation is plausible in light of vv. 11–12a and Cain’s predicted failure as a farmer. Commenting on ‫ הָ ֲאדָ מָ ה‬in vv. 11 and 14, Westermann writes: Gemeint ist hier wie dort einfach der Lebensraum, in dem sich das Leben Kains und Abels abspielte und der zugleich die Ermöglichung der Existenz, Ernährung, Gedeihen, Sicherheit, Bergung bedeute.12

As a consequence of leaving the homeland, all relationships to family and society are broken. Cain is expelled from the society. Cassuto makes the image even more extreme as he understands the expression in a general sense as being expelled “from the face of the (whole) earth” (‫)מֵ ַﬠל פְּ נֵי הָ ֲאדָ מָ ה‬. Accordingly, “Cain cannot find rest anywhere [...] He is ever conscious of being an outcast – cast out from the whole earth.”13 Cain understands his fate as a constant, yet ultimately impossible, flight from God’s anger (cf. Ps 139:7–12; Amos 9:2–4; Jonah 1). Until his death, he will be exposed to divine judgment and he will thus hide (‫ סתר‬in Niphal) himself from God’s presence. Cain reviews his destiny as a fugitive both from man and from God and laments his lack of protection. As a response, YHWH puts a mark on Cain. Despite the uncertainties regarding the nature of this mark, it is certainly not a stigma but a mark of protection. Even so, however, the mark has an ambiguous meaning. On the one hand, it shows that Cain is not separated from YHWH’s protection. On the other, the mark “serves as a constant reminder of Cain’s banishment, his isolation from all people.”14 Verse 16 concludes the trial scene with Cain’s departure from God. Eventually, he lives or settles “in the land of Nod” (‫)בְּ אֶ ֶרץ־נוֹד‬. The place itself plays on his destiny as a wanderer. The phrase can be construed in more ways than one. 15 One way is to render ‫ נוֹד‬as the proper name of the land (cf. LXX’s

11

Cf. the illustrative figure in Gordon, Holy Land, 22. Cf. Westermann, Genesis 1–11, 421, my emphasis. 13 Cassuto, Genesis I, 223. 14 Coats, Genesis, 65. 15 In addition to those proposals mentioned below, the phrase ‫ ַויֵּשֶׁ ב בְּ אֶ ֶרץ ּ־נוֹד‬could also be construed as “he lived/dwelt as a wanderer in the land”; cf. Davidson, Genesis 1–11, 50, note b, and the Vulgate’s habitavit in terra profugus. Substituting “land” with “earth” would fit Cassuto’s idea that Cain is cast off from the whole earth. 12

158

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

Ναιδ).16 Rather than being a geographical name, however, Nod can be considered a symbolic reference to Cain’s isolation and restless wandering. Given this, another way is simply to render ‫ נוֹד‬as “wandering,” that is, “the land of wandering.”17 Cassuto explains: “[Cain’s] residence was never permanent but one of constant roaming from place to place.”18 In any case, the place itself constantly remind him of his punishment as a fugitive wanderer. The succeeding “east of Eden” (‫ )קִ דְ מַ ת־ ֵﬠדֶ ן‬emphasizes that the place is located in a distant region. Cain will live the life of an outsider, exiled from his land and from God. As was mentioned, early reception understood the figure of Cain as a representative type of human nature or behavior. According to Westermann’s informative overview of the reception history of this passage, the individual-primeval interpretation that approaches the narrative as a story of an individual in the primeval period has dominated until the present day.19 However, another type of interpretation sees Cain not as an individual, but as a representative of a collective entity. In Amos, there are hints that the prophet interprets Edom in light of the figure of Cain (1:11). Since the nineteenth century, German scholars in particular, such as J. Wellhausen, B. Stade, and K. Budde, have argued that Cain is the ancestor of the Kenites. Accordingly, he represents the tribe designated with that name (cf. Judg 1:16; 4:11, 17). The hypothesis seems rather outdated in contemporary scholarship, but it points to the potential of reading the figure as a representative of a collective or indeed as being representative of collective experiences.20 Cain’s transgression and exile bring him close to many other biblical narratives in the Bible. Thomas L. Thompson has argued that the story of Cain and Abel introduces many narrative themes that are rich in their potential for allegorical interpretation.21 One example is the theme of the cursed land bringing exile and estrangement that pervades the Primeval History and occurs throughout the Old Testament. In his own reading of Cain’s uncertain fate in exile from his land and his God, Thompson makes this bold but productive proposal: “This singular motif of the fugitive is an allegory on Israel in its exilic role, whose 16

E.g. Coats, Genesis, 65; Westermann, Genesis 1–11, 427. E.g. Cassuto, Genesis I, 228; Wenham, Genesis 1–15, 93. Cf. Olson, “From Horeb to Nebo,” 87: “a land that is not home, a land of continuing exile.” 18 Cassuto, Genesis I, 228. 19 Westermann, Genesis 1–11, 385–88. A good example of a universal interpretation in modern times is Cassuto, Genesis I, 185: “Cain, who killed his brother, is the prototype of the murderer. All human beings are brothers and whoever sheds human blood sheds the blood of his brother.” 20 Cf. McKeown, Genesis, 42–43: “The increased seriousness of [Cain’s] crime leads to a deeper sense of alienation from God and an intensified sense of exile. This was an important message to the earliest readers, since many of them were also facing or had faced exile. Genesis clearly attributes exile to alienation from God.” 21 Thompson, “Sheep without a shepherd,” 101. 17

3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme

159

suffering is the occasion of Yahweh’s vengeance against Babylon, carried out by the Persian Cyrus. Israel is presented as one ‘whose land no longer yields its produce. Israel is a wanderer and fugitive on the earth.’”22 3.1.1.2. Down into the deep of the sea (Jonah) On the surface, a number of characteristics of the prophet Jonah cast him as an “exile.” He is in flight from God and suffers from the distress of abandonment. His psalm in the belly of the fish contains many motifs that play on the themes of separation, isolation, and banishment. Moreover, as in the case of Cain, there are certain features in the portrait and narrative that point beyond the individual character to larger communal concerns. Among several troublesome issues in the interpretation of this prophet, scholars have debated immensely the question of genre.23 Of relevance to the present study are the attempts made to read the book as an allegory of Israel’s history.24 A seminal example of this approach is Charles H. H. Wright’s essay “The Book of Jonah considered from an Allegorical Point of View” from 1886.25 According to Wright, Jonah is “a remarkable type and symbol of the nation of Israel.”26 His name means “dove” which is a symbol of Israel both in the Bible (e.g. Hos 7:11) and in later rabbinic literature. While Jonah stands for Israel, the fish stands for Babylon, the booth for restored Jerusalem, and the plant for Zerubbabel. Jonah’s sleep in the ship is “the state of Israel previous to the Babylonian captivity.”27 The identification of the fish with Babylon is based on Jer 51:34, where the enemy king swallows up Israel (see below). In his commentary on Jonah, James D. Smart likewise claims that Jonah represents the whole nation of Israel and that “the incident of the great fish is a symbolic representation of the Exile and the return.”28 Nevertheless, in contrast to Wright, Smart is more cautious to read the entire book as a coherent

22

Thompson, “Sheep without a shepherd,” 113–14. For a short overview of typical positions, see Jenson, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, 31–35. 24 Cf. the review in Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration, 244, note 44; Bewer, “Jonah,” 10; Tiemeyer, “Jonah.” 25 Wright, Biblical Essays, 34–98. 26 Wright, Biblical Essays, 45. 27 Wright, Biblical Essays, 48. 28 Smart, “The Book of Jonah,” 874. 23

160

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

allegory.29 Recently, Daniel L. Smith-Christopher has raised this issue once again, reading Jonah “as a symbol of the Israelite people themselves in exile.”30 To the majority of scholars, such readings that by figurative interpretation explicitly put the theme of exile to the front are deemed to be too extreme and thus difficult to accept.31 Nevertheless, I share Peter Ackroyd’s feeling that exilic identity is somehow a key theme in Jonah. He writes: The possibility that the book of Jonah contains an elaborate allegory of the exile – Jonah equals the people, the fish equals Babylon – appears in some respects to do violence to the directness with which the message of the book is given. Yet it is difficult to avoid the impression that the experience of the Jewish people in the exile was in part responsible for that particular representation of their true place in the purpose of God which this little book sets out. Popular tales of men swallowed by great fish and miraculously delivered would seem to be an insufficient ground for including this rather odd piece of mechanism in the story. An allusion to the reality of such an experience in terms of Babylonian exile would lend point to the recalling of the people to their true mission through an experience of utter forsaking and degradation.32

Whether or not one recognizes Jonah or parts of it as an allegory of Israel’s history, there are many literary elements in the story, particularly in the inserted hymn, which render images of exile. In his highly illuminating article “The Specter of Exile in the Story of Jonah,” David Downs has demonstrated the manner in which the subtext of exile haunts the story of Jonah.33 His work is 29

Smart, “The Book of Jonah,” 888: “If in this parable Jonah represents Israel and the incident of the great fish represents the Exile, the question arises whether ch. 1 is meant to refer to the pre-exilic period and chs. 3–4 to the postexilic. The inference then would be that whereas in the former period Israel refused entirely its commission to be a missionary to the Gentiles, in the latter period, chastened by exile, it took up the commission grudgingly. This may be straining too far the details of the parable but it is at least possible.” 30 Smith-Christopher, A Biblical Theology of Exile, 132. Smith-Christopher further continues: “Jonah, like Israel, is called on a ‘mission.’ Jonah, like Israel, rejects God’s call (according to the entire Deuteronomistic tradition, and most of the classical prophets of the exilic era, the exile was a direct result of Israel’s own sins). Jonah, like Israel, goes into darkness (the exile itself)” (132). 31 See e.g. Wolff, Obadja und Jona, 116–17; Jenson, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, 32: “the equations are often arbitrary, with little corroborating support from the text.” In light of his openness and sensitivity towards poetic tropes in biblical language, it is surprising to read Robert Carroll’s skeptical evaluation of Jonah’s exilic imagery in “Deportation,” 69–70: “Whatever the symbolic meaning generations of readers may have assigned to the tale of Jonah, the only bearing on the diaspora discourses of the prophetic literature that I can suggest for it is the possible allusion to the sparing of foreign cities where the diaspora may expect to find survival (cf. the praying for the ‫ שׁלום‬of Babylon in Jer 29:7).” 32 Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration, 244–45. Cf. Sherwood, A Biblical Text, 254–55: “I suggest that memories of the swallowing and regurgitating exile-fish lurk deep in the book of Jonah’s belly – which is not the same as saying that Jonah is ‘about’ the exile in any simple sense.” 33 Downs, “Specter of Exile.”

3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme

161

an important resource for the following observations of exilic motifs in the portrait of Jonah in Jonah 1–2:34 First, Jonah is on the flight. He moves, or rather, he is being torn, between Nineveh and Tarshish. Nineveh is the great city to the east and Tarshish is far to the west (possibly near to modern Spain) at the border of the unknown world. He sets out to flee “from the presence of YHWH” (‫ ) ִמלִּ פְ נֵי יְ הוָה‬in v. 3 (cf. v. 10). The exact same word is used in the story about Cain when he departs from YHWH’s presence (4:16). The instances are the only ones in the Old Testament that occur in the context of moving away from YHWH, which brings the fates of Cain and Jonah close to each other.35 Second, distance and distancing are main themes in Jonah 1–2. Jonah not only moves across the sea in a horizontal direction, but also vertically down into it. As God is traditionally located in the high (cf. Hezekiah’s prayer below), Jonah attempts to escape him by going down into the deep.36 The key word here is ‫“( ירד‬to go down”). Jonah goes down to Joppa (1:3), he goes down in the ship (1:3), and he goes further down into the hold of the ship (1:5). This gradual descent is both spatial and spiritual. He is thrown overboard and ends up in the deep of the sea, where he goes down, or sinks, to the roots of the mountains (2:7). Third, the term ‫“( טול‬to throw, hurl”) is used to designate the mariners’ throwing of Jonah into the sea (1:12, 15). In addition, it designates God’s hurling of a great wind upon the sea (v. 4) and the throwing of cargo into the sea (v. 5). Some of the prophets employ this term to describe the act of deportation. In Isa 22:17, YHWH will hurl Shebna into a foreign land and in Jer 16:13 and 22:26, 28, the king and people of Israel will be hurled into another country (see further below). As Downs states, “this trope of ‘hurling’ may, in fact, lend support to those interpretations of the book that see Jonah’s experience in the fish as an allegory of Israel’s exile.”37 Fourth, YHWH commands a large fish to “swallow up” (‫ )בלע‬Jonah and he stays in its belly for three days and three nights.38 Eventually, the fish spews 34

See Downs, “Specter of Exile,” 31–41. The images of exile in Jonah 3–4 are meager, as indicated by Downs’ brief examination (41–43) and by Smart’s comment above that an allegorical interpretation of these chapters is more questionable. 35 Another case of intertextuality between Cain and Jonah occurs in the descriptions of Jonah’s anger (Jonah 4:1, 4; cf. Gen 4:5–6) and of his departure from Nineveh (Jonah 4:5; cf. Gen 4:16); see Tiemeyer, “Jonah.” 36 Cf. Jenson, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, 46: “The descent imagery highlights Jonah’s flight from God, since it contrasts with the traditional imagery for God’s dwelling place in heaven. The depths are the location of the grave, the pit and the realm of death, so that Jonah’s flight is almost suicidal in its direction.” 37 Downs, “Specter of Exile,” 35. 38 The three days and three nights may be symbolic, playing on the experience of divine judgment followed by that of divine intervention and restoration (cf. Hos 6:2; Matt 12:40).

162

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

(‫ קיא‬in Hiphil) Jonah out upon the dry land. As noted above, this motif has been an important factor for past interpretations of the story as an allegory of Israel in exile. The main impulse for the identification of the fish with Babylon comes from Jer 51:34, where the Babylonian king is portrayed as a sea monster that swallows Israel. The language is strongly metaphorical. The personified city of Jerusalem says, “King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon has devoured me, he has crushed me; he has made me an empty vessel, he has swallowed me [‫ ]בְּ ָל ַﬠנִ י‬like a monster [‫ ;] ַכּתַּ נִּ ין‬he has filled his belly [‫ ]כְ ֵרשׂוֹ‬with my delicacies, he has spewed me out [‫]ה ֱִדיחָ נִ י‬.”39 And further in v. 44, YHWH will punish Babylon’s god Bel and “take out of his mouth what he has swallowed [‫]אֶ ת־בִּ לְ עוֹ‬.” Admittedly, the only specific term that relates the scene in Jonah to this verse is “swallow” (‫)בלע‬. In the other cases, Jeremiah employs different terms, for instance, a “monster” or “snake” (‫ )תַּ נּין‬which elsewhere designates the dragon that YHWH fights (Ps 74:13; Isa 27:1; 51:9) or functions as an image of the Egyptian Pharaoh (Ezek 29:3; 32:2).40 To some interpreters, the narrator has deliberately chosen the more neutral term “large fish” in order to avoid associations with aggressive monsters of the sea.41 To a certain extent, an intertextual reading of Jonah in light of the imagery in Jer 51 depends on the temperament of its interpreter. Despite the lack of lexical connections, there are significant connections in terms of structure, image, and content. There is a parallel movement down (“swallowed”) and up again (“vomited”). In terms of content, both Jonah and Jer 51 reflect on what it means to be part of “an alien body-system.”42 In my view, the story of Jonah is clearly rich in its potential to produce figural interpretations and reading Jonah as a reference to Israel’s exile adds fruitful perspectives to the book’s content and purpose.

See Smart, “Book of Jonah,” 885: “If the swallowing of Jonah is meant to represent the swallowing up of Israel in the Exile, the three days and three nights suggest the extended period of the Exile. The sojourn in the bowels of the monster was not quickly over.” 39 There are, however, many text-critical problems in this verse along with unclear senses of some of the terms and an inconsistent use of suffixes. The translation in NRSV, which I follow here, revocalizes the final word “he has rinsed me out” (‫ )ה ֱִדיחָ ִני‬about the empty dish that is rinsed clean to “he has spewed me out” (‫ ;הִ דִּ יחָ ִני‬cf. footnote in BHS). See also Carroll, Jeremiah, 845–56; Fischer, Jeremia 26–52, 598–99; Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 428–29. 40 In addition to these examples, the term is used about the snake in Aaron’s encounter with the Egyptian magicians (Exod 7). Verse 12 also combines snakes with the motif of swallowing: “[the Egyptian staffs] became snakes [‫ ;]תַ ִנּי ִנם‬but Aaron’s staff swallowed [‫ ] ַו ִיּבְ לַע‬up theirs.” 41 See, however, Day (God’s Conflict, 110–11), who, on the one hand, strongly rejects the connections between Jonah and Jer 51:34 and the proposed allegorical interpretation, but, on the other, does not deny that the notion of the great fish in Jonah may draw on Canaanite mythology of the sea monster. 42 Sherwood, A Biblical Text, 254.

3.1. Figures of exile as a biblical theme

163

Fifth, Jonah’s psalm (2:3–10) as a whole contains many images that can be linked to the theme of exile.43 In general, this psalm appears to be a patchwork of motifs found elsewhere in the Old Testament, particularly in Psalms. Regarding the psalm’s rhetorical structure, Jerome Walsh has offered a short yet penetrating analysis.44 He discovers two main motifs: spatial movement and the presence/absence of YHWH.45 Verses 4–5 portray the horizontal movement of “distancing,” whereas vv. 6–7a portray the vertical movement of “sinking”. The physical separation from YHWH and his temple is itself YHWH’s doing, and due to YHWH’s absence and failing support, the psalmist suffers from the terror of death. Both motifs are reversed in v. 7b, when suddenly YHWH is present and brings Jonah up from the pit. Regarding motifs of relevance in the single verses, v. 3 opens with the location of Jonah when he calls upon YHWH. He cries “from the belly of Sheol” (‫)מבֶּ טֶ ן ְשׁאוֹל‬ ִ which elsewhere is closely associated with the experience of exile (see my analysis of Isa 5:13–14 in Chapter 1 and the psalm of Hezekiah below). Here, Sheol forms a parallel to the preceding “in my affliction” (‫)מצָּ ָרה לִ י‬. ִ In terms of space, the term ‫ צרה‬indicates narrowness or restriction which fits well with the idea of Jonah’s exile as a place of isolation and claustrophobia.46 Verse 4 suggests a motif of rejection or expulsion by its opening word “You cast me” (‫)וַתַּ ְשׁלִ י ֵכנִ י‬. In other instances, the term ‫ שׁכך‬in Hiphil is used about the deportation of Israel (2 Kings 24:20; Jer 7:15; 22:28). Jonah is cast into the sea, which serves as a metaphor for the distance to his home: the sea is deep and far from land. The flood, waves, and billows are used figuratively to express the divine punishment that strikes Jonah (cf. v. 6). The application of words from Ps 42:8 (“all your waves and your billows have gone over me”) is noteworthy. Psalms 42–43, which express the traumatic experience of distance and the longing to be near to God’s presence, are often read as a reflection of exile.47 Verse 5, in particular, expresses the pain of exile. First, Jonah says: “I am driven away from your sight” ( ‫ ;נִ גְ ַר ְשׁ ִתּי ִמ ֶנּגֶד ֵﬠינֶי‬cf. Ps 31:23). The use of ‫גרשׁ‬ 43 Cf. Smith-Christopher, A Biblical Theology of Exile, 133: “the psalm in Jonah 2 […] contains a number of images reminiscent of images of exile”; Wright, Biblical Essays, 61: “Jonah’s hymn fits in admirably into an allegory of with the exile of Israel is the theme.” 44 See Walsh, “Jonah.” Walsh analyzes the psalm independently of its present literary context in Jonah. Due to this approach, Walsh concludes that “there is no indication that the poet feels his distress as punishment” (227). In light of the literary context, however, there is no doubt that Jonah’s distress is understood as a punishment for his unwillingness to follow YHWH’s call. 45 Walsh, “Jonah,” 226–27. 46 Cf. Jenson, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, 62. 47 See e.g. Kraus, Psalmen 1–59, 473; Weiser, Psalmen, 234. My analysis of the rhetorical structure of the psalm emphasizes the two types of distance to God that the psalmist suffers: a geographical distance (42:5–8) and a social distance (42:10–43:2). See Poulsen, “Strukturen i salme 42–43,” 311–12.

164

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

(“to banish, to drive out”) is striking. The same term designates the expulsion of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:24) and of their son Cain (Gen 4:14). Like them, Jonah has been banished from YHWH’s presence. Moreover, Jonah, full of despair, cries: “how shall I look again upon your holy temple?”48 His words may echo those of the exiles in Ps 137: “How [ ‫ ]אֵ י‬could we sing the song of YHWH in a foreign land?” Jonah is far removed from the temple now. The prophet, who has attempted to flee from YHWH’s presence, now desperately laments his inability to worship him in the sanctuary in Jerusalem.49 Reading Jonah as a figure of Israel, this verse clearly suggests “images of diaspora, of an Israel disorientated and displaced from its centre.”50 Verse 7a brings Jonah to the bottom of the sea; he is at the roots of the mountains. The use of ‫ ירד‬in this verse marks the climax of his descent (cf. 1:3, 5). He cannot get any farther away from the God who dwells in the high. He has entered into the land whose bars have closed upon him forever. The motif of gates occurs several times in the description of Sheol (cf. Isa 38:10 below). Yet the notion of closed “bars” ( ַ‫ )בְּ ִריח‬also alludes to the image of an inescapable prison. The use of prison metaphors is a common way of describing life in exile (e.g. Isa 42:7; Lam 3:34; see Chapter 4). Moreover, the prison metaphor in v. 7a is coupled with “the pit” (‫ )שַׁ חַ ת‬of v. 7b, which likewise serves as a central metaphor for exile. In light of these images, it is no surprise that YHWH’s intervention and restoration of Jonah is described by the trope of “lifting” or “bringing up” (‫ עלה‬in Hiphil; cf. Ps 30:4; 71:20). Jonah’s prayer reached the temple and again he shall be able to worship there. YHWH’s bringing him up from the deep corresponds to the fish’s vomiting of Jonah. Like Cain, Jonah is a restless wanderer, an eternal exile. He is abandoned by God but unable to flee from his presence. Distance, separation, rejection, and near-death experiences are key themes in his psalm in the belly of the fish. The character of Jonah illustrates the distress of exile and one can easily interpret this literary figure as the embodiment of collective sufferings.

48 In accordance with the NRSV, I interpret this line as a question (reading ֵ‫ א‬or ‫ אֵ י‬for the MT’s ַ‫ )א‬rather than an utterance of hope and piety (“Surely, I shall look again upon your holy temple”). 49 Cf. Jenson, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, 64: “He may have started by fleeing on his own account, but now he recognizes he has no control of his destiny and is driven by divine agents of judgment that he cannot command.” 50 Sherwood, A Biblical Text, 255.

3.2. The naked prophet

165

3.2. The naked prophet (Isaiah 20:1–6) 3.2. The naked prophet

Isaiah 20:1–6 renders the astonishing sign act of Isaiah. Walking naked and barefoot, the prophet symbolically embodies the future captivity of Egypt and Ethiopia by the Assyrians (vv. 1–4). His message is clear: there is no earthly power that can provide sufficient safety and even the sovereign nations in the south are not worthy of trust. Yet the deportation of the Egyptians and Ethiopians also foreshadows the future of Isaiah’s fellow citizens who have depended on these nations (vv. 5–6). They will suffer a similar fate. Regarding the literary placement of Isa 20 among the oracles about the nations in Isa 13–23, the sign act stands out as the single narrative, forming the center of the composition (cf. Chapter 2). In its present context, the chapter constitutes the third of three chapters dealing with Ethiopia (Isa 18) and Egypt (Isa 19). Furthermore, the prose form relates Isa 20 to other third person narratives about Isaiah (Isa 7; 36–39). Isaiah 20 forms a coherent whole, but can be divided into two minor units: vv. 1–4 and vv. 5–6. The first unit contains the account of the symbolic action: v. 1 offers the historical framework; v. 2 renders YHWH’s command to Isaiah to do the action and the prophet’s subsequent execution of it; and vv. 3–4 present YHWH’s explanation of it. The second unit describes the consequences of Isaiah’s action for the inhabitants of Judah and on a larger scene. Questions about the compositional history of the chapter are connected to broader considerations about the historical event to which Isaiah’s action relates. The sign act is set in the context of Ashdod’s rebellion against the empire of Assyria in 713–711 BCE (cf. v. 1). Ashdod, which was one of five main cities in Philistia, had attempted to make an alliance of other vassal states against the Assyrian occupation, but the plan failed and Sargon II easily crushed the revolt. This historical event is well documented in extra-biblical sources.51 In light of this, some interpreters argue that Isaiah’s sign act was initially directed to the Philistines and warned Judah not to enter into the alliance against Assyria. Then, later, perhaps already before the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem in 701 BCE, the oracle was reapplied to function as a warning against those who looked to Egypt and Ethiopia for help.52 Wildberger regards the original core to stem from an unknown individual (“Fremdbericht”) close to the events. This individual transformed Isaiah’s preaching into prose and 51

For an informative review, see Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 326–33. See e.g. Childs, Isaiah, 145; Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 144–45; Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 173– 74: “The prophecy, as it is now formulated, is directed against Egypt and Ethiopia to warn of their fate (vv. 3–4), although this was not the prophet’s initial purpose in adopting his strange mode of behavior. It has become the aim of the prophecy at that time, after 711, when Judah was still inclined to look to Egypt and Ethiopia for support against Assyria, probably after Sargon’s death in 705.” 52

166

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

perhaps also modified other aspects of the action. At a later point, one or several editors reworked the material by adding vv. 1 and 6 and some words in vv. 2–5 (cf. Fohrer’s approach below).53 Sweeney, for instance, locates the oracle in the context of a Josianic redaction of the book.54 Other interpreters, especially Kaiser, consider the historical information in the narrative to reflect legendary (“volkstümlich”) tradition from a much later time, comparable to the kind of material we find in Isa 36–39. If not postexilic, the narrative about Isaiah’s sign act should be dated around 587 BCE, when Zedekiah asked the Egyptians for help against the Babylonians (Jer 37; 46; Ezek 29–32).55 In Kaiser’s view, faithful Judeans at the fall of Jerusalem kept the memory of the prophet alive and reapplied it in their own time against those who relied on Egyptian support. Within the last two decades, Blenkinsopp has altered the scholarly discussion by arguing in favor of Deuteronomistic origin. In addition to the historiographical form, he detects a long series of features and formulas that are characteristic of the Deuteronomistic writings.56 In his view, Isa 20:1–6 has either been excerpted from an early version of the Deuteronomistic History or been completely rewritten in a Deuteronomistic redaction of Isa 1–39.57 Viewing Isa 20 as a Deuteronomistic composition forms the point of departure for recent redaction-critical studies of the passage. According to Paul Cook, vv. 1–4 were borrowed from a Deuteronomistic source that did not survive in the present version of the Deuteronomistic History. At the incorporation of the passage into Isaiah in the early sixth century, v. 5 was composed and added, while v. 6 was added some decades later.58 In contrast to Cook, Csaba Balogh views the unity of 20:1–6 to be rather certain.59 Although more critical towards the idea of Deuteronomistic origin, he claims that the passage was composed independently of its present literary setting shortly before 587 BCE and attached to Isa 19 in the exilic period.60 Independently of each other, Cook

53

Wildberger, Jesaja, 749–54. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 272. 55 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 95–97. 56 These are: “military campaign formula” (e.g. 1 Kings 14:25–26; 2 Kings 12:18; 15:29; 18:9, 13; 24:10; 25:1); “at that time” (‫ )בָּ ֵﬠת הַ הִ יא‬to introduce past events (e.g. Jos 5:2; 1 Kings 14:1; 2 Kings 16:6; 18:6; 20:12; 24:10); the idiom “YHWH spoke through the hand of…” (‫ ;דִּ בֶּ ר ְיהוָה בְּ יַד‬e.g. 1 Sam 28:17; 1 Kings 8:53, 56; 12:15; 14:18; 15:29; 16:7, 12, 34; 17:16; 2 Kings 9:36; 10:10; 14:25; 17:23; 21:10; 24:2); “my servant” with reference to prophets (e.g. 1 Kings 15:29; 2 Kings 9:36; 10:10; 14:25); see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 321–22; cf. Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 128–31. 57 Among recent opponents against this view is Beuken (Jesaja 13–27, 208–9), who regards the Deuteronomistic formulas to have been inserted secondarily. 58 Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 144–45. 59 Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 320. 60 Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 333. 54

3.2. The naked prophet

167

and Balogh reached the conclusion that, despite sound historical information about events in the late eighth century, Isa 20 was composed in the first half of the sixth century to warn the kings and people of Judah about reliance on Egypt against the Babylonians (cf. Kaiser). This conclusion underlines the literary nature of the narrative in Isa 20. Despite its credible account of Ashdod’s rebellion and defeat, the real concern of the passage is to address an audience living many years after this historical event, probably during the destruction of Judah in the sixth century. Appealing to the great prophet of the eighth century and to his message and deeds served the purpose of adding considerable weight to the instruction of the sixth-century audience.61 Moreover, in light of the literary and theological nature of Isa 20, it seems plausible that due to its present placement in Isaiah, the episode is foreshadowing the destiny of Judah after the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Although Isa 20 is the only sign act in the book of Isaiah, the genre is fairly common in other prophetic books. I will, therefore, look more closely at the literary genre of sign acts before turning to the passage itself. 3.2.1. The literary genre of sign acts A classical study of the genre of sign acts was carried out by Georg Fohrer in his article “Die Gattung der Berichte über symbolische Handlungen der Propheten” (1951).62 The article offers many insights into the literary form and theology of the symbolic actions and presents a comparative study of 32 Old Testament accounts. The comparison of Isa 20 with other symbolic acts, however, suffers greatly from Fohrer’s questionable “restoration” of the Isaiah passage, omitting vv. 1–2 and 5 and ‫ ֶﬠ ְרוַת ִמצְ ָריִ ם‬in v. 4.63 These omissions imply that Isa 20 is often placed in categories where it does not belong, according to its final form. For instance, if one integrates v. 2 into the analysis, it is wrong to say that a divine command is lacking from Isa 20.64 Kelvin G. Friebel’s studies of the topic are of a more recent date.65 His informative dictionary article on sign acts serves as a valuable resource for the following observations.66 Friebel defines sign acts as “nonverbal actions and objects intentionally employed by the prophets so that message content was

61

Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 329; Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 135. Fohrer, “Gattung.” The article draws from his Marburg dissertation (1944) which was published the year after the appearance of the article. See Fohrer, Die symbolische Handlungen. 63 Fohrer, “Gattung,” 106, note 3. 64 Fohrer, “Gattung,” 114. 65 See his monograph-study, Friebel, Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign-Acts. 66 Friebel, “Sign Acts.” 62

168

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

communicated through them to the audiences.”67 The strength of his definition is that it differentiates genuine sign acts from other types of material, such as non-communication activities like going to a specific location, prophetic explanations of a scene enacted by another person, and rhetorical commands that as figures of speech are not meant to be performed. Moreover, Friebel deems it unwise to include passages that never specify that the actions were carried out. Based on these considerations, he lists a series of reports of sign acts in the Bible that in this study may serve as parallel accounts to illuminate particular features in Isa 20 (see below).68 Regarding the literary form of the accounts, the report consists of two primary components: “the divine command to the prophet to perform the specified actions, and the interpretation of the sign act.”69 Frequently, a report also contains an account of the performance, the mention of eyewitnesses, a warrant that the content of the action will happen, and an explanation of the sign’s relation to its referent. More of such subsidiary motifs are present in the report of Isa 20. Verse 2 renders the command of YHWH to Isaiah to walk around naked, v. 3 retrospectively informs readers about the prophet’s performance of the commanded action, and v. 4 presents the interpretation of the act. Furthermore, the rhetorical structure of vv. 3–4 (‫ כֵּן‬... ‫ )כּ ְַאַשֶׁ ר‬explicitly uses a simile to show the relationship between the nakedness of the prophet and the similar destiny of the Egyptians and the Ethiopians. There is no mentioning of eyewitnesses, but in light of the nature of the event, that is, going around naked in the streets of Jerusalem, the passage seems to presuppose general public attention.70 Using Friebel’s terminology, there are certain other ways of categorizing Isaiah’s sign act. The act is one without objects, that is, by means of his body and person alone the prophet performs the sign. The ambiguous nonverbal communication of the sign (v. 3) is explicitly coupled with verbal proclamation explaining its meaning (v. 4), and there is a clear temporal sequencing between the performance and the interpretation of it. As was mentioned, the connection between the sign and its referent is expressed by a simile (“Just as…, so”), a rhetorical device which is a common feature in prophetic sign acts.71 In such simile comparisons, the prophet embodies the role of either God or the people. 67

Friebel, “Sign Acts,” 707, my emphasis. The prophetic books: Isa 20:1–4; Jer 13:1–11; 16:1–9; 19:1–13; 27; 32; 35; 43:8–13; 51:59–64; Ezek 3:24–27 (cf. 24:25–27; 33:21–22); 4–5; 6:11–12; 12:1–16, 17–20; 21:11– 12, 13–22, 23–27; 24:15–24; 37:15–28; Hos 1:2–9; 3; Zech 6:9–15. The historical books: 1 Kings 11:29–37; 22:11 (cf. 2 Chr 18:10); 2 Kings 13:14–19. The New Testament: Acts 21:10–11. 69 Friebel, “Sign Acts,” 708. 70 Cf. Fohrer, “Gattung,” 115: “die Gegenwart von Augenzeugen [wird] stillschweigend vorausgesetzt.” 71 Cf. Jer 13:9–11; 19:11–12; 28:11; 51:64; Ezek 4:13; 12:11; 24:22–24; Hos 3:1. 68

3.2. The naked prophet

169

In Isa 20, Isaiah takes on the role of the peoples of Egypt and Ethiopia in his illustration of their captivity and disgraceful deportation.72 Regarding the encoding of sign acts, one can distinguish between representational or iconic sign acts and figurative or symbolic sign acts.73 According to the former, the act imitates what it signifies (for instance, Jeremiah’s land purchase to denote future buying of land in Jer 32), whereas according to the latter, there is no direct similarity between the action and its significance (for instance, Jeremiah’s waist sash as an image of the people in Jer 13). The sign action in Isa 20 undoubtedly belongs to the former category: the naked prophet looks like the captives of Egypt and Ethiopia being led away naked. Finally, Friebel criticizes the attempts to question the actual performance of some of the sign acts. They are said to be incapable of being performed and thus to represent visionary experiences. In contrast, he rightly stresses the literary report of sign acts as rhetorical communication. According to these literary accounts, the prophets performed the actions: statements tell that they did (cf. Isa 20:2), there are eyewitnesses, and the actions are called “signs” ( ‫אוֹת‬ ‫ ;וּמוֹ ֵפת‬cf. Isa 20:3) indicating a visually observable phenomenon. Furthermore, on formal grounds, the reports of sign acts are noticeably different from vision reports. From a literary and rhetorical point of view, “the reader is to view the actions as actually having taken place, and that they were, under divine directive, intentionally and publicly performed by the prophets.”74 The final point is of certain relevance to the study of Isa 20. Past scholarship on this passage shows an abundance of attempts to moderate or soften the drama of Isaiah’s action. Some scholars posit that it is only a visionary experience. Others who understand the three years as a reference to the duration of the performance posit that the event did take place, but that it only occurred once or, alternatively, at intervals over a period of either 14 months or three years.75 In line with this, the realism in performing such a stunt under the climate conditions of Palestine has been questioned.76 Since nakedness would be considered a serious violation against the religious and moral standards of that 72

Perhaps typically of his time (e.g. Johannes Pedersen), Fohrer relates the nature of this embodiment to the collective mind of Israel in Die symbolische Handlungen, 26: “Der Einzelne ist nicht ein isolierter Ausschnitt der Art, sondern ein Exemplar, in dem die Art erscheint. […] Das Allgemeine, der Typus ist der Ausgangspunkt des Denkens, der die gemeinsamen Charakterzüge enthält und der Gesamtheit ein einheitliches Willensgepräge gibt.” 73 Friebel, “Sign Acts,” 710. 74 Friebel, “Sign Acts,” 711. 75 E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 323; Wildberger, Jesaja, 751–52. 76 E.g. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 95: “Die Annahme, daß Jesaja tatsächlich drei Jahre oder auch nur vierzehn Monate nackt und barfuß durch Jerusalem gegangen sei, scheint uns bei dem dortigen Klima nicht unbedenklich. Ein derartiger Aufzug hätte dem Propheten erhebliche Beschränkungen beim Verlassen des Hauses auferlegt,” my emphasis.

170

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

time (and today), many have argued that Isaiah was not entirely uncovered and his nakedness should only be understood in a relative sense (see below).77 All such attempts to downplay the roughness of the reported event and the prophet’s morally disputable behavior are hardly productive for the exegesis of the passage.78 In my exegesis, I will focus on what the account of the sign act as a piece of literature tries to communicate to its readers. In addition, Friebel’s emphasis on the literary nature of the report rather than a historically accurate description of a historical event adds support to the proposal that the narrative of Isa 20 has been shaped to perform a larger role in the book of Isaiah as a whole. 3.2.2. Isaiah 20:1–6: Text and translation ‫בִּ ְשׁנַת בּ ֹא תַ ְרתָּ ן אַ ְשׁדֹּ ודָ ה‬ ‫בִּ ְשׁ ח אֹ תֹ ו סַ ְרגֹ ון מֶ ֶל אַ שּׁוּר‬ ‫וַיִּ לָּחֶ ם בְּ אַ ְשׁדֹּ וד וַיִּ לְ כְּ דָ הּ‬ ‫בָּ ֵﬠת הַ הִ יא ִדּבֶּ ר יְ הוָה‬ ‫בְּ יַד יְ שַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ בֶ ן־אָ מֹ וץ לֵאמֹ ר‬ ‫ֵל וּפִ תַּ חְ תָּ הַ שַּׂ ק מֵ ַﬠל מָ ְתנֶי‬ ‫ תַ ֲח ץ מֵ ַﬠל ַרגְ לֶי‬b ְ‫וְ ַנ ַﬠל‬ ‫ָﬠרֹ ום וְ יָחֵ ף‬ ָ‫ַו ַיּ ַﬠשׂ כֵּן ה‬ ‫וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר יְ הוָה‬ ‫ַכּ ֲאשֶׁ ר הָ ַל ַﬠבְ ִדּי יְ שַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ ָﬠרֹ ום‬ ‫וְ יָחֵ ף‬ ‫ אֹ ות וּמֹ ו ֵפת‬c‫שָׁ שׁ שָׁ נִ ים‬ ‫ל־מצְ ַריִ ם וְ ַﬠל־כּוּשׁ‬ ִ ‫ַﬠ‬ ‫כֵּן יִ נְ הַ ג מֶ ֶל ־אַ שּׁוּר‬ ‫ת־שׁבִ י ִמצְ ַריִ ם וְ אֶ ת־גָּלוּת כּוּשׁ‬ ְ ֶ‫א‬ e

‫נְ ָﬠ ִרים וּזְקֵ נִ ים ָﬠרֹ ום וְ יָחֵ ף‬ ‫ שֵׁ ת ֶﬠ ְרוַת ִמצְ ָריִ ם‬d‫ַוחֲשׂוּ ַפי‬ ‫וְ חַ תּוּ וָבֹ שׁוּ‬

1

In the year that the commander-in-chiefa, who was sent by King Sargon of Assyria, came to Ashdod and fought against it and took it – 2 at that time YHWH had spoken to Isaiah son of Amoz, saying: “Go, and loose the sackcloth from your loins and take your sandals off your feet,” and he had done so, walking naked and barefoot. 3 Then YHWH said, “Just as my servant Isaiah has walked naked and barefoot, for three years it is a sign and a portent against Egypt and Ethiopia; 4 so shall the king of Assyria lead away the Egyptians as captives and the Ethiopians as exiles, both the young and the old, naked and barefoot, with the buttocks and genitalia of Egypt uncovered. 5 And they shall be dismayed and confounded

77 See in particular Young, Isaiah II, 54–55: “In going about naked, he probably was simply wearing an undergarment, and so even in the eyes of the people, was not acting against what was honorable. He was merely going against custom in such a way that attention would be drawn to himself.” If, however, Isaiah was fully naked and thus conducted himself dishonorably by doing something so shameful, Young would respond that “acting in obedience to God can never be a thing of shame.” 78 Cf. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 175: “Whether the prophet went about entirely naked, or whether he retained a brief loincloth has been discussed by commentators, but makes no difference to the prophetic character of the action.”

3.2. The naked prophet

‫ן־מצְ ַר ִים ִתּפְ אַ ְרתָּ ם‬ ִ ‫וּמ‬ ִ f‫ִמכּוּשׁ מַ בָּ טָ ם‬ ‫וְ אָ מַ ר יֹ שֵׁ ב הָ ִאי הַ זֶּה בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬ ‫הִ נֵּה־כֹ ה מַ בָּ טֵ נוּ‬ ‫ שָׁ ם לְ ֶﬠז ְָרה לְ הִ נָּצֵ ל‬g‫ֲאשֶׁ ר־נ ְַסנוּ‬ ‫ִמפְּ נֵי מֶ ֶל אַ שּׁוּר‬ ‫וְ אֵ י ִנמָּ לֵט ֲאנָחְ נוּ‬

171

because of Ethiopia their hope and of Egypt their boast. 6 In that day the inhabitants of this coastland will say: ‘See, this is what has happened to those in whom we hoped and to whom we fled for help and deliverance from the king of Assyria! And we, how shall we escape?’”

a

Literally “tartan” (‫ )תַּ ְרתָּ ן‬which is an Assyrian title for a high-ranking officer. 1QIsaa reads the plural form “sandals” (‫ ;)ונעליך‬cf. the ancient versions. c Modern commentators and translations such as NRSV generally construe the “three years” with the preceding line, that is, Isaiah walked around for three years. The Masoretic punctuation, however, suggests a different interpretation. By placing an atnach under the preceding “barefoot” (‫)וְ יָחֵ ף‬, they clearly construed “three years” with the following “sign and wonder,” that is, the sign will last for three years. Among the seemingly few modern interpreters who opt for this alternative are Balogh (Stele of YHWH, 314–15) and Oswalt (Isaiah 1–39, 382, note 2). I am persuaded by this idea and have slightly altered the translation (see further below). d It is customary to change the vocalization of ‫ חשׂו ַפי‬to a status construct (‫ ;)חשׂו ֵפי‬cf. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 309; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 321; Wildberger, Jesaja, 748. e NRSV has “with buttocks uncovered, to the shame of Egypt.” My alternative translation draws from Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 309. Noticing the word pair as a pervading rhetorical device in v. 4, he argues that “‫ חשׂופי‬is related to both ‫ שׁת‬and ‫ ערוה‬through an implicit ‫ו‬. ‫שׁת‬ refers to the buttocks of Egypt, while ‫ ערוה‬to the front, the genitalia from which the covering has been stripped off.” f 1QIsaa reads “their trust” (‫)מבטחם‬, followed, for instance, by Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 321. Nevertheless, the MT’s ‫מַ בָּ ט‬, designating hope or expectation here and in v. 6 (derived from ‫ ;נבט‬cf. e.g. Isa 5:12; 22:8, 11), occurs in Zech 9:5 as well (“[Ekron’s] hope will wither” [‫ )]הֹ בִ ישׁ מֶ בָּ טָ הּ‬and its semantic field is close to that ‫ ; ִמבְ טָ ח‬cf. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 309. g 1QIsaa reads “we relied upon” (‫)נסמך‬. The MT is supported by the ancient translations. b

3.2.3. Isaiah 20:1–4: Acting out exile The heading-like statement in v. 1 explicitly locates the events of Isaiah’s action in a particular historical context during Sargon II. The year likely refers to 711 BCE, in which the Assyrians fought down the rebellion in Ashdod. The opening formula itself (‫ )בִּ ְשׁנַת‬also occurs in Isa 6:1 (the death year of King Uzziah) and in Isa 14:28 (the death year of King Ahaz). The military campaign formula (‫לכד‬...‫ )להם‬is common in the Deuteronomistic writings (e.g. 2 Kings 12:18). The capture of Ashdod can be seen as a step towards fighting and taking Egypt farther down south. Verses 2–4 present the command, execution, and explanation of the sign act. The introductory phrase “at that time” (‫ )בָּ ֵﬠת הַ הִ יא‬links the symbolic action to the events narrated in v. 1. In accordance with many commentaries and modern translations, NSRV renders the tenses of the first verb in the past perfect (“had

172

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

spoken”) to indicate that YHWH’s command sounded before the Assyrian capture of Ashdod. An unusual feature in Isaiah is the way of describing YHWH’s address to the prophet. Literally, he spoke “by the hand of Isaiah” (‫)בְּ יַד יְ שַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ‬. Similarly, there seems to be an awkward use of the formula; normally it points to the prophet as revealer or mediator rather than receiver of a specific message (e.g. 1 Sam 28:17; 1 Kings 12:15; Jer 37:2). Options for solving the allegedly illogical syntax (through rather than to) include attempts to explain the formulation as a reference either to the entire sign act or to the content of vv. 3–4.79 A more straightforward option is simply to understand the meaning “to” (the LXX reads πρὸς). There is a similar case in Hag 2:1–2, where v. 1 announces YHWH’s word “by the hands” of the prophet Haggai, and v. 2 informs Haggai what he shall say to Zerubbabel.80 The purpose of YHWH’s address is to instruct Isaiah to walk around naked. The divine command makes it clear that the action is not performed by the prophet’s own initiative. Apart from the trivial “go” ( ‫ ) ֵל‬that initiates the action (cf. 6:9; 22:15), the command consists of two elements: Isaiah must “loose” (‫ פתח‬in Piel) his sackcloth from his loins and “take off” (‫ )חלץ‬his sandals from his feet. He must undress. The nature of this “sackcloth” (‫ )שַׂ ק‬has evoked much discussion.81 Wearing sackcloth is a common ritual of mourning and lamentation (e.g. Gen 37:34; Isa 3:24; Lam 2:10) or of fasting and humiliation (e.g. 1 Kings 20:31–32; Isa 58:5). Noteworthy in Isaiah is Hezekiah’s faithful reaction to the Assyrian threat, where he covers himself with sackcloth and goes into the temple to pray (37:1). The frequent association of sackcloth with mourning raises the question of whether Isaiah’s wearing of this particular kind of cloth represents another symbolic act pointing to the future disaster of Ashdod or Judah or whether it reflects the past fall of Samaria.82 Other evidence, however, suggests that “sackcloth” in this narrative refers to the hairy garment or dress of prophets (2 Kings 1:8; Matt 3:4). The reference to “a hairy mantle” ( ‫אַ דֶּ ֶרת‬ ‫ )שֵׂ ﬠָר‬in Zech 13:4 gives weight to this proposal. The exact nature of the prophetic dress has also been discussed with regard to the nakedness of the prophet. The final line of v. 2 informs readers that Isaiah did as YHWH commanded (‫) ַו ַיּﬠַשׂ כֵּן‬, adding that he walked around “naked and barefoot” (‫) ָﬠרֹ ום וְ יָחֵ ף‬. As was mentioned, it has been suggested that Isaiah was only partially naked, because he was still wearing underwear. Accordingly, “sackcloth” is more like a cloak not to be worn on naked skin. Much here turns 79

Regarding the latter option, Oswalt (Isaiah 1–39, 384) suggests that the speaking by the hand could refer to the content of v. 3. If so, a more appropriate reading would be: “At that time the Lord spoke by the hand of Isaiah, son of Amoz – having said, ‘Go…’ And he had done this… – then the Lord said…”. 80 Cf. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 307–8. 81 See e.g. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 311–12; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 385; Wildberger, Jesaja, 755–56. 82 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 323; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 385.

3.2. The naked prophet

173

on how to interpret the state of nakedness expressed by the term ‫ ָﬠרֹ ום‬. The general use of the word points in more directions. Some verses indicate total nudity, most prominently in the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:25) and in the prologue of Job (1:21). Other verses are said to indicate only partial nudity (e.g. Job 22:6; Isa 58:7).83 In his commentary on ‫ ָﬠרוֹם‬, Young, who is one of the most eager proponents for Isaiah wearing undergarments, stresses the addition of the word “barefoot” (‫)יָחֵ ף‬: “Had [Isaiah] been completely naked, there would be no need for this additional description.”84 Against this claim, I will argue that due to the logic of the parallelism, “naked” and “barefoot” together render the idea of total nudity.85 More importantly, the following verses, particularly the notion of the uncovered buttocks and genitalia in v. 4, suggest that in order to authentically act out the fate of the Egyptian and Ethiopian captives, Isaiah must have been entirely naked.86 Nakedness itself may, of course, be seen as disgraceful (e.g. Gen 3:7, 10; 9:22; Isa 3:17), but it appears to be a significant element in the dishonorable treatment of prisoners. They are stripped naked when taken away into captivity. A few biblical texts reflect this practice. In order to humiliate David’s envoys, the Ammonites shave off half of their beards and cut off their garments so that their buttocks are exposed (2 Sam 10:4). Amos tells that when divine judgment comes, even the greatest warrior will flee naked (2:16). Finally, 2 Chr 28:14–15 reverses the motif by informing readers that naked captives are clothed and receive sandals (notice the word pairing of cloth and sandals). YHWH’s explanation of the action occurs in vv. 3–4, the former of which also functions as an indirect report of Isaiah’s performance. Verses 3–4 constitute the two halves of a simile comparison (‫ כֵּן‬... ‫ )כּ ְַאַשֶׁ ר‬that explains the similarities between the prophet’s appearance and the fate of the Egyptians and Ethiopians. YHWH’s reference to Isaiah as “my servant” (‫ ) ַﬠבְ ִדּי‬points to the significant relationship between God and the prophet (see my comments on Isa 22:20–24, below). The period of three years appears to cover precisely the period of rebellions in Ashdod between 713 and 711 BCE. As mentioned in the textual notes, the Masoretic tradition understands “the three years” (‫ )שָׁ שׁ שָׁ נִ ים‬as the length of time that the sign lasts. In favor of this construal, Balogh has rightly drawn 83 Wildberger (Jesaja, 756) points to the Greek equivalence γυμνος “das nicht nur ‘nackt,’ sodern auch ‘leicht (nur mit Unterkleidern) angezogen’ bedeuten.” 84 Young, Isaiah II, 55. 85 Admittedly, the cognate phrase in the lamentation over the coming doom in Mic 1:8 – “I will go barefoot [or stripped] and naked” (‫ – )אֵ ילְ כָה שׁוֹלָל וְ ָﬠרוֹם‬could indicate the stripping off of only the outer cloth as a sign of mourning. 86 Cf. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 313: “The oral message supplementing the symbolic action, namely that Assyria will deport the African captives stripped of clothing in the manner of Isaiah, makes most sense if the prophet was indeed walking totally naked.”

174

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

attention to the many similar temporal references in Isaiah (7:8, 16; 16:14; 21:16; 37:30; cf. Jer 28:3).87 In these passages, the idea of timing serves as a significant element in the future fulfillment of the prophecy. In the oracle against Moab in particular, Isaiah predicts that in three years Moab’s glory will disappear (16:14). Accordingly, “the ‘three years’ in Isa 20:3 refers […] to the fulfillment of the message related to the symbolic action.”88 Another feature giving weight to this interpretation is that Isaiah’s action is called “a sign and a portent” for Egypt and Ethiopia. Signs occur frequently in Isaiah (see my comments on Isa 38:21, below). The two words “sign” (‫ )אֹ ות‬and “portent or omen” (‫ )מוֹ ֵפת‬are paired in Isa 8:18 as well, albeit in the plural. The prophet and his children with their symbolic names are signs for the hardened people of YHWH of coming destruction and salvation for a faithful remnant. Verse 4 explains that Isaiah’s action symbolizes the capture and deportation of the Egyptian and Ethiopian people. The Assyrian king will lead them away as captives and exiles. The verb “to lead away” (‫ )נהג‬indicates that the overall metaphor of v. 4 draws from shepherd imagery. As the flock of sheep is totally subdued to its shepherd and must be led, so the captives are subdued to the capturing king.89 In many cases, the verb designates the shepherd’s leading of cattle or sheep (Gen 31:18; Exod 3:1; 1 Sam 23:5; 30:20). In a few instances, the object of the verb is the captives (Gen 31:26; 1 Sam 30:2). In Nah 2:8, the leading away of slave girls parallels the exile of the city of Nineveh. The verb, particularly in Piel, is also used to describe YHWH’s guidance of his people. In the wilderness, he “guided” (‫ )וַיְ ַנ ֲהגֵם‬his people like a flock (Ps 78:52), and as the shepherd of Israel “he is leading” (‫ )נֹ הֵ ג‬Joseph as a flock (Ps 80:2). His faithful ones declare that “He will guide us [‫ ] ְי ַנ ֲהגֵנוּ‬until death” (Ps 48:15). In Isaiah, YHWH’s people will not suffer, because “he who has pity on them will lead them [‫( ”] ְי ַנ ֲהגֵם‬49:10), and like cattle given rest by the divine spirit, YHWH has led his people (63:14).90 While the listed examples express positive and beneficial aspects of divine guidance, the verb can also refer to YHWH’s wrath and punishment. The opening of Lam 3 offers a good example of this perverted image of the shepherd.91 Rather than being led to life-giving waters or valleys, the psalmist suffers from divine wrath: “[YHWH] has driven [‫ ]נָהַ ג‬and brought me into darkness without light” (3:2). Another example is the recurring feature in Deuteronomy’s depiction of the people’s exile: “YHWH will scatter you among the people; only a few of you will be left among the nations where YHWH will lead [‫ ] ְינַהֵ ג‬you” (4:27; cf. 28:37). In Isa 20, it is, of course, the Assyrian king and not YHWH 87

Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 314–15. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 315. 89 Cf. Young, Isaiah II, 56. 90 See further in Chapter 6. 91 Klein, Israel in Exile, 12. 88

3.2. The naked prophet

175

who takes the role as the shepherd and it is the foreign people and not Judah who are in focus. Nevertheless, the Assyrian king likely serves as the instrument of YHWH’s judgment (cf. 10:24–34) and, as we shall see in the exegesis of vv. 5–6, a similar fate awaits Judah. Other biblical texts likewise use the words “captives” (‫)שׁבִ י‬ ְ and “exiles” (‫ )גָּלוּת‬about the people of YHWH. With regard to ‫ גָּלוּת‬in particular, only in Amos 1:6, 9 are foreign nations and cities the object of deportation expressed by this term. In all other cases, the term relates to Judah: the exile of King Jehoiachin (2 Kings 25:27; Jer 52:31; Ezek 1:2), the exiles from Judah (Jer 24:5; 28:4; 29:22), the exiles from Jerusalem (Jer 40:1; Ob 1:20), the exile of Ezekiel’s community (Ezek 33:21; 40:1), and YHWH’s exiles (Isa 45:13). Just like the prophet, the Egyptians and Ethiopians shall appear naked and barefoot. The mention of “the young and the old” (‫ )נְ ָﬠ ִרים וּזְקֵ נִ ים‬emphasizes that not only prisoners of war but also common citizens across all ages will be victims of Assyrian captivity. According to the final line of v. 4, the Egyptians shall be completely uncovered. The verb “to uncover or strip off” (‫ )חשׂף‬denotes force, as it designates the stripping off of bark from trees (Ps 29:9; Joel 1:7). A close parallel is Jer 13:26, where YHWH’s punishment of Judah involves the uncovering of skirts so that the “shame” (‫ )קָ לוֹן‬of his people will be seen. The explicit notion of “buttocks” (‫ )שֵׁ ת‬and “genitalia” (‫ )ﬠ ְֶרוָה‬stresses the public humiliation. Among the few other instances of ‫ שֵׁ ת‬in this sense, the term occurs in the disgraceful treatment of David’s envoys in 2 Sam 10:4. The meaning of ‫ ﬠ ְֶרוָה‬in other biblical texts fluctuates between “nakedness” and “genital area.” The term is used in the narrative about Noah’s drunkenness (Gen 9:22–23) and the concern not to appear uncovered in social and cultic contexts occurs frequently in priestly texts (e.g. Exod 28:42; Lev 18; 20). In terms of divine judgment, Jerusalem laments that her nakedness has been exposed (Lam 1:8). Interestingly, YHWH’s punishing speech against Lady Babylon in Isa 47 – “your nakedness shall be uncovered” ( ֵ‫)תּגָּל ֶﬠ ְרוָת‬ ִ – uses a Niphal form of ‫( גלה‬v. 3). Exile and exposure go hand in hand (see Chapter 7). 3.2.4. Isaiah 20:5–6: Consequences for the audience Verses 5–6 portray the consequences of Isaiah’s action for his audience. The form of the verbs in the opening of vv. 5 and 6 (waw-consecutive perfect) indicates future concerns. Those who have depended on Egypt and Ethiopia as their “hope or expectation” (‫ )מַ בָּ ט‬and “pride” (‫)תּפְ אֶ ֶרת‬ ִ shall be dismayed and put to shame. Recognizing that those who have had hope placed upon them have failed leads to despair. What can now prevent Assyrian invasion and deportation? The general theme of fruitlessness of political and military alliances with foreign nations, especially with Egypt, is familiar in Isaiah (e.g. 30:1–5;

176

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

31:1–3). In the imminent danger of defeat, which is implicitly stated, one should put his trust solely in YHWH. An initial problem, however, concerns the unspecific and ambiguous references to “they” in v. 5 and to “the inhabitant of this coastland” and “we” in v. 6. It has been argued that the two verses must refer to different addresses, otherwise, they appear as a meaningless duplication. It seems best to examine them verse by verse. Commentators generally regard “they” in v. 5 as a reference to Judah. 92 Cook observes that the verse has many parallel terms and motifs in Jeremiah, especially in passages that criticize the trust of Judean leadership in Egypt and expose their subsequent shame (e.g. Jer 2:18, 36–37).93 The pairing of ‫“( חתת‬to be dismayed, to be filled with terror”) and ‫“( בושׁ‬to be put to shame”) also occurs in Isa 37:27 (cf. 2 Kings 19:26), where it designates the general attitude towards the invading Assyrians. In addition to this instance, the pairing of these terms occurs only in Jeremiah, but no less than nine times, occasionally referring to the arrogant leaders in Jerusalem (e.g. Jer 8:9–10). The intertextual evidence supports that the verse renders a critique against the people of Judah. Nevertheless, in the words of Cook, “the ambiguity of this verse may indicate general concern for those who hold positions of influence in the royal court of Jerusalem, rather than an interest in pinpointing any particular group.”94 The identification of “the inhabitant of this coastland” (‫ )יֹ שֵׁ ב הָ ִאי הַ זֶּה‬and “we” (‫ ) ֲאנָחְ נוּ‬in v. 6, which must refer to the same group, has provoked more discussion. Clements, Oswalt, Wildberger, and Young posit the people of Philistia, especially of Ashdod.95 However, Wildberger mentions the possibility that the author deliberately chose this vague phrase rather than explicitly stating Philistia or Ashdod and Clements recognizes that although the primary reference is to the Philistines, the “obvious relevance to Judah is clear.”96 This identification, however, does not make sense in light of v. 1, where the Philistines have already experienced the failing support of Egypt.97 Another option is to see a reference to all nearby rebellious states, including Judah. Balogh is rather certain in his assessment: “There is no doubt that ‫ ישׁב האי הזה‬refers to Canaan, but focuses on the primary audience of the author, Judah itself.” 98 Cook, observing the unusual form of ‫ ִאי‬in the singular (cf. Isa 23:2, 6), posits 92

E.g. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 175; Wildberger, Jesaja, 759. Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 136–39. 94 Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 139. 95 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 173, 176; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 382, note 2; Wildberger, Jesaja, 759; Young, Isaiah II, 58. 96 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 176; Wildberger, Jesaja, 759. 97 Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 145; Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 316: “If the events presented in the heading of the prophecy constitute the background of the symbolic act and explanation of Isaiah, then he had actually nothing to say to the inhabitants of Ashdod anymore.” 98 Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 316. 93

3.2. The naked prophet

177

Tyre, arguing that the verse reflects the expectation “that Egypt would be defeated by Nebuchadnezzar following the Babylonian attack on Tyre” (cf. Ezek 26–32) and thus “seeks to emphasize the destruction of Egypt as their source of dependency.”99 Seitz, followed by Childs, goes in a different direction.100 Avoiding an immediately historical referent, they argue that v. 6 broadens the scope by referring to the nations at the limits of the known world (cf. 41:5; 42:4), “who are helpless before God’s sovereignty, which executes judgment on the world by means of the Assyrians and Babylonians.”101 No doubt, the singular and definite form of “coastland” (‫ )הָ ִאי‬and the demonstrative pronoun “this” (‫ )הַ זֶּה‬in 20:6 creates problems for their identification.102 Nevertheless, the expanded scope accords with the general perspective of the verse. The sudden introduction of “in that day” (‫ )בַּ יּוֹם הַ הוּא‬suggests an eschatological tone. In addition to the ambiguous addressee of the verse, there are more generic descriptions which, in contrast to the previous part of the passage, escape clear identification: “the king of Assyria” for “Sargon, the king of Assyria” in v. 1 and “those in whom we hoped” for Egypt and Ethiopia in vv. 3–5. I tend to follow Seitz and Childs. However, the general vagueness of the verse makes it difficult to argue exhaustively in favor of one specific referent as the content easily fits into new situations.103 As such, “the king of Assyria” could likely function as a pseudonym for a subsequent world power, for instance, the Babylonians. A significant result of the expanded perspective in v. 6 is the emphasis on the terrifying appearance of the Assyrian king. Not only Judah but also the world at large will fear him and find no way of escape.104 In this light, Isaiah’s symbolic action has at least two functions. First, it underlines that looking to Egypt and Ethiopia is fruitless. The great nations of the south will be of no help and those who worked for such alliances will be the object of ridicule. Second, Isaiah’s action shows what will happen to every nation that faces Assyrian (or Babylonian) invasion. Not only will Egypt and Ethiopia suffer and be punished but all who believed in the strength of these nations. Judah, as a minor part of the peoples referred to in v. 6, will join into a cry of despair: “we are the next 99

Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 140–44. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 244–45. 101 Childs, Isaiah, 145. 102 See the criticism of Seitz’s interpretation in Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 316, note 40; Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 140, note 42. 103 Wildberger, Jesaja, 759. 104 The phrase “And we, how shall we escape?” (‫ )וְ אֵ י ִנמָּ לֵט ֲאנָחְ נוּ‬parallels other passages in which the description of terrifying and invincible enemies is followed by a desperate cry: “no one can rescue” (Isa 5:29), facing the approaching Assyrians (!); “woe to us, for we are ruined!” (Jer 4:13), facing the attacking Babylonians; and “nothing escapes it” (Joel 2:3) and “who can endure it?” (Joel 2:11) in the enemy attack on Zion. See also my review in Poulsen, Representing Zion, 79–87. 100

178

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

on the list of Assyria!”105 Like the Egyptians and Ethiopians before them, the people of Judah will be led away in chains. They too will be the object of humiliation. These observations make it plausible that Isa 20 as a whole foreshadows the fall of Jerusalem and the miserable destiny of Judah. Just like the arrogant people of Isa 5:11–17 and 22:11 who did not pay attention to YHWH and his deeds, the audience of Isaiah’s action should expect a similar fate: deportation and death. 3.2.5. Excurses on other prophetic sign acts about exile In the prophetic book as a whole, Isa 20 is the only passage that renders a sign act. The genre, however, occurs frequently in other prophetic books. This brief survey intends to shed further light on certain features of Isa 20. A number of symbolic actions in Jeremiah and Ezekiel communicate the coming ruin of Judah and the Babylonian captivity. In several of them, the prophet employs a tool or an item to render his message: a belt (Jer 13:1–11), a jug (Jer 19:1–13), a yoke (Jer 27), a brick, bread, and a barber’s razor (Ezek 4–5), and sign posts (Ezek 21:23–27). Three sign acts point to restoration and Babylonian defeat after the destruction of Jerusalem and the scattering of its inhabitants (Jer 32; 51:59–64; Ezek 37:15–28). A few times, there is an indication of the situation in exile. The eating of bread is interpreted with reference to Israel’s presence among the nations, where the exiles will have to eat unclean food (Ezek 4:13), and Ezekiel’s binding of a small number of hairs in the skirts of his robe points to the remnant of people that will survive in exile (Ezek 5:3). In some cases, the prophet, like Isaiah, uses his body or a certain behavior to express his message. This is clear in Hosea, in which the prophet’s marriage, children, and reconciliation with his wife illustrate the people’s relationship to their God (Hos 1; 3). Ezekiel is silent to imitate YHWH’s silence until the fall of Jerusalem (3:24–27) and he claps, stamps, and cries out to express YHWH’s fury and indignation over the wickedness of his people (6:11–12). Another good example is the isolation of Jeremiah, which will serve as the first of three more extendedly treated parallels. 3.2.5.1. Jeremiah’s isolation (Jeremiah 16:1–13) In Jer 16:1–9, the prophet Jeremiah embodies the future fate of his people. YHWH instructs him to refrain from all public life. The divine command includes celibacy and childlessness (vv. 2–4) and the prophet is not allowed to participate in lamentations (vv. 5–7) or festivals (vv. 8–9). Just like Isaiah in Isa 20, Jeremiah acts representationally. There is “an implied simile,” where

105

Cf. Balogh, Stele of YHWH, 316.

3.2. The naked prophet

179

the result of his actions is compared to the future of Judah.106 His celibacy and childlessness suggest the death of the nation as a whole. Moreover, his sharp isolation from his own people illustrates the absolute separation between the people and their God. YHWH has withdrawn from public life. Social life in all its diversity will disappear “in this place” (‫ )בַּ מָּ קוֹם הַ זֶּה‬and “in this land” ( ‫בָּ אָ ֶרץ‬ ‫)הַ זּ ֹאת‬. In brief, “Jeremiah is to reveal in his body the woeful destruction of structured life, Judah’s hour of darkness.”107 The following unit in vv. 10–13 adds further explanation to Jeremiah’s performance. The coming punishment of exile is the people’s own fault. It derives from the ancestors’ wickedness, idolatry, and violence against the law, all the way down to Jeremiah’s own generation, which has behaved even more wickedly by not paying attention to YHWH’s word. Verse 13 sketches their future destiny: YHWH will “hurl” (‫ ;טול‬cf. Jonah 1:12, 15 and below) them out of their homes to an unknown land. Here, they can continue their idolatry: “having worshiped alien gods in the homeland, they are sentenced to worship them in exile.”108 3.2.5.2. Ezekiel’s departure from his house (Ezekiel 12:1–16) Another interesting parallel to the sign act of Isaiah is found in Ezek 12:1–16, where the prophet embodies and enacts the coming exile of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. He acts as “those who go into exile” (‫ ;כְּ מוֹצָ אֵ י גּוֹלָה‬v. 4). Again, the prophet performs a representational role, showing the fate of a collective. The scene of the performance is set among the exiled people in Babylon, although it would perhaps make more sense in Jerusalem. Nevertheless, Zimmerli has drawn attention to the exilic perspective of the passage: “[Ezekiel] redet im Exil über das Ergehen der in Jerusalem Verbliebenen, deren Hoffnung am Weiterbestand Jerusalems hängt, nicht sehen wollen.” 109 In any case, Joyce has rightly pointed out that the act of Ezekiel functions as “a sign for all Israel, whether already exiled or not.”110 Verses 1–2 introduce the passage. YHWH’s word comes to Ezekiel and presents the background for his symbolic action: the prophet dwells in the midst of “a rebellious house” (‫)בֵּ ית־הַ מֶּ ִרי‬. By traditional Isaianic language, the unfaithful Israel is portrayed as blind and dumb (cf. Isa 6:9–10). Verses 3–6 render YHWH’s command to Ezekiel to perform the action, v. 7 reports that he did as he was commanded, and vv. 8–15 offer an extended interpretation of the sign. 106 Friebel, Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign-Acts, 87 and further, at 96: “Jeremiah functioned in the role of the people, representing to them what their future life would be like when the judgment came.” 107 Stulman, Jeremiah, 162. 108 Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 475. 109 Zimmerli, Ezechiel 1–24, 259. 110 Joyce, Ezekiel, 118.

180

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

Verse 16 concludes the passage with a reference to the surviving remnant (cf. 5:3). The action itself consists of the several stages that escalate throughout the day and the night. First, Ezekiel must prepare “an exile’s things” (‫)כְּ לֵי גוֹלָה‬ which in light of Jer 10:17–18 and iconographic material likely refers to a small bundle containing personal belongings.111 Next, Ezekiel must go into exile or at least pretend that he will go to another place. The use of ‫ גלה‬suggests that the action shall illustrate forced exile for the general inhabitants of Jerusalem rather than a voluntary fleeing to escape captivity.112 He will then dig through the wall and carry his baggage through it. Carrying the baggage on his shoulder, he shall shamefully cover his face in order not to see the land. In fact, Friebel suggests that this act may figuratively refer to “the permanence of the exilic situation into which the Jerusalemites were taken […] from that point on, the land of Judah would no longer be seen” (cf. Jer 22:10–12).113 The public character of the performance is made abundantly clear. No less than seven times are readers informed that Ezekiel acted “in their sight” (‫)לְ ֵﬠינֵיהֶ ם‬, that is, in the sight of his fellow men in Babylon. According to v. 6, Ezekiel and his performance shall serve as a “sign” or “omen” (‫ )מוֹ ֵפת‬for the house of Israel. This motif recurs in v. 11. Verses 8–15 interpret the sign. The sign act concerns the prince of Jerusalem and the inhabitants of the city. The prince, presumably King Zedekiah, shall flee with his baggage on his shoulder and his face covered, unable to see his land. In the end, however, YHWH will catch him and bring him to Babylon where he shall die.114 The rest of the inhabitants shall be dispersed among the nations. Ezekiel’s statement in v. 11 offers a key to the interpretation of the action. He says: “I am a sign for you [‫]מוֹ ֶפ ְת ֶכם‬: as I have done, so shall it be done to them; they shall go into exile, into captivity [‫]בַּ גּוֹלָה בַ ְשּׁבִ י‬.” As in Isa 20:3, Ezekiel’s performance is designated as a portentous sign (‫)מוֹ ֵפת‬. The synonymous “sign” (‫ )אוֹת‬is used four times in Ezekiel (4:3; 14:8; 20:12, 20) of which Ezekiel’s treatment of the brick in 4:1–3 as an illustration and warning of the siege of Jerusalem offers the best example. Likewise, here, Ezekiel’s departure from his home serves as a warning of the coming destruction and deportation. As noted, Ezekiel does not address the people in Jerusalem explicitly, but rather his own community in Babylon (cf. “you” [addressee] vis-à-vis “they” [those in Jerusalem] in v. 11). He attempts to convince them

111

Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20, 209. Friebel, Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign-Acts, 266. 113 Friebel, Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign-Acts, 274. 114 Friebel, Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign-Acts, 268–71; Joyce, Ezekiel, 118–19. The title “prince” (‫ )נ ִָשׁיא‬may refer to his role as a mere vassal. During the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, he flew by night but was caught and his eyes were put out (cf. 2 Kings 25:4–7; Jer 39:4–7; 52:7–11). 112

3.2. The naked prophet

181

that the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of its inhabitants are inevitable events and that they should thus cease to place their hope in the continued existence of their capital.115 This constitutes a significant parallel to Isa 20: the audience that the prophet addresses is not related directly to the deportation being enacted, but will eventually be affected by it. Of course, Ezekiel varies the imagery of Isaiah and relates the motif of deportation directly to the remaining inhabitants of Jerusalem and not to foreign nations. Moreover, while Isaiah’s performance embodies the stripping and humiliation of prisoners of war and common citizens of all ages, Ezekiel’s performance primarily embodies the removal of Jerusalem’s citizens to a new place, carrying only a small bundle of things with them.116 3.2.5.3. Nebuchadnezzar’s capture of Egypt (Jeremiah 43:8–13) The third passage of relevance is Jeremiah’s warning of judgment against Egypt in 43:8–13. At first glance, the sign act concerns the mighty empire at the Nile Delta (cf. the anti-Egyptian strand in these chapters: 42:13–22; 44; 46). Nevertheless, the addressees are clearly the Judeans. Their destiny is viewed in close relation to that of Egypt in whom they put their trust (cf. Isa 20). Despite YHWH’s command to stay in desolate Judah, a remnant of survivors from the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem goes to Egypt to settle there, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with them. Jeremiah’s sign act in Tahpanhes intends to show that Egypt will not provide safety against the power of the Babylonians. A similar purpose is at stake in Jer 27, where Jeremiah’s carrying of an ox-yoke attempts to persuade five kings of neighboring countries not to resist Babylon.117 Nothing can stand up against Nebuchadnezzar. He is the instrument of divine judgment or, to be more precise, he is YHWH’s servant (‫ ; ַﬠבְ ִדּי‬43:10; cf. 25:9; 27:6). Just like he destroyed Judah, he will now destroy Egypt. YHWH is superior to the Egyptian gods. In Jeremiah 43:8–13, YHWH commands Jeremiah to bury some large stones in the clay pavement near the Pharaoh’s palace in Tahpanhes.118 The public character of the action is emphasized by the statement that Jeremiah shall do it “in the sight of some of the Judeans” (‫הוּדים‬ ִ ְ‫)לְ ֵﬠינֵי ְאַנָשׁיִ ם י‬, that is, in front of 115

Cf. Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20, 220: “The message was to the exiles, whose sympathy with Jerusalem and hopes of speedy repatriation justified their stigmatization as ‘the rebellious house.’ Only if they abandon their illusions (‘perhaps they will see,’ vs. 3) could they come to realize their deep guilt and comprehend their exile as a means of paying off the debt of sin they owed God and thus be reconciled with him.” 116 Cf. Zimmerli, Ezechiel 1–24, 260. 117 Cf. Cook, A Sign and a Wonder, 133–34. 118 The meaning of some of the words is unclear, but the overall image seems clear enough. See the discussion in Friebel, Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign-Acts, 252–57; Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 299–300.

182

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

those who fled with him to this town (v. 9). The accompanying interpretation explicates that the stones symbolize the unshakable foundation of Nebuchadnezzar’s throne and its canopy when he conquers and ravages Egypt (vv. 10– 13). His ravage consists in death, captivity (‫)שׁבִ י‬, ְ and destruction of Egyptian temples. However, more features indicate that this description concerns the Judeans staying here. First, the listing of pestilence, captivity, and sword in v. 11 resembles that of 15:2 where the judgment is directed against Judah.119 Second, the remarkable image of “delousing” in v. 12 may refer to the scattered Judeans as “vermin”: Nebuchadnezzar will pick Egypt clean of them as when a shepherd cleans his cloak.120 In any case, the fate of the exilic community is closely related to that of Egypt. Their flight carries an ironic undertone because no one escapes YHWH’s judgment.121 3.2.6. Summing up The sign act of Isaiah in Isa 20:1–6 associates exile with social marginalization and public humiliation. In the context of the Ashdod rebellion in the late eighth century, the prophet walks around completely naked to illustrate the capture of Egypt and Ethiopia by the Assyrians and the disgraceful deportation of their citizens. Inhabitants of all ages shall be taken captive and they shall be led away like sheep, naked and vulnerable. At first glance, the prophet’s symbolic action serves as a warning against those who argue for political alliances with these nations to the south. Yet the terrifying nature of the Assyrian king suggests that, on a deeper level, the defeat and deportation of the Egyptians and Ethiopians illustrate what will happen to every nation that faces invasion from the great empire to the east. The people of Judah will eventually be led away naked and barefoot and become an object of public disgrace. It is notable in Isaiah’s sign act that the prophet communicates his message solely with his body and behavior. He embodies the shame of exile without using words. The survey of other prophetic sign acts shows that this is not a unique case. The prophet Jeremiah symbolizes YHWH’s withdrawal from his people by isolating himself completely from all sorts of public life. The prophet Ezekiel departs from his house only carrying a small bundle to act like those who are forced into exile. Jeremiah’s installation of a foundation for the throne

119

See Fischer, Jeremia 26–52, 425. Cf. Keown, Scalise, and Smothers, Jeremiah 26–52, 258. Other options are to interpret the image as the careful plundering of the country’s shrines (e.g. Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 302; Stulman, Jeremiah, 338) or as Nebuchadnezzar’s wrapping himself with Egypt as a garment (e.g. Fischer, Jeremia 26–52, 426). 121 Cf. Carroll, Jeremiah, 727: “No sooner have they fled from the potential threat of Babylon in the land of Judah (42:11–12) than they must face Yhwh’s sending of Nebuchadrezzar to invade the very land to which they fled in order to avoid him.” 120

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

183

of a future conqueror illustrates that Egypt will not provide safety for the Judean refugees against the approaching Babylonians. Common to more of these sign acts is the representational role of the prophet whereby his individual actions reveal the future experiences of a collective.

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim (Isaiah 22:15–25) 3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

The latter half of Isa 22 contains the dramatic portrayal of the destinies of two Judean high-office holders: Shebna and Eliakim. The prophet Isaiah condemns Shebna for abusing his power and predicts a proper punishment of exile and death in a foreign land (vv. 15–19). Following Shebna’s removal from the post, Eliakim is being installed as his replacement (vv. 20–24). Yet despite the glorious and divinely sanctioned portrait of Eliakim, eventually he too will fall (v. 25). The Shebna-Eliakim passage constitutes the second part of Isa 22. The chapter consists of two larger blocks: vv. 1–14 concern the imminent catastrophe directed against Jerusalem (see Chapter 2) and vv. 15–25 concern the future destiny of these two named Judeans. Within Isa 22 as a whole, the repeated title of “YHWH Zebaot” in vv. 5, 12, 14, 15 and 25 suggests that the present form of the chapter should be read as a comprehensive whole. Both blocks refer to the same central matter, that is, the motif of defeat. Verses 1–14 focus on the nation and capital city, while vv. 15–25 focus on the fall of two individuals. Regarding the literary arrangement of the Shebna-Eliakim part, vv. 15–25 form a coherent unit, although for practical reasons it makes sense to split it up into two minor blocks: vv. 15–19 about Shebna and vv. 20–25 about Eliakim. Nevertheless, some literary features in the passage clearly warrant its intended unity. It is framed by the divine name “YHWH Zebaot” in vv. 15 and 25. Furthermore, the internal dynamic of the passage is, indeed, the transfer of authority from the banished Shebna to his successor Eliakim. Verse 19 and its introduction of a divine first-person speaker indicate the transition by means of a literary bridge, which points forward to the installation of Eliakim in vv. 20– 23. With respect to the compositional history of the passage, it is customary to assume a setting in the late eighth century during the Assyrian threat under Hezekiah, at least for the Shebna passage. Similarly, many interpreters assume that the passage as a whole developed in several stages.122 Verses 15–19 likely form the core to which vv. 20–24 were added at a later time, whereas v. 25, which changes the tone of the oracle completely, reflects an even later editorial

122

Wildberger, Jesaja, 843: “Es ist ausgeschlossen, daß beide Teile in einem Zug verfaßt wurden.”

184

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

hand (perhaps after 587 BCE).123 However, the degree of redactional activity on the passage and the chapter in general differs immensely among scholars. Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that due to the present placement among the future-oriented oracles about foreign nations in Isa 13–23, one should except that the passage points beyond its original context.124 In the book of Isaiah as we now have it, it is thus plausible that the figures of Shebna and Eliakim and their destinies foreshadow later events.125 In my exegesis, I will assume that, despite a possible literary prehistory, Shebna and Eliakim now serve as types for the imminent doom of Jerusalem and of the Davidic monarchy. The very names of the central characters have evoked much discussion, because the names “Shebna” (‫ שֶׁ בְ נָא‬or ‫ )שֶׁ בְ נָה‬and “Eliakim” (‫ )אֶ לְ יָקִ ים‬are also coupled in the duplicate account of the salvation of Jerusalem in Isa 36–37 and 2 Kings 18–19.126 There are, however, at least two notable differences. First, the order of their names is reversed in the latter instances. Second, in Isa 36–37, Shebna does not have a high position, but is simply a “scribe” (‫)סֹ פֵר‬. Many scholars nevertheless assume that they are identical with the figures of Isa 22 and that the demotion of Shebna indicates that Isaiah’s prediction of his removal and exile was only partially fulfilled.127 Others have refused any identification,128 whereas redaction-historical critics such as Clements have argued that the names (or entire verses) were introduced in Isa 22 only secondarily to link them to the period of Hezekiah.129 A similar debate concerns possible historical circumstances behind the prophet Isaiah’s condemnation of Shebna. For instance, did Shebna promote an alliance with the Egyptians and thus represent

123 Cf. e.g. Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 271–72. Others see vv. 24–25 as a later addition, for instance, Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 188: “The final two verses, 24–25, have then been added at a later time of disappointment and disillusionment with the Davidic monarchy, almost certainly after Josiah’s death, and most probably after 587 BC.” 124 See my discussion of the purpose of Isa 22:1–14 in Chapter 2. 125 Childs, Isaiah, 159. 126 Isa 36:3, 11, 22; 37:2; 2 Kings 18:18, 26, 37; 19:2. The name “Shebna” only occurs in Isa 22; 36–37; 2 Kings 18–19. The name “Eliakim” is also the name of a priest (Neh 12:41) and the birth name of King Jehoiakim (2 Kings 23:34; 2 Chr 36:4; see further below). 127 E.g. Wildberger, Jesaja, 836; Willis, “Historical Issues,” 61, 69–70: “there is nothing to indicate that the Assyrians carried Shebna into captivity with his splendid chariots, or that he died in a foreign land, as Isaiah had proclaimed.” 128 E.g. Na’aman, “Royal Prerogative,” 453: “The best solution to this ostensible contradiction is to assume that Shebna was a common name in late monarchical Judah and that the major-domo of the prophecy and the royal scribe who operated during the Assyrian blockade should be considered to have been two different people.” 129 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 187–88 and 190.

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

185

a political position opposed to that of the prophet? The lack of historical information for settling these issues makes engaging too deeply in these hypothetical matters a futile task.130 3.3.1. Shebna In the book as a whole, the prophet Isaiah’s condemnation of Shebna stands out because with the exception of the kings, he is the only individual that the prophet rebukes. Nevertheless, Shebna apparently acts as if he were a king and likely embodies the critical fate of later Judean kings. 3.3.1.1. Isaiah 22:15–19: Text and translation ‫כֹּ ה אָ מַ ר ֲאדֹ נָי יְ הוִ ה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬ ‫ הַ זֶּה‬a‫ֶל ־בּ ֹא אֶ ל־הַ סֹּ ֵכן‬ b ‫ַﬠל־שֶׁ בְ נָא ֲאשֶׁ ר ַﬠל־הַ בָּ יִ ת‬ ‫וּמי לְ פֹ ה‬ ִ ‫מַ ה־לְּ פֹ ה‬ ‫כִּ י־חָ צַ בְ תָּ לְּ פֹּ ה קָ בֶ ר‬ ‫חֹ צְ בִ י מָ רֹ ום קִ בְ רֹ ו‬ ‫חֹ קְ קִ י בַ סֶּ לַע ִמ ְשׁכָּן ו‬ d ֶ‫הִ נֵּה יְ הוָה ְמטַ לְ טֶ לְ טַ לְ טֵ לָה גָּב‬ ‫וְ עֹ טְ ﬠָטֹ ה‬ ‫צָ נֹ וף יִ צְ נָפְ צְ ֵנ ָפה‬ ‫כַּדּוּר אֶ ל־אֶ ֶרץ ַרחֲבַ ת יָדָ יִ ם‬ ֶ‫ כְּ בֹ וד‬f‫שָׁ מָּ ה תָ מוּת וְ שָׁ מָּ ה מַ ְרכְּ בֹ ות‬

g

‫קְ ון בֵּ ית ֲאדֹ נֶי‬ ֶ‫ַוהֲדַ פְ ִתּי ִממַּ צָּ ב‬ ֶ‫וּממַּ ﬠֲמָ ְד יֶהֶ ְרס‬ ִ

15

Thus says the Lord YHWH Zebaot: Come, go to this steward, to Shebna, who is master of the household, [and say to him:]c 16 What do you have here, and whom do you have here, that you have cut out a tomb here for yourself, cutting his tomb on the height, carving a habitation for himself in the rock? 17 See, YHWH will hurl you away violently, o mighty man: For he will roll you up tightly, 18 wrap you up tightly like a turban, [and throw you]e like a ball into a wide land; there you shall die, and there your splendid chariots shall lie, O you disgrace to your lord’s house! 19 I will thrust you from your station, and from your post I will pull you down.

a

Based on the West Semitic root skn in the alleged sense of stela as a reference to the tomb, Hays (Death, 238–43) proposes to read: “Go to this mortuary stela, to Shebna…”. Recently, Na’aman (“Royal Prerogative,” 454, note 6) has strongly rejected this idea. b Some scholars view this line as problematic. Clements (Isaiah 1–39, 187–88) considers it to have been introduced secondarily from Isa 36:3 and 37:2 to provide a link to the events during Hezekiah. Originally, in his opinion, the oracle was addressed to an unnamed person. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 336–37), Kaiser (Jesaja 13–39, 120), and Wildberger (Jesaja, 833–34) understand it as a misplaced title and move it to the top of the passage (cf. the note in BHS). Both moves are drastic and by no means necessary. c Added in light of the LXX, the Vulgate, and the Targum. 130

Childs, Isaiah, 161: “it […] seems idle to speculate when even the identity of the two individuals cannot be established with full certainty.”

186

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

d

The Hebrew of vv. 17–18a is difficult. My understanding and translation of these verses owe much to Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 384–89; see further below. The most prominent emendation of v. 17 has been presented by Ginsberg (“Some Emendations,” 55– 66), which, for example, Kaiser (Jesaja 13–39, 120) follows. The proposal emends ‫טלטלה‬ ‫ גבר‬to ‫ כטלטל הבגד‬and interprets the following verb ‫ עטה‬as “to shake out (lice):” “Behold YHWH is going to shake you out as one shakes out a garment, and is going to pick the lice off you.” e The MT apparently lacks a verb or it must be implied. Some of the ancient versions add one. The LXX reads καὶ ῥίψει σε (“and he will throw you”), the Vulgate reads mittet te (“he will send thee”), and the Targum reads ‫“( וְ יַגְ לוּ ָנ‬and he will exile you”). f Scholars such as A. Condamin have proposed an original reading of “grave” (‫ )קבר‬for “chariots”. It offers a good parallel to the motif of death just preceding and to the tomb in v. 16. However, it has no warrant in the ancient versions and it is not easy to explain how ‫קבר‬ developed into ‫ ;מרכבות‬see Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 416, note 6; Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 389–90. g In accordance with some of the ancient versions (Peshitta, Targum, and Vulgate) and many modern interpreters, I read a first person singular form.

3.3.1.2. Isaiah 22:15–16: Shebna’s transgression The oracle opens with an extended formula of speech with three words for God: “the Lord YHWH Zebaot” (‫) ֲאדֹ נָי ְיהוִ ה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬. This form also occurs in the preceding verses (22:5, 12, 14) and the Shebna passage should thus be read in close continuation with the pronouncement of judgment against Jerusalem in vv. 1–14. Clearly, the attitude of Shebna mirrors that of the people in the former part of the chapter and we can interpret his figure as an exemplary representative of the collective.131 In addition, the notion of “the Lord” (‫ ) ֲאדֹ נָי‬points forward to v. 18b and presents us with a significant case of ambiguity in the passage (see below). YHWH’s word is directed to the prophet Isaiah by means of a command. He must stand up and go to this steward, “to Shebna” (‫) ַﬠל־שֶׁ בְ נָא‬. Although one would expect another “to” (‫ )אֶ ל‬as in the preceding line and as attested in a few manuscripts, it makes sense to maintain ‫ﬠַל‬. It frequently parallels ‫ אֶ ל‬with a synonymous meaning.132 Moreover, rather than “to” or “towards,” it could be translated into “against,” that is, Isaiah must go up against him. This translation suits the polemical tone that pervades the entire passage. Shebna is a “steward” or “administrator” (‫ )הסֹּ כֵן‬and the following description of him as the one who is “over the house” (‫ ) ַﬠל־הַ בָּ יִ ת‬suggests a powerful and prominent position.133

131 Childs, Isaiah, 162: “an analogy is being drawn between the public display of unbelief in vv. 1–14 and the private abuse of a divine calling in vv. 15–25”; Young, Isaiah II, 105: “Isaiah now gives an example of the self-centeredness and luxury-loving attitude of the people as it is exemplified in a single individual.” 132 See the examples in Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 379. 133 See Ganzel, “Shebna’s Trespass,” 470–72.

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

187

Analogous to a prime minister, he is responsible for the royal household and is perhaps second to the king. On the surface, Shebna’s transgression consists of abusing his position for personal benefits. Rather than focusing on the kingdom and its needs, he has spent all of his energy on digging out an extravagant tomb for himself. In v. 16, Isaiah encounters Shebna with two short, yet challenging questions, both for Shebna and for later interpreters looking at these questions. The first question literally states “what to you here?” (‫)מַ ה־לְּ פֹ ה‬. It can refer either to the place they meet (at the burial place), or abstractly to Shebna’s entire business. The second question is very unusual. It literally states “who to you here?” ( ‫ִמי‬ ‫)לְ פֹ ה‬. Presumably, the question concerns family relatives. Most commentators assume that Shebna lacks ancestors at the burial place and therefore has no right to be buried here.134 In contrast, Oswalt argues that Isaiah’s challenge is not about the right to a tomb, but to Shebna’s purpose of being at the burial place and not in his office: “Note the recurrence of here, forcefully stressing the prophet’s belief that Shebna should be elsewhere.”135 In any case, Oswalt is correct in emphasizing the notion “here” (‫)פֹּ ה‬. The term occurs three times in this verse and forms a contrast to the notion of “there” (‫ )שָׁ מָּ ה‬in v. 18 (see below). The description of the tomb building underlines the arrogant attitude of Shebna. The verbs are physical: he “cuts” or “digs” (‫ )חצב‬the tomb and “carves” or “hews out” (‫ )חקק‬a dwelling. Elsewhere, the former verb is related to mine crafting and designates the hewing out of a cistern or wine vat (e.g. Isa 5:2; Jer 2:13), whereas the latter verb can refer to a more sophisticated activity of inscribing or decorating (e.g. Isa 49:16; Ezek 23:14). Together, they give the impression of permanence and splendor. Cut into the rock, the glorious tomb and Shebna’s fame will allegedly last forever. The idea of hubris is indicated by the phrase “on the height” (‫)מָ רֹ ום‬, that is, close to God and his dwelling (cf.

134 E.g. Willis, “Historical Issues,” 63. One of the key reasons for this interpretation is that the name of Shebna’s father is not mentioned. This may suggest that Shebna was either a foreign (e.g. Egyptian) or an ordinary man. 135 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 419. In contrast to this, Hays (Death, 232–49) argues thoroughly that the tomb itself is really the main problem. Relating practically all terms in the oracle to the tomb or to issues of unsuccessful burial and an unhappy afterlife, he attempts to show that the design of the tomb breaks with Judean burial traditions and displays foreign influence, for instance, from Egyptian practices. Moreover, Na’adam (“Royal Prerogative,” 457) argues that Shebna’s transgression consists of hewing a tomb within the city walls, which was the prerogative of Davidic rulers and no one else: “Shebna’s hubris of hewing his tomb in the city, near the royal burial place, is exceptional and explains the prophet’s rage and severe judgment.”

188

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

Isa 33:5; 38:12).136 The inappropriateness of Shebna’s actions is further indicated by his wish to build a “dwelling” (‫)מ ְשׁכָּן‬. ִ There is, of course, biblical evidence that understands the grave as a house (Ps 49:12; Isa 14:18). In most cases, however, ‫ ִמ ְשׁכָּן‬designates the dwelling-place of YHWH, for instance, the tabernacle (Exod 25:9) or the temple (2 Chr 29:6) which adds further emphasis to the motif of hubris. Instead of humbly serving YHWH and his people by responsible and careful government, Shebna arrogantly seeks to ensure his own personal glory. 3.3.1.3. Isaiah 22:17–19: The punishment of exile and death The introductory “see” (‫ )הִ נֵּה‬draws attention to the divine punishment: Shebna will be exiled to a foreign land where he will die. As mentioned in the textual notes, the language of vv. 17–18a is difficult or, as Blenkinsopp puts it, “obscure and perhaps seriously damaged.”137 Many attempts have been made to emend the text. The exact meaning of some of the verbs is uncertain and the logic of the present arrangement of the verses has been questioned. As was indicated earlier, I closely follow the analysis of John T. Willis.138 His analysis attempts to stay with the form of the MT and it assumes a coherent flow of thought. Concerning the logic of vv. 17–18a, he convincingly argues that it should be construed as follows: “First, the prophet summarizes Shebna’s fate (v. 17a); then, he expands upon that summary in three logical stages (vv. 17b– 18[a]).”139 The rhetorical device of first summarizing and then expanding in detail is not uncommon in biblical texts (see e.g. Jos 7:1, then vv. 2–26). Moreover, the Masoretes support Willis’ case. They placed an atnach-accent under “o mighty man” (‫ )גָּבֶ ר‬to separate the first line from the succeeding ones, thereby creating a small break in the flow of thought in the text. The summary of the punishment in v. 17a states that YHWH will hurl Shebna away violently. Literally, the verse reads that YHWH “will hurl you with a hurling” (‫;)מטַ לְ טֶ לְ טַ לְ טֵ לָה‬ ְ the latter noun adds particular force to the action, thus “violently” or perhaps “far away”. The Hebrew root of both words is ‫“( טול‬to hurl, cast away”). The verb expresses powerful actions: Saul “throws” his spear against David (1 Sam 18:11; cf. 20:33). As mentioned above, it occurs four times in Jonah 1: God “hurls” a great wind upon the sea (v. 4); the mariners “throw” the cargo of the ship into the sea (v. 5); and to silence the storm, they “throw” Jonah into the sea as well (vv. 12, 15). As Jonah is thrown overboard, 136 Cf. Ganzel’s “Shebna’s Trespass” (475–76), which interprets “on the height” and the following “dwelling” as literal references to the temple. Accordingly, Shebna’s trespass is his “encroaching on the royal prerogative by hewing his tomb in close proximity to the Temple.” 137 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 336. 138 Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 384–89. 139 Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 385–86.

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

189

YHWH will throw Shebna away. In Jeremiah, the verb is also used to designate deportation: YHWH will hurl the people out of their land (16:13) and their king, Jehoiachin, shall be hurled into another country (22:26, 28). By means of the vocative “o mighty man” (‫)גָּבֶ ר‬, YHWH addresses Shebna directly. The tone is sarcastic. Despite his influential position, his might in comparison to that of YHWH is of no worth. Verse 17b presents the first of three stages that explain the act of deportation. YHWH will roll Shebna up tightly (‫ ;)עֹ טְ ָﬠטֹ ה‬the infinitive absolute intensifies the action. Then, in v. 18a, he will wrap him up tightly like a turban (‫)צָ נֹ וף ִיצְ נָפְ צְ ֵנ ָפה‬. The practice of wrapping can refer to wrapping mummies, rolling up a ball of yarn, or wrapping about the head.140 The cognate word for “turban” (‫;מצְ ֶנ ֶפת‬ ִ e.g. Lev 16:4), deriving from the same root, supports the latter proposal. Finally, YHWH will throw Shebna like a ball (‫ )כַּדּוּר‬into a wide land. As indicated in the textual notes, there is no verb to denote the action. It must either be inserted in light of other ancient versions or simply be implied (cf. ‫ טול‬in v. 17). The deportation of Shebna is compared to the rolling of a ball. As Young has pointed out, this image works perfectly with the notion of “a wide land” (‫)אֶ ל־אֶ ֶרץ ַרחֲבַ ת יָדָ ִים‬: “The land into which Shebna is to be ejected is described as broad of hands, i.e., it is spacious and wide, providing no obstacles to the free rolling of the ball.”141 The expression is used elsewhere about a land (Gen 34:21, Judg 18:10; 1 Chr 4:40), Jerusalem as a city (Neh 7:4), the sea (Ps 104:25), and rivers (Isa 33:21). Here, it likely refers to the flat area of Mesopotamia rather than the broad valleys of Israel.142 In v. 18b, YHWH informs Shebna about his prospects in this foreign land: “there you shall die” (‫ )שָׁ מָּ ה תָ מוּת‬and “there your splendid chariots shall lie” ( ֶ‫)שָׁ מָּ ה מַ ְרכְּ בֹ ות כְּ בֹ וד‬. The double occurrence of “there” (‫ )שָׁ מָּ ה‬that explicitly stands in contrast to the triple occurrence of “here” (‫ )פֹּ ה‬in v. 16 is remarkable. The contrasting adverbs suggest a profound irony in Shebna’s fate.143 First, he will not die here, in Jerusalem, but there, in a distant land. Second, despite his prominent position, he will not die in honor, but in disgrace. Third, his death in exile negates his prestigious tomb-building: there is no hope that he will ever rest in his allegedly eternal dwelling. In the end, Shebna’s attempt to avoid a common grave in Jerusalem results in a grave in an uncommon land. Furthermore, Shebna is addressed as “a disgrace to your lord’s house” ( ‫קְ ון‬ ‫)בֵּ ית ֲאדֹ נֶי‬. The word ‫ קָ לוֹת‬designates shame or dishonor and, in a few cases, it

140

Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 388–89. Young, Isaiah II, 110. 142 As recently proposed by Ganzel, “Shebna’s Trespass,” 480. Hays (Death, 245) interprets “the wide land” as a reference to the underworld, an interpretation which would accord with the subtle play on Babylon and the realm of death in Isa 38:9–20 and, possibly, Isa 53:7–9; see below. 143 Cf. e.g. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 111; Wildberger, Jesaja, 839; Young, Isaiah II, 420–21. 141

190

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

has to do with nakedness (Jer 13:26; Nah 3:5; cf. Isa 20).144 An important question concerns the ambiguous identity of “your lord” ( ‫) ֲאדֹ נֶי‬. Commentators in general appear to understand this as referring to the king of Judah, to whom Shebna is second.145 Of course, this makes sense. There are other examples of an earthly king being addressed as ‫( אָ דוֹן‬e.g. Jer 22:18; 34:5) and as his subject, Shebna has not performed his duties properly. Nevertheless, apart from a few exceptions (24:2; 36–37), ‫ אָ דוֹן‬in the singular always refers to YHWH in Isaiah. This is also the case in Isa 22. Within the passage itself, ‫ ֲאדֹ נָי‬in v. 15 clearly refers to YHWH. If so, it almost places Shebna in the traditional role of the king as YHWH’s earthly servant (cf. the parallel to Jehoiakim below). This accords with the observation that in the end, Shebna’s desire to build a tomb “on the high” is a transgression against God (v. 16). The Vulgate comes close to this thought. In the Latin version, Shebna is not a steward in the king’s palace, but dwells in the tabernacle as head of YHWH’s temple.146 Verse 19 makes clear that Shebna will lose his position. In two parallel statements, YHWH himself ensures that he will thrust Shebna from his post. Yet, the employed words indicate that Shebna’s destiny points to larger concerns. First, regarding the two nouns “office” (‫ )מַ צָּ ב‬and “post” (‫)מַ ﬠְ ַמָ ד‬, Wildberger has made an interesting observation. It is only in this verse that the words allegedly refer to a “job”: “sonst meinen diese Vokabeln ganz konkret den Ort, wo sich einer hinzustellen hat.”147 Examples include “place” (Jos 4:3, 9) and “garrison” (1 Sam 14:1). In light of these parallels, it is not unreasonable to interpret the removal of Shebna in v. 19 as more than simply a demotion. YHWH will banish him from the very place where he lives and works (cf. v. 17–18). Second, regarding the verbs, the latter is of certain significance. The primary meaning of ‫ הרס‬is “to throw down” in Qal and “to tear down” in Piel. The verb denotes physical and forceful actions, such as the pulling down of an altar (e.g. Judg 6:25), a tower (Ezek 26:4), a wall (Ezek 13:14; 26:12), and, indeed, an entire city (e.g. 2 Sam 11:25; Isa 14:17). The verb also depicts YHWH’s wrath and judgment against Jerusalem and Judah. In Lam 2:2, YHWH has broken down the strongholds of Daughter Judah, and in Ezek 13:14, YHWH will break down the wall and Jerusalem will fall. In addition, Isa 49:17 refers to the enemies of Jerusalem as “your destroyer” ( ִ‫)מהָ ְרסַ י‬. ְ The verb’s antonym is “to build” (‫ )בנה‬as seen in Job 12:14 and Ps 28:5 along with a handful of instances in Jeremiah (e.g. 1:10). In Jer 24:6, YHWH’s assurance of rebuilding follows

144 The motif of nakedness accords with the following description of the transfer of authority where YHWH clothes Eliakim with Shebna’s robe and sash (v. 21). 145 E.g. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 189; Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 126; Wildberger, Jesaja, 840. 146 Cf. YHWH’s command to Isaiah in the Vulgate version of Isa 22:15: vade ingredere ad eum qui habitat in tabernaculo ad Sobnam praepositum temple. 147 Wildberger, Jesaja, 840. Hays (Death, 242) interprets ‫ מַ צָּ ב‬in the sense of a stone or stela, reading “I will thrust you from your monument (= tomb chapel).”

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

191

the notion of return from exile: “I will build them up and not tear them down again” (‫יתים וְ ל ֹא אֶ הֱרֹ ס‬ ִ ִ‫)וּבְ נ‬. These examples add further support to the idea that we can read the figure of Shebna as a representative of the people of Judah (cf. v. 15). Shebna will be broken down, just like Jerusalem eventually will, and he will be pushed away from his home, just like the inhabitants of the city. 3.3.1.4. Excurses on parallel stories of exiled individuals The prophet’s confrontation with named individuals is a common literary feature in the Old Testament. In addition to the rebuke against Shebna, there are a handful of individuals who will be punished by deportation and death in a foreign land. These include the high-priest Amaziah in Amos, the priest Pashur in Jeremiah, and King Jehoiachin in 2 Kings and Jeremiah. This brief excurses serves to shed further light on the destiny of Shebna. 3.3.1.4.1. Amaziah (Amos 7:10–17) In Amos 7:10–17, we read about the conflict between Amos and Amaziah. The narrative breaks the flow of poetic visions and has likely been placed here because it follows the prophecy against the house of Jeroboam (7:9).148 Like Shebna, Amaziah has a prominent position. He is the leading priest of the temple in Bethel, but he will face a painful destiny. The story is framed by the prediction of exile in vv. 11 and 17 and consists of four parts. In vv. 10–11, Amaziah’s disapproval of Amos’ proclamation forces him to address King Jeroboam of Israel and to accuse the prophet of conspiring (‫ )קשׁר‬against him. The priest’s summary of Amos’ preaching is actually quite right: the king shall die (cf. 7:9) and Israel shall be exiled from its land (cf. 5:27; 6:7). In vv. 12–13, Amaziah commands Amos to leave the Northern Kingdom and never come back. The tone is harsh: Amos must “flee” (‫)ברח‬. He can continue his prophetic business in Judah, but not in Bethel. In vv. 14–15, Amos speaks about his own identity. He refuses to be a prophet by profession. It is only because of YHWH’s direct and personal order that Amos has left his real job as a peasant to preach against the Northern Kingdom. The climax of the story occurs in vv. 16–17 with Amos’ pronouncement of judgment against Amaziah. His words are warranted by two formulas of divine speech in vv. 16a and 17a. Amos repeats Amaziah’s prohibition against his preaching and renders YHWH’s punishment. It is worth paying attention to the contrast between Amaziah’s utterance in v. 16b (“you say”) and that of YHWH in v. 17a (“he says”). The punishment in v. 17b consists of five elements, of which the first four concern Amaziah and his family. Disgrace and death will ruin the family and their land. Amaziah himself shall die “in an unclean land” 148

Wolff, Joel und Amos, 353–54.

192

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

(‫ל־אַדָ מָ ה טְ מֵ אָ ה‬ ְ ‫) ַﬠ‬. The statement is full of irony. First, Amos was forced to leave, but it is Amaziah who will be driven away from his country in the end. Second, the high priest of Bethel must now live in an unclean land, exiled and distanced from his God. According to Hos 9:3–4, the exiles in Assyria must east unclean food (cf. Ezek 4:13) and can no longer please YHWH with their sacrifices. As in the case of Shebna, death awaits Amaziah in the foreign land. The fifth and final element of the divine punishment broadens the perspective to include the entire nation: “Israel must surely go into exile [‫ ] ָגּ ה ִיגְ לֶה‬away from its land” (cf. v. 11b). It is interesting that the individual fate of Amaziah in this way anticipates and embodies the fate of the kingdom of Israel at large.149 3.3.1.4.2. Pashur (Jeremiah 20:1–6) Jeremiah’s controversy with the priest Pashur follows his announcement of destruction in the valley of the son of Hinnom (19:1–13). After his return, the prophet enters the temple court and presents a short summary of his preaching: Jerusalem and its towns will be destroyed (19:14–15). This act forms the background of Pashur’s attempt to silence Jeremiah by putting him in the stocks. Like Shebna and Amaziah, Pashur performs a notable task in the society as the “chief officer” (‫ ) ָפקִ יד נָגִ יד‬of the temple institution. Immediately after his release the next morning, Jeremiah utters harsh words against Pashur and the city of Jerusalem. Once again, the fate of the condemned individual is intertwined with the fate of his people. A formula of divine speech introduces the punishment against Pashur (vv. 4a and 6) and all of Judah (vv. 4b–5). The king of Babylon will conquer Judah, and “he shall carry them captive to Babylon” (‫ )וְ הִ גְ לָם בָּ בֶ לָה‬along with all their treasures. Verse 6 turns to Pashur (“And you”) and addresses his destiny and that of his household and friends. Along with Judah, they will go “into captivity” (‫)בַּ שֶּׁ בִ י‬. The following statement forms a striking parallel to the words against Shebna in Isa 22:18a. Pashur shall come to Babylon: “there you shall die” (‫ )וְ שָׁ ם תָּ מוּת‬and “there you shall be buried” (‫)וְ שָׁ ם ִתּקָּ בֵ ר‬. Isa 22:18b and Jer 20:6 share the double occurrence of “there” (‫שָׁ מָּ ה‬/‫ )שָׁ ם‬and the emphasis on death. In the latter of the two, there is a clear reference to the grave (‫ )קבר‬which is only implied in the Shebna episode. 3.3.1.4.3. Jehoiachin (Jeremiah 22:24–30; 2 Kings 24:8–17) An even closer parallel to the Shebna oracle is Jeremiah’s judgment against Jehoiachin (Coniah) in Jer 22:24–30. The passage forms the final section of a larger criticism against the kings of Judah and occurs just before the famous 149 Wolff, Joel und Amos, 364: “So führt Amos für den Priester in Bethel im einzelnen aus, was mit den Kriegs- und Deportationsandrohungen Israel im ganzen angekündigt wurde.”

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

193

prophecy of the new Davidic ruler in Jer 23:1–8. Following the death of his father, Jehoiakim, during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 597 BCE, Jehoiachin reigned for only three months before he surrendered to the Babylonians. Verses 24–27 prophesy about his future and vv. 28–30 evaluate his character. As the earthly representative of God, Jehoiachin served as YHWH’s “signet ring” (‫)חוֹתָ ם‬, so close was he to God and his rule. Now, YHWH will pull him away and give him to those who will kill him, from the hand of YHWH to that of Nebuchadnezzar. Verses 26–27 depict the conditions of exile. YHWH himself will “hurl” (‫ )וְ הֵ טַ לְ ִתּי‬Jehoiachin and his mother to another country (cf. Jer 13:18–19), far away from this native land, “and there you shall die” ( ‫וְ שָׁ ם‬ ‫)תָּ מוּתוּ‬. Despite their deep-felt longing, they shall never return to their homeland. In vv. 28–30, the character of Jehoiachin is likened to a broken and useless pot. The destiny of exile resounds: he and his offspring (his sons) are “hurled out” (‫ )הוּטְ ַלוּ‬and “cast away” (‫ )ה ְֻשׁלְ כוּ‬to a strange land. He will be recorded as “childless,” that is, none of his sons will follow him as king of Judah.150 In the context of Jer 22, the fate of Jehoiachin is anticipated by his uncle, Jehoahaz (or Shallum, as he is also known).151 When his father, Josiah, dies in the battle against the Egyptians at Megiddo, Jehoahaz is made king (2 Kings 23:30–35). Like Jehoiachin, Jehoahaz only reigns for three months, before he is replaced by his older brother, Jehoiakim. Pharaoh deports Jehoahaz to Egypt and “he died there” (‫) ַויָּמָ ת שָׁ ם‬. Jeremiah alludes to his exile and death in a dirge in 22:10–12. The small section consists of a poetic oracle (v. 10) and its interpretation (vv. 11–12). The figures in v. 10 are anonymous and could be applied to anyone. The verse states that one should not weep for the one who is dead in his own land. Rather, one should weep “for the one who goes away” ( ‫)לַהֹ ֵל‬. He shall return no more (‫ )ל ֹא יָשׁוּב עוֹד‬to see his native land (‫)אֶ ֶרץ מוֹל ְַדתּוֹ‬, that is, the land where he was born (cf. 22:26!). Verses 11–12 explain this indefinite oracle. Judah is not to weep for the dead Josiah, but for Jehoahaz. He went away and “he shall return here no more” (‫)ל ֹא יָשׁוּב שָׁ ם עוֹד‬. He will stay in the place where the Egyptians have carried him (‫)הִ גְ לוּ‬, and “there he shall die” ( ‫שָׁ ם‬ ‫)יָמוּת‬. He will never see his homeland again. In the account of 2 Kings 24:8–17, Jeremiah’s prophecy against Jehoiachin is partly fulfilled. Following a typical description of the king, his age, and his family relations (vv. 8–9), vv. 10–12 depict the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem. Jehoiachin gives himself and his mother up (cf. Jer 22:26) along with his palace staff, and the king of Babylon “took him prisoner” (‫) ַו ִיּקַּ ח אֹ תוֹ‬. Verses 14–16

150 Cf. a possible reflection in Hananiah’s (false) prophecy in Jer 28:2–4 that some people, mistakenly in Jeremiah’s view, continued to put their hope in King Jehoiachin and his family. 151 Carroll, Jeremiah, 437–38.

194

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

describe the deportation of all of Judah, with the exception of “the poorest people of the land” (‫)דַּ לַּת ַﬠם־הָ אָ ֶרץ‬. Verse 15 states that Nebuchadnezzar “carried away” (‫ ) ַו ֶיּגֶל‬Jehoiachin to Babylon along with his mother, wives, and the Jerusalem elite. Verse 17 concludes the passage by the installation of his uncle Mattaniah (who becomes Zedekiah) as king. Nevertheless, 2 Kings closes with Jehoiachin’s release from prison 37 years after he was exiled and his incorporation into the household of the Babylonian king (25:27–30). 3.3.2. Eliakim In the book of Isaiah as a whole, Eliakim stands out because his character is depicted with several royal trappings that almost cast him as a king. As in the case of Shebna, however, attention is drawn to the coming fall of Eliakim as an adumbration of the demise of the kingdom of Judah. 3.3.2.1. Isaiah 22:20–25: Text and translation ‫וְ הָ יָה בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬ ‫אתי לְ ַﬠבְ ִדּי לְ אֶ לְ יָקִ ים בֶּ ן־‬ ִ ‫וְ קָ ָר‬ ‫חִ לְ קִ יָּהוּ‬ ֶ‫וְ הִ לְ בַּ ְשׁ ִתּיו כֻּתָּ נְ תּ‬ ‫וְ אַ בְ נֵטְ ֲאחַ ְזּקֶ נּוּ‬ ‫וּמֶ ְמשֶׁ לְ ְתּ אֶ תֵּ ן בְּ יָדֹ ו‬ ‫וְ הָ יָה לְ אָ ב לְ יֹ ושֵׁ ב ְירוּשָׁ ַל ִם וּלְ בֵ ית‬ ‫יְ הוּדָ ה‬ ‫ל־שׁכְ מֹ ו‬ ִ ‫וְ נָתַ ִתּי מַ פְ תֵּ חַ בֵּ ית־דָּ וִ ד ַﬠ‬ ַ‫וּ ָפתַ ח וְ אֵ ין סֹ גֵר וְ סָ גַר וְ אֵ ין פֹּ תֵ ח‬ ‫וּתקַ ﬠְ ִתּיו יָתֵ ד בְּ מָ קֹ ום ֶנ ֱאמָ ן‬ ְ ‫וְ הָ יָה לְ כִ סֵּ א ָכבֹ וד לְ בֵ ית אָ בִ יו‬ ‫וְ תָ לוּ ָﬠלָיו כֹּ ל כְּ בֹ וד בֵּ ית־אָ בִ יו‬ ‫הַ צֶּ ֱאצָ ִאים וְ הַ צְּ פִ עֹ ות כֹּ ל כְּ לֵי הַ קָּ טָ ן‬ ‫ִמכְּ לֵי ָ ֽהאַ גָּנֹ ות וְ ַﬠד ָכּל־כְּ לֵי הַ ְנּבָ לִ ים‬ ‫בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא ְנ ֻאם יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹ ות‬ ‫תָּ מוּשׁ הַ יָּתֵ ד הַ ְתּקוּ ָﬠה בְּ מָ קֹ ום ֶנ ֱאמָ ן‬ ‫וְ נִ גְ דְּ ָﬠה וְ נָפְ לָה‬ ָ‫וְ ִנכְ ַרת הַ מַּ שָּׂ א ֲאשֶׁ ר־ ָﬠלֶיה‬ ‫כִּ י יְ הוָה דִּ בֵּ ר‬

20

On that day I will call my servant Eliakim son of Hilkiah, 21

and will clothe him with your robe and bind your sash on him. I will commit your authority to his hand, and he shall be a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the house of Judah. 22

I will place on his shoulder the key of the house of David; he shall open, and no one shall shut; he shall shut, and no one shall open. 23 I will fasten him like a peg in a secure place, and he will become a throne of honor to his ancestral house. 24 And they will hang on him the whole weight of his ancestral house, the offspring and issue, every small vessel, from the cups to all the flagons. 25 On that day, says YHWH Zebaot, the peg that was fastened in a secure place will give way; it will be cut down and fall, and the load that was on it will perish, for YHWH has spoken.

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

195

3.3.2.2. Isaiah 22:20–25: The call and fall of Eliakim The first-person voice continues into vv. 20–23. The divine oracle is still addressed to Shebna and announces the installation of his successor Eliakim. Shebna’s authority will be put in his hands. The introduction in v. 20a, “on that day” (‫)בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬, occurs also in vv. 8, 12 and 25 and thus ties the chapter together. The portrait of Eliakim is astonishing. As has often been noticed, the royal and priestly imagery brings the character closer to a king or high priest than a steward.152 First, YHWH addresses him as “my servant” (‫ ) ַﬠבְ ִדּי‬like other prominent figures such as Abraham, Moses, and David. It is a theologically loaded title that signalizes a special relationship between the person and God.153 Second, the “robe” (‫ )כֻּתֹּ נֶת‬and “sash” (‫ )אַ בְ נֵט‬with which YHWH will cloth him typically refer to a priest’s garment (e.g. Exod 28:40).154 In addition, Eliakim is son of Hilkiah, whose name is common among priests and even the name of the high priest at the time of Josiah who finds the Book of the Law (2 Kings 22). Third, Eliakim will be “a father” (‫ )אָ ב‬to the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the house of Judah. In Isaiah, the ideal king is called “Everlasting Father” (‫)אַבִ י־ ַﬠד‬ ְ in 9:5. Joseph, however, is made “a father to Pharaoh” (Gen 45:8), which may reflect Egyptian custom of designating the vizier. Being a father to the people may simply refer to “the attitude which a true governor should take toward his people.”155 Fourth, YHWH will place the key to the dynasty of David “on his shoulders” (‫ל־שׁכְ מֹ ו‬ ִ ‫) ַﬠ‬. Similarly, in the description of the ideal king, authority rests upon “his shoulders” (9:5). The key is likely a metaphor for the divinegiven authority appointed to him. Furthermore, the “authority” or “rule” (‫ )מֶ ְמשָׁ לָה‬that will be transferred from Shebna to Eliakim almost always designates the authority of a king.156 Fifth, by means of a different metaphor, the rule of Eliakim is said to represent stability and security for the city and the land. YHWH will fasten or drive him in a firm place “like a peg” (‫)יָתֵ ד‬. The term mostly refers to a peg that holds a tent in place (e.g. Exod 27:19; Judg 4:21–22).157 In Isaiah, the word is used about the tent-pegs of Zion that will never be pulled up (33:20) or must be strengthened to withstand the abundance of returning people (54:2). According to v. 25 in the present passage, the term, however, also signifies a nail in the wall to hold vessels. In any case, v. 23 clearly states that the peg shall be fixed 152

E.g. Childs, Isaiah, 162; Wildberger, Jesaja, 843. See Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 97. 154 See further in Ganzel, “Shebna’s Trespass,” 483–84. 155 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 422. 156 See 1 Kings 9:19; 2 Kings 20:13; 2 Chr 8:6; Isa 39:2; Jer 34:1; 51:28; Mic 4:8 and the review in Bosshard-Nepustil, Rezeptionen, 94, note 3. 157 See the review in Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 391–92. 153

196

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

“in a secure place” (‫)בְּ מָ קֹ ום ֶנ ֱאמָ ן‬. Interestingly, the Niphal form of ‫ אמן‬is also used in the assurance of the everlasting dynasty of David (2 Sam 7:16; 1 Kings 11:38) and of YHWH’s covenant with David (Ps 89:29). These parallels add further support to the royal guise of Eliakim. The subtle antithetical contrast between the two main figures of this passage is also notable: Shebna is like a ball thrown into a distant land, whereas Eliakim is like a peg securely fixed in its proper place. Finally, Eliakim will be “a throne of honor” (‫ )כִ סֵּ א כָבֹ וד‬to his father’s house. The statement forms an ironic contrast to the poor destiny of Shebna who will become a disgrace to his lord’s house (cf. v. 18). Like the ambiguous identity of this lord in v. 18, the exact identity of “his father’s house” (‫ )בֵ ית אָ בִ יו‬in v. 23 is unclear. Of course, it may refer to Eliakim’s own family who will presumably benefit from his high position. Yet the notion of David’s house (‫ )בֵּ ית־דָּ וִ ד‬in the preceding verse suggests that the reference is to the royal house. In other words, “his father” is David, the ancestral founder of the dynasty. This possibility again casts Eliakim as a king-like figure. As a throne of honor, Eliakim must carry the heavy responsibilities of the office. In v. 24, all kinds of people – young and old, notable and insignificant – will “hang” (‫ )תלה‬on him. There is a subtle play on the term ‫כָּבוֹד‬. In v. 23, it refers to glory or splendor; yet in this verse, it refers to the weight or burden. Indeed, “the whole weight of his father’s house” (‫ )כֹּ ל כְּ בֹ וד בֵ ית אָ בִ יו‬shall hang on him. Commentators in general understand this sentence as a negative expression about nepotism, that is, Eliakim’s relatives will take advantage of his high position and attempt to make use of his power.158 In the end, this pressure will lead to Eliakim’s fall in v. 25. There is another option, however. If we understand “his father’s house” as a reference to the royal house or to the kingdom at large like in the preceding verse, then v. 24 describes the heavy expectations and obligations assigned to him.159 I find this option persuasive. Verse 24 should rightly be understood as a natural continuation of the portrait in vv. 20–23. The real break in the passage thus occurs between v. 24 and v. 25.160

158

See e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 339–40; Wildberger, Jesaja, 849–50; Willis, “Textual and Linguistic Issues,” 396–97. If one opts for this interpretation, it does present Shebna and Eliakim as structural opposites: Shebna apparently has no family (his father is not mentioned and he has no relatives to warrant his tomb building), whereas Eliakim has too much family which overloads and destroys him. 159 Cf. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 190: “perhaps it is to be understood metaphorically to mean that too much was made dependent upon the king and the court for the good of the nations.” 160 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 292.

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

197

Despite the abundantly glorified portrait, even Eliakim cannot carry this burden. Verse 25 describes his violent removal from office.161 The introductory “on that day” (‫ )בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬shows the clear break between vv. 24 and 25. Moreover, the divine speech in the beginning (“says YHWH Zebaot”) and end (“for YHWH has spoken”) of the verse frames the announcement of Eliakim’s fall. The peg metaphor recurs. Despite its fixation in a secure place, the peg will “give away” (‫)תָּ מוּשׁ‬, “be cut down” (‫)נִ גְ דְּ ָﬠה‬, and “fall” (‫)נָפְ לָה‬. The first verb (‫ )מושׁ‬indicates a motif of departure. In some of the other occurrences, it simply means “to depart” or “to leave” (e.g. Judg 6:18; Ps 55:11). It is used, for instance, about Joshua, who stays in the tent and does not leave (Exod 33:11). In light of Shebna’s fate, a similar motif may be at stake here: the peg (Eliakim) will withdraw (depart) from its secure place (royal palace, Jerusalem). The depiction of his demise is brutal. The second verb (‫ )גדע‬denotes powerful actions such as hewing down trees (Isa 10:33) and destroying altars (Ezek 6:6; Amos 3:14). Moreover, it denotes YHWH’s wrathful destruction of his people (Lam 2:3). The Niphal form also occurs in the expulsion of the Benjamin tribe from Israel (Judg 21:6). An interesting parallel to the fall of Eliakim is found in the oracle against the presumptuous king who, likened to a morning star, has been “cut down [ ָ‫ ] ִנגְ דַּ ﬠְ תּ‬to the ground” (Isa 14:12). Admittedly, the tone is not as harsh and negative in the Eliakim passage. Of significance is that not only Eliakim but also the burden that has been placed on him will fall and “perish” or “be extinguished” (‫) ִנכְ ַרת‬. The common interpretation is that the “burden” (‫ )הַ מַּ שָּׂ א‬refers to his family members that have abused his position, and that they and their prominence will disappear with him. In line with my interpretation of “his father’s house” in vv. 23–24, it seems more appropriate to interpret the burden as a reference to the royal house or indeed the entire nation and its needs. This again draws attention to Eliakim as a king-like figure. His fall suggests the fall of the empire as such. 3.3.3. Shebna and Eliakim as types for Judean kings Interpreters have often noticed that Shebna and, in particular, Eliakim are described as king-like figures.162 I emphasized the “royal trappings” in my exegesis of vv. 20–23: Eliakim is “YHWH’s servant,” he wears priestly garments, he has royal authority, he shall serve as a father to the nation, and he has the key power over the Davidic house. These peculiar royal elements have called

161 The recent attempts to read v. 25 about Shebna (Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 293, 297; Ganzel, “Shebna’s Trespass,” 485–86) or about an unknown nepotist in the time of the Ptolemies (Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 129) are questionable and hardly find any support in the passage itself. 162 E.g. Wildberger, Jesaja, 852: “wie auffallend nahe die Prädikationen Eljakims bei der alttestamentlichen Königsideologie liegen.”

198

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

forth a series of interpretations which either downplay or highlight the importance of these elements. At one end of the spectrum, scholars refuse to identify, for instance, Eliakim with later historical or messianic figures. As an illustration, Blenkinsopp considers this interpretative move to be understandable; yet, in his view, clearly the oracle’s focus is on a specific individual named elsewhere (Isa 36–37).163 A variant of this view is represented by Clements. He finds it unlikely that by the portrait of Eliakim, “the author intended directly to refer to the king.”164 Rather, the intention of the passage is to associate Eliakim with his king, Hezekiah, and thereby exalt the royal office of the one he serves.165 At the other end of the spectrum, attempts have been made to conflate the characters with later kings. Certain elements in the portrait of Eliakim received eschatological and messianic interpretations early on (e.g. Rev 3:7).166 During the past century, increased and sustained attention has been paid to identifying historical referents and, indeed, to establishing the characters of Isa 22:15–25 as kings.167 Vermeylen, for instance, has proposed that vv. 20–23 originally pertained to Josiah as the ideal king of Judah.168 More than one hundred years ago, Fullerton presented what he designated as “a helpful working hypothesis”: in the seventh century, after the accession of the evil King Manasseh, who was supported by the equally immoral, anti-prophetic Shebna, Eliakim as head of the prophetic party aimed at overthrowing Manasseh and replacing him as king.169 Verses 20–23 thus promise Eliakim the kingship. In a similar manner, Wildberger cautiously proposes that Eliakim refers to a historical individual 163

Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 339. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 190. 165 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 190: “vv. 21–22 make plain that the interest of these verses was not with the palace governor, but rather with the person of the king himself. Thus it seems as a word of divine promise and reassurance for the Davidic dynasty, and its representative, Hezekiah.” 166 The eschatological tone of vv. 20–23 has also been recognized in modern scholarship. By deleting the name “Eliakim son of Hilkiah,” the figure is cast into an unnamed eschatological king in line with other passages in Isaiah (e.g. 9:5–6; 11:1–5; 32:1–8). See e.g. Jenni, Die politischen Voraussagen, 44: “Bis auf die Nennung des Namens Eljakim ben Hilkia am Ende von V. 20 ist der Abschnitt sehr wohl von Jesaja herleitbar, wenn man mit Procksch in dem geweissagten (anonymen) Knecht einen eschatologischen Antitypus zu dem von Gericht Jahwes bedrohten Beamten von V. 15–18 sieht.” 167 Cf. Willis, “Historical Issues,” 66, note 22. 168 Vermeylen, Du Prophète Isaïe I, 341–42: “le héros des vv. 20–23 ne devrait pas être identifié avec Èlyaqim, mais avec un autre personage. [...] La mystérieuse figure des vv. 20– 23 recoit les qualités promises en Is., IX, 5b–6 au souverain idéal d’Israël; comme ce dernier passage, la péricope pourrait donc se rapporter à Josias.” Vermeylen is, however, cautious: “mais il va de soi qu’elle reste en grande partie hypotheétique.” Cf. Vermeylen, Du Prophète Isaïe II, 688–91. 169 Fullerton, “A New Chapter,” 637–42; “Shebna and Eliakim: A Reply,” 507–9. 164

3.3. Shebna and Eliakim

199

who, in the early sixth century, ruled Judah after the deportation of Jehoiachin.170 Bosshard-Nepustil goes a step further by suggesting that, as the result of a thorough editorial reworking, the figures of Shebna and Eliakim have been made into transparent references to later Judean kings.171 Accordingly, Shebna and Eliakim are colored by features that fit the two kings Jehoiachin and Jehoiakim from the time shortly before 587 BCE.172 Shebna pre-portrays the exiled King Jehoiachin (Jer 22:26, 28; cf. above) and Eliakim pre-portrays his father, King Jehoiakim, who died just before the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 597 BCE.173 To support the latter identification, Bosshard-Nepustil emphasizes that Jehoiakim’s birth name was, in fact, Eliakim. In addition, the notion of him as “father” in v. 21, which, as mentioned, is Egyptian custom, could reflect his installation by the Egyptian Pharaoh (2 Kings 23:34; 2 Chr 36:4). Furthermore, Bosshard-Nepustil finds references to King Zedekiah in the first part of Isa 22 (especially vv. 2b–3 and 8b–11a) and argues that chapter 22 as a whole refers to the three last kings of Judah. The reverse and thus peculiar sequence of Zedekiah, Jehoiachin, and Jehoiakim reflects later editors’ respect for the preliminary literary stages of the chapter.174 In general, I find Bosshard-Nepustil’s idea that Shebna and Eliakim function as types for future events fascinating. His own analysis, however, clearly has its deficits. For instance, it is difficult to understand in what way the positive portrait of Eliakim in vv. 20–23 can be reconciled with the very bad reputation of Jehoiakim in 2 Kings and Jeremiah. According to these books, he is known as an arrogant and oppressive tyrant (2 Kings 23:37; Jer 22:13–19; 36:29–31). Perhaps a more fruitful approach is to recognize the typology, but not tie it too closely to specific named kings.175 Within the larger literary and theological context in Isaiah, Shebna and Eliakim indeed point forward to deportation and destruction. Their destinies foreshadow the future fates of the kings and the nation of Judah: defeat, exile, and the end of Davidic rule. 170 Wildberger, Jesaja, 846, adding: “Doch sei betont: Über Vermutungen kommen wir nicht hinaus.” 171 Bosshard-Nepustil, Rezeptionen, 94–105. 172 Bosshard-Nepustil, Rezeptionen, 96–97. 173 Cf. Schmid, Jesaja I, 158: “ein älteres Wort aus der Zeit der assyrischen Bedrohung Jerusalems [ist] im Lichte der Ereignisse der letzten Jahrzehnte Jerusalems vor seiner Zerstörung durch die Babylonier, die ca. 120 Jahre später stattfand, überarbeitet worden. […] ‘Eljakim’ wurde dabei als ‘Jojakim’ interpretiert: Jesaja weissagte bereits zu seiner Zeit gegen den späteren König Jojakim, wie auch gegen den König Jojachin, die beide explizit von ihrem zeitgenössischen Propheten Jeremia kritisiert werden (vgl. Jer 22,13–19.24–28).” 174 Bosshard-Nepustil, Rezeptionen, 102. 175 Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 162: “The breaking of Eliakim’s position appears to refer symbolically to the imminent end of the Davidic dynasty, which functions to extend the response in 701 as a transparency of the end of Judah’s existence as a nation.”

200

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

3.3.4. Summing up The destinies of Shebna and Eliakim in Isa 22:15–25 foreshadow the doom of Jerusalem and its monarchy. Rather than taking care of the Judean kingdom and its need, the self-prudent steward Shebna has prepared an extravagant tomb for himself. His punishment consists of deportation to a foreign land. YHWH will hurl him away violently and throw him into exile like a ball. For the rest of his life, he shall be banished from the place where he lives and works and he shall die far away from his home. Shebna’s obligations shall be transferred to Eliakim, who appears as a king-like figure. Despite a very positive portrait, Eliakim cannot carry the heavy responsibilities and shall be removed from office like a peg pulled out of the wall. He shall fall along with the kingdom. The brief survey of other stories of exiled individuals shows that Shebna’s fate is by no means unique. The prophet Amos condemns the high-priest Amaziah to exile in an unclean land where he shall die, thereby anticipating the fate of the Northern Kingdom at large. The prophet Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jerusalem priest Pashur along with Judah as a whole. Similarly, Jeremiah envisions the defeat and deportation of King Jehoiachin who, like Shebna, shall be hurled far away from his homeland. Notable in all of the stories is the repeated intertwinement of the fate of an individual and that of his people or nation. These parallel stories add weight to interpreting the unfortunate destinies of Shebna and Eliakim as mirroring those of Jerusalem and the kingdom of Judah. In my opinion, we should be cautious not to equate their characters too closely with specific kings such as Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin. Nevertheless, within Isaiah, the figures of Shebna and Eliakim certainly point forward to the coming destruction and deportation that occur in the break between Isa 39 and 40.

3.4. Hezekiah (Isaiah 38:1–22) 3.4. Hezekiah

Isaiah 38 accounts for the illness and promised recovery of King Hezekiah. The chapter consists of a narrative frame (vv. 1–8 and vv. 21–22) and a psalm (vv. 9–20) placed in the mouth of the king. The story opens with the prophet Isaiah’s encounter with Hezekiah at his sickbed telling him that he is going to die. The king faithfully devotes himself to prayer and God adds extra years to his life. In anticipation of recovery, Hezekiah formulates a psalm about his sufferings and strong faith in God. Finally, he asks for a sign that he may again have access to YHWH’s temple. Many features in Isa 38 emphasize the devotion of Hezekiah as he faithfully turns to God in times of distress (cf. Isa 37:1). I believe Clements, in his summary of the chapter’s message and purpose, speaks for the majority of interpreters: “the narrative is a story illustrating the piety and blessedness of a good

3.4. Hezekiah

201

king.”176 However, Isa 38 does not only dwell on this ideal description of Judah’s king. The chapter also intensively portrays the severity of Hezekiah’s illness and sufferings and the desperate longing for recovery. It is notable that the actual healing of the king is never mentioned (in contrast to 2 Kings 20:7; see below). In the perspective of the chapter as a whole, Hezekiah’s recovery still lies in the future and emphasis is thus on his present condition. In its present literary context, Isa 38 forms a bridge. It continues the theme of the faithful king in Isa 36–37 and offers a kind of parallel story to the marvelous rescue of Jerusalem: “[Hezekiah’s] fate is likened to that of the city itself.”177 Like the nation of Judah, Hezekiah is sick but in contrast to the people’s refusal to change, Hezekiah turns to God with sincere prayers. The chapter also points forward to and parallels the pronouncement of defeat and deportation in Isa 39. In a word, “a typological relationship has been set up between the sickness and recovery of Hezekiah and the judgment and restoration of the people of Israel.”178 The latter point, however, is controversial. In contrast to the previous two passages, which explicitly render motifs of captivity and exile (Isa 20:3–4; 22:17–18), there is more debate about the presence of these motifs in Isaiah 38. To some extent, the issue is similar to that of reading Jonah as a figure of exile. There are apparent motifs of removal and isolation. Nevertheless, the question remains whether these images describing the destiny of an individual figure can be extended to portray larger corporate experiences. Therefore, I find it necessary to review the recent research on the theme of exile in Isa 38 before turning to the text itself. 3.4.1. Previous studies on exilic imagery in Isaiah 38 Attention to both Hezekiah’s illness and to the psalm as being pointers to exile and restoration is another important outcome of Peter R. Ackroyd’s brilliant essay “An Interpretation of the Babylonian Exile” from 1974.179 To him, the function of the psalm, which is unique in Isaiah’s version of the incident, is to single out and highlight certain elements in the narrative framing of the psalm. However, the role of the psalm is not simply to express the feelings and gratitude of the king, thereby limiting the psalm’s application to a single individual in the past. More importantly, the psalm is a comment on the larger significance of Hezekiah’s recovery in the context of Isaiah:

176 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 289. This majority view has recently been challenged by James M. Kennedy (“Yahweh’s Strongman?”). He attempts to show that in light of the ethical demands of Isaiah as a whole, the judgment of Hezekiah’s character must be negative. 177 Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 257. 178 Childs, Isaiah, 284. 179 See Ackroyd, Studies, 164–66.

202

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

For its concentration is on that experience expressed in terms of restoration to life, being brought back from the pit, using a series of metaphors which we may find, for example, in the poems of Lamentations and in certain passages in Jeremiah, employed in relation to the experience of exile.180

In other words, the significance of the psalm in Isa 38 is that it underlines the themes of illness and recovery and does so by using metaphors that elsewhere portray life in exile. Unfortunately, Ackroyd does not substantiate his innovative observation by offering intertextual examples. A small footnote only lists the narrative about the prophet Jeremiah in the cistern of Malchiah (Jer 38:1– 13) and the succeeding psalm fragment “Your trusted friends have seduced you and have overcome you; now that your feet are stuck in the mud, they desert you” (Jer 38:22).181 No further evidence is provided. Ackroyd also draws attention to the overall movement in the psalm. At its climax, a community joins and expands the individual praise and worship of the psalmist: Such a climax here provides a pointer to that longed-for restoration of the temple and its worship which is seen as the sequel to disaster in the fuller working out of the theme in the writings of the Chronicler. The illness of Hezekiah and the death sentence upon him thus become a type of judgment and exile, and in that measure, they run parallel to the theme of judgment which is found in the ambassador story which follows [Isa 39]; but the theme of restored life and continuing rule which follows upon Hezekiah’s strong appeal to the deity, is a pointer to the possibility of such a restoration for the community.182

The piety and true obedience of Hezekiah which ultimately save him from pit and death form an ideal for later believers who long for restoration.183 To sum up, Ackroyd mentions two major reasons for interpreting the psalm as a pointer to larger concerns of exile and restoration: the employed metaphors (e.g. the pit) and the final expansion of scope from the hope of an individual to that of a community.184

180

Ackroyd, Studies, 165. Ackroyd, Studies, 284, note 28. In addition, Ackroyd refers to his article “Aspects of the Jeremiah Tradition” from 1972. 182 Ackroyd, Studies, 165–66. 183 Locating the psalm of Hezekiah in the Persian time, Wagner (“From Salvation to Doom,” 101–2) regards Hezekiah to be “a role model for a true believer as appearing in Isa. 56–66.” In particular, he points to intertextual relations between Isa 38 and the words about the wicked in 57:1–13. 184 At the end of his article, Ackroyd offers another important clue for reading King Hezekiah as a figure pointing forward. Later Jewish and rabbinic writings have interpreted him as the coming Messiah by associating him with the birth of the Immanuel-child in Isa 7 and by seeing his recovery from illness as a raising from the dead. As such, he is “a receptacle for a great range of hopes for the future, already adumbrated in points in the older narra181

3.4. Hezekiah

203

As noted, Ackroyd is surprisingly modest in explicating the supposed metaphors of exile in the psalm. Johan H. Coetzee, in his article from 1989, presents a systematic analysis of the motifs arranged purposefully in a set of clusters.185 His primary effort, however, is not to detect and interpret exilic imagery in the metaphors as such. He is more interested in arguing for an exilic setting of the composition by showing parallels to texts from the exilic and postexilic periods (e.g. Jeremiah, Lamentations, certain Psalms, and Job). Moreover, presupposing that the psalm has a special function in Isaiah, the article is devoted to determine this function. Coetzee considers the psalm to be a “doxology of judgment” which implies that “a person usually acknowledges the righteousness of his punishment or that which God brings over him and confesses that it is to his benefit to suffer.”186 The key function of Hezekiah’s psalm, so Coetzee argues, is to motivate YHWH’s people near the end of the Babylonian exile to accept their sufferings. Accordingly, Hezekiah presents an example of piety to the people in exile: They had to identify themselves with Hezekiah and praise God for their suffering in exile. Yahweh’s just judgment of his people is acknowledged and praised in this way. At the same time they can praise him for his salvation. In the case of the people it is the salvation which is near and which is further elaborated in Isaiah 40–55. The praise for the real salvation for Hezekiah in the song must serve as certainty of being answered to the people still in exile. In this way the song also gives perspective to the future to the people in exile.187

In a metaphorical reading of the motif of healing in Isaiah 38:21 from 1992, Vicki Hoffer has demonstrated that healing in Isaiah can signify restoration of the community (e.g. Isa 1:6; 30:26; 61:1).188 Her approach is careful and nuanced due to her constant awareness of the ambiguity of metaphor. She states: “The imageries of the poem work easily to allow a double reading.”189 As such, the poem can function as an individual reflection upon the imminence of death, but it can also function as a symbolic representation of the exile: “The psalm ends with an image of rejoicing in the Temple, which means that the goal of personal recovery, like the hopes of the exiles, is a return to the Temple.”190 The concentrated focus of Hoffer’s study, however, does not allow her to interact more thoroughly with the metaphors of the psalm itself.

tives.” Accordingly, it is not unreasonable to argue that “we have in him a degree of foreshadowing not only of exile and disaster but also of restoration and hope.” See Ackroyd, Studies, 170–71. 185 Coetzee, “Doxology.” 186 Coetzee, “Doxology,” 21. He especially draws on Gerhard von Rad’s work on the concept. See von Rad, Theologie I, 355–56. 187 Coetzee, “Doxology,” 24. 188 Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21.” 189 Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21,” 77. 190 Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21,” 77.

204

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

Another illustration is Peter Quinn-Miscall’s popular introduction Reading Isaiah from 2001. In his view, “Hezekiah symbolizes the eventual destruction of Jerusalem and the exile of the people and, at the same time, points beyond them to return and restoration.”191 On a larger scale his approach is similar to Hoffer’s regarding the interpretation of the metaphors in the king’s psalm: “Hezekiah’s prayer in 38:10–20 contains themes and images of both exile (death) and return (life); the final two verses illustrate the near identity of Hezekiah, ‘I,’ and the people, ‘we.’”192 To summarize, past interpreters have stressed two elements in Isa 38 which indicate the theme of exile. First, Hezekiah’s illness and recovery form a typology for exile and restoration. Second, the metaphors in the psalm reflect, or at least can be said to illustrate, the experience of exile. Nevertheless, this stream of interpretations appears to be a minority voice. While recent commentaries recognize the typological significance of the Hezekiah figure, either as a type for the deliverance of Jerusalem or for future exile and restoration, few of them actually engage with unfolding exilic imagery in the psalm itself.193 This is apparent also in the two most well-known monograph studies of the psalm: Joachim Begrich’s Der Psalm des Hiskia from 1926 and Michael Barré’s The Lord Has Saved Me from 2005.194 There are almost no discussions of metaphors or typologies of exile. Begrich may be excused. After all, he belonged to a quite different era of biblical interpretation. However, the lack of critical interaction with these subjects in Barré’s work, published decades after Ackroyd’s article, is a real weakness of his dense treatment of the psalm. My intention here is to explore exilic imagery in Isa 38. Although I will focus most extensively on the psalm itself, I will also treat the narrative frame, especially its latter part. The composite nature of the chapter, combining narrative and psalm elements, and its alternative version in 2 Kings 20 demand a brief examination before turning to a verse-by-verse analysis.

191

Quinn-Miscall, Reading Isaiah, 153. Quinn-Miscall, Reading Isaiah, 153. 193 Hugh Williamson is a good example of those who accept the first observation but question the second. His criticism too easily draws on what, in my view, is a problematic distinction between original meaning and later reception: “The elements to which [Ackroyd] draws attentions are, of course, paralleled in a number of the psalms, so that we may need to distinguish carefully between their meaning in what could have been an originally independent psalm and their reuse in the present setting of the book of Isaiah, a situation in which it is always a delicate decision to what extent the person including the material was conscious of the full impact of his choice on as sensitive a later reader as Ackroyd shows himself to be” (“Hezekiah and the Temple,” 49). 194 Begrich, Der Psalm des Hiskia; Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me. 192

3.4. Hezekiah

205

3.4.2. The narrative and psalm in Isaiah 38 The narrative which frames the psalm is a prophetic legend which casts the prophet in the context of healing (cf. e.g. Elijah in 1 Kings 17:17–24).195 The inclusion of a psalm not present in the alternative version in 2 Kings raises questions about the present form and purpose of Isa 38. First, I will look at the differences between 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isa 38 to detect particularities and their possible significance in Isaiah’s version. Then, I will look at the interaction between the narrative and the psalm. 3.4.2.1. Differences between 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isaiah 38 A larger account of Hezekiah’s illness exists in two partly overlapping versions in 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isa 38.196 An initial comparison reveals two major differences.197 First, in Isaiah’s version, the sequence of events has been altered by moving the verses of 2 Kings 20:7–8 to the end of the chapter. The account as one coherent narrative is thus split up into two clearly divided scenes. Second, and related to this, Isaiah’s version has inserted a unique poem of twelve verses (38:9–20) in the gap between the two parts of the account (38:1–8, 21– 22). A closer glance at the textual forms shows some variations.198 If we assume that the version in 2 Kings is the oldest and thus forms the Vorlage of that in Isaiah, some of the differences may reflect the theological agenda of those who were responsible for the adaptation.199 The initial parts of the chapters, 2 Kings 20:1–5a and Isa 38:1–5a, are actually almost identical.200 In 2 Kings 20:6–7 and Isa 38:6, 21, the divergences mostly concern different but synonymous verbs and a small addition in Kings.201 2 Kings 20:9a and Isa 38:7 are roughly identical. The dialogue between Isaiah and Hezekiah in 2 Kings 20:9b–11a is 195

Cf. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 493–94. In addition to these accounts, the Chronicler has a very brief summary of the episode in 2 Chr 32:24: “In those days Hezekiah became sick and was at the point of death. He prayed to YHWH, and he answered him and gave him a sign” ( ‫בַּ יּ ִָמים הָ הֵ ם חָ לָה ְיחִ זְקִ יָּהוּ ַﬠד־לָמוּת ַו ִיּ ְת ַפּלֵּל‬ ‫)אֶ ל־ ְיהוָה וַיּ ֹאמֶ ר לוֹ וּמוֹ ֵפת נָתַ ן לוֹ‬. 197 Cf. the very useful synopsis of 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isa 38 in Wildberger, Jesaja, 1490–95. 198 See e.g. Kasher, “Hezekiah’s Illness”; Konkel, “Sources”; Kustár, Wunden, 119–28. 199 There seems to be broad consensus to give 2 Kings 20:1–11 priority over against Isa 38; see the discussion of Isa 39 in Chapter 2 for references. 200 The only major difference of significance is that the sentence “before Isaiah had gone out of the middle city [or court]” (‫ ) ְישַׁ ﬠְ יָהוּ ל ֹא יָצָ א הָ ֵﬠיר הַ ִתּי ֹכנָה‬in 2 Kings 20:4 is lacking from Isa 38:4. The purpose of this statement is to emphasize the short amount of time between Hezekiah’s prayer in vv. 2–3 and God’s answer in vv. 5–6. 201 2 Kings 20:6–7 has ‫ וְ הֹ סַ פְ ִתּי‬compared to Isaiah’s ‫יוֹסִ ף‬, ‫ קְ חוּ‬to ‫ ִי ְשׂאוּ‬, and ‫ ַו ִיּקְ חוּ ַויּ ִָשׂימוּ‬to ‫וְ ִי ְמ ְרחוּ‬. 2 Kings 20:6b reads in addition: “for my own sake and for my servant David’s sake” (‫)לְ מַ ﬠְ ַ ִני וּלְ מַ ַﬠן דָּ וִ ד ַﬠבְ דִּ י‬. 196

206

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

unique, whereas the content of 2 Kings 20:11b and Isa 38:8 about the turning back of the sun’s shadow is practically the same, despite their many linguistic differences.202 As to the overall purpose of this study, the most significant variation occurs in vv. 5b and 8 in 2 Kings 20. Compared to Isa 38:5–6, YHWH’s word to Hezekiah in 2 Kings includes an extra element in addition to the promises of expanded lifetime and salvation from the Assyrians. In 2 Kings 20:5b, YHWH states: “I will heal you; on the third day you shall go up to the house of YHWH.” This statement lacks in Isaiah, as the question about access to the temple is relocated to the end of the chapter. In 2 Kings 20:8, the theme resounds in Hezekiah’s question: “What shall be the sign that YHWH will heal me, and that I shall go up to the house of YHWH?” As a response and a divine sign to support the credibility of his power to heal and deliver, YHWH lets the shadow on the steps go ten degrees backwards (cf. Jos 10:12–13). In Isaiah, this cosmic miracle is used only to confirm the promise of healing and salvation, not future access to the temple. More importantly, the access to the temple in 2 Kings is directly related to the healing and there is a clear indication of time within the very near future: “on the third day” (‫ישׁי‬ ִ ִ‫)בַּ יּוֹם הַ ְשּׁל‬. In Isaiah, Hezekiah’s question is accordingly shorter: “what is the sign that I shall go to the house of YHWH” (v. 22). There is no identification of time and the king’s question remains unanswered. A common reaction towards these differences, especially the relocation of 2 Kings 20:7–8 to the end of Isa 38, has been to consider the sequence in Isaiah to be corrupt and accordingly to move the verses back in the former part of the chapter.203 In my view, there is no need for this drastic move. The narrative of Isa 38:1–8 can be read perfectly well without the missing verses. It makes sense as it stands.204 Rather than being a corruption, the return of the narrative form 202 The notion of Ahaz, however, seems even more important in Isaiah’s continuous comparison of the bad father and the good son; cf. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 258: “The moving back of the sun’s shadow ten steps may be nothing more than a way of saying that Ahaz’s refusal to believe (and accept a sign such as this) is being covered by Hezekiah’s righteous deportment.” 203 Cf. e.g. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 290–91: “The prophet’s announcement of a sign follows the king’s request for one, which has now become misplaced and is to be found in v. 22” (my emphasis). Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 283 and recently Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 232–33: “These verses fit poorly in their present context and are anti-climactic, almost an afterthought.” 204 In fact, the account in 2 Kings is a strange mixture or juxtaposition of two different motifs, one about illness and recovery (1–7) and one about the sign (8–11), with uncertainties of their inner coherence. Christopher Seitz, who thinks Isaiah’s version is the original, points out the apparently higher degree of confusion in the version in 2 Kings in his Isaiah 1–39 (260): “The king is told he will go to the temple in three days (II Kings 20:5); he then asks what the sign will be that he should go to the temple (II Kings 20:8); and when the sign is given, it involves the dial of Ahaz and a test for the prophet (II Kings 20:10).”

3.4. Hezekiah

207

in 38:21–22 indeed serves several purposes. First, the two narrative sections offer a frame for the poem in vv. 9–20.205 Second, vv. 21–22 deal with matters of space and being away that are essential in the themes and metaphors of the poem. Third, letting the chapter have an “open” ending in terms of an unanswered question is not an accident in the textual process.206 It is rather a highly creative way of addressing questions of a later time where being away from the temple is a harsh condition of life.207 3.4.2.2. Interaction between narrative and psalm in Isaiah 38 The adding of the psalm and the reworking of the narrative in Isaiah 38 raise new questions about the purpose of the psalm in the context of the chapter and the matter in which the narrative parts and the psalm interact. Among historical-critical scholars it seems common not to overstate the interaction between the psalm and its literary context. The prevailing view is that the psalm was added because of its general appropriateness. Begrich states: “Die einzige, aber rein formale Übereinstimmung ist die, daß auch Hiskia dem Tode nahe war und auf sein Gebet dem Leben wiedergeschenkt ward.”208 Blenkinsopp is even more modest in his review: “[the psalm] contains nothing peculiar to Hezekiah’s situation.”209 Accordingly, the psalm is introduced as a poetic afterthought or “poetical interlude.”210 It may add nuances to the portrait of Hezekiah, but it has no influence on the events themselves.211

205 Cf. Young, Isaiah II, 529: “That Isaiah has placed [the verses] after the psalm of praise does not indicate that they are misplaced; they merely serve to bring about a suitable conclusion to the entire account.” See also Ackroyd, Studies, 164: “The effect which is produced by this now complex narrative is to underline the major significance of the illness and recovery of the king.” 206 See especially Goswell, “Literary Logic.” Against e.g. Jeremias, “Zu Jes. XXXVIII 21f.,” 109–10; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1447. 207 Cf. Beuken, Isaiah 28–39, 386: “Since the request for a sign remains unanswered, the narrative remains open-ended, allowing it to function well in the perspective of the exile with its hope for return to and ascent to a refurbished temple.” 208 Begrich, Der Psalm des Hiskia, 66. 209 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 484. 210 De Boer, “Isaiah xxxviii 9–20,” 185. 211 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 1468: “Die Erzählung von Hiskias Erkrankung und Genesung ist bestrebt, die Haltung Hiskias, dieses vorbildlichen Inhabers des Thrones Davids, zu illustrieren. […] Durch den eingeschobenen Psalm ist das Bild des Königs nicht unwesentlich verändert. Das Motiv der Sündenvergebung, das in der Prosaerzählung keinen Platz hätte, bringt ein neues Moment ein. Und damit gehört zusammen, dass der Beter des Psalms nicht auf sine Untadeligkeit pocht. Der Psalmist hat ganz anders mit seiner Krankheit gerungen als der Hiskia der Erzählung. Und darum nimmt bei ihm auch das Gotteslob einen so weiteren Raum ein. Die Prosaerzählung ist durch den Einschub wesentlich bereichert worden.” Cf. Watts, Psalm and Story, 125: “the characterization of Hezekiah in Isaiah 38.9–20 does

208

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

James W. Watts has devoted a monograph study to the dynamic between narrative and inset hymns. In his treatment of the relation between narrative and psalm in Isaiah 38, he asserts that The Psalm is not mentioned in the preceding or subsequent prose narratives, and therefore does not have any direct effect on the narrative plot. In other words, the actions of the characters are not affected by Hezekiah’s writing of the psalm.212

In a word, the function of the psalm is allegedly like that of an aria in an opera: it unfolds an emotion or dwells on a certain experience of one of the characters, but it does not itself push the plot forward. According to Watts, this has to do with the form of biblical narrative, which is unable to describe more deeply the feeling and attitudes of its main characters. Inserted hymns such as Hezekiah’s psalm thus provide “a depth of characterization of which conventional Hebrew narrative was not capable.”213 Nevertheless, in his illuminating article mentioned above, Ackroyd also makes a comment on inclusion of psalm passages in narrative contexts: The relative rarity of such insertions suggests that we should not suppose that they are the result of a desire of a scribe to brighten up the narrative by quoting a piece of poetry or even to preserve ancient poetic passages which might otherwise be lost, but rather of an endeavor to draw out the significance of the narrative by the use of poems which point to important elements which it is desired to underline.214

In other words, the editor uses this specific psalm to emphasize certain elements in the literary context. Regarding the narrative dynamic of the chapter, a crucial question is whether Hezekiah when he begins to sing the psalm has already experienced recovery or he is only about to. On the one hand, if he has already been healed, as most interpreters seem to assume, the psalm looks back upon the incident and gives thanks for deliverance. As such the psalm does not play a distinctive role in the plot. Scholars of this interpretation similarly often discard vv. 21–22 because the future-oriented perspective found in these verses fits poorly with their interpretation. On the other hand, if Hezekiah has not yet been healed, the psalm itself has something to perform or achieve. not elevate the figure of Hezekiah to unique heights. It rather makes him an example of hope for those in need by emphasizing his suffering and helplessness.” 212 Watts, Psalm and Story, 119. Compare this with: “Hezekiah’s Psalm has no effect on the prose plot despite the fact that it is located in the midst of the ongoing action” (125). However, in the broader context of Isaiah, Watts follows Ackroyd and recognizes the special role of the psalm: “The psalm draws out from the stories of military and bodily deliverance the implications of these events for the exiles: despite defeat and the threat of death, God is still able to restore life to individuals and nations. […] In the context of Isaiah, 38.9–20 foreshadows the messages of comfort and hope that begin in ch. 40” (124). 213 Watts, Psalm and Story, 130. 214 Ackroyd, Studies, 165.

3.4. Hezekiah

209

Christopher Seitz is one of the few interpreters who takes the canonical significance of the entire chapter seriously. He notes that full recovery is never spelled out in the chapter but is only present as a trustworthy divine promise: “The full recovery of the king, in medical terms, still lies in the future (so both 38:5–6 and 38:20).”215 The superscription of the psalm should thus more correctly be translated into “when Hezekiah was sick and survived his illness” rather than “after he had been sick and had recovered from his sickness” (cf. NRSV). Seitz explains: “This allows the temporal perspective to move gradually from sickness to health rather than placing all the emphasis on the recovery as a past reality.”216 In addition, vv. 21–22 serve an important function as the prophet Isaiah’s response to the king’s prayer. Greg Goswell has recently made the same claim. Like other hymns, the psalm of Hezekiah is placed at a point in the narrative “where deliverance is expected but not yet enjoyed.”217 The final verses respond to the content of the psalm and not simply to the narrative section preceding it (vv. 1–8): “With regard to plot relations, Hezekiah’s psalm is integrally related to the narrative thread of Isaiah 38 and contributes to the forward movement of the plot. Verses 21–22 describe events subsequent to (and dependent on) the sentiments expressed by Hezekiah in the royal psalm.”218 I agree with the view of Seitz and Goswell that the psalm serves an integrated purpose in the present composition. As was noticed above, important particularities in Isaiah’s version compared to that of 2 Kings is the forwardlooking nature of the chapter. Healing is never spelled out. There is no mention of a specific period of three days and there is not an explicit answer to Hezekiah’s final question. The expansion of perspective in the final verses of the psalm accords with and points forward to the rhetorical question in v. 22. 3.4.3. Isaiah 38:1–8: Narrative frame As argued, the version of Hezekiah’s illness in Isaiah makes good sense independently of that in 2 Kings.219 Isaiah 38:1–8 opens with “in those days” ( ‫בַּ יּ ִָמים‬ ‫)הָ הֵ ם‬, connecting the episode loosely to the events of Isa 36–37 and Isa 39. The

215

Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 260. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 258. 217 Goswell, “Literary Logic,” 172. 218 Goswell, “Literary Logic,” 177. 219 Cf. Childs (Isaiah, 280), commenting on the relation between 2 Kings 20:1–11 and Isa 38, states: “once the importance of this history of the growth of the text has been affirmed, the hermeneutical caveat must also be sounded that ultimately the integrity of each of these two witnesses according to their present form must be respected and vigorously pursued.” See also Beuken, Isaiah 28–39, 383: “These differences invite us to interpret the present narrative as much ‘in its own right’ as we did the first.” For a comparison of the two versions as two canonical stories in their own right, see Kasher, “Hezekiah’s Illness,” 48–52. 216

210

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

narrator initially presents Hezekiah’s current condition: the king “was ill to the point of death” (‫ לָמוּת‬... ‫)חָ לָה‬. The key word here is ‫חלה‬, which points forward to the introductory verse of the psalm (38:9) and to the visit of the Babylonian envoys (39:1). The prophet Isaiah enters to deliver the first of two divine oracles (‫)כֹּ ה־אָ מַ ר ְיהוָה‬: one about judgment (v. 1b) and one about salvation (vv. 5b– 6). In the judgment oracle, YHWH commands Hezekiah to prepare for death, because it is unavoidable: “You shall not live/recover” (‫)וְ ל ֹא ִתחְ יֶה‬. The verb ‫חיה‬ forms another key word of the entire chapter. It frames the poem (vv. 9 and 21) and marks the turning point of Hezekiah’s prayer in v. 16: “make me live!” (‫)הַ ֲחיֵנִ י‬. The preparation for death consists of “setting the house in order.” Hezekiah’s house (‫ )בַּ יִ ת‬is hardly only his private household. Rather, the notion of “house” points to the Davidic dynasty as such (cf. e.g. Isa 7:2, 13; 22:22). To set the house, therefore, is not only to bring the private affairs in order, but to prepare and instruct the heirs about their future obligations. As Young proposes, a problem for Hezekiah could be that at this time, according to the biblical chronology, the king had no heir.220 If this is so, it makes the situation even more desperate because the future of the Davidic kingship is at stake. The larger literary context also supports a concern for the continuation of the royal dynasty insofar as the preceding chapter ends with the death of Sennacherib and the succession of Esar-haddon.221 As when facing the Assyrian threat of invasion at the opening of Isa 37, Hezekiah’s reaction is one of humility and prayer. He physically turns around to devote his entire attention to prayer. There is a motif of isolation here because Hezekiah decisively withdraws from further social contact to concentrate on praying. YHWH should recall his devoted faithfulness and all the good he has done. Hezekiah’s weeping is as intense and sincere as that of his great ancestor David’s when he wept over the loss of his son Amnon (2 Sam 13:36). In the prophet Isaiah’s succeeding oracle of salvation, YHWH in fact identifies himself as “God of your ancestor David.” He has heard Hezekiah’s prayer and seen his tears and will now add 15 years to his life. As a rather strange reminiscence of Isa 36–37, YHWH will furthermore save and protect Hezekiah and Jerusalem from the Assyrian king (see especially 37:35). Finally, a cosmic miracle serves as a sign to provide reliability of the prophetic word. The cosmic miracle is also used to emphasize the significance of Hezekiah’s recovery. As Ackroyd says, “this is no unimportant moment, it is one to which the reader’s attention is being especially directed.”222 220

Young, Isaiah II, 509–10. The idea of Hezekiah’s childlessness is dominant in early reception of the passage, including the Septuagint, Josephus, and rabbinic sources; see the recent review in Rothstein, “Hezekiah’s Prayer and Childlessness.” 221 Cf. Goswell, “Literary Logic,” 167. 222 Ackroyd, Studies, 164.

3.4. Hezekiah

211

3.4.4. Isaiah 38:9–20: The psalm of Hezekiah The psalm of Hezekiah is a challenging piece of literature. Before turning to a close reading of the poem, I will briefly say a few words about its textual form and literary structure. 3.4.4.1. The textual form of the psalm Brevard Childs is certainly right when he states: “Isa. 38:9–20, the psalm of Hezekiah, exhibits an extremely difficult and controversial Hebrew text.”223 The difficulties consist in the occurrence of many hapax legomena whose precise meanings are difficult to determine and in an already puzzling if not damaged text that is challenging to interpret. The opacity of the text has fostered many proposals for emendations.224 Begrich’s famous analysis is still worth consulting, although many of his twentytwo emendations and “restorations” are too bold to be followed today.225 As an early form critic, Begrich was perhaps more interested in making the psalm fit what he thought to be conventional forms and categories rather than interpreting the specific psalm in front of him.226 Barré’s extremely detailed analysis of especially text-critical issues is impressive. 227 Nevertheless, as Begrich, Barré’s eagerness to “restore” a perfectly structured poem based on wordcount, word-order and the logic of poetic parallelism often forces him to make textual emendations and eliminations in cases where the preserved Masoretic text makes good sense. Coetzee rightly objects that he should “leave more room for the ‘poetic freedom’ of the poet than to alter his/her text.”228 In my own reading, I will attempt to follow the Masoretic text as far as I can. Rather than plaster the text and translation with an endless list of notes, I will discuss most of the proposed emendations and alternative readings in the exegesis of the text. The textual notes, which follow the translation, comment on either words that will not be dealt with in the exegetical part or translations that depart profoundly from that of the NRSV. 3.4.4.2. Isaiah 38:9–20: Text and translation ‫ לְ חִ זְקִ יָּהוּ מֶ ֶל ־יְ הוּדָ ה‬a‫ִמכְ תָּ ב‬ ‫בַּ ֲח תֹ ו וַיְ חִ י מֵ חָ לְ יֹ ו‬ ‫ֲאנִ י אָ מַ ְר ִתּי‬ 223

9

A writing of King Hezekiah of Judah, when he was ill and recoveringb from his illness. 10 I said:

Childs, Isaiah, 280. For accessible overviews, see e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 480–81; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 678–81; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1441–46. 225 See Begrich, Der Psalm des Hiskia, 17–51. 226 Cf. the criticism in Childs, Isaiah, 283–84. 227 See Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 35–211. 228 Coetzee, “Review of Barré,” 124. 224

212

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

‫בִּ דְ ִמי יָמַ י אֵ ֵלכָה בְּ שַׁ ﬠ ֲֵרי ְשׁאוֹל‬ ‫פֻּקַּ ְד ִתּי יֶתֶ ר ְשׁנוֹתָ י‬ ‫אמַ ְר ִתּי‬ ‫ל ֹא־אֶ ְראֶ ה יָהּ יָהּ בְּ אֶ ֶרץ הַ חַ יִּ ים‬ ‫ם־יוֹשׁבֵ י חָ דֶ ל‬ ְ ִ‫ל ֹא־אַ בִּ יט אָ דָ ם עוֹד ﬠ‬ ‫דּוֹרי נִ סַּ ע וְ נִ גְ לָה ִמנִּ י כְּ אֹ הֶ ל רֹ ﬠִ י‬ ִ ‫קִ ַפּ ְד ִתּי כָאֹ ֵרג חַ יַּי ִמדַּ לָּה יְ בַ צְּ ֵﬠנִ י‬ ‫ִמיּוֹם ַﬠד־לַיְ לָה תַּ ְשׁלִ ימֵ נִ י‬ ‫יתי ַﬠד־בֹּ קֶ ר‬ ִ ִ‫ִשׁוּ‬ ‫ָ ֽכּ ֲא ִרי ֵכּן יְ שַׁ בֵּ ר כָּל־ ַﬠצְ מוֹתָ י‬ ‫ִמיּוֹם ַﬠד־לַיְ לָה תַּ ְשׁלִ ימֵ נִ י‬ ‫כְּ סוּס ָﬠגוּר ֵכּן ֲאצַ פְ צֵ ף אֶ הְ גֶּה כַּיּוֹנָה‬ ‫דַּ לּוּ ֵﬠינַי לַמָּ רוֹם‬ ‫ֲאדֹ נָי ָﬠ ְשׁקָ ה־לִּ י ָﬠ ְרבֵ נִ י‬ ‫מָ ה־ ֲאדַ בֵּ ר וְ אָ מַ ר־לִ י וְ הוּא ָﬠשָׂ ה‬ ‫ל־שׁנוֹתַ י ַﬠל־מַ ר נַפְ ִשׁי‬ ְ ‫אֶ דַּ דֶּ ה ָכ‬ ‫ֲאדֹ נָי ֲﬠלֵיהֶ ם יִ חְ יוּ וּלְ ָכל־בָּ הֶ ן חַ יֵּי‬ ‫רוּחִ י‬ ‫וְ תַ חֲלִ ימֵ נִ י וְ הַ ֲחיֵנִ י‬ ‫הִ נֵּה לְ שָׁ לוֹם מַ ר־לִ י מָ ר‬ ‫וְ אַ תָּ ה חָ שַׁ קְ תָּ נַפְ ִשׁי ִמשַּׁ חַ ת בְּ לִ י‬ ‫כִּ י הִ ְשׁלַכְ תָּ אַ ח ֲֵרי גֵוְ ָכּל־חֲטָ אָ י‬ ‫כִּ י ל ֹא ְשׁאוֹל תּוֹדֶ ָךּ מָ וֶת ְיהַ לְ ֶל ָךּ‬ ֶ‫יוֹרדֵ י־בוֹר אֶ ל־ ֲא ִמתּ‬ ְ ‫ל ֹא־יְ שַׂ בְּ רוּ‬ ‫חַ י חַ י הוּא יֹ ודֶ ָכּמֹ ו ִני הַ יֹּ ום‬ ֶ‫ודי ַﬠ אֶ ל־ ֲא ִמתּ‬ ִ ֹ‫אָ ב לְ בָ נִ ים י‬ ‫הוֹשׁי ֵﬠנִ י וּנְ גִ נוֹתַ י נְ ַנגֵּן‬ ִ ְ‫יְ הוָה ל‬ ‫ָכּל־יְ מֵ י חַ יֵּינוּ ַﬠל־בֵּ ית ְיהוָה‬ a

In the noontide of my days I must depart to the gates of Sheol;c I will be punished for the rest of my years. 11 I said: I shall not see YHWHd in the land of the living; I shall look upon mortals no more among the inhabitants of the world. 12 My lifespan is plucked up and removed from me like a shepherd’s tent; like a weaver I have rolled up my life; he cuts me off from the loom. From day to night you bring me to an end; 13 I cry for help until morning; like a lion he breaks all my bones; from day to night you bring me to an end. 14 Like a swallow or a crane I clamor, I moan like a dove. My eyes are weary with looking upward. O Lord, I am oppressed; be my security! 15 But what can I say? For he has spoken to me, and he himself has done it. I shall flee all my yearse because of the bitterness of my soul. 16 O Lord, by these things people live, and in all these is the life of my spirit. Oh, restore me to health and make me live! 17 Surely it was for my peace that I had great bitterness. But you have held back my life from the pit of destruction, for you have cast all my sins behind your back. 18 For Sheol cannot thank you, death cannot praise you; those who go down to the grave cannot hope for your faithfulness. 19 The living, the living, they thank you, as I do this day; fathers make known to children your faithfulness. 20 YHWH will save me, and we will sing to stringed instruments all the days of our lives, at the house of YHWH.

Many interpreters emend “writing” (‫)מכְ תָּ ב‬ ִ to “miktam” (‫)מכְ תָּ ם‬ ִ used as a title in a handful of psalms (Ps 16; 56–60). b Many interpreters and some modern translations including the NRSV construe the verbs as pluperfects (“after he had been sick and had recovered”). I do not support this interpretation,

3.4. Hezekiah

213

but agree with Beuken (Isaiah 28–39, 385, 394) and Seitz (Isaiah 1–39, 258) that full recovery has not yet been achieved. c I follow the Masoretic construal of the verse (see the exegesis of this verse). d The text actually reads “Yah Yah” (‫)יָהּ יָהּ‬. The single occurrence of ‫ יָהּ‬as an abbreviation of YHWH is common in poetic and liturgical texts (e.g. Exod 15:2 and many psalms). In Isaiah, it occurs in the psalm of thanksgiving in 12:2 and in Judah’s song of victory in 26:4. The double occurrence in 38:11, however, is unique in the Old Testament. It could simply be a corruption of ‫ יהוה‬as proposed by many commentators. On the other hand, v. 17 and v. 19 also contain repetitions of words and it could thus be a poetic device to stress or intensify the thought. Some of the ancient versions maintain the repetition; cf. Aquila and Theodotion: ια ια; and the Vulgate: Dominum Dominum. e The NRSV has “all my sleep has fled” (see the exegesis of this verse).

3.4.4.3. The literary form and structure of the psalm The textual confusion also has an influence on the determination of the literary form and structure of the poem.229 The form of the psalm hardly fits any of the commonly accepted forms. Begrich proposes an individual song of thanksgiving (cf. Ps 18; 30; 32; 34; Jonah 2), but he underestimates the pervasiveness of lamentation throughout the poem. Emphasis is on mourning and mortality more than deliverance and thanksgiving.230 The question is how to balance the sections of lament and praise, or, to put it differently: where do the major divisions occur? The diverging proposals among scholars largely arise from different interpretations of the tone of vv. 15–16 (see below). More precisely, do vv. 15– 16 belong to the part of lament or praise? In my opinion, the decisive change of tone does not appear until the middle of v. 17.231 Therefore, the rough structure of the psalm consists of a large section of lament and despair (vv. 10–17a) and a smaller section of promise and renewed hope (vv. 17b–20).232 This division is also warranted by the introductory words “I” (‫)אַנִ י‬ ְ in v. 10 and “but you” (‫ )וְ אַ תָּ ה‬in v. 17b.233 In terms of content, I divide the psalm into five minor blocks: v. 9 containing the heading, vv. 229 Regarding the background and origin of the psalm, scholarly proposals cover almost all possible eras in the history of Israel. Some push it back into the past to an uncertain date, whereas others, drawing attention to alleged Aramaic vocabulary, argue that it is very late. See the review of Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 216–27. If the psalm was composed independently of its Isaianic context, another question is when it entered into the present composition. Beuken (Isaiah 28–39, 394), for instance, suggests the exilic period; Wagner (“From Salvation to Doom,” 101) proposes the Persian era. 230 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 674. 231 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 1464: “Zwischen 17a and b liegt die große Zäsur dieses Psalms.” 232 For studies of structure, see e.g. Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 23–34; Coetzee, “Doxology,” 22–23; Goswell, “Literary Logic,” 177–79; van Wieringen, “‘I’-Figure’s Relations,” 481–89. 233 Beuken, Isaiah 28–39, 389–90.

214

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

10–12a about removal and isolation, vv. 12b–14 about destruction and complaint, vv. 15–17a about judgment and restlessness, and 17b–20 about the anticipation of salvation. 3.4.4.4. Isaiah 38:9: The heading The heading is similar to many of those in Psalms and thereby closely relates Hezekiah’s words to his royal ancestor, David. It contains references to the type or genre (“writing”), to the author or singer (“Hezekiah”), and to the situation on which the words of the psalm reflect (“illness”). The term “writing” (‫)מכְ תָּ ב‬ ִ broadly designates a piece of writing, for instance, a document or an inscription. The psalm could thus be considered either as a prayer-letter or as a public inscription. We have examples from Ancient Near Eastern material of rulers who publicly present themselves as pious individuals through prayers in the form of letters or inscriptions.234 Nevertheless, despite its unknown prehistory, the psalm now functions as a piece of literature well integrated into its present setting in Isaiah.235 In line with Beuken and Seitz, I do not consider the heading to express the actual healing of Hezekiah.236 He is, rather, about to recover (cf. v. 20). The employed verb is a key word of the chapter as a whole (‫ )חיה‬and simply states that “he lived from his illness,” or in the translation of Seitz, “survived his illness.” Hezekiah’s words thus form a psalm that anticipates healing rather than one that reflects it. 3.4.4.5. Isaiah 38:10–12a: Removal and isolation In verse 10, it is significant to note that the psalm itself turns directly to its central matter. There is no opening and no clear address. Hezekiah speaks of his difficult situation and the harsh condition of distress he has been facing. An initial problem concerns the structure and syntax of the verse. It opens with a statement by the king: “I said” (‫) ֲאנִ י אָ מַ ְר ִתּי‬. In the rest of the verse, however, it is not clear how to delimit the words. Many interpreters, modern translations, and the text edition of BHS understand the remaining words as two sentences: one about departure (‫ )בִּ דְ ִמי יָמַ י אֵ ֵלכָה‬and one about destination ( ‫בְּ שַׁ ﬠ ֲֵרי ְשׁאוֹל ֻפּקַּ ְד ִתּי‬ ‫)יֶתֶ ר ְשׁנוֹתָ י‬. This interpretation does not follow the Masoretic textual tradition. By placing an atnach-accent under the word “Sheol”, the Masoretes regarded 234

Beuken, Isaiah 28–39, 385. Sweeney’s (Isaiah 1–39, 502) suggestion that before entering into the book of Isaiah, the psalm existed as a royal letter inscription or was perhaps even engraved in a stele erected in Jerusalem by Hezekiah after the failed conquest in 701 is certainly creative, but due to its speculative nature is impossible to prove. 236 Cf. also Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 312: “Der fromme König schreibt dieses Gebet nicht als Gesunder, sondern als Todkranker, der sich ganz auf das durch ein Zeichen bekräftigte Gotteswort verläßt.” 235

3.4. Hezekiah

215

“the gates of Sheol” to conclude the first half of the verse. This understanding is preferable because it provides a clear goal for the departure. Hezekiah is going to a specific location. In the expression ‫בִּ ְד ִמי יָמַ י‬, the first word can mean different things. The preferred option is to derive the form from a hapax legomenon ‫ דְּ ִמי‬meaning “half” or “midst” (cf. ‫ דְּ מוּת‬in Ezek 1:13), that is, “noontime,” “middle,” or “prime.” If so, Hezekiah states that in the middle of his life, or at the peak of his career, he will now face problems and possible decline. Another option is to derive the word from the noun ‫ ְ ָדּ ִמי‬which means “rest,” “silence,” or “peacefulness” (cf. Isa 62:6–7; Ps 83:2). The root is ‫דמה‬, which often occurs in Niphal about being silenced or destroyed (e.g. Isa 15:1; Jer 47:5; Hos 4:6; Zeph 1:11).237 In Isa 15:1, for instance, ‫ דמה‬even parallels “to destroy” (‫)שׁדד‬. My point is that to be silenced and to be destroyed are closely related. This ambiguity is indeed at stake in the commission of the prophet in Isa 6:5 (see Chapter 2). In the case of Isa 38:10, a plausible translation of ‫ ְ ָדּ ִמי‬would then be “silence” or perhaps even “destruction.” Rather than going away in the prime of his life, he goes away in silence and destruction. Yet in light of the occurrences of the noun in Isa 62, a more preferable interpretation is “silence” in the sense of “rest” or “peace”. It is from the silence or peacefulness of his life that Hezekiah now encounters challenge and threat. Nevertheless, Christopher Hays has recently presented a rather alternative proposal. By a small alteration of the vocalization, he proposes to read “depart because of the bloodguilt of my days” (‫)בדמֵ י ימי אלכה‬.238 “Blood” is certainly a more common word than the terms listed above. In addition, it introduces the motif of sin or guilt that is almost absent in the hymn. Although Hays lists a couple of relevant passages (Isa 22:9–11; Mic 3:10; Hab 2:9–13) to determine the concrete “bloodguilt” of Hezekiah, he is aware of the weakness of his proposal as he states: “It might appear that Hezekiah’s psalm relates to an early and now mostly submerged tradition of his guilt in matters of social justice.”239 Despite this uncertainty, his proposal is rather attractive. It emphasizes that Hezekiah is forced to leave because of sin. In a word, departure occurs as a result of divine judgment (see further below). Because of sin Hezekiah must go, or is about to enter (‫)אֵ ֵל ָכה‬, through the gates of Sheol. As we have already noticed, the association of exile with Sheol appears in several instances. Descending into Sheol is a central feature in the description of exile in Isa 5:13–14 (see Chapter 1). The exiled Jonah cries to God from the depths or belly of Sheol (‫) ִמבֶּ טֶ ן ְשׁאוֹל‬. And in Hab 2:5, the greed 237

Kaiser (Jesaja 13–39, 398) attempts to derive the word from the root ‫“( דםם‬to lament”) and thus reads “Im Jammer meiner Tage.” Similarly, Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 56: “In the grief/mourning of my days.” 238 Hays, Death, 337, 339. 239 Hays, Death, 339–40.

216

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

of Babylon is likened to that of Sheol. The idea that Sheol has gates that one needs to pass through is common in poetic texts.240 Psalm 107:18 speaks about the “gates of death” (‫ )שַׁ ﬠ ֲֵרי מָ וֶת‬and Job 38:17 parallels them to the “gates of great darkness” (‫)שַׁ ﬠ ֲֵרי צַ לְ מָ וֶת‬. The image of gates has further connotations. First, “gates” is used here as a figure for entrance, parallel to other images such as “mouth” or “the gaping maw of death” (cf. ‫ ֶנפֶשׁ‬and ‫ ֶפּה‬in 5:14).241 Second, the notion of gates points to the impossibility of return. As Young puts it, “Once the gates have been closed on the person who has entered, there is no possibility of escaping or returning through them.”242 The image thus renders the idea of finality or absolute conclusion. It is the kind of captivity that you cannot escape. Third, “gates” indicates that the place to which Hezekiah is going is likened to a gated city. Although the psalm never explicitly states from where he will depart, there are more reasons to assume the answer is Jerusalem rather than simply the realm of human life as such. The narrative is set in the capital of Judah. More importantly, v. 20 which, along with v. 10, frames the psalm envisions a joyful residing in the temple. In a word, the psalm begins with departure from the temple and ends with a hope of returning to it. Accordingly, v. 10 plays on the move from one city to another, that is, from the city of God to the city of death. A similar idea is found in Ps 9 where we encounter the reverse shift from the psalmist’s complaint at “the gates of death” in v. 14 to the praise at “the gates of Daughter Zion” (‫ )שַׁ ﬠ ֲֵרי בַ ת־צִ יּוֹן‬in v. 15. As is well known, “Daughter Zion” is a common poetic synonym for Jerusalem. Therefore, Hezekiah is about to leave Jerusalem and its temple to enter into the city of death and destruction. In light of the larger context in Isaiah, it is worth considering whether Sheol – this “city of death” – is, in fact, a poetic substitute for Babylon. In the following chapter, goods and the sons shall be taken away and brought to Babylon (39:6–7). In Isa 13–14, Babylon is cast as the prince of death. Since the image in 38:10 is “gates”, there is a striking parallel in Isa 43:14. As part of God’s redemptive act, he will send to Babylon and break down all the bars (see Chapter 4). The notion of bars clearly belongs to the gate imagery. The gates that seem unbreakable are smashed by divine intervention. The latter part of v. 10 opens with a verb (‫ )פֻּקַּ ְד ִתּי‬which describes Hezekiah’s prospect. The commonly recognized Pual form of ‫ פקד‬is only attested here and in Exod 38:21. In the latter case, it signifies the act of mustering or counting things, or perhaps passing them in review. The exact meaning of the word in Isa 38 depends on the overall understanding of the structure of the verse. According to many interpreters, the verb is linked to “the gates of Sheol” and is thus best understood as “to be consigned” or “to be summoned” to those 240

Hays, Death, 340; Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 76. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 683. 242 Young, Isaiah II, 517. 241

3.4. Hezekiah

217

gates.243 However, following the Masoretes, as I do, the verb occurs in a separate statement. As such, it could mean “to be deprived of” or “to be robbed of”. Accordingly, Hezekiah is deprived of the rest of his life. There is another option, however, which is to understand the form of the verb as a Qal passive rather than a Pual.244 The verb in Qal can signify “to posit (something) in a place” (cf. 2 Kings 5:24). It usually refers to “things”, but occasionally also to persons. In these cases, it certainly has a negative tone. Barré suggests that “Perhaps […] the poet, for dramatic effect, is deliberately applying to himself an expression predicated of objects.”245 If this is so, Hezekiah finds himself to be deposited in a foreign place. This would fit the removal of goods and sons in 39:6–7 well. Nevertheless, ‫ פקד‬in Qal can also mean “to visit,” often in a very negative sense about YHWH’s judgment (e.g. Exod 20:5; Hos 1:4). In Isaiah, the term means to “judge” in several instances (e.g. 10:12; 13:11; 24:21–22; 26:14, 21; 27:1). This makes good sense here. To walk through the gates of Sheol is to be expelled from the life-giving presence of YHWH. Following Hays’ reading of bloodguilt in the former half of the verse, the motif of divine judgment offers an excellent parallel. It is indeed a punishment lasting for the rest of his years (‫)יֶתֶ ר ְשׁנוֹתָ י‬.246 Michael Barré finds this expression problematic and, inspired by 1QIsaa, emends it to “weeping bitterly for my years” (‫)וְ מַ ר ְשׁנוֹתָ י‬. According to him, the problem with the reading in the MT is as follows: In Biblical Hebrew and other languages of the ancient Near East (e.g. Akkadian) one’s “days” or “years” are synonymous designations of one’s life span. Since “life” is exclusively existence in the present world – existence in the netherworld is never called “life” – it is impossible to speak of someone’s “days” or “years” in the netherworld. Therefore the poet cannot be consigned to Sheol “for the rest of [his] years.” By the very fact of being there, his days and years are over.247

Barré’s observation is by no means incorrect, but he draws the wrong conclusion from it. Instead of emending the text we should be aware that it actually says something about the nature of Sheol in this verse. Sheol is apparently a place where you can live on and spend the rest of your life. It is more like a prison or, better, it is death without being dead. Verse 11 repeats the opening of v. 10 by Hezekiah’s statement: “I said” (‫)אמַ ְר ִתּי‬. While v. 10 focuses on removal and punishment, the themes of this 243

See e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 479; Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 315; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1440. 244 Cf. the review in Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 61–62. 245 Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 62. 246 The root ‫ יתר‬is important in Isaiah. In Isa 1–39 it is used to express the idea of a holy remnant that YHWH saves (1:8–9; 4:3; 7:22; 30:17). The verbal form occurs in 39:6 in YHWH’s statement concerning the Babylonian visit that “nothing shall be left” (‫)ל ֹא־ ִיוָּתֵ ר‬. 247 Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 57.

218

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

verse are separation and isolation. The themes are expressed in two parallel statements. In the first statement, Hezekiah laments that he will no longer see YHWH in the land of the living (‫)ל ֹא־אֶ ְראֶ ה יָהּ יָהּ בְּ אֶ ֶרץ הַ חַ יִּ ים‬. The utterance itself is striking because by principle no one is allowed to see YHWH. Perhaps the alternative reading in the LXX – not to see “the salvation of God” (τὸ σωτήριον τοῦ θεοῦ) – is an attempt to avoid this.248 Another option is to interpret “seeing YHWH” as a specific formula for temple worship similar to the expression “to see YHWH face” (cf. e.g. Isa 1:12; Ps 42:3).249 Being separated from the land of the living means that Hezekiah will no longer be able to praise and worship YHWH in the temple. “The land of the living” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ הַ חַ יִּ ים‬is a familiar phrase in the Old Testament. The form itself occurs with many variants such as “the three of life” (‫; ֵﬠץ הַ חַ יִּ ים‬ Gen 2–3), “the water of life” (‫ ;הַ מַּ יִ ם הַ חַ יִּ ים‬Lev 14), “the light of life” (‫;אוֹר הַ חַ יִּ ים‬ Job 33:30; Ps 56:14), and “the way of life” (‫ ;דֶּ ֶר הַ חַ יִּ ים‬Jer 21:8). It is significant that the phrase “the land of the living/life” is often employed in passages where someone is being separated from it.250 This is prominent in the treatment of the suffering servant: “he was cut off [‫ ] ִנגְ זַר‬from the land of the living” (Isa 53:8; see further below). In Jer 11:19, the persecutors will cut off (‫ )כרת‬the prophet Jeremiah from the land of the living like the destruction of a tree with its fruit, and no one shall remember his name. To be cut off is to be forgotten. In Ezek 26:20, the arrogant city of Tyre is forced into the pit in the underworld and will not stand in the land of the living again. This will happen to those who spread terror in the land of the living (Ezek 32:23–27.32). In addition to these illustrations, Ps 52 is of special importance. Verse 7 forms the climax of a smaller section (vv. 3–7) by presenting YHWH’s judgment against the wicked and evildoers. The verse is of relevance, because it shares more motifs with Isa 38:10–12. It states: “But God will break you down forever; he will snatch and tear you from your tent; he will uproot you from the land of the living” (‫)גּם־אֵ ל יִ תָּ צְ ָלנֶצַ ח יַחְ ְתּ וְ ִיסָּ ֲח מֵ אֹ הֶ ל וְ שֵׁ ֶר ְשׁ מֵ אֶ ֶרץ חַ יִּ ים‬. Judgment has to do with removal. The wicked is “snatched” or “taken away” (‫ )חתה‬and “teared out” (‫ )נסח‬from the tent, that is, his home. The term ‫ נסח‬occurs rarely with only four attestations. In Prov 2:22, the wicked are torn away from the land. More significantly, the verb introduces the important passage about exile in Deut 28:63–68 where YHWH’s people shall be torn or plucked off the land that they are entering to possess. In Ps 52:7, this image of removal parallels the 248 Ps 27 offers a good parallel. According to v. 13, the psalmist is confident that he shall see the goodness of YHWH in the land of the living (‫)לִ ְראוֹת בְּ טוּב־ ְיהוָה בְּ אֶ ֶרץ חַ ִיּים‬. Where would the psalmist be if he did not believe in experiencing divine favor? YHWH’s goodness (‫)טוּב‬ likely represents the change from hostility and forsakenness to divine presence. 249 Begrich, Der Psalm des Hiskia, 23–24. 250 See also Ps 116:9; 142:5; Job 28:13.

3.4. Hezekiah

219

image of being uprooted from the land of the living. Rather than being a local or familiar place, the tent could refer to the temple as YHWH’s tent (e.g. Ps 15:1; 61:5). If so, it alters the nature of “the land of the living.” This land does not represent life as such, but land of divine life, the blessedness of the sanctuary. In a similar manner, Barré has proposed that “the land of the living” in Isa 38:11 represents the Jerusalem temple.251 Drawing on J. S. Kselman’s observation of a “distant parallelism” in the psalm, Barré notes that this verse, along with the preceding v. 10 about the gates of Sheol, mirrors the temple motif in v. 20. Moreover, “seeing YHWH” as a reference to visiting the temple gives further support to his thesis. The latter part of the verse is parallel to the former. Hezekiah laments that he shall look (‫ נבט‬in Hiphil) no more upon humans. Four other verses in Isaiah combine ‫ ראה‬and ‫( נבט‬5:12; 22:11; 42:18; 63:15). The two former verses are of interest as they present the rebuke against the failing will to observe YHWH and his work. In both cases, this failure leads to the punishment of destruction and exile. Due to the ambiguity of the last word (‫)חָ דֶ ל‬, there are more ways of interpreting the relation between the two halves of the verse: they stand either in continuation or in contrast. Some take the word to be the hapax legomenon ‫חֶ דֶ ל‬ (“Totenreich”) insofar as it derives from the verb “to cease” (‫ ;חדל‬cf. the noun ‫ חָ דֵ ל‬in Ps 39:5; Isa 53:3; Ezek 3:27).252 It is the place where you cease to exist; it is the realm of death. Accordingly, this place forms a contrast to the land of the living. Nevertheless, the majority of scholars, including many modern translators, emend it to “world” (‫ ;חֶ לֶד‬cf. Ps 17:14; 49:2), as attested in some medieval manuscripts. Hezekiah shall no more be among those who live in the world of the living. In any case, the king will be in a state of total isolation. He shall see neither God nor other humans. Verse 12a is a central verse because it contains two different metaphors for removal and separation. There are nevertheless many ambiguous words and an exact interpretation of them is crucial for understanding the dynamic of the images and their purposes.

251

In his 1988 article, Barré presents the idea that “the land of the living” has three distinct yet interrelated meanings. In the basic, mundane sense, it refers to the world of human life in contrast to the netherworld (Job 28:13; Jer 11:19; Ezek 26:20; 32:23–27, 32). In a single case, it refers to “the Promised Land” (Ps 142:6). Finally, in a number of poetic texts, he proposes that the expression has a third meaning where it “functions as an epithet of the Jerusalem temple” (e.g. Ps 27:13; 52:7; 116:9); see Barré, “Land of the Living”; cf. The Lord Has Saved Me, 69–70. 252 Dahood (“Cessation”), for instance, maintains ‫חֶ דֶ ל‬, but interprets ‫ אָ דָ ם‬as “earth” rather than “man.” Accordingly, his translation is “I shall behold the earth no more among the inhabitants of Cessation.” See also Hays, Death, 340.

220

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

In the first half of v. 12, the present experience is compared to a shepherd’s tent (‫)כְּ אֹ הֶ ל רֹ ﬠִ י‬. The first question to be discussed is how to understand ‫ דּוֹר‬here. Usually, the word refers to “generation” (social meaning) or “lifetime, lifespan” (temporal meaning). Begrich speaks for the majority of modern scholars when he states: “Eine Übersetzung wie ‘Zeitalter, Geschlecht’ gibt keinen Sinn.”253 Many thus assume that ‫ דּוֹר‬is a hapax legomenon derived from the verb “to live” (‫ )דור‬and referring to a “dwelling” or “dwelling place,” that is, a house or a home.254 The impetus for considering a more specific meaning of the term is the verb in the sentence and the overall comparison with a shepherd’s tent. The verb means “to pull down” or “pluck off” (‫)נסע‬. In biblical Hebrew, the verb is used particularly with reference to nomads breaking up to move on (e.g. Gen 33:12) or about armies leaving the battlefield (e.g. the Assyrians in Isa 37:8, 37). In several verses the verb in Hiphil describes the Israelites’ departure from Egyptian captivity: “Moses led [‫ ] ַויַּסַּ ע‬Israel from the Red Sea” (Exod 15:22); “[YHWH] led out [‫ ] ַויַּסַּ ע‬his people like sheep” (Ps 78:52); and “You brought a vine out [‫ ]תַּ ִסּי ַﬠ‬of Egypt” (Ps 80:9). Moreover, the verb describes the forceful removal of tent-cords (Job 4:21), doors (Judg 16:3) or stakes (Isa 33:20). It is in light of these instances that the majority of scholars prefer to understand ‫דּוֹר‬ in a very specific sense as a dwelling place that can be plucked off or pulled down. There are attempts, however, to maintain the more common meaning of “lifetime” or “generation” as attested, for instance, in the Vulgate (generatio). John Oswalt argues for “generation” as a plausible interpretation and adds: “if the term [‫ ]דּוֹר‬is taken as referring to a duration of life and applied individually instead of in the usual collective way, the present effective parallel to ‘life’ [in the latter part of the verse] is achieved.”255 In a similar manner, Michael Barré argues for “lifetime” against the majority of recent interpreters.256 His best argument draws on the logic of similes and metaphors. The very nature of a simile is to compare different things. We learn something new about the tenor by comparing it to images or experiences from other domains. Tension between tenor and vehicle is an essential part of this comparison: Therefore, ironically and counter-intuitively, to choose “dwelling” as the translation of the tenor dôrî because it fits better with the verb that properly goes with the vehicle ’ōhel is

253

Begrich, Der Psalm des Hiskia, 25. According to Young (Isaiah II, 519), the term is used figuratively as a reference to “the body as man’s place of abode.” The proposal is not bad, but it narrows the image too much. 255 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 679, note 2. 256 Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 81: “In v. 12a dôrî has no reference whatsoever to a ‘dwelling,’ and thus the contention that it is an ‘Aramaism’ here must be rejected once and for all.” 254

3.4. Hezekiah

221

wrong precisely because it fits better with the vehicle and its predicate than does “lifetime.”257

Providing a helpful illustration, Barré points to Job 19:10, “he has uprooted my hope like a tree” (‫)ויַּסַּ ע ָכּ ֵﬠץ ִתּקְ ו ִָתי‬, where no one would question the logic of comparing a failed hope to an uprooted tree. Accordingly, in Isa 38:12, Hezekiah’s lifetime has been plucked off like a tent. I find Barré’s argument very convincing. In my opinion, however, he discards too quickly the other meaning of the word when he states: “the Hebrew meaning of the term ‘generation’ in the more common, social sense certainly does not work here.”258 Why not? Could it be that the poet has chosen the term ‫ דּוֹר‬exactly because of its ambiguity? In a temporal meaning, it can refer to the lifespan of Hezekiah as an individual, but in a social meaning, it can refer to his generation, that is, his family or community who have been plucked up and removed.259 The latter verb in the first line is a Niphal form of ‫גלה‬.260 As was pointed out earlier, this verb can mean “to be uncovered” or “to be revealed,” but it is more probable that it means “to be exiled or removed” (cf. LXX Isa 38:12: ἀπῆλθεν).261 His lifetime, or generation/family, has gone away or has departed from him. Admittedly, the presence of “from me” (‫)מנִּ י‬ ִ creates some problems for my interpretation of ‫ דּוֹר‬as a social entity which has been exiled from Hezekiah.262 It is tempting simply to erase it as Begrich did, but this is no elegant way of solving interpretive problems.263 As mentioned, the comparison of Hezekiah’s lifespan/family plays on the characteristics of a shepherd’s tent. A tent is not a place of permanence, but only a temporary dwelling, easy to remove. In the phrase “like a shepherd’s 257

Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 80–81. Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 79, my emphasis. 259 Wagner (“From Salvation to Doom,” 102–3) makes the same claim while interpreting ‫ דּוֹר‬in the sense of homestead, “house of the king,” or dynasty: “In the prayer, Hezekiah describes the plucking up of his ‫ דור‬as happening during his agony. In the retrospective of the post-exilic author the homestead of the king is already plucked up and the dynasty has fallen.” 260 The comparison to a shepherd’s tent, however, has provoked emendations such as the Niphal form ‫ וְ ָנגַל‬of the verb “to roll up” (‫ )גלל‬which may hide behind the Vulgate’s et convoluta est; cf. the footnote in BHS. 261 If ‫ דּוֹר‬is taken to mean “dwelling” (which is not what I believe it to mean), a possible parallel could be seen in Ezek 13:14, where YHWH’s destruction of Jerusalem is likened to the demolition of a house. He will break down its walls so that “its foundation will be laid bare [‫]וְ ִנגְ לָה ְי ֹסדוֹ‬.” A similar idea is expressed in David’s praise of YHWH’s powerful intervention where “the foundations of the world were laid bare [‫( ”] ַו ִיּגָּלוּ‬2 Sam 22:16; Ps 18:16). Accordingly, Hezekiah’s dwelling is plucked up and laid bare in front of him. 262 Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 485) reads “removed from over my head” and explains: “to die is to strike camp or, more likely, to find your tent pulled down on your head.” 263 Begrich, Der Psalm des Hiskia, 26. 258

222

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

tent” (‫)כְּ אֹ הֶ ל רֹ ﬠִ י‬, interpreters normally understand the form ‫ רֹ ﬠִ י‬as an adjective: “belonging to a shepherd” (cf. the footnote in BHS: ‫)רעים‬. The phrase, however, can also mean “my shepherd’s tent,” that is, YHWH’s tent because he is “my shepherd” (Ps 23:1). As observed in Ps 52:7, we could interpret the tent and, indeed, YHWH’s tent as a poetic reference to the temple. If so, Hezekiah’s life or family has been plucked up and removed just as YHWH’s temple has been removed. This proposal, however, is doubtful. The next line contains a weaver image. Hezekiah’s experience is likened to the work of a weaver (‫)כָאֹ ֵרג‬. The first verb is in the first person and it is not necessary to emend it into a second person form as BHS suggests. The word “to roll up” or perhaps “gathering together” (‫ )קפד‬is a hapax legomenon and refers to what a weaver does with the cloth when he is finished.264 The variation in 1QIsaa, “I have listed” (‫)ספרתי‬, gives the impression that the scenario concerns the presentation of a life. Another example of the association of loss of life and the weaver’s activity is found in Job: “My days are swifter than a weaver’s shuttle, and come to their end without hope” (7:6). The idea is that Hezekiah, like a piece of cloth, is done, has been rolled up, and now must be cut off from the loom. The verb “to cut off” (‫ )בצע‬is in Piel. The subject of the action is not spelled out, but it seems plausible to assume it as God. Again, he hides behind his actions. A similar form of the verb is found in Job 6:9, where the sufferer prays: “that it would please God to crush me, that he would let loose his hand and cut me off [‫”!]וִ יבַ צְּ ֵﬠנִ י‬ Hezekiah is to be or has been cut off from the loom. The Hebrew text actually does not say loom, but rather “thrum” (‫)דַּ לָּה‬, that is, small threads that tie the woven cloth to the loom and are cut when the finished material is removed. The term is also used about unbound hair (“your flowing locks”; Song 7:6). This is the straightforward explanation. Yet, it is curious to notice that a homonymic root is used about the “poorest people” remaining in the land after the Babylonian conquest (2 Kings 24:14; 25:12; Jer 40:7; 52:15–16). In light of these examples, an alternative yet controversial reading would be: “he cuts me off from the poor,” that is, he separates me from those remaining in the homeland. 3.4.4.6. Isaiah 38:12b–14: Destruction and complaint The tent and weaver images are followed by a more literal statement in v. 12b. Hezekiah laments that “from day to night you bring me to an end [‫]תַּ ְשׁלִ ימֵ נִ י‬.” 264

Barré rejects that ‫ קפד‬can mean “to roll/fold up” and proposes instead the meaning “to shrink, condense.” In general, he finds the version of the MT very problematic and alters almost every word. His translation reads: “I have/My life has been shrunk like a piece of cloth after it has been cut from the thrum,” Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 88–107. Hays (Death, 338) adopts Barré’s emendation.

3.4. Hezekiah

223

The verb is a Hiphil form of ‫ שׁלם‬which despite its peaceful connotations can be used about finishing someone off. The second person of the verb is presumably God. It is notable how God hides behind the actions in these verses. The editors of BHS propose that the first three words of v. 13 form a parallelism to the end of v. 12. The proposal is presumably grounded in the observation of time: “from day to night” (‫)מיּוֹם ַﬠד־ ַל ְילָה‬ ִ and “until morning” (‫) ַﬠד־בֹּ קֶ ר‬. The first verb ‫יתי‬ ִ ִ‫ ִשׁוּ‬can be read as it stands as a Piel form of ‫שׁוה‬. In this form, the verb means either “to set or place” or “to level, smooth out.” In Ps 131:2, we encounter the latter meaning: “I have calmed … my soul” (‫ נַפְ ִשׁי‬... ‫יתי‬ ִ ִ‫)שׁוּ‬. ִ Some interpreters have read Isa 38:13 in a similar way by implying or even inserting in the words “my soul”. During the night, Hezekiah has calmed or composed his soul. As this hardly fits the overall content of these verses, many interpreters emend the word to “I cried” (‫)שׁוַּﬠְ ִתּי‬ ְ from the verb “to cry for help” (‫)שׁוע‬. Hezekiah’s cry for help until morning is a way of saying that he longs for a divine answer. Isaiah 58:9 forms an anti-type to the situation in Hezekiah’s prayer. The people cry, but YHWH does not remain silent. Instead, he answers by being present in their midst: “you shall cry for help, and he will say, Here I am” (‫)תּשַׁ וַּע וְ י ֹאמַ ר הִ נֵּנִ י‬. Likewise, in Jonah 2:3, the prophet sings: “out of the belly of Sheol I cried, and you heard my voice” (‫)מבֶּ טֶ ן ְשׁאוֹל ִשׁוַּﬠְ ִתּי שָׁ מַ ﬠְ תָּ קוֹלִ י‬. ִ In line with Isa 38:13, Lam 3:8 presents the sincere call for help: “though I call and cry for help, he shuts out my prayer” (‫)גַּם כִּ י אֶ ְז ַﬠק ַו ֲאשַׁ ֵוּ ַﬠ שָׂ תַ ם ְתּפִ לּ ִָתי‬. In Hezekiah’s prayer, however, God’s answer is not silence as in Lamentations. It is destruction. Interestingly, ‫ שׁוע‬is also used about the raven and its young who cry to God in hunger (Job 38:41). That animals cry for help as well should make us consider to what part of the verse the following “like a lion” (‫ ) ָכּ ֲא ִרי‬belongs. It seems conventional to relate it to the latter part to describe the destructive force of YHWH. However, it is possible that the comparison concerns Hezekiah: he cries for help like a lion roars all night long.265 Nevertheless, the simile of v. 13 more likely portrays the way in which YHWH will break Hezekiah’s bones. Further biblical evidence compares YHWH’s destructive actions to those of a lion (e.g. Job 10:16; Hos 13:7; Lam 3:10). However, in the statement “he crushes all my bones” (‫)יְ שַׁ בֵּ ר ָכּל־ ַﬠצְ מוֹתָ י‬, the subject of the verb is not clearly spelled out. BHS proposes to insert “YHWH” as a matter of clarification, but does so without any textual evidence to support this change. Insofar as the enemies are also compared to lions (e.g. Isa 5:29; Joel 1:6), it is not unreasonable to consider an earthly enemy, carrying out YHWH’s judgment. Of relevance here is Jeremiah. In 2:15, readers are 265 This reading is, in fact, attested in the Targum (“I roar until the morning like a lion that roareth when he breaketh the bones of a beast”) and also presumed by Eduard König (“ich machte es bis zum Morgen dem Löwen gleich”); cf. Young, Isaiah II, 520–21, note 21.

224

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

informed of the ruined Israel: “The lions have roared against him [Israel], they have roared loudly. They have made his land a waste; his cities are in ruins, without inhabitants” (cf. Jer 51:38). An even better example is found at Jer 50:17, in which the enemies appear like lions gnawing the bones of Israel (!): “Israel is a hunted sheep driven away by lions. First the king of Assyria devoured it, and now at the end King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon gnawed its bones [‫]ﬠִ צְּ מוֹ‬.” There are other examples, however, of YHWH as one who crushes bones. In Lamentations, the suffering man tells about his encounter with God’s dark side: “He has made my flesh and my skin waste away and broken my bones [‫( ”] ִשׁבַּ ר ַﬠצְ מוֹתָ י‬Lam 3:4). Moreover, Ps 51:8 rather macabrely states: “let the bones that you have crushed rejoice” ( ָ‫) ִשׂ ְמחָ ה תָּ גֵלְ נָה ﬠֲצָ מוֹת ִדּכִּ ית‬. The notion of crushed bones shows how thorough and complete the destruction is thought to be. The last line in v. 13 repeats the end of v. 12. BHS considers it a dittography and proposes to delete it, but again, it makes this change without textual evidence in the ancient versions to merit it. In verse 14, the animal metaphors continue. The first part of the verse consists of two parallel statements. The two birds – a swallow (‫ סוּס‬or Qere: ‫)סִ יס‬ and a crane (‫) ָﬠגוּר‬266 – are paired in Jer 8:7 as well. Verse 14, however, has “turtledove” (‫ )תּוֹר‬instead of “dove” (‫ )יּוֹנָה‬as the third bird. In the first case, Hezekiah “clamors” or “twitters” (‫ )צפף‬like a swallow and a crane. The verb only occurs four times, all in Isaiah. In Isa 8:19, parallel to ‫ הגה‬as here, it denotes what the mediums and spiritists do; in 10:14 and 29:4 the word denotes a weak and whispering chirp. Rather than joyful and carefree bird song, the other instances indicate a meager sound which is quiet and limp.267 It is combined with the modestly more common ‫ הגה‬which is used to express animal sounds like those of doves (Isa 59:11) and a lion (Isa 31:4). In addition, the word refers to reflective mumbling over scripture (e.g. Jos 1:8; Ps 1:2). Isaiah 59:11 and Nah 2:8 in particular indicate that dove-sound represents sorrowful and wistful moaning.268 The comparison with a dove may very skillfully play on the psalm of Jonah which, as mentioned, shares many motifs with that of Hezekiah. Hezekiah is “like Jonah” (‫)כְּ יּוֹנָה‬, physically expelled from YHWH’s presence and mentally descending into the deep.

266 Barré (The Lord Has Saved Me, 122) proposes that ‫ סוס־עגור‬denotes a single species of bird. 267 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 1462: “Es ist ein Stöhnen gemeint, das den Schmerz gar nicht mehr artikulieren vermag.” 268 Interestingly, birds and doves are used in an image of return from exile; see Hos 11:11: “They shall come trembling like birds from Egypt, and like doves from the land of Assyria; and I will return them to their homes, says YHWH”; see Chapter 5.

3.4. Hezekiah

225

Being both physically and spiritually low, Hezekiah has directed his attention upwards toward the highs (‫) ַלמָּ רוֹם‬, towards ‫ ְאַדֹ נָי‬whom he addresses, towards him who has abandoned him. The “highs” are the heavens and literally point to the distance between Hezekiah and his divine oppressor. The thought is not far away from Jonah’s desperate cry: “I am driven away from your sight; how shall I look again upon your holy temple?” (Jonah 2:5). Hezekiah’s eyes have become weak or grown dim (‫ )דלל‬from looking, waiting, and longing. Finding himself in this hopeless situation, Hezekiah’s prayer is short and powerful: “I am oppressed; be my security!” (‫) ָﬠ ְשׁקָ ה־לִּ י ָﬠ ְרבֵ נִ י‬. The word for “oppression” (‫ ) ָﬠ ְשׁקָ ה‬is a hapax legomenon and derives from the root “to oppress” or “to exploit” (‫)עשׁק‬.269 The verbal form often refers to economical exploitation (e.g. Lev 5:21, 23; Ezek 18:18). In Isaiah, the term denotes abuse of political and economic power (Isa 52:4; 54:14; 59:13). In his prayer Hezekiah portrays himself as a debtor who suffers from exploitation. His debt is simply too big to pay and he cries for YHWH to relieve him of it and redeem him from oppression as he cries out “Be my security!” (‫) ָﬠ ְרבֵ נִ י‬. Similar language is found in Ps 119:122: “Guarantee your servant’s well-being; do not let the godless oppress me” (‫)ﬠֲרֹ ב ַﬠבְ ְדּ לְ טוֹב אַ ל־ ַי ַﬠ ְשׁקֻ נִ י ז ִֵדים‬. It might be of relevance that a verse in Jeremiah links oppression and the captivity in Babylon: “The people of Israel are oppressed [‫]עשׁוּקִ ים‬, and so too are the people of Judah; all their captors [‫ָכל־‬ ‫ ]שֹׁ בֵ יהֶ ם‬have held them fast and refuse to let them go” (Jer 50:33). Furthermore, at the opening of Isa 40, the condition of exile is rendered by means of economic metaphors: it is a debt or an oppression from which the people need to be redeemed (see Chapter 4). Despite Hezekiah’s intense prayer, distress continues. 3.4.4.7. Isaiah 38:15–17a: Judgment and restlessness The following verses are challenging and enigmatic, not least because it is difficult to determine whether the tone of the text is positive or negative.270 Does the complaint and lamentation continue in vv. 15–16 or does a new voice of healing and gratitude break forth? There are words in the verses that suit both interpretations. The notion of “the bitterness of my soul” in v. 15b indicates a feeling of resignation facing God’s judgment.271 As mentioned above, I consider vv. 15–16 to be part of the complaint section of the psalm which ends with the pivotal prayer about life. The first half of v. 15 is rather straightforward: “But what can I say? For he has spoken to me, and he himself has done it.” Combining evidence from 269

There is no need to emend it to the imperative form “take up my cause” (‫ ;עשׂקה‬cf. Gen 26:20) as proposed by BHS; cf. e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 480. 270 Wildberger, Jesaja, 1456: “Wie die folgenden Verse, 15–17a, zu beurteilen sind, ist stark umstritten, was nicht zuletzt an der Unsicherheit des Textes liegt.” 271 Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 686.

226

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

1QIsaa and the Targum, however, BHS proposes to read “I have spoken to him/YHWH” (‫ )ואומר לו‬rather than “he has spoken to me” (‫ )וְ אָ מַ ר־לִ י‬as found in the MT. Much confusion surrounds the tone of “to say” (‫)אמר‬. Following the emendation proposal, ‫ אמר‬would form a parallel to ‫ דבר‬as two verbs expressing Hezekiah’s act of utterance. If we stick to the Masoretic text, the term may have a different sound in the mouth of YHWH and the sense could be stronger. Accordingly, it could be taken to mean, for instance, “to declare” or “to decree”. Indeed, a good paraphrase would be as follows: what can one do, when YHWH has decreed and acted?272 It is, after all, God who has punished Hezekiah and broken his bones! How would it be possible to change his will? Because of the bitterness of Hezekiah’s soul due to his grief, anguish, and eventually resignation, the king will walk silently in his remaining years (NRSV reads “sleep” [‫)]שֵׁ נָה‬. However, the root from which the verb ‫ אֶ דַּ דֶּ ה‬derives is debated.273 One option is to read a Hitpael form of ‫דדה‬, meaning “to walk slowly”. The single other instance of this verb occurs in Ps 42:5, where the psalmist, who is used to walking amongst a throng of people, states, “I walked with them to the house of God” (‫)אֶ דַּ דֵּ ם ַﬠד־בֵּ ית ֱא הִ ים‬. Reading Isa 38:15 in light of this verse presents a subtle anti-type: rather than walking to the house of God with joy, Hezekiah walks in bitterness, unable to enter YHWH’s temple (cf. 38:22). The attestation of ‫ דדה‬and its exact meaning in Ps 42 are, however, not without problems. Another option regarding Isa 38:15 is thus to read a form of ‫נדד‬, meaning “to flee” or “to escape” (cf. 1QIsaa: ‫)אדודה‬. If we read “sleep” for “years”, as does NRSV, there are apparent parallels of this phrase in Gen 31:40 (“and my sleep fled from my eyes” [‫ )]ו ִַתּדַּ ד ְשׁנ ִָתי מֵ ֵﬠינָי‬and in Esth 6:1 (“On that night the king could not sleep [ ‫)]נָדְ דָ ה ְשׁנַת הַ מֶּ ֶל‬.” In Job 7:4, we encounter the noun ‫נְ ד ִֻדם‬ deriving from the same root. Here, it refers to the restlessness or tossing that keeps one from falling to sleep. A more fruitful approach, however, is to maintain “years” and elaborate on the idea of “flight” which is similar to, but stronger than, “walking slowly” (‫)דדה‬. A plausible translation would be this: “I shall flee all my years,” or, paraphrased, “for the remainder of my life I shall live as a refugee.” More times in Isaiah the verb denotes the act of fleeing or escaping (Isa 10:31; 21:15; 22:3; 33:3) and the participle ‫ נֹ דֵ ד‬denotes a “fugitive” (Isa 16:3; 21:14). In Hos 9:17, the punishment for not observing and obeying YHWH’s will is a life in exile: 272

Cf. Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 147: “the verb [‫ ]עשׁה‬is used absolutely to denote a divine action […] Accordingly it is probably best to translate v. 15b ‘since he has acted,’ i.e., ‘since he has acted/taken action (to destroy me).’ In any case, it is extremely unlikely in this context that this verb denotes a positive action of Yhwh vis-à-vis the psalmist.” 273 Begrich’s (Der Psalm des Hiskia, 41–42) emendation “I will give thanks” ( ֶ‫ )אֹ ד‬is very questionable. It has no textual warrant in the ancient versions and it seems to be provoked by his concern to make the structure of the psalm fit into the category of a specific psalm genre.

3.4. Hezekiah

227

“they shall become fugitives among the nations” (‫)וְ יִ הְ יוּ נֹ דְ ִדים בַּ גּוֹיִ ם‬. In Job 18:18 and 20:8, the Hiphil and Hophal forms express being expelled or chased away. Casting Hezekiah as a refugee brings him close to the portrait of Cain in Gen 4. As mentioned earlier, God curses Cain to a life as “a fugitive and a wanderer” (‫ )נָע ָונָד‬and he consequently settles in the land of “Nod” (‫)נוֹד‬, the paradigmatic place for fugitives. Like Cain, Hezekiah’s experience reflects a dangerous and restless life in constant movement – a life with a bitter soul.274 The structure of v. 16 is unclear. Without doubt, the latter half of the verse expresses a prayer of restoration and renewed life. But does this prayer stand in continuation of, or contrast to, the former half? Much depends on what “these things” and “all these” refer to. After all, the meaning seems rather obscure.275 Literally, we read something like “by these things [‫ ; ֲﬠלֵיהֶ ם‬masculine plural] they live, and in all these [‫ ;לְ ָכל־בָּ הֶ ן‬feminine plural] the life of my spirit.” Reading v. 16 in light of the preceding verses, “these things” and “all these” could refer to the conditions of life that Hezekiah has just identified as judgment, oppression, and bitterness. If so, the two halves in v. 16 form a contrast: “This is how life is; but save me!” A variant of this approach regards “these things” and “all these” as a reference to what YHWH has decreed and acted in v. 15a. The prayer in v. 16b emerges from this firm belief: life is as the master of life allows it to be. The prayer itself consists of two verbs. The first is a Hiphil of ‫“( חלם‬heal” or “make strong”). The second verb is a Hiphil of ‫“( חיה‬keep alive” or “revive”). The Hiphil form is used for keeping someone alive, for instance, the animals in Noah’s ark (Gen 6:19–20) or people (Gen 50:20). In a few cases, the verb is also used for reviving someone who has been killed or died (2 Kings 5:7; 8:1, 5; Isa 57:15). The latter examples could imply that Hezekiah is already dead, or at least that he feels like one who is dead. The prayer “make me alive” introduces a turning point or change of perspective which points forward to future restoration. A slight change of perspective is also indicated in v. 17 by the introductory word “look” or “surely” (‫)הִ נֵּה‬. The first sentence is clear in terms of grammar

274 The concept of “a bitter soul” (‫ )מַ ר ֶנ ֶפשׁ‬also occurs in Ezek 27:31 where it is associated with weeping and bitter mourning. 275 Wildberger (Jesaja, 1444–45) calls v. 16a “ein Alptraum der Exegeten.” He offers several proposals for emendation before he states: “Bei dieser Sachlage ist es geraten, auf eine Textrekonstruktion zu verzichten; es soll sich jeder nach dem Maß seiner Phantasie selbst vorstellen, was einmal da gestanden haben könnte, aber nicht durch eine Übersetzung ein Verständnis vorspiegeln, das ganz willkürlich ist.” Accordingly, in his own translation he leaves the text of v. 16 blank. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 480) attempts to make sense of it: “Lord, those to whom you give life will live, all these have the spirit of life.” The most recent proposal for emendation is found in Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 153–63: “O Lord Most High, you who give life to every heart, who give life to every spirit.”

228

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

and syntax, but unclear in terms of meaning. Literally, it reads “for peace bitterness was to me bitter” (‫)לְ שָׁ לוֹם מַ ר־לִ י מָ ר‬.276 There are several ways of interpreting this phrase. For instance, is it because of peace or welfare, that is, because of an arrogant and self-confident way of life, that Hezekiah has been punished and suffered bitterly? Is it in order to have peace, that is, for his own benefit that he has experienced such a sincere pain? Has he experienced pain instead of peace? Or has his bitterness been transformed into peace? In brief, the first option presents a reason for Hezekiah’s suffering, the second a goal for the way out of pain, while the third and fourth are more neutral. Hezekiah’s words in Isa 39:8 could lend support to the first option. As we have seen, scholars have often read this verse as a negative portrayal of Hezekiah’s character (see Chapter 2). Instead of thinking about future generations and their destiny, Hezekiah is satisfied that “there will be peace [!‫ ]שָׁ לוֹם‬and security in his days.” In Jeremiah and Ezekiel, a fake belief in “peace” is the core message of false prophecy (Jer 6:14; 8:11; Ezek 13:10, 16). This reading is also in line with the motif of punishment in v. 10. 3.4.4.8. Isaiah 38:17b–20: Anticipation of salvation Since v. 17a most likely expresses a scenario of judgment, it forms a contrast to the following statement in the verse. The introductory “and you” (‫)וְ אַ תָּ ה‬ should, accordingly, be translated to “but you…”. In spite of punishment, YHWH has acted beneficially towards Hezekiah. The MT reads “you loved my soul” (‫)חָ שַׁ קְ תָּ נַפְ ִשׁי‬. The verb “to cling to” or “to love” (‫)חשׁק‬, according to some interpreters, can mean “to lovingly deliver” or “to keep in love.” Others are not convinced by this and emend it to a form of ‫ חשׂך‬meaning “to withhold” or “to spare” (cf. LXX Isa 38:17’s εἵλου from αἱρέομαι which means “to choose” or “to take”).277 In both cases, YHWH has prevented Hezekiah from descending into “the pit of annihilation” (‫)שַׁ חַ ת בְּ לִ י‬. To be rescued from the grave is a common motif.278 An important parallel to the motif in v. 17b is found in Isa 51:14 where the oppressed or exiled shall not die and go to the pit (see Chapter 4). In

276 The repetition of ‫ מר‬fits the poetic device of repetition reflected in v. 11 (‫ )יָהּ‬and v. 19 (‫)חַ י‬. Accordingly, there is no need to emend the latter ‫ מָ ר‬to ‫ ְמאֹ ד‬as proposed by BHS; cf. 1QIsaa: ‫מאודה‬. 277 Cf. Barré, The Lord Has Saved Me, 169: “Yhwh does not simply ‘spare’ the psalmist’s life. Rather, he pulls back or brings back that life, which, because of God’s prior decision to ‘act’ against the psalmist (v. 15b), was already on its way to destruction – or rather, which had already found itself at the very gates of the netherworld (c. 10c). For this reason, ḥ-ś-k is a very appropriate verb in this context and implies more than the translation ‘spare’ would suggest.” 278 See especially Job 33 (vv. 18, 22, 24, 28, 30) and many psalms (e.g. Ps 16:10; 86:13; 103:4).

3.4. Hezekiah

229

Jonah’s prayer, YHWH’s raising of the prophet from the grave forms the crucial turning point: “but you brought up my life from the pit” (‫;וַתַּ ַﬠל ִמשַּׁ חַ ת חַ יַּי‬ Jonah 2:7). A similar motif is found in Ps 30:4 where YHWH has freed the psalmist’s soul: “you brought up my soul from Sheol” (‫ן־שׁאוֹל נַפְ ִשׁי‬ ְ ‫)הﬠֱלִ יתָ ִמ‬. ֶֽ The rescue from grave and death is closely linked to the forgiveness of sin (cf. Ps 103:3–4). Literally, YHWH has cast all of Hezekiah’s sins (‫) ָכּל־חֲטָ אָ י‬ behind his back. The same idea is reflected in Mic 7:19 where YHWH casts all the sins into the depths of the sea (cf. Ps 103:12).279 In Isa 38, the experience of forgiveness mirrors the prayer for redemption in v. 14. Casting away the sins means to forget them or leave them out of mind. A close parallel is found in Isa 43:25 where YHWH states: “I, I am He who blots out your transgressions for my own sake, and I will not remember your sins [‫]וְ חַ טּ ֹאתֶ י ל ֹא אֶ זְכֹּ ר‬.” A similar motif appears in Jeremiah’s passage about the new covenant: “for I will forgive their iniquity, and remember their sin no more [‫”]וּלְ חַ טָּ אתָ ם ל ֹא אֶ ְזכָּר־עוֹד‬ (Jer 31:34). The notion of forgiveness of sin here is striking to many scholars.280 The theme does not explicitly occur in the narrative frame. Moreover, it is not dominant in the psalm as a whole, although the possible reading of v. 10 with reference to bloodguilt and punishment adds weight to the otherwise scarce presence of this theme. In its depiction of salvation, however, v. 17 clearly pairs the rescue from the grave with the forgiveness of sins. This apparently negative element in the ideal portrayal of the king nevertheless “makes him all the more fitting as an example for the exilic community.”281 Verse 18 presents the common idea in this type of poetry that if the psalmist dies, YHWH will lose a faithful worshipper (Ps 6:6; 30:10; 88:11–12; 115:17). There will be no remembrance. No one will praise YHWH by telling of his love, faithfulness, and wonders. “To go down” (‫ )ידד‬is used more times to describe the descent into the grave (e.g. Ps 28:1; 88:5; Isa 14:19) and forms a subtle parallel to the sign in v. 8.282 As we have seen, the term designates Jonah’s spatial and spiritual descent to the roots of the mountains (Jonah 1:3, 5; 2:7). The word for pit or grave is not ‫ שַׁ חַ ת‬as in v. 17, but ‫בּוֹר‬. As Ackroyd observed, the poems of Lamentations use the metaphor of the pit to illustrate the hardship of exile. In Lam 3, enemies have flung the psalmist alive into the 279

Interestingly, the phrase is turned upside-down in the people’s rejection of their God as YHWH states: “[you] have thrust me behind your back” (1 Kings 14:9; cf. Neh 9:26; Ps 50:17; Ezek 23:35). 280 Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 482–83), for instance, refutes that there is a connection between sickness and sin and that Hezekiah makes a confession of his sins. 281 Beuken, Isaiah 28–39, 385–86. 282 Cf. Watts, Story and Psalm, 120: “The psalm’s employment of ‫‘ ידה‬descend’ for the dead going down into the pit (38.18) is reminiscent of its occurrence in the description of the shadow descending the steps (38.8), and may suggest an analogy of God’s reversal of both processes.”

230

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

pit (v. 53), but he cries from its depths and YHWH answers his call (vv. 55– 56).283 It may be of significance that “Sheol” and “death” appear in absolute forms and not as “in Sheol” (‫ )בִּ ְשׁאוֹל‬and “in death” (‫ )בַּ מָּ וֶת‬as they do, for instance, in Ps 6. Emphasis is on the place itself rather than those who dwell here. It is possible that the absolute forms imply a personification of Sheol and Death, portraying them as mythological beings that absorb life (cf. 5:14!).284 The content of v. 19 contrasts with that of v. 18. Not the dead but, emphatically, the living are able to praise and thank YHWH. Furthermore, while the dead cannot hope “for your faithfulness” ( ֶ‫)אֶ ל־ ֲא ִמתּ‬, the living are able to pass on their knowledge and experience “of your faithfulness” ( ֶ‫ )אֶ ל־ ֲא ִמתּ‬to future generations. What is more, v. 19 begins to expand the scope by moving from the individual figure of Hezekiah at the present time (“as I do this day”) to the community at large and its future (“fathers to sons”). At the opening of v. 20, the infinitive form of ‫ ישׁע‬expresses that YHWH’s saving action is imminent: he is just about to save Hezekiah.285 This makes good sense in Isaiah’s version because the prophet’s command and instruction to cure his king is presented in the succeeding v. 21. However, the verbal form indicates another point of significance. Hezekiah’s experience of salvation is not complete; it is in the near future, it is at hand. He has not yet experienced healing. As such, later readers for whom redemption is a hope for the imminent future can easily share his experience. As in v. 19, the perspective is expanded from “me” to “we”. Hezekiah is about to be saved, but “we will play [‫ ]נְ ַנגֵּן‬on strings” as a sign of gratitude. Again, the focus shifts from the individual to the community. This is not an uncommon feature in psalmodic literature. In Ps 30, for instance, the experience of an individual becomes the object of praise of a collective, and the firstperson speaker is interpreted as a representative for communal experience.286 The praise will continue “all the days of our lives” (‫) ָכּל־ ְימֵ י חַ יֵּינוּ‬. The indication of time marks a contrast to previous statements about time. In the former part of the poem, punishment in the realm of death was said to last “for the rest of my years” (v. 10) and the dangerous life as fugitive “all my years” (v. 15). Now, judgment is about to be replaced by salvation and complaint by praise. Rather than being away, that is, at the gates of Sheol, in the underworld, and in the pit of destruction, Hezekiah is about to enter into “the house of YHWH” (‫)בֵּ ית יְ הוָה‬. To call the temple “the house of YHWH” is customary in the Old Testament. A glance at the occurrences of this phrase in Isaiah, however, may 283

See further in Chapter 4 for an analysis of prison imagery in Isaiah. Cf. Hays, Death, 342; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1465–66. 285 Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 689: “rather than resorting to emendation (cf. BHS), it is more appropriate to understand that the infinitive is being used to express the imminent future.” 286 Cf. my interpretation of Ps 30; see Poulsen, “Church Lectionaries,” 129–30. 284

3.4. Hezekiah

231

indicate an important point. The phrase ‫ בֵּ ית יְ הוָה‬occurs six times. Four of these instances are found in Isa 37–38: Hezekiah goes to the house of YHWH to pray (37:1); he brings the Assyrian letter to this place (37:14); this house, as we have heard, is a place of continual praise (38:20); Hezekiah asks for the sign to enter it (38:22). In addition, the phrase occurs in 2:2 and 66:20 to which I will return shortly. 3.4.5. Isaiah 38:21–22: Narrative frame The motif of a sign, which concluded the narrative of vv. 1–8, reappears in the final section of Isa 38 in vv. 21–22. Again, it is important not to be misled by the account in 2 Kings where the two signs are conjoined under one sign. In Isaiah, there are two different signs which are clearly separated and concern two separate issues.287 Responding to Hezekiah’s pious psalm, the prophet Isaiah commands the servants (?) to take a lump of cake or of figs and rub it into the king’s boils. Due to this treatment, he will get well and live. It is of significance to respect the jussive form of the verb ‫ וְ יֶחִ י‬rather than to alter it in light of the different vocalization found at 2 Kings 20:7: “and he recovered” (‫) ַויֶחִ י‬. Greg Goswell has recently stressed this point: Verse 21 does not recount [Hezekiah’s] recovery […] Neither Hezekiah, nor the reader, knows exactly when the recovery will be effected (and therefore when he can go up to the temple), so the question put to the prophet in v. 22 makes sense in the Isaiah context, which is the context in which it needs to be interpreted.288

In other words, the full recovery of Hezekiah is pushed into the future (cf. v. 20). Vicky Hoffer makes a similar point in her article on this particular verse. She focuses on impurity and ritual purification. The illness that Hezekiah suffers by having a ‫ ְשׁחִ ין‬makes him impure and he is not allowed to enter the temple. Hoffer thereby convincingly demonstrates that v. 21 fits nicely with the theme of temple in the immediate context in vv. 20 and 22. Hezekiah’s uncleanness implies that the prophet’s treatment of figs is only the first phase in the healing process. Isaiah does not heal the king, but only initiates a far longer process of healing before Hezekiah will be cured and able to re-enter the temple. As Hoffer notices, the concept of healing (‫ )רפא‬which is present in the account in 2 Kings (20:5, 8) is missing from Isaiah. Accordingly, “that notion has been pushed off into the indefinite future.”289

287

Cf. Goswell, “Literary Logic,” 172. Goswell, “Literary Logic,” 185. 289 Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21,” 82. 288

232

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

According to Hoffer, the book of Isaiah exhibits a certain interest in the curative process itself.290 This is apparent, for instance, in Isa 6:11–12 where the destruction and deportation constitute important elements: It is this focus, the necessity of the exilic experience as a precursor to cure, which is particularly distinctive in Isaiah. What is being examined in Isaiah 38, through Hezekiah’s sickness, his response and the outcome of those things, is the sequential movement of the destiny of the nation.291

In this way, the figure of Hezekiah and his experience metaphorically adumbrate “the expulsion of the nation more than a century later, and the uncertainty of return.”292 Following the prophet’s instruction, Hezekiah asks: “what is the sign that I shall go up to the house of YHWH?” (‫)מָ ה אוֹת כִּ י אֶ ְ ֶﬠלֶה בֵּ ית יְ הוָה‬. The idea of signs is dominant in Isaiah where they perform different roles. A sign can show or clarify the content of YHWH’s saying, as in the episode of the naked prophet (20:1–6), or in the form of a miracle, it can confirm that YHWH’s promise will be fulfilled (38:7–8). The sign, however, can also be an ordinary event open to a certain interpretation, for instance, a childbirth in the Immanuel-sign (7:11, 14). Accordingly, Hezekiah is waiting for an event, natural or supernatural, that will indicate renewed access to the temple. The verb “to go up” (‫ )עלה‬often designates the walk up to YHWH’s mountain or temple (e.g. 2 Sam 6:12, 15; Ps 24:3). In 38:22, “the house of YHWH” (‫ )בֵּ ית יְ הוָה‬is something that people long for and desire, not unlike the pilgrim’s experience of being away and his excitement of returning to Jerusalem in Ps 122:1: “I was glad when they said to me, ‘Let us go to the house of YHWH [‫’]בֵּ ית יְ הוָה‬.” As noted, the phrase occurs four times in Isa 37–38. In the two remaining occurrences in Isaiah, “the house of YHWH” actually appears as the goal for pilgrim journeys. In 2:2, the mountain of YHWH’s house will be raised above the hills and nations will stream to it. In 66:20, people will return to Jerusalem just as the Israelites bring offerings to the house of YHWH. To many past interpreters, the lack of an answer to Hezekiah’s request for a sign presents a real problem. Drawing upon Goswell and Hoffer, however, I will argue that to end with an open-ended question makes perfect sense. First, it accords with the logic of the narrative according to which Hezekiah still 290 Cf. Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21,” 80: “The opening imageries of the sick nation, the strange command of ch. 6, a Messianic picture of God binding wounds, the order for the fig poultice, the suffering servant in exile, and the images of 61.5 certainly seem to support the thesis that healing as a process is an operant theme in this book. Isa. 66.24, the closing verse of the entire work, itself suggests that an ultimate healing is not to be realized in this world.” For a general treatment of metaphors of illness and healing in Isaiah, see Kustár, Wunden. 291 Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21,” 76. 292 Hoffer, “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21,” 77.

3.4. Hezekiah

233

awaits full recovery. Second, the effect of ending with an open question is to emphasize the very question itself, thus highlighting the topic of approaching the temple and participating in its worship.293 This question embodies the pain of the exiled: what is the sign that I may return? Or, as Jonah would put it, “how shall I look again upon your holy temple?” (Jonah 2:5). Hezekiah’s question is “a question that the book of Isaiah strives to answer.”294 If we seek an answer within Isaiah, two passages are of initial relevance, both of which contain the phrase “the house of YHWH”. In 2:2–4, the sign for the nations’ pilgrimage to Jerusalem lies in the future.295 It concerns YHWH’s eschatological transformation of the present world where his temple is raised above the hills. In 66:19–22, YHWH sets a “sign” (‫ )אוֹת‬among them and he will collect the dispersed from all over the world. They shall come as an offering to the house of YHWH. As we observed above, Hezekiah is waiting for an event to occur. What he is waiting for is God’s own initiative. YHWH himself will call for those who hope to return. 3.4.6. Summing up Several elements in Isa 38 relate to the theme of exile. Initially, the story about the illness of King Hezekiah and the promise of recovery can be read in relation to the experience of exile and hope for restoration. As such, Hezekiah’s profound faithfulness and sincere prayer present an exemplary model that readers can share and imitate. In contrast to the parallel version in 2 Kings, the actual healing of Hezekiah is never spelled out. The concluding question about entrance to the temple remains unanswered, adding emphasis to the issue of dislocation. One must keep on waiting for a divine sign to return and restore the temple and its service. Central to the inserted psalm are the themes of removal and separation. The employed images are extreme in their depiction of finality, isolation, suddenness, and divine destruction. In terms of space, the psalm sketches two contrasting realms: the realm of death (Sheol, grave, pit) and the realm of life (temple, land of the living). Sheol is like a prison and the reference to its gates illustrates the impossibility of return. It is a state of total isolation and eternal separation. Hezekiah is plucked up and removed like a shepherd’s tent; he is cut off as from a weaver’s loom. Like a dove, like Jonah, he cries to see the holy temple again. Like Cain, he shall live a restless and rootless life as a refugee. He shall die with a bitter soul. Yet, by divine intervention, Hezekiah is 293 Cf. Coetzee, “Doxology,” 18: “The fact that the redactor placed verses 9–20 between verses 1–8 and verses 21–22 and in this way disrupted the meaningful context (see 2 Kings 20) verifies the emphasis that he wanted to put on praise in the temple by means of the ‘song of Hezekiah.’” 294 Cf. Miscall, Isaiah, 93. 295 Cf. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 499.

234

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

to be rescued from descending irretrievably into the pit of annihilation. There is hope. The expansion of perspective at the end of the psalm from the individual character of Hezekiah to the larger community of faith is significant. YHWH’s faithfulness shall be passed on from fathers to sons and a collective “we” shall share the king’s hope for salvation and join the future praise of God in the temple. Within the book of Isaiah as a whole, Isa 38 foreshadows the future suffering of exile. This episode in the people’s history will be as severe and as harsh as Hezekiah’s near-death experience. Nevertheless, the forward-looking perspective of both the narrative and the psalm points beyond this black hole of darkness and despair. Despite destruction and deportation, there will be a future in the land of the living for the returned and restored people of YHWH.

3.5. The suffering servant (Isaiah 52:13–53:12) 3.5. The suffering servant

In Chapter 2 we observed that the communal lament in Isa 63:7–64:11 looks back on the catastrophe that appears in the black hole between Isa 39 and 40. The passage thereby constitutes a kind of response to the anticipations of destruction and exile which occur in the first part of the book (6:1–13; 22:1–14; 39:1–8). With regard to individual figures of exile, the poem about the suffering servant in Isa 52:13–53:12 in the second part of the book might offer a similar kind of response to the passages just examined (20:1–6; 22:15–25; 38:1–22). The narration of the servant’s marginalization and relocation to an uncertain destination could likewise point backward to the hidden events at the center of the book. The overwhelming reception and scholarship on Isa 52:13–53:12 reveal a series of supposed connections between the content of this passage and the theme of exile. Since the end of the eighteenth century, a growing consensus claims that the poem itself and its broader literary context of Isa 40–55(66) were composed in the exilic period of the sixth century or later. Many interpreters read Isa 52:13–53:12 as reflecting the experience of deportation and exile either by an individual or by a collective. These supposed connections alone demand a closer look at the suffering servant as a figure of exile. As has been reviewed so many times, Bernhard Duhm regarded Isa 52:13– 53:12 as the fourth of four “Servant Songs” that were allegedly composed in the fifth century BCE independently of their present context in Isaiah and only placed here randomly by a later scribe.296 Bernhard Duhm’s isolation of the “Servant Songs” from the rest of the book implied that throughout the twentieth century, scholars produced an endless series of proposals for the “original” 296

Duhm, Jesaia, 14–15, 19. See my review in Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 80–84.

3.5. The suffering servant

235

context and identity of the suffering servant. Recent studies are more cautious in making bold suggestions about the pristine nature of the poem and its earliest reference. I think Brevard Childs expresses the dominating opinion in contemporary scholarship when stating that “regardless of their [the ‘Songs’’] compositional history […] these passages are to be understood within their present literary context of chapters 40–55.”297 In its present literary context, Isa 52:13–53:12 occurs between two larger sections about the present and future conditions of Zion (51:1–52:12 and 54:1– 17). Although the modern chapter divisions split the poem into two parts, its unity is certain. The poem has a clear structure with a beginning (52:13–15), a main part (53:1–11a), and a conclusion (53:11b–12). The poem’s form does not correspond to a known genre, although some have suggested an individual psalm of thanksgiving or of lament.298 It lies outside the scope of this study to interpret this complex passage as a whole. I will limit myself to looking only at elements in the portrait of the suffering servant that exhibit motifs of deportation and exile. As was mentioned, there are many proposals for the identity of the anonymous figure. Nevertheless, I find it wise to approach the passage in two stages. First, I will attempt to detect images of exile independently of the servant’s supposed identity.299 Second, I will examine the attempts to identity the figure in the context of exile. 3.5.1. Literary motifs of exile in the servant portrait The intense description of the servant’s sufferings and humiliation draws from different metaphors. Imagery related to the body is prominent. The servant is smitten, afflicted, pierced, and crushed. His form is beyond all recognition and nothing in his appearance is desirable. He is despised and rejected. Like Cain, he is completely isolated from human society. He is tortured by sickness and is thus a man of suffering. Fredrik Hägglund has observed that several of the words in 53:3–4 are used to describe Israel’s suffering during the exilic period.300 The word “infirmity” (‫)חלִ י‬, ָ ְ which in Isaiah also designates the afflicted people in 1:5–6 and the illness of Hezekiah in 38:9,301 describes the suffering of the people in Jeremiah 297

Childs, Isaiah, 323. See the discussion in Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40–55 II, 281–83. 299 Cf. Henk Leene’s recommendation, cited by Berges (“Literary Constructions,” 35): “I think we firstly need to free the servant of all biographical associations in order to give him subsequently back to the history [of post exilic Israel].” 300 Hägglund, Isaiah 53, 53–54. See also Kustár, Wunden, 171–74; Schipper, Disability, 100–104. 301 Certain connections between the portrait of Hezekiah in Isa 38 and that of the suffering servant have been observed long ago, for instance, the motif of illness and the shared phrase 298

236

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

(6:7; 10:19). The word “disease” or “pain” (‫ )מַ כְ אֹ ב‬occurs in the lamentation of the personified Jerusalem (Lam 1:12, 18). The confession of the “we”-group in 53:5 is remarkable: “by his bruises we are healed” (‫)וּבַ ֲחב ָֻרתוֹ נִ ְר ָפּא־לָנוּ‬. Within the book as a whole, these words pick up the motif of hardening in Isa 6:9–10 to prevent healing of the people. While Isa 6 initiated the divinely authored hardening which eventually resulted in complete annihilation, the “we”-voice in Isa 53 reflects that this period of divine judgment is over (cf. the people’s prayer in 63:17).302 Like the gap between Isa 39 and 40 in the overall composition of the book, the suffering and death of the servant marks a decisive turning point in YHWH’s relation to his people. The motif of being beaten and wounded by YHWH in 53:5 occurs in Jeremiah’s interpretation of the exile in Babylon as a period of divine discipline: “for I [YHWH] have dealt you the blow of an enemy [‫]מַ כַּת אוֹ ֵיב‬, the punishment of a merciless foe [‫]מוּסַ ר אַ כְ ז ִָרי‬, because your guilt is great, because your sins are so numerous” (Jer 30:14). Moreover, the comparison of the speakers (“we”) to sheep that have gone astray and made their own way indicates a motif of scattering (see Chapter 5). A less explicit link to exile is the reference to “dry land” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ צִ יָּה‬in 53:2 from which the servant apparently arises. 303 This location of infertility and death could be interpreted as a contrast to the “land of the living” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ חַ ִיּים‬in 53:8 and thus denotes the land of death to which the servant is being deported. Nevertheless, more profound motifs of exile should be looked for in the description of the servant’s deportation and grave in 53:7–9. I shall therefore offer a closer analysis of these verses. 3.5.1.1. Isaiah 53:7–9: The servant’s deportation and grave ‫ִנגַּשׂ וְ הוּא ַנ ֲﬠנֶה‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא יִ פְ תַּ ח־פִּ יו‬ ‫כַּשֶּׂ ה לַטֶּ בַ ח יוּבָ ל‬ ‫וּכְ ָרחֵ ל לִ פְ נֵי גֹ ְזזֶיהָ ֶנ ֱאלָמָ ה‬

7

He was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; like a lamb that is led to the slaughter, and like a sheep that before its shearers is silent,

“land of the living” in 38:11 and 53:8. Rabbinic tradition contains more examples of interpretations which identify the suffering servant with Hezekiah; see Driver and Neubauer, The Fifty-Third Chapter, 202–16, 406–11. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, K. F. Bahrdt and J. Konynenburg interpreted Isa 53 as a reference to Hezekiah’s illness; see North, Suffering Servant, 39–40; Schipper, Disability, 86–87. 302 Cf. Kustár, Wunden, 193: “Das Volk soll nach dem Verstockungsauftrag an Jesaja nicht geheilt werden, sondern unter den vernichtenden Folgen seiner Sünden sterben – demgegenüber spricht das letzte EJL davon, daß die ‘Wir’-Gruppe von der verdienten Bestrafung verschont bleibt, weil der Ebed ihre Sünden und ihre Krankheit getragen hat.” See also Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 254–55. 303 Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 241: “Man darf das Bild zwar nicht allgemein auf die Existenz in der Dürre des Exils einengen (Ez 19,13), dennoch legt sich hier dieser Bezug nahe.”

3.5. The suffering servant

‫וְ ל ֹא יִ פְ תַּ ח פִּ יו‬ ‫וּמ ִמּ ְשׁפָּט לֻקָּ ח‬ ִ ‫מֵ עֹ צֶ ר‬ ַ‫וְ אֶ ת־דֹּ ורֹ ו ִמי יְ שֹׂוחֵ ח‬ ‫כִּ י ִנגְ זַר מֵ אֶ ֶרץ חַ יִּ ים‬ c ‫ ֶנגַע לָמֹ ו‬c b‫ִמ ֶפּשַׁ ע ַﬠ ִמּי‬ ‫ת־רשָׁ ﬠִ ים קִ בְ רֹ ו‬ ְ ֶ‫ א‬d‫וַיִּ תֵּ ן‬ f e ‫וְ אֶ ת־ ָﬠ ִשׁיר בְּ מֹ תָ יו‬ ‫ַﬠל ל ֹא־חָ מָ ס ָﬠשָׂ ה‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא ִמ ְרמָ ה בְּ ִ ֽפיו‬

237

so did he not open his mouth. 8 By a perversion of justice he was taken away.a Who could have imagined his future? For he was cut off from the land of the living, stricken for the transgression of my people. 9 They made his grave with the wicked and his tomb with the rich, although he had done no violence, and there was no deceit in his mouth.

a

Verse 8 contains many linguistic difficulties and words that are open to more than one interpretation (see the discussion in the exegesis of the verse). b 1QIsaa reads “his people” (‫)עמו‬, followed by Clines (Literary Approach, 19), Hägglund (Isaiah 53, 40), and Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 254). c-c The MT literally reads “the blow/plague [was] to him/them.” The footnote in BHS suggests substituting a verb in Pual (‫ )נֻגּע‬or Niphal (‫ ) ִנגּע‬for the substantive (‫) ֶנגַע‬. The last word ‫ לָמֹ ו‬can refer both to a singular and plural referent, of which the former is most likely. The LXX reads “he was led to death” (ἤχθη εἰς θάνατον), perhaps reflecting ‫לַמָּ וֶת‬. d 1QIsaa reads a plural form “they gave” (‫ )ויתנו‬and the footnote in BHS proposes to emend the verb to a Hophal form “[he or the grave] was given” (‫) ַויֻּתַּ ן‬. The MT can be sustained because its third person singular (‫ ) ַו ִיּתֵּ ן‬refers to an impersonal subject (“one made or appointed”). e The MT literally reads “with a rich person” in the singular but likely denotes a collective (cf. Hägglund, Isaiah 53, 41). Some emend it to “evildoers” (‫ ; ָﬠשֵׂ י ָרע‬e.g. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 254), while the footnote in BHS suggests “demons” (‫)שׂﬠִ ִירים‬. ְ Clines (Literary Approach, 20) maintains ‫ ָﬠ ִשׁיר‬, but translates it into “criminals” to match the previous “wicked” (‫ ְ)רשָׁ ﬠִ ים‬more closely. f The MT literally reads “in his deaths” (‫ )בְּ ֹמתָ יו‬in the plural which may serve to intensify the action. The LXX’s ἀντὶ τοῦ θανάτου αὐτο indicates a singular form (‫)בְּ מוֹתוֹ‬. In light of ‫בומתו‬ in 1QIsaa, many interpreters emend the word to ‫ בָּ מָ תוֹ‬in the sense of “his tomb” or “his burial place” (e.g. Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40–55 II, 315; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 409).

In recent times, this section, especially vv. 8–9, has been a battlefield between those who maintain the traditional interpretation that the verses refer to the death of the servant and those who challenge this interpretation. A prominent representative of the latter group is Whybray who devoted an entire part of his book on Isa 53 to this question.304 He concludes that no words in the passage refer unequivocally to the death of the servant and that the experience is rather that of a prisoner who has been brought close to death. Defending the traditional interpretation, Childs offers a very negative assessment of the suggestions that the servant only risked death or was exiled: “In my opinion, these are

304

Whybray, Thanksgiving, 77–116 (“Part II. Was the Servant Dead?”).

238

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

tortuous interpretations and run against the plain sense of the text.”305 My ambition here is not to settle this complex matter, but is more modest: to detect words and images that are open to interpreting the servant as a figure of exile. Verse 7 introduces the servant’s silent acceptance of maltreatment. The many passive verbal forms are noteworthy. The servant is the object of oppression and affliction. He is compared to a lamb that is led to the slaughter. Certainly, there is a motif of removal here. An alternative construal of the sentence structure adds emphasis to this motif. Taking ‫ יוּבָ ל‬and ‫ ֶנ ֱאלָמָ ה‬to be the principal verbs of the sentence, Clines offers the following translation: “He was taken away – like a sheep to slaughter, like a ewe to the shearers. He said nothing. He was silent.”306 The verb ‫ יבל‬means to lead, bring, or carry, for instance, gifts (Ps 68:30; 76:12; Isa 18:7). In Job, one is carried or led to the grave (21:32; cf. 10:19). More joyful examples include the king’s daughter and her virgins who are led to the king (Ps 45:15–16) and the restored people who will be led forth by God in peace and prosper (Isa 55:12; Jer 31:9). A close parallel to Isa 53:7 is found in Jer 11:19. Facing the enemies’ plans to destroy him, Jeremiah compares himself to a gentle lamb that is led to the slaughter ( ַ‫) ַו ֲאנִ י כְּ ֶכבֶ שׂ אַ לּוּף יוּבַ ל לִ טְ בוֹח‬. In contrast to the servant, however, Jeremiah does not remain silent. Despite the use of different verbs (‫ נהג‬vis-à-vis ‫)יבל‬, the motif is close to the Assyrian king’s treatment of the Egyptians and Ethiopians in Isa 20:4. Like them, the servant is led away like sheep. Regarding the sheep metaphor in Isa 53:7, Hägglund has drawn attention to Ps 44 as a textual parallel which reflects the experience of defeat and exile.307 In the central part of the psalm in vv. 10–12, the people lament that God has rejected (‫ )זנח‬them. Verse 12 makes this interesting comparison: “You have made us like sheep for food [‫]כְּ צ ֹאן מַ ֲא ָכל‬, and have scattered us among the nations.” Exile and dispersion parallel the image of dead sheep in the open field that are eaten by wild animals and birds (e.g. Jer 7:33). The motif of slaughtered sheep recurs in v. 23 in the people’s address to YHWH: “Because of you we are being killed all day long, and accounted as sheep for the slaughter [ ‫כְּ צ ֹאן‬ ‫]טִ בְ חָ ה‬.” In light of Ps 44, the servant’s sufferings could be interpreted as a reflection of deportation. Finally, the servant’s silence as his only response to the painful treatment is intensely underscored by the verb “to be silent” (‫ אלם‬in Niphal) and by the repetition of the phrase “he did not open his mouth” (cf. v. 9). As we observed in Chapter 2, silence is a possible reaction of the prophet Isaiah to his encounter with the heavenly judge (Isa 6:5), and the prophet Ezekiel remains silent until the fall of Jerusalem to illustrate YHWH’s decision to destroy it. Similarly, in 305

Childs, Isaiah, 416. Clines, Literary Approach, 13, 17. 307 Hägglund, Isaiah 53, 27, 99; cf. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 142. 306

3.5. The suffering servant

239

his sign act in Isa 20, the prophet embodies the humiliation of exile without using words. The first line of v. 8 is not easy to grasp. Numerous proposals have been made concerning how to construe the first two words, many interpreters taking the words to form a hendiadys.308 There are more problems involved. The uncertainty of how ‫ ִמן‬functions in the sentence has called forth several suggestions, including “from” or “after,” “without,” or “by, through.” The specific meaning of the preposition largely depends on the interpretation of ‫ עֹ צֶ ר‬and ‫מ ְשׁפָּט‬. ִ The first word means “oppression” or “coercion” (cf. Ps 107:39; Prov 30:16). However, since the verbal form can denote “to hold back” (cf. 2 Kings 17:4; Jer 33:1; 39:15), a more specific sense could be “arrest” and “imprisonment.”309 Regarding the second word, it is notoriously difficult to clarify its reference in Isaiah because its semantic field covers “justice,” “judgment,” and “trial.”310 Furthermore, the overall interpretation of the line depends on the understanding of the verb. If “to be taken away” (‫ לקח‬in Qal passive) is seen as a euphemistic reference to his death (cf. Gen 5:24; 2 Kings 2:10), the scenario would be that despite his innocence he died without a fair trial or by oppressive judgment.311 Yet, the preceding chapters in Isaiah where the verb also occurs as a Qal passive suggest a different interpretation. In 49:24–25, the verb refers to the taking away of prey or captives from a mighty tyrant, perhaps more specifically in the sense of “rescuing”. More importantly, in 52:5, YHWH declares: “my people have been taken away [‫ ]לֻקַּ ח‬without cause.”312 In light of the latter of these verses, there is evidence for seeing the servant as a helpless captive who, after arrest and trial, is led away to prison.313 However, because of the number of ambiguities in the text, it is impossible to exclude alternative interpretations. In any case, there is a motif of removal at stake since the servant is “taken away” or perhaps more forcefully “driven off” to an unpleasant place or condition.314 The following phrase is likewise ambiguous. The idea expressed is probably that no one protested or cared for him.315 As noticed in the exegesis of Isa 308

See the review in Clines, Literary Approach, 17–18. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 407; Whybray, Thanksgiving, 99. 310 See my review in Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 98–101. 311 Cf. Childs, Isaiah, 416: “The verb ‘taken away’ […] is generally understood as a reference to his violent and sudden death.” 312 See my analysis of Isa 49:24–26 and 52:1–6 in Chapter 4. 313 For this interpretation, see Whybray, Thanksgiving, 99–100; cf. Clines’ translation (Literary Approach, 13): “he was arrested; he was sentenced. He was taken away.” 314 Taking ‫ לקח‬as a reference to deportation, “oppression” (‫ )עֹ צֶ ר‬could refer to the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem. See Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 261: “der Knecht [wurde] ‫‘ מֵ עֹ צֶ ר‬aus der Bedrängnis’ genommen und exiliert.” 315 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 265. 309

240

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

38:12, ‫ דּוֹר‬generally means “generation” or “lifetime, lifespan.” In the former sense, the meaning would be “who of his generation protested.” Or perhaps ‫ דּוֹרוֹ‬is the object of the verb, “who observed his generation,” that is, who looked after his descendants. Another approach derives the sense of ‫ דּוֹר‬from a Semitic cognate meaning “fate” or “change of fate,” 316 presumably reflected in the NRSV’s “Who could have imagined his future?” The next line states that the servant “was cut off from the land of the living” (‫) ִנגְ זַר מֵ אֶ ֶרץ חַ יִּ ים‬. The statement is generally interpreted as a reference to the death of the servant. Yet, as was observed in the exegesis of Isa 38:11, “the land of the living” can have more references, including the Jerusalem temple. This may be the case here.317 The verb “to cut off” (‫ )גזר‬is not that common in biblical Hebrew. The Niphal form of the verb occurs seven times and generally denotes “to be separated from” or, more brutally, “to be cut off.” There are more passages of relevance. In 2 Chr 26:21, King Uzziah is cut off from the temple because of leprosy. Two psalms use the word to express despair: in Ps 31:23, the psalmist laments that he has been cut off from YHWH’s life-giving sight; in Ps 88:6, the psalmist’s death experience is described by being cut off from YHWH’s protecting hand. In Lam 3:54, to be cut off expresses the people’s reaction facing the flood of water (cf. Jonah) and is closely related to being in the depths of the pit (vv. 53 and 55). Likewise, in Ezek 37:11 – the famous passage depicting the state of exile as a valley of dead bones – “to be cut off” forms the third and final element in the interpretation of the vision: “Our bones are dried up, and our hope is lost; we are cut off [‫ ]נִ גְ ז ְַרנוּ‬completely.” Whybray concludes that these instances show that the Niphal form is used “in connection with death, but that is not necessarily the case.”318 Moreover, it has been argued that in cases where actual death is intended rather than merely a hopeless situation, the verb ‫ כרת‬rather than ‫ גזר‬is employed (e.g. Jer 11:19).319 In light of these observations, the servant’s expulsion from the land of the living may not assume death as such, but rather exclusion from temple worship (as in the case of Uzziah in 2 Chr 26:16–21), from the land of Israel, or, more broadly, from human society.320 To be removed or cut off from society would result in a state of separation and total isolation similar to the destinies of Cain, Jonah, and Hezekiah, according to the latter’s psalm. Whatever the exact meaning of the phrase in Isa 53:8, the verb ‫ גזר‬indicates a motif of removal and displacement that resonates with exilic experience in other texts (e.g. Ezek 37).

316

E.g. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 408. Cf. Barré, “Land of the Living,” 49–50. 318 Whybray, Thanksgiving, 102. 319 Soggin, “Tod und Auferstehung,” 351–54. 320 Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40–55 II, 314. 317

3.5. The suffering servant

241

Verse 9 introduces the motif of the servant’s grave. There are basically two ways of approaching this verse. The first approach is that of those scholars who consider the servant to be killed. They read the verse as a literal reference to a concrete grave where he was buried.321 The second approach is that of those scholars who question the actual death of the servant. They split up in two directions: a literal and a metaphorical. Some argue that the meaning of the verb ‫ נתן‬here is “assigned” or “made ready,” that is, a grave was prepared in the expectation of the servant’s imminent death.322 Others understand the language to be thoroughly metaphorical, explaining the grave to be a poetic image of captivity in a foreign land (cf. Ezek 37).323 As we have seen in Isa 38:17–18, the grave or pit and its close association with death can serve as metaphors for exile (see Chapter 4). There are other features in 53:9 that could support the suggested reference to deportation, likely to Babylon. In other verses in Isaiah, the “wicked” (‫ ְ)רשָׁ ﬠִ ים‬refers to the Babylonians (13:11; 14:5) and the “rich” (‫ ) ָﬠ ִשׁיר‬could reflect the perception of Babylon as “a land of trade” and “a city of merchants” (Ezek 16:29; 17:4).324 This interpretation would bring the fate of the suffering servant close to that of Shebna, whose burial place is located in a foreign land (Isa 22:15–19). To summarize, several elements in the portrait of the suffering servant can be read as motifs of exile. The idea of removal is a dominant theme in these verses: the servant is “led away,” “taken away,” and “cut off” from his natural location. His reaction is nothing but silence and his grave is placed in a strange and inappropriate site. Despite the many ambiguities and enigmas, not least regarding the establishment of a critically responsible version of the Hebrew text, there seem to be a series of elements in the portrait of the servant which cast him as an exile. Through the centuries of reception, these “openings” towards seeing his destiny as a reflection of deportation and captivity in a foreign land have fostered readings that attempt to identify him with a named figure in exile. 3.5.2. Attempts to identify the figure in the context of exile The long reception history of the “Servant Songs” in both Judaism and Christianity bears witness to many different attempts to determine the identity of the servant.325 As we have already sensed, the anonymity and enigmatic nature of 321

Childs, Isaiah, 416. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 408; Soggin, “Tod und Auferstehung,” 353; Whybray, Thanksgiving, 103–4. 323 See below for the attempts to identify the servant with King Jehoiachin or the people of Israel in exile. 324 Cf. Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40–55 II, 316: “‘Wicked, rich’ […] makes best sense as a description of Babylon.” See also Sellin’s interpretation below. 325 See Haag, Gottesknecht; Laato, Who is the Servant; North, Suffering Servant. 322

242

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

the figure are open to a variety of interpretations. Attempts to identify him move between seeing him as a collective (Israel or a righteous part of Israel) and seeing him as an individual (a historical person, a future Messiah, the prophet himself). Within this broad spectrum of proposals, two are of relevance to the present study: those which see him as either the exiled King Jehoiachin or Israel in exile. 3.5.2.1. King Jehoiachin in Babylonian captivity The attempt to identify the suffering servant with King Jehoiachin is usually attributed to Ernst Sellin in his study from 1901.326 Although he later abandoned this idea, his early proposal contains many interesting readings for those who opt for this identification. The point of departure is the observation that, according to Jer 22:24–30, Jehoiachin carries particular significance because he is the signet ring of YHWH’s right hand (see above).327 First, Sellin stresses that the images of the grave and death are not to be read literally. Rather, they depict abandonment and captivity: “der Ebed hat sich freiwillig ins Exil begeben, ist dort misshandelt und eingekerkert, dann befreit.”328 The image of the lamb that is led to the slaughter in v. 7 does not imply death, because Jeremiah does not die despite the similar imagery (Jer 11:19).329 The grave is an image for exile, and “the land of the living” is the land of Canaan: “Kanaan ist das Land der Lebens, der Lichtes, der frischen Wassers.”330 The grave among the ungodly and rich refers to the Babylonian merchants (cf. Ezek 7:21, 24; 16:29). Accordingly, it has been an immense mistake of previous exegesis to assume the literal death of the servant: “Hat man aber erst einmal den Grundirrtum aller bisherigen individualistischen Auslegung erkannt, so fällt es plötzlich wie Schuppen von den Augen.”331

326 See Sellin, Studien, 230–87. Among those interpreters who followed or partly followed this idea are J. W. Rothstein, W. Staerk, E. Burrows, L. Coppens, A. S. Kapelrud, and P. Grelot. See also the reviews in North, Suffering Servant, 50–53; Haag, Gottesknecht, 110– 12; Goulder, “Servant Jehoiachin,” 175–76. In a short and strange note, L. H. K. Bleeker (“Jojachin,” 156) informs readers that his countryman, L. A. Bühler, already proposed this kind of interpretation on pages 64–67 of his unpublished dissertation De Messiaansche heilsverwachting en het Israëlietisch Koningschap from 1896. 327 Interestingly, Goldingay and Payne (Isaiah 40–55 II, 283) interpret this proposed inter-text as an anti-type or counterpart: “a promise that the servant’s destiny will not simply follow Jehoiachin’s.” 328 Sellin, Studien, 258. 329 Cf. Whybray, Thanksgiving, 99: “this kind of comparison carried no suggestion that the person so depicted was dead.” 330 Sellin, Studien, 261. 331 Sellin, Studien, 269.

3.5. The suffering servant

243

Next, Sellin offers a close reading of Isa 52:13–53:12 which lists allusions to the figure of Jehoiachin. 52:13–15 depicts the mistreatment of him in Babylonian captivity. 53:1 renders the wonderful news of his liberation. According to 53:4, because Jehoiachin as king suffers for his people, he has greater losses and greater sufferings than anyone else (cf. Jer 22:28–30).332 The verb ‫לקח‬, which in 53:8 describes the servant’s removal, is used about the deportation of Jehoiachin in 2 Kings 24:12. The motif of removal in v. 8 also reflects that, following the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem, the majority of his people stayed in Judah. The servant’s “offspring” in 53:10 literally refers to the seven sons of Jehoiachin (1 Chr 3:17–18). The “portion” in 53:12 is likewise a literal reference to the restoration of Israel after 539 BCE, in which Jehoiachin allegedly took part! In light of his later abandonment of the thesis, Sellin’s concluding confidence is rather amusing: Ich denke die Rechnung stimmt in überraschenden Weisse, sie geht ohne einen Bruch auf. […] der Ebed kann überhaupt kein anderer als Jojachin sein, weil er und nur er, so viel wir im allgemeinen und vollends bezüglich der Davididen wissen, die Strafe der Verbannung für sein Volk erlitten hat und aus der Kerkerhaft glänzend erhöht ist.333

Recently, Michael Goulder has revived Sellin’s old thesis.334 Goulder’s point of departure is the slightly joyful note at the closure of 2 Kings 25 about the release and elevation of Jehoiachin (vv. 27–30). He divides the servant song into five parts, all of which he interprets as allusions to certain phases in the career of Jehoiachin: his presence at the royal banquet in Babylon (52:13–15; cf. 2 Kings 25), his early life (53:1–3), the significance of his sufferings (53:4– 6), his imprisonment (53:7–9), and, finally, his reward (53:10–12). Like Sellin, Goulder interprets the servant’s miserable appearance as the result of Jehoiachin’s 37 years in prison. The tender plant in 53:2–3 symbolically refers to Jehoiachin’s childhood and promising future in Jerusalem, but he was eventually rejected and replaced by Zedekiah. The grave in 53:8 is a symbol for captivity and was appointed by the Babylonian king.

332

Kapelrud (“Identity of the Suffering Servant,” 312–13) refuses to distinguish sharply between the individual and collective interpretations. Due to his role as a mediator between God and his people (cf. I. Engnell and O. Kaiser), the king is a representative of his people and thus “the individual and the collective become one.” Accordingly, “when the Servant is addressed with a ‘you’ or is speaking himself as ‘I,’ it is the exiled people who stand forth, represented in an individual.” Furthermore, “it is one and the same thing to say that the Servant of Yahweh was the suffering and exiled people or that he was the suffering and exiled king [that is, Jehoiachin].” 333 Sellin, Studien, 274, my emphasis. 334 Goulder, “Servant Jehoiachin.”

244

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

A critical review of the proposed identification of the servant with Jehoiachin reveals several weaknesses. First, Sellin’s treatment of the servant passages draws from Duhm’s famous thesis. In fact, Duhm’s questionable isolation of the “Servant Songs” from their present literary context and his equally questionable placement of them within a different historical milieu paved the way for a wave of interpretations which identified the figure with historical figures such as Jehoiachin.335 Removed from its literary context in Isaiah, the figure can be said to embody almost anyone. Moreover, Sellin follows Duhm’s assumption that the three other “Servant Songs” (Isa 42:1–4; 49:1–6; 50:4–9) portray the same figure and his subsequent attempt to equate Jehoiachin with the servant portrait in these passages is naïve at best.336 Goulder escapes this challenge by not associating Isa 53 with the other texts, but his brief explanation of the chapter’s relation to its larger context, mainly Isa 55, fails to convince.337 Second, the scarce historical information we have about Jehoiachin (2 Kings, Jeremiah, and a few Babylonian inscriptions) offers only little support.338 Third, Sellin’s reading exposes a strange mixture of figurative interpretations about the grave and death and very literal readings of, for instance, the servant’s “offspring” and “portion”.339 In general, I think it is telling that the identification of the suffering servant with named individuals such as King Jehoiachin was most popular in the decades following the inception of Duhm’s thesis and that few scholars today opt for a named historical figure behind the servant portrait of Isa 53. 3.5.2.2. The people of Israel in exile The traditional Jewish interpretations of Isa 53 have identified the servant with Israel, viewed either as an entire nation or in the form of a righteous group within the nation.340 The three great Jewish interpreters of the eleventh and twelfth centuries – Rashi, Ibn Ezra, and Radak – all identify the suffering servant with the people of Israel. Their readings have largely inspired later collective readings and a brief review will show in what manner they approached Isa

335

See Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 82–83. Sellin, Studien, 274–78. As an example, Sellin regards the pulling out of the servant’s beard in Isa 50:6 as reflecting the capture of Jehoiachin. 337 Goulder, “Servant Jehoiachin,” 188–89. 338 Cf. the critique of King Jehoiachin’s supposed miserable appearance after 37 years in prison in Schipper, Disability, 92: “Jehoiachin’s disability is entirely the creation of scholars who supply a back story for his experience in prison. The Bible never suggests that Jehoiachin has a disability nor gives any details about his time in prison that would suggest an acquired disability.” 339 Cf. North, Suffering Servant, 148–49. 340 Brown, “Jewish Interpretations.” Cf. Haag, Gottesknecht, 55–58. 336

3.5. The suffering servant

245

53 as a passage about exilic sufferings.341 A notable feature is that they not only regarded the exile to be that which occurred in Babylon in the sixth century BCE, but they also applied the passage to their present day situations: the captivity in Isa 53 refers to the wide dispersion and persecution of Jews in all the centuries between the time of Isaiah and the interpreters’ times of writing.342 Initially, the anonymous servant in 52:13 is identified with Jacob or Israel or “the righteous among them,” and 52:14–15 depicts Israel over against the nations. The “we” in 53:1 refers to the nations. Regarding the tender plant in 53:2, Radak states: “the allusion is […] to Israel’s coming up out of exile, which was as surprising and wondrous as for a sucker to spring up out of the dry ground, or for a tree to flourish there.” The deformed and disfigured appearance of the servant represents that of Israel, languishing in captivity. The sickness, pains, and wounds are symbolic of the sufferings of exile. Israel is stricken by the sins of the nations, and while they will have peace, Israel is in the humiliation of exile. The sheep metaphor in 53:7 refers to Israel’s extreme weakness and prostration in captivity. Ibn Ezra applies the servant’s silence to never-changing conditions: “there is no need to interpret these words, for every Jew in exile exemplifies their truth: in the hour of his affliction he never opens his mouth to speak.” All three interpreters agree on the interpretation of 53:8– 9: Israel is led out to the imprisonment of exile and the land of the living is a reference to the land of Israel. The possible plural references of “to them” (‫)להו‬ in 53:8 and “in his deaths” (‫ )במתיו‬in 53:9 are said to warrant the collective interpretation. 53:10–12 states that after the exile, YHWH will reward Israel appropriately. A variant view of the collective interpretation regards the servant as representative of a group within the people of Israel as a whole. As a righteous remnant, the servant was exiled and suffered on behalf of the otherwise sinful majority of the people who never left Judah. Accordingly, the “we”-group consists of those among the people who recognize the significance of the servant and benefit from his sufferings. Several scholars have related this supposed “internal” conflict between those who were exiled and those who remained in the land directly to the situation in exilic and postexilic periods, reflected in other biblical books (e.g. Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Ezra-Nehemiah).343 Norman Snaith, for instance, argues that the servant represents “the first batch of exiles, those [who] went into captivity with the young king Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, together with a tendency to include also the 586 BCE exiles.”344 Hägglund likewise 341 Cf. the illuminating verse-by-verse analysis in Brown, “Jewish Interpretations,” 67– 74. For source texts and English translations, see Driver and Neubauer, The Fifty-Third Chapter. 342 Cf. North, Suffering Servant, 19. 343 Mettinger, Farewell, 43. 344 Snaith, Isaiah 40–66, 170.

246

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

equates the suffering servant with the people in exile, primarily in light of Ezek 37. For Hägglund, the “we”-group is “the people left in the land during the Babylonian captivity.”345 Another scholar who has recently made a similar proposal is Ulrich Berges.346 Initially, he stresses the importance of the present literary context for determining the identity and significance of the suffering servant.347 Located between two chapters about the return to Zion (Isa 52 and 54), Isa 53 likely reflects on the purpose of the afflictions in exile which preceded the return. Furthermore, just as the collective entity Zion is personified as a forsaken and childless woman, the literary context suggests that the individual figure of the servant is a personification of an afflicted group. In Berges’ view, the poem about the suffering servant certainly expresses the experiences of a collective, more precisely the group of deported Jerusalem temple singers who were responsible for the composition of Isa 40–66. This group consisted of those among the deportees in Babylon who, after the purification of exile, accepted the task to return to Jerusalem and proclaim a new message of salvation: “They understood themselves as the ideal Israel tested and called by God in the furnace of the exilic affliction.”348 The rest of the book refers to this prophetic group as “servants” (plural).349 The “we”-group in Isa 53, then, refers to those among postexilic Israel who finally acknowledge the salvific function of this community of servants. Despite his strong emphasis on a collective identification, Berges draws acute attention to the frequent combination of plural and singular features in Isaiah’s portrait of the servant (e.g. 41:27; 43:10; 50:4).350 The question at stake is not about collective or individual identity but about collective and individual identity. In the case of Isa 52:13–53:12, the collective group of servants present themselves in the figure of an individual. They “created for the sake of their own identity the literary figure of the servant.”351 Berges refers to this literary phenomenon as “nachexilische Rolle- und Problemdichtung,” whereby theological problems are encapsulated in a concrete literary figure.352 According to him, other examples include Job, Ruth, Jonah, and Jeremiah who are literary creations with the purpose of expressing and discussing issues of collective

345

Hägglund, Isaiah 53, 26–32. Cf. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 401: “I tend to agree with the view that the speakers are the majority of the Israelite nation, as opposed to the servant who represents the chosen minority.” 346 Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 208–78; “Literary Construction.” 347 Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 217. 348 Berges, “Literary Construction,” 35–36. 349 Cf. Isa 54:17; 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14. 350 Berges, “Literary Construction,” 32–35. 351 Berges, “Literary Construction,” 35. 352 Berges, “Literary Construction,” 36–37.

3.6. Conclusion

247

identity. Just as the character of Job reflects on the problem of innocent suffering and the confessions of Jeremiah reflect on the fate of persecuted prophets, the purpose of the poem about the suffering servant is to cope with the experience of exile and to formulate a hope for future restoration and glory. Whether or not one accepts Berges’ identification of the servant with a specific prophetic group of servants emerging from the hardship of exile who were active in the context of the Second Temple, his observation of the complex interplay between individual and collective elements in the literary portrait is of relevance to the present study. Isa 52:13–53:12 presents to us a fictional figure (“fiktionale Gestalt”), a suffering individual, who is rich in potential for collective interpretations. Just as the other figures analyzed in this chapter, the fate of the suffering servant points to larger communal concerns. His experiences of humiliation, removal to an uncertain destiny, and complete isolation mirror those of the people. 3.5.3. Summing up The poem about the suffering servant forms a kind of response to the portraits of individuals in Isa 1–39 who act out or embody the humiliation of deportation and social marginalization. Possible links to exile in the portrait of the servant include his isolation from human society, his illness and his bruises as a sign of divine rejection and punishment, and his apparent location in a dry and infertile land. The narration of the servant’s deportation and grave in a foreign place in 53:7–9 contains several motifs which center on the idea of dislocation and removal: he is “led away” like a lamb to the slaughter, he is “taken away” by, or from, oppression, and he is “cut off” from the land of the living. The servant is completely isolated and no one cares for him. Like Isaiah and Ezekiel, his only response to the harshness of divine judgment is one of silence. Several interpreters in the history of reception have attempted to identity the servant with an individual or a collective in exile. While attempts to equate the figure with the deported King Jehoiachin are less persuasive, the frequent association of the servant with the people of Israel in exile is more productive. The observation of a frequent interplay between singular and plural features in the servant portrait is illuminating. The poem about a suffering individual is a literary construction which serves to express and cope with collective concerns. The servant’s experience of dislocation and marginalization thus sets up a mirror for those who suffer from the pains and despair of being in exile.

3.6. Conclusion 3.6. Conclusion

Each of the literary figures examined in this chapter testifies to the dangers, uncertainties, and vulnerability of life in exile. Their destinies are characterized

248

Chapter 3: Embodying exile

by banishment from society and loss of status. In this manner, the individual suffering and misfortune of each of the figures are mirrors or archetypes for general existential experiences. A shared feature of the literary figures in Isaiah is the emphasis on removal and separation. The arrogant steward Shebna shall be hurled away and thrown into a foreign land like a ball. King Hezekiah shall suddenly be plucked off and removed like a tent and cut off like a piece of cloth from a weaver’s loom. The Egyptian and Ethiopian captives shall be led away like sheep, just as the suffering servant is led away like a lamb to the slaughter, taken away and cut off from the land of the living. The issues of removal and dislocation are closely associated with death. Shebna shall die in banishment, and, like the suffering servant, he shall be buried far away from home. Exile is a place of death. For Hezekiah it is Sheol which awaits him – a pit of annihilation and a terrifying symbol of eternal separation and isolation. Another shared feature is the issue of social isolation and marginalization. The prophet Isaiah performs or embodies the shame of exile by walking around naked. His dramatic self-marginalization illustrates the dishonorable treatment of deportees of all ages who are stripped naked and exposed to public humiliation. Shebna shall be thrust from his leading position in society to die in disgrace in a foreign land, banished and forgotten. Hezekiah enters a state of complete isolation, and the suffering servant is despised and expelled from society. In addition to embodying central characteristics of exilic existence, the literary figures serve a distinct function within the overall structure of Isaiah by pointing forward and backward to the untold events at the great gap between Isa 39 and 40. The prophetic sign act in Isa 20 foreshadows the capture of Judah and the deportation of the inhabitants. The misfortunes of Shebna and Eliakim in Isa 22:15–25 adumbrate the future fall of Jerusalem and the end of the Davidic monarchy. King Hezekiah’s illness and his near-death experience in Isa 38 anticipate the imminent catastrophe, and the words of his psalm reveal the gravity of this disaster. On the other side of the gap, the miserable treatment of the suffering servant, who is expelled from the land of the living, points backward to the execution of divine judgment and death at the center of the book.

Chapter 4

Slavery and captivity: Political and spatial images This chapter analyzes the cluster of texts in Isaiah which interpret exile as suppression by enemies in terms of hard servitude and captivity. This way of conveying defeat and displacement draws mostly upon images of political power and space. Common to these images is that exile is portrayed as a dire state that the people must escape or be released and restored from. The people are suffering under a brutal power and are living in cruel conditions where they are ill-treated as slaves and as prisoners in dark spaces of confinement. In the Old Testament, several books employ images of slavery and captivity to express the people’s hardship and suffering under a foreign rule. The opening chapter of Exodus informs readers of how the Israelites, who had dwelled in Egypt and increased in number since the time of Joseph, were made into slaves. Taskmasters were set over them to oppress them with compulsory labor, and the Egyptians made their lives bitter with hard service (Exod 1:11–14). From the perspective of the people and their later memory, Egypt was indeed turned into “a house of slavery” (‫)בֵּ ית ﬠֲבָ ִדים‬, a prison-like place of exploitation and humiliation (e.g. Exod 13:3; Jer 34:13).1 Needless to say, divine deliverance from this tyranny became a fundamental act of redemption in the people’s history. Similar language is used to express the people’s stay in Babylon following the destruction of Jerusalem in the early sixth century BCE.2 Ezekiel 12:11 proclaims to the prince of Jerusalem and the house of Israel that “they shall go into exile, into captivity” (‫)בַּ גּוֹלָה בַ ְשּׁבִ י ֵי ֵלכוּ‬. In line with this, the paradigmatic predictions of defeat and exile in Deuteronomy and 1 Kings sketch a future of slavery and captivity in foreign places. Deuteronomy 28:41 warns that “[your sons and daughters] shall go into captivity,” and 1 Kings 8:46–51 foreshadows that the people will be given to the enemy and carried away as captives to then live under the power of their captors. The poems of Lamentations mourn that the people of Jerusalem and Judah – both young women and young men – have gone into captivity (e.g. Lam 1:5, 18), and Ps 137 identi1

Three passages employ another powerful spatial metaphor by referring to Egypt as “an iron furnace” (‫)כּוּר הַ בַּ ְרזֶל‬, that is, a place of intense suffering and, implicitly, of testing the people’s faith and loyalty (Deut 4:20; 1 Kings 8:51; Jer 11:4). See also Isa 48:10, which pictures the state of exile as “a furnace of affliction” (‫)כּוּר ֹע ִני‬. 2 See the review of vocabulary in Smith-Cristopher, “Reassessing,” 28–31.

250

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

fies Babylon as a place of lament and humiliation by the subjugators. Jeremiah envisions the people’s return “from the land of their captivity” (‫;מֵ אֶ ֶרץ ִשׁבְ יָם‬ Jer 30:10; 46:27), and Ezra and Nehemiah frequently depict the exiles as captives whom the Persian king, Cyrus, has released and allowed to return home. Ezra 3:8, for instance, refers to a group of people who have come to Jerusalem “from the captivity” (‫)מֵ הַ ְשּׁבִ י‬. As this chapter shall demonstrate, language of slavery and captivity occurs throughout Isaiah to render the experience of exile. It is noteworthy, however, that passages employing this language consistently portray the period of hardship to have ended. Focus lies on the message of a reversal of fortune, and images of divine redemption and deliverance often eclipse those of past imprisonment and forced labor. In several cases, the joyful proclamation of YHWH’s redemptive power surpasses the pains of subjugation to a foreign power.3 The chapter opens with an analysis of Isa 40:1–2 and the voice emerging out of the black hole to proclaim renewed divine consolation and the end of the people’s punishment. A section then studies the images of slavery, prison, and death in Isa 14:1–4a; 42:6b–7, 22; 51:13b–14; and 52:1–6. The final section looks closer at two key passages about the redemptive power of YHWH (Isa 43:1–4 and 43:14–21) which is able to liberate the people from these dire conditions.

4.1. A voice breaking the gap of silence (Isaiah 40:1–2) 4.1. A voice breaking the gap of silence

Coming immediately after the gap of deep silence between Isa 39 and 40, the opening words in 40:1–2 are astonishing. A message of redemption and comfort breaks out of the black hole and escapes its destructive mass. A light suddenly emerges from the center of gloomy darkness. God, who has been hiding and, in his wrath, has punished his people, completely reveals himself again with a message of consolation that shall begin to spread. The period of divine judgment is over; restoration will now follow and YHWH will re-enter into the life of his people. Analogous to the astonishing and surprising appearance of a new divine message is the lack of any clear setting.4 In contrast to the superscription in Isa 1:1, there are no indications of time and place in 40:1–2. Along with the 3 Albertz (Israel in Exile, 408, note 809) in fact argues that the image of exile as captivity derives from the image of YHWH as redeemer and not the other way around: “It is probably no accident that only when the text wishes to represent the return from Babylonia as an act of liberation do we find the image of the Babylonian exile as captivity (=imprisonment).” See also Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 265. 4 Cf. Melugin, Formation, 84.

4.1. A voice breaking the gap of silence

251

rest of 40:1–11, the opening words emerge seemingly out of nothing. It is as if time and space have collapsed and the appearance of a voice reinitiates time. Escaping the gravity of the black hole, the words are “floating in space” as an unidentified voice renders YHWH’s command to an unidentified group to comfort, convince, and proclaim to the people about the new dispensation. Among the more persistent attempts to provide an appropriate setting for the apparent interaction between different voices is the idea of the heavenly council.5 Drawing on the famous proposal by F. M. Cross from 1953, Christopher Seitz has worked out this thesis in great detail: God speaks to his divine court, and various voices respond, interact, and deliver the message to others inside and outside of the assembly.6 Like others before him, Seitz notices possible links between the scenes of Isa 6 and Isa 40:1–11, particularly in regard to the seraphs speaking to one another (6:3).7 Even so, he admits that while the scene of the heavenly court is explicit in Isa 6, it is only “implicit or presupposed” in Isa 40.8 According to others, this is no insignificant observation.9 Taking the gap between Isa 39 and 40 seriously, Landy states: “The Prologue to Deutero-Isaiah lacks the entire stage setting of ch. 6; there is no Temple, no vision of God, no seraphim, no liturgy, no purification, no paradoxical commission. Instead we have disembodied voices; the divine council is in exile, as is God.”10 This is exactly what seems to have happened inside the black hole. Enemies have destroyed Jerusalem and its temple is gone. People have become completely alienated from God with no access to

5

The supplication of explicit addressees in the LXX (“priests” [ἱερεῖς]) and the Targum (“prophets” [‫)] ְנבִ ַייָא‬, suggesting a setting in the temple or in the court, shows how early interpreters struggled to supply a proper context for the message of 40:1–2. 6 Seitz, “The Divine Council.” Other interpreters who follow this approach include Childs (Isaiah, 297), Elliger (Deuterojesaja, 12–13), and Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 127); cf. Goldingay, Message, 5: “In 40.1–11 the scene is […] the court of heaven where we overhear God addressing that gathering, and its members addressing one another.” 7 Melugin, Formation, 83: “In both 1 Kings 22 and Isaiah 6 the prophet is transported by vision into the realm of the heavenly council […] Although Isaiah 40:1–8 is not a narrative like Isaiah 6, it is based on the imagery of the commissioning of a prophet by means of a vision of the heavenly council.” See also Hartenstein, “Geschichtshermenutik,” 114–19; Rendtorff, “Jesaja 6,” 79–81; Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 37–38. 8 Seitz, “The Divine Council,” 239. 9 Cf. the criticism of the thesis of the divine council in Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 179– 80; Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 91: “Gegen eine himmlische Ratssitzung als bestimmenden Interpretationsrahmen für den Prolog spricht zum einen die Tatsache, dass diese sonst immer eindeutig markiert ist, zum anderen, dass ‘himmlische Wesen’ im weiteren Verlauf des Jesajabuches keine Rolle spielen, anders als prophetische Mitstreiter.” Both Blenkinsopp and Berges suggest that prophets in general, or a specific prophetic group, are the intended addressees (cf. the Targum). 10 Landy, “Exile,” 249, my emphasis. See also Landy, “Ghostly Prelude.”

252

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

his will. Worship has turned into dire lamentation and despair (cf. 63:7– 64:11). Whether or not one presupposes a divine assembly at the opening of Isa 40, there are other significant links between the commissioning of the prophet in Isa 6 and the appearance of voices in 40:1–11. 11 The punishment proclaimed in 6:11–13 has come to pass. Everything lies in ruins: “the grass withered [‫]יָבֵ שׁ‬, the flower faded [‫]נָבֵ ל‬, when the breath of YHWH blew [‫]נ ְָשׁבָ ה‬ upon it” (40:7; cf. 28:1–4).12 The only thing left is YHWH’s promise to restore (cf. 12:1). His eternal word has the power to restore and create out of nothing. The message breaking forth in Isa 40 thus offers a response to the prophet’s question of how long YHWH would judge (6:11). Up until this point, YHWH has hardened the heart of his people; now, he instructs his messengers to console them. “This people” (‫ ) ָﬠם הַ זֶּה‬has become “my people” (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמּי‬again.13 4.1.1. Isaiah 40:1–2: Text and translation ‫ַנחֲמוּ ַנחֲמוּ ַﬠ ִמּי י ֹאמַ ר ֱא הֵ יכֶם‬ ָ‫דַּ בְּ רוּ ַﬠל־לֵב ְירוּשָׁ ַל ִם וְ קִ ְראוּ אֵ לֶיה‬ ‫כִּ י מָ לְ אָ ה צְ בָ אָ הּ‬ ‫כִּ י ִנ ְרצָ ה ﬠֲוֹנָהּ‬ ‫כִּ י לָקְ חָ ה ִמיַּד יְ הוָה‬ ָ‫כִּ פְ לַיִ ם בְּ ָכל־חַ טּ ֹאתֶ יה‬

1

Comfort, O comfort my people, says your God. Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry to her that her term is ended,a that her penalty is paid, that she has received from the hand of YHWH double for all her sins. 2

a

The NRSV translates “that she has served her term,” taking Jerusalem in the preceding line to be the subject of the feminine verb ‫( מָ לְ אָ ה‬cf. e.g. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 78–79; Goldingay, Message, 15). It is certainly a possible interpretation, but I regard the feminine noun “her term” (‫ )צְ בָ אָ הּ‬to be a more plausible subject of the verb. First, this rendering offers a better match to the subsequent line “her penalty is paid.” Second, the reading of ‫ מלא‬in 1QIsaa suggests that the scribe took “her term”, which occurs frequently in masculine, to be the subject; cf. the passive rendering of the verb in other ancient versions (ἐπλήσθη in the LXX; conpleta est in the Vulgate). Other interpreters who opt for this reading include Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 177–78; Childs, Isaiah, 293; Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 1–2; Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 119; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 129; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 31; Young, Isaiah III, 17.

11 Childs (Isaiah, 296) refers to 40:1–11 as “a crucial interpretive bridge” between the two parts of the book. 12 Seitz, “The Divine Council,” 242–43. Although it is common to translate the verse in the present (“withers,” “fades,” “blows”; cf. the NRSV), the verbs are in the perfect and probably look back on a completed period of destruction. 13 Goldingay, Message, 5.

4.1. A voice breaking the gap of silence

253

4.1.2. Isaiah 40:1–2: Heavenly comfort replaces heavy punishment The tone of the opening words is unexpected and powerful. The period of darkness and divine silence is broken by a word: “Comfort, O comfort my people, says your God!” There is suddenly a voice full of light and hope emerging out of the black hole. It is noteworthy that the verse does not begin with a formula of speech which would clearly identify the speaker before the message (cf. e.g. 42:5). It is the other way around. The literary effect is one of immediacy. The message is given directly to its readers or listeners; there is a strong feeling of “Gleichzeitigkeit”.14 Moreover, that there is no explicit identification of those who shall fulfill this task adds further emphasis to the motif of comfort.15 The repetition of the key word “comfort” (‫ נחם‬in Piel) further stresses the urgency and significance of the call (cf. 51:9, 17; 52:1). This term, which designates consolation and encouragement, signifies the sudden and remarkable shift from the gloom and grief of past judgment to the comfort and hope of future restoration (cf. 12:1). It sets a new beginning. Along with the elaboration of the message in v. 2, the call for comfort reflects a decisive change in YHWH’s attitude towards his people.16 He will not judge anymore, he will not keep on being absent and silent. The term for the period of estrangement and divine wrath is over. A similar reflection of YHWH’s initiative and change of attitude is found in 44:22, where he has chosen to blot out the sins of his people in order to restore them. The reference to “my people” (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמּי‬offers a crucial link to passages of judgment in Isa 1–39. In the programmatic opening of the book, YHWH rebukes Israel because of their ignorance: “my people do not understand” (1:3). Taking YHWH to be the speaker in 5:13, there is a sarcastic tone in noting that “my people go into exile without knowledge.” Finally, the prophet laments “the destruction of my people’s daughter,” that is, Jerusalem (22:4). Yet, despite the people’s ignorance and rejection of YHWH and despite YHWH’s punishment in terms of devastation and deportation, they are still 14

Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 98. Goldingay, Message, 11: “The comforters are a theological/poetic device to encourage the exiles. We are not invited to ask who historically was expected to take on this role. There is no literal mission to Jerusalem to be fulfilled.” Nevertheless, among recent attempts to identify the anonymous addressees in Isa 40:1–2, Reinoud Oosting (“Jerusalem’s Comforters”) proposes that those addressed are “the children of Jerusalem” who are urged to speak to the heart of their mother, Jerusalem (cf. 50:1–3; 51:17–23). Strangely, however, while Oosting, like most others, takes “my people” to be the direct object of the verb “comfort” and not a vocative (“O my people”; cf. popule meus in a Latin manuscript), he offers no explanation of the identity of “my people” and their relation to their supposed comforters, “the children of Jerusalem.” 16 Cf. Smart, History and Theology, 44: “A great decision has been made in heaven that at any moment will be reflected in events upon earth.” 15

254

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

his people. YHWH confirms his relation with his people: he is their God and he will not forsake them. The first line of v. 2 parallels v. 1, resuming with verbs in the plural: “speak [‫ ]דַּ בְּ רוּ‬tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry [‫ ]קִ ְראוּ‬to her.” Literally, the verse reads: “speak to the heart of Jerusalem.” Similar phrases occur in Joseph’s consolation of his brothers (Gen 50:21) and in the comfort of Ruth (Ruth 2:13). The notion of heart (‫)לֵב‬, however, may indicate that the people need to be convinced of the reality that is about to unfold. In light of Isa 6, this should not come as a surprise. According to 6:10, YHWH instructed his prophet to make the heart of the people dull; they should neither perceive nor recognize the imminence of judgment and, as a result, they should not repent. Their hearts are far from YHWH (29:13). As we shall see in Chapter 6, the failure to interpret the occurrence of events properly continues to be a central characteristic of the people in exile (cf. 42:25: “they do not take it to heart”; 46:12: “you stubborn of heart”). Now YHWH instructs his messengers to “speak” and “cry” to their hardened hearts to make them aware of the dawn of restoration. The rest of v. 2 offers significant reflections of what might have happened inside the black hole between Isa 39 and 40. Just as the gap of silence has been broken, three announcements suggest that a certain period of slavery, penalty, and punishment has come to its end (cf. the perfect form of the verbs). Three parallel clauses, all of which are introduced by ‫“( כִּ י‬that” or “because”), unfold or warrant the new message of consolation. The three clauses employ different metaphors drawing from the language of work, cult, and law practice. 17 As Halvorson-Taylor cogently claims, the end result of this sophisticated combination of different images is “a metaphorically layered description of exile that identifies its basic feature as the need for redemption.”18 The first clause interprets the preceding period as a term of servitude or slavery that has been completed. The word ‫ צָ בָ א‬literally means “army” or “military service” (e.g. Num 1:3). It also refers to service in the cult by Levites (Num 4:23) or by women (Exod 38:8; 1 Sam 2:22). Drawing on supposed links with priestly material, some interpreters claim that this service is a form of debt slavery or prison that the people are now released from (cf. Lev 25:50)19 or that Jerusalem’s time-limited punishment should be associated with the Levites’ service of 25 years (Num 8:24–25).20 In my view, however, one should be cautious not to limit the sense of ‫ צָ בָ א‬and its associations too narrowly. More instances in Job suggest that the term also denotes a gen17

Grimm and Dittert, Deuterojesaja, 50–51. Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 119. 19 Baltzer, “Liberation,” 481. 20 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 100–1. 18

4.1. A voice breaking the gap of silence

255

eral kind of hard and compulsory labor of long duration, parallel to the work of a day-laborer (‫ ;שָׂ כִ יר‬Job 7:1).21 In Job 14:14, the speaker wishes to be released from this servitude: “All the days of my service [‫ ]צְ בָ ִאי‬I would wait until my release should come.” Employing other words, Lamentations explicitly associates exile with the hard labor of slaves: “Judah has gone into exile with suffering and hard servitude [‫( ”]רֹ ב ﬠֲבֹ דָ ה‬Lam 1:3; cf. Isa 14:3 below). The second clause explains the people’s hard service as a penalty for guilt that has now been paid off. Nevertheless, both the noun and the verb of the clause are open to more interpretations. The word ‫ ﬠָוֹן‬can refer to iniquity or sin, to guilt incurred by sin, and to punishment for iniquity and guilt. The Niphal form of the verb ‫ רצה‬can mean “to be paid off” and “to be accepted, received favorably,” the latter of which is used about offerings that are acceptable to YHWH (e.g. Lev 1:4; 19:7). In light of this latter meaning, a possible interpretation of the clause is that the people’s suffering in exile is seen to be an offering which has been accepted as satisfactory by YHWH.22 It is questionable, however, whether ‫ ָﬠוֹן‬can refer to such an offering or sacrifice. A passage which employs ‫ רצה‬in the sense of “paying off” or “making amends for” is Lev 26:34–45.23 This minor section forms the end of the paradigmatic prediction of exile and the empty land (see Chapter 2). The devastated land, emptied of its inhabitants, shall “make up for” its Sabbath years. Scattered among the nations, the people shall languish “because of their iniquities” (‫)בַּ ﬠֲוֹנָם‬. They shall humble their uncircumcised heart and pay off their penalty. As in Isa 40:2, Lev 26:43 explicitly combines ‫ ָﬠוֹן‬and ‫רצה‬: “For the land shall be deserted by them and make up for [‫]ת ֶרץ‬ ִ its Sabbath years by lying desolate without them, while they shall make amends for their iniquity [‫] ִי ְרצוּ אֶ ת־ﬠֲוֹנָם‬.”24 Here, exile in foreign lands is thought to be a punishment through which the unclean people pay off their guilt. As we have already seen, ‫ ָﬠוֹן‬appears at key moments in Isa 1–39 and offers important intertextual links.25 Initially, harsh accusations were directed against “a people laden with iniquity” (‫ ; ַﬠם ֶכּבֶ ד ָﬠוֹן‬1:4). The removal of the prophet Isaiah’s guilt in Isa 6:7 set him apart from his unclean and sinful people and allowed him to serve as YHWH’s messenger of judgment. Moreover, the people’s transgressions and disbelief resulted in a death sentence in 21

Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 14: “‫ צבא‬ist der Dienst, den man nicht von sich aus tut, sondern der einem von oben her auferlegt wird.” 22 Cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 101; Young, Isaiah III, 23. Elliger (Deuterojesaja, 14), however, strongly rejects this interpretation: “Von irgendeinem ‘aktiven’ und gar geistlichen Dienst […] kann keine Rede sein.” 23 Grimm and Dittert (Deuterojesaja, 49) refer to this passage as being key for understanding 40:1–2 as a whole. 24 Alternatively, the people passively “accept” the punishment of their iniquity; see the discussion in Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 121–22. 25 Childs, Isaiah, 298.

256

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

22:14: they should die without being atoned for their iniquity. Responding to these instances, 40:2 proclaims that the punishment for the fatal iniquity has now been completed. The third clause makes clear that YHWH has been engaged personally in the punishment of his people and that this punishment was passed because of their sins. Nevertheless, “from the hand of YHWH” (‫)מיַּד יְ הוָה‬ ִ is, in fact, ambiguous because the metaphor refers to both his judging and salvific activities. The perfect form of ‫ לקח‬and the juxtaposition of the clause with the former two, however, suggest that the “hand” here represents an agent of judgment. Formerly, this hand was raised against the rebellious people (5:25; 28:2; 31:3). Furthermore, in the reflection on past judgment in 51:17–23, the people of Jerusalem have drunk from the cup of wrath directly “from the hand of YHWH.” The perfect form of ‫לקח‬, asserting that something has reached completion, rules out the possibility that the elusive “double” (‫ )כִּ פְ לַיִ ם‬refers to the people’s reception of double blessing (cf. the doubling of ‫ נחם‬in v. 1).26 Rather, the thought here is a doubling of the punishment. That YHWH should punish his people twice as much as they deserve and consequently appears as an unfair judge has brought about a series of alternative proposals. Some interpreters say it is a rhetorical hyperbole.27 Others argue that it is a legal image according to which the guilty one is forced to offer double restitution for punishment and damages (cf. Exod 22:3, 6, 8).28 Others again claim that ‫כִּ פְ לַיִ ם‬ is a synonym for ‫ ִמ ְשׁנֶה‬in the sense of “equivalent to” (cf. Deut 15:18) and that the people have received punishment corresponding to their volume of sin.29 Another proposal is that “double” refers to the “two things” (‫)שׁתַּ יִ ם‬ ְ that have struck Jerusalem in 51:19: the destruction of the city and the killing of its inhabitants. 30 The link between these passages, which is established by “the hand of YHWH” (cf. 51:17), offers some support to this proposal. In line with this idea, I think the best option is to understand “double” in the sense of abundantly, heavily, or completely. This reading offers a good match to the gap of vast nothingness between Isa 39 and 40. Jerusalem has been destroyed down to the ground and left as an empty, derelict land. It is a null point. A similar severity of judgment is at stake in YHWH’s threatening proclamation in Jer 16:18: “I will doubly [‫]מ ְשׁנֵה‬ ִ repay their iniquity and their

26

See Young, Isaiah III, 23–24. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 103. 28 Childs, Isaiah, 297; Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 15–16. 29 von Rad, “Äquivalent.” 30 Baltzer, Deutero-Jesaja, 84. 27

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

257

sin [‫]ﬠֲוֹנָם וְ חַ טָּ אתָ ם‬.” 31 Reading Isa 40:2 in light of this verse suggests that YHWH’s warning has been fulfilled.32 Nothing was left. In sum, the three parallel clauses picture exile as a state that the people is to be redeemed from. They will be released from their hard servitude as slaves, they will be freed from penalty, and they will be restored from the severity of divine punishment. Heavenly comfort replaces heavily judgment.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment 4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

Images of slavery and captivity occur several times in Isaiah to convey the experience of exile and subjugation to a foreign imperial rule. A significant yet rather understated representative for this oppressive and life-threatening power is Babylon and its tyrannical king.33 Isaiah 13–14 portrays the terrifying and destructive nature of the great empire to the east and its arrogant and proud despot both of which, however, are doomed to downfall. At first glance, Isa 39:1–8 describes the appearance of the Babylonians in a more neutral manner. Nevertheless, reading the Hezekiah incident in light of Isa 13–14 suggests that they are, indeed, the future despoilers and enslavers of Judah, serving as the tool of divine judgment (see Chapter 2). This idea is explicit in the oracle against Babylon in Isa 47. In v. 6, YHWH states about the fate of his people: “I gave them into your hand” ( ֵ‫)וַאֶ ְתּנֵם בְּ יָד‬.34 Fully deliberately, YHWH delivered his people into the despotic power of the Babylonians in order that they become slaves and captives of Babylon. In addition to these few and evident references, there seem to be more cases where un-

31

See also Jer 17:18 about the destruction of the enemies: “bring on them the day of disaster; destroy them with double destruction [‫] ִמ ְשׁנֶה ִשׁבָּ רוֹן‬.” The notion of a double punishment is also indicated by Isa 61:7 (“your shame was double”) and Isa 65:6–7 (“I will indeed repay into their laps for your iniquities and your ancestors’ iniquities together”). 32 Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 123; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 129. 33 In Isaiah, there are only 13 instances of the proper name “Babylon” (‫)בָּ בֶ ל‬, most of which are concentrated in a handful of chapters (13:1, 19; 14:4, 22; 21:9; 39:1, 3, 6, 7; 43:14; 47:1; 48:14, 20). The synonymous “Chaldea” (‫ )כּ ְַשׂ ִדּים‬occurs seven times (13:19; 23:13; 43:14; 47:1, 5; 48:14, 20). For the purpose of comparison, the Babylonians’ agency is much more abundant and explicit in Jeremiah; see my review in Poulsen, Representing Zion, 124–27. 34 YHWH’s giving of his people and their wealth into enemy hands is a common motif in Jeremiah and Ezekiel in their descriptions of the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem, for instance, in Jer 20:4–5: “And I will give all Judah into the hand of the king of Babylon; he shall carry them captive to Babylon, and shall kill them with the sword. I will give all the wealth of this city […] into the hand of their enemies, who shall plunder them, and seize them, and carry them to Babylon”; Ezek 11:9: “I will take you out of [Jerusalem] and give you over to the hands of foreigners, and execute judgments upon you.”

258

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

specified enemies or destroyers refer to the Babylonian oppressors (see my analysis of 14:2; 42:22; 51:13; 52:1 below). As we have seen in the previous chapters, political and spatial elements can easily be combined to render the experience of confinement and oppression under a foreign ruler. An excellent illustration is the description of the Babylonian king in Jer 51:34, who, as a voracious monster, swallows the people of Israel. Likewise, in Hab 2:5, the enemy’s throat is compared to that of Sheol to illustrate his greedy appetite for conquering and subjugating all nations and peoples under his power. Being inside his womb is a strong and graphic metaphor for the loss of territorial integrity and political independence. Being subject to a foreign imperial rule is really to be absorbed by that very rule. Another intriguing case which intricately intertwines political and spatial elements is Isa 49:19. The verse occurs in the divine oracle of consolation in 49:14–21 about the restoration and repopulation of Zion (see Chapter 7). There is a condensed focus on space. The desolate places of Zion shall be too crowded or too slight to house the returning people, whereas “those who devoured you will be far away” ( ִ‫)וְ ָרחֲקוּ ְמבַ לְּ ָﬠי‬. Enemies that subdued and destroyed the city – literally “swallowed” it up – will ravage no more but will instead disappear to an uncertain destination. Just as defeat and subjugation imply consumption by an enemy power, being forced away into captivity and exile in a foreign land implies entering into an alien system: the upper-class of Jerusalem descend into Sheol (Isa 5:13–14); Jonah is swallowed by the fish and is brought to a confined space at the roots of the mountains (Jonah 2:7); and Hezekiah stands at the gates of Sheol and is about to be immersed by the pit of destruction (Isa 38:10–20). As will become apparent in this section, images of imprisonment and confinement contain associations of darkness and death.35 4.2.1. Isaiah 14:1–4a: Slaves become masters ‫כִּ י יְ ַרחֵ ם יְ הוָה אֶ ת־ ַיﬠֲקֹ ב‬ ‫וּבָ חַ ר עוֹד בְּ ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫וְ הִ נִּ יחָ ם ַﬠל־אַ ְדמָ תָ ם‬ ‫וְ ִנלְ וָה הַ גֵּר ֲﬠלֵיהֶ ם‬ ‫וְ ִנסְ פְּ חוּ ַﬠל־בֵּ ית ַיﬠֲקֹ ב‬ ‫ל־מקוֹמָ ם‬ ְ ֶ‫וּלְ קָ חוּם ַﬠ ִמּים ֶוהֱבִ יאוּם א‬ ‫וְ הִ ְת ַנחֲלוּם בֵּ ית־יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫ַﬠל אַ ְדמַ ת יְ הוָה ַלﬠֲבָ ִדים וְ לִ ְשׁ ָפחוֹת‬ 35

1

But YHWH will have compassion on Jacob and will again choose Israel, and will set them in their own land; and aliens will join them and attach themselves to the house of Jacob. 2 And the nations will take them and bring them to their place, and the house of Israel will possess them as male and female slaves in the land of YHWH;

The central term ‫“( בּוֹר‬pit”) designates both a prison (e.g. Gen 41:14; Jer 37:16) and a grave (e.g. Isa 38:18; Ps 88:5).

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

‫וְ הָ יוּ שֹׁ בִ ים לְ שֹׁ בֵ יהֶ ם‬ ‫וְ ָרדוּ בְּ נֹ גְ שֵׂ יהֶ ם‬ ְ‫וְ הָ יָה בְּ יוֹם הָ נִ יחַ יְ הוָה ל‬ ‫מֵ ָﬠצְ בְּ וּמֵ ָרגְ ֶז‬ ָ‫וּמן־הָ ﬠֲבֹ דָ ה הַ קָּ שָׁ ה ֲאשֶׁ ר ﬠֻבַּ ד־בּ‬ ִ ‫וְ נָשָׂ אתָ הַ מָּ שָׁ ל הַ זֶּה ַﬠל־מֶ ֶל בָּ בֶ ל‬

259

they will take captive those who were their captors, and rule over those who oppressed them. 3 When YHWH has given you rest from your pain and turmoil the hard service with which you were made to serve, 4 you will take up this taunt against the king of Babylon…

Isaiah 14:1–4a forms the centerpiece of the composition in 13:1–14:23 about the destiny of Babylon. Two larger poems about the coming destruction of the great empire (13:2–22) and the fall of its arrogant ruler (14:4b–21) are framed and tied together by three minor units (13:1; 14:1–4a; 14:22–23). Our passage forms a transitional bridge between the two poems, spelling out the consequences of the fall of the oppressor for YHWH’s people and identifying the unnamed tyrant as the king of Babylon. The language and imagery of 14:1–4a are close to those of the latter part of the book and it is common to regard the verses to be an editorial comment from the sixth century BCE or later.36 According to Williamson, the author of Isa 40–55 composed the unit along with 13:1 and 14:22–23 to create internal links within the emerging book of Isaiah.37 Other interpreters argue that the abrupt changes and diverse images among the single verses of 14:1–4a point to a development in more stages: the third-person statements in vv. 1–2 were initially added as a concluding note to Babylon’s overthrow, whereas the second-person address in vv. 3–4a to the anonymous “you” presupposes “the house of Israel” in the preceding verses and picks up the motif of the “rest” (‫ נוח‬in Hiphil) from v. 1.38 Regardless of the number of hands that may have shaped the present text, 14:1–4a renders a unified note of hope, expressing the significance of the great reversal from past slavery and captivity to future restoration and renewed political influence. The initial ‫ כִּ י‬in v. 1 indicates a change of perspective but is open to other alternative readings. One translation of the word is “because” which suggests that the defeat of the oppressive world power will occur because of YHWH’s compassion for his people. Another possible translation is “certainly” which suggests an assurance that the present promise shall be fulfilled. A third translation is “but” which suggests a contrast between the fate of Babylon and 36 Kaiser (Jesaja 13–39, 22–23), for instance, locates the scribe being at work in the context of the litugical service in the second temple: “Seine aus dem Studium der Schrift gewonnenen Worte sollten den Hörern bei der gottesdienstlichen Verlesung des Buches die Gewißheit geben, daß die Leiden Israels in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart in eine herrliche Zukunft münden, in der es sein Spottlied über die gefallene Weltmacht anstimmen kann. ” 37 Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 165–68. 38 E.g. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 232; Wildberger, Jesaja, 506, 524–25, 536–38.

260

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

that of Israel. In all cases, the fall of Babylon implies restoration for Israel. The period of abandonment is over, for YHWH will have compassion (‫ רחם‬in Piel) on his people (cf. 54:7–10). The reference to Jacob/Israel and the motif of divine election might allude to the ancient calling of the ancestor Jacob from a distant part of the world (cf. 41:8–9; see Chapter 5). That YHWH will choose again (‫ )בחר עוֹד‬suggests a whole new beginning is possible (cf. 40:1– 2). Once again, YHWH will elect, protect, and care for his people.39 The notion of election is closely associated with resettlement of Israel in the land.40 YHWH will set them or give them rest (‫ נוח‬in Hiphil) in their own land. This promise presupposes that the people have been dislocated or driven off from their proper territory and now dwell in foreign places. Interestingly, similar phrases occur in passages dealing with Babylonian oppression. According to Jer 27:11, YHWH states, “any nation that will bring its neck under the yoke of the king of Babylon and serve him, I will leave on its own land [‫”]וְ הִ נַּחְ ִתּיו ַﬠל־אַ ְדמָ תוֹ‬. Of more relevance is YHWH’s promise in Ezek 37:14, following the spiritual rebirth of the nation, that “I will place you on your own soil” (‫)וְ הִ נַּחְ ִתּי אֶ ְתכֶם ַﬠל־אַ ְדמַ ְתכֶם‬. These parallels suggest that “land” (‫)אַדָ מָ ה‬ ְ in Isa 14:1 refers to homeland (“Heimat”) rather than to fertile soil in general.41 Nevertheless, the anticipated prosperity of the regathered people will be attractive to others. “Strangers” (‫)הַ גֵּר‬, whether we think of them as resident aliens or proselytes from the diaspora, will attach themselves to the house of Jacob to enjoy the benefits of future restoration (cf. 56:3, 6). The people are not joined to aliens anymore, but aliens shall join them. Verse 2 highlights the motif of complete reversal. Formerly, the nations brought the people into slavery far away from their own land; now, these same nations will bring the people back to their own places. The reference to “nations” (‫ – ) ַﬠ ִמּים‬1QIsaa reads “many nations” (‫ – )עמים רבים‬rather than one specific location (for instance, Babylon), renders an idea of universal scattering (see Chapter 5). The nations will not only release the people from their captivity, but will also assist them in their return by taking them back home (cf. Isa 49:22; 66:20). In fact, the nations will become their slaves. Formerly, foreign peoples possessed YHWH’s people; now, these same foreigners will become the possession of Israel. The verb ‫ נחל‬in Hitpael (“to possess”) occurs rarely. Other occurrences indicate that it is a technical legal term for ownership or bequest of property (e.g. Lev 25:46; Num 33:54).42 In light of this, the people shall take ownership of their adversaries as a form of 39 Cf. Zech 1:17: “YHWH will again comfort [‫ ]וְ ִנחַ ם‬Zion and again choose Jerusalem [‫ ;”]וּבָ חַ ר עוֹד‬2:16: “YHWH will inherit Judah as his portion in the holy land, and will again choose [‫ ]וּבָ חַ ר עוֹד‬Jerusalem.” 40 Wildberger, Jesaja, 526: “Wiedererwählung bedeutet Wiedereinsetzung in das Land.” 41 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 23. 42 Cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 24, note 10; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 310, note 3.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

261

inheritance. The foreign peoples will serve as their slaves and maids in the land of YHWH. In a sophisticated manner, the final lines of v. 2 exemplify the reversal of fate. First, the people shall take their captors captive. The verb ‫ שׁבה‬means “to take captive” or “to carry off into captivity”. It is used, for instance, in relation to women and children in the context of war (1 Sam 30:2–3). Other prophets tell that YHWH’s people “have been taken captive” (‫ ; ִנ ְשׁבָּ ה‬Jer 13:17) and “are carried captive” (‫ )נִ ְשׁבּוּ‬to the nations (Ezek 6:9). However, life in the hands of these captors is depicted differently elsewhere. Psalm 106:46, for instance, envisions that YHWH causes his people to be pitied by “all who held them captive” (‫ ; ָכּל־שׁוֹבֵ יהֶ ם‬cf. 1 Kings 8:46–50). Other texts depict the captors in a thoroughly negative view: “there our captors [‫]שׁוֹבֵ ינוּ‬ asked us for songs, and our tormentors [‫ ]תוֹ ָללֵינוּ‬asked us for mirth” (Ps 137:3), and “all their captors [‫ ] ָכל־שֹׁ בֵ יהֶ ם‬have held them fast and refuse to let them go” (Jer 50:33). The latter case introduces a proclamation of the redemptive power of YHWH who will give rest to the earth but unrest to the inhabitants of Babylon. The inversion of the people’s captivity is also found in the satirical description of the defeat of the Babylonian gods in Isa 46:1–2. Presumably facing the arrival of conquerors, the inhabitants of Babylon desperately attempt to remove their idols to prevent them from being robbed by enemies. The thought must be that taking the idols captive will be like taking the gods themselves captive.43 Nevertheless, flight is impossible and the idols are of no help. The tone is clearly ironic. Objects that were formerly carried in procession to control chaos are now heavy burdens on tired animals. 44 The gods cannot deliver or save (‫ מלט‬in Piel; see 49:24–25 below) those who carry and worship them. Just as YHWH’s people were taken captive, the Babylonian gods and their worshippers themselves “go into captivity” (‫)בַּ ְשּׁבִ י הָ ָלכָה‬. The last line of v. 2 is translated as “and rule over those who oppressed them”. Here, ‫ רדה‬literally means “to tread or trample” as one tramples on grapes in the wine press (Joel 4:13). This sense of harsh subjugation offers a better match to the other verb ‫“( נגשׂ‬to oppress”).45 In the following poem, the defeated Babylonian king is called an “oppressor” (‫ )נֹ גֵשׂ‬who has ruled cruelly with his rod (14:4–5; cf. “the rod of the oppressor” [‫ ]שֵׁ בֶ ט הַ נֹּ גֵשׂ‬in 9:3). What might be of significance is that in Exodus the plural participle form of the

43 Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 276–77; Goldingay, Message, 304: “when the image goes into exile, the deity itself does. They are one in fate.” 44 See Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 452–54. 45 Isa 14:6 portrays the arrogant tyrant of Babylon as “one who rules the nations in anger” (‫ ;) ֹרדֶ ה בָ אַ ף גּוֹ ִים‬cf. the phrase “rule with harshness” ( ‫ )רדה בְּ ָפ ֶר‬in Lev 25:43, 46, 53; Ezek 34:4. Interestingly, the verses in Lev 25 instruct the Israelites not to rule over their slaves with harshness!

262

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

verb (‫ )נֹ גְ ִשׂים‬denotes the task-masters of the Israelite workers in Egypt (Exod 3:7; 5:6, 10, 13–14).46 Just as the Israelites suffered in Egyptian slavery, Isaiah tells that they have similarly been the victims of foreign slave-drivers who have treated them harshly (see v. 3 below). But now the tables have turned. The foreign oppressors will become slaves controlled by YHWH’s people. The idea of harsh service is explicit in v. 3. The verse envisions a time (“in the day”) where YHWH will give his people rest from hard labor (cf. 40:1– 2). The motif of “rest” (‫ נוח‬in Hiphil) picks up a key word from v. 1. Rather than a resettlement of the dislocated people in their proper homeland, the term here refers to relief or rest from exploitation and slavery. Rest will come when the cruel king of Babylon has ceased to exist (cf. 14:4b–23). Verse 3 thus portrays the condition of exile in terms of physical oppression and suffering rather than geographical displacement. Three parallel terms express the harsh situation of the people. First, the people are in a state of “pain” or “hardship” (‫)עֹ צֶ ב‬. Elsewhere, the Hebrew term refers to a very concrete kind of physical pain in the context of childbirth (1 Chr 4:9; cf. Gen 3:16). Another word derived from the same root (‫ ) ֶﬠצֶ ב‬designates hard work, for instance, in Prov 14:23: “in all toil there is profit.” Moreover, in Isa 58:3, the cognate ‫ ָﬠצָּ ב‬refers to “workers”. In light of this, the term in Isa 14:2 probably refers to the effects of compulsory work. Second, the people are afflicted by “turmoil” (‫)רֹ גֶז‬. Although the term can refer to divine wrath (Hab 3:2), the sense here is rather one of anxiety or general unrest, comparable to Job 3:26: “I have no ease, I have no quietness; I cannot rest, for turmoil [‫ ]רֹ גֶז‬has come.” 47 The paradigmatic prediction of exile in Deuteronomy, which claims that the people shall one day return to the Egyptian slavery from which YHWH has just released them, envisions what such a life implies: “Among [foreign] nations you shall find no ease, no resting place [ ַ‫ ]מָ נוֹח‬for the sole of your foot. There YHWH will give you a trembling heart [‫]לֵב ַרגָּז‬, failing eyes, and a languished spirit. Your life shall hang in doubt before you; night and day you shall be in dread, with no assurance of your life” (Deut 28:65–66). Third, the people are about to be liberated from “the service with which you were made to serve.” The term ‫ ﬠְ ַבֹ דָ ה‬generally means “work” or “service,” but the context suggests that it refers to enforced servitude (cf. the sense of ‫ צָ בָ א‬in 40:2 suggested above). The adjective “hard” (‫ )קָ שֶׁ ה‬adds further support to this reading. Lamentations explicitly connects this servitude with the people’s exile: “Judah has gone into exile [‫ ]גָּלְ תָ ה‬with suffering and great servitude [‫ ;]מֵ רֹ ב ﬠֲבֹ דָ ה‬she lives now among the nations, and finds no resting place [ ַ‫( ”]מָ נוֹח‬cf. Deut 28:65). Of more significance is that the lan46 Cf. the association of ‫ נגשׂ‬and mistreatment of laborers in Isa 58:3: “you serve your own interest on your fast day, and oppress all your workers [‫]וכָל־ ַﬠצְּ בֵ יכֶם ִתּ ְנגֹּ שׂוּ‬.” 47 Wildberger, Jesaja, 538–39.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

263

guage in Isa 14:3 is very close to that of passages depicting the Egyptian captivity. Exodus 1:14 states: “[the Egyptians] were ruthless in all the tasks that they imposed on them [‫]אֵ ת ָכּל־ﬠֲבֹ דָ תָ ם ֲאשֶׁ ר־ ָﬠבְ דוּ בָ הֶ ם‬.” Exodus 6:9 even speaks about “hard labor” (‫)ﬠֲבֹ דָ ה קָ שָׁ ה‬.48 Along with the reference to “taskmasters” in the preceding verse, Isa 14:3 alludes to the brutal slavery in Egypt in order to express the current suffering of the people. In sum, the defeat of Babylon means restoration for Israel. Exile is pictured as captivity among the peoples and a grim state of hard labor and exploitation. However, the foreign nations will release the people of YHWH and serve as their slaves, while the liberated people will enjoy rest from hardship. 4.2.2. Isaiah 42:6b–7: Liberating prisoners from dark dungeons ‫וְ אֶ תֶּ נְ לִ בְ ִרית ָﬠם‬ ‫לְ אוֹר גּוֹיִ ם‬ ‫לִ פְ קֹ חַ ֵﬠי ַנ ִים ﬠִ וְ רוֹת‬ ‫לְ הוֹצִ יא ִממַּ ְסגֵּר אַ סִּ יר‬ ֶ‫ִמבֵּ ית ֶכּלֶא יֹ ְשׁבֵ י חֹ שׁ‬

6b

I will give youa as a covenant to the people, a light to the nations, 7 to open the eyes that are blind, to bring out the prisoners from the dungeon, from the prison those who sit in darkness.

a

Cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 209; Goldingay, Message, 163. The NRSV has a perfect tense, reading a consecutive form (‫) ָו‬: “I have given you…” (cf. Peshitta and Vulgate; see Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 222).

Language of imprisonment is prominent in the mission of the servant figure in Isa 42:1–9.49 In vv. 6–7, YHWH addresses his servant and appoints him to a special task. YHWH will make him into “a covenant to the people” and “a light to the nations.” The exact meaning of these ambiguous phrases has been the object of intense scholarly discussion. 50 Of relevance here is that v. 7 seems to unfold the meaning of being a covenant and a light. Translating the two infinitives in v. 7 as gerunds, that is, by opening ( ַ‫ )לִ פְ קֹ ח‬and by bringing out (‫)לְ הוֹצִ יא‬, tie them even more closely to the actions of the preceding verse.51 YHWH himself could be the subject of the infinitives, but in light of the appointment of the servant, it is more likely that this figure, acting on YHWH’s behalf, will open eyes and rescue prisoners.52 48 Cf. the reflection on past experience in Deut 26:6: “The Egyptians treated us harshly and afflicted us, by imposing hard labor [‫ ] ֲﬠ ֹבדָ ה קָ שָׁ ה‬on us.” 49 For a thorough analysis of this passage, see Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 77–117. 50 See my review in God, His Servant, and the Nations, 109–11. 51 Goldingay, Message, 165. 52 Cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 237–38: “Grammatikalisch hängen die beiden Infinitive von finiten ‫ אֶ תֶּ ְנ‬in V 6c ab, ‘ich mache dich zum…, um zu…,’ so dass der eigentliche Autor der Öffnung blinder Augen und der Herausführung aus dem Kerker JHWH ist.”

264

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

First, the servant will open (‫ )פקח‬the eyes of the blind. Blindness in Isaiah is a strong metaphor for spiritual hardening and ignorance (e.g. 6:9–10; 42:18–20; see Chapter 6). Opening blind eyes could express the idea that the servant as a light to the nations shall promote enlightenment and renewed insight to the ignorant ones.53 In light of the next few lines, however, another option is that opening blind eyes is a metaphor for the release of prisoners.54 Deliverance from prison and darkness implies that the captives can see again.55 In 61:1, the servant figure proclaims “the opening of eyes” ( ַ‫)פְּ קַ ח־קוֹח‬ to prisoners, a unique term which is juxtaposed with “emancipation” (‫)דְּ רוֹר‬ and used, for instance, in the context of releasing slaves (e.g. Jer 34:8). A similar case is found in Ps 146:7–8 which explicitly parallels the opening of eyes and the release of captives: “YHWH sets the prisoners free [ ‫מַ ִתּיר‬ ‫סוּרים‬ ִ ‫ ;] ֲא‬YHWH opens the eyes of the blind [‫]פֹּ קֵ חַ ﬠִ וְ ִרים‬.” Blindness, captivity, and darkness are thus three images of the same subject matter. Moreover, the verb “to open” could offer a subtle allusion to the opening of locked prison doors (cf. 45:1).56 Then, the servant shall bring out (‫ יצא‬in Hiphil) prisoners and those in darkness. The verb offers a link to central passages in the Pentateuch that proclaim redemption from Egyptian captivity. Several of these instances combine the verb with the phrase “out of the house of slavery” (‫)מבֵּ ית ﬠֲבָ ִדים‬, ִ for instance, in Exod 13:14: “By strength of hand YHWH brought [‫ ]הוֹצִ יאָ נוּ‬us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.”57 In Isa 42:7, two different expressions render the image of imprisonment. “The dungeon” (‫ )מַ ְסגֵּר‬literally refers to a room that has been locked (‫ סגר‬means “to shut or close”; see Isa 22:22). YHWH’s apocalyptic judgment against the host of heaven and the kings of the earth in Isa 24:22 is relevant here: “they will be shut up in a dungeon” (‫)וְ סֻגְּ רוּ ַﬠל־מַ סְ גֵּר‬. The word “prison”, or literally “house of confinement” ( ‫בֵּ ית‬ ‫) ֶכּלֶא‬, occurs a handful of times in the Old Testament, for instance, in reference to the imprisonment of political figures such as Micaiah son of Imlah (1 Kings 22:27), Hoshea of Samaria (2 Kings 17:4), and the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 37:15, 18). Interestingly, the phrase also occurs in reference to the release of King Jehoiachin from Babylonian captivity (2 Kings 25:27). 53 The Targum actually reads “to open the eyes of the house of Israel, who are blind to the law” (‫אוֹריתָ א‬ ָ ‫שׂראֵ ל דְ ִאנֻון כִ סמַ ן ִמן‬ ָ ‫)ל ַפתָ חָ א ֵﬠינֵי בֵ ית ִי‬. 54 Drawing on Akkadian material, Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 190, 539) argues that opening blind eyes here is a metaphor for freeing captives. 55 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 236; Goldingay, Message, 165: “The darkness of prison means that release into light is like the restoring of sight.” 56 Admittedly, the verb ‫ פקח‬is only used about the opening of eyes and ears, whereas the synonymous verb ‫ פתח‬is used about the opening of doors, gates, windows, and even graves (e.g. 1 Sam 3:15; Ezek 37:12–13). 57 See also Exod 20:2; Deut 5:6; 6:12; 7:8; 8:14; 13:11; Judg 6:8; Jer 34:12; cf. the review in Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 140.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

265

Two expressions designate the group of people that the servant shall release from captivity. They are “prisoner(s)” (‫ )אַ ִסּיר‬and “those who sit in darkness” ( ֶ‫)יֹ ְשׁבֵ י חֹ שׁ‬. The first term and the cognate word ‫ אָ סִ יר‬along with participle forms of their common root “to tie, fetter” (‫ )אסר‬denote captives, for instance, Joseph (Gen 39:22) and King Jehoiachin (1 Chr 3:17). Darkness can refer to general distress or suffering under the judgment of God (Isa 8:21–9:1), but in a narrower sense it can serve as an image of imprisonment. In Ps 107:10, for example, darkness and prisoners are spoken about in the same sentence: “Some sat in darkness [ ֶ‫ ]יֹ ְשׁבֵ י חֹ שׁ‬and gloom, prisoners [‫ירי‬ ֵ ‫] ֲא ִס‬ in misery and in irons.” The pairing of these groups reappears in the servant’s mission in Isa 49:9. YHWH will say to the prisoners (‫ַסוּרים‬ ִ ‫)א‬, ְ “come out” (‫)צֵ אוּ‬, and to those in darkness ( ֶ‫)בַּ חֹ שׁ‬, “show yourselves” (‫)הִ גָּלוּ‬. The latter command offers a subtle play on the term of ‫גלה‬: the exiles are urged to reveal themselves by coming out of their dark and dim prisons. Nevertheless, in Isa 42:7 it is far from certain whom these prisoners in darkness are. Much depends on the interpretation of the anonymous servant figure. If we identify him as an individual such as the Persian king, Cyrus, or as the Messiah or the prophet, as scholars have frequently proposed, those in imprisonment could be Israel in Babylonian captivity.58 But if we interpret the servant figure as the people of Israel or as YHWH’s vision of what he wants his people to be like (as more and more interpreters seem to do),59 the prisoners are rather the nations at large that suffer from brutal oppression by the Babylonians (cf. the portrait of the cruel ruler of Babylon in 14:17: “he did not let his prisoners [‫יריו‬ ָ ‫ ]א ֲִס‬go home”). Accordingly, the people of Israel as the divinely designated light will mediate salvation to a worldwide audience, bringing deliverance to others. Scholars who opt for this interpretation tend to re-define the sense of captivity. Smart interprets the verse figuratively: blindness and imprisonment represent “the condition of men who are without God.” 60 Westermann takes the verse to denote human suffering in

58 E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 209–12; Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 236. Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 190), who takes YHWH to be the subject of the verbs in v. 7, interprets the verse as a description of the Babylonian exile: “God […] will now release His loyal subjects from their servitude in Babylonia.” 59 E.g. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 225; Childs, Isaiah, 325; Goldingay, Message, 153–54; Smart, History and Theology, 79. Cf. my own conclusion in God, His Servant, and the Nations, 221–22: “What we thus encounter [in Isa 42:1–9] is a divine vision of the Israel who YHWH wants his people to be: chosen, spirit-filled, and a source of delight, faithfully bringing forth justice and teaching to the nations and as a light extending divine enlightenment and redemption to all in darkness.” 60 Smart, History and Theology, 87.

266

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

general.61 In favor of this claim is the elaboration on the figure of imprisonment in Isa 61:1–3. According to this passage, the state of captivity is only one among multiple forms of suffering, including oppression, despair, mourning, and a faint spirit.62 In sum, imprisonment in darkness in Isa 42:7 can be read as a spatial image of the people’s exile. To be in exile is to be inside a room that has been closed up. There is no light and no opportunity to escape from it. The only thing one can do is to hope to be released from it from a power or agent outside of it. However, taking Israel to be the servant who shall perform this task weakens the impulse for reading the verse as the imprisonment of YHWH’s people under Babylonian rule. 4.2.3. Isaiah 42:22: A people robbed and trapped in holes ‫וְ הוּא ַﬠם־בָּ זוּז וְ שָׁ סוּי‬ ‫חוּרים ֻכּלָּם‬ ִ ַ‫ בּ‬a ַ‫הָ ֵפח‬ ‫וּבְ בָ תֵּ י כְ ל ִָאים הָ חְ בָּ אוּ‬ ‫הָ יוּ לָבַ ז וְ אֵ ין מַ צִּ יל‬ ‫ְמ ִשׁסָּ ה וְ אֵ ין־אֹ מֵ ר הָ שַׁ ב‬

But this is a people robbed and plundered, all of them are trapped in holes and hidden in prisons; they have become a prey with no one to rescue, a spoil with no one to say, “Restore!”

a

In the MT, the verb is in Hiphil, but most interpreters either take it to have a passive meaning or emend it to a Hophal form (e.g. ‫ ; ֻה ַפחוּ‬cf. the footnote in BHS).

Isaiah 42:22 portrays the depressing condition of YHWH’s people. The verse appears in the middle of 42:18–25 which generally focuses on the people’s lack of perception: they are blind, deaf, and unable to understand what is going on.63 Verse 21 presents YHWH’s vision of what he wanted his people to be like: faithful servants revealing his greatness and wisdom to the world. The adversative “but this is a people” at the opening of v. 22 suggests that their actual state is far from this divine vision. They are powerless, enslaved, and hidden away in captivity. “This is a people” (‫)הוּא ַﬠם‬, which refers to the people of YHWH, introduces a tone of alienation and distance close to that found in Isa 6:9. Initially, two passive verbs describe the present state of the people: they are “robbed” (‫ )בזז‬and “plundered” (‫)שׁסה‬. Furthermore, the derived noun forms of the verbs appear at the end of the verse depicting them as “a prey” (‫ )בָּ ז‬and “a spoil” (‫)מ ִשׁסָּ ה‬. ְ Both terms are typical in the context of war and conquest (e.g. 61 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 100: “At all events, the reference is not specifically to the blindness of Israel […] nor is it to the fact of exile, which the words used here could have meant.” 62 For recent discussions of the metaphor of imprisonment in Isa 61:1–3 and the developing idea of a state of exile that endures, see Gregory, “Postexilic Exile”; HalvorsonTaylor, Enduring Exile, 138–45. 63 See my analysis of Isa 42:18–25 in Chapter 6.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

267

Jos 11:14; Judg 2:14, 16; Ezek 38:12–13). An enemy superior to the people has attacked them, despoiled them, and confined them. The enemies have humiliated them and treated them like simple spoil. An implication of this imagery is that the people are viewed as a powerless group or as material goods. They are weak and vulnerable like women and children, and have been captured and made into prey (Gen 34:29; Deut 20:14). They are also reduced to material objects such as garments and vessels (1 Chr 20:25) or working animals (Num 31:9). The people have experienced the dehumanizing nature of exile by losing their personal integrity and identity.64 In Isaiah, the motif of plundering is elsewhere applied to the Assyrian king in the role as YHWH’s punishing agent: “Against a godless nation I send him, and against the people of my wrath [‫ ] ַﬠם ֶﬠבְ ָר ִתי‬I command him, to take spoil and seize plunder [‫( ”]וְ לָבֹ ז בַּ ז‬10:6). Subsequently, the foreign king boasts: “I have plundered [‫ ]שׁוֹשֵׂ ִתי‬their treasures” (10:13). In light of this, the situation in Isa 42:22 can be read as a reflection of former threats that have now materialized. 65 According to 2 Kings, plundering by foreigners is the first sign of divine rejection of the Northern Kingdom: “YHWH rejected all the descendants of Israel; he punished them and gave them into the hands of plunderers [‫]בְּ יַד־שֹׁ ִסים‬, until he banished them from his presence” (2 Kings 17:20). The same is the case in YHWH’s pronouncement of his judgment against Judah because of Manasseh’s sins: “I will cast off the remnant of my heritage […] they shall become a prey and a spoil [‫ ]לְ בַ ז וְ לִ ְמ ִשׁסָּ ה‬to all their enemies” (2 Kings 21:14). Similar language occurs in Jeremiah and Ezekiel: “I will give all the wealth of [Jerusalem], all its gains, all its prized belongings, and all the treasures of the kings of Judah into the hand of their enemies, who shall plunder them [‫]וּבְ זָזוּם‬, and seize them, and carry them to Babylon” (Jer 20:5), and “I will hand [the sanctuary] over to strangers as booty [‫]לָבַ ז‬, to the wicked of the earth as plunder; they shall profane it” (Ezek 7:21; cf. 34:28; 36:4). However, like the reversal of fate found in Isa 14:1–4a, Jeremiah contains a strong promise of what YHWH will do to those who plunder and despoil his people: “those who plunder you shall be plundered [‫]לִ ְמ ִשׁסָּ ה‬, and all who prey on you I will make a prey [‫( ”]וְ ָכל־בֹּ ְזזַיִ אֶ תֵּ ן לָבַ ז‬Jer 30:16; cf. Isa 17:14). The references to entrapment and imprisonment in Isa 42:22 further exemplify the manner in which the enemies have treated the people as prey and spoil.66 The entire people – “all of them” (‫ – ) ֻכּלָּם‬are ensnared in holes. The verb “to capture, ensnare” (‫ )פחח‬is a hapax legomenon. The noun “snare” (‫) ַפּח‬, which derives from the same root, occurs more frequently. Interestingly, 64

Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 130–31. Cf. Ps 44:10–11: “Yet you have rejected us and abased us […] and our enemies have plundered [‫ ]שָׁ סוּ‬for themselves.” 66 Goldingay, Message, 182. 65

268

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

this latter term often refers more specifically to a bird trap (e.g. Ps 124:7; Amos 3:5). Accordingly, the people are treated like birds or animals that have been trapped, perhaps for entertainment or food. 67 The image of the snare further points to the life-threatening dangers of being trapped expressed in, for example, Prov 7:23: “He is like a bird rushing into a snare, not knowing that it will cost him his life” (see my analysis of 51:14 below). The people have been confined to “holes” (‫)חוּרים‬, ִ suggesting confined dark and damp spaces in the ground or in the rocks. Elsewhere, such holes designate hidden places in the context of war (1 Sam 14:11) or refuges for those who have been banished from society (Job 30:6). The juxtaposition with “prisons” in the next line, however, indicates that the holes here are thought to be a kind of storage where the enemies keep the people firmly secure. The enemies are like wild animals that hunt the people as prey and bring them to their dens (cf. Nah 2:13: “[the lion] has filled his caves [‫ ]חֹ ָריו‬with prey”). Moreover, the people are hidden in prisons. The verb “to hide” (‫ )חבא‬mostly occurs in the context of hiding from enemies or dangers. The first humans, for example, hide from God because of their nakedness (Gen 3:8, 10) and other individuals and groups are said to hide or to be hidden in order to avoid persecution and death (e.g. 1 Sam 13:6; 1 Kings 18:4; 2 Kings 11:3). The Hophal form which only occurs in Isa 42:22 implies that enemies have hidden the people in confinement. Here, the hiding might rather suggest storing or keeping them for later use or amusement. Along with the dark and claustrophobic “holes” in the preceding line, the term renders an image of deep isolation and discouragement. The people have been removed from common life to a restrained life in confinement. They have been forced into “prisons” or, literally, “houses of imprisonment” (‫ ;בָּ תֵּ י כְ ל ִָאים‬cf. 42:7 above). The plural form underlines that everyone among the people is included (cf. ‫) ֻכּלָּם‬. There is no light and no one to deliver them. As was the case with Isa 42:7, the nature of the imprisonment imagery in 42:22 is an object of scholarly discussion. Some take it literally as being about the people’s condition in Babylon,68 in Palestine,69 or both.70 Claiming that this scenario does not correspond to the actual conditions of the exiles in Babylon, others argue that it is a rhetorical exaggeration or a reflection of a 67

Goldingay, Message, 182. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 201: “the present tortuous situation of Israel in Babylonia.” 69 Smart, History and Theology, 93–94: “The images used would apply best perhaps to conditions in Palestine in the sixth century […] not too long after the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple.” Nevertheless, Smart restrains from drawing certain conclusions: “How much is literal description and how much merely figurative of a people that has lost its national existence and leads an uneasy and uncertain existence both in Palestine and in foreign lands is difficult to determine.” 70 Grimm and Dittert, Deuterojesaja, 157: “die ‘Ausraubung’ [triff] eher die in Jerusalem verbliebene Bevölkerung, das ‘Gefängnis’ die nach Babylon Deportierten.” 68

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

269

public taunt.71 Again, others interpret the verse figuratively, either as an image of a caravan that has been waylaid on its journey, robbed, and its people left in holes (cf. Joseph in Gen 37),72 or as a general figure for despair and vulnerability in the context of lamentation.73 Westermann has even proposed that the words of Isa 42:22 resemble a public lament; the prophet adopted it, changed its verbal forms from the first to the third person, and used it to express the skeptical opinion of the people that he was trying to contradict.74 Although Westermann’s claim about the literary reworking of an actual voiced lament is impossible to prove, his idea that the words form a kind of echo of the people’s attitude is productive. What we thus encounter in Isa 42:22 is the blind and deaf people’s perception of their own situation. They interpret their subjection to the Babylonian rule, whether in Babylon or in Palestine, by means of certain images, including humiliating despoilment and cruel imprisonment.75 The dire and desperate statement at the end of the verse fits perfectly into this interpretative framework. According to the people themselves, there is no “deliverer” (‫ )מַ צִּ יל‬and there is no one to say “restore” or “give [the spoil] back” (‫)הָ שַׁ ב‬. All hope is gone. As noted, the prophet’s true intention is to challenge this bleak and hopeless belief by proclaiming the power of YHWH to redeem. This is done, for instance, in the following oracle in 43:1–7 (see below). A further illustration is found at 49:24–26 which also challenges the people’s wrong opinion. Although there are no linguistic overlaps, this passage is close to Isa 42:22 in terms of content. Initially, a rhetorical question echoes doubts about YHWH’s ability to save: “Can the prey be taken from the mighty, or the captives of a tyrant76 be rescued?” As in 14:2 and 42:22, the verse describes the people as “prey” ( ַ‫ )מַ לְ קוֹח‬77 and “captives” (‫)שׁבִ י‬. ְ Although YHWH is occasionally compared to “a dread warrior” (‫ ;גִ בּוֹר ָﬠ ִריץ‬Jer 20:11), it makes better sense here to interpret the unidentified tyrant as a foreign oppressive power, likely Babylon (cf. Isa 13:11). The robbed and captive people are those sub71 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 265; Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 289; Terblanche, “Exile as Imprisonment,” 487. 72 Goldingay, Message, 182, picking up a reading by Paul Volz and James Muilenburg. 73 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 112: “To take this language of the psalms of lamentation as applying literally in every term to Israel’s situation in Deutero-Isaiah’s time would be misconceiving it.” 74 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 112. 75 Cf. Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 130–32. 76 The MT has “a righteous person” or “victor” (‫)צַ דִּ יק‬, which is maintained, for instance, by Goldingay (Message, 392) and Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 342). Most interpreters, however, substitute it with “tyrant” (‫ ) ָﬠ ִריץ‬in light of v. 25 and in light of some of the ancient versions (1QIsaa, Peshitta, and Vulgate). 77 Apart from Isa 49:24–25, ַ‫ מַ לְ קוֹח‬occurs only in Num 31:11–12, 26–27, 32 where it is used about war-booty consisting of men and beasts.

270

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

ject to Babylonian imperial rule whether they are residents in Babylon or Palestine.78 Verse 25 counters the people’s doubt about the possibility that they may be delivered from this rule. Indeed, YHWH can and will break the power of the ruthless oppressor: “I will contend with those who contend with you, and I will save your children.” The repetition of the divine “I” (‫ )אָ נֹ כִ י‬adds emphasis to YHWH’s promise. Verse 26 offers a reversal of fortune akin to that in 14:2: the oppressors shall eat their own flesh and drink their own blood. God shall show himself to the world as the savior (‫)מוֹשׁי ַﬠ‬ ִ and redeemer (‫ )גֹּ אֵ ל‬of his people. 4.2.4. Isaiah 51:13b–14: Fear of the oppressive tyrant ‫ו ְַתּ ַפחֵ ד תָּ ִמיד ָכּל־הַ יֹּ ום‬ ‫ִמפְּ נֵי חֲמַ ת הַ מֵּ צִ יק‬ ‫ כֹּ ונֵן לְ הַ ְשׁחִ ית‬a‫ַכּ ֲאשֶׁ ר‬ ‫וְ אַ יֵּה חֲמַ ת הַ מֵּ צִ יק‬ ַ‫ִמהַ ר צֹ ֶﬠה לְ הִ ָפּתֵ ח‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא־יָמוּת לַשַּׁ חַ ת‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא יֶחְ סַ ר לַחְ מֹ ו‬

13b

Your fear continually all day long because of the fury of the oppressor who is bent on destruction. But where is the fury of the oppressor? 14 The oppressed shall speedily be released; they shall not die and go down to the Pit, nor shall they lack bread.

The association of life in exile with the life-threatening dangers of being trapped and confined is worked out further in Isa 51:12–16. Responding to the anxiety of his people and their call for redemption in 51:9–11, YHWH points to his renewed presence and power to deliver. The tone is urgent and passionate. According to vv. 13–14, there is no reason to fear; the time of oppression and destruction is over (cf. 40:1–2). Those who are bent down or fettered will soon be released and escape their lethal destiny. Although the language of imprisonment here can apply to general types of suffering, there are good reasons to believe that the imagery refers to the (real or assumed) situation of those who have been subjugated to Babylonian control and made slaves and captives.79 By introducing the image of the grave, vv. 13–14 explicitly associate life in exile with a state or condition that can potentially lead to death. Fear of the oppressor’s fury dominates the situation of those whom YHWH addresses. The rare Piel form of the verb “to fear” (‫ )פחר‬underlines the intensity and persistency of their state. They tremble in fear. They are anxious about what will happen “continually all day long” (‫)תָּ ִמיד ָכּל־הַ יֹּ ום‬. The exact same phrase occurs in Isa 52:5 about the continuous mockery of YHWH’s 78

Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 315. Goldingay, Message, 437; cf. Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 134: “[vv. 13–14] may be read as a metaphor for a physical return from exile, which is likened to a release from captivity.” 79

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

271

name because of the suppression and lamentation of his exiled people (see below). The anxiety here probably reflects a similar situation of defeat and exile. The people are afraid of their oppressor’s rage (‫)חֲמַ ת הַ מֵּ צִ יק‬. “Oppressor” is a participle of the verb “to oppress” (‫)צוק‬. Although the term can refer to compulsion or emotional pressure to make someone act (Judg 14:17; 16:16; Job 32:18), the sense here is rather subjection and physical control. What might be of significance is that the paradigmatic prediction of defeat and exile in Deuteronomy uses this term about enemies that shall besiege, constrict, and oppress the people (Deut 28:53, 55, 57; cf. the reflection of it in Jer 19:9). The fear of this enemy has become real. In light of Isa 29:2, the reference could be to YHWH (“I will distress [‫יקוֹתי‬ ִ ִ‫ ] ַוהֲצ‬Ariel”). Certainly, the people have experienced his wrath in full (e.g. 42:25; 51:17–23; see Chapter 1). Nevertheless, the mentioning of humans and “mere mortals” in the preceding verse suggests that the oppressor in 51:13 has a human identity (although he could be an agent of divine judgment; cf. 29:7). It is possible to understand the singular form collectively as “oppressors,”80 but in light of the tyrant in 49:24–25, I believe we encounter the image of a specific brutal and ruthless individual akin to the Babylonian king in 14:4b–23. His dedication and preparedness to crush are outstanding. He is bent on destruction. The verb “to destroy” (‫ שׁחת‬in Hiphil) is used about the forceful demolition of houses, walls, cities, and even entire countries (e.g. 14:20; 36:10). Regardless of the exact nature and identity of this oppressive figure, whether a historical individual or a literary trope, the point is that there is no need to fear him and his ravage.81 His power is broken. Verse 14 envisions the implications of the fall of the tyrant. The oppressed shall be speedily released or, literally, “one cowering is hastening to be released” ( ַ‫)מהַ ר צֹ ֶﬠה לְ הִ ָפּתֵ ח‬. ִ Determining the exact sense of the important word ‫צֹ ֶﬠה‬, however, is not without difficulties. 82 In addition to this instance, the root occurs only four times, presumably in the sense of cowering, bowing down, or tipping things. In Jer 2:20, the people who have refused to serve YHWH are said “to lay or crouch down” in illegitimate places in the same way as a whore. In the oracle against Moab in Jer 48:12, the term occurs both in Qal and Piel about tipping a bottle of wine as an image of judgment: “I 80

Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 330. Goldingay, Message, 438: “the text’s lack of specificity must be acknowledged. The distresser’s identity is not the point.” 82 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 330: “the translation is speculative”; HalvorsonTaylor, Enduring Exile, 134–35, note 64. In a highly questionable interpretative move, Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 373–74) transposes the order of letters and reads ‫“( הָ ֵﬠץ‬tree”). Drawing on the imagery of Jer 11:19–21, where the inhabitants of Anathoth seek to uproot the prophet Jeremiah like they would a tree, Paul proposes the following translation of Isa 51:14: “Quickly the tree blooms; it is not cut down and slain and its fruit will not fail.” 81

272

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

shall send to him decanters to decant him [‫]צֹ ﬠִ ים וְ צֵ ﬠֻהוּ‬.”83 Finally, in Isa 63:1, it seems to mean “to press forward” in a determined return from successful battle.84 In the case of Isa 51:14, however, it is of relevance that the verb “to open” (‫ )פתח‬is used elsewhere about the release from captivity (e.g. 14:17; 52:2). The Niphal form as used here occurs in a similar sense in Job 12:14 about the power of God’s will: “if he shuts someone in, no one can open up” ( ַ‫ל־אישׁ וְ ל ֹא יִ ָפּתֵ ח‬ ִ ‫) ִיסְ גֹּ ר ַﬠ‬. In light of this, it seems plausible to assume that ‫צֹ ֶﬠה‬ refers to one who is cowering in chains or in prison. Smart suggests spiritual suffering in terms of fear,85 but a more literal reference to cowering captives seems more appropriate. Two additional clauses unfold what the release from the tyrant implies: deliverance from death and provision of daily needs. “Bread” (‫ )לֶחֶ ם‬in the final line is likely a broader reference to all that sustains life. Of more significance is the explicit association of imprisonment and death. Literally, the first clause states: “he shall not die to the pit” (‫)וְ ל ֹא־יָמוּת לַשַּׁ חַ ת‬. An interpretation could be that the captive shall not die in prison, taking the “pit” (‫ )שַׁ חַ ת‬to be an image of entrapment or imprisonment (cf. Ps 9:16: “the nations fell into the pit they had made”). Life in prison was not safe and a possible outcome could be death. A couple of psalms juxtapose prisoners with those destined to die (Ps 79:11; 102:20–21). Nevertheless, the preposition ְ‫“( ל‬to” or “for”) here suggests that the pit is a destiny after death. 86 The NRSV opts for this interpretation by adding the words “go down.” Furthermore, more than half of the instances of ‫ שַׁ חַ ת‬refer to the grave or underworld rather than to a physical pit.87 An explicit association of the pit and the realm of death is made in Ps 16:10 and Ezek 28:8. The idea of Sheol as a kind of eternal prison that one cannot escape is prominent in the opening of Hezekiah’s prayer (Isa 38:10; see Chapter 3). Hezekiah was spared from this “pit of annihilation” (‫ ;שַׁ חַ ת בְּ לִ י‬38:17), however, just as the prophet Jonah experienced deliverance from it (Jonah 2:7). In Isa 51:14, the juxtaposition of the tyrant devoted to destroy (‫)לְ הַ ְשׁחִ ית‬ and the place of spoiling (‫ )שַׁ חַ ת‬as a possible destiny of the captives suggests a subtle play. To enter into the realm of death where the body rots corresponds to the threat of being fully absorbed by the power of the tyrant. The image of the cruel and desirous tyrant is thus not far from that of the Babylonian ruler in Jer 51:34, who, like a monster, swallows up Israel (cf. Sheol in Isa 5:14).

83 This is actually an amazing image of deportation and exile: the vessels (the cities of Moab) are emptied of their wine (the people of Moab)! 84 It is common, however, to emend ‫ ֹצ ֶﬠה‬in this verse to ‫“( ֹצ ֵﬠד‬striding or marching”); cf. footnote in BHS and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 246. 85 Smart, History and Theology, 183: “the fearful who are ‘bowed down’ by their fears.” 86 Goldingay, Message, 438. 87 See the review in Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 84.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

273

Again, the point is that the people will not fear for their life. The tyrant is defeated and soon those who have been controlled by his power will be released. 4.2.5. Isaiah 52:1–6: The bonds of slavery shall be loosened ‫עוּרי ע ִוּרי לִ בְ ִשׁי ֻﬠ ֵזּ צִ יֹּ ון‬ ִ ‫לִ בְ ִשׁי בִּ גְ דֵ י ִתפְ אַ ְרתֵּ ְירוּשָׁ ַל ִם ִ ֣ﬠ יר‬ ‫הַ קֹּ דֶ שׁ‬ ‫וסיף יָב ֹא־בָ עֹ וד ָﬠ ֵרל‬ ִ ֹ‫כִּ י ל ֹא י‬ ‫וְ טָ מֵ א‬ ‫ ְי ֽרוּשָׁ ָל ִם‬a‫קוּמי ְשּׁבִ י‬ ִ ‫הִ ְת ַנﬠ ֲִרי מֵ ָﬠ ָפר‬ ‫ָאר ְשׁבִ ָיּה בַּ ת־‬ ֵ ‫ מֹ וסְ ֵרי צַ וּ‬b‫הִ ְת ַפּ ְתּחוּ‬ ‫צִ יֹּ ון‬ ‫כִּ י־כֹ ה אָ מַ ר יְ ה ָוה‬ ‫חִ ָנּם נִ ְמכּ ְַרתֶּ ם וְ ל ֹא בְ כֶסֶ ף ִתּגָּאֵ לוּ‬ ‫כִּ י כֹ ה אָ מַ ר ֲאדֹ נָי יְ הוִ ה‬ ‫ִמצְ ַר ִים י ַָרד־ ַﬠ ִמּי בָ ִראשֹׁ נָה לָגוּר‬ ‫שָׁ ם‬ ‫וְ אַ שּׁוּר בְּ אֶ ֶפס ﬠֲשָׁ קֹ ו‬ ‫וְ ַﬠתָּ ה מַ י־לִּ י פֹ ה נְ ֻאם־יְ ה ָוה‬ ‫כִּ י־לֻקַּ ח ַﬠ ִמּי חִ ָנּם‬ ‫ ְנ ֻאם־יְ ה ָוה‬c‫מֹ ְשׁ ו יְ הֵ ילִ ילוּ‬ ‫וְ תָ ִמיד ָכּל־הַ יֹּ ום ְשׁ ִמי ִמנֹּ אָ ץ‬ ‫ָלכֵן יֵדַ ע ַﬠ ִמּי ְשׁ ִמי‬ ‫ָלכֵן בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬ ‫כִּ י־ ֲאנִ י־הוּא הַ ְמדַ בֵּ ר הִ ֵנּנִ י‬

1

Awake, awake, put on your strength, O Zion! Put on your beautiful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy city; for the uncircumcised and the unclean shall enter you no more. 2 Shake yourself from the dust, rise up, O captive Jerusalem; loose the bonds from your neck, O captive daughter Zion! 3

For thus says YHWH: You were sold for nothing, and you shall be redeemed without money. 4 For thus says the Lord YHWH: Long ago, my people went down into Egypt to reside there as aliens; the Assyrian, too, has oppressed them without cause. 5 Now therefore what am I doing here, says YHWH, seeing that my people are taken away without cause? Their rulers howl, says YHWH, and continually, all day long, my name is despised. 6 Therefore my people shall know my name; Therefore in that day they shall know that it is I who speak; here am I.

a

The form of the word suggests a play between the verb “sit” and the noun “captive” (see the exegesis of the verse). b The Ketib of the MT has a third person plural form (‫)הִ ְת ַפּ ְתּחוּ‬, assuming either unidentified agents (“they shall loose”; Goldingay, Message, 448) or the bonds themselves (“the bonds of your neck were loosed”; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 386) to be the subject of the verb. Many interpreters and modern translations, however, adopt the Qere reading of a second person singular (‫)הִ ְת ַפּ ְתּחִ י‬. c The meaning of this word is ambiguous (see the exegesis of the verse).

Isaiah 52:1–6 contains strong urges to Jerusalem to grasp freedom from foreign occupation and offers a reflection on the history of YHWH’s people under the oppression of the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian empires. Along with the harsh description of past judgment in 51:17–23, the passage

274

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

forms the center of a larger literary composition in Isa 51:9–52:12 about the restoration of Jerusalem which is framed by references to the return of the exiles (51:9–11; 52:11–12) and to the creative and redemptive power of YHWH (51:12–16; 52:7–10).88 The humiliation and abasement of Zion have ended; now, her splendor and freedom shall be restored. Frequent repetitions of words and subtle plays on the meaning of single terms suggest that vv. 1–6 constitute a unified composition. Nevertheless, its structure may be more reflective of the stages of textual growth.89 Verses 1–2 admonish Jerusalem to rise from her state of bondage; v. 3 comments on the reversal of the fate of the city and its inhabitants; vv. 4–5 summarize the past and present afflictions of YHWH’s people; and v. 6 points to a prosperous future. The repetition of the introductory command “awake” (‫)עוּרי‬ ִ follows the pattern of the larger composition (51:9, 12, 17; 52:11). Initially, the call to awake or to get up draws from the imagery of the preceding passage. In 51:17–23, the outburst of divine anger against Jerusalem is described by means of a cup of wrath that has brought the city and its inhabitant into a state of drunkenness and unconsciousness (see Chapter 1). Now the city shall awake from the slumber of judgment. The dense listing of imperatives in vv. 1–2 points to the imminence and intensity of the coming salvation. The comparison of Jerusalem with a woman is explicit: she will put on her strength or splendor (‫ ;עֹ ז‬the LXX has δόξα) and her beautiful or mighty garments (‫)בִּ גְ דֵ י ִתפְ אֶ ֶרת‬. The reversal of fortunate is notable because it mirrors the abasement of Lady Babylon in Isa 47 (see Chapter 7). Jerusalem will dress herself up in an attractive manner, rise from the dust, and be freed from captivity. Again, she is to be addressed as “the holy city” because no more shall “the uncircumcised” (‫ )ﬠ ֵָרל‬and “the unclean” (‫ )טָ מֵ א‬enter into the city.90 It is not clear whether these terms denote wicked individuals inside of the community or foreigners outside of it. As we may recall, the prophet Isaiah laments that he dwells among “a people of unclean lips” (‫ ; ַﬠם־טְ מֵ א ְשׂ ָפתַ יִ ם‬6:5). Since the pairing of the two terms suggests a distinct group, the referent could be the enemies who invaded Jerusalem.91 Psalm 79:1 laments: “O God, the nations have come into your inheritance; they have defiled [‫ ]טִ ְמּאוּ‬your holy temple; they have laid Jerusalem in ruins.” Casting Jerusalem as a victim of sexual violence, Lam 1:10 states: “she has even seen the nations invade her sanctuary, those whom you forbade to enter your congregation.” In light of 88

Cf. Poulsen, “Eksodusbegivenheden,” 97–99. E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 340; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 246–48. Plausibly, vv. 4–6 form a marginal gloss which picks up and reflects on the key motif “for nothing” (‫ )חִ נָּם‬in v. 3. 90 For the internal discussion of foreigners’ access to the restored temple in the postexilic period reflected in Isa 56:1–8, Ezek 44:4–9, and Zech 14:21, see Poulsen, Representing Zion, 174–76. 91 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 247. 89

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

275

the allusions to the fall of Babylon in Isa 47, we might take the uncircumcised and unclean in 52:1–2 to denote the Babylonian invaders that conquered, occupied, and exploited Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the period of servitude is over; never again will enemies invade and humiliate the city of God (cf. Joel 4:17: “Jerusalem shall be holy, and strangers shall never again pass through it”). In v. 2, Jerusalem is urged to shake herself free from the dust and rise up. The basic meaning of ‫ נער‬is “to shake” as when trees shake off their leaves (Isa 33:9). The Hitpael form suggests an intense and persistent attempt to liberate oneself from an oppressive power (cf. the Niphal form when Samson intends to shake himself free of the Philistines in Judg 16:20). The word ‫ָﬠפָר‬ (“dust”) has a very broad semantic range and may stand for suffering and humiliation in general. It is the condition of the poor from which YHWH will raise them (1 Sam 2:8). Leading up to the final verse of Isa 51, Jerusalem had become completely abased, like a street that her tormentors could walk on. The call to rise up offers another sign of the imminent reversal of fate. Insofar as “dust” also stands for the grave (e.g. Isa 26:19; Ps 22:16, 30), the call might imply a rise from a state of spiritual bondage and death to renewed life and liberation. Alternatively, the call to rise is to be linked with the following and ambiguous word ‫שּׁבִ י‬. ְ 92 In line with the preceding verbs, some interpreters take it to be a feminine imperative singular of ‫“( ישׁב‬to sit”). Accordingly, Jerusalem is urged to rise up and sit, that is, to sit enthroned or to ascend the throne.93 Other interpreters argue that the word is a masculine noun denoting captivity or captives (cf. 46:2; 49:24–25 above). Accordingly, “captive Jerusalem” ( ‫ְשּׁבִ י‬ ‫ ) ְירוּשָׁ לָם‬offers a fine parallel to “captive daughter Zion” (‫)שׁבִ יָּה בַּ ת־צִ יּוֹן‬ ְ given in the next line.94 The combination of the masculine and feminine also occurs in Jer 48:46 in the punishment of Moab: “your sons have been taken captive [‫]בַּ שֶּׁ בִ י‬, and your daughters into captivity [‫]בַּ ִשּׁבְ יָה‬.” In any case, language of slavery and captivity dominates the latter half of v. 2. Either the (Babylonian) enemy or the city itself is urged to loosen the bonds of confinement. As was the case with the initial verb of the verse, the unique Hitpael form of ‫“( פתח‬to open”) suggests intensity and determination in the effort to be released from subjection. “Bonds” (‫ מוֹסֵ ר‬of the root ‫ ;אסר‬cf. 42:7 above) could refer to a prisoner’s chains and further explains what it means to sit in the dust. Other occurrences of the term, however, point to 92

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 386. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 338–39; Childs, Isaiah, 399; Goldingay, Message, 448. Cf. the adding of a waw in 1QIsaa to align the imperatives (‫ )קומי ושבי‬and the rendering of the verse in the LXX, the Vulgate, and the Targum. 94 In accordance with this reading, it has been proposed to emend ‫ ְשּׁבִ י‬to ‫שׁבִ יָּה‬. ְ See the footnote in BHS and Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 247. 93

276

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

forced labor. This is explicit in the people’s refusal to obey YHWH in Jer 2:20: “For long ago you broke your yoke [ ‫ ] ֻﬠ ֵלּ‬and burst your bonds [ ִ‫]מוֹסְ רֹ תַ י‬, and you said, ‘I will not serve!’” Unlike the case in Isaiah, however, the breaking of bonds can be a sign of rebellion (cf. Ps 2:3). The notion of “neck” (‫ )צַ וָּאר‬is interesting because the term often shows up in connection with the yoke as an image of political servitude under foreign masters. Deuteronomy 28:48 anticipates the people’s slavery under its enemies. It states that they will serve those enemies sent from the Lord, and that he will put an iron yoke on their necks until they have been destroyed. In Jer 29:2, YHWH commands the prophet Jeremiah to make bonds and yokes and carry them on his neck as a symbol of future servitude under the king of Babylon. Now this state of indentured service is over, so Isa 52:2 proclaims, and the bonds shall be loosened. Compare this with YHWH’s statement in Jer 30:8: “I will break the yoke from his neck, and I will burst his bonds, and strangers shall no more make a servant of him” (see also Ps 107:14; 116:16; Nah 1:13). The city is addressed as “O captive daughter Zion.” Westermann claims that “captive” (‫)שׁבִ יָּה‬ ְ in practice refers to the exiles and, in line with this, that the loosening of the bonds does not concern Jerusalem but rather those who have been deported – the children of Zion, so to speak.95 Certainly, he has a point insofar as the cognate term “captives” (‫)שׁבִ י‬ ְ elsewhere in Isaiah denotes those who have been carried off to the land of their victorious enemies (20:4; 46:2; 49:24–25; cf. 14:2). Nevertheless, in one case (at 61:1), “captives” is used about those who are imprisoned in their homeland. Applying this idea to Jerusalem as a whole creates a dramatic picture: Jerusalem has been taken from power to constraint by the Babylonian conquerors and has become captive in her own home!96 It is thus possible to see the final phrase of v. 2 as a bridge that subtly indicates a shift of focus from the city itself to those who were sent away, leading into v. 3 where they will be addressed. The slight change of perspective in v. 3 is not only indicated by the introduction of a formula of speech, but also by the shift from singular to plural verbs. Rather than addressing the entire city, YHWH addresses those who were forced away into slavery in foreign lands: “You were sold for nothing.” The verb ‫ מכר‬generally means “to sell”. Interestingly, the selling of people mostly refers to the selling of slaves, for instance, when Joseph’s brothers sell him to the Ishmaelites and he is brought to Egypt (Gen 37:27–28). With regard to exile, Joel employs similar language at 4:6 when YHWH accuses Tyre and Sidon of selling his people to the Greeks, removing them far from their own border. Likewise, the psalmist in Ps 44:13 laments: “You have sold your people for a trifle, demanding no high price for them.” According to Isa 52:3, he has indeed sold them “for nothing” (‫)חִ נָּם‬. 95 96

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 247. Cf. Goldingay, Message, 448.

4.2. Images of slavery and imprisonment

277

The relation between exile and the sale of slaves is also present in Isa 50:1, a verse which the author of 52:3 might have drawn upon.97 Apparently, the people have accused YHWH of rejecting mother Zion and selling her children into slavery because of debt (cf. the custom reflected, for instance, in Exod 21:1–11; 2 Kings 4:1; Neh 5:1–5). 98 The latter of two rhetorical questions which serve to counter these charges states: “which of my creditors is it to whom I have sold [‫ ]מָ כ ְַר ִתּי‬you?” The implied answer is no one; YHWH had no debt to pay. The following line further explains the underlying cause of the people’s exile: “Certainly, because of your sins you were sold [‫]נִ ְמכּ ְַרתֶּ ם‬, and for your transgressions your mother was put away.” The inhabitants of Jerusalem were forced into indentured service and their mother-city dismissed because of their crimes and iniquities, not because of YHWH’s financial embarrassment. Nevertheless, as Goldingay rightly observes, “implicitly, the good news might be that they could therefore be bought back if Yhwh chose. It was a question of will rather than resources.”99 Returning to 52:3, the point that the people were sold for nothing initially seems to be that they were of no value (cf. Ps 44:13). They were subjected to Babylonian rule for free. Yet the latter half of the verse suggests that “for nothing” serves a rhetorical purpose. Just as YHWH gave them up for nothing, he shall redeem them from their harsh servitude “without money” ( ‫ל ֹא‬ ‫)בְ כֶסֶ ף‬, that is, as the result of a divine gratuitous act (cf. 45:13 below). Curiously, vv. 4–6 offer an interpretation of the past and present afflictions of YHWH’s people that seem to disagree with the one found in 50:1 and in the preceding verse. Picking up the central term ‫ חִ נָּם‬in the sense of “for no reason” or “undeservedly,” the verses summarize “a history of subjection” in which Israel appears to be the innocent victim of several instances of aggression and oppression.100 The threefold repetition of “my people” (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמּי‬reveals YHWH’s sincere concern for the fate of them with regard to their past (v. 4), their present (v. 5), and their future (v. 6). Nevertheless, several things are left unsaid or understood and the hope for future intervention is formulated in a very general manner. Verse 4 looks back on the past. At first, the people went down into Egypt to dwell there as resident aliens (‫)גור‬, just as ancestor Abraham did before 97

Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 341. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 224; cf. Goldingay, Message, 395: “The idea is […] that the children – who are the actual audience of this prophecy – have accused their father of having thrown out their mother and sold them into slavery, an event that took place with the fall of Jerusalem and the deporting of many of its people.” 99 Goldingay, Message, 396. 100 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 341: “If the scribe’s intent was to present a history of innocent suffering, it was directly contrary to the other prophetic view, well represented in Isa 1–39; it was even contrary to the view of the author of chs. 40–48, that Israel’s sufferings were deserved but that she had now ‘served time’ and was in the clear (40:2).” 98

278

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

them (Gen 12:10). Although they had no hostile intentions – so we are asked to believe – the Egyptians put them under their yoke. Later, the Assyrians oppressed them “without cause” (‫)בְּ אֶ פֶס‬.101 The verb ‫“( עשׁק‬to oppress”) denotes a harsh form of political and social oppression and extortion, for instance, in the context of Babylonian suppression: “The people of Israel are oppressed (‫)ﬠֲשׁוּקִ ים‬, and so too are the people of Judah” (Jer 50:33). Verse 5 portrays the present humiliation of the people, presumably by the Babylonians, in light of the previous instances of oppression under foreign powers. YHWH appears to question the very purpose of allowing his people to be conquered and forced away. “What am I doing here that my people were taken away for nothing/without cause [‫ ”]חִ נָּם‬is a plausible translation of the opening of the verse. In light of 49:24–25, the passive form of ‫ לקח‬suggests that the people were taken away as a booty of war (see also the occurrence of the form in Isa 53:8). Their exile to a foreign land has only resulted in mockery by their enemies. The latter half of v. 5 opens with an ambiguous phrase. On the one hand, it may refer to the howling of the people’s rulers under the oppression of the Babylonians (deriving ‫ יְ הֵ ילִ ילוּ‬from ‫“[ ילל‬to howl, wail”]), but on the other, it may refer to the arrogant boasting of the enemy rulers (deriving ‫ יְ הֵ ילִ ילוּ‬from ‫“[ הלל‬to mock, taunt”]). If so, one might translate the word ‫“( מֹ ְשׁ ו‬their rulers”) with “those who ridicule them,” understanding ‫ משׁל‬in the sense of mocking. The latter reading of the ambiguous phrase matches the final line, according to which YHWH’s name is despised “continually, all day long” (picking up the phrase from 51:13). In the first part of Isaiah, YHWH’s own people are said to despise (‫ )נאץ‬him and his word (1:4; 5:24), but here, the implied agent is the boating enemies (cf. 60:14). The thought is close to the lament reflecting the fall of the Jerusalem temple in Ps 74:10: “Is the enemy to revile your name forever?” (‫ ;יְ נָאֵ ץ אוֹיֵב ִשׁ ְמ ָלנֶצַ ח‬cf. v. 18; Ezek 36:20). In a rather vague manner, v. 6 points to the future intervention of YHWH (“in that day”). Because of the continuous mockery of his people and of his name by the oppressors, YHWH’s own people will come to know (‫ )ידע‬that very name and his renewed presence among them. One possible interpretation is that by the redemption from subjection to Babylonian rule, YHWH’s people will acknowledge that he is at work in these events.102 As Chapter 6 will 101 An alternative translation of ‫ בְּ אֶ ֶפס‬is “in the end,” which corresponds well to “in the beginning” (‫שׁנָה‬ ֹ ‫ )בָ ִרא‬in the preceding line of the verse. The pairing of Egypt and Assyria occurs elsewhere in Isaiah (e.g. 11:11–16 and 27:12–13; see Chapter 5) and like the juxtaposition of the great empires to the east and to the south, the juxtaposition here expresses an idea of completeness. According to rabbinic tradition, “Assyria” could stand for Babylon. If so, v. 5 does not refer to a third epoch following those of Egyptian and Assyrian oppression, but explains the pain of the second one referred to in the latter half of v. 4. See the discussion in Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 388. 102 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 248.

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

279

show, the failure to acknowledge the will and work of YHWH is a central characteristic of the people in exile, that is, their unfortunate inability to orient themselves in the world. The only thing they can really hope for is divine guidance and the renewed insight that it brings. 4.2.6. Summing up Images of slavery and captivity in Isaiah are closely linked to the presence of enemies. Foreign invaders have conquered, exploited, and humiliated Jerusalem and its land and turned the people of YHWH into slaves and captives. The people have been oppressed and have suffered from unjust suppression. They have been driven off to foreign places and sold into slavery for nothing. The language is graphic and harsh. They have been confined to dark dungeons and trapped in claustrophobic holes in the ground. They have been cowering in chains with no opportunity to escape. Only an agent from the outside can put an end to such critical conditions.

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH 4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

Common to the examined images of slavery and imprisonment is their portrayal of the people as being in desperate need of a redeemer. YHWH delivered his people into the hands of the Babylonians, but he is also the one who can liberate them from oppression and confinement (cf. 52:3). In this section, I shall look closer at YHWH’s redemptive power in the two key passages of Isa 43:1–4 and 43:14–21. Initially, however, I will offer a few general observations to the language of redemption in Isaiah. The book of Isaiah refers to YHWH’s redemptive power using several words and attributes. He is the “savior” (‫;מוֹשׁי ַﬠ‬ ִ e.g. 43:11; 45:15) and the one who will break the oppressive rule of tyrants and save his people (cf. 49:24– 26 above). He has the power to deliver or redeem (‫)פדה‬, and “the ransomed of YHWH” (‫ )פְּ דוּיֵי יְ הוָה‬will return to Zion with joy (35:10; 51:11). In addition to these terms is the central theological concept of YHWH as his people’s “redeemer” (‫)גֹּ אֵ ל‬. 103 In turn, they are “the redeemed” (‫;גְּ אוּלִ ים‬ 35:9; 51:10) and “the redeemed of YHWH” (‫ ;גְּ אוּלֵי ְיהוָה‬62:12). This language carries legal and social connotations.104 Frequently in the context of family relationships, the term ‫ גֹּ אֵ ל‬is used about a relative who is expected to act on behalf of someone in need. In the Pentateuch, the term is used about the buy103

See Isa 41:14; 43:1, 14; 44:6, 22–24; 47:14; 48:17, 20; 49:7, 26; 52:3, 9; 54:5, 8; 59:20; 60:16; 63:9, 16. 104 For a comprehensive review of the term and its associations, see e.g. Goldingay, Message, 114–16; Halvorson-Taylor, Enduring Exile, 112–19; Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 99–123.

280

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

ing back of lost property or of family members that have been sold into slavery because of debt (Lev 25:23–34, 47–55) and about the retaliation for the murder of someone within the family (Num 35:19–27; Deut 19:6). An important element in the act of redemption is the restoration of what was lost: land that was sold is regained and relatives that were forced into indentured servitude are set free. Moreover, other instances suggest that the “redeemer” is one who protects relatives, for instance, a childless woman who is widowed (Ruth 3:13), or who defends the weak against injustice (Prov 23:11). The application of this language to YHWH and the relationship between him and his people has noteworthy implications. Just as a family member is required to help his relative escape indentured servitude, so YHWH is committed to redeeming his people from slavery and captivity. To YHWH, his people are family; there is a close and familial link between each of them. Regardless of their rebellious behavior, they are still his children (1:2–3). Redeeming them from the hand of their enemies is to reclaim what is – and what has always been – his. Significantly, this intimate bond has a long history (cf. Gen 48:16). In ancient days, the exodus out of Egyptian captivity demonstrated YHWH’s redemptive will with regard to the destiny of his people: “I am YHWH, and I will free you [‫אתי‬ ִ ֵ‫ ]וְ הוֹצ‬from the burdens of the Egyptians and deliver you [‫ ]וְ הִ צַּ לְ ִתּי‬from slavery to them. I will redeem you [‫ ]וְ גָאַ לְ ִתּי‬with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment” (Exod 6:6; cf. 15:13).105 Implied in Isaiah’s application of this imagery is the proclamation that YHWH will do again what he did in the past. Notable are the frequent occurrences of ‫ גאל‬in the perfect, for instance, in Isa 48:20: “YHWH has redeemed [‫ ]גָּאַ ל‬his servant Jacob” (see also 43:1; 44:22, 28; 52:9). The divine decision to intervene and restore has been made and is being carried out (40:1–2). Now, YHWH urges his people to repent: “return to me, for I have redeemed you” ( ‫ ;שׁוּבָ ה אֵ לַי כִּ י גְ אַ לְ ִתּי‬44:22). As in the secular use of the term ‫גֹּ אֵ ל‬, YHWH’s redemptive activity implies a complete restoration of his people’s fortune and a recreation of life as it were before the period of divine judgment. He will again show himself as restorer and protector of Israel. As noted above, some passages envision the outworking of redemption through human agents. The servant figure is called to bring deliverance to prisoners and those in darkness (42:7; 49:9; 61:1). Another prominent agent of YHWH in these chapters is the Persian king, Cyrus. Although the passages only allude to it, several nevertheless describe YHWH’s raising of Cyrus from afar to trample foreign kings under foot and defeat the Babylonian em105 See also the reflections of this foundational event in Psalms: “Remember your congregation, which you acquired long ago, which you redeemed to be the tribe of your heritage” (Ps 74:2); “So he saved them from the hand of the foe, and redeemed them from the hand of the enemy” (Ps 106:10).

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

281

pire (41:2–3, 27; 46:11; 48:14–15). In 44:28–45:1, YHWH explicitly addresses Cyrus as “my shepherd” (‫ )רֹ ﬠִ י‬and he is referred to as YHWH’s “anointed” ( ַ‫)מָ ִשׁיח‬, called to perform his purpose for the sake of Israel. According to YHWH, “[Cyrus] shall build my city and set my exiles free, not for price or reward” (45:13). 4.3.1. Isaiah 43:1–4: Redemption through ransom ‫וְ ַﬠתָּ ה כֹּ ה־אָ מַ ר ְיהוָה‬ ‫בֹּ ַר ֲא ַיﬠֲקֹ ב וְ יֹ צֶ ְר ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫ירא כִּ י גְ אַ לְ ִתּי‬ ָ ‫ל־תּ‬ ִ ַ‫א‬ ‫ בְ ִשׁ ְמ לִ י־אָ תָּ ה‬a‫אתי‬ ִ ‫קָ ָר‬ ‫כִּ י־תַ ﬠֲבֹ ר בַּ מַּ יִ ם ִא ְתּ ־אָ נִ י‬ ‫וּבַ ְנּהָ רֹ ות ל ֹא יִ ְשׁטְ פוּ‬ ‫ִ ֽכּ י־תֵ ֵל בְּ מֹ ו־אֵ שׁ ל ֹא ִת ָכּ ֶוה‬ ָ‫וְ לֶהָ בָ ה ל ֹא ִתבְ ַﬠר־בּ‬ ‫כִּ י ֲאנִ י יְ הוָה ֱא הֶ י‬ ‫ושׁי ֶﬠ‬ ִ ֹ‫קְ דֹ ושׁ יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל מ‬ ‫נָתַ ִתּי ָכפְ ְר ִמצְ ַריִ ם‬ ‫כּוּשׁ וּסְ בָ א תַּ חְ תֶּ י‬ ‫מֵ ֲאשֶׁ ר יָקַ ְרתָּ בְ ֵﬠי ַני‬ ‫ִנכְ בַּ ְדתָּ ַו ֲאנִ י ֲאהַ בְ ִתּי‬ ‫ תַּ חְ תֶּ י‬b‫וְ אֶ תֵּ ן אָ דָ ם‬ ֶ‫וּלְ ֻא ִמּים תַּ חַ ת נַפְ שׁ‬

1

But now thus says YHWH, your creator, O Jacob, your shaper, O Israel: Do not fear, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine. 2 When you pass through the waters, I will be with you; and through the rivers, they shall not overwhelm you; when you walk through fire you shall not be burned, and the flame shall not consume you. 3 For I am YHWH your God, the Holy One of Israel, your Savior. I give Egypt as your ransom, Ethiopia and Seba in exchange for you. 4 Because you are precious in my sight, and honored, and I love you, I give people in return for you, nations in exchange for your life.

a

The ancient versions add a suffix to the verb in the second person masculine singular, “I have called you.” In light of this, the footnote in BHS proposes to read ‫אתי‬ ִ ‫קְ ָר‬, but this is only necessary if one follows the dubious emendation of the next word, substituting “by your name” ( ‫ )בְ ִשׁ ְמ‬with “by my name” (‫ ;בִ ְשׁ ִמי‬cf. 43:7). b The singular form “people, men, or humankind” (‫ )אָ דָ ם‬in the MT makes good sense. Nevertheless, the footnote in BHS proposes to read a plural form (“peoples” or “countries”; ‫)אַדָ מוֹת‬ ְ to match the plural form in the next line; see also Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 114, note b and the LXX’s ἀνθρώπους πολλοὺς (“many men”). Other proposals include political entities such as Aram (‫)א ַָרם‬, ְ Edom (‫)א דֹ ם‬, ֶ ְ and “islands” (‫;א ִיּים‬ ִ cf. 41:1; 49:1), the latter of which is favored by Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 274.

Isaiah 43:1–7 constitutes an oracle of salvation which can be divided into two parts: vv. 1–4 proclaim YHWH’s redemption of his people, whereas vv. 5–7 describe the gathering of his scattered people (see my analysis in Chapter 5). 106 The oracle follows the harsh description in 42:18–25 of YHWH’s judgment against his people who are deaf and blind, and thus unable to per106

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 115.

282

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

ceive his actions. They are enslaved and hidden away in dark holes. The introductory “but now” (‫ )וְ ַﬠתָּ ה‬indicates a decisive change of mood: the time of punishment is over and YHWH will once again reveal himself as the savior of his people. Despite their persistent ignorance and stubbornness, he will redeem them.107 Indeed, he will pay a very high price to liberate them from their current state of confinement. Verse 1 opens with a formula of speech. The references to Jacob and Israel suggest that the people are being addressed as a whole. YHWH is portrayed as the creator and shaper of his people. His sovereign power in creation and history concerns the world at large but in particularly concerns the fate of his elected people. The particle forms of ‫ ברא‬and ‫ יצר‬may imply a continuous involvement in their history. YHWH is the one who creates and shapes them, that is, upholds them, protects them, and saves them. They have no reason to fear because he has redeemed them. The juxtaposition of God’s creative and redemptive power indicates that they are inextricably intertwined: “Erlösung zur Freiheit ist Schöphung.”108 Just as YHWH broke the power of chaos in the creation of the world, so he has broken the power of those who have captured and oppressed his people. The promise of protection in v. 2 is really an assurance that no power or hostile element will harm his people. Despite their potential for total destruction, neither the chaos of water nor the terror of fire will succeed in hindering their journey because YHWH will be with them and will shelter them (cf. Ps 66:12: “we went through fire and through water; yet you have brought us out to a spacious place”). The intertwinement of the creative and redemptive power of YHWH creates a subtle mixture of distance and nearness. As creator of the world, YHWH is the only true God who, due to his absolute sovereignty, can do what he will. He is the Holy One of Israel (‫)קְ דֹ ושׁ ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬. Yet, as the redeemer of his people (“I have redeemed you”; ‫)גְ אַ לְ ִתּי‬, he is as close to them as a family member (cf. above). The intimate and personal relationship between YHWH and his people in these verses is remarkable. In v. 1, he has called them by name, that is, elected them or singled them out from others. Or perhaps he has literally named them, giving them the name of Israel (cf. Gen 32:29). They are his property: “you are mine” (‫)לִ י־אָ תָּ ה‬. There is no reason to be afraid because, as their proper owner, YHWH has devoted his full attention to buying them back from foreign subjection. In v. 3, YHWH describes himself as “your God” ( ‫ ) ֱא הֶ י‬and “your savior” ( ‫ושׁי ֶﬠ‬ ִ ֹ‫ )מ‬who has intervened for the sake of his people. Verse 4 adds further emphasis to the tone of inti107

Childs, Isaiah, 334: “The exile did not awaken Israel’s conscience or prepare the grounds for a return. Rather a new word, solely from God’s side, wrought the change, opening the way for the future.” 108 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 293. For a classical treatment of this theological issue in Isa 40–55, see Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption.

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

283

macy and passion. YHWH will free his people because they are precious (‫)יקר‬ and honored (Niphal of ‫ )כבד‬in his eyes. In reality, the act of redemption is an act of divine affection: “I love you” ( ‫ !) ֲאנִ י ֲאהַ בְ ִתּי‬Out of pure love and care, YHWH is prepared to pay an extreme amount of money to ransom his people. Verses 3b–4 pick up and explain the reference to YHWH as redeemer in v. 1. He gives, or has given, Egypt as the ransom for his people and Ethiopia and Seba are given in their place. It is common to understand “ransom” (‫)כֹּ פֶר‬ here as the payment for the liberation of the enslaved people. Seba presumably refers to a region southeast of Egypt and Ethiopia, perhaps the African Horn (and not Sheba in southern Arabia). The total size of this area – the entire northeastern part of Africa – thus shows the extremely high price YHWH is willing to pay for the liberation of his people. It is not clear, however, who the recipient of the payment is. Several modern scholars assume that Cyrus is the implied referent and interpret the references to the African countries literally as areas that Cyrus had not yet conquered. They would thus serve as an attractive payment for setting the people of YHWH free.109 However, more features of the text speak against this interpretation. First, there is no mention of Cyrus and, even if there had been, one should be cautious not to align Isaiah’s oracles too closely to historical events outside the text. As Childs has claimed, rather than providing an accurate historical portrait, the chapters in Isaiah present Cyrus as “a theological projection, an instrument in the hand of God.”110 Second, the expanded perspective of v. 4b, introducing the indefinite “people” (‫ )אָ דָ ם‬and “nations” (‫)לְ ֻא ִמּים‬, serves to further stress YHWH’s care and generosity. In addition to Africa, he is willing to pay numerous people and lands in exchange for his own people. Again, emphasis is on YHWH’s beneficial involvement and the great value he places on his people; it is not on the receiver. Moreover, it may be of significance that “ransom” (‫ )כֹּ פֶר‬is never used elsewhere in reference to payment for the freeing of slaves or prisoners. In addition to a more abstract sense of “bribe” (1 Sam 12:3; Amos 5:12; Prov 6:35), the term denotes ransom for the redemption of a victim’s life (Exod 21:30; Num 35:31–32). The word often shows up in the context of attempting to escape death: “Deliver him from going down into the Pit; I have found a ransom” (Job 33:24); “wealth is a ransom for a person’s life [‫שׁ־אישׁ‬ ִ ‫( ”] ֶנ ֶפ‬Prov 13:8); and “no one can ransom a brother, there is no price one can give to God for it” (Ps 49:8). Furthermore, YHWH instructs Moses that “when you take a census of the Israelites to register them, at registration all of them shall give a ransom for their lives to YHWH [‫]וְ נ ְָתנוּ ִאישׁ כֹּ פֶר נַפְ שׁוֹ לַיהוָה‬, so that no plague may come upon them for being registered” (Exod 30:12). The lan109 See e.g. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 274–75; Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 297–99; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 206–8. 110 Childs, Old Testament as Scripture, 326.

284

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

guage is close to that of Isa 43:3–4, where YHWH gives (‫ )נתן‬ransom for his people “in exchange for your life” ( ֶ‫)תַּ חַ ת נַפְ שׁ‬. These parallels add intensity and existential gravity to the condition of the people. Rather than a fate of slavery and captivity, YHWH intervenes to deliver them from certain death. Noticing possible allusions to the crossing of the Red Sea in v. 2 (“rivers shall not overwhelm you”), Goldingay even proposes that “Egypt” alludes to this very event: “Yhwh gave up the Egyptian army to its death as the price of the saving of the Israelite army” (cf. the defeat of the anonymous army in 43:17, below). 111 This interpretation is not without shortcomings, but its strength is the highlighting of YHWH’s readiness to save his people. Apparently, he is willing to sacrifice empires in order to restore their lives and their fortune. Moreover, Goldingay’s proposal introduces the idea of redemption by satisfaction, thereby offering a subtle link to earlier statements about the unforgivable crimes of the people. In 22:14, the rebellious inhabitants of Jerusalem were said to die without being atoned for their sins: “Certainly this iniquity will not be atoned for (‫ ) ְי ֻכ ַפּר‬until you die.” Destruction and exile would be a proper and lasting punishment (see my analysis of 27:8–9 in Chapter 5). Just as 40:1–2 indicates a decisive change of perspective (“her penalty is paid”), 43:3–4 proclaims that YHWH himself has paid the ransom for the lives of his people out of his pure love for them. He has redeemed them out of the maw of death. 4.3.2. Isaiah 43:14–21: A way out of confinement ‫כֹּ ה־אָ מַ ר ְיה ָוה גֹּ אַ לְ כֶם קְ דֹ ושׁ‬ ‫יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ a ‫לְ מַ ַﬠנְ ֶכם ִשׁלַּחְ ִתּי בָ בֶ לָה‬ ‫ור ְד ִתּי בָ ִריחִ ים ֻכּ ָלּם‬ ַ ֹ‫וְ ה‬b b ‫וְ כ ְַשׂדִּ ים בָּ ֳאנִ יֹּ ות ִרנָּתָ ם‬ ‫ושׁ ֶכם‬ ְ ֹ‫ֲאנִ י יְ הוָה קְ ד‬ ‫ורא יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל מַ לְ כְּ ֶכם‬ ֵ ֹ‫בּ‬ ‫כֹּ ה אָ מַ ר יְ הוָה הַ נֹּ ותֵ ן בַּ ָיּם דָּ ֶר‬ ‫וּבְ מַ ִים ַﬠ ִזּים נְ ִתיבָ ה‬ ‫הַ מֹּ וצִ יא ֶר ֶכב־וָסוּס חַ יִ ל וְ ﬠִ זּוּז‬ ‫יַחְ דָּ ו יִ ְשׁכְּ בוּ בַּ ל־יָקוּמוּ‬ ‫דָּ ﬠֲכוּ ַכּפִּ ְשׁתָּ ה כָבוּ‬ ‫ל־תּזְכְּ רוּ ִראשֹׁ נֹ ות‬ ִ ַ‫א‬ ‫ל־תּ ְתבֹּ ָננוּ‬ ִ ַ‫וְ קַ דְ מֹ נִ יֹּ ות א‬ ‫הִ נְ נִ י עֹ שֶׂ ה חֲדָ שָׁ ה‬ 111

Goldingay, Message, 195.

14

Thus says YHWH, your Redeemer, the Holy One of Israel:

For your sake I will send to Babylon and break down all the bars, and the cries of the Chaldeans will be turned to lamentation. 15 I am YHWH, your Holy One, the Creator of Israel, your King. 16 Thus says YHWH, who makes a way in the sea, a path in the mighty waters, 17 who brings out chariot and horse, army and warrior; they lie down, they cannot rise, they are extinguished, quenched like a wick: 18 Do not remember the former things, or consider the things of old. 19 I am about to do a new thing;

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

ָ‫ַﬠתָּ ה ִתצְ מָ ח ֲה וא ֵ ֽתדָ עוּה‬ ‫אַ ף אָ ִשׂים בַּ ִמּדְ בָּ ר דֶּ ֶר‬ c ‫ישׁמֹ ון נְ הָ רֹ ות‬ ִ ‫ִ ֽבּ‬ ‫ְתּכַבְּ דֵ נִ י חַ יַּת הַ שָּׂ דֶ ה תַּ נִּ ים וּבְ נֹ ות‬ ‫ַ ֽי ֲﬠ ָנה‬ ‫כִּ י־נָתַ ִתּי בַ ִמּ ְדבָּ ר מַ יִ ם ְנהָ רֹ ות‬ ‫ישׁימֹ ן‬ ִ ִ‫בּ‬ ‫לְ הַ ְשׁקֹ ות ַﬠ ִמּי בְ חִ ִירי‬ ‫ַﬠם־זוּ יָצַ ְר ִתּי לִ י‬ ‫ְתּהִ לּ ִָתי ְיסַ ֵפּרוּ‬

285

now it springs forth, do you not perceive it? I will make a way in the wilderness and rivers in the desert. 20 The wild animals will honor me, the jackals and the ostriches; for I give water in the wilderness, rivers in the desert, to give drink to my chosen people, 21 the people whom I formed for myself so that they might declare my praise.

a

1QIsaa has “to or against Babel” (‫)בבבל‬. These lines are open to various interpretations (see the exegesis of the verse). c 1QIsaa reads “paths” (‫ )נתיבות‬for the MT’s “rivers” (‫) ְנהָ רֹ ות‬. b-b

The passage consists of two minor parts, vv. 14–15 and vv. 16–21, both of which are introduced by a formula of speech “thus says YHWH” ( ‫כֹּ ה אָ מַ ר‬ ‫)יְ הוָה‬. 112 Although form-critical observations suggest two separate units, 113 they belong closely together and constitute a coherent composition. Verses 14–15 proclaim the fall of Babylon, while vv. 16–21 further explain the nature of the redemptive event. Verses 16–17 allude to the primordial act of creation and the crossing of the Red Sea; vv. 18–19a urge the people not to remember the former events; vv. 19b–20 describe YHWH’s renewed intervention; and v. 21 concludes with the people’s praise of their God. Following the oracles of 43:1–7 and 43:8–13, the passage in its entirety forms a climactic proclamation of deliverance in response to the brutal judgment against the blind and deaf people in 42:18–25. Verses 14–15 consist of a detailed frame of divine attributes in vv. 14a and 15 and the oracle itself in v. 14b. The language of the frame is close to that of 43:1, 3 and other verses introducing divine utterings (e.g. 45:11; 48:17; 49:7). In addition to the repetition of ‫יְ הוָה‬, “the Holy of Israel” (‫ )קְ דֹ ושׁ יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬corresponds to “your Holy One” (‫ושׁכֶם‬ ְ ֹ‫)קְ ד‬. Furthermore, YHWH’s role as “redeemer” (‫ )גֹ אֵ ל‬mirrors his role as “creator” (‫ורא‬ ֵ ֹ‫)בּ‬: the one who creates Israel is also the one who redeems her and vice versa (cf. 43:1 above).114 The function of the frame is to add credibility to the key message of the two verses: 112 This section draws from and develops my interpretation of Isa 43:14–21 in Poulsen, “Eksodusbegivenheden,” 96–105; Representing Zion, 147–48. 113 Cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 293. Elliger (Deuterojesaja, 332, 346) regards vv. 14–15 to be an incomplete fragment or torso, but does not reject that it forms “eine redaktionelle Komposition” along with vv. 16–21. Curiously, Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 125) attributes vv. 14–15 to the preceding oracle, that is, 43:8–15. 114 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 295: “Das geschichtliche Befreiungshandeln JHWHs gehört zur ‘creatio continua,’ so dass ‘[Er]Löser’ (Goel) und ‘Schöpfer’ zwei Seiten ein und derselben göttlichen Wirklichkeit beleuchten.”

286

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

the downfall of Babylon. As redeemer, holy, creator, and king, YHWH has the force to break down the power of the oppressor. However, the initial highlighting of his power to redeem (“your Redeemer” is the first epithet) serves another purpose insofar as the content of v. 14b offers a fundamental illustration of that very power in action. To redeem is to liberate from subjugation and confinement by bursting the gates of the enemy city. This intrinsic connection is further indicated by the juxtaposition of “your Redeemer” (‫)גֹּ אַ לְ כֶם‬ and “for your sake” (‫ )מַ ַﬠ ְנכֶם‬in v. 14b. By acting on behalf of his people, YHWH reveals himself as their divine kinsman and restorer and, indeed, their mighty king (cf. 6:5; 40:10; 44:6). “Your Holy One” and “your King” in v. 15 further stress the personal relationship between God and his people. In v. 14b, the initial words “for your sake” along with a first-person voice highlight YHWH’s sincere concern for the destiny of his people. For their sake, he has or will send (to) Babylon. Peculiarly, unlike Jer 51:2, for example (“I will send winnowers to Babylon”), there is no direct object of the verb here. The initial effect is to draw attention to the divine act itself. Nevertheless, it is common to assume an object here, usually either a messenger or Cyrus.115 In favor of the latter is Isa 45:4, which informs readers that YHWH has called Cyrus “for the sake of [‫ ]לְ מַ ַﬠן‬my servant Jacob and Israel my chosen.” As mentioned in the textual notes, 1QIsaa adds a preposition “to” or “against” ( ְ‫ )בּ‬to “Babylon” which may be simply implied in the Masoretic text. Combined with this preposition, the verb ‫ שׁלח‬in Piel (“to send”) is used about the attack or ravage of enemies. Elsewhere, YHWH has sent swarming locusts or pestilence against his people (Joel 2:25; Amos 4:10). Similarly, in Isa 10:6, the appearance of the Assyrian king as a tool of divine wrath is explained by YHWH’s statement: “Against a godless nation I send him” ( ‫בְּ גוֹי‬ ‫)חָ נֵף ֲאשַׁ לְּ חֶ נּוּ‬. Here, however, YHWH sends Cyrus against the people’s enemies in order to deliver them. The same verb, also in Piel, is used about the liberation of the exiles by the Persian king: “he shall set my exiles free” ( ‫ָלוּתי‬ ִ ‫וְ ג‬ ‫ ;יְ שַׁ לֵּח‬45:13). The final half of v. 14 explains the implications of YHWH’s attack on Babylon. Read simply, the lines state: “and I will bring or have brought down [as] fugitives all of them, and the Chaldeans in their ships of joyful cries.”116 The idea appears to be that, facing the arrival of a conqueror, people inside the city will flee, some by foot and others by boat down the Euphrates. Or 115

E.g. Tiemeyer, Comfort, 139; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 125: “This [phrase] refers beyond question to Cyrus’ capture of Babylon.” 116 Cf. the LXX: “and stir up all who are fleeing and the Chaldeans will be bound in ships” (καὶ ἐπεγερῶ πάντας φεύγοντας καὶ Χαλδαῖοι ἐν πλοίοις δεθήσονται). Modern interpreters who opt for this or a similar interpretation include Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 289), Goldingay (Message, 206), and Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 120). Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 214) proposes to interpret ‫ בָ ִריחִ ים‬in the sense of “boats” as a parallel to “ships” in the latter half of the phrase.

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

287

perhaps one should take “Chaldeans” to explain “all of them” and “to bring down” (‫ ירד‬in Hiphil) in the sense of to cause to sink. In other words, YHWH will destroy the Babylonian ships and those onboard will drown (cf. the fate of the anonymous army in v. 17).117 A slight emendation of the vocalization, however, calls forth a rather different image. Reading ‫ בְ ִריחִ ים‬for ‫ בָ ִריחִ ים‬and ‫ בַּ ְאַנִ יֹּ ות‬for ‫בָּ ֳאנִ יֹּ ות‬, the lines state: “and I will bring or have brought down all the bars, and the shouting of the Chaldeans will be turned to lamentations.”118 Certainly, the ambiguity may be intended and as both images testify to the same subject matter – the punishment of Babylon for the sake of YHWH’s people – the choice between them is not decisive. Nevertheless, the motif of breaking bars is not unparalleled in these chapters. In 45:1–2, YHWH’s calling of Cyrus is followed by his promise to open doors and gates: “I will break in pieces the doors of bronze and cut through the bars of iron [‫]בְּ ִריחֵ י בַ ְרזֶל‬.” In Ps 107:14–16, similar language parallels statements about release from prison: “[YHWH] brought them out of darkness and gloom, and broke their bonds [‫ ]מוֹסְ רוֹתֵ יהֶ ם‬asunder.” Although attempts to emend “all the bars” (‫ )בְּ ִריחִ ים ֻכּלָּם‬in Isa 43:14 into “bars of confinement” (‫ )בְּ ִריחֵ י כִ לְ ְאַכֶם‬certainly go too far,119 they are not off the mark completely. The notion of bars suggests a fortified city or stronghold that is difficult to conquer – and impossible to escape from. A possible implication of this imagery is that the city of Babylon is depicted as a giant and inescapable prison. Being inside this city or being subjected to its power is close to Jonah’s claustrophobic experience in Jonah 2:7 (“I went down to the land whose bars closed upon me forever”) and Hezekiah’s near-death experience in Isa 38:10 of entering through the gates of Sheol to a dark and confined space (see Chapter 3). It is like sitting in darkness or being trapped and hidden away in substantially enclosed spaces (cf. 42:7, 22 above). Breaking the solid bars of the city’s gates is thus a powerful and distinct way of illustrating YHWH’s redemption from an oppressive rule.120 The use of the verb ‫ ירד‬in Hiphil (“to bring down”), which elsewhere refers to destructive actions (e.g. Ps 56:8; Amos 3:11), may offer an ironic twist. As 117

See Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 294–95. Cf. the Vulgate: “and have brought down all their bars, and the Chaldeans glorying in their ships” (et detraxi vectes universos et Chaldeos in navibus suis gloriantes). See also Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 331–32; Childs, Isaiah, 330. 119 Cf. the footnote in BHS and the thorough review in Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 331, 336–37. 120 A further development of this image may be found in the vision about the fall of Babylon at the end of Jeremiah: YHWH will make the land of Babylon into desolation; the buildings are set on fire and the bars are broken; messengers turn up again and again to tell the king of Babylon that his city is taken from end to end (Jer 51:29–31); cf. the punishment of Nineveh in Nah 3:13. 118

288

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

noted in the exegesis of Isa 5:14 in Chapter 1, “to go down” (‫ ירד‬in Qal) is a standard expression for those who die, that is, those who go down into the pit or into the confined space of Sheol (e.g. 38:18). Now, this very space itself, the city of death and oppression, is brought down (cf. the Babylonian tyrant in 14:15). All those who went down into it, brutally swallowed and absorbed because of its greed for power and dominion, will be released and will leave. This exact situation seems to be at stake in 48:20–21. Verse 20 opens with strong appeals to YHWH’s people to “Go out [‫ ]צְ אוּ‬from Babylon, flee [‫]בִּ ְרחוּ‬ from Chaldea,” the latter of which marks the exodus as an escape (see also 52:11–12 and 55:12–13). “With a sound of joy” (‫ )בְּ קוֹל ִרנָּה‬the message that YHWH has redeemed his people will be spread to the ends of the earth. Interestingly, the Babylonians will have the opposite experience as “their cries of joy” (‫ ִ)רנָּתָ ם‬will be turned into lamentations. By breaking open Babylon’s gates, YHWH opens up a way before his people out of darkness and confinement. By proclaiming the creation of this very way, vv. 16–21 elegantly pick up and develop the motif of redemption from vv. 14–15. Verses 16–17 form a rather considerable introduction to YHWH’s speech in vv. 18–21. The initial verses undoubtedly allude to the parting of the Red Sea and the destruction of Pharaoh’s army during the exodus out of Egypt. 121 As creator and king, YHWH “gives” [‫ ]הַ נֹּ ותֵ ן‬a “way” ( ‫ )דֶּ ֶר‬in the sea and a “path” (‫ )נְ ִתיבָ ה‬in the mighty waters and “leads out” [‫]הַ מֹּ וצִ יא‬122 the anonymous enemy army to total extinction. The language is vivid and staccato like: a well-equipped army as mighty as the waters moves out for battle, but is instead defeated completely. They lie down, unable to rise, and are extinguished, and snuffed out like a wick. Notably, the participle forms of the verbs (“who gives” and “who leads out”) suggest that YHWH can and will defeat the present enemies of his people as he did in the old days: “JHWH [errettet] immer wieder sein Volk aus der Gewalt mächtiger Imperien.”123 The close association of mighty waters with a powerful army in vv. 16–17 suggests a subtle play on the traditions of YHWH’s primordial victory over the powers of chaos. Both traditions (creation and Rea Sea deliverance) concern fundamental acts in the people’s memory and they often mirror one 121

There are plenty of allusions and linguistic links, including “a way through the sea” (Exod 14:21–22, 29; Ps 77:20) and the references to “chariot” (‫)ר ֶכ ב‬, ֶ “horse” (‫)סוּס‬, and “army” (‫( )חַ ִיל‬Exod 14:4, 6, 7, 17, 18, 23, 26, 28; 15:1, 4, 19, 21). 122 In military contexts, the Hiphil form of ‫“( יצא‬to bring out”) can denote the leading out of an army to the battlefield (cf. Deut 20:1; Amos 5:3). In Exodus, however, the verbal form frequently refers to YHWH’s leading of his people out of captivity (e.g. Exod 7:4; 12:17, 51). Nevertheless, Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 215–16) proposes to interpret the verb as the cognate Hebrew Hiphil of the Aramaic verb ‫( שֵׁ יצִ י‬from the root ‫)יצא‬, meaning “to destroy,” that is, “YHWH destroys chariots and horses…”. 123 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 296.

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

289

another. Deliverance is creation power and vice versa. The intertwinement of these traditions is explicit in 51:9–11.124 The passage opens with a call to the mighty arm of YHWH to awake and prepare for battle “as in days of old” (‫)כִּ ימֵ י קֶ דֶ ם‬. Two rhetorical questions juxtapose creation and Rea Sea deliverance: was it not YHWH who killed the monsters of chaos? Was it not him who dried up the sea and turned its depths into a way for the redeemed people to return home? In a sophisticated manner, the terms used for the chaotic powers indicate a delicate transition from one tradition to the other.125 “Rahab” (‫)רהַ ב‬ ַ is a sea monster that YHWH fights at the time of creation (Ps 89:11; Job 26:12), but is also a symbol of Egypt (Isa 30:7; Ps 87:4).126 “The dragon” (‫ )תַּ נִּ ין‬likewise appears in the epic combat about power (Isa 27:1; Job 7:12), but is also an epithet of Pharaoh (Ezek 29:3: 32:2).127 “The sea” (‫ )יָם‬is the sea monster Yam (Job 7:12), but also serves as a reference to the sea that YHWH turned into dry ground during the crossing of the Red Sea (Exod 14:21; Ps 106:9). “The waters of the great deep” (‫ )מֵ י ְתּהוֹם ַרבָּ ה‬alludes to the great flood in ancient days (Gen 7:11). The act of turning the depths of the sea128 into a road undoubtedly reflects the Red Sea tradition (e.g. Ps 78:13; 106:9; 136:13–14). The divine control and transformation of the mighty waters set the scene for the return of the liberated people in 51:11. Just like “the redeemed” (‫ )גְּ אוּלִ ים‬crossed the Red Sea on their journey to the Promised Land, “the ransomed of YHWH” (‫ )פּדוּיֵי ְיהוָה‬shall return (‫ )שׁוב‬and come to Zion with joy. It is noteworthy that we do not hear from where they depart. Perhaps it is of significance that 1QIsaa reads “those whom YHWH scattered” (‫ )פזורי יהוה‬as a reference to the larger diaspora (see Chapter 5). That they return to Zion with “singing” (‫ ִ)רנָּה‬indicates a close link between divine redemption and human response in terms of worship (44:23; 48:20; 49:13; see further below). The sorrow and sighing of the dark past will be replaced by joy and gladness. Reading 43:16–17 in light of 51:9–11 has additional implications. First, the references to “the sea” (‫ )יָם‬and “the mighty waters” (‫ )מַ יִ ם ַﬠ ִזּים‬suggest hostile powers of chaos that need to be controlled. Second, YHWH’s ability to break the power of these forces reflects his role as creator and redeemer, as 124

See Bosman, “Myth.” Cf. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 368–70. 126 Bosman, “Myth,” 73–74. 127 As we have seen, Jeremiah likewise compares the king of Babylon to a sea monster that swallows Israel (Jer 51:34; see Chapter 3). A few verses later, in 51:44, YHWH states that he will punish Babylon’s god Bel by making him disgorge what he has swallowed. Interestingly, this motif of redemption is juxtaposed with the announcement that “the wall of Babylon has fallen” (‫)גַּם־חוֹמַ ת בָּ בֶ ל ָנ ָפלָה‬. In other words, taking something out of the mouth of Babylon and bursting the walls of the great city testify to the same subject matter: YHWH’s power to redeem! 128 1QIsaa reads making a way “in the depths of the sea” (‫)במעמקי ים‬. 125

290

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

does the breaking of bars (cf. v. 14). Splitting the great enemy into two or destroying the gates of confinement and separation point to the one divine act. Third, the way through the water is a way leading to the restored Zion. What the Babylonian army left as a conquered and devastated place will bloom again and be filled with joy and worship. Verses 16–17 definitely recall the great events of the past to add credibility to the proclamation of a new salvific event in vv. 18–21. Curiously, then, YHWH’s direct speech in v. 18 opens with an appeal not to call the former things to mind nor to consider the things of old. The exact content of these events is uncertain and perhaps a general referent is intended.129 Nevertheless, many scholars assume that “the former things” (‫ ִ)ראשֹׁ נֹ ות‬and “the ancient things” (‫ )קַ דְ מֹ נִ יֹּ ות‬both refer to the exodus out of Egypt alluded to in vv. 16–17 (cf. 51:9: “days of old”), and that the new event being proclaimed in vv. 19– 21 concerns a second exodus out of Babylon.130 Taking the perfect forms in v. 14 seriously – Babylon has fallen – Berges argues that the phrase “the former things” concerns the capture of Babylon (vv. 14–15), whereas “the ancient things” concerns the release from Egypt and the defeat of Pharaoh’s army (vv. 16–17).131 If so, the appearance of something new in the next verses sets up an analogy between the glorious events of the (near) past and the coming and unexpected salvation which has begun to unfold and will overshadow the former ones. Alternatively, the events of the past could refer to the fall of Jerusalem and the captivity in Babylon or to the entire history of the people culminating in these events. The “former things” would then be a subtle reference to the oracles of doom in the former part of the book of Isaiah (6:1–13; 22:1–14; 39:1–8) which have been fulfilled in the gap between Isa 39 and 40. If this is the case, these traumatic events will be remembered no more because YHWH will set an entirely new beginning. 132 In any case, however, “the coming of salvation will transcend any experience of the past.”133

129 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 353: “Offenbar ist die Einleitung 18 mit Absicht so allgemein formuliert; und es ist daher aussichtslos, die Begriffe genau zu definieren.” 130 E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 227–28; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 217; cf. my reviews in “Eksodusbegivenheden,” 91–93, 102–104; “New Ways,” 30–31. For recent discussions of the second exodus motif in Isa 40–55, see Klein, “Beobachtungen”; Tiemeyer, Comfort, 155–203. 131 Cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 300. 132 According to Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 128), the passage reflects a response to a community lament, thus “the former things” refers to “the expostulation made in laments reproaching God with the contrast between his present attitude towards his chosen people and the great thing he did for them in former days […] What [the prophet] wants to say is rather, ‘stop mournfully looking back and clinging to the past, and open your minds to the fact that a new, miraculous act of God lies ahead of you!’” 133 Childs, Isaiah, 337.

4.3. The redemptive power of YHWH

291

In v. 19, the introductory “see” (‫ )הִ נֵּה‬and “now” (‫ ) ַﬠתָּ ה‬point to the imminence and unexpectedness of YHWH’s new creation: “see, I am about to do [‫ ]הִ ְננִ י עֹ שֶׂ ה‬something new; now it springs forth.” Notable is the singular form of “something new” or “a new thing” (‫ )חֲדָ שָׁ ה‬in contrast to the plural forms of “former things” and “things of old.” It is possible that the following lines about a way and water in the wilderness spell out the content of this new event. Yet it is also possible to interpret the line as a kind of heading, adding emphasis to the creative power of YHWH. Interestingly, the only other occurrence of this form of ‫ חָ דָ שׁ‬in Isaiah is at 65:17: “see, I am about to create [ ‫הִ נְ נִ י‬ ‫]בוֹרא‬ ֵ new heavens and a new earth [‫ ;]וָאָ ֶרץ חֲדָ שָׁ ה‬the former things shall not be remembered or come to mind.” In light of this, the opening of v. 19 suggests a proclamation of recreation and restoration on a broader scale. The metaphor of “sprouting” (‫ )צמח‬adds weight to this claim. It is a recurring term in Isaiah used in relation to the approaching of events (42:9), and salvation, righteousness, healing, and praise are all said to spring forth (45:8; 58:8; 61:11). The sprouting of plants implies that areas that were destroyed or burned down will be restored. Interestingly, a possible reading of 6:13 is that although even the tiny and fresh “shoots” would repeatedly be destroyed as a sign of divine punishment, a hope remains that one shoot, the holy seed, will rise again (see Chapter 2). Taking this vision into account, v. 19a proclaims that the time of severe judgment is finally over. The chosen and divinelycreated people shall once again rise and sing a song of praise and hope. In Isa 6:9–10, YHWH prevented his people from perceiving (‫ )ידע‬the coming of judgment; here, he rhetorically asks whether they do not perceive ( ָ‫)הֲלוֹא תֵ דָ עוּה‬ the coming of salvation. The establishment of a way in the wilderness in v. 19b initially picks up the language of redemption from v. 16 and 51:10: YHWH will set (‫ )שׂים‬a way leading to liberty. Additionally, in contrast to the destructive waters that were split into two, the creation of rivers in the dry desert shows YHWH’s careful provision for his people on their journey out of confinement (cf. 48:21). Once again, the creative and redemptive activities of YHWH are two sides of the same coin. The transformation of the wilderness concerns more than merely the journey through it. Creating life in the desert of death is a strong witness to YHWH’s power as creator. It is likely that “the way” and “the rivers” serve as larger symbols of renewal, pointing to YHWH’s restoration of his people. 134 Verse 20 restates that YHWH will create water and rivers in the wilderness with the purpose of satisfying his thirsty people. This image is used elsewhere, where the ecological transformation of nature symbolizes a spiritual renewal of the people (see my analysis of 41:17–20 in Chapter 6). More significantly, 51:3 compares the restoration of Zion with the 134

Goldingay, Message, 211: “images for the renewal of nature can be applied to the restoration of the refugee community.”

292

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

transformation of infertile land into a blooming garden: “[YHWH] will make [‫ ] ַויָּשֶׂ ם‬her wilderness [‫]מ ְדבָּ ָרהּ‬ ִ like Eden […] joy and gladness will be found in her, thanksgiving and the voice of song” (cf. 64:9). This parallel incident underlines that restoration is a key issue in 43:18–21. Judah and Jerusalem, which were left as a devastated and empty desert, shall bloom again. Elsewhere in Isaiah, the wild animals in v. 20, including jackals and ostriches, symbolize the collapse of civilized life and the potential danger of death (13:21–22; 34:13–14). The sudden mentioning of the beasts offers a subtle link to passages which used the image of grazing animals while predicting the destruction of Jerusalem (5:17; 6:13).135 Now, even the animals of the wilderness that stand for the fulfillment of divine judgment will honor YHWH and his power to create and redeem. YHWH’s designation of his people as “my chosen people” (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמּי בְ חִ ִירי‬in vv. 20b–21a further reveals the decisive reversal of fortune proclaimed by this passage. The profound and passionate concern for the consolation of “my people” in 40:1 recurs. They are his people, they were formed (‫ )יצר‬by him, and they were formed for him (cf. 43:1 above); again, the language of creation is astonishing. As in 51:3, YHWH’s restoration of the fate of his people is followed by thanksgiving. Along with the wild beasts, they will declare his praise. The restoration of the infertile wilderness mirrors the restoration of the sinful people who will be renewed and restored as the chosen people of YHWH and who will worship him properly. Declaring God’s “praise” (‫)תּהִ לָּה‬ ְ is really about giving glory to him and honoring him alone (cf. 42:8). In the end, true worship emerges from the experience and recognition of YHWH’s creative and redemptive power (cf. Exod 15).136 The appearance of song and worship is a common way to end a passage or a larger literary section in these chapters (e.g. 42:10–12; 44:23; 49:13). At the closure of Isa 55, even mountains and trees will take part in the universal worship of YHWH. 55:12–13 opens with a call to an indefinite addressee to go out (‫ )יצא‬joyously and be led forth (‫ יבל‬in Hophal) safely, that is, under the guidance and care of YHWH. The mountains and hills will burst into song and the trees of the fields will clap their hands because of redemption. The references to “joy” (‫)שׂ ְמחָ ה‬ ִ and “song” (‫ ִ)רנָּה‬indicate that those who are being addressed are heading to a restored Zion as joy and song are remarkable characteristics of this place and the journey leading to it (cf. 51:3, 11).137 135

Alternatively, the presence of wild animals alludes to the complete destruction of the proud city of Babylon as 13:21–22 in fact envisions: “But wild animals will lie down there, and its houses will be full of howling creatures; there, ostriches [‫ ]בְּ נוֹת ַי ֲﬠנָה‬will live, and there, goat-demons will dance. Hyenas will cry in its towers, and jackals [‫ ]וְ תַ ִנּים‬in the pleasant palaces.” 136 Cf. Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 358: “Israels Geschick ist immer Grund zum Lobpreis seines Gottes; denn es ist immer seines Gottes Werk.” 137 Goldingay, Message, 556.

4.4. Conclusion

293

The journey from an unidentified but likely insecure and unpleasant destination to a place of blessing and divine presence is accompanied in v. 13 by another vision of the transformation of the wilderness: briars and thistles – symbols of divine destruction (5:6) – will be replaced by cypress and myrtles. The devastated desert will bloom again. This glorious event of salvation will be a memorial (‫ )שֵׁ ם‬for YHWH, an everlasting sign of his divine compassion. Just as the opening of Isa 40 proclaimed that the period of judgment is over, so the end of Isa 55 bears witness to the flourishing time of restoration. 4.3.3. Summing up Several terms and images express the redemptive power of YHWH. He is savior, deliverer, restorer, and redeemer. Central to the language of redemption is the idea that there exists an intimate and familial bond between YHWH and his people. As a family member, he is obliged to act on the behalf of his people. One way of redeeming is to deliver through ransom. Isaiah 43:1–4 illustrates YHWH’s readiness and eagerness to buy back his people from foreign slavery. No price is too high. Another way of redeeming is to use force. Isaiah 43:14–21 envisions the downfall of Babylon and the establishment of a way out of darkness and captivity. Remarkable in both passages is the interrelation of YHWH’s creative and redemptive power. To control the powers of chaos and to liberate the people from slavery and captivity are two sides of the same coin.

4.4. Conclusion 4.4. Conclusion

The depiction of exile as slavery and captivity draws upon images of political power and space. Exile is indentured servitude to an imperial rule and a dark place of confinement. It is a desperate state of subjection, weakness, and humiliating despoilment. Several of the passages in Isaiah that employ this language explicitly relate the images to harsh oppression by a foreign regime. Some texts identify this regime with Babylon. The recurrent reference to a cruel tyrant is remarkable. Whether a literary trope or a historical figure, for instance, the king of Babylon, the appearance of this ruler is frightening (Isa 14:4b–21; 49:24–26; 51:13–14). He is brutal and ruthless, bent on destruction. Subjection to his rule is a state of potential death. Breaking the power of this desirous ruler and his empire is a critical precondition for liberating the exiled people from slavery and imprisonment. Nevertheless, the repeated message in Isaiah is that the power of this rule has been broken. The tyrant has fallen. The people have no reason to fear or to be anxious. The period of divine punishment that the enemies were called to execute is over (Isa 40:1–2). Because of this, there is an urgent call for

294

Chapter 4: Slavery and captivity

liberation. The people will be released from foreign captivity to return to their homeland. The prisoners and those who are cowering in chains will be delivered. The city of Jerusalem will loose the bonds of confinement and rise from the dust. Once again, YHWH will reveal himself as the savior and restorer of his people. He will buy them back from slavery, defeat their enemies, and deliver them from death. YHWH will smash open the gates of Babylon, the inescapable city of death, to create a way of liberation out of darkness and confinement.

Chapter 5

Scattering and dispersion: Geographical images This chapter analyzes the cluster of texts in Isaiah which portray exile by means of geographical images.1 The people of YHWH are physically displaced having been dispersed to the ends of the earth. The inhabitants of Jerusalem are scattered in all directions of the compass, while the city itself is left as an empty and destroyed center awaiting restoration and repopulation. As we observed in the preceding chapters, geographical dislocation is a frequent expression of exile in Isaiah. The inhabitants of Jerusalem go into exile (5:13–14) and the prophet proclaims that YHWH will send everyone far away (6:12). He imitates the fate of the Egyptian and Ethiopian population which are to be led away as prisoners (20:3–4), while the steward Shebna will be hurled away (22:17–18). King Hezekiah laments his imminent departure to Sheol and his removal from the land of the living (38:10–12), and the prophet pronounces that Hezekiah’s wealth and sons will be carried away into captivity (39:6–7). Language of physical displacement dominates the destiny of the suffering servant: he is taken away, like a lamb being led to the slaughter, and cut off from his natural location (53:7–9). In addition to these instances, a series of texts in Isaiah speak about geographical displacement in terms of a worldwide scattering. Prominent examples include Isa 11:11–16; 27:7–13; 43:5–7; and 49:9b–12. As was the case with images of slavery and captivity, however, these passages employ the trope of scattering in their vision of YHWH’s future deliverance and gathering of his dispersed ones. The passages look beyond the time of judgment to a future return of the people from exile and the restoration of the one unified people of God. With regard to the overall composition of Isaiah, it is noteworthy that more of these visions occur at the end of major literary blocks. The eschatological expectations of Isa 11:11–16 (along with Isa 12) conclude Isa 1–12, while the hope for future gathering in Jerusalem in Isa 27:12–13 concludes Isa 24–27. 2 In the narrative flow of the book, these passages constitute small 1 A condensed version of this chapter was presented at an international conference in Copenhagen in May 2017 and has been published in a volume of papers; see Poulsen, “Trope of Scattering.” 2 Several interpreters assume that these passages at the end of major sections are part of an editorial effort to establish literary coherence within the emerging book of Isaiah. See, for example, Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 223; Hibbard, Intertextuality, 194–95. Steck (Bereitete

296

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

glimpses of hope that point to the reality of divine restoration at the other side of the black hole. The chapter begins with an overview of the literary motif of scattering in the Old Testament and an examination of three key terms. The main sections of the chapter consist of close readings of Isa 11:11–16; 27:7–13; 40:10–11; 43:5– 7; and 49:9b–12. All portray YHWH’s eagerness to gather his dispersed people and their return from worldwide scattering.

5.1. The motif of scattering in the Old Testament 5.1. The motif of scattering in the Old Testament

The tower of Babel in Gen 11:1–9 is an archetypical and universal story about scattering.3 The narrative forms the culmination of Gen 1–11 and its portrait of growing wickedness in the world. It is a story of unity and separation, explaining how and why humanity was spread out across the whole world.4 Unity is expressed not only by one common language, but also by the fact that humanity dwells at the same location, at one particular point. To make a name for themselves, that is, to reinforce their unity, the inhabitants will build a tower and its top will reach into the heavens. The motivation for the building plan is made explicit: “otherwise we shall be scattered [‫ ]נָפוּץ‬abroad upon the face of the whole earth” (11:4). The attempt to avoid such a destiny is at the heart of the irony of the story, insofar as dispersion is the very content of God’s punishment against the pride of the city’s inhabitants: “so YHWH scattered [‫ ] ַו ָיּ ֶפץ‬them abroad from there over the face of all the earth” (11:8). The dispersion of all peoples is a focal point of the narrative as underlined by its final words, repeating and emphasizing the statement from the preceding verse: “from there YHWH scattered them [‫ ]הֱפִ יצָ ם‬abroad over the face of all the earth” (11:9). “From there” (‫)משָּׁ ם‬ ִ suggests the idea of a center from which the inhabitants move out into all directions of the compass. There is a movement from the center to the peripheries, that is, from unity to universal dispersion.

Heimkehr, 60–68, 101–3; Studien, 20–27, 143–66), for instance, has argued that Isa 11:11– 16 and 27:12–13, along with 35:1–10 and 62:10–12, reflect the same editorial strand from the late Persian or Hellenistic period. Analogous to Steck, Lust (“Exile and Diaspora,” 113– 21) claims that passages in Ezekiel alluding to the gathering of the worldwide diaspora (e.g. Ezek 11:14–21; 20:31–48; 34:11–17; 36:23b–38; 37:15–28) were composed and inserted by an editor in the late Persian or Hellenistic period. 3 Cf. Olsen, “From Horeb to Nebo,” 86: “The Babel narrative suggests that all humanity has undergone a primal experience of exile, a forced dispersion.” 4 A different account is found in Gen 9:18–19, according to which the whole earth is peopled by the sons of Noah leaving the ark. For a discussion of literary traditions and the redaction of them in these chapters of Genesis, see Westermann, Genesis 1–11, 711–21.

5.1. The motif of scattering in the Old Testament

297

Scattering is a common image of exile, especially in Deuteronomy and the prophets.5 Analogous to the tower of Babel story, the biblical authors regard the unity and sovereignty of Israel to have been destroyed by the scattering of the people to foreign countries. In order to present a sufficient overview to shed light on this motif in Isaiah, I will briefly examine three key terms – ‫פוץ‬, ‫זרה‬, and ‫ – נדח‬which usually occur in texts dealing with the topic of scattering and dispersion.6 The translators of the Septuagint matched forms of all three Hebrew roots with the verb διασπείρω (“to scatter”) or the noun διασπορά (“dispersion”), which is what the modern word “diaspora” originates from.7 The first term is ‫ פוץ‬which is a key word in Gen 11:1–9. It occurs 66 times in the Old Testament, frequently denoting removal to foreign places. The basic meaning is “to overflow” or “to spread”.8 Gen 10:18 informs readers that the tribes of the Canaanites dispersed or spread abroad. In a few cases, the term denotes the scattering of fine and light material, for instance, the scattering of dill in the agricultural parable in Isa 28:25. The term further denotes the spreading of peoples (e.g. 1 Sam 11:11) and, in particular, of enemies.9 Further associations with war are found in the Minor Prophets: Nah 2:2 refers to the attacker as “a scatterer” (‫ )מֵ פִ יץ‬and Hab 3:14 tells that foreign princes came like a whirlwind to scatter the people. Interestingly, as a result of the Babylonian assault against Jerusalem, the Judean army “was scattered” from its king (2 Kings 25:5; cf. Jer 52:8). Several of the instances occur in the context of deportation and exile. In the Pentateuch, Gen 11:1–9 uses the term to depict worldwide scattering and Gen 49:7 to anticipate the Levites’ future exile within the land.10 Deuteronomy employs the term three times in Moses’ speech to his people on the threshold to the Promised Land (4:27; 28:64; 30:3). In 4:27, Moses warns them: “YHWH will scatter [‫ ]וְ הֵ פִ יץ‬you among the peoples; only a few of you will be left among 5

See e.g. Gile, “Ezekiel’s Theology of Exile”; Turner, “Deuteronomy’s Theology of Ex-

ile.” 6 In addition to these words, the verb ‫“( פזר‬to scatter”), which does not occur in Isaiah, also denotes the scattering of things (e.g. bones) and peoples; cf. the reference in Esth 3:8 to “a certain people scattered [‫]מ ֻפזָּר‬ ְ and dispersed among the peoples” and in Joel 4:2 to the punishment of all the nations because “they scattered” (‫ )פִּ ְזּרוּ‬YHWH’s people among the peoples. 7 See the review of διασπορά in Lust, “Exile and Diaspora,” 103–11. 8 Ringgren, “‫ פּוּץ‬pûṣ.” 9 See Num 10:35; 2 Sam 22:15; Ps 18:15; 68:2; 144:6; Isa 41:16. 10 Ancestor Jacob curses his sons Simeon and Levi: “I will divide them in Jacob, and scatter them [‫ ] ַו ֲאפִ יצֵ ם‬in Israel.” The verse constitutes an etiology which explains why Levi is a landless tribe with no territory of its own. The verse is interesting because it renders an idea of exile within the borders of Israel; cf. Olson, “From Horeb to Nebo,” 92: “the notion of forced migration or exile can be applied to intra-Israelite tribes or groups who are perceived as disenfranchised and involuntarily internally displaced and resettled even though they remain within the boundaries of the nation of Israel.”

298

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

the nations where YHWH will lead you.” Furthermore, in the climax of the major treaty-like passage of Deut 28, scattering among the nations belongs to the series of severe punishments that will strike the people. In 28:64, Moses states: “YHWH will scatter you [ ְ‫ ] ֶוהֱפִ יצ‬among all peoples, from one end of the earth to the other.” Notable here is the explicit thought of a worldwide scattering, extending to the remotest areas of the earth. The prophets use the term several times. Isaiah refers to “the dispersed of Judah” (‫ ;נְ פֻצוֹת יְ הוּדָ ה‬11:12) and imagines a scattering of the inhabitants of the earth (24:1). In Zephaniah, YHWH refers to his worshippers as “the daughter of my dispersed ones” (‫ ;בַּ ת־פּוּצַ י‬3:10). More prominently, Jeremiah and Ezekiel frequently use the term to denote the people’s exile in foreign lands.11 Examples include YHWH’s word in Jer 9:15, “I will scatter them among nations that neither they nor their ancestors have known,” and in Ezek 11:16, “I scattered them among the nations.” Of relevance to my analysis of texts from Isaiah, especially 40:10–11 and 49:9b–12, is the association of ‫ פוץ‬with the scattering of animals: the people are compared to a flock of sheep that has been scattered. In 1 Kings 22:17, Micaiah envisages the defeat of the nation: “I saw all Israel scattered [‫]נְ פֹ צִ ים‬ on the mountains, like sheep that have no shepherd.” The lack of a shepherd to guide and protect the flock reappears in Zech 13:7: “Strike the shepherd, that the sheep may be scattered [ָ ‫]וּתפוּצֶ ין‬.” ְ Employing this kind of imagery, Jeremiah compares the kings of the people to bad shepherds who have destroyed and scattered the sheep of YHWH’s pasture and who have driven them away (Jer 23:1–2; cf. 10:21). Ezekiel intensively develops this image in his major chapter on true and false shepherds in Ezek 34. YHWH states: “So they were scattered [‫]ו ְַתּפוּצֶ ינָה‬, because there was no shepherd; and they became food for all the wild animals and were scattered [‫]ו ְַתּפוּצֶ ינָה‬. My sheep wandered over all the mountains and on every high hill; my sheep were scattered [‫ ]נָפֹ צוּ‬over all the face of the earth, with no one to search or seek for them” (34:5–6; cf. vv. 12 and 21). Again, it is significant to notice that the scattering covers the entire earth rather than a single region. The second and near-synonymous term is ‫“( זרה‬to scatter”) which occurs 39 times.12 It is used about scattering or spreading material, for instance, sulfur (Job 18:15), bones (Ezek 6:5), or dung (Mal 2:3), and more abstractly about knowledge (Prov 15:7). In a handful of cases it denotes the act of winnowing,

11 Jer 9:15; 10:21; 13:24; 18:17; 23:1–2; 30:11; 40:15; Ezek 12:15; 20:23, 34, 41; 22:15; 28:25; 34:5–6, 12, 21; 36:19. 12 The term parallels ‫ פוץ‬in Hiphil seven times in Ezekiel: 12:15; 20:23; 22:15; 36:19 about the exile of YHWH’s people and 29:12; 30:23, 26 about the exile of the Egyptians. Widengren (“Gathering,” 229, 233) considers these instances to render a fixed formula: “I will scatter thee/them among the nations, and disperse thee/them in the countries.” See also the discussion in Gile, “Ezekiel’s Theology of Exile,” 289–91.

5.1. The motif of scattering in the Old Testament

299

that is, the separation of the chaff from the grain by the wind (e.g. Ruth 3:2; Isa 30:24; Jer 4:11). The removal of enemies in Isa 41:16 picks up this imagery: “you shall winnow them and the wind shall carry them away” (cf. Jer 49:32, 36; 52:2). Several instances of ‫ זרה‬occur explicitly in the context of exile. In Lev 26:33, punishment of idolatry consists of the people’s scattering among the nations (cf. Ps 106:27). Similarly, 1 Kings 14:15 predicts YHWH’s punishment of his people: “he will root up Israel out of this good land that he gave to their ancestors, and scatter them [‫ ]וְ ז ֵָרם‬beyond the Euphrates.” The motif of winnowing appears in YHWH’s deportation of his people in Jer 15:7: “I have winnowed them [‫ ]וָאֶ ז ְֵרם‬with a winnowing fork.” In Ezekiel, the term occurs frequently in the sense of exile.13 An example is the portrayal of the defeat of Judah and its king in Ezek 12. YHWH states: “I will scatter [‫ ] ֱאז ֶָרה‬to every wind all who are around him, his helpers and all his troops […] they shall know that I am YHWH when I disperse them [‫ ]בַּ הֲפִ יצִ י‬among the nations and scatter them [‫יתי‬ ִ ‫]וְ ז ִֵר‬ through the countries” (12:14–15). Finally, Zechariah speaks of military powers as four horns that have scattered Judah, Israel, and Jerusalem (2:1–4). As was the case with the former verb, a few instances use ‫ זרה‬about the scattering of sheep. Again, the language is figurative, using the animals to show the destiny of the people. Psalm 44:12 reads: “You have made us like sheep for slaughter, and have scattered us [‫ ]ז ִֵריתָ נוּ‬among the nations.” Moreover, in Jer 31:10, YHWH’s renewed activity as shepherd of his people is set up against past scattering: “He who scattered [‫]מז ֵָרה‬ ְ Israel will gather him, and will keep him as a shepherd a flock.” The shepherding of animals is an important aspect of the third verb ‫נדח‬.14 It occurs 58 times and its basic meaning is “to push (away),” “to banish,” and “to scatter”. The sense of leading or driving someone, often in a wrong direction, occurs in a handful of texts.15 As an example of religious seduction, 2 Kings 17:21 tells that “Jeroboam drove Israel from YHWH,” resulting in the Assyrian capture of Samaria. The wisdom motif of being led astray from the right way is explicit in the condemnation in Deut 13:6 of those who “drove” the people from the way in which YHWH commanded them to walk (cf. Deut 30:17 about the evil way leading to death). The association of the verb with animals is present in Deut 22:1. According to this verse, one is obliged to take back “sheep straying away” (‫)שׂה ִנדָּ חִ ים‬ ֵֶ to its owner. Furthermore, Isa 13:14 says that the Babylonians will flee “like a hunted gazelle [‫]כִּ צְ בִ י מֻדָּ ח‬, or like sheep with no one to gather them.” This sense of the word is used metaphorically to denote YHWH’s banishment of his peo-

13

Ezek 5:10, 12; 6:8; 12:14–15; 20:23; 22:15; 36:19. Cf. Kronholm, “‫ נָדַ ח‬nāḏaḥ.” 15 Deut 4:19; 13:6, 11, 14; 30:17; 2 Kings 17:21; 2 Chr 21:11; Ps 62:5; Prov 7:21. 14

300

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

ple. Jeremiah in particular picks up this language to express the idea of scattering.16 Almost as a repeated formula, YHWH speaks about all the places, nations or lands where he will drive or where he has driven his people (e.g. Jer 29:14). The image of the people as a dispersed flock recurs in Jer 50:17: “Israel is a hunted sheep that lions have driven away.”17 The miserable destiny of the banished ones is expressed in Isa 8:22, where the people will be “thrust” (‫)מנֻדָּ ח‬ ְ into thick darkness. Moreover, Isaiah refers to the exiles as “the outcasts of Israel” (‫ ;נִ ְדחֵ י יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬11:16; 56:8; see below). A similar expression is used about Moab in 16:3–4, where “the outcasts” (‫ )נִ דָּ חִ ים‬parallel “fugitive” (‫)נֹ דֵ ד‬.18 To summarize, all three verbs when denoting the removal of peoples carry negative connotations. In many cases, scattering is the result of divine punishment. Dispersion goes hand in hand with forced migration and is interpreted as expulsion or banishment. The agricultural and pastoral associations of the verbs are significant as they say something about the object being removed. Forced away in exile, the people of YHWH are as powerless and insignificant as the dill which the farmer scatters across his fields. They can easily be spread. The people are seen “as unrecognizable and utterly helpless as ashes in the wind.”19 Furthermore, the recurrent image of the people as a lost and dispersed flock, far away from its home pasture, confirms the idea of weakness and vulnerability. Finally, it is worth noticing that in several cases the people are scattered throughout the nations and numerous foreign lands rather than to one particular country. It is a worldwide dispersion, even to the ends of earth. In most cases, the concept of scattering to the world’s remotest areas is either a threat or a fact. Significantly, as we shall see in Isaiah too, the description of the scattered people is often accompanied or overruled by a promise of gathering.20 The shepherd who scatters his flock is also the one who gathers it again and brings it back. While scattering involves a movement from the center to the peripheries, the gathering reverses this movement: the people will come from all corners of the world to be reunited at one place. A final illustration before we turn to Isaiah is Deut 30:1–4 (cf. the adaption of the passage in Neh 1:8–9). The verses imagine that the people are among all the nations. Here, they will reflect on what caused their present situation and return to YHWH in repentance and faith. God will then restore their fortunes 16

Jer 8:3; 16:15; 23:2, 3, 8; 24:9; 27:10, 15; 29:14, 18; 32:37; 40:12; 43:5; 46:28. Cf. Ezek 4:13; Dan 9:7. 17 Cf. Jer 23:2, 3; Ezek 34:4, 16; Mic 4:6; Zeph 3:19. See also my analysis of Isa 40:10– 11 below. 18 Other passages employ ‫ נדח‬to denote the banishment or removal of enemies. See, for instance, Ps 5:11 (the wicked); Jer 49:5 (Ammon); 49:36 (Elam); Joel 2:20 (the enemy from the north). 19 Wetter, “Balancing the Scales,” 38. 20 Cf. e.g. Jer 23:3; 29:14; 31:10; Ezek 11:16–17. See also Widengren, “Gathering,” 227– 34.

5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people

301

and gather them from all the peoples among whom he once scattered them. Verse 4 emphasizes the divine intention to collect them wherever they are: “Even if you are exiled [ ‫ ]נִ דַּ ֲח‬to the ends of the heavens [‫]בִּ קְ צֵ ה הַ שָּׁ מָ יִ ם‬, from there YHWH your God will gather you, and from there he will bring you back.” Even in the most distant places of the earth, at the farthest edge of the heavens, YHWH will appear to gather his flock.

5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people (Isaiah 11:11–16) 5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people

The themes of scattering and gathering pervade Isa 11:11–16. YHWH’s renewed engagement in the history of his people includes a gathering of those who have been scattered all over the world. An essential element in the reunion of the dispersed people is the reconciliation of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms which have existed for a long time as scattered groups. To make the return possible YHWH will remove all obstacles and establish a highway for all those who remain in the diaspora. The passage constitutes the latter part of Isa 11. This chapter, which depicts the messianic king and his eschatological realm, concludes the larger block on the encounters with the Assyrian empire (5:25–11:16) before the final hymn of thanksgiving in Isa 12. In contrast to the portrait of the Assyrian king in 10:5– 34, Isa 11 as a whole offers an alternative idea of righteous rule. While vv. 1– 9 focus on the royal figure and the astonishing vision of peace on YHWH’s holy mountain, vv. 11–16 focus on the return and gathering after exile. Verse 10 ties the two oracles together as a redactional bridge.21 Isaiah 11:11–16 appears as a single unit. References to YHWH’s hand and the empires of Egypt and Assyria along with the phrase “the remnant of his people who remain (from Assyria)” (‫)שׁאָ ר ַﬠמּוֹ ֲאשֶׁ ר יִ שָּׁ אֵ ר מֵ אַ שּׁוּר‬ ְ frame the unit. Three sub-units form a chiastic structure: vv. 11–12 and vv. 15–16 envisage the return from the diaspora, while vv. 13–14 illustrate the reunification of the two kingdoms and their common retaking of lost territory. An alternative view takes the initial statement in v. 11 to set the basic theme of the unit, followed by the five additional statements in vv. 12–16 which explain how the initial statement is realized.22 With respect to the compositional history of the passage, most scholars seem to assume that it was composed as it now stands, with possible secondary expansions in the listing of geographical names in v. 11b and in the explanatory

21 22

See the discussion in Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 183–91. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 201.

302

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

interpretation in v. 13b.23 Regarding the historical context which fostered the passage, proposals include the prophet Isaiah’s own time,24 the period of King Josiah’s reform,25 and the exilic26 or postexilic eras.27 5.2.1. Isaiah 11:11–16: Text and translation ‫וְ הָ יָה בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬ a ‫יֹ וסִ יף ֲאדֹ נָי שֵׁ נִ ית יָדֹ ו‬ ‫ת־שׁאָ ר ַﬠמֹּ ו ֲאשֶׁ ר ִישָּׁ אֵ ר‬ ְ ֶ‫לִ קְ נֹ ות א‬ ‫וּמ ַפּ ְתרֹ וס‬ ִ ‫וּמ ִמּצְ ַריִ ם‬ ִ ‫מֵ אַ שּׁוּר‬ ‫וּמ ִשּׁ ְנﬠָר‬ ִ ‫וּמכּוּשׁ וּמֵ ֵﬠי ָלם‬ ִ ‫וּמ חֲמָ ת וּמֵ ִאיֵּי הַ ָיּם‬ ֵ֣ ‫וְ נָשָׂ א נֵס לַגֹּ ויִ ם‬ ‫וְ אָ סַ ף נִ ְדחֵ י יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫וּנְ פֻצֹ ות יְ הוּדָ ה ְיקַ בֵּ ץ‬ ‫מֵ אַ ְרבַּ ע ַכּנְ פֹ ות הָ אָ ֶרץ‬ ‫וְ סָ ָרה קִ ְנאַ ת אֶ פְ ַריִ ם‬ ‫וְ צֹ ְר ֵרי יְ הוּדָ ה יִ כּ ֵָרתוּ‬ ‫אֶ פְ ַריִ ם ל ֹא־ ְיקַ נֵּא אֶ ת־ ְיהוּדָ ה‬ ‫וִ יהוּדָ ה ל ֹא־יָצֹ ר אֶ ת־אֶ פְ ָריִ ם‬ ‫וְ ָﬠפוּ בְ ָכתֵ ף פְּ לִ ְשׁ ִתּים ָימָּ ה‬ ‫יַחְ דָּ ו יָבֹ זּוּ אֶ ת־בְּ נֵי־קֶ דֶ ם‬ ‫ֱאדֹ ום וּמֹ ואָ ב ִמ ְשׁ וח יָדָ ם‬ ‫וּבְ נֵי ַﬠמֹּ ון ִמ ְשׁמַ ﬠְ תָּ ם‬ ‫ָם־מצְ ַריִ ם‬ ִ ‫ יְ הוָה אֵ ת לְ שֹׁ ון י‬c‫וְ הֶ ח ֱִרים‬ ‫ רוּחֹ ו‬d‫וְ הֵ נִ יף יָדֹ ו ַﬠל־הַ נָּהָ ר בַּ ﬠְ ָים‬ ‫וְ הִ כָּהוּ לְ ִשׁבְ ָﬠה נְ חָ לִ ים וְ הִ דְ ִרי‬ ‫בַּ ְנּ ָﬠלִ ים‬ ‫וְ הָ יְ תָ ה ְמסִ לָּה לִ ְשׁאָ ר ַﬠמֹּ ו‬

23

11

On that day the Lord [will extend] his hand yet a second time to recover the remnant that is left of his people from Assyria, from Egypt, from Pathros, from Ethiopia, from Elam, from Shinar, from Hamath, and from the coastlands of the sea. 12 He will raise a signal for the nations, and will assemble the outcasts of Israel, and gather the dispersed of Judah from the four corners of the earth. 13 The jealousy of Ephraim shall depart, the hostilityb of Judah shall be cut off; Ephraim shall not be jealous of Judah, and Judah shall not be hostile towards Ephraim. 14 But they shall swoop down on the backs of the Philistines in the west, together they shall plunder the people of the east. They shall put forth their hand against Edom and Moab, and the Ammonites shall obey them. 15 And YHWH will utterly destroy the tongue of the sea of Egypt; and will wave his hand on the River with his scorching wind; and will split it into seven channels, and make a way to cross on foot; 16

so there shall be a highway from Assyria

An exception is Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 248: “In 11,10–16 liegen mindestens drei und vermutlich vier Nachträge vor, die das Bild der messianischen Zeit, wie es in 11,1–9 skizziert ist, unter verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten ergänzen.” 24 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 286; Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 109. 25 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 204–5. 26 Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 141: “Deutero-Isaiah composed 11:11–16.” 27 Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 306; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 267; Wildberger, Jesaja, 467. Clements (Isaiah 1–39, 125) regards it to be very late, close to the apocalyptic worldview “with the idea of a remarkable divine intervention in the world by a special manifestation of Yahweh himself.”

5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people

‫ֲאשֶׁ ר יִ שָּׁ אֵ ר מֵ אַ שּׁוּר‬ ‫ַכּ ֲאשֶׁ ר ָ ֽהיְ תָ ה לְ יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫בְּ יֹ ום ֲﬠ תֹ ו מֵ אֶ ֶרץ ִמצְ ָר ִים‬

303

for the remnant that is left of his people, as there was for Israel when they came up from the land of Egypt.

a

Because ‫ יוֹסִ יף‬requires a verb, it has been proposed to emend ‫ שֵׁ ִנית‬to ‫“( שַׁ נּוֹת‬to raise”; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 266) or ‫“( ְשׁאֵ ת‬to lift up”; Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 249; Wildberger, Jesaja, 463). The infinitive, however, may simply be understood. See also the review in Williamson, “Redaction,” 355–57. b Literally, the line reads: “the opponents of Judah [‫ ]צֹ ְר ֵרי ְיהוּדָ ה‬shall be cut off.” Some interpreters change the vocalization of ‫ צררי‬to read an abstract form: “hostility” (cf. the NRSV). Maintaining the present form raises the question of whether the genitive is subjective (possible but unique) or objective (Judah’s enemies, presumably those from Ephraim). Perhaps v. 13b was added to clarify that it is the hostility of both sides that will depart. c The LXX has “the Lord shall make desolate” (ἐρημώσει κύριος), indicating the drying up of the sea (cf. Isa 50:2; 51:10). In light of this it has been proposed to emend ‫ וְ הֶ ח ֱִרים‬to ‫וְ הֶ ְ ֶח ִריב‬ (“he will dry up”); see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 266; Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 253; Wildberger, Jesaja, 463. d It is difficult to determine the exact meaning of ‫ﬠְ ַיָם‬. Perhaps the word refers to power, violence, or heat. See the review in Wildberger, Jesaja, 464. The LXX has πνεύματι βιαίω, and the Vulgate has in fortitudine spiritus sui.

5.2.2. Isaiah 11:11–12: Redemption and gathering of the dispersed The introductory phrase “on that day” (‫ )בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬provides a link to the former part of Isa 11 and its formulations of hope for the eschatological age. In contrast to vv. 1–10, YHWH is now personally taking action. He is referred to as “the Lord” (‫) ֲאדֹ ָני‬, emphasizing the sovereignty of his nature which the prophet encountered in the temple (6:1, 8). Here, however, God does not intend to judge his people. The time of judgment is over. YHWH’s renewed and powerful intervention is poetically expressed by the extension of his hand. Curiously, his extended hand is said to appear “yet a second time” (‫)שֵׁ נִ ית‬. Wildberger argues that this second time (or simply “again,” implied in the verb ‫וסיף‬ ִ ֹ‫ )י‬refers to a subsequent wave of returnees, following the first wave in the beginning of the Persian period.28 Hardly anything in the text warrants this interpretation. Other interpreters propose that “a second time” offers an allusion to the exodus out of Egypt, casting the action of v. 11 as a second exodus (cf. vv. 15–16).29 Certainly, the reference to “with a strong hand” (‫ )בְּ יָד ֲחזָקָ ה‬occurs frequently in connection with the release from Egyptian captivity (e.g. Exod 13:9; Deut 5:15) and the presence of ‫ קנה‬in v. 11 points in a similar direction (cf. Exod 15:16; see below).

28 29

Wildberger, Jesaja, 467–68. E.g. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 287; Young, Isaiah I, 394.

304

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

The literary context in Isaiah, however, offers a third and more probable option.30 In the preceding chapters, YHWH’s outstretched hand is a strong metaphor for his anger and destructive purpose (5:25; 9:11, 16, 20; 10:4). The second raising of his hand here implies a shift in perspective: “at the first, God raised his hand in judgement of his people, but now he will raise it to initiate their salvation.”31 A similar shift which warrants this interpretation is seen in the positive function of the “signal for the nations” in v. 12 which in 5:26 was used to summit enemies from the ends of the earth. YHWH once extended his hand to destroy. Now he will extend it to redeem and gather. Nevertheless, it is the same hand, underlining the ambiguous ways in which God acts (cf. my analysis in Chapter 1). YHWH’s renewed engagement concerns “the remnant that is left of his people” (‫ת־שׁאָ ר ַﬠמֹּ ו ֲאשֶׁ ר יִ שָּׁ אֵ ר‬ ְ ֶ‫)א‬, clearly picking up on the central Isaianic theme of a surviving remnant that is seen throughout the book (1:7–9; 4:2–6; 7:3; 10:20– 23; 37:30–32).32 An essential difference, however, is that the remnant here is not located on the holy mountain, but in the worldwide diaspora. In 11:12 it is further portrayed as “the outcast of Israel” and “the dispersed of Judah,” returning from the four corners of the world. Isaiah 11:11–16 does not presume a poor group of survivors on Zion who are awaiting purification and from whom a new people will emerge. Rather, our passage presumes a state of exile where the city and land have been completely destroyed by the judging hand of YHWH and where the inhabitants that once dwelt in one place have been scattered far and wide. Determining the meaning of the central verb ‫ קנה‬is important for understanding the presupposed situation of the people in the foreign places. The basic meaning of the word is “to buy” or “to acquire”. It is used about buying slaves (Exod 21:2) and in this sense also about the release or redemption from slavery (cf. Neh 5:8: “we have bought back [‫ ]קָ נִ ינוּ‬our Jewish kindred who had been sold to other nations”). This idea would accord with YHWH’s buying back of his people in Isa 43:1–4 (see Chapter 4). The scenario is also likely in light of Ps 74:2 which explicitly juxtaposes God’s past acquiring of his people with his redemptive power: “Remember your congregation, which you acquired [ ָ‫]קָ נִ ית‬ long ago, which you redeemed [ ָ‫ ]גָּאַ לְ תּ‬to be the tribe of your heritage.” As their master and redeemer, YHWH now reclaims the ownership of his people.33 Despite their initial rebellion against him he will, once again, become their “owner” (cf. ‫ קֹ נֶה‬in Isa 1:3).

30

Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 318; Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 108. Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 132. 32 See Poulsen, Representing Zion, 98–100. 33 Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 468: “Jahwes Erlösungshandeln [schließt in sich] ein Inbesitznehmen des Volkes durch seinen Gott.” 31

5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people

305

Nevertheless, when God is the subject of ‫ קנה‬it is common to construe the verb as a creative action. This is seen in the liturgical formula in Gen 14:19, 22 (“maker [‫ ]קֹ נֵה‬of heaven and earth”) and in God’s relation to Lady Wisdom in Prov 8:22 (“YHWH created me [‫)”]קָ ָנ ִני‬. Similarly, YHWH’s special relationship to his people is described by this verb in Deut 32:6: “he has created you, made you, and established you” ( ‫)קָּ ֶנ הוּא ָﬠ ְשׂ ַו ְיכֹ נְ ֶנ‬. Other occurrences of the verb suggest a deliberate play on the status of Israel as fluctuating between that of being purchased and of being created by God (Exod 15:16; cf. Ps 78:54). The assumption of a similar wordplay in Isa 11:11 implies that YHWH extends his arm not only to redeem from captivity, but also to recreate and restore a people who have been banished to the realm of death. The overall viewpoint of the passage is given from the holy mountain in Jerusalem (11:9). YHWH’s renewed salvific activity goes out from here as from the center of a compass to the people scattered all over the world. Clearly there is a movement from the peripheries back to this center. The function of the mentioning of no less than eight ancient geographical locations is to create an image of completeness (cf. “the four corners of the earth” in v. 12). The eight names spell out the cardinal points of the compass and represent the borders of the known world.34 The great empire Assyria along with Elam and Shinar (or Babylon) lies to the east. The other great empire Egypt along with Pathros and Ethiopia lies to the south. The Syrian city Hamath lies to the north. “The coastlands of the sea” (‫ ) ִאיֵּי הַ ָיּם‬refers to a place at the Mediterranean Sea to the west, either a coastal area or an island. Although it is plausible that Jews lived at many of these places, the listing of them serves another function: “the purpose is figurative, attempting to say that God is able to restore his people from everywhere.”35 The motif of concentration is further elaborated in v. 12. The four lines of the verse form a concentric structure with references to “nations” and “the earth” in the outer frame and the gathering of Israel and Judah in the inner parallel. YHWH is the subject of the three verbs. Initially, he will raise “a signal for the nations” (‫)נֵס לַגֹּ ו ִים‬, perhaps a flag or a banner. The purpose of this signal in v. 10 was to attract the nations (‫ ) ַﬠ ִמּים‬to come and seek the root of Jesse. In v. 12, it is not clear whether the signal serves to gather the nations as such or rather to alert them that the time has come to let go of the dispersed

34 Many interpreters regard only Assyria to be original, and perhaps also Egypt (cf. v. 16). Clements (Isaiah 1–39, 126), for instance, claims that an editor later added the succeeding references to accommodate other places to which Jews were dwelling. In fact, “such a gloss marks one of the latest additions to the entire book.” Even if this is true, the idea of the widest possible diaspora is already present by the phrase “from the four corners of the earth” in v. 12 which few scholars, if any, as far as I can see, deem to be secondary. 35 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 287.

306

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

people and bring them home (cf. Isa 49:22; see below).36 As was noted, the reference to “the four corners of the earth” (‫ )אַ ְרבַּ ע ַכּנְ פֹ ות הָ אָ ֶרץ‬suggests completeness. The number “four” frequently symbolizes wholeness, particularly in relation to ultimate destruction (Jer 15:3; Ezek 14:21; Joel 1:4; cf. Ezek 7:2: “The end has come upon the four corners of the land”). As in Ezekiel, the thought is that the people have been scattered to every wind (Ezek 5:12; 17:21). The two words for gathering may evoke different associations.37 The former verb (‫ )אסף‬is used about bringing in the harvest (e.g. Exod 23:10), casting YHWH in the role of a vineyard keeper who collects the fruit. The latter verb (‫ קבץ‬in Piel) is frequently used about the gathering of sheep, casting YHWH in the role of a shepherd who collects and leads sheep (see further below). The idea of totality is also present in the designation of the people at the center of the verse. They are called “the banished of Israel” (‫) ִנ ְדחֵ י ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬38 and “the dispersed of Judah” (‫)נְ פֻצֹ ות ְיהוּדָ ה‬. The feminine form of “dispersed” along with the masculine form of “banished” are notable in that they express entirety, that is, both men and women, perhaps equivalent to the references to “your sons” and “your daughters” in Isa 49:22 and 60:4. Israel and Judah either stand for the two kingdoms soon to be united (v. 13) or are synonymous to articulate the one people now being gathered. 5.2.3. Isaiah 11:13–14: Reunification and reconquest Verses 13–14 subtly develop the themes of scattering and gathering. A people that was once scattered into two groups will again become one. The Northern Kingdom of Ephraim and the Southern Kingdom of Judah shall be reconciled and regain their strength and territorial dominion as in the days of the great King David. The conflict between the two houses pervades the preceding chapters in Isaiah and culminates in Isa 9:20: “Manasseh devoured Ephraim, and Ephraim Manasseh, and together they were against Judah.” In contrast, Isa 11 presents a vision of reunification. The enmity of Ephraim will depart and the hostile adversaries of (or within)39 Judah will disappear. There will be no more division and tension between the two houses. Perhaps the political reconciliation presupposes the gathering of the dispersed people as presented in vv. 11–12. Other prophetic texts lend support to

36

An alternative but dubious approach regards “nations” as the geographical realm of the diaspora where the scattered Israelites dwell. See Croatto, “Salvific Oracles,” 158–59; cf. my review in Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 198–205. 37 Wildberger, Jesaja, 470. 38 In addition to this verse, the phrase ‫ ִנ ְדחֵ י ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬occurs only in Ps 147:2, where the gathering of the outcasts parallels the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and in Isa 56:8, which likely adopts and reformulates 11:12. See Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 82–86. 39 See the textual notes.

5.2. Gathering and reunifying the scattered people

307

the idea that it is the very act of returning to Zion that generates reunification.40 In Jer 3:18 and 50:4–5, the people of Israel and the people of Judah become one as they return from the land of north (that is, the exile) and seek YHWH on Zion. Likewise, in Ezek 37:15–28, YHWH gathers his scattered people and makes them into “one nation” (‫)גוֹי אֶ חָ ד‬. Finally, in Hos 2:2, we encounter this vision: “the people of Judah and the people of Israel shall be gathered [‫]וְ ִנקְ בְּ צוּ‬ together […] and they shall rise up from the land [‫]וְ ָﬠלוּ ִמן־הָ אָ ֶרץ‬,” assuming that the latter phrase alludes to the departure from the diaspora. The fundamental movement from the peripheries to the center, from worldwide scattering to reunification on the holy mountain in 11:11–13, is reversed in v. 14. The restored unity will manifest itself in an outward-moving expansion of the territory of the new empire. The people will hunt down its neighbors in the manner of a bird of prey and will plunder them. Lost control over the surrounding regions will be regained, that is, regions which according to memory had formerly been conquered by King David: Philistia (2 Sam 8:1), Edom (2 Sam 8:13–14), Moab (2 Sam 8:2), and Ammon (2 Sam 10:1–5).41 Verse 14 thus views the extent of the new empire in light of the old Davidic kingdom. Moreover, the mentioning of exactly four geographical names emphasizes the idea of completeness: Israel is gathered from distant countries, from the four corners of the earth, to rule its four neighbors. 5.2.4. Isaiah 11:15–16: Splitting the river into streams Verses 15–16 pick up the main theme of vv. 11–12, clearly indicated by the references to Egypt and Assyria and YHWH’s hand and by the phrase “the remnant that is left of his people.” The motif of acquiring or redeeming (‫)קנה‬ the people in v. 11 parallels the unleash of divine power in v. 15. More explicitly than in the former case, this verse depicts the obstacles that need to be removed so that the scattered people can return. The scene is that of a battle and the language is vivid and graphic. The main hindrance for the people’s return is water. There seems to be an allusion to the waters of chaos which YHWH fought against in ancient days (Isa 51:10; Ps 74:13–14). It is a power that once again needs to be broken. “The tongue of the sea of Egypt” (‫ )לְ שֹׁ ון יָם־ ִמצְ ַריִ ם‬likely refers to a gulf or a bay, whereas “the river” (‫ )הַ נָּהָ ר‬refers to one of the great rivers of Mesopotamia, presumably the Euphrates. This very river served as YHWH’s tool of judgment in 8:7, but now it must be defeated to deliver his people. There also seems to be an allusion to the tradition of the exodus out of Egypt insofar as “hand” (‫)יַד‬ and “wind” ( ַ‫ )רוּח‬are central elements in the division of the Rea Sea (Exod

40

See Poulsen, Representing Zion, 169–72. Wildberger, Jesaja, 472–73. Beuken (Jesaja 1–12, 320) refers to the passage as “eine Reise in die Geschichte Israels.” 41

308

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

14:16, 21, 26–27; 15:8–10).42 Furthermore, v. 16 compares YHWH’s deliverance from Assyria with the great one from Egypt (cf. Isa 43:14–21; 51:9–11 and the discussion in Chapter 4).43 The employed verbs designate powerful and war-like actions. YHWH will “utterly destroy” the tongue of Egypt; literally, he will “put it under ban” (‫חרם‬ in Hiphil). Elsewhere in Isaiah, the verb occurs in the context of severe destruction of foreign peoples and Edom (34:2, 5), the seemingly unbeatable power of the king of Assyria (37:11), and YHWH’s intention to deliver his people to utter destruction (43:28). In Jeremiah, it denotes the ultimate destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (25:9). A second and intriguing option is to derive the verb from a homonymic root meaning “to split or divide” (cf. Lev 21:18: “a mutilated face,” “a split lip,” or “a split nose” [‫]חָ רֻ ם‬, presumably referring to a cleft lip). This sense would offer a good parallel to the latter half of the verse. Furthermore, YHWH will wave his hand on the River. The verb ‫ נוף‬in Hiphil designates the act of swinging, waving, or moving something back and forth.44 In a handful of cases, “hand” (‫ )יַד‬is the object of the verb, for instance, as a sign of threat (Isa 13:2) and an act of healing (2 Kings 5:11). YHWH’s waving of his hand is a strong expression of his punishment (Isa 19:16; Zech 2:13), but also contrasts the arrogant behavior of the Assyrian king in Isa 10:32. The waving of the hand in v. 15 is accompanied by, or perhaps imitates, the wind blowing back and forth and making things move from side to side (e.g. trees in Isa 7:2). As in the Exodus tradition, the wind has the force to divide and scatter and serves as a punishing agent of YHWH (see my exegesis of Isa 27:8 below). The final result of YHWH’s destructive actions is spelled out in the final line: he will split the river into seven channels or wadis. Literally, the verb means “to strike or smite” (‫ נכה‬in Hiphil), suggesting that YHWH beats the river using the wind as his instrument (Isa 10:26; Zech 10:11). As a consequence, the river will be divided into seven minor streams. The number “seven” symbolically refers to completeness (cf. “four” in vv. 12 and 14 above)45 and points to the thoroughness of YHWH’s powerful intervention. Not without irony, the verse reverses the motif of scattering: the dispersed Israel shall become one great people through their returning home, but only by the division of one great river into many smaller streams. Moreover, just as the sea is split into two to establish a way to pass through it, two houses are being fused into one by crossing it. 42

Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, 323. See Poulsen, “New Ways.” 44 In more than half of its occurrences in biblical Hebrew, ‫ נוף‬in Hiphil denotes a ritual act in front of the altar (e.g. Exod 29:24). Other instances include the wielding of a sickle at the time of harvest (Deut 23:26) and the handling of a saw (Isa 10:15). 45 Cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 1–12, 253: “eine unbestimmte Vielzahl,” referring to Qoh 11:2. 43

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

309

The motif of the way is indicated by the final phrase of v. 15. YHWH will make a way for his people or guide (‫ דרך‬in Hiphil) them on their journey. It is a way that can be crossed “with sandals” (‫)בַּ נְּ ָﬠלִ ים‬, that is, without taking them off. Perhaps the reference to sandals is a subtle comment on Isa 20:2–4: unlike the shamed, barefoot slaves and prisoners of war the redeemed people of YHWH can return with their sandals on! Verse 16 develops the theme of the way by introducing the central term “highway” (‫)מ ִסלָּה‬. ְ The sole occurrence of this word in Jeremiah (31:21) explicitly links it to exile: road markers and signposts will mark the highway by which the people went into exile, for later they will return by the very same road. In Isa 19:25, the establishment of such a highway leading from Egypt to Assyria signifies the breaking down of barriers between peoples and in Isa 40:3, the highway in the desert overcomes the distance between YHWH and his people.46 In Isa 49:11 and 62:10, as here, the highway occurs in close connection with the return of the scattered people. We shall return to this topic below and in Chapter 6. 5.2.5. Summing up Isaiah 11:11–16 envisions the gathering of the dispersed people and the reconciliation of the two houses of Israel. YHWH extends his powerful hand to gather and restore the surviving remnant that have been scattered to a series of places. The listing of eight locations and the reference to the four corners of the earth render an idea of completeness, moving from the peripheries towards the center. The return involves reunification of the two kingdoms and expansion of their territory to include four neighboring regions. YHWH will eliminate all possible hindrances to the gathering of his scattered ones and will create a way for the returning people.

5.3. The great shofar shall sound (Isaiah 27:7–13) 5.3. The great shofar shall sound

Isaiah 27:7–13 reflects on the experience of exile and proclaims a strong hope for a future gathering of those who have been driven away. YHWH scattered his people with a destructive wind but, eventually, he will gather them one by one and the restored people will worship him on the holy mountain in Jerusalem. The passage concludes the section of Isa 24–27, commonly referred to as the “Apocalypse of Isaiah”. Characteristic of these chapters is a cosmic and largely dehistoricized perspective, focusing on the forthcoming devastating 46

Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 380: “A highway is a favorite metaphor [in Isaiah] for the removal of alienation and separation.”

310

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

judgment of the earth and its inhabitants, later moving towards a future of salvation and redemption.47 References to worldwide destruction and cosmic scattering in 24:1–3 and the gathering and restoration of Israel in 27:12–13 frame the section. According to its opening verses, YHWH will lay the earth to waste and “scatter its inhabitants” ( ָ‫ ;)וְ הֵ פִ יץ יֹ ְשׁבֶ יה‬no one will escape this. Scholars generally recognize the composite nature of Isa 27, and proposals for diachronic separation of units divide opinion immensely (the most extreme proposal suggests no less than seven independent units: vv. 1, 2–5, 6, 7–8, 9– 11, 12, 13).48 Determining the historical setting of each of these units is difficult. Despite the presumably late date of the final form of Isa 24–27, perhaps as late as the middle of the second century,49 it is not impossible that the editor(s) reworked older material.50 As an example, many interpreters assume that at least vv. 7–11 reflect the fate of the Northern Kingdom (cf. “Jacob” in v. 9 and Ephraim’s destiny in Isa 17:3–11). Sweeney, for instance, locates the original setting of these verses in the seventh century, but suggests that an editor in the fifth century later reshaped the overall meaning of the passage to concern Jerusalem.51 Others think that the Jewish-Samaritan conflict in the late Persian and Hellenistic periods have fostered the words of vv. 7–11 to pronounce judgment against Samaria.52 Johnson dates the verses to the exilic or early postexilic period on the basis of the reunification between the Northern and Southern Kingdoms which he regards to be a central theme of the chapter.53 Blenkinsopp and Childs refrain from proposing a specific historical context.54 Like them, I shall refrain from entering into these matters. From a synchronic point of view, Isa 27 consists of three units. Verse 1 depicts YHWH’s victory over Leviathan, “the twisting serpent,” as a prelude to restoration. Verses 2–6 contain an allegorical representation of Israel as YHWH’s vineyard, which he cares for and protects, and a short explanation of the allegory (cf. 5:1–7). Verses 7–13 consist of reflections on the experience

47 See Dempsey’s “Words of Woe” (222), which highlights the section as a unified and coherent piece of literature: “the poetry of Isa 24–27 tells a story.” 48 See the recent review in Willis, “Vineyard.” 49 Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 145. 50 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 397. 51 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 350–52. 52 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 220–21; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1016–18. 53 Johnson, Chaos, 90–91. 54 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 377–78: “This quest for chronological precision has been pursued unsuccessfully for a long time, and there is no realistic prospect of a decision.” According to Childs (Isaiah, 194–96), the difficulties in dating Isa 27 and especially vv. 7– 11 stem from the apocalyptic nature of Isa 24–27 which “accounts for the inability of the interpreter to find one specific historical setting, since the focus consistently falls on a typology of God’s eternal purpose for his people that transcends one single historical moment in Israel’s experience.” Cf. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 185.

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

311

of exile and a hope for future gathering and restoration of the scattered people. The opening unit (v. 1) and the end of the third unit (vv. 12–13) form an inclusio (notice the repetition of ‫)בַּ יּוֹם הַ הוּא‬. Perhaps the great call for gathering at the end of the chapter is thought to emerge from YHWH’s killing of the chaos monster of the sea (cf. Isa 11:15–16). Just as the woe-oracles in 5:8–24 offer an explanation and exemplification of the destruction of the vineyard in 5:1–7, vv. 7–13 may serve a similar function as an interpretation of the restoration of the vineyard proclaimed in vv. 2–6. In any case, the dense use of agricultural imagery in both units ties them together.55 Verse 7 marks a transition between vv. 2–6 and 7–13 by offering two rhetorical questions which set the theme of the latter passage which concerns how YHWH treated his people. Three minor units follow the initial questions: vv. 8–9 contain a retrospective account of the exile and its effects; vv. 10–11 narrate the fate of a fortified city; and vv. 12–13 convey the hope for a complete gathering and restoration of the dispersed Israel. The first and third sub-units correspond to each other: both the physical removal of the people and their scattering in v. 8 relate to their gathering in v. 12 and the destruction of idols and false worship in v. 9 matches the spiritual restoration of proper worship to YHWH in v. 13. The center in vv. 10–11 is very difficult to interpret. In order to concentrate my analysis on the motifs of scattering and gathering I will not deal with them in the exegetical section below, but will only offer a brief comment here. In the interpretation of vv. 10–11, much depends on the identification of the fortified city.56 More persistent options include Samaria,57 Jerusalem,58 or both,59 or the great enemy of YHWH, presumably Babylon.60 Evidence to support Samaria includes several textual links and other types of substantial connection between this passage and Isa 17:2–11.61 Accordingly, 27:10–11 would depict the destruction of the northern city because of idolatry. In favor of Jerusalem are other passages in Isaiah which predict the ultimate destruction of the capital of Judah (5:11–17; 6:11–13; 22:1–14; see Chapters 1 55

Cf. Sweeney, “New Gleanings,” 54–55; Willis, “Vineyard,” 202. For a review of the scholarly debate, see Doyle, Apocalypse, 37–45. 57 Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 222; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1016–18. 58 Doyle, Apocalypse, 358–62; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 352 (with regard to the intention of the final form of the passage); Young, Isaiah II, 247. 59 Johnson argues that the duplicity of referents is a result of “a conflation of two traditions: one relating to the fall of the Northern kingdom and the other to the fall of Judah” (Chaos, 90–91), that is, the termination of the two parts of the one kingdom which, according to his interpretation of Isa 27, will soon be reunified and restored. 60 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 378; Childs, Isaiah, 198; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 497; Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 198. 61 See e.g. Hibbard, Intertextuality, 195–99; Leene, “Bridge,” 220–21; Sweeney, “New Gleanings,” 55–57. 56

312

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

and 2). Other significant links include the image of an isolated city (cf. 1:8–9) and the description of its remaining inhabitants as “a people without understanding” (‫ ;ל ֹא ַﬠם־בִּ ינוִ ת‬cf. 1:3). In Isa 27, a devastated Jerusalem in vv. 10–11 would continue the reflection of exile and removal of idolatry in vv. 7–9 and provide a contrast to the restoration of the city in vv. 12–13. In favor of a foreign city is the repeated annihilation of foreign cities and countries in Isa 13–26, for instance, of Babylon and its king in 13:1–14:23. In Isa 27, the destruction of a city belonging to the enemies would parallel the killing of Leviathan in v. 1, the battle against “thorns and briers” in v. 4, and the reference to YHWH’s ultimate striking down of the adversaries in v. 7. There will be no divine compassion for the enemies. There are good arguments for identifying the nameless city with each of the mentioned cities and, most of all, the fortified city appears to be a general symbol or metaphor for human pride and hostility towards God.62 Opting for the last proposal, however, would offer the most coherent reading of Isa 27. The remaining part of the chapter renders a rather positive message to the people of Judah: the defeat of the mythological enemy, YHWH’s renewed care of his vineyard, exile as a means of atonement, and the vision of a worldwide gathering of the dispersed people.63 Verses 10–11 fit this sequence well if the unit accounts for the defeat of the enemies. Their destiny stands in contrast to that of YHWH’s own people (vv. 7–9) and to the future restoration of Jerusalem (vv. 12–13). 5.3.1. Isaiah 27:7–13: Text and translation a

‫הַ כְּ מַ כַּת מַ כֵּהוּ הִ ָכּהוּ‬

‫ הֹ ָרג‬b‫ִאם־כְּ הֶ ֶרג הֲרֻ ָגיו‬ d

‫ בְּ שַׁ לְ חָ הּ ְתּ ִריבֶ נָּה‬c‫בְּ סַ אסְּ אָ ה‬

‫ בְּ רוּחֹ ו הַ קָּ שָׁ ה בְּ יֹ ום קָ ִדים‬d‫הָ ָגה‬

7

Has he struck them down as he struck down those who struck them? Or have they been killed as their killers were killed? 8 By expulsion, by exile you struggled against them; with his fierce blast he removed them in the day of the east wind.

62 According to Bürki (“City of Pride,” 50), the fate of the anonymous city in Isa 24–27 stands in contrast to the elevation of Zion. Rather than a political entity, the city of Zion metaphorically represents “Yahweh as the fortress of the righteous one, while the city in ruins symbolizes false securities.” Cf. Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 407: “Obgleich die Stadt in V 10–11 geographische Züge trägt, bildet sie eine theologische Metapher, deren Kernpunkt die Gott feindlich gesinnte Stadt ist, wie er in Jes 24–26 entfaltet wurde: Ein Symbol für jede Macht, die sich dem göttlichen Willen nicht beugen will, wo auch immer sie sich auf dieser Welt befinden mag. Kap. 27 fügt diesem Bild Eigenschaften hinzu, die es ermöglichen, in dieser Stadt – falls gewünscht – auch Jerusalem und/oder Samaria zu erkennen.” See also Hibbard, Intertextuality, 191. 63 Childs, Isaiah, 195–96.

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

‫ָלכֵן בְּ ז ֹאת יְ ֻכפַּר ﬠֲוֹן־ ַיﬠֲקֹ ב‬ ‫וְ זֶה ָכּל־פְּ ִרי הָ סִ ר חַ טָּ אתֹ ו‬ ַ‫בְּ שׂוּמֹ ו ָכּל־אַ בְ נֵי ִמזְבֵּ ח‬ ‫כְּ אַ בְ נֵי־גִ ר ְמנֻ ָפּצֹ ות‬ ‫ל ֹא־יָקֻ מוּ ֲאשֵׁ ִרים וְ חַ מָּ נִ ים‬ ‫וְ הָ יָה בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬ ‫יַחְ בֹּ ט יְ ה ָוה‬ ‫ הַ נָּהָ ר ַﬠד־נַחַ ל ִמצְ ָריִ ם‬f‫ִמ ִשּׁבֹּ לֶת‬ ‫וְ אַ תֶּ ם ְתּלֻקְּ טוּ לְ אַ חַ ד אֶ חָ ד בְּ נֵי‬ ‫יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫וְ הָ יָה בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬ ‫יִ תָּ קַ ע בְּ שֹׁ ו ָפר גָּדֹ ול‬ ‫וּבָ אוּ הָ אֹ בְ דִ ים בְּ אֶ ֶרץ אַ שּׁוּר‬ ‫וְ הַ נִּ דָּ חִ ים בְּ אֶ ֶרץ ִמצְ ָריִ ם‬ ‫וְ הִ ְשׁתַּ חֲווּ לַיהוָה בְּ הַ ר הַ קֹּ דֶ שׁ‬ ‫בִּ ירוּשָׁ לָם‬ a

313

9

Therefore by this the guilt of Jacob will be expiated, and this will be the full fruit of the removal of sin: when he makes all the stones of the altars like chalkstones crushed to pieces, no sacred poles or incense altars will remain standing. […] 12 On that day YHWH will thresh from the channel of the Euphrates to the Wadi of Egypt, and you will be gathered one by one, O people of Israel. 13

And on that day a great trumpet will be blown, and those who were lost in the land of Assyria and those who were driven out to the land of Egypt will come and worship YHWH on the holy mountain at Jerusalem.

It has been proposed to emend ‫ הִ כָּהוּ‬to the passive ְ‫“( ֻהכָּה ו‬was he struck down,” cf. the LXX: πληγήσεται καὶ and ‫ הֹ ָרג‬in the latter half of the verse). See, for instance, the footnote in BHS and Doyle, Apocalypse, 353. Maintaining the active form, Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 1–39, 375– 76) supplies God and Israel to render intelligible the reading: “Did God strike Israel like those that struck him?” b Literally the text reads “his killed ones” (‫)הֲרֻ גָיו‬, but in light of the preceding line of the verse it must mean “those who killed him” or “their killers”. Reading an active form is supported by 1QIsaa (‫ )הורגיו‬and the LXX (καὶ ὡς αὐτὸς ἀνεῖλεν οὕτως ἀναιρεθήσεται) and is assumed by many modern interpreters, e.g. Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 395–96; Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 181; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1013–14. c The meaning of this word is disputed (see the exegesis of the verse). d Some interpreters (e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 395–96) change the second person verbal form (‫)תּ ִריבֶ נָּה‬ ְ to a third person verbal form (‫ ) ְי ִריבֶ נָּשה‬in light of v. 7 and v. 8b. e Because the verb lacks an object, it has been proposed to emend the verb to “he removed her” (‫)הגהּ‬. See, for instance, Driver, “Textual Notes,” 44. The object, however, may simply be implied. f Many modern interpreters emend ‫ ִמ ִשּׁ ֹבּלֶת הַ נָּהָ ר‬to ‫ ִשׁבֹּ לִ ים מֵ הַ נָּהָ ר‬or ‫“( ִשׁ ֹבּלֶת מֵ הַ נָּהָ ר‬the grain from the river”), thereby providing an object for the verb. See, for example, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 395–96; Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 185; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1022. No ancient witnesses warrant this emendation and the object may simply be understood. Nevertheless, there might be a wordplay intended (see the exegesis of the verse).

314

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

5.3.2. Isaiah 27:7: Did Israel cease to exist? Rather abruptly, two rhetorical questions are posed in continuation of the description of YHWH’s special love towards his vineyard and his promise to restore it completely in vv. 2–6. The questions and subsequent response in vv. 7–9 concern the manner in which YHWH’s judgment against his people has been different from that against their enemies and, in light of vv. 2–6, why it was necessary for YHWH to judge at all.64 Because of idolatry he had to punish, but his punishment did not imply that his people ceased to exist. Apart from the participle ‫אם‬, ִ the remaining words in v. 7 derive from only two roots: ‫“( נכה‬to strike”) and ‫“( הרג‬to kill”). Despite its brevity, the verse contains significant textual and interpretative problems, not least because of undefined subjects and objects.65 Literally the text reads: “Like the striking down of the one striking him down did he strike him down? Or like the killing of those who killed him [or of his killed ones] was he killed?” (see textual notes). Like practically all other interpreters, I assume that the initial subject of the sentence is YHWH and that the masculine suffix “him” and the subject of ‫ הֹ ָרג‬refer to Israel/Jacob (cf. 27:6). Because the singular form should be understood collectively, the rendering of “they” is preferable (cf. the NRSV). There are two possible interpretations of the comparison made in the verse. YHWH’s striking/killing of Israel is compared either to the striking/killing of Israel by its enemies or to the striking/killing of Israel’s enemies by YHWH.66 Again, like most other interpreters, I consider the second option to be the most likely. In light of these considerations, the purpose of the rhetorical questions is to evoke reflection among the people on whether their fate is as bad as that of their enemies. The perspective of both questions is retrospective insofar as they seek to shed light on the past. Has YHWH treated his people as other nations destined for extinction? The implied answer is no. There is no doubt that YHWH’s punishment of his people has been severe and painful but it has not been terminal, unlike his implied treatment of the enemies (cf. vv. 10–11). The first question asks whether YHWH struck down his people as he struck down their oppressors. The verb “to strike” (‫ נכה‬in Hiphil) is common in the context of divine judgment against a nation or an individual (e.g. Lev 26:21; Deut 28:58–61). Todd Hibbard has demonstrated that there is a certain discourse of “striking” in Isaiah.67 The verb ‫ נכה‬occurs in central statements about YHWH’s striking of his people, often by means of (Assyrian) enemies (1:5–6; 5:25; 9:12). Moreover, Assyria strikes Israel down (10:20–27), but is eventually struck down itself by YHWH (30:27–33; 37:36–38; cf. 11:15 above). “As 64

Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 401. See the extensive analysis in Leene, “Bridge,” 208–11. 66 Hibbard, “Intertextual Discourse,” 462; cf. Leene, “Bridge,” 201–2. 67 Hibbard, “Intertextual Discourse”; cf. Intertextuality, 199–204. 65

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

315

he struck down those who struck them” (‫ )הַ כְּ מַ כַּת מַ כֵּהוּ‬makes good sense in light of these passages as a reference to past judgment and vindication portrayed elsewhere in the book. In other words, v. 7 “invites the reader to make this connection while retaining explicit anonymity for the aggressor.”68 Furthermore, Hibbard draws attention to three passages which in the context of restoration recall YHWH’s past striking of his people. Two of them are found in 57:17 and 60:10, both of which closely associate YHWH’s striking with his hiddenness and anger in the past (cf. my analysis in Chapter 1). The third occurs in 30:23–26. The final verse of this unit depicts the day “when YHWH binds up the injuries of his people, and heals [‫ ] ִי ְר ָפּא‬the wounds inflicted by his blow [‫]מַ ָכּתוֹ‬.” What we encounter in this verse is that “YHWH’s restorative healing reverses the ill effects of his earlier discipline.”69 Unlike in 6:10, healing will come. In a similar manner, 27:7 and its broader literary context indicate that punishment has now run its course and restoration will come. Implied in the rhetorical question is a glimpse of hope. The second question asks whether Israel was killed like its slayers were killed. Perhaps the passive form here seeks to avoid the thought that YHWH could have killed his own people (see, however, Exod 4:23).70 Nevertheless, he seems to be the hidden agent. In Isaiah, the verb “to kill” (‫ )הרג‬occurs far from as frequently as ‫נכה‬. Nevertheless, the occurrence of it in v. 7 offers an important link to the opening of Isa 27. According to 27:1, YHWH will punish (‫ )יִ פְ קֹ ד‬the sea-monster Leviathan, the great enemy of ancient days, and kill (‫ )וְ הָ ַרג‬it (cf. 26:20–21). In addition, Isa 30:25, which Hibbard does not comment upon, even speaks about a day of “the great slaughter” (‫ )הֶ ֶרג ָרב‬where enemies will fall and Israel will be healed. YHWH will kill the enemy, not Israel. The intertextual play on “killing” in the latter half of v. 7 thus suggests that YHWH’s intention was never to kill and slaughter his people in the same way as their enemies were to be killed and slaughtered. The answer implied in the two questions is unmistakable. Nevertheless, it raises a new question: in what manner did YHWH treat his people? This question is what the following verses seek to address. 5.3.3. Isaiah 27:8–9: Blast away by the wind Verses 8–9 account for YHWH’s treatment of his people. Rather than death and total extinction, the punishment consisted of expulsion. The concentration of verbs designating dismissal and removal in v. 8 is notable. As a whole, the verse points to a “forced separation” between YHWH and his people.71 Perhaps

68

Hibbard, “Intertextual Discourse,” 473. Hibbard, “Intertextual Discourse,” 472. 70 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 402. 71 Doyle, Apocalypse, 357. 69

316

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

the shift from masculine (“him”) to feminine suffixes (“her”) serves to intensify the relationship: Judah or Jerusalem is portrayed as YHWH’s wife who has been rejected and sent away.72 As v. 9 indicates, the covenant relationship has been disrupted because of idolatry. Therefore, YHWH contends or fights his case (‫ )ריב‬against his people by sending them away to a painful life in exile. Nevertheless, this action is seen to have a redemptive purpose and the scenario here likely recalls that of Hos 2, where the isolation of the wife, Israel, in the desert serves to restore the relationship to her husband, YHWH.73 YHWH’s contention against his people occurs elsewhere (Jer 2:9; Hos 4:1). In Isa 3:13, it is closely associated with his activity as judge: “YHWH rises to argue his case [‫ ;]ל ִָריב‬he stands to judge [‫ ]ל ִָדין‬the people.” Interestingly, on the other side of the great gap in Isaiah YHWH promises: “I will not continually accuse [‫]אָ ִריב‬, nor will I always be angry” (Isa 57:16; see Chapter 1). The fairly common verb “to let go or send away” (‫ שׁלח‬in Piel) suggests a deliberate play on the motifs of divorce and exile. They are two sides of the same coin. In a handful of cases the term denotes the act of divorce (Deut 22:19; 24:1–3; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:1, 8; 1 Chr 8:8). In another handful of cases it refers to expulsion and exile, often as a response to idolatry or violation against the covenant. In Gen 3:23, God sends Adam forth from the garden of Eden. According to 1 Kings 9:7, if the people turn away and serve other gods YHWH will punish them: “I will cut Israel off from the land that I have given them; and the house that I have consecrated for my name I will cast out [‫ ] ֲאשַׁ לַּח‬of my sight.” Moreover, in Jer 24:5 and 29:20, YHWH has sent away the exiles from Judah to Babylon. The meaning of the initial word ‫ בְּ סַ אסְּ אָ ה‬is disputed. There are two approaches to explaining what it refers to. The first approach assumes that it has something to do with the word “seah” (‫ )סְ אָ ה‬which signifies a measure of capacity.74 The word in v. 8 could be a contraction of a repetition of the term which is reflected in some of the ancient translations.75 The repeated form either renders the idea that the people were sent away gradually (“little by little”) or that the people were sent away according to an exact measure (“with restraint” or “in moderation”). The latter of these suggestions works well in light of the preceding verse: “God has carefully measured out the judgment of the 72

Unlike most interpreters, Seitz (Isaiah 1–39, 199) regards the referent of the feminine suffixes to be the fortified city in vv. 10–11 which he takes to be a symbol of earthly and hostile power. Older commentators, such as Duhm (Jesaia, 191–92), argue that v. 8 was an original gloss on v. 10 which has been displaced. 73 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 403. 74 E.g. Childs, Isaiah, 193; Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 221; Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 346: “measure by measure”; Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 497: “by exact measure”; Young, Isaiah II, 242: “in measure.” 75 Aquila and Symmachus have ἐν σάτῳ σάτον, Theodotion has ἐν μέτρῳ μέτρον, and the Vulgate has in mensural contra mensuram; cf. the Targum and the Peshitta.

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

317

Exile so that it will not destroy the people but bring them to purification.”76 Moreover, since the word is used about the measurement of seed, grain, or barley (e.g. 1 Kings 18:32), the thought could be that YHWH has sent his people away like a farmer who scatters seeds across his fields.77 This image would correspond to the scene of harvest in v. 12. The second approach assumes that the sense of the word is similar, or perhaps even synonymous, to the following ‫“( בְּ שַׁ לְ חָ הּ‬by sending her away”).78 The old Greek translation has two parallel verbs accompanying the sending away of the people: “fighting and reviling [μαχόμενος καὶ ὀνειδίζων], he will send them away.” If the same is at stake in the Hebrew text, ‫ סַ אסְּ אָ ה‬is an infinitive form of a verb, perhaps with a feminine suffix (reading ‫ ־הּ‬for ‫)־ה‬. The sense of this verb should allegedly be comparable to a cognate Arabic word (sa’sa’) which designates the driving of pack animals with urgent cries.79 If so, YHWH is likened to a shepherd who drives his people away by shooing them like donkeys. Both proposals work well.80 Either YHWH is a farmer who disperses his people according to a certain measure or he is a shepherd who leads his flock away from their pasture using frightening cries. In light of the agricultural associations in the next line and in v. 12, I tend to opt for the first interpretation but the choice between them is not decisive.

76 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 497–98; cf. Young, Isaiah II, 244: “God has punished Judah according to measure, determining precisely this measure so that Judah will not perish by a punishment that exceeds this measure.” 77 Agricultural associations are also present in Samuel Daiches’ old proposal (“Explanation,” 399–404), according to which ‫ סאסא‬refers to the top-part of the corn-stalk. However, his alternative vocalization of more of the following words alters the overall sense of the verse markedly: “In the top of its ear of corn, in its shooting stalk (only) thou contendest with it (and destroyest it, the field); he (God) has growled (swept) with his fierce wind (over the field) on the day of the east wind.” 78 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 375: “by driving her out”; Bosman and van Grol, “Annotated Translation,” 11: “by shooing”; Doyle, Apocalypse, 353: “in shooing her”; Johnson, Chaos, 108: “when he drove her away” (cf. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 199); Wildberger, Jesaja, 1013: “durch Aufscheuchen” (cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, note 2). Cf. the NRSV: “by expulsion, by exile.” 79 Cf. Driver (“Some Hebrew Verbs,” 371–72), who considers the root to be onomatopoetic: “The sound, which is the Semitic equivalent of the Greek σοῦ σοῦ and the English ‘shoo-shoo’ used to scare away birds and other animals, is an instinctive exclamation which is found in many languages and its presence in the Old Testament need cause no surprise.” 80 Beuken’s (Jesaja 13–27, 394) translation contains both options: “mit Maßen/durch Tadeln.”

318

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

In the latter half of the verse, the verb “to remove” (‫ )הגה‬has no defined object.81 Beuken takes “sins” in the next verse to be the object of verb, that is, God drives away the sins of his people.82 In my view, the reference to a dry and destructive wind indicates that the people are the implied object. Nevertheless, in addition to this instance, the verb occurs only in Prov 25:4–5. 83 These verses in Proverbs certainly suggest a motif of purification: the dross and the wicked shall be taken away or separated from the silver and the king to obtain perfection and righteousness. The thought might be that the removal of the people along with the removal of their idols (v. 9) will purify the land. The wind as a destructive agent of YHWH is a common motif in the Old Testament. Verse 8 contains references to “his fierce blast” (‫ )רוּחֹ ו הַ קָּ שָׁ ה‬and “the east wind” (‫)קָ ִדים‬, the latter of which could allude to Assyrian or Babylonian assaults. In any case, “the east wind” is also known as the sirocco, which is a particular hot and dry desert wind. “A blast from YHWH” represents severe judgment (Jer 4:11; 23:19; Hos 13:15). Where this wind strikes, grain will be blighted and will wither as a result (Gen 41:6; Ezek 17:10), and ships will be swept away upon it (Ezek 27:26; Ps 48:8). In Isaiah, YHWH’s wind or breath contains similar associations. As we observed above, he splits the river into streams with his scorching wind (11:15). Enemies flee like chaff before the wind (17:13; 57:13). When the breath of YHWH blows upon grass and flowers, they wither and fade (40:7; cf. Ps 103:15–16). The wind has the power to scatter and to remove. In Isa 41:15–16, YHWH instructs Israel to thresh its enemies and obstacles and make them like chaff. Then, the next step in grain production follows: “you shall winnow them and the wind shall carry them away, and the tempest shall scatter them” ( ‫ִתּז ְֵרם‬ ‫)וְ רוּחַ ִתּשָּׂ אֵ ם וּסְ ָﬠ ָרה תָּ פִ יץ אוֹתָ ם‬. According to 27:8, YHWH uses this powerful wind to scatter his own people because of their sins. A similar thought is found in 64:5, where the people have withered like a leaf and “our iniquities” (‫ )ﬠֲוֹנֵנוּ‬have taken them away like a wind (see Chapter 2). Other biblical books associate the scattering of people with the blast of the wind. In a breathtaking manner, Job 27:20–21 describes the unfortunate destiny of the wicked ones: “in the night a whirlwind carries them off; the east wind lifts them up and they are gone; it sweeps them out of their place.” In Jer 18:17, like the wind from the east YHWH will scatter (‫פוץ‬ in Hiphil) his people because of their evil doings. Ezekiel compares the fate of 81

Daiches (“Explanation,” 402) opts for a different root (“to moan or to growl”). He argues that it is the sound of a strong wind which moans or howls when it passes and therefore it needs no object. Accordingly, YHWH moaned in his fierce wind. 82 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 403–4; cf. Leene, “Bridge,” 203: “If the Masoretes deliberately avoided making ‘her’ the direct object of violent removal, they provided a fluent transition from ‘her’ abandonment in Isa 27:8a to the clearing away of ‘Jacob’s sin’ in v. 9.” 83 See also 2 Sam 20:13: “[The dead body of Amasa] was removed [‫ יגה ;הֹ גָה‬in Hiphil] from the highway.”

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

319

people or its royal house to that of a vine which was plucked up, dried up by the wind, and finally transplanted into the dry and infertile wilderness (Ezek 19:12–13). Zechariah 2:10 renders the idea that YHWH has spread his people abroad as, or perhaps by, “the four winds of heaven” (‫)כְּ אַ ְרבַּ ע רוּחוֹת הַ שָּׁ מַ יִ ם‬.84 Finally, Jer 49:36 depicts Elam’s worldwide scattering by winds: “I will bring upon Elam the four winds [‫ ]אַ ְר ַבּ֣ע רוּחוֹת‬from the four quarters of heaven; and I will scatter them [‫ ]וְ ז ִֵר ִתים‬to all these winds, and there shall be no nation to which the exiles from Elam shall not come.” As a result of the ravaging wind, the land is left empty of its inhabitants. There is a further reference to this situation in Isa 54:11. Along with “afflicted” and “uncomforted,” Jerusalem is called “storm-tossed” or “windblown” (‫)סֹ ﬠ ֲָרה‬. The word denotes the driving back and forth by the wind of storms similar to Jonah’s experience in the middle of the sea (Jonah 1:11–13).85 Interestingly, Zechariah explicitly links the storm with the scattering of the people and the empty land left behind. YHWH states: “I scattered them with a whirlwind [“stormed them away”; ‫ ]אֵ סָ ﬠ ֲֵרם‬among the nations that they had not known. Thus the land they left was desolate [‫( ”]שַׁ מָּ ה‬Zech 7:14). YHWH’s treatment of his people is undoubtedly severe. As in v. 7, however, there is a glimpse of hope. The wind will blast but it will not do so forever; it will only be temporary. Certainly, there will be a day of the east wind (‫)יוֹם קָ ִדים‬ which will be a day of judgment and complete scattering. But after that day, YHWH might gather and restore his people. The theme of purification continues in v. 9. The verse depicts the forgiveness of the people’s sin and the destruction of their cult objects. These matters appear to be inextricably intertwined: the smashing of idols is a condition for atonement. The initial word “therefore” (‫ ) ָלכֵן‬suggests that divine forgiveness is an outcome of exile.86 Exile has been a means of repentance and purification and the people’s guilt has been expiated (40:2). In the opening of Isaiah, the pairing of ‫“( ָﬠוֹן‬guilt”) and ‫“( חַ טָּ את‬sin”) emphasizes the negative review of the condition of the people (1:4), yet the combination of these words with ‫ כפר‬in Pual (“to be atoned for”) and ‫“( סור‬to turn aside”) occurs in the cleansing of the prophet Isaiah in 6:7. According to our passage, the entire people of Israel are now experiencing the same kind of purification as the prophet did. In 22:14, YHWH insisted that his people would die without being atoned for their sins. The words of 27:9 begin with a new promise: Israel will repent and their relationship with YHWH will be restored.87

84

See the discussion in Boda, “Exilic Motifs,” 165–67. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 428. 86 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 348. 87 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 405. 85

320

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

Full purification is achieved by destroying and removing all signs of rival gods (cf. Deut 12:3; 2 Kings 23:14–15). Nothing will remain. It is not clear whether God or the people (“he”, that is, Jacob) will smash the idols. Curiously, the stones of the altars will become like chalkstones “crushed to pieces” (‫)מנֻ ָפּצֹ ות‬. ְ It is a Pual particle of the verb ‫ נפץ‬which elsewhere refers to the breaking of pottery and jars into pieces (e.g. Ps 2:7; Jer 48:12). Inherent in this word is an idea of scattering. All of the people across the entire earth are dispersed (‫ )נָפְ צָ ה‬from the three sons of Noah (Gen 9:19) and Saul observes that his army is scattering (‫ ) ָנ ַפץ‬from him (1 Sam 13:11). Before the majesty of YHWH, nations are scattered (‫ ;נָפְ צוּ‬Isa 33:3). While the people of Israel were removed and scattered in foreign lands, their idols will be smashed and scattered on the ground.88 No one will remember the false worship of the past. 5.3.4. Isaiah 27:12–13: Gathering the harvest Verses 12–13 look beyond judgment to the time of salvation. In contrast to the complete scattering and separation “on the day of the east wind” (‫)יוֹם קָ דִ ים‬, YHWH’s actions “on that day” (‫ )בַּ יֹּ ום הַ הוּא‬consist of a complete gathering and restoring of his dispersed people (cf. 11:11).89 Verse 12 envisions a great harvest. YHWH will gather his people like grains or fruits in the field. The rare verb “to thresh or flail” (‫ )חבט‬refers to the beating out of grains or fruits from trees, typically on smaller quantities of the product (cf. 28:27). This is done by the hand with a stick and requires power; perhaps YHWH also beats to release his people from exile (cf. 11:15; 27:1). Although this procedure takes a considerable amount of time, the losses are less than they would be had the process been carried out by ordinary threshing with a sledge. This figuratively says that every grain or piece of fruit is of importance to YHWH, and he will collect it with the greatest care and accuracy (“one by one”).90 It is not clear, however, whether we should imagine a grain harvest or a fruit harvest. In favor of the first option, the verb ‫ חבט‬denotes the threshing of grains in two other instances, yet on a minor, less public scale: Gideon beats out wheat in a winepress to hide it from the Midianites (Judg 6:11), and Ruth beats out what she could gather (Ruth 2:17). Furthermore, “the channel of the river” (‫)שׁבֹּ לֶת הַ נָּהָ ר‬ ִ offers a fine equivocal pun, insofar as ‫ ִשׁבֹּ לֶת‬either means a flowing 88

See also Moses’ destruction of the golden calf in Exod 32:20: “He took the calf that they had made, burned it with fire, ground it to powder, scattered [‫ ] ַו ִיּזֶר‬it on the water, and made the Israelites drink it.” Cf. Isa 33:22: “Then you will defile your silver-covered idols and your gold-plated images. You will scatter them [‫]תּז ְֵרם‬ ִ like filthy rags; you will say to them, ‘Away with you!’” 89 Doyle, Apocalypse, 362. 90 Wildberger, Jesaja, 1023: “Jahwe vollzieht sein rettendes Sammeln mit letzter Sorgfalt; kein Mühe ist ihm zu groß, kein einziges Körnchen darf verlorengehen.”

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

321

stream (cf. Ps 69:3, 16) or an ear of grain (Gen 41:5–7, 22–24, 26–27; Ruth 2:2; Isa 17:5).91 The verb “to gather” (‫ )לקט‬which in general designates the gathering of food or fruit (e.g. Manna in Exod 16) also occurs in the context of gleaning grains (Lev 19:9; 23:22). A good example is Ruth’s appeal: “Let me go glean among the ears of grain” (‫ ; ֲאלַקֳ טָּ ה בַ ִשׁבֳּלִ ים‬Ruth 2:2). In addition, the harvest of corn would work well with the possible reference to “a grain measure” in v. 8. Like a farmer, YHWH scattered or sowed his people, but now he gathers them up like a farmer collects the harvest of grains. Scholars who opt for this interpretation have developed the image further by suggesting a motif of separation and refinement.92 Threshing involves a crucial act during which the wheat is separated from the chaff. The wheat could stand for Israel or the faithful ones within the people, whereas the chaff could stand for the unfaithful ones or the nations where the dispersed people dwell. If so, the thought here is comparable to YHWH’s statement in Amos 9:9: “I will shake the house of Israel among all the nations as one shakes with a sieve, but no pebble shall fall to the ground.” It is a process of purification in which the good and useful grains (Israel) are separated and preserved aside from the debris and pebbles (the nations). Regarding v. 12, the problem with this interpretation is that there is no clear reference to the nations and their destiny (unless we take Leviathan in v. 1 as a symbolic representation of them).93 As stressed by Johnson, there is neither a mention of nations nor any clear sign of a separation of the wheat from the chaff.94 The second option, a harvest of fruit, further rules out the idea of an implied separation between good and bad.95 The image of a fruit harvest is consistent with the metaphor of the vineyard in vv. 2–6 and picks up the reference to a tree in v. 11. In one instance, the initial verb (‫ )חבט‬signifies the beating of olives from the olive tree (Deut 24:20). In another instance, ‫ ִשׁבֹּ לֶת‬refers to “two branches of the olive tree” (‫ֵיתים‬ ִ ‫;שׁתֵּ י ִשׁ ֲבּלֵי הַ זּ‬ ְ Zech 4:12). Furthermore, the word “to gather” (‫ )לקט‬also refers to fallen grapes (Lev 19:10) and “wild gourds” (2 Kings 4:39). Accordingly, YHWH shakes the olives from the trees with a stick and picks them up one by one.96 Despite the uncertainties of the employed imagery, the central message of the verse is YHWH’s meticulous gathering of his people. The prophet addresses his audience directly with the emphatic “you” (‫)אַ תֶּ ם‬: you, certainly all of you, shall be cleaned completely (“one by one”). The notion of “sons of 91

See Roberts, “Double Entendre,” 40–41. E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 379; Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 223; Hibbard, Intertextuality, 191–92; Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 185; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1023; Willis, “Vineyard,” 207. 93 Firmly admitted by Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 185: “was mit den Heiden geschieht, wird nicht gesagt.” 94 Johnson, Chaos, 93–94. 95 Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 409. 96 E.g. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 500; Young, Isaiah II, 250. 92

322

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

Israel” (‫ )בְּ ֵני יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬points to the reunited people of YHWH (cf. 66:20). The geographical area within which YHWH gathers the dispersed individuals is defined by the Euphrates and the Wadi of Egypt. These borders mark the ideal area of the land promised to Abraham (Gen 15:18), reflected in the kingdom of David and Solomon (1 Kings 5:1; 8:65), and restored in the vision of the prophet Ezekiel (Ezek 47:13–23). Nevertheless, the references to “the land of Assyria” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ אַ שּׁוּר‬and “the land of Egypt” (‫ )אֶ ֶרץ ִמצְ ָריִ ם‬in the next verse indicate that the territories of the two great empires are part of the sphere from which those who have been banished will return (cf. 11:11–16). Verse 13 opens with a remarkable call to the dispersed people in Assyria and Egypt. “A great trumpet or shofar” (‫ )שֹׁ ו ָפר גָּדֹ ול‬shall sound. In the Old Testament, blowing the shofar primarily serves in military maneuvers and cultic ceremonies.97 It warns of a military attack (Jer 6:1; Ezek 33:3) and the coming of divine judgment (Joel 2:1; Zech 9:14). Here, it serves as an auditory signal to gather the dispersed, similar to the function of the visual signal of a “banner” (‫ )נֵס‬in 11:12 (notice the pairing of ‫ שֹׁ ו ָפר‬and ‫ נֵס‬in Isa 18:7; Jer 51:27). This gathering could be seen as a liturgical act in which the horn sounds to assemble the scattered people not for war but for worship in Jerusalem (cf. Ps 81:4; Joel 2:15).98 Once again, YHWH shall be praised “with trumpet sound” (‫;בְּ תֵ קַ ע שׁוֹ ָפר‬ Ps 150:3). The adjective “great” hardly refers to the size of the shofar but rather to its sound (“loud”) and to the significance and uniqueness of the event it initiates. Wherever the dispersed people dwell, they will hear the call and come. Interestingly, on the Day of Atonement (‫ )בְּ יוֹם הַ כִּ פּ ִֻרים‬the shofar shall sound loudly throughout the entire land (Lev 25:9). In light of this, the call in v. 13 suggests that divine atonement is complete (cf. v. 9): the people that were scattered into a million pieces will finally become one again.99 In line with 11:11–16, the exiles are referred to as “those who were lost” (‫ )הָ אֹ בְ ִדים‬in Assyria and “those who were driven out” (‫ )הַ ִנּדָּ חִ ים‬to Egypt. The first word could also refer to those who perished or died and, accordingly, the verse depicts the resurrection of the dead (cf. 25:8; 26:14, 19).100 In light of the parallel word, however, it is more reasonable to imagine them as sheep who are lost or brought astray in dispersion as indicated by Jer 50:6, “my people have been lost sheep” (‫)צ ֹאן אֹ בְ דוֹת‬, and by the pairing of both verbs in Ezek 34:16: “I will seek the lost [‫]אֶ ת־הָ אֹ בֶ דֶ ת‬, and I will bring back the strayed [‫אֶ ת־‬

97

See Jenner, “The Big Shofar,” 157–63. Beuken, Jesaja 13–27, 412. 99 Doyle, Apocalyptic, 362–63. 100 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 501. 98

5.3. The great shofar shall sound

323

‫( ”]הַ נִּ דַּ חַ ת‬cf. 1 Sam 9:3, 20).101 As the preceding chapters have showed, however, we should not think too rigidly about this because death is a central metaphor for banishment and exile. The dispersed people will come from the peripheries of the known world to its center and will worship YHWH on his holy mountain in Jerusalem (cf. the implicit movement in 11:11–16 from the corners of the world to “my holy mountain” [v. 9]). The return is not only physical but also spiritual. In contrast to idolatry and false worship in 27:9, the proper worship of YHWH shall be restored. In former times, the people bowed down (‫ חוה‬in Histaphal) to handmade idols (2:8, 20), but now they will bow to and worship the only true God. While 11:11–16 focuses on the restoration of the Davidic empire and national unity, emphasis here is on the restoration of the cult.102 The closure of the passage picks up a central vision of Isaiah in which the holy mountain in Jerusalem becomes the center of a worldwide gathering which includes both Israel and the nations (e.g. 2:2–4; 60:1–22; 66:18–24).103 In terms of vocabulary and cultic associations, 66:18–24 offers the closest parallel to v. 13: all nations and tongues shall “come” (‫ )וּבָ אוּ‬and see YHWH’s glory; he will set a “sign” (‫ )אוֹת‬among them and they will bring “the brothers” back as a cultic offering to “my holy mountain Jerusalem” (‫;)הַ ר קָ דְ ִשׁי יְ רוּשָׁ ַל ִם‬ and all flesh shall “come to worship” (‫ )יָבוֹא … לְ הִ ְשׁתַּ חֲוֹת‬before YHWH. However, a significant difference is that we do not hear anything explicit about the destiny of the nations in 27:12–13. The focus remains on the gathering and restoration of the dispersed people of YHWH. 5.3.5. Summing up Isaiah 27:7–13 offers a retrospective account of the exile and its consequences. The initial matter concerns the manner in which YHWH’s judgment of his people differed from that of their enemies. Israel did not cease to exist but was sent away and scattered around the world. This act of expulsion implied the forgiveness of the people’s sins, the removal of all signs of their idolatry, and a restoration of their relationship to YHWH. A final vision looks ahead to YHWH’s meticulous gathering of those who were dispersed like grain or fruit in the field. The great shofar will call for assembly and the cult in Jerusalem will be restored.

101 Cf. also Jer 23:1: “Woe to the shepherds who destroy [‫]מאַ בְּ ִדים‬ ְ and scatter [‫]מפִ צִ ים‬ ְ the sheep of my pasture! says YHWH.” 102 Curiously, 11:10 refers to the “root of Jesse” (‫ )שֹׁ ֶרשׁ ִישַׁ י‬as a royal figure that will be sought by the nations, whereas 27:6 proclaims that Jacob shall “take root” (‫)י ְַשׁ ֵרשׁ‬. See the discussion of this intertextual play in Hibbard, Intertextuality, 205–7. 103 See Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 198–205; Representing Zion, 176– 80.

324

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock 5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock

The themes of scattering and gathering in the second major part of Isaiah are closely associated with the image of YHWH as his people’s shepherd. This section analyzes three passages – Isa 40:10–11; 43:5–7; and 49:9b–12 – which envision the gathering of this dispersed flock from far away. 5.4.1. Isaiah 40:10–11: The divine warrior and shepherd ‫ יָבוֹא‬a‫הִ נֵּה ֲאדֹ נָי יְ הוִ ה בְּ חָ זָק‬ ‫וּזְרֹ עוֹ מֹ ְשׁלָה לוֹ‬ ‫הִ נֵּה ְשׂכָרוֹ ִאתּוֹ‬ ‫וּפְ ֻﬠלָּתוֹ לְ ָפנָיו‬ ‫כְּ רֹ ֶﬠה ֶﬠ ְדרוֹ יִ ְר ֶﬠה‬ b ‫בִּ זְרֹ עוֹ ְיקַ בֵּ ץ טְ ל ִָאים‬ ‫וּבְ חֵ יקוֹ יִ שָּׂ א‬ ‫ָﬠלוֹת יְ נַהֵ ל‬

10

See, the Lord God comes with might, and his arm rules for him; see, his reward is with him, and his recompense before him. 11 He will feed his flock like a shepherd; he will gather the lambs in his arms, and carry them in his bosom, and gently lead the mother sheep.

a

Literally the text reads “as a mighty one” (‫)בְּ חָ זָק‬, but the ancient versions suggest “with might” (‫ ;)בְּ חֹ זֶק‬cf. e.g. 1QIsaa: ‫ ;בחוזק‬the LXX: μετὰ ἰσχύος; the Vulgate: in fortitudine. b Some interpreters argue that due to metrical issues, the word translated “the lambs” belongs to the next line as indicated by the representation of the text in BHS. See, for example, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 184: “the lambs he lifts into his lap.”

Verses 10–11 portray YHWH as a warrior who returns victoriously from battle and as a shepherd who gathers his flock and takes care of the weak. The two verses constitute the end of the prologue in 40:1–11. Their plausible allusions to someone accompanying YHWH in his return set them apart from the rest of the passage as a concluding comment on the good tidings of vv. 1–9.104 The preceding verses have emphasized the return of YHWH himself and the revelation of his glory (v. 5), and the herald of Zion was urged to proclaim YHWH’s renewed presence: “Here is your God” (‫ ;הִ נֵּה ֱא הֵ י ֶכם‬v. 9; cf. v. 1). The double occurrence of “see” (‫ )הִ נֵּה‬in v. 10 offers a fine link between this smaller unit and the previous verses. The rather distinct images of a warrior and a shepherd draw from a common idea of kingship, pointing to different aspects of royal service.105 As a mighty warrior, YHWH can fight the enemies of his people, and as a good and gentle shepherd, he can guide and take care of them. The images come together in the metaphor of YHWH’s arm (‫)זְרוֹ ַﬠ‬, which can hold a sword on the battlefield or a rod on the pasture.

104 105

Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 89, 96, 112. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 186–87; Goldingay, Message, 30.

5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock

325

The central concern of v. 10 is the announcement of YHWH’s glorious return rather than the return of the exiles.106 Nevertheless, the second “see” and the reference to a reward and recompense that accompany him suggest that this motif is not an insignificant feature of his return. The emphasis on the mighty appearance of the sovereign God (‫ ; ֲאדֹ נָי‬cf. Isa 6) points to a warrior who returns from battle. He has defeated the enemy and brings home booty of war. Elsewhere, the pairing of “reward” (‫ )שָׂ כָר‬and “recompense” (‫ )פְּ ֻﬠלָּה‬designates the outcome of a military invasion (Ezek 29:18–19). Perhaps we should imagine that YHWH has slain the enemy to liberate his captive people (cf. 11:11 and 27:1; Chapter 4). In Jer 31:15–16, YHWH consoles Rachel who is weeping for her children by saying: “there is a reward for your work [ ֵ‫ ]…[ ]שָׂ כָר לִ פְ ֻﬠלָּת‬they shall come back from the land of the enemy.” 107 Moreover, Isa 62:11–12, which cites 40:10, explicitly identifies the reward and recompense with “the Holy People, the Redeemed of YHWH” and links their return to God’s salvific actions. Finally, 40:11 develops and explains the “booty” with and before him in v. 10 as a flock around the shepherd in need of guidance. The first word of v. 11 “like a shepherd” (‫ )כְּ רֹ ֶﬠה‬clearly indicates a comparison of YHWH’s actions to those of a shepherd: he feeds, gathers, carries, and leads his flock. The term “flock” (‫ ) ֵﬠדֶ ר‬undoubtedly stands for his people, as spelled out in other texts, for instance, “he guided [his people] in the wilderness like a flock” (Ps 78:52), “YHWH’s flock has been taken captive” (Jer 13:17), and “YHWH Zebaot cares for his flock, the house of Judah” (Zech 10:3). Within Isa 40:1–11, the renewed care of “his flock” corresponds to God’s call for consolation of “my people” in v. 1; the flock stands for the people as a whole. Nevertheless, the references to “lambs” (‫ )טְ ל ִָאים‬and “the ewes or those with young” (‫ ָﬠלוֹת‬of ‫“[ עול‬to give suck”]) point to a differentiated group of weak and vulnerable animals with individual needs and cast YHWH as one who offers each of them the particular care they need (cf. Jacob’s anxiety for his flock in Gen 33:13). In terms of structure, the four verbs referring to the shepherd’s service form an outer frame and a center.108 The frame focuses on guidance and alludes to the search for food and water in bare and infertile areas. “To pasture or tend” (‫ )רעה‬involves leading the flock to a place where they can eat (e.g. Exod 3:1) and more of the nine other occurrences of “to lead” (‫ )נהל‬imply guiding the sheep to watering places (e.g. Ps 23:2: “he leads me beside still waters”; cf. Isa 49:10 below).

106

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 45; cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 113: “das Rückkehrszenarium [wird] an dieser Stelle nur vorsichtig angedeutet.” 107 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 135) claims that the author of Isa 40:10 adopted and reworked Jeremiah’s expression. 108 Goldingay, Message, 31.

326

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

The center of the verse depicts the shepherd’s treatment of the lambs in two parallel statements: “he gathers them in/with his arm(s)” (‫ )בִּ זְרֹ עוֹ ְיקַ בֵּ ץ‬and “he carries them in his bosom” (‫)בְּ חֵ יקוֹ יִ שָּׂ א‬. Gathering the scattered flock indicates a sincere concern to make sure that no one is missing or lost on the journey. Lifting them up “in his bosom,” that is, close to the heart, renders an image of intimacy, compassion, and protection, as in the poor man’s care for his little lamb in Nathan’s parable to David (2 Sam 12:3) or in Naomi’s nursing of Obed (Ruth 4:16; cf. Num 11:12).109 Interestingly, Isa 46:3–4 employs the latter verb to describe YHWH’s past and future care for his people: they have been carried by him from the womb and he will carry them into old age. Verse 11 can be read as a general description of YHWH’s provision for his people, whether they are home or away. Along with v. 10, however, the verse suggests that the people have been dispersed to foreign places but are now being gathered and are on the move with YHWH. Further evidence for this interpretation is found in other prophets using the shepherd imagery to portray the gathering and return of the exiles.110 A close parallel is Jer 31:10, which is the only other verse in addition to Isa 40:11 which contains the phrase “as a shepherd”: “He who scattered [‫]מז ֵָרה‬ ְ Israel will gather him [‫] ְיקַ בְּ צֶ נּוּ‬, and will keep him as a shepherd the flock [ ‫כְּ רֹ ֶﬠה‬ ‫] ֶﬠדְ רוֹ‬.” The verse occurs in a larger block in Jer 31:7–14 which proclaims the return and restoration of the people from exile. YHWH will gather them from the farthest parts of the earth and let them walk by brooks of water. Scattering in many directions is explicit in Jer 23:3, where YHWH states: “I myself will gather [‫ ] ֲאקַ בֵּ ץ‬the remnant of my flock out of all the lands where I have driven [‫ ]הִ דַּ חְ ִתּי‬them, and I will bring them back [‫ ] ַוה ֲִשׁבֹ ִתי‬to their fold.” As in Isaiah, the dispersed flock in 31:8 is weak, with special needs. It consists of the blind, the lame, those with child, and those in labor. YHWH will take care of them as a father. These prosperous events emerge from divine deliverance: “YHWH has redeemed [‫ ]גאל‬Jacob from hands too strong for him” (31:11). Ezekiel 34:11–16 offers a sophisticated portrait of the divine shepherd. YHWH states: “As shepherds seek out their flocks when they are among their scattered sheep, so will I seek out my sheep. I will rescue [‫ ]וְ הִ צַּ לְ ִתּי‬them from all the places to which they have been scattered [‫ ]נָפֹ צוּ‬on a day of clouds and thick darkness” (v. 14). It is likely that this cloudy day refers to the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in the early sixth century. Now, YHWH will gather them from the countries and bring them home. He will feed them with good pasture: “I myself shall be the shepherd of my sheep” (v. 15). Once again, we encounter the motif of a weak and helpless flock. YHWH’s sheep are “the lost” (‫)הָ אֹ בֶ דֶ ת‬, “the strayed” (‫)הַ נִּ דַּ חַ ת‬, “the injured” (‫) ִנ ְשׁבֶּ ֶרת‬, and “the weak” (‫)הַ חוֹלָה‬.

109 110

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 137. Cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 149–58.

5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock

327

Similar imagery occurs in Micah. In Mic 2:12–13, YHWH will gather Jacob and the remnant of Israel. The verbal forms add emphasis to the divine promise: “I will surely gather” (‫ )אָ סֹ ף אֶ ֱאסֹ ף‬and “I will surely assemble” (‫( )קַ בֵּ ץ ֲאקַ בֵּ ץ‬cf. the pairing of these words in Isa 11:12). The gathering of the people is then compared to the gathering of sheep: YHWH will set them together “like sheep in a fold” (‫כְּ ֵﬠדֶ ר בְּ תוֹ הַ דָּ בְ רוֹ)כְּ צ ֹאן בַּ צִּ ָרה‬ure” (and like “a flock in its past 111 ). Curiously, v. 13 suggests a motif of release and liberation (cf. Isa 11:11; 40:10). Exile is compared to a fold from which the sheep break out, pass through the gate, and go out. Ahead of them is “the one who breaks out” (‫ )הַ פֹּ ֵרץ‬whom the latter half of the verse identifies as YHWH, their king. In Mic 4:6–8, the gathering of the dispersed flock takes place “in that day” (‫ ;בַּ יּוֹם הַ הוּא‬cf. Isa 11:11; 27:12–13). As in 2:12, v. 6 pairs ‫ אסף‬and ‫ קבץ‬in Hiphil. The objects of the gathering are “the lame” (‫ )הַ צֹּ ֵל ָﬠה‬and “the one who has been driven away” (‫)הַ נִּ דָּ חָ ה‬.112 The feminine forms, which either refer to a flock (perhaps ‫ צ ֹאן‬from 2:12) or to Zion in the image of a woman, are noteworthy. In any case, the people are in a very poor condition. “The lame” or perhaps “the one who is limping” suggests a weak and injured flock. It is a flock that has been driven away or lost (cf. Isa 11:12; 27:13; Jer 23:3; Ezek 34:16). Verses 7–8 explain the transformation that goes together with the gathering. YHWH will make the lame and “the one who was cast off or far off” (‫ )הַ נַּהְ ַלָאָ ה‬into a strong nation and will reign over them as their king. Their former dominion of Jerusalem, “the tower of the flock,” will be restored (cf. Isa 11:13–14). In sum, in accordance with other prophetic texts, Isa 40:10–11 employs the image of YHWH as a shepherd to envision the worldwide gathering of the exiles. The people are pictured as a miserable flock of weak, injured, and lost outcasts. There is thus an explicit emphasis on the attentive and generous care of YHWH. 5.4.2. Isaiah 43:5–7: Brought home from far away ‫ירא כִּ י ִא ְתּ ־אָ נִ י‬ ָ ‫ל־תּ‬ ִ ַ‫א‬ ‫ִמ ִמּז ְָרח אָ בִ יא ז ְַר ֶﬠ‬ ‫וּממַּ ﬠ ֲָרב ֲאקַ בְּ צֶ ָךּ‬ ִ ‫אֹ מַ ר לַצָּ פֹ ון תֵּ נִ י‬ ‫ל־תּכְ ָל ִאי‬ ִ ַ‫וּלְ תֵ ימָ ן א‬ ‫יאי בָ נַי מֵ ָרחֹ וק‬ ִ ִ‫הָ ב‬ ‫וּבְ נֹ ותַ י ִמקְ צֵ ה הָ אָ ֶרץ‬ ‫כֹּ ל הַ ִנּקְ ָרא בִ ְשׁ ִמי‬ ‫אתיו‬ ִ ‫ודי בְּ ָר‬ ִ ֹ‫וְ לִ כְ ב‬ ‫יתיו‬ ִ ‫יְ צַ ְר ִתּיו אַ ף־ﬠ ֲִשׂ‬ 111 112

5

Do not fear, for I am with you; I will bring your offspring from the east, and from the west I will gather you; 6 I will say to the north, “Give them up,” and to the south, “Do not withhold”; bring my sons from far away and my daughters from the end of the earth – 7 everyone who is called by my name, whom I created for my glory, whom I formed and made.

The MT reads “Bosrah” (‫)בָּ צְ ָרה‬. Cf. Zeph 3:19: “I will save the lame [‫ ]הַ ֹצּ ֵל ָﬠה‬and gather the outcast [‫]הַ ִנּדָּ חָ ה‬.”

328

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

These verses (vv. 5–7) form the second part of the oracle in 43:1–7 (see Chapter 4). The first part (vv. 1–4) describes YHWH’s redemption of his people. Now, the gathering of those who were dispersed follows. Verse 5a restates the assurance of salvation (“do not fear”; cf. v. 1), vv. 5b–6 announce the return of the exiles from the four corners of the earth, and v. 7 concludes the unit and the oracles as a whole by emphasizing the creative and protective activities of YHWH (cf. v. 1).113 The gathering from the four corners of the world rather than from one particular destination (e.g. Babylon) is a recurring feature in Isaiah (11:11–12; 49:12 below). Verse 5 mentions “east” (‫;מז ְָרח‬ ִ “sunrise”) and “west” (‫;מַ ﬠ ֲָרב‬ “sunset”), and v. 6 refers to “north” (‫ ;צָ פֹ ון‬Mount Zaphon to the far north) and “south” (‫ ;תֵּ ימָ ן‬the country Teman to the far south). A close linguistic parallel to this is found in Ps 107:2–3: praise will be uttered by those whom YHWH has redeemed from the hand of the enemy and gathered in from the lands, “from the east [‫]מז ְָרח‬ ִ and from the west [‫]מַ ﬠ ֲָרב‬, from the north [‫ ]צָ פֹ ון‬and from the south [‫]יָם‬.” Unlike in Isa 11:11, there is no interest in identifying the four points more specifically. The purpose is to render the idea of a grandiose gathering from the most distant places of the world (“from the end of the earth”).114 No distance is too great to restrain YHWH from his redemptive intentions. The opening address to Jacob in 43:1 could be continuing play here. Like their ancestor, Jacob, the people are far away from home but under the special protection of YHWH (“I am with you”).115 The reference to “your offspring” ( ‫ )ז ְַר ֶﬠ‬along with the figure of the compass would then point to a subtle reversal of the promise once given to Jacob at Bethel: “your offspring [ ‫ ]ז ְַר ֲﬠ‬shall be like the dust of the earth, and you shall spread abroad to the west [‫ ]יָם‬and to the east [‫ ]קֵ דֶ ם‬and to the north [‫ ]צָ פוֹן‬and to the south [‫( ”] ֶנגֶב‬Gen 28:14). An allusion to the ancient call of Abraham and Jacob is also possible, however. In 41:8–9, YHWH addresses his people as Israel and Jacob “whom I have chosen.”116 They are called “the offspring of Abraham” (‫ )ז ֶַרע אַ בְ ָרהָ ם‬and further addressed as “you whom I took from the ends of the earth [‫]מקְ צוֹת הָ אָ ֶרץ‬ ִ and called from its farthest corners [ ‫אתי‬ ִ ‫]וּמֵ ֲאצִ ילֶיהָ קְ ָר‬.” YHWH once called and removed the ancestors from the remotest parts of the world; now, he has done so

113

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 115. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 119: “Deutero-Isaiah’s language is often sweeping and extravagant, and we would do him an injustice if we attempted to specify the four quarters geographically and politically.” 115 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 276. 116 Isa 41:8–9 ends with YHWH’s assurance: “I have chosen you and not cast you off” ( ‫)בְּ חַ ְר ִתּי וְ ל ֹא ְמאַ סְ ִתּי‬. This statement offers an interesting reversal of YHWH’s judgment of rejection and exile in 2 Kings 23:27: “I will reject [‫ ]מָ אַ סְ ִתּי‬this city that I have chosen [‫]בָּ חַ ְר ִתּי‬, Jerusalem” (cf. Chapter 2). 114

5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock

329

again.117 The call will resound, as 43:7 makes clear. The strong emphasis on the creative power of YHWH in this verse further suggests that the gathering and re-election of the people involve the restoration or recreation of a close and personal relationship. YHWH is the father of his people (Isa 63:16; 64:7; see Chapter 2), and from his point of view the scattered people are “my sons” and “my daughters”. The intimate connotations are also visible in YHWH’s response to his abandonment of Jerusalem and its inhabitants in 54:7: “but with great compassion I will gather you” ( ֵ‫)וּבְ ַרח ֲִמים גְּ דֹ לִ ים ֲאקַ בְּ צ‬. The notion of “offspring or seed” (‫ )ז ֶַרע‬offers another interpretative option, with the people seen as the sown seed that YHWH has scattered across the fields of the earth.118 This image is explicit in Zech 10:9: “I sowed them among the nations” (‫)וְ אֶ ז ְָר ֵﬠם בָּ ַﬠ ִמּים‬.119 In this case, the people have been dispersed all over the world but have survived and are now ripe for harvest (cf. Isa 27:12).120 In light of the previous passages, the implicit perspective of vv. 5–6 is Jerusalem-centered.121 YHWH will gather and bring together his people from the distant places of the world to the center of the holy city. YHWH’s personal collecting of his dispersed ones in v. 5 is described by a pairing of two verbs – “to bring” (‫ בוא‬in Hiphil) and “to gather” (‫ קבץ‬in Piel) – which are common in this kind of text.122 In Isaiah, the two verbs are also juxtaposed in the intense and rapid return of the exiles to the ruined city in 49:18, “Lift up your eyes all around and see; they all gather, they come [‫ ]נִ קְ בְּ צוּ בָ אוּ‬to you.” Here, the Jerusalem perspective is evident.

117

Goldingay, Message, 103: “As Abraham’s offspring, the audience’s being is that of a people taken to Palestine from earth’s furthest bounds and corners, and this is therefore inevitably its destiny. Although the deportees are presently located in those faraway regions from which Abraham came, theologically their location is in the land to which Abraham was taken, and fact must be expected soon to catch up with theology.” 118 See Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 208. See also Ps 106:27: “[YHWH swore that he] would disperse their descendants [‫ ]וּלְ הַ פִּ יל ז ְַר ָﬠם‬among the nations, scattering them [‫ ]וּלְ זָרוֹתָ ם‬over the lands.” 119 The NRSV has “scattered them,” perhaps reading ‫ ו ְָאַז ֵָרם‬in accordance with a common yet unnecessary emendation (cf. the footnote in BHS). 120 Cf. Boda (“Exilic Motifs,” 173), commenting on Zech 10:9: “The seed has potential for new life, and that is precisely what happens in the latter half of the verse as they along with their children come to life (‫ )חיה‬and return to the land.” 121 Tiemeyer, Comfort, 135. 122 See Jer 31:8: “See, I am going to bring [‫ ]מֵ בִ יא‬them from the land of the north, and gather them [‫ ]וְ קִ בַּ צְ ִתּים‬from the farthest parts of the earth”; Ezek 34:13: “I will bring them out from the peoples and gather them [‫ ]וְ קִ בַּ צְ ִתּים‬from the countries, and bring them [‫] ַוהֲבִ יאֹ ִתים‬ into their own land” (cf. 36:24; 37:21); Zeph 3:20: “At that time I will bring [‫ ]אָ בִ יא‬you home, at that time when I gather [‫ ]קַ בְּ צִ י‬you”; Zech 10:10: “I will bring them home from the land of Egypt, and gather them [‫ ] ֲאקַ בְּ צֵ ם‬from Assyria; I will bring them [‫ ] ֲאבִ יאֵ ם‬to the land of Gilead and to Lebanon.”

330

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

The scenario changes in v. 6. YHWH will address “north” and “south” to force them to let go of his people. The corners of the world will “give [them] up” (‫)נתן‬. They will not “hold [them] back” (‫ ;כלא‬cf. “prison” [‫ ] ֶכּלֶא‬in 42:7, 22), but will instead “bring” (‫ בוא‬in Hiphil) them back from afar. There is certainly a motif of release here, although the subject of YHWH’s address is uncertain. Notable are the verbal forms which are all feminine singular. “North” and “south,” which are both feminine nouns, could stand for the north and south winds (perhaps the feminine ַ‫ רוּח‬is understood) which are commanded by YHWH to bring home his people (cf. Song 4:16: “Awake, O north wind, and 123 come, O south wind!” [‫וּבוֹאי תֵ ימָ ן‬ ִ ‫)]עוּרי צָ פוֹן‬. ִ According to Ps 104:4, the winds are YHWH’s messengers and, as we have seen, often serve as his punishing agent. The wind that in 27:8 scattered the people and brought them far away from their land will now bring them home again.124 Another option is that YHWH addresses the nations or political powers in the distant corners of the world.125 That foreign people will let go of the scattered ones, or at least assist them in their return, is a possible interpretation of the “signal for the nations” in Isa 11:12. This idea is explicit in 14:2 (“the nations will take them and bring them [‫ ] ֶוהֱבִ יאוּם‬to their place”) and is further developed in the latter half of the book, picking up the language of 43:5–6. In Isa 49:22, YHWH’s raised hand and his signal to the people serve as an announcement that they are to bring (‫ בוא‬in Hiphil) the sons of Jerusalem in their bosom and the daughters carried on their shoulders. Isaiah 60:4, which cites 49:18, adds that the sons of Jerusalem will come from far away (‫ )מֵ ָרחוֹק‬and her daughters will be carried on the hips of their nurses, namely the nations and their kings. Congruent to the image of winds carrying the people, Isa 60:8–9 imagines the arrival of ships from afar. Appearing on the horizon, the ships of Tarshish, or perhaps their white sails, are compared to “clouds flying through the sky on a windy day or a flock of homecoming pigeons.”126 The great ships have one particular mission: “to bring your sons from far away” (‫)לְ הָ בִ יא בָ נַיִ מֵ ָרחוֹק‬. Finally, Isa 66:20 announces that foreign people will bring (‫ בוא‬in Hiphil) “the brothers” from all the nations. The servitude role of the nations in this verse, however, is juxtaposed with another key thought in Isaiah: the gathering of all nations and the possible inclusion of them into YHWH’s salvific reign (cf. 2:2–

123

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 209. The power of YHWH’s wind or spirit not only to scatter but also to gather seems to be the case in the rather strange verse in Isa 34:16: “his spirit has gathered them” ( ‫וְ רוּחוֹ הוּא‬ ‫)קִ בְּ צָ ן‬, presumably referring to the gathering of birds or desert animals at the ruins of Edom (34:14–15) as an image of divine punishment. 125 The pairing of “from far away” (‫ )מֵ ָרחוֹק‬and “from the end of the earth” (‫)מקְ צֵ ה הָ אָ ֶרץ‬ ִ occurs in Isa 5:26, where YHWH summons a distant nation to attack Jerusalem. 126 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 213. 124

5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock

331

4).127 Isaiah 56:1–8, which parallels the concluding passage of the book, reformulates 11:12 and expands its vision: “Thus says the Lord YHWH, who gathers the outcasts of Israel, I will gather others to them besides those already gathered” (v. 8). Regardless of the specific nature of the agents bringing the people home, there is an emphasis on distance. The scattered people are brought home from the most remote places that one can imagine. Consistent with the overcoming of this geographical distance is the restored relationship between God and his people in v. 7. The first line of the verse draws attention to YHWH’s personal call: “everyone who is called by my name” (‫)כֹּ ל הַ נִּ קְ ָרא בִ ְשׁ ִמי‬. The emphasis on “everyone” (‫ )כֹּ ל‬in the singular shows YHWH’s shepherding care of each single individual (cf. “one by one” in 27:12 and the lambs and ewes in 40:11). Each of those whom he has created for his glory will receive a personal call and come, just as their ancestors Abraham and Jacob did. This verse thus develops the figure of the great shofar in 27:13 sounding to collect the dispersed ones in Assyria and Egypt.128 5.4.3. Isaiah 49:9b–12: The returning flock ‫ ִי ְרעוּ‬a‫ַﬠל־דְּ ָרכִ ים‬ ‫ל־שׁ ָפיִ ים מַ ְרﬠִ יתָ ם‬ ְ ‫וּבְ ָכ‬ ‫ל ֹא ִי ְר ָﬠבוּ וְ ל ֹא יִ צְ מָ אוּ‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא־ ַי ֵכּם שָׁ ָרב וָשָׁ מֶ שׁ‬ ‫י־מ ַרחֲמָ ם יְ ַנ ֲה ֵגם‬ ְ ִ‫כּ‬ ‫וְ ַﬠל־מַ בּוּ ֵﬠי מַ יִ ם ְי ַנ ֲה ֵלם‬ ‫ לַדָּ ֶר‬b‫וְ שַׂ ְמ ִתּי ָכל־הָ ַרי‬ ‫וּמ ִס תַ י ְירֻ מוּן‬ ְ ‫הִ נֵּה־אֵ לֶּה מֵ ָרחֹ וק יָבֹ אוּ‬ ‫וּמיָּם‬ ִ ‫וְ הִ נֵּה־אֵ לֶּה ִמצָּ פֹ ון‬ c ‫וְ אֵ לֶּה מֵ אֶ ֶרץ ִסינִ ים‬

9b

They shall feed along the ways, on all the bare heights shall be their pasture: 10 they shall not hunger or thirst, neither scorching wind nor sun shall strike them down, for he who has pity on them will lead them, and by springs of water will guide them. 11 And I will turn all my mountains into a road, and my highways shall be raised up. 12 Lo, these shall come from far away, and lo, these from the north and from the west, and these from the land of Syene.

a

1QIsaa has “all the mountains” (‫)כל הרים‬. The LXX, Peshitta, and Targum all lack the suffix “my”. c The MT reads “Sinim” (‫)סִ י ִנים‬. The location of this place is unknown, but it was traditionally interpreted as China. The LXX has “from the land of the Persians” (ἐκ γῆς Περσῶν); the Vulgate has “from the south country” (de terra australi). Duhm (Jesaia, 14, 373) understood it to be Phoenicia which was the location where the author of Isaiah 40–55 lived, according b

127

See Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 198–205. Another plausible parallel is Hos 11:10–11, where the dispersed sons respond to the divine voice and come rapidly and determinedly like birds (cf. the doves Isa 60:8): “when [YHWH] roars, his children shall come trembling from the west. They shall come trembling like birds from Egypt, and like doves from the land of Assyria; and I will return them to their homes, says YHWH.” 128

332

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

to Duhm. The NRSV along with other modern translations follows 1QIsaa by reading “Syene” (‫)סוניים‬, a location on the Nile in the southern part of Egypt (cf. “Syene” [‫ ]סְ ֵונֵה‬in Ezek 29:10; 30:6).

Along with vv. 7 and 13, vv. 8–12 unfold and clarify the task of the servant presented in 49:1–6.129 According to v. 5, the servant will bring Jacob back to YHWH and Israel will be gathered to him.130 Verses 8–9a contain a motif of release insofar as YHWH instructs his servant to bring the prisoners out of their captivity (see Chapter 4). Verses 9b–12 depict YHWH’s renewed care for his liberated people on their journey and culminate in their return from the four corners of the earth. In general, the verses fluctuate between literal and metaphorical expressions, which can be interpreted to render a literal return to Jerusalem and a figurative renewed walk with YHWH.131 Additional verbs and specific words suggest that the overall imagery of vv. 9b–10 is that of a shepherd and his flock (cf. 40:11).132 The people who have been released are depicted as a flock that has been scattered but is now gathered and on the move under the leadership of YHWH. They will “graze” or “feed” (‫ )רעה‬along the way and the bare heights will be their “pasture” (‫)מַ ְרﬠִ ית‬, that is, even in places where one would not expect to find food. Unlike the desperate men of Jerusalem who in Lam 1:6 are likened to deer that cannot find pasture (‫)מ ְר ֶﬠה‬, ִ the people here fully experience YHWH’s care in that they are able to find good pasture without difficulty (cf. Ezek 34:14). Verse 10 introduces the scene of a desert. Despite deadly heat, the people will not suffer. Neither will they experience hunger (‫ )רעב‬nor thirst (‫)צמא‬. The pairing of these verbs occurs 12 times in the Old Testament to depict the conditions of the desert (2 Sam 17:39; Neh 9:15; Ps 107:5) and the implications of divine judgment (Deut 28:48; Amos 8:11).133 It is of significance that exactly these two words are used in the context of deportation in Isa 5:13. A possible interpretation of this verse is that the deportees march for days in chains without water or food (see Chapter 1). The salvific perspective of Isa 49:10 thus reverses the situation of severe judgment in 5:13. Moreover, neither scorching wind (‫ )שָׁ ָרב‬nor sun (‫ )שָׁ מֶ שׁ‬will strike the people down. As seen in the exegesis of 27:7, the verb “to strike” (‫ נכה‬in Hiphil) is often used about the hostile treatment of Israel by YHWH or its enemies. The burning hot wind recalls the dry 129

This section draws from my interpretation of Isa 49:8–12 in Poulsen, “New Ways,” 33–37. 130 Reading ‫ לוֹ‬for ‫ ל ֹא‬in ‫וְ ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל ל ֹא יֵאָ סֵ ף‬. An alternative reading interprets ‫ אסף‬in the sense of “perishing” or “moving away” (cf. Isa 57:1), see Goldingay, Message, 371: “to stop Israel withdrawing.” 131 Lund, Way Metaphors, 246; cf. Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 50: “Die Wegmetaphorik, die mit V 9b einsetzt und bis V 11 durchgehalten wird, darf nicht auf ein konkretes Rückzugsterrain eingeengt werden, sondern muss in ihrer Bildhaftigkeit offen bleiben.” 132 Lund, Way Metaphors, 239–44. 133 Lund, Way Metaphors, 241.

5.4. YHWH’s gathering of his dispersed flock

333

desert wind in 27:8 which removed the people from their home. This wind shall no more constitute a danger. The latter half of v. 10 spells out the reason for provision and protection. The people will not suffer because (‫ )כִּ י‬their shepherd will guide them. Both verbs for guidance occur in the context of driving animals (Gen 31:18; 33:14). The first verb (‫ )נהג‬is present in the judgment scene in Isa 20:4, where the Assyrian king will lead prisoners away from Egypt and Ethiopia (see Chapter 3). In more instances, the word depicts YHWH as the shepherd of Israel (Ps 48:15; 78:52; 80:2). However, YHWH can also lead away his people into dispersion (Deut 4:27; 28:37) and the poor psalmist into darkness (Lam 3:2). Here, the favorable kind of guidance is determined by the designation of the shepherd as “he who has pity on them” (‫)מ ַרחֲמָ ם‬. ְ 134 In Isaiah, ideal divine leadership is carefully depicted in 63:11–14, echoing the exodus out of Egypt and the wandering through the wilderness. The second verb (‫ )נהל‬also occurs in Exod 15:13 in relation to YHWH’s guidance of the people that he redeemed (cf. Isa 40:10 above). In this glorious hymn, he explicitly leads his flock to springs of water, completing the image of a good and careful shepherd. In v. 11, YHWH removes all obstacles that hinder the journey of his people. The reference to “my” mountains suggests that YHWH is above them and as creator has the power to transform them.135 By leveling the mountains he will establish a road (‫ )דֶ ֶרך‬and raise up highways (‫)מסִ לּוֹת‬. ְ The road and highways can refer to literal roads which the scattered people in the diaspora will follow (v. 12; cf. 11:16; 62:10). Verses 9b–10 sketch the image of a moving flock and, in light of the shepherd texts in Jer 31:7–13 and Ezek 34:11–16 examined above, it is indeed plausible that YHWH will lead his people home along this road to their fold and pasture. It is also possible, however, that the road has ethical and cognitive connotations and thus refers to the way of life that spiritually blind people must follow to return to YHWH (see further in Chapter 6).136 In a similar manner, the way that leads to springs of water in v. 10, to the source of wisdom, metaphorically alludes to a way of life that is in accordance with the will of God.137 The passage culminates in v. 12 with the vision of the return from the worldwide diaspora. The perspective is undoubtedly that of Jerusalem (cf. 11:11–16; 27:13; 43:5–6). A voice full of hope and joy urges the holy city to look at the returning people (cf. 49:18). They will come (‫ )בוא‬from the four corners of the world. As in 40:10, there is a repetition of ‫ הִ נֵּה‬but the main focus has shifted 134

Goldingay, Message, 379–80. Lund, Way Metaphors, 244–45. 136 Cf. Poulsen, “New Ways,” 36–37. 137 Lund, Way Metaphors, 243: “V. 11 describes, then, both ways along which YHWH lead his people out of their negative situation and, at the same time, the ways denote literal ways that lead back to Jerusalem and to fellowship with YHWH.” 135

334

Chapter 5: Scattering and dispersion

from the return of YHWH to that of his scattered people. The triple repetition of “these” (‫)אֵ לֶּה‬, referring to those who return, further emphasizes the excitement and intensity of the event. The verse refers to four places or areas from which the people shall come (notice the quadruple repetition of ‫)מן‬. ִ In terms of poetics, it is possible that the four words are “various forms of expression to the worldwide-ness of the scene”: abstract (“far away”), points of the compass (“north”), natural areas (“sea”), and place names (“Syene”).138 The mention of exactly four directions, however, may also point to the four corners of the earth (11:11–12; 43:5–6) and it is not impossible to identify the four points of the compass in the present verse. As in Gen 28:14, ‫ צָ פוֹן‬stands for the north and ‫ יָם‬for the west. “Syene” (see textual notes), which is the ancient name of modern Aswan, located at the southern border of Egypt, stands for the south (cf. Teman in Isa 43:6).139 Finally, in Isaiah, “from far away” (‫ )מֵ ָרחֹ וק‬often refers to regions to the east (e.g. 5:26; 39:3) and in 46:11, “from a far country” (‫ )מֵ אֶ ֶרץ מֶ ְרחָ ק‬parallels “from the sunrise” (‫מ ִמּז ְָרח‬, ִ that is, from the east).140 Jeremiah apparently associates this region with the captivity in Babylon: “I am going to save you from far away [‫ ]מֵ ָרחוֹק‬and your offspring from the land of their captivity [‫( ”]מֵ אֶ ֶרץ ִשׁבְ יָם‬Jer 30:10). In light of this, “from far away” in Isa 49:12 likely stands for the east.141 5.4.4. Summing up The examined passages in this section stress YHWH’s engagement in the gathering of his exiled people. He is depicted as a warrior returning from battle with war booty and as a shepherd leading his vulnerable flock to save pastures. Like their ancestor, Jacob, the people are called from the remotest areas of the world – the four corners of the world – to return to Jerusalem.

5.5. Conclusion 5.5. Conclusion

A significant feature in the examined passages is the idea of a worldwide scattering. The exiled people have not been displaced to only one specific location (e.g. Babylon) but are thought to have been dispersed across the entire world. The frequently employed metaphor of a compass points to the completeness of scattering – the four corners of the earth – and highlights the holy mountain in 138

Goldingay, Message, 381. Alternatively, “the land of Syene” stands for the west and “the sea” for the south (cf. Ps 107:3). 140 Cf. Lund, Way Metaphors, 245; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 331. 141 In contrast to this interpretation, Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 53) argues that the absent reference to “east” is intentional: “Dass der Osten in 49,12 ungenannt bleibt, liegt daran, dass die babylonische Gola bereits in 48,20 zu Auszug und Heimkehr aufgefordert worden war.” 139

5.5. Conclusion

335

Jerusalem as the center of attention. The gathering involves a movement from the peripheries to the very center of the world. Furthermore, there is a consistent emphasis on the aspect of distance insofar as the people shall return from the most distant and remote areas of the earth. No geographical distance is too great to be overcome. Different images illustrate the removal and condition of the dispersed people. They are referred to as banished and outcasts. They have been blasted away from their homes by the wind, dispersed like seed across the fields, and shooed away like a flock of animals. The people are frequently compared to sheep that have been scattered and are lost. They are poor, weak, and vulnerable. Similar images occur in the vision of gathering. YHWH will gather his people and bring them home in the same way that a farmer would collect the fruits in the field and bring in the harvest. YHWH will gather them like a shepherd who collects his sheep and leads them to their pasture. YHWH’s personal involvement in his people’s return is comprehensive. On the one hand, he extends his forceful hand to breaking down all barriers. He strikes the great river to make a passage through it and he beats to release his people. He brings home booty from war and levels out mountains to establish a way. On the other hand, he shows the most intimate and gentle concern for his people, providing for them and making sure that none of them is lost. Even the tiniest member of the people is of greatest importance to him. The use of signals also reveals YHWH’s engagement. He will raise a visible banner to the nations. A big shofar in Jerusalem will sound and everyone who hears it or receives YHWH’s personal call will come. In a peculiar manner, the appearance of these signals offers a response to King Hezekiah’s crucial question of return at the end of Isa 38: “what is the sign that I shall go up to the house of YHWH?” (see Chapter 3). The answer is simple: wait for the sound of the shofar!

Chapter 6

Blindness and disorientation: Cognitive images This chapter analyzes the cluster of texts in Isaiah which portray the state of exile by means of cognitive images. Scattered to the ends of the earth, the people are not only geographically dislocated but also mentally perplexed. Exile is a state of spiritual confusion and disorientation. The people have lost their sense of direction and have become blind to reality. They have turned or been turned away from God. As a result, they grope around in darkness and fail to properly orient themselves in the world. The refusal to receive divine teaching, which initially resulted in destruction and exile, has become a permanent and critical condition. The people follow their own ideas and suffer from the consequences of failed leadership. Fatally, they turn to self-chosen ways or to dumb idols to receive guidance. The people’s perception, or rather their lack of it, is no doubt a central concern in Isaiah. In his influential article on intertextual connections between the various parts of Isaiah, Ronald Clements refers to Israel’s blindness and deafness as a “prominent and fundamental” theme and sketches how this theme develops throughout the book (e.g. 6:9–10; 29:18; 35:5; 42:16, 18–19; 43:8).1 Furthermore, Robert Carroll has demonstrated the importance of the rhetoric of sight and blindness in this prophetic corpus: “From 1:2–3 to 66:24 the book of Isaiah is about seeing and perceiving, lacking understanding and being blind.” 2 The book itself is called “a vision” (‫ )חְ ַזוֹן‬in 1:1 and words about seeing and not seeing in both literal and metaphorical senses occur frequently throughout its chapters. The purpose of this chapter is to look at how these images are used to convey the experience of exile. As we have seen in the preceding chapters, the people’s inability to see and comprehend YHWH’s activity in the world is an essential element in Isaiah’s anticipation of exile (see especially Chapters 1 and 2). In fact, the former part of the book largely regards the lack of attention paid to YHWH as the cause of the destruction of Jerusalem and the removal of the people to foreign places. Initially, Isa 5:11–17 suggested that the conscious disregard of “the deeds of YHWH” and “the work of his hands” led to the deportation and humiliation of the people of Jerusalem. Crucially, they were forced away 1 Clements, “Beyond Tradition-History,” 101–4; cf. the elaborated analysis in Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 46–51. 2 Carroll, “Blindsight,” 80.

6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament

337

“without knowledge,” perhaps pointing both to the reason for and the condition of their exile. As in 28:7–13, the passage made a curious association between heavy drinking and blind ignorance. The complete devotion to drinking left no time for spiritual matters and, more importantly, made the people lose control and consciousness. They were simply incapable of comprehending anything, even their descent into the realm of darkness and death. Similarly, facing the danger of invasion in 22:1–14, the people did not look for YHWH. Rather than putting their trust in him, they were selfconfident in their attempt to enforce their defense system. Perplexed by the fatality of their situation, they engaged in careless rejoicing, leaving no room for spiritual devotion and divine intervention. Most prominent was the motif of hardening in Isa 6:9–10. Rather paradoxically, the aim of the prophet’s divinely given commission was to avoid the people from understanding at all: “Isaiah is to speak in such a way that they will not comprehend, even if they should wish to.”3 Their inability to see, hear, and understand would eventually result in complete annihilation. The prophet should even harden their hearts to prevent them from repenting. Judgment had to come. As noted, there was certainly a tension or polarity at stake here. On the one hand, the people have hardened themselves by their repeated refusal to listen to the divine message and learn from it. On the other, YHWH keeps them in this state so that they cannot repent and change their spiritual and moral conduct. The same ambiguity applies to the issue of blindness.4 It is both willed and imposed. The people are blind in their failure or refusal to see and understand. They have been blinded by themselves. Nevertheless, they have also been blinded by YHWH. He has closed their eyes from seeing. This theme reappears in Isa 29:9–10, where YHWH has deprived his people from understanding his will by closing the eyes and covering the heads of their prophets. They shall err in seeing (cf. 28:7). Like drunkards, the people will stagger around and make blind and ignorant decisions.5 According to 30:9–11, they will even instruct their prophets to turn them aside from the right path and keep silent about YHWH (see below). The people’s refusal to pay attention to the word and acts of YHWH in the former part of the book points forward to the execution of judgment against them in the gap between Isa 39 and 40. The present chapter studies the people’s blindness, ignorance, and stubbornness as notable characteristics of their exilic existence following this great gap. Focus is thus mainly on selected texts from the latter part of the book. As will become apparent in my ana3

Landy, “I and Eye in Isaiah,” 88. Carroll, “Blindsight,” 82–85. 5 Carroll, “Blindsight,” 84: “The picture of a society lost through the appalling drunkenness of its leaders is the depiction of a community blinded by YHWH, cast into a stupor by him.” 4

338

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

lysis, several images and themes are interrelated in this type of discourse.6 Sight symbolizes spiritual insight, whereas blindness symbolizes ignorance and mental hardship. Light signifies guidance, illumination, and salvation, whereas darkness signifies destruction and judgment. Being blind and groping around in darkness are two sides of the same coin. Being ignorant mirrors the futility of worshiping idols and walking on self-chosen pathways. In the end, being incapable of receiving true revelation is a harsh result of divine judgment itself. It is life without light or hope. Carroll has convincingly demonstrated that the idea of a blind or blinded people corresponds to that of the hiddenness of YHWH.7 YHWH hides himself in judgment (see Chapter 1). He removes his presence and guidance from the world and leaves it in darkness and despair. 8 The people are left blind and ignorant, spiritually stumbling around without any clear goal but they are simultaneously persistently unwilling to change their miserable way of life.9 The language of perception, sensitivity, and guidance underlying the cognitive imagery in Isaiah draws from or is at least a central feature of Old Testament wisdom literature. Therefore, the chapter begins with a general introduction to the themes of knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament, especially regarding the issue of the true source of wisdom and the prominent metaphor of “the way”. This overview is followed by a brief discussion of wisdom-like themes in Isaiah. Three sections then focus on the insensitive and obdurate people with regard to their blindness and deafness (Isa 42:18– 25), their stubbornness and idolatry (Isa 48:1–8), and their self-chosen ways. Due to the people’s destructive obstinacy, YHWH is the only one who can transform their hardened minds. The two final sections of the chapter study the vision of divine guidance as a counter motif to the self-chosen ways of the people and their spiritual and cognitive rebirth by means of YHWH’s power to transform (Isa 41:17–20).

6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament 6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament

The story of the tower of Babel contains an important claim about the condition of human life in addition to the idea of universal scattering (see Chapter 5). Before YHWH scatters the inhabitants of the great city, he confuses their 6

Cf. Poulsen, “A Light to the Gentiles,” 166–68. Carroll, “Blindsight,” 83–86. 8 According to Smart (History and Theology, 54), the world without God’s rule and guidance is “like a driverless car careening to its ruin.” 9 Baldauf, “Knecht,” 27: “Blindheit ist […] die Unfähigkeit, Gottes Willen zu erkennen und zu tun, Orientierungslosigkeit und freie Selbstbestimmung anstatt Orientierung an Jahwe.” 7

6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament

339

language so that they do not understand each other. Or, more precisely, so that they do not hear one another’s speech (‫)ר ֵﬠהוּ ל ֹא יִ ְשׁ ְמעוּ ִאישׁ ְשׂ ַפת‬. ֵ A central characteristic of a divided humanity is thus a profound deafness across the world. Divine punishment in Gen 11:1–9 thus has a double impact. First, humanity that once lived in the same place is divided and spread throughout the world. Second, humanity that once understood itself is divided in terms of language with a resulting fundamental lack of understanding as a severe outcome. Babel becomes a symbol of confusion and estrangement from God.10 The attempt or failure by humans to understand God and orient themselves in the world is a key theme in Old Testament wisdom literature.11 Knowledge (‫ )חָ כְ מָ ה‬in these texts is often closely associated with ethics or life-skills, that is, the way in which one conducts his life in the best possible way. With regard to gaining this knowledge, there is a basic paradox at stake (similar to the issue of willed and imposed blindness discussed above). 12 On the one hand, knowledge about the world and its inherent order is something one acquires through observation and experience. Laziness and stupidity lead to ineffective production, as the sage observes in Prov 24:30–34 (“I saw and considered it; I looked and received instruction”). Crucially, this knowledge can be passed on to others. The father shall instruct his sons and they shall listen and gain insight (Prov 4:1–2). On the other hand, wisdom is a gift from God. It is noteworthy that the very ability to see and learn about the world is thought to derive from him: “The hearing ear and the seeing eye – YHWH has made them both” (Prov 20:12). According to Prov 2:6, “YHWH gives wisdom; from his mouth come knowledge and understanding.” “Fear of God” (‫) ִי ְראַ ת יְ הוָה‬, that is, a constant awareness and worship of God, is the true source of wisdom (e.g. Prov 9:10; Job 28:28). The idea of divinely revealed knowledge here is rather close to the divine oracles uttered by the prophets or the revealed torah at Sinai, central to the worldview espoused in Deuteronomy. Despite obvious differences between wisdom texts and Deuteronomy – the former focuses on the non-ethnic individual, the latter on the nation of Israel – there are striking similarities with regard to content and vocabulary.13 First, a common theme is the observance of rules. The center of attention for the sage is the divinely created order in the world and the desire to live wisely in accordance with this order. The center of attention and devotion for the pious 10

Burnett, Divine Absence, 82; cf. Olson, “From Horeb to Nebo,” 86: “the human condition, post-Babel, with the wide diversity of cultures and languages, places humanity as a whole into a semi-permanent state of exilic estrangement from other human communities, from one culture or nation to another.” 11 See e.g. Lucas, “Wisdom Theology”; Saur, Weisheitsliteratur. 12 Cf. Murphy, Tree of Life, 114–15. 13 See e.g. Morgan, Wisdom, 94–106; Murphy, Tree of Life, 104–6; Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy,” 181–82.

340

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

Israelite is the law of Moses and the demand to live in accordance with it. Wisdom, then, is a diligent observance of the statutes and ordinances. Nations will see Israel and say: “Surely this great nation is a wise and discerning people [‫( ”!] ַﬠם־חָ ָכם וְ נָבוֹן‬Deut 4:6). Second, didactic activities are central to both wisdom texts and Deuteronomy: listen, learn, and pass it on. Just as the sage will pass on knowledge to his disciples, every generation of Israel will pass on memory of their past and of received commandments to the next generations (cf. Moses’ exhortation in Deut 4:9: “But take care and watch yourselves closely, so as neither to forget the things that your eyes have seen nor to let them slip from your mind all the days of your life; make them known [‫ ידע‬in Hiphil] to your children and your children’s children”; cf. Prov 4:4). Just as the wise observe the world and learn from its inherent order, so will the people observe their history and learn from it. Third, wisdom texts and Deuteronomy both assume that there is a causal relationship between act and consequence. Wise and righteous conduct leads to happiness and success, whereas foolish and wicked conduct leads to failure; Israel’s obedience to YHWH’s covenant implies blessings and protection, whereas violation against it implies punishment and death. The motif of “a way” ( ‫ )דֶּ ֶר‬is a prominent metaphor for moral and religious behavior. The metaphor is fully developed in the severe antithesis between the wise/obedient and foolish/sinful ways of life. Proverbs contrasts “the way of wisdom” (‫ )דֶּ ֶר חָ כְ מָ ה‬and “the path of the wicked” (‫)דֶּ ֶר ְרשָׁ ﬠִ ים‬, the latter of which is like deep darkness leading to death (Prov 4:10–19; cf. 9:1– 6, 13–18). Moses introduces his people to two ways: one of obedience leading to life and prosperity and one of disobedience leading to death and adversity (Deut 30:15–20). In Deuteronomy in particular, there is a constant danger that the people will turn away from YHWH and worship other gods. Much depends on the ability to observe and acknowledge the divine rule. Proper observance requires eyes to see, ears to listen, and a healthy heart to consider and comprehend. Those who are attentive and meditative will look for the just order of creation or YHWH’s torah to orient themselves in the world. Those who are ignorant and stubborn, on the other hand, will follow ways of their own. Before turning to Isaiah, I will briefly look at Ps 1 which explicitly fuses wisdom language and torah piety. In a condensed and paradigmatic manner, the psalm reflects on the contrast between the righteous and the wicked and offers a fine illustration of the association of wisdom with images of fruitfulness and fertility. Happy or blessed is the one who does not follow “the way of sinners” (‫ )דֶ ֶר חַ טָּ ִאים‬and does not sit among scoffers but devotes his entire attention to meditating on the teaching of YHWH (‫)תּוֹרת יְ הוָה‬. ַ Day and night, he studies and recites the divine word with the greatest care. This is the true source of life and understanding. According to the final verse, YHWH will

6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament

341

guard or recognize (‫“ )ירע‬the way of the righteous” (‫)דֶּ ֶר צַ ִדּיקִ ים‬, whereas “the way of the wicked” (‫ )דֶּ ֶר ְרשָׁ ﬠִ ים‬will perish. The middle section of the psalm contrasts the two groups by means of nature imagery. The righteous are compared to a tree firmly planted by streams of water which yields its fruit at the proper time and with leaves that shall not wither. Like the tree, the righteous will succeed in all that they do. Their life is one of steadiness and prosperity and, as water corresponds to torah, they will never fear running out of spiritual nourishment.14 In contrast, the wicked are of no worth and lack substance. Their lives are full of failure and insecurity. They disappear as easily as the wind drives away empty chaff and will not stand in the judgment. A similar comparison is made in Jer 17:5–8.15 Those who turn away from YHWH will be like a shrub in the desert and live in the parched places of the wilderness. Those who trust in YHWH will be like a tree planted by streams, sending out its roots to the water, the very foundation of life. Despite heat and drought – oppression and pain – the righteous shall not fear or be anxious for they will bear fruit and their leaves will stay green. 6.1.1. Wisdom-like language in Isaiah Wisdom-like language and ideas are familiar in Isaiah.16 While past scholarship devoted itself to possible historical links between the prophet Isaiah of Jerusalem and wisdom circles,17 recent studies have looked at wisdom-like elements and features in the book as a whole. These elements include literary forms such as teaching formulae (1:2–3) and parables (5:1–7; 28:23–29), vocabulary (“hear and understand,” “see and perceive”), and themes (true and false wisdom, creation). According to Lindsay Wilson, the authors of the book have adopted these wisdom forms and ideas to express and communicate its central message. There is thus no rejection of wisdom enterprise as such and passages that appear critical towards human wisdom are rather corrections of wisdom wrongly applied.18 Just as the sage seeks wisdom and the pious Israelite meditates on the torah, the book of Isaiah encourages its readers to look to YHWH for proper knowledge and understanding. As Martin A. Shields cogently claims: “For Isaiah, true wisdom lies with God alone, and those who are truly wise desire

14

Cf. Pokrifka, “Life,” 432: “As a tree drinks up the water day and night, so do the righteous delight in, meditate on, and feast upon the word of God on any given day.” 15 For other biblical parallels, see the review in Pokrifka, “Life,” 432–36. 16 See the recent reviews in Shields, “Prophecy and Wisdom,” 645–46; Wilson, “Wisdom in Isaiah.” See also Morgan, Wisdom, 76–83, 114–19. 17 E.g. Fichtner, “Isaiah among the Wise”; Jensen, The Use of tôrâ; Whedbee, Isaiah and Wisdom; Williamson, “Isaiah and the Wise.” 18 Wilson, “Wisdom in Isaiah,” 162–66.

342

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

their wisdom from him.”19 Consistent with this claim is the description of the ideal king in Isa 11:2, which contains a cluster of wisdom terms: “The spirit of YHWH shall rest on him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding [ ‫רוּחַ חָ כְ מָ ה‬ ‫]וּבִ ינָה‬, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and the fear of YHWH [‫( ”]דַּ ַﬠת וְ יִ ְראַ ת יְ הוָה‬cf. 9:6; 33:6). Additional passages argue that YHWH is the true source of wisdom. The parable in 28:23–29 presents a farmer who takes care of his fields during the agricultural seasons. The farmer’s knowledge and experience of what to do and when illustrate the success of practical wisdom. Verse 26 states: “[his God] teaches him the right way, he instructs him” (‫יוֹרנּוּ‬ ֶ ‫)וְ ִיסְּ רוֹ ל ִַמּ ְשׁפָּט ֱא הָ יו‬. It is notable that ‫ ִמ ְשׁפָּט‬here designates a principle or right order, close to the central wisdom concept of a divinely created order in the world.20 God occurs in the role of a teacher, sharing his knowledge with his pupil. He personally teaches or guides (‫ יסר‬in Piel) him and carefully instructs (‫ ירה‬in Hiphil) him how and when to work. Another illustration is 40:12–14 in which the prophet adopts the stance of a teacher and addresses his audience as a class of students.21 A series of rhetorical questions serves to underline that no one can imitate or guide YHWH’s creations: “Whom did he consult for his enlightenment, and who taught him the path of justice? Who taught him knowledge, and showed him the way of understanding?” This verse contains “an unusual concentration” of words for knowing, learning, and understanding.22 The terms include ‫“( יעץ‬to advise”), ‫“( בין‬to understand”), ‫“( למד‬to learn, teach”), ‫“( ידע‬to know, make known”), ‫“( אֹ ַרח ִמ ְשׁ ָפּט‬the path of justice/order”), ‫“( דַ ַﬠת‬knowledge”), and ‫דֶּ ֶר‬ ‫“( ְתּבוּנוֹת‬the way of understanding”). As the creator of everything, God had no need for guidance or advice: “Da JHWH in aller Einsicht die Schöpfung gestaltet hat und für die Weltlenkung verantwortlich ist, kann niemand ein Wissen besitzen, das den Schöpfer übertrifft.” 23 YHWH does not need to be taught. Rather, he is the teacher, instructing and guiding his blind and deaf people on the way they should go (see below). YHWH’s earnest desire to share his wisdom with the world is a key motif in the vision of 2:2–4. People from all over the world will come to Zion and seek the God of Jacob so that he may teach (‫ ירה‬in Hiphil) them his ways (‫)דְּ ָרכָיו‬. Divine teaching will go forth from the holy mountain and it will become a center of guidance: “for out of Zion shall go forth instruction, and the

19

Shields, “Prophecy and Wisdom,” 648. Cf. Kaiser, Jesaja 13–39, 207: “V. 26 geht von einem weisheitlichen Ordnungsgedanken aus, wenn er die Richtigkeit der Handlungsabläufe auf eine unmittelbare göttlichen Belehrung zurückführt.” 21 Goldingay, Message, 35. 22 Cf. Wilson, “Wisdom in Isaiah,” 156. 23 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 136. 20

6.1. Knowledge and ignorance in the Old Testament

343

word of YHWH from Jerusalem.” Here and elsewhere in Isaiah, the term “instruction”, or literally torah (‫)תּוֹרה‬, ָ should probably be understood broadly as a reference to divine teaching comparable to that of the wisdom tradition.24 The motif of issuing divine instruction is further developed in 51:4. YHWH’s call for attention is characteristic of both prophetic and didactic texts: “Listen [‫ קשׁב‬in Hiphil] to me, my people, and give heed [‫ אזן‬in Hiphil] to me, my nation; for a teaching will go out from me, and my justice for a light to the peoples.” It is worth noticing that teaching (‫)תּוֹרה‬ ָ will not emerge from a specific location such as Zion but directly from YHWH himself (“from me”). The association of teaching and justice with light suggests worldwide enlightenment. True wisdom and guidance come from YHWH. It is in light of this claim that we shall understand the recurring criticism against human wisdom separated from the fear of YHWH. In 5:21, the prophet laments: “Ah, you who are wise [‫ ]חְ ַ ָכ ִמים‬in your own eyes, and shrewd [‫ ]נְ בֹ נִ ים‬in your own sight!” The verse precedes one about drinking wine, calling to memory the close association between heavy drinking and blind ignorance (cf. 5:11–13). Moreover, in 29:14, YHWH states: “The wisdom of their wise [‫ ]חָ כְ מַ ת ֲחכָמָ יו‬shall perish, and the discernment of the discerning [‫ ]בִּ ינַת ְנבֹ נָיו‬shall be hidden.” The contrast between divine wisdom and that of counselors and diviners also shows up in the latter part of the book. In 44:25, YHWH is depicted as one “who frustrates the omens of liars,25 and makes fools of diviners; who turns back the wise, and makes their knowledge foolish.” The religious phenomenon here is probably a “standard Babylonian means of mediation” that could be a temptation to the exiles.26 The futility of Babylonian wisdom is fully emphasized in 47:10, which offers an explanation for the dethronement of Lady Babylon: “Your wisdom and your knowledge [ ֵ‫ ]חָ כְ מָ תֵ וְ דַ ﬠְ תּ‬led you astray.” As we shall see in this chapter, a significant characteristic of YHWH’s people in exile is their inability to orient themselves in the world. They cannot see nor listen. They have lost their sense of direction and are mentally confused. They can neither understand the disasters of the past nor the suffering of their present situation. Due to their blindness, stubbornness, and mental hardship, they are constantly rejecting YHWH and turning to the false wisdom of other gods for help and guidance.

24

Cf. Wildberger, Jesaja, 85. See also the famous analysis in Jensen, The Use of tôrâ, 84–95. 25 Or perhaps “omens of diviners,” reading ‫ בָּ ִרים‬for the MT’s ‫בַּ דִּ ים‬. See Paul, Isaiah 40– 66, 146. 26 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 246.

344

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

6.2. The blind and deaf people (Isaiah 42:18–25) 6.2. The blind and deaf people

Lack of perception is a key theme in 42:18–25. The passage renders a negative and depressing portrait of the people. They are blind and deaf and cannot perceive what caused their present situation or why. Rather than a faithful servant of YHWH, showing his greatness to the world, the people are hidden away in darkness, unable and unwilling to see or understand. The genre of the passage is closest to that of a disputation.27 The implication of this form-critical observation is that the passage responds to an accusation made against YHWH.28 A plausible accusation could be that YHWH ignored the right of his people (40:27) and that he has been entirely blind and deaf to their past and present suffering. In contrast, the main argument of 42:18–25 is that the people are those who are blind and deaf. They have not yet perceived the underlying cause for punishment by means of exile. A central purpose is thus both to justify the necessity of exile and to exhort the people to pay attention to God and turn to him. Despite the harsh disputation style, there are small glimpses of hope pointing beyond the present time of ignorance. In short, the passage intends to explain the past and points to a future of insight and divine guidance (cf. the message of release and worldwide gathering in 43:1–7, a passage which follows immediately after 42:18– 25). Although the unity of the passage seems certain, a division into two minor units of vv. 18–20 and 21–25 is helpful. The speaker in vv. 18–20 is YHWH, while someone speaks about him in vv. 21–25. Both units end with an emphasis on the failure to understand and pay attention (vv. 20 and 25b). 6.2.1. Isaiah 42:18–25: Text and translation ‫הַ חֵ ְר ִשׁים ְשׁמָ עוּ‬ ‫וְ הַ ﬠִ וְ ִרים הַ בִּ יטוּ לִ ְראֹ ות‬ ‫ִמי ﬠִ וֵּר כִּ י ִאם־ ַﬠבְ ִדּי‬ ‫וְ חֵ ֵרשׁ כְּ מַ לְ אָ כִ י אֶ ְשׁ ָלח‬ b ‫ כִּ ְמשֻׁ ָלּם‬a‫ִמי ﬠִ וֵּר‬ ‫ כְּ ֶﬠבֶ ד יְ ה ָוה‬a‫וְ ﬠִ ֵוּר‬ c ‫ָר ִאיתָ ַרבֹּ ות וְ ל ֹא ִת ְשׁמֹ ר‬ ‫ָפּקֹ וחַ אָ ְז ַניִ ם וְ ל ֹא יִ ְשׁמָ ע‬ ‫יְ הוָה חָ ֵפץ לְ מַ ַﬠן צִ דְ קֹ ו‬ d

27 28

‫ורה וְ י ְַא ִדּיר‬ ָ ֹ‫יַגְ ִדּיל תּ‬

18

Listen, you that are deaf; and you that are blind, look up and see! 19 Who is blind but my servant, or deaf like my messenger whom I send? Who is blind like my dedicated one, or blind like the servant of YHWH? 20 He sees many things, but does not observe them; his ears are open, but he does not hear. 21 YHWH was pleased, for the sake of his righteousness, to magnify his teaching and make it glorious. […]

Melugin, Formation, 41–43; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 109. Goldingay, “Isaiah 42:18–25,” 45.

6.2. The blind and deaf people

‫ִמי בָ ֶכם ַי ֲא ִזין ז ֹאת‬ ‫יַקְ ִשׁב וְ יִ ְשׁמַ ע לְ אָ חֹ ור‬ ‫ִמי־נָתַ ן לִ ְמשֹׁ וסֶ ה ַיﬠֲקֹ ב‬ ‫וְ יִ ְשׂ ָראֵ ל לְ בֹ ְז ִזים‬ ‫ ו‬e‫ֲה וא יְ ה ָוה זוּ חָ טָ אנוּ‬ ‫וְ ל ֹא־אָ בוּ בִ דְ ָרכָיו הָ ו‬ f ‫ורתֹ ו‬ ָ ֹ‫וְ ל ֹא שָׁ ְמעוּ בְּ ת‬ ‫וַיִּ ְשׁפֹּ ָﬠלָיו חֵ מָ ה אַ פֹּ ו‬ ‫ֶוﬠֱזוּז ִמלְ חָ מָ ה‬ ‫ו ְַתּ ַלהֲטֵ הוּ ִמסָּ בִ יב וְ ל ֹא יָדָ ע‬ ‫ו ִַתּבְ ַﬠר־בֹּ ו וְ ל ֹא־י ִָשׂים ַﬠל־ ֵלב‬

345

23

Who among you will give heed to this, who will attend and listen for the time to come? 24 Who gave up Jacob to the spoiler, and Israel to the robbers? Was it not YHWH, against whom we have sinned? in whose ways they would not walk, and whose law they would not obey? 25 So he poured upon him the heat of his anger and the fury of war; it set him on fire all around, but he did not understand; it burned him, but he did not take it to heart.

a In light of v. 19a, some interpreters propose to read ‫ חֵ ֵרשׁ‬for ‫ ﬠִ וֵּר‬either in the first occurrence to create a chiastic structure (Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 199) or in the second occurrence to render a parallelism (Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 216; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 108). In terms of textual evidence, only a couple of Hebrew manuscripts and Symmachus warrant such an emendation. b The meaning of ‫שׁ ָלּם‬ ֻ ‫ ְמ‬is uncertain. Likely, it is a Pual participle of ‫“( שׁלם‬be rewarded or fulfilled”), perhaps in the sense of “fully paid” or “covenant partner”; cf. the NRSV: “my dedicated one.” Alternatively, the word might be rendered as a proper name “Meshullam”; cf. “Jeshurun” in Isa 44:2. See the review in Baldauf, “Knecht,” 15–17. c Literally the verse reads: “You have seen many things, but you do not observe.” The translation in the NRSV reflects the Qere reading of ‫( ָראוֹת‬absolute infinitive) for ָ‫ ָר ִאית‬and the emendation of ‫ ִת ְשׁמֹ ר‬into ‫ ִי ְשׁמֹ ר‬, a reading which parallels the infinitive ‫ ָפּקֹ וח‬and third person verb ‫ ִי ְשׁמָ ע‬in the latter half of the verse; cf. the footnote in BHS and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 216–17; Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 272; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 200; Uhlig, Hardening, 327. Other interpreters maintain the Ketib reading of the MT which is supported by 1QIsaa (‫)ראיתה‬, see, for example, Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 251; Childs, Isaiah, 328; Goldingay, Message, 181; Lund, Way Metaphors, 147, note c; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 108. Both readings appear to say the same thing so the choice between them is rather one of rhetorical style (consistency vis-à-vis transition). d 1QIsaa has a suffix (‫)ויאדרהה‬, referring back to ‫ורה‬ ָ ֹ‫תּ‬. e Some of the ancient versions have a third person plural form (the LXX: ἡμάρτοσαν; the Targum: ‫)דּחָ בוּ‬, ְ adopted by Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 216–17, and Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 202. See also the review in Uhlig, Hardening, 334–35. f 1QIsaa has a plural form (‫)בתורתיו‬, matching the previous word “ways” in plural.

6.2.2. Isaiah 42:18–20: The blind and deaf servant The verses render YHWH’s address to his blind and deaf people. There is a strong use of words about seeing, listening, and paying attention.29 The unit is framed by the verb “to hear” (‫)שׁמע‬, and the terms “blind” (‫ )ﬠִ וֵּר‬and “deaf” (‫ )חֵ ֵרשׁ‬occur four and two times, respectively, forming parallel and chiastic

29

Uhlig, Hardening, 144.

346

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

figures. 30 In terms of rhetorical structure, there is a logical development. 31 First, YHWH addresses the deaf and the blind. Then, he identifies them as his people using no less than four parallel expressions. Finally, he interprets their disabilities as a spiritual inability to recognize his activity in the world. The opening of v. 18 is paradoxical. YHWH urges the deaf to listen and the blind to look and perceive. The plural forms of the addressee point to a collective which v. 19 identifies as YHWH’s own people. The juxtaposition of two words for seeing adds emphasis to the motif of sight, or the lack thereof (cf. the triple repetition of ‫ ﬠִ וֵּר‬in v. 19). While “to look” (‫ נבט‬in Hiphil) refers to the sharp and determined glance at something, “to see” (‫ )ראה‬refers more broadly to perceiving or becoming aware of something. Rather than an insignificant reiteration, the combination of the two verbs suggests the attentive look at something specific – an event – and the subsequent interpretation of it (cf. v. 20).32 The notion of a blind and deaf people who are unable to discern what is going on picks up the central motif of 6:9–10 (see Chapter 2). There is a set of shared words between the two passages (‫שׁמע‬, ‫ראה‬, ‫)אֹ זֶן‬. Furthermore, the sequence of “deaf will listen and blind will see” in v. 18 parallels that of listening and looking in 6:9. In this manner, vv. 18–20 offer another testimony to the fulfillment of the prophecy in Isa 6 (cf. 63:7–64:11). The people were, and still are, unable to understand the destruction of Jerusalem and their present situation. Nevertheless, as more interpreters have proposed, v. 18 contains a hidden promise insofar as YHWH’s power to restore lies behind his paradoxical appeal to the blind and deaf.33 God, who once hardened his people from seeing, hearing, and discerning his will, that is, left them as a blind, deaf, and utterly helpless people with a sick heart, is also the only one who can heal them. He can open the eyes of the blind and the ears of the deaf as reflected in the descriptions of the age of salvation in Isa 29:18 and 35:5 (cf. 32:3–4).34 By means of two rhetorical questions, v. 19 states that the people’s failure to perceive is unparalleled. Who is as blind and deaf as YHWH’s servant? There is a significant tension between the repeated emphasis on the people’s lack of discernment and the honorable titles by which YHWH refers to them. They are “my servant” (‫) ַﬠבְ ִדּי‬, “my messenger” (‫)מַ לְ אָ כִ י‬, “the dedicated one” (‫) ְמשֻׁ ָלּם‬, and “the servant of YHWH” (‫) ֶﬠבֶ ד יְ ה ָוה‬. As the chosen people of God,

30

See Goldingay, “Isaiah 42:18–25,” 48–50. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 199. 32 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 261. 33 Goldingay, Message, 180; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 109. 34 Cf. Exod 4:11: “Then YHWH said to [Moses], ‘Who gives speech to mortals? Who makes them mute or deaf [‫]חֵ ֵרשׁ‬, seeing or blind [‫ ?]ﬠִ וֵּר‬Is it not I, YHWH?”; Ps 146:8: “YHWH opens the eyes of the blind [‫]ﬠִ וְ ִרים‬.” 31

6.2. The blind and deaf people

347

“no one […] has had so much opportunity to see.”35 But they are blind, blind, blind. The paradox of v. 18 thus continues: YHWH’s messenger is profoundly deaf to the message he is sent to communicate! Verse 20 makes clear that we are dealing with metaphors. The people are spiritually blind and deaf. 36 They see things and their ears are open, but they do not observe or listen properly. 37 The imperfect form of ‫ ִת ְשׁמֹ ר‬and ‫יִ ְשׁמָ ע‬ shows that the failure to comprehend the significance of events does not only belong to the past, but is a central characteristic of the people in exile. They have seen “many things” (‫) ַרבֹּ ות‬, likely the glorious and painful events in their history with YHWH,38 but they have not preserved them well or been careful about them (‫)שׁמר‬, that is, they have not learned from them or used the insight to change their way of life. This motif is essential in Deuteronomy, for instance, in 4:9: “take care [‫ ]הִ שָּׁ מֶ ר‬and watch [‫]שׁמֹ ר‬ ְ yourselves closely, so as neither to forget the things that your eyes have seen nor to let them slip from your mind” (cf. 4:6 above). In Deuteronomy, there is also an emphasis on the people’s failure to do so: “You have seen all that YHWH did before your eyes in the land of Egypt […] but to this day YHWH has not given you a mind to understand [‫]לֵב לָדַ ַﬠת‬, or eyes to see, or ears to hear” (29:1–3).39 The latter statement is important because, like Isa 6:9–10, it presumes that the ability to discern YHWH’s salvific activity in the end depends on his own initiative. Unless God makes his people capable of sensing his actions, they will not grasp anything. Exactly this thought appears to be at play in the fictive trial scene in 43:8– 13, which explicitly picks up the theme of blindness and deafness from 42:18–20. At first sight, the main purposes of the passage are to claim the uniqueness of YHWH (“I am God, there is no other”) and to demonstrate the ignorance of the nations and their worthless idols (cf. 41:1–7, 21–29). A closer look, however, reveals that a key issue is YHWH’s renewed call to his people to understand him and his will.

35

Goldingay, Message, 180; cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 262: “wer, wenn nicht der Knecht sollte sehen und bemerken, was sein Herr tut!” 36 Stern, “Blind Servant,” 225. 37 Cf. Smart, History and Theology, 92: “That men are blind and deaf means that men are blind and deaf to God, unable to recognize the true nature of their God, unable to hear the word in which he is continually revealing himself to them, but more than that, unable to understand their own history as the story of God’s faithful dealings with them.” 38 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 262; cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 221: “their own [experience] and knowledge mediated to them through their traditions.” 39 Cf. Jer 5:21: “Hear this, O foolish and senseless people, who have eyes, but do not see, who have ears, but do not hear”; Ezek 12:2: “Mortal, you are living in the midst of a rebellious house, who have eyes to see but do not see, who have ears to hear but do not hear.”

348

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

The opening of 43:8–13 summons the people and the nations to come to court. In accordance with 42:18–20, YHWH refers to them as “a people who are blind, yet have eyes, who are deaf, yet have ears” ( ‫ַﬠם־ﬠִ וֵּר וְ ֵﬠינַיִ ם יֵשׁ וְ חֵ ְר ִשׁים‬ ‫)וְ אָ ְז ַנ ִים לָמוֹ‬. Again, blindness and deafness are presented as spiritual or internal disabilities prohibiting the people from comprehending God and his actions. The reference to “a people” certainly indicates distance but, as in 42:18, the appeal to bring the blind and deaf to witness in court is a sign of hope. This hope is spelled out in v. 10 in YHWH’s emphatic address to his people: “You are my witnesses!” (‫ ;אַ תֶּ ם ֵﬠדַ י‬cf. v. 12; 44:8). Again, there is an implicit paradox: YHWH calls a blind and deaf people to be witness in favor of him as true God, that is, he calls a group of people that have neither seen, heard, nor been convinced of anything and, accordingly, will serve terribly as witnesses in a court room. The paradoxical call which is immediately confirmed by the formula “says YHWH” (‫ ) ְנ ֻאם־יְ הוָה‬points to the heart of the passage’s statement: “the function of witness-bearer is not just directed to the goal of silencing the nations, but in order that blind Israel may nevertheless know, believe, and understand the reality of God.”40 In other words, YHWH appoints his people as his witnesses in order to convince them about the truth of his salvific actions for their sake: “Its own enlightenment is the object of Israel’s being chosen.”41 YHWH has called his people, his chosen servant, to be witnesses so that (‫ )לְ מַ ַﬠן‬they may know (‫)ידע‬ and believe (‫ אמן‬in Hiphil) him and understand (‫ )בין‬that he is their savior. Of note is the strong cognitive sense of all three verbs. Until now, the blind and deaf people have been unable to acknowledge or understand. Due to their rebellion in Isa 1:2–3, the people did neither know (‫ )ידע‬nor understand (‫ בין‬in Hitpolel). In fact, due to their existential isolation and complete alienation from God, they have become incapable of trusting him. Now, on YHWH’s own initiative, they are called to be his witnesses and servants and to walk in his pathway and grow in insight. In front of the heavenly judge in Isa 6:9–10, the people could listen and see but never comprehend (‫ )בין‬nor understand (‫ )ידע‬and they would remain deaf and blind with a sick heart. These predictions were certainly fulfilled. Nevertheless, according to the court scene in 43:8–13, YHWH will bring them the knowledge and understanding he once denied them. To summarize, Isa 42:18–20 presents the people in a very negative light. They are unable to recognize YHWH’s actions on their behalf and they are unable to fulfill the expectations associated with their task as servant and messenger. Nevertheless, beneath the surface, there are indications of hope. 40

Childs, Isaiah, 335. Goldingay, Message, 200; cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 284: “Die Erwählung Israels/Jakobs als Knecht JHWHs, angefangen von den Erzeltern bis zur aktuellen Stunde war nichts anders als auf die Erkenntnis des einzig wahren Gottes angelegt.” 41

6.2. The blind and deaf people

349

YHWH has the power to restore their minds and make them capable of recognizing his salvific work (cf. 43:8–13). 6.2.3. Isaiah 42:21–25: Understanding the past The latter half of the oracle in 42:18–25 opens abruptly with the name of YHWH. He spoke in vv. 18–20, but in vv. 21–25 one speaks about him. Verse 21 depicts the true desire of YHWH. For the sake of his own righteousness (‫)לְ מַ ַﬠן צִ ְדקֹ ו‬, or perhaps that of his people,42 he wanted to magnify his torah and make it glorious. Apart from its context, the verse carries the tone of piety known from wisdom circles that praise the law (e.g. Ps 119).43 In context, however, the verse picks up the language of the servant passage in Isa 42:1–9 about the kind of people whom God wants Israel to be: mediators of his torah and justice.44 Through the embodiment of divine torah (revelation or teaching), the people were called to establish a right order that should spread to the surrounding nations and be the object of their acknowledgment (cf. Deut 4:6 cited above). However, as the context in vv. 18–25 shows, this did not happen. The people were too blind and deaf to achieve their mission. In line with this, Goldingay has rightly observed that vv. 21 and 22 form a contrast.45 While v. 21 renders YHWH’s desirable purpose, v. 22 shows the poor and depressing state of the people, unable to fulfill their intended role. In terms of rhetorical emphasis, the opening of v. 22 (“but this is a people”; ‫ )וְ הוּא ַﬠם‬contrasts the opening of v. 21 (“YHWH desired”; ‫)יְ הוָה חָ ֵפץ‬. Rather than magnifying (‫ גדל‬in Hiphil) and glorifying (‫ אדר‬in Hiphil) YHWH’s torah through obedience and proper conduct – a thought which involves a visible element of might and splendor46 – the people are powerless, enslaved, and hidden away in dark holes (see Chapter 4). The people’s lack of perception which was dealt with in vv. 18–20 reappears in v. 23. The rhetorical question of “who” (‫)מי‬ ִ in v. 19 recurs and the verse centers on the challenge to hear and pay attention. Three synonymous

42

So Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 216: “his servant’s vindication”; Paul, Isaiah 40–66,

200. 43

Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 111) thus considers v. 21 to be a gloss: “Moved by the prophet’s statement in the second half of v. 20, ‘their ears (were) open, and (they did) not hear,’ a reader expanded it in the sense of ‘and this in face of the faithfulness of God who nevertheless made his great and glorious words known to his people.’” 44 See Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 85–117. 45 Goldingay, “Isaiah 42:18–25,” 48–49, 55–59. 46 In addition to this verse, the verb ‫ אדר‬occurs only two times, both in Niphal, in the praise of YHWH: “Your right hand, YHWH, glorious [‫ ]נ ְֶאדָּ ִרי‬in power” (Exod 15:6), and “Who is like you, majestic [‫ ]נ ְֶאדָּ ר‬in holiness, awesome in splendor, doing wonders” (Exod 15:11). See also the more common word ‫“( אַ דִּ יר‬mighty” or “splendid”).

350

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

verbs for listening underline the sincerity of the call.47 The first (‫ אזן‬in Hiphil; “to give ear”) and third (‫“ ;שׁמע‬to listen”) point backward to the open ears that do not hear in v. 20. The second (‫ קשׁב‬in Hiphil) designates very careful and attentive listening (cf. 48:18 below). Apparently, the object of attention concerns the past, present, and future. “This” (‫ )ז ֹאת‬likely refers to the calamity of the past which has resulted in the present and desperate state of enslavement, imprisonment, and ignorance (v. 22; cf. v. 24). Over against this backward-looking perspective, “for the time to come” (‫ )לְ אָ חֹ ור‬points to future events (cf. 41:23). Comprehending the force behind both suffering and hope – past and future – unites both perspectives: “an Israel that has no understanding of its past will have no right anticipation of its future.”48 Verse 24 further points to the events of the past by picking up the language of v. 22. Another set of rhetorical questions occurs but with a different function. Unlike in vv. 19 and 23, the questions do not concern the condition and responsiveness of the people. Rather, the questions concern YHWH’s role in their exile. Who is behind their suffering? Who gave them over to despoilment? Who handed Israel over to the robbers? A new rhetorical question seeks to answer the first one. It is short and powerful: “Was it not YHWH?” (‫) ֲה וא יְ הוָה‬. This is an upsetting answer. YHWH did not ignore the fate of his people; no, he actively gave them into the hands of their enemy.49 Enslavement and captivity were not just arbitrary events but divinely authored. They were willed and executed by YHWH. To be sure, exile was a result of his will to punish his people. Three parallel statements in v. 24b explain why YHWH had to judge. The logic here is very similar to the central pattern of act and consequence in Deuteronomy: sin and violence against the law provoke divine punishment.50 First, the people sinned (‫ )חטא‬against YHWH. They are indeed a “sinful nation” (‫ ;גּוֹי חֹ טֵ א‬1:4) and their entire history is one of transgression. Even their first ancestor sinned, as did all the leaders following him, eventually causing YHWH to hand over Jacob and Israel to utter destruction and reviling (43:27– 28). Second, the people were unwilling to walk in the ways of YHWH, that is, they were unwilling to live in accordance with his will. The term ‫“( אבה‬be willing”) in the negative sense is very strong. It designates a consciously negative decision, often against better judgment.51 It signifies deliberate re47

Cf. the call in Isa 28:23: “Listen [‫]הַ ֲאזִינוּ‬, and hear [‫]שׁ ְמעוּ‬ ִ my voice; Pay attention [‫]הַ קְ ִשׁיבוּ‬, and hear [‫]שׁ ְמעוּ‬ ִ my speech.” 48 Smart, History and Theology, 94. 49 Childs, Isaiah, 333: “The effect of the disputation is to reject Israel’s complaint that the exile occurred from God’s ignoring Israel’s plight.” 50 Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 219) refers to the entire argument of 42:21–25 as “a restatement of basic Deuteronomistic tenets.” 51 See Wildberger, Jesaja, 1171.

6.2. The blind and deaf people

351

fusal to respond to God and thus renders an idea of hardening.52 Third, the people refused to listen to or obey (‫ )שׁמע‬the torah. They were immune to divine teaching and revelation and continued to live according to their own will. Rather than simple moral transgressions, all three claims express a profound and alarming unwillingness to acknowledge YHWH as God.53 The description of the stubborn people in Isa 30:9–11, which shares important terms with v. 24, adds support to this interpretation.54 The harsh description in this verse follows the divine command to the prophet in 30:8 to write down his message as a witness to future generations. His own hardened generation refuses to listen and rejects everything he says. They are “a rebellious people” (‫) ַﬠם ְמ ִרי‬, further explained by “children who will not hear the instruction of YHWH” (‫תּוֹרת ְיהוָה‬ ַ ‫)בָּ נִ ים ל ֹא־אָ בוּ ְשׁמוֹ ַﬠ‬. They are profoundly blind to the divine message and even urge their seers not to see (‫)ל ֹא ִת ְראוּ‬. They will not see or acknowledge the necessity of coming judgment. Finally, the people instruct their prophets to leave the way (‫)סוּרוּ ִמנֵּי־דֶ ֶרך‬, presumably referring to the way of divine truth revealed to the prophet. If so, they in fact encourage the prophet to lead them astray from YHWH. 55 The description reaches its climax in the final phrase of v. 11: “let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel.” Literally, the verse reads: “remove from our presence [‫ ]הַ ְשׁבִּ יתוּ ִמ ָפּנֵינוּ‬the Holy One of Israel.” Clearly, the people are not only unwilling to listen to YHWH, but indeed refuse to acknowledge him as their God. They will have nothing to do with him. Returning to 42:24, there is a small sign that points beyond continuous and unstoppable transgression. The opening of the second part of the verse reads: “Was it not YHWH, against whom we have sinned [‫ ”?]חָ טָ אנוּ‬The first person plural form carries significance and should not simply be emended into a third person form (see textual notes). It renders a confession of sin which looks back on previous events (cf. 63:7–64:11). The form of the verb suggests that the speaker in vv. 21–25, likely the prophet, identifies with the community that he addresses. 56 Although the speaker quickly returns to speaking about them (“they”), there is a brief moment where he is associated with them and speaks on their behind. A similar case where the prophet is identified with and set apart from his audience is found in 6:5–7 (see Chapter 2). More importantly, Berges has observed that the “we” serves a double

52

Cf. Uhlig, Hardening, 159–63. Goldingay, Message, 184; Lund, Way Metaphors, 160: “The concern here is for the overall moral and religious orientation that is the basis for life and action, and not just individual actions.” 54 For the relation between Isa 30:9–11 and 42:18–25, see Lund, Way Metaphors, 150– 51, 161; Uhlig, Hardening, 154–55; Williamson, Book Called Isaiah, 89–91. 55 Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 552. 56 Goldingay, Message, 184. 53

352

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

function.57 On the one hand, the “we” acknowledges that their history from the time of their ancestors is one of sin and guilt. On the other, the very confession of this “we” marks that they will not continue to do what those before them did. In contrast to the use of “they” in the final lines of the verse, the “we” will not deliberately refuse to walk in the ways of YHWH and disobey his torah anymore: “Das unterscheidet die Nachgeborenen von ihren Vätern!”58 There is a hidden hope. The slightly emerging awareness, however, cannot change the calamities of the past as recorded in v. 25. Because of the people’s sin, YHWH poured his anger and burning fury upon them. The imagery of war and fire is striking. It is not clear whether the verse speaks about spiritual affliction or the actual enemy attack that destroyed Jerusalem and burned it down by fire (cf. 6:11–13). Both interpretations seem possible. The key statement is that these disasters were brought about by YHWH. The final lines contain a radical portrayal of the failure to perceive. The third person singular form refers to the people Israel (cf. v. 24). Although YHWH’s anger and fury set them on fire all around, they did not understand (‫)ל ֹא יָדָ ע‬. Although the anger burned them, they do not take it to heart ( ‫ל ֹא־י ִָשׂים‬ ‫) ַﬠל־לֵב‬. A possible interpretation is that they were too blind and deaf even to notice that they were in the middle of burning flames.59 In my view, it is more plausible that they did not grasp the underlying cause. They did not perceive and interpret the disasters as an expression of divine judgment. Even punishment did not lead to recognition and self-loathing and, accordingly, to an appropriate response. The people continued to have a sick heart, unable to sense and understand the actions of YHWH (cf. 6:9–10). The change of the verbs’ tenses from perfect (‫ )יָדָ ע‬to imperfect (‫ )י ִָשׂים‬is thus not insignificant. 60 The failure or unwillingness to perceive does not belong to the past but is an ongoing issue. According to 5:13, ignorance did not only cause the removal of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, but is also an important condition of being in exile. The people will remain in spiritual exile as long as they fail to acknowledge YHWH and his will. Escaping this destiny is only possible by recognizing the necessity of exile and by looking to YHWH for guidance and care. 6.2.4. Summing up Isaiah 42:18–25 draws a negative and depressing picture of the people. They are blind and deaf and unable to perform their mission as the people of God. 57

Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 267. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 267. 59 Baldauf, “Knecht,” 35: “Da steht jemand inmitten der Flammen, wird davon sogar schon erfaßt, aber nimmt keinerlei Notiz davon!” 60 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 268–69; Goldingay, Message, 185. 58

6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people

353

Because of sin, YHWH had to punish them. Certainly, he played an active role in their exile, handling them over to despoilment and humiliation. Even so, the people did not discern or comprehend his actions in history and they continue to be unaware about his dealings with them.

6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people (Isaiah 48:1–8) 6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people

The paradigmatic prediction of exile in Deut 28:58–68 foreshadows that YHWH’s people will serve “other gods, of wood and stone” among the foreign nations. An important implication of turning to other gods is that the people lose their distinctiveness. By adopting foreign idols, they will become like the foreign nations that they dwell among. Moreover, in the end, they will become like the objects they worship: stone minded and motionless. YHWH’s rebuke against his people in Isa 48:1–8 concerns the power to control the occurrence of past and future events. This theme occurs frequently in the trial-like scenes against the nations and their gods (e.g. 41:1–7, 21–29). An important difference here, however, is that the opponent has changed. The case explicitly concerns YHWH’s own people and their disbelief (cf. 42:18– 25). Rather than acknowledging YHWH as the master of history, they apparently attribute the occurrence of events to their idols. Verses 3–5 concern past events, while vv. 6–8 concern future events. These minor units contain several parallels in terms of form and terminology, including the creation of events (vv. 3b and 7a), YHWH’s knowledge (vv. 4a and 8b), and the prevention of the people’s ability to present counter-arguments (vv. 5b and 7b).61 Isaiah 48:1–8, along with the rest of Isa 48, appears to be a composite text. It remains highly debated among scholars how many hands have been at work shaping the present text in front of us.62 There are sudden shifts with regard to addressee and with regard to attitude and mood. Harsh accusations, sincere calls for repentance, and trustworthy visions of renewed care and guidance stand side by side. Furthermore, some of the words and motifs are close to those found in Deuteronomy and Ezekiel.

61

Cf. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 304. See the review in Childs, Isaiah, 370–72. Berges (Jesaja 40–48, 509) is cautious to draw definite conclusions: “Eine Abtrennung vermeintlich sekundär hinzugewachsener Aussagen über die Verbohrtheit des Gottesvolkes vom ursprünglichen Text des Exilspropheten, der nur von der Zusicherung der göttlichen Heilsbereitschaft gesprochen habe, hinterlässt einen literarischen Torso, dem jede Dramatik fehlt. Da die Redaktionskritik die positiven Aussagen meist späteren Schichten zuweist, läge hier zudem der umgekehrte Sonderfall vor […]. Auch wird die Gefahr eines redaktionskritischen Zirkelschlusses an diesem Kapitel besonders deutlich, denn zuvor aufgestellte Kriterien entscheiden darüber, was als ursprünglich und was als sekundär zu gelten hat,” my emphasis. 62

354

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

6.3.1. Isaiah 48:1–8: Text and translation ‫ִשׁ ְמעוּ־ז ֹאת בֵּ ית־ ַיﬠֲקֹ ב‬ ‫הָ ִראשֹׁ נֹ ות מֵ אָ ז הִ ַגּ ְד ִתּי‬ a ‫וּמפִּ י יָצְ אוּ וְ אַ ְשׁ ִמי ֵﬠם‬ ִ ‫יתי וַתָּ ב ֹאנָה‬ ִ ‫פִּ ְתאֹ ם ָﬠ ִשׂ‬ ‫ִמדַּ ﬠְ ִתּי כִּ י קָ שֶׁ ה אָ תָּ ה‬ ‫וְ גִ יד בַּ ְרזֶל ָﬠ ְר ֶפּ‬ ‫וּמצְ ֲח נְ חוּשָׁ ה‬ ִ ‫וָאַ גִּ יד לְ מֵ אָ ז‬ ‫בְּ טֶ ֶרם תָּ בֹ וא הִ ְשׁמַ ﬠְ ִתּי‬ ‫ֶפּן־תּ ֹאמַ ר ָﬠצְ בִּ י ָﬠשָׂ ם‬ ‫וּפִ סְ לִ י וְ ִנ ְסכִּ י צִ ָוּם‬ ‫שָׁ מַ ﬠְ תָּ ֲחזֵה ֻכּ ָלּהּ‬ ‫וְ אַ תֶּ ם ֲה וא תַ גִּ ידוּ‬ ‫הִ ְשׁמַ ﬠְ ִתּי חֲדָ שֹׁ ות מֵ ַﬠתָּ ה‬ ‫וּ ְנצֻרֹ ות וְ ל ֹא ְידַ ﬠְ תָּ ם‬ ‫ַﬠתָּ ה ִנבְ ְראוּ וְ ל ֹא מֵ אָ ז‬ ‫וְ לִ פְ נֵי־יֹ ום וְ ל ֹא ְשׁמַ ﬠְ תָּ ם‬ ‫ֶפּן־תּ ֹאמַ ר הִ נֵּה ְידַ ﬠְ ִתּין‬ ָ‫גַּם ל ֹא־שָׁ מַ ﬠְ תָּ ַגּם ל ֹא יָדַ ﬠְ תּ‬ ‫ אָ ְז ֶנ‬b‫גַּם מֵ אָ ז ל ֹא־פִ ְתּחָ ה‬ ‫כִּ י יָדַ ﬠְ ִתּי בָּ גֹ וד ִתּבְ גֹּ וד‬ ‫וּפֹ שֵׁ ַﬠ ִמבֶּ טֶ ן קֹ ָרא ָל‬

1

Hear this, O house of Jacob […] 3 The former things I declared long ago, they went out from my mouth and I made them known; then suddenly I did them and they came to pass. 4 Because I know that you are obstinate, and your neck is an iron sinew and your forehead brass, 5 I declared them to you from long ago, before they came to pass I announced them to you, so that you would not say, “My idols did them, my carved image and my cast image commanded them.” 6 You have heard; now see all this; and will you not declare it? From this time forward I make you hear new things, hidden things that you have not known. 7 They are created now, not long ago; before today you have never heard of them, so that you could not say, “I already knew them.” 8 You have never heard, you have never known, from of old your ear has not been opened. For I knew that you would deal very treacherously, and that from birth you were called a rebel.

a

Many interpreters read a waw consecutive (‫ ) ָו‬in light of the ancient versions. 1QIsaa reads “you did not open” (‫)פתחת‬, the LXX reads “I did not open” (οὔτε ἤνοιξα), and the Vulgate reads “was not opened” (aperta est), perhaps reflecting a Pual or Qal passive. b

6.3.2. Isaiah 48:1–5: Past events announced beforehand The passage opens with another call for attention: “Hear this!” (‫) ִשׁ ְמעוּ־ז ֹאת‬. Just as in 42:18–25, the addressee is portrayed as a people unable and unwilling to listen and learn. Perhaps the reference to “the house of Jacob” rather than Israel serves to stress the mundane and dismayed nature of the people.63 Nevertheless, they present themselves with the honorable name of Israel and cast themselves as a people that lean on YHWH. In reality, however, they

63

Goldingay, Message, 341.

6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people

355

invoke the holy name of God not in truth or right, and one intuitively gets the impression that their confession is barely credible. There is an implied contrast or mismatch between their public self-presentation and their actual behavior. This depressing tone of distance and irony forms the introduction to YHWH’s confrontation with his people in vv. 3–8. In v. 3, YHWH begins to speak about his ability to predict and act out past events. From the very beginning, he proclaimed “the former things” and suddenly they happened. The content of these events issued from his mouth emphasizes YHWH’s deeply personal and binding engagement (cf. 45:23; 55:11). The content of these “former things” (‫ )הָ ִראשֹׁ נֹ ות‬is not easy to settle. In light of v. 5 these “things” seem to be positive. Proposals include the downfall of Babylon and the appearance of Cyrus,64 the promise to Abraham or the exodus out of Egypt,65 or a general reference to the entire history of redemption. 66 However, determining the exact content of these events is not that important, because the explicit focus remains on YHWH’s power to act them out. Suddenly, or surprisingly (‫)פִּ ְתאֹ ם‬, they just occurred. No one could predict when the events would come to pass. Elsewhere in Isaiah, the term is used about YHWH’s free and sudden intervention to save his people (29:5; cf. Jer 51:8). The use of it about the unexpected and inevitable judgment against Babylon in 47:11 suggests that a similar disaster may suddenly strike YHWH’s own people (cf. Jer 4:20; 6:26; 15:8; 18:22). YHWH’s knowledge of the obstinateness of his people made him announce these events in advance so that their claims that other gods made them could be refuted. Verse 4 describes the obdurate and stubborn people by means of three parallel statements. First, they are “obstinate” (‫)קָ שֶׁ ה‬. The basic sense of this term is “hard,” but it has a wide range of figurative meanings: difficult, severe, cruel, and obdurate.67 With reference to persons, the word designates a stubborn or hard-hearted attitude towards others, including YHWH. Regarding Israel’s relation to its God, the word is often paired with “neck” (‫)עֹ ֶרף‬, “heart” (‫)לֵב‬, or “face” (‫ ) ָפּנִ ים‬to figuratively express the refusal of the people to listen to and obey YHWH (e.g. Jer 7:26; Ezek 2:4; 3:7). Interestingly, the repeated reference to “a stiff-necked people” (‫) ַﬠם־קְ שֵׁ ה־עֹ ֶרף‬ always occurs in the context of the episode of the golden calf, that is, in the context of the famous and primordial act of idolatry (cf. v. 5 below).68

64

Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 517–18. Goldingay, Message, 345. 66 Smart, History and Theology, 145: “He points to the creation, to the call of Abraham, to the exodus, to David, to the princes of the sanctuary. It is the whole of Israel’s past that is one gigantic witness to the reality of God.” 67 Zipor, “‫ קָ שָׁ ה‬qāsâ”; cf. Uhlig, Hardening, 201–3. 68 See Exod 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Deut 9:6, 13. 65

356

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

Two images further explain the obstinate attitude of the people: their neck is an iron sinew and their forehead is bronze. The thought must be that the people’s determination and persistence have caused their neck to become stiff and their face to lose any indication of emotion. Regarding the latter, Ezek 3:7–9 presents a contest between Ezekiel and the rebellious people in which YHWH makes the forehead of the prophet as hard as diamond to stand up to the pressure. In Isa 48:4, the stiff neck and cold face refer to the lost ability to perceive and change one’s fate.69 The people cannot turn their head to listen, see, or change the direction of their life. They have lost the ability to reorient themselves. Their face has become hard and motionless as that of the idols they have turned to. Curiously, the two types of metal, iron (‫ )בַּ ְרזֶל‬and bronze (‫)נְ חוּשָׁ ה‬, are juxtaposed in the description of the doors and bars that YHWH breaks down before Cyrus in 45:2: “Nach dem Zerschlagen metallener Tore und Riegel steht JHWH immer noch einem Volk mit eisernem Nacken und bronzener Stirn gegenüber. Babels Widerstand war leichter zu überwinden als die Halsstarrigkeit Jakobs!”70 Verse 5 picks up the motif of YHWH’s past predictions from v. 3. He announced the events beforehand to stop the people from assigning their occurrence to the will of the idols, as if they had made (‫ )עשׂה‬and commanded (‫)צוה‬ them. The three parallel terms for idols correspond to the three statements about the obstinate people in v. 4, indicating a close association between the rebellious people and their object of trust. “Idol” (‫ )עֹ צֶ ב‬occurs only here, but is close to the cognate ‫( ָﬠצָ ב‬Isa 10:11; 46:1); “carved image” (‫ ) ֶפסֶ ל‬and “cast image” (‫ )נֶסֶ ך‬are very common in several chapters of Isaiah.71 Attributing the control of history to other gods is a central feature in the episode of the golden calf. Aaron makes “an image of a calf” (‫ ) ֵﬠגֶל מַ סֵּ ָכה‬and states: “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt!” (Exod 32:4). In an illuminating way, this brief statement points to a profound implication of worshipping other gods: “Idolatry is the fundamental crime against Yahweh, a rejection […] of his very place at the center of Israel’s life.”72 Placing one’s trust in those who are not YHWH is an explicit way of turning away from him and denying his unique and universal divine power. Conversely, demonstrating the futility and nothingness of other gods is a powerful way of stressing the uniqueness of YHWH. Apart from Isa 48:5 perhaps, the primary function of the recurring polemics against idols and idol

69 Interestingly, Uhlig (Hardening, 200) proposes a link between the condition of the people in 48:1–8 (“your neck is an iron sinew, and your forehead brass”) and the motif of refinement in terms of heat in 48:10: “the announcement of refinement could melt away the metal-hard stubborn of the audience.” 70 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 518. 71 See e.g. 40:19–20; 41:29; 42:17; 44:9–10, 15, 17; 45:20. 72 Barrett, “Idols,” 351.

6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people

357

worshipers in Isa 40–48 is to underline the sovereign and salvific power of YHWH. 73 Condemnation of actual idolatrous practices occurs more prominently in the final chapters of Isaiah (e.g. 57:3–13; 65:2–5, 11; 66:3, 17).74 The passages containing anti-idolatry polemic in Isa 40–48 share some important themes. First, there is a strong contrast set up between the man-made idols and the sovereign creator (40:18–20; 41:6–7; 46:5–7). Compared to YHWH, the idols/gods are worth nothing. They are made of stone or wood. In contrast to YHWH, they are silent and lifeless; they neither answer prayers nor save from trouble (45:20; 46:7). While it is the idol worshipers who carry their static and powerless gods, it is YHWH who carries and saves those who worship him (46:1–4). In the end, it makes no sense to distinguish between foreign gods and representations of them in terms of images and statues because both are the creation of man. Second, the idol worshipers are the object of ridicule. Those who trust in carved images and acknowledge them as gods will be put to shame (42:17) and will go away in humiliation (45:16). Third, there is a subtle idea that the worshipers become like their object of devotion. All who manufacture idols are said to be “nothing” (‫ ;תֹּ הוּ‬44:9), incapable of perceiving and with an extreme lack of discernment; they neither see nor know (‫ ;בַּ ל־ ִי ְראוּ וּבַ ל־יֵדְ עוּ‬44:9). Psalm 115:4–9 famously renders the thought that those who have made the idols become just like them, unable to speak, see, hear, smell, feel, or walk. They become stony and are perceived as the living-dead. Isaiah 44:18–20, which concludes the satire on idol fabrication, contains a dense collection of terms for perception and understanding: “[The idol worshipers] do not know [‫]ידע‬, nor do they comprehend [‫ ;]בין‬for their eyes are shut, so that they cannot see [‫]ראה‬, and their minds [‫ ]לֵב‬as well, so that they cannot understand [‫ שׂכל‬in Hiphil]. No one considers [‫ל ֹא־י ִָשׁיב אֶ ל־‬ ‫]לִ בּוֹ‬.” There is no knowledge (‫ )דַ ַﬠת‬or discernment (‫)תבוּנָה‬ ְ to reflect on the futility of leaning on idols: “a deluded mind has led him astray” ( ‫ֵלב הוּתַ ל‬ ‫)הִ טָּ הוּ‬. The last point is of relevance to the association of the obstinate people with idols in 48:4–5. Just as idols hewn in stone cannot move or express anything, the people have become static, inflexible, and motionless. Apparently, they insist on attributing events to their carved images and do not consider any alternative to this. “My idols did them [‫ ”] ָﬠשָׂ ם‬is certainly ironic in light of YHWH’s statement in v. 3: “I did them [‫יתי‬ ִ ‫] ָﬠ ִשׂ‬.”

73

Cf. the conclusion in Høgenhaven, “Polemics,” 230: “The polemics against idolatry in Isaiah 40–55 are not so much to be understood as theological statements in their own right, but serve a rhetorical function within the framework of a literary corpus, directed at an audience who has come to think that their way is hidden from Yahweh.” 74 Barrett, “Idols,” 354.

358

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

6.3.3. Isaiah 48:6–8: The creation of new events Verse 6a forms a bridge between vv. 3–5 about the past and vv. 6b–8 about the new things that are about to occur. The verse states that past events occurred in accordance with the divine word and this very fact warrants the prediction of new events. YHWH’s address is direct: “You have heard; now see all this; and will you not declare it?” This is a call to acknowledge the truth of YHWH and to announce it to others. In fact, YHWH urges his people to serve as his witnesses by telling others about the great events in their history with God (cf. 43:8–13 above). Taking the people’s obstinacy into consideration as depicted in vv. 4–5, there is an ironic distance in this call. In the words of Goldingay, “they seem hardly likely to act as witnesses, unless it is by witnessing against themselves.”75 Verses 6b–8 move on to the issue of new events. “From now on” (‫)מֵ ַﬠתָּ ה‬ marks a clear break. Listening and knowing are key themes as indicated by the verbs “to hear” (‫ )שׁמע‬and “to know” (‫)ידע‬, each of which occurs three times. YHWH will announce and act out things that have remained a secret until now, and his people will not be able to say that they knew them already. These “new things” (‫ )חֲדָ שֹׁ ות‬are completely new and unparalleled. They are created now (‫) ַﬠתָּ ה‬, and neither their content nor their occurrence can be deduced from experience (‫)מֵ אָ ז‬. In the present context, these new things may refer to the fall of Babylon and release from captivity announced in the previous chapters (cf. 48:14–16a),76 or they may refer to a thorough and radical transformation of the sinful people envisaged in the subsequent chapters.77 Regardless of their specific content, the words that describe the new events point to the divine power behind them. First, the term “new” (‫ )חָ דָ שׁ‬elsewhere in Isaiah signifies YHWH’s salvific engagement in history (e.g. 42:9; 43:19; 65:17). In 42:9, as here, YHWH’s announcement of these events before they actually occur proves his divine uniqueness. Second, the forthcoming events have been “hidden away” (‫)נְ צֻרֹ ות‬, that is, they remain undisclosed from human knowledge. Literally, YHWH has kept or guarded (‫ )נצר‬them himself and no one has ever heard of them. Third, the new events are “created” (‫ ) ִנבְ ְראוּ‬rather than simply “made” as in the past (‫ ;עשׁה‬cf. vv. 3 and 5). In the entire Old Testament, only YHWH is the subject of ‫ ברא‬so the nature of the new events is one that can only derive from the sovereign act of the creator (cf. e.g. 40:26; 42:5).78 Curiously, in response to Moses’ prayer for his idolatrous and “stiff-necked” people, YHWH proclaims that he will make a covenant: “Before all your people I will perform marvels, such as have not been 75

Goldingay, Message, 347. E.g. Goldingay, Message, 347–48. 77 E.g. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 522–23. 78 Cf. Goldingay, Message, 348: “The new events embody the marvelous sovereignty of the original and ongoing creation.” 76

6.3. A stubborn and idolatrous people

359

performed [‫ ]ל ֹא־ ִנבְ ְראוּ‬in all the earth or in any nation; and all the people among whom you live shall see the work of YHWH; for it is an awesome thing that I will do with you” (Exod 34:10). Much indicates that events of a similar scale are about to occur. Verse 8 underlines the contrast between YHWH’s knowledge of the rebellious nature of his people and their ignorance of his purpose. Three parallel statements about the people’s ignorance, all of which are introduced by ‫גָּם ל ֹא‬, match those in vv. 4 and 5. They never heard (‫)שׁמע‬, they never knew (‫)ידע‬, and from the very beginning, their ears have remained closed. No wonder the people did not listen or respond to YHWH’s word! The reference to unopened ears recalls the motif in 42:20, but here it is stronger. The people are not only unwilling to listen but are completely incapable of doing so. They cannot receive anything (cf. 6:10: “stop their ears!”). Only the transforming power of YHWH can open ears and enable the people to listen and recognize (35:5; 50:5; see below). The emphasis on lack of knowledge informs the brutal characterization of the people as rebels in the remaining lines of the verse. YHWH knows that his people would behave very treacherously. Literally, the verse reads: “acting faithlessly, you [will] act faithlessly” (‫)בָּ גֹ וד ִתּבְ גֹּ וד‬. The infinitive absolute adds emphasis to the verb by stressing the strength and depth of their transgressions. The imperfect form suggests that their deceitful behavior does not refer to a single event. They are totally treacherous and continue to be so. The final line supports this interpretation. “From birth” (‫ ) ִמבֶּ טֶ ן‬the people have been called rebellious. Their rebellion is not exceptional but lifelong and persistent and a crucial force in the course of their entire history (cf. 43:27). Biblical texts that deal generally with humanity contain similar formulations, for instance, in Genesis (e.g. 8:21: “the inclination of the human heart is evil from youth”) and in Psalms (e.g. 14:2–3; 58:4: “the wicked go astray from the womb; they err from their birth [‫]מבֶּ טֶ ן‬, ִ speaking lies”). Regarding Israel’s religious history, Ezek 20 offers a thorough review. YHWH’s will to save and the people’s continuing disobedience are at the heart of the survey. From the beginning, YHWH revealed himself as their God and promised to save and protect them. In turn, they should turn away from other gods and be loyal to him only. Yet they failed again and again and rebelled (‫ מרה‬in Hiphil) against him (20:8, 13, 21). They received signs of their special election (statutes and Sabbaths) that should form their identity, guide their moral conduct, and set them apart as a distinct people over against other peoples. Nevertheless, they ended up being just like all other nations, worshipping “the idols of Egypt” and defiling their gifts. YHWH only restrained his destructive and deadly anger for the sake of his name. Moreover, his eagerness to save does not emerge from the prayers or efforts of his people, who are simply too stubborn to bother, but from his mercy and concern for his honor (cf. Isa 48:9–11).

360

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

Returning to Isa 48:8, the verb ‫ פשׁע‬designates the revolt or rebellion against a political power (e.g. 2 Kings 1:1: “Moab rebelled [‫ ]וַיִּ פְ שַׁ ע‬against Israel”). Committing this kind of crime against YHWH is extremely serious. It reflects the lack of trust and embodies a severe violation against his word. Analogous to idolatry, rebellion expresses an attempt to remove or reject YHWH’s proper place at the center of his people and their history (cf. Isa 59:12–13: “we know our iniquities: transgressing [‫] ָפּשֹׁ ַﬠ‬, and denying YHWH, and turning away from following our God”). In Isaiah, this thought is central.79 The term frames the entire book. In 1:2, the essential crime of the people consists of their rebellion; they were brought up by YHWH but revolted against him. In 66:24, the book closes with the unburied and disgusting bodies of those who have rebelled against God. The evil and deceitful nature of the people has prevented them from perceiving YHWH’s promises. That they are called (‫ )קֹ ָרא‬a rebel offers a complete denial of their self-designation in vv. 1–2 (“who are called [‫ ]הַ ִנּקְ ָר ִאים‬by the name of Israel”). The failure to perceive and respond appropriately is also a key theme in 46:8–13. As in 48:3–6a, the major concern turns on proper mediation on “the former things of the old” (‫)ראשֹׁ נוֹת מֵ עוֹלָם‬. ִ Salvation is imminent, but the people exhibit “an obdurate persistence in doubting the prophetic word.”80 In v. 8, YHWH’s call for attention sounds to those who are revolting against him: “return it to heart, your transgressors” (‫פוֹשׁﬠִ ים ַﬠל־לֵב‬ ְ ‫)הָ ִשׁיבוּ‬. Similarly in v. 12, YHWH states: “Listen to me, you stubborn of heart.” Literally, the addressees are “you strong of heart” (‫ירי לֵב‬ ֵ ִ‫)אַ בּ‬. Although this expression can carry positive associations (cf. “the brave-hearted ones” in Ps 76:6), the sense here is rather negative: those who are proud, arrogant, and self-confident are ultimately obstinate of heart (cf. Ezek 2:4; 3:7). They do not take anything to heart (42:25 above). Furthermore, they are “those who are far away” (‫ )הָ ְרחוֹקִ ים‬from righteousness, reflecting the critical distance between YHWH and his people proclaimed in the judgment oracle against the stubborn people in 6:11–13 (see Chapter 2). 6.3.4. Summing up Isaiah 48:1–8 portrays the manner in which the people have become estranged from YHWH. They are unwilling to listen and learn. They do not recognize YHWH’s power to control history but attribute the occurrence of events to their idols. The people have become as static and inflexible as the objects they worship and have lost the ability to change their mind.

79 80

Cf. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 38: “Above everything else, sin is rebellion for Isaiah.” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 274.

6.4. A people that walk in their own ways

361

6.4. A people that walk in their own ways 6.4. A people that walk in their own ways

Blindness, ignorance, stubbornness, and idolatry come together in the metaphor of “the way”. The blind and ignorant people refuse to walk in the ways of YHWH (42:24), perhaps because they are too disorientated to see and recognize them. The stubborn and idolatrous people turn away from the way of YHWH to worship other gods. This is explicit in the golden calf episode where the people are said to have turned aside (‫ )סור‬from the way YHWH commanded them (Exod 32:8). They have gone astray and are following their own ways of living. Isaiah 59:8–10 combines these metaphors: the wicked people follow crooked ways and are far from justice; they walk in gloomy darkness, groping along the wall like the blind and those without eyes. An intriguing case of these self-chosen ways is found in 53:6. A group states: “All we like sheep have gone astray; we have all turned to our own way” (‫) ֻכּלָּנוּ ַכּצּ ֹאן תָּ ﬠִ ינוּ ִאישׁ לְ דַ ְרכּוֹ ָפּנִ ינוּ‬. The first person plural form “we” picks up the voice of 42:24. Unlike the lament in 40:27 in which the people blame YHWH for ignoring their way, here, they openly confess that their iniquities have caused their present situation.81 The initial “all we” (‫ ) ֻכּלָּנוּ‬stresses that it is the people as a whole who have turned away from their God. The people are compared to sheep that are lost (cf. Ps 119:176). Certainly, there is an idea of scattering present. The community is completely divided with each individual turning his own way.82 However, the second line suggests that scattering is not merely geographical in terms of dispersion to all regions of the world (see Chapter 5). Rather, the verse refers to spiritual or cognitive matters such as confusion and disorientation. The people have gone astray and are wandering around without any clear aim. There is no leadership and no guidance. There is no path for the community to follow. Each goes his own way and has turned away from the others. The two verbs in the people’s confession capture this interplay between walking astray and turning away from YHWH. The first verb is ‫“( תעה‬wander off, go astray”). Plainly, it denotes the aimless wandering about, for instance, of exiled Hagar in the wilderness (Gen 21:14) or the uncontrolled staggering of drunkards (Job 12:25; Isa 19:13–14; 28:7). The Hiphil form of the verb (“to lead astray”) is of relevance because it very often refers to leaders or idols making the people go astray from YHWH. These include King Manasseh (2 Kings 21:9; 2 Chr 33:9), prophets (Jer 23:13, 32; Mic 3:5), and false gods (Amos 2:4: ‫)כִּ זְבֵ יהֶ ם‬. Hosea’s accusations against his audience are hard: “a spirit of whoredom has led them astray [‫]הִ ְת ָﬠה‬, and they have played the 81

Lund, Way Metaphors, 253–54. The motif of scattering and moving away from a center in 53:6a is balanced by the motif of concentration and gathering in 53:6b, where YHWH concentrates “the iniquity of us all” on the suffering servant. See Høgenhaven, “Hvem lider tjeneren for,” 23. 82

362

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

whore, forsaking their God” (Hos 4:12). In language close to that of Isa 53:6, Jeremiah pictures the people as sheep that have been misguided by their shepherds (Jer 50:6). Similarly, in Isaiah, the leaders mislead the people and leave them in a state of confusion (Isa 3:12; 9:15). Conversely, there is certainly an ironic twist in the judgment against Babylon insofar as the sorceresses who are supposed to guide and instruct the great empire to the east now stumble off in all different directions (Isa 47:15). Not surprisingly the motif of going astray is present in wisdom texts, especially in Proverbs and its contrast between the righteous and the wicked (cf. Ps 58:4 above). Instruction leads to life, but “one who rejects a rebuke goes astray” (Prov 10:17) and “the way of the wicked leads astray” (Prov 12:26; cf. 14:22). The command not to follow the teaching of Lady Folly is intense: “do not let your hearts turn aside to her ways; do not stray into her paths” (Prov 7:25). In the end, going astray will result in disaster and death: “Whoever wanders from the way of understanding will rest in the assembly of the dead” (21:16). In Psalms and Isaiah, the act of going astray is explicitly associated with moving away from God. Psalm 95:10 renders YHWH’s reflection on the wilderness wandering: “For forty years I loathed that generation and said, ‘They are a people whose hearts go astray [‫] ַﬠם תֹּ ֵﬠי לֵבָ ב הֵ ם‬, and they do not regard my ways.’” In Isa 63:17, the people complain: “Why, YHWH, do you make us stray [‫ ]תַ ְת ֵﬠנוּ‬from your ways?” An intentional turning away from YHWH in 53:6 might be implicit in the second verb ‫“( פנה‬to turn, turn away”).83 The verb occurs frequently in a neutral sense of turning around to see or walk (e.g. Exod 2:12; 7:23). A number of instances occur in the context of turning to idols and other gods and, accordingly, turning away from YHWH. 84 Deuteronomy unambiguously sketches what YHWH will do to those who reject him: “if your heart turns away [‫ ]יִ פְ נֶה‬and you do not hear, but are lead astray to bow down to other gods and serve them, I declare to you today that you shall perish” (Deut 30:17–18; cf. 29:17). In light of these parallels, it is possible that in 53:6 the people have consciously turned away from God to their self-chosen ways. Turning to one’s own way (‫ )לְ דַ ְרכּוֹ‬suggests an autonomous and selfsufficient way of acting. It is not a life in accordance with common principles or a divinely authored rule. The allegory of Isa 56:9–12, which contains the only other instance of “turning to their own way,” unfolds the implications of such a life. Israel’s leaders ignore their responsibilities and the needs of those they were supposed to shepherd. They only act to their own unjust gain (‫)בֶּ צַ ע‬. In a fascinating manner, the passage picks up themes presented earlier in the book, including the motif of blindness (42:18–25; 43:8) and judgment against 83 84

Cf. Lund, Way Metaphors, 252. See Lev 19:4; Deut 31:18, 20; Ps 40:5; Hos 3:1.

6.4. A people that walk in their own ways

363

the leading classes of the people who have devoted themselves to a hedonistic lifestyle of laziness and drinking (5:11–13; 22:13).85 The appeal to wild animals, that is, to enemies, to come and devour illustrates the desperate situation, for those who should guard the people are not paying attention at all to encroaching dangers. All of Israel’s watchmen86 are blind (‫ )ﬠִ וְ ִרים‬and compared to mute guard dogs, unable to bark and warn of dangers. All of the shepherds are turning to their own ways (‫ )לְ דַ ְר ָכּם ָפּנוּ‬and neglecting the needs of their flock, the people. The emphasis on totality (‫“ ; ֻכּלָּם‬all of them”) is striking (cf. 53:6). They are ignorant and have no understanding (‫)ל ֹא יָדְ עוּ הָ בִ ין‬. Their own ways consist of extravagant activities. The sentinels eat as voracious dogs and never know satiety (cf. Sheol in 5:14). The shepherds invite others to drink wine and other strong drinks all day and intend to continue their pleasures the following day as well. Human ways of life such as laziness, stupidity, heavy drinking, and lack of perception go hand in hand. Oppressive and failed leadership is also a theme in 3:12: “O my people, your leaders have caused you to go astray [‫]מַ ְתﬠִ ים‬, and confuse the course of your path [ ‫]דֶּ ֶר אֹ ְרחֹ תֶ י‬.” Rather than political figures, the leaders – a Piel participle of ‫“( אשׁר‬to lead”) – in this verse are likely sages or wisdom teachers giving moral and religious instruction. Nevertheless, their teaching is wrong and has fatal consequences. The leaders are like the priests and prophets in 28:7 who are “confused” (‫ בלע‬in Niphal) by wine. Rather than enlightening those who listen to them, they “confuse” (‫ בלע‬in Piel) their moral conduct. This is a path of despair and fear. In 8:11, YHWH cautiously instructs the isolated and rejected prophet not to walk “in the way of this people” ( ‫בְּ דֶ ֶר‬ ‫)הָ ָﬠם־הַ זֶּה‬. The prophet will not act like them but will stick to the divine message that one should only fear YHWH and not hostile alliances of enemies. The severe contrast between the ways of human beings and those of God is the central message of Isa 55:8–9. YHWH states: “my thoughts are not your thoughts, nor are your ways my ways.” The verse draws attention to the great dissimilarities between human and divine ways of acting, and perhaps also between human assertions about God’s intentions and their true content. 87 YHWH’s ways and thoughts are far higher than those of human claims and 85 Stressing the similarities between Isa 56:9–12 and the oracles in Isa 1–39 in terms of form, theme, and rhetoric, Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 319) regards the passage to be “an early, pre-exilic oracle of judgment.” Other interpreters stress the similarities with Jer 12:7–13 and locate the passage in the exilic or early postexilic period; see e.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 147–48; Childs, Isaiah, 464; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 457–58. Childs, however, rejects that the Isaiah passage is a deliberate rewriting of Jeremiah: “it is a mistake to find here a direct intertextual reference as if the author was doing only scribal exegesis.” 86 Reading ‫ צֹ ָפיו‬for ‫ ; ֹצ ָפו‬cf. the Qere-reading of the MT and 1QIsaa. 87 Goldingay, Message, 552: “Wickedness and evil consist in resisting Yhwh’s way and insisting on one’s own understanding of Yhwh’s way.”

364

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

imaginations, as the heavens are higher than the earth. “Thoughts” (‫)מַ חְ ַשָׁ בוֹת‬ likely refers to intentions or plans. Human thoughts are not by necessity wicked (cf. Prov 12:5: “The thoughts of the righteous are just”), but might be so here because of the explicit juxtaposition with those of YHWH.88 According to Isa 59:7, human thoughts are “thoughts of iniquity” (‫)מַ חְ ְשׁבוֹת אָ וֶן‬.89 In a similar manner, Jeremiah uses the term with very negative associations about the people’s determined will to follow their own evil plans (e.g. Jer 18:12). However, Jeremiah also uses the same term about the divine plans for the welfare of his people, that is, renewed care, worldwide gathering, and restoration (Jer 29:10–14). Likewise, in Isa 55:8–9, YHWH’s plans differ from those of his people as immensely as the distance from the heavens to the earth. The people’s obstinate will to walk in their own ways recurs in the final chapters of Isaiah. Despite YHWH’s anger and punishment, they keep on walking around like apostates, “in the way of [their] heart” (‫ ;בְּ דֶ ֶר לִ בּוֹ‬57:17). Nevertheless, YHWH insists that he continually turns to “a rebellious people who walk in the way that is not good, following their own devices” (65:2). Interestingly, the latter half of this verse clearly explains what it means to be “a rebellious or stubborn people” (‫סוֹרר‬ ֵ ‫) ַﬠם‬.90 Basically, the people are living according to their own ways and plans (‫ ;מַ חְ ַשָׁ בוֹת‬cf. 55:8–9). Finally, the harsh divine accusations against apparent cultic abuses in 66:3 culminate in a general statement about the abusers: “These have chosen their own ways, and in their abominations they take delight.” “Abominations” (‫)שׁקּוּצִ ים‬ ִ is probably a “cacophonous term” for idols (cf. e.g. 1 Kings 11:7), 91 and the verse thus offers another close association between self-chosen ways and the worship of other gods. Despite the repeated emphasis on the wicked ways of the people that have brought them to their present state of confusion and spiritual exile, there are vague hints pointing beyond the period of spiritual hardening. As was examined in Chapter 2, the “we”-voice of Isa 53:6 recurs in the people’s lament in 63:7–64:11. In 63:17, they complain: “Why, YHWH, do you make us stray from your ways?” ( ‫)לָמָּ ה תַ ְת ֵﬠנוּ יְ הוָה ִמדְּ ָר ֶכי‬. It is significant that YHWH is the 88 Cf. Ps 33:10–11: “YHWH brings the counsel of the nations to nothing; he frustrates the plans of the peoples [‫]מַ חְ ְשׁבוֹת ַﬠ ִמּים‬. The council of YHWH stands forever, the thoughts of his heart [‫ ]מַ חְ ְשׁבוֹת לִ בּוֹ‬to all generations.” 89 Cf. Gen 6:5: “YHWH saw that the wickedness of humankind was great in the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts [‫ ]כָל־יֵצֶ ר מַ חְ ְשׁבֹ ת לִ בּוֹ‬was only evil continually.” 90 The LXX has two adjectives ἀπειθοῦντα καὶ ἀντιλέγοντα (“a disobedient and contrary people”), perhaps reflecting the word pair ‫וּמוֹר‬ ֶ ‫סוֹרר‬ ֵ found in other passages (Deut 21:18, 20 [“a stubborn and rebellious son”]; Ps 78:8 [“a stubborn and rebellious generation”]; Jer 5:23 [“a stubborn and rebellious heart”]). Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 56–66, 266) adopts this reading: “a stubborn, rebellious people.” 91 Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 615.

6.5. A vision of renewed divine guidance

365

subject of ‫ תעה‬here. Like godless kings and prophets, he can also confuse the people and make them turn to ways that are not good. Nevertheless, if the complaint is right that YHWH has made his people go astray, there is also hope. Due to his sovereign will, he can change his mind and once again reveal himself as the true leader of the people.

6.5. A vision of renewed divine guidance 6.5. A vision of renewed divine guidance

More passages point beyond the time of aimless wandering and disorientation by proclaiming renewed divine guidance. YHWH will appear as the leader of his people and personally ensure that they will follow his way. This is another important aspect of the shepherd metaphor. As the shepherd of his people, YHWH not only gathers his scattered flock, but also leads it in the right direction, to the security and prosperity of blessed regions.92 He will instruct them properly and show them the way they should walk and live. An illustrative example of this vision is YHWH’s promise in 42:16. Following his announcement of renewed involvement in the history of his people and the claim of his power to transform nature, he states: “I will lead [‫ הלך‬in Hiphil] the blind by a road that they do not know, by paths they have not known I will guide them [‫ דרך‬in Hiphil].” The blind (‫ )ﬠִ וְ ִרים‬are likely YHWH’s own people whom the following passage clearly identifies as being spiritually blind and deaf (42:18–25; see above). Remarkably, however, the verse does not envision a healing of the blind as such. Rather, emphasis is on the motif of guidance. Because of their inability to see, the blind people are forced to follow ways that they already know. The path by which YHWH will lead them lies outside of what their mind can perceive and thus understand (cf. the repetition of ‫)ל ֹא־י ְָדעוּ‬. One cannot grasp the divine will by critical reflections and meditation but only by God’s own revelation of it. The latter verb “to guide” (‫ דרך‬in Hiphil) can also mean “to make a way” (cf. 11:15) which fits nicely with the next lines of 42:16: “I will turn the darkness before them into light, the rough places into level ground.” For the ignorant mind, everything in front of him is darkness and distress. Groping around in darkness is a strong image of divine punishment; it is an endless walk in a land of deep darkness (cf. 8:22–9:1). It is life without light and hope. Nevertheless, by means of his power, demonstrated fully in the creation of heaven and earth, YHWH can turn (‫ )שׂים‬darkness into light. He can turn rough and impassible regions into level ground. Perhaps it is better to interpret the hapax legomenon “rough places” (‫ ) ַ ֽמ ֲﬠקַ ִשּׁים‬in the sense of “crooked roads” (cf. 59:8: “their roads they have made crooked” [ ‫נְ ִתיבוֹתֵ יהֶ ם ﬠִ קְּ שׁוּ‬

92

See my analysis of Isa 49:9b–12 in Chapter 5.

366

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

‫)]לָהֶ ם‬.93 If so, the twisted and corrupt paths of the people are likewise turned into the straight and righteous ways of YHWH. In any case, the reference to “level ground” (‫)מישׁוֹר‬ ִ suggests a play with 40:3–5: YHWH personally enters and makes his way through the dry desert of death, thereby levelling mountains, hills, and other obstacles.94 42:16 proclaims that YHWH will make his blind people join him down this road and guide them. The creation of a way in the wilderness for the people to walk along is a familiar theme in Isaiah. 95 According to 35:8, this “highway” (‫ )מַ סְ לוּל‬shall be called “the Holy Way” (‫)דֶּ ֶר הַ קֹּ דֶ שׁ‬. The unclean shall not pass it or travel on it, but it shall be for YHWH’s people.96 Following the Masoretic punctuation, the final line reads: “those who walk on the way and fools shall not go astray” (‫)הֹ ֵל דֶּ ֶר ֶו ֱאוִ ילִ ים ל ֹא יִ ְתעוּ‬. The majority of interpreters, so it seems, alter the punctuation and thus the sense,97 but it is possible to read it as it stands. A better translation is this: “Those who walk on the way, even fools, will not go astray.” The point could be that the way will be so clearly marked that not even fools will stray from it; even the ignorant cannot get lost on this way.98 Another point could be to emphasize YHWH’s leadership. His guidance is so thorough that not even the ignorant ones will go astray (cf. my review of ‫ תעה‬above). Although this reading goes against the commonly negative interpretation of ‫ ֱאוִ ילִ ים‬in this verse as referring to morally perverse persons matching the physically unclean (‫)טָ מֵ א‬, the idea of YHWH’s guidance of the ignorant fools or wicked ones is not strange. In 55:7, there is a sincere hope that the rebellious ones will abandon their ways and return to YHWH: “let the wicked [‫]רשָׁ ע‬ ָ forsake [‫ ]עזב‬his way, and the unrighteous [‫]אישׁ אָ וֶן‬ ִ their thoughts.” The divine desire to prevent the people from going astray is a key theme in Isa 30:20–22. Verse 20 reflects the ambiguous relationship between YHWH and his people. Certainly, he is their judge making affliction and adversity

93

Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 197. Goldingay, Message, 174. 95 See Isa 11:16; 19:25; 35:8–10; 43:16, 19; 49:11; 51:10; 57:14; 62:10. 96 Literally, “for them” (‫)לָמוֹ‬. An option is to emend it to “for his people” (‫)לְ ַﬠמּוֹ‬, that is, for the people of YHWH. See, for example, Wildberger, Jesaja, 1355. Another option is simply to understand “them” as a reference to those who have been transformed (vv. 5–7) and to the redeemed ones (vv. 9–10). 97 E.g. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 620: “It is for those who walk the way. No fools will stumble [upon it]”; cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1–39, 455 (reading “it will be for the use of pilgrims”); Childs, Isaiah, 252; Wildberger, Jesaja, 1352–53 (considering the first half of the line to be a gloss). Kaiser (Jesaja 13–39, 286) who regards the verse to be “schwer gestört” removes more words: “Auf ihr darf kein Unreiner ziehen noch darf ein Narr den Weg betreten.” The footnote in BHS changes the meaning immensily: “[the unclean shall not travel on it] and the fool shall guide his way [‫]וְ הָ ְ ֶא וִ יל ְמהַ ֵלּ בְּ )לְ (דַ ְרכּוֹ‬.” 98 So Young, Isaiah II, 453–54. 94

6.5. A vision of renewed divine guidance

367

into an everyday occurrence, but he is also their savior who will make himself known to them.99 God will no longer, or not again, hide himself (‫ כנף‬in Niphal), but he will be present in the midst of his people. He will reveal himself as their “teacher” (‫)מוֹרה‬ ֶ and those who were blind and deaf will see him and listen to him. In contrast to 42:20 and 43:8, their eyes will see and their ears will hear. According to v. 21, the people will hear a word from behind, saying: “This is the way; walk in it!” (‫)זֶה הַ דֶּ ֶר לְ כוּ בוֹ‬. A voice from behind suggests the image of a shepherd leading his flock, calling forth a feeling of nearness and care. 100 God will whisper daily instructions in their ears (cf. 50:4: “Morning by morning he wakens my ear to listen as a disciple”). He will teach them the way they need to go and keep to.101 Whether the people go right or left, YHWH will provide personal and spiritual guidance to ensure that they do not go astray again. With open eyes the people will realize the stupidity of idolatry. They will declare their exclusive idols to be unclean and of no worth and turn them into dust. The language of 42:16 reappears in 48:17 which balances out the harsh portrayal of the ignorant and idolatrous people in 48:1–8. YHWH, the redeemer and Holy One of Israel, addresses his people: “I am YHWH your God who teaches [‫ למד‬in Piel] you for your own good, who leads [‫ הלך‬in Hiphil] you in the way you should go.” The participle forms of the verbs ( ‫ מַ דְ ִ ֽרי ֲכ‬and ‫)מלַמֶּ ְד‬ ְ are of significance because they suggest permanent and continual supervision.102 YHWH is, and will remain, the teacher and guide of his people. That the people shall receive teaching “for their own good” (‫ )לְ הוֹﬠִ יל‬has a certain ironic tone because the same word is used about the idols that are of no worth in 44:9–10: “the things they delight in do not profit [‫]…[ ]בַּ ל־יוֹﬠִ ילוּ‬ Who would fashion a god or cast an image that can do no good [‫”]לְ בִ לְ ִתּי הוֹﬠִ יל‬ (cf. 47:12; 57:12). 48:18–19 elaborates on the motif of divine guidance by the admonition to listen to and preserve YHWH’s teaching: “O that you would pay attention to my commandments, then…”.103 At first glance, the perfect form of the verb ( ָ‫ )הִ קְ שַׁ בְ תּ‬points back to the fatal past of the people. 104 Yet, in light of 99

See my interpretation of Isa 45:15 in Chapter 1. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 560: “Instead of the stubborn animal which has to be dragged or beaten into going in the proper direction, here is a person whose teacher is just at his shoulder and little more than a word of guidance from time to time is necessary for him to stay on the right path.” 101 Cf. Ps 25:8, 12; 34:8. Interestingly, Ps 25:8 offers a subtle contrast to the self-chosen ways of the wicked in Isa 66:3: “Who is the man who fears YHWH? He will teach him the way that he should choose [‫]יוֹרנּוּ בְּ דֶ ֶר ִיבְ חָ ר‬.” ֶ 102 Cf. Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 539: “ein kontinuierliches Lehren.” 103 Childs, Isaiah, 378; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 203–4. 104 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 540: “Durch die Perfekta richtet sich der Blick auf eine durch Jakob/Israel vertane Chance auf eine großartige Zukunft.” 100

368

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

YHWH’s self-designation as teacher and guide in v. 17, the verses do seem to contain a note of hope for future obedience. “If only” (‫ )לוּא‬the people were willing to listen carefully and attentively (‫ קשׁב‬in Hiphil; cf. 42:23; 51:4) to divine teaching, and respond to it properly, a bright future would come: prosperity like a river, deliverance like the waves of the sea, and offspring like the sand. The close association between the receiving of divine instruction and images of fertility and abundance is noteworthy (cf. Ps 1; see further below).

6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds (Isaiah 41:17–20) 6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds

Isaiah 41:17–20 highlights YHWH’s power to transform. He can create water and fertility in dry desert regions and turn the hardened minds of his people into blooming gardens of spiritual life. The passage constitutes a minor unit in 41:1–42:12.105 The overall theme of this larger textual block is the sovereignty of YHWH in history and creation. 41:1–7 contains a trial scene against the nations and their worthless gods, while 41:8–16 urges the people not to fear because YHWH will support and protect them. The concern of 41:17–20 is not fear but proper understanding of YHWH’s redemptive acts towards his people in terms of spiritual restoration. Within its literary context, this unit does offer a kind of responsive acknowledgment of the preceding sayings and the manifestation of YHWH as creator (cf. the concluding hymn in 42:10–12). In terms of genre, it is common to regard 41:17–20 as a proclamation of salvation, 106 but Barstad’s untraditional categorization of it as a “hymnic theophany” is closer to its poetic form.107 It is a divine monologue in which YHWH intends to manifest his creative power to call forth knowledge and recognition. The structure of the passage is brilliant. Verses 17 and 20 form a frame. The poor seeking knowledge (v. 17a) corresponds to those who will see and understand (v. 20a), whereas the divine attributes “YHWH” and “God of Israel” (v. 17b) correspond to “the hand of YHWH” and “the Holy One of Israel” (v. 20b). The center of this proclamation in vv. 18–19 presents the transformation of the wilderness in terms of water and trees. The poetic richness and openness of this short passage have fostered a series of readings. During the past century, the reference to wilderness was often read literally with regard to the exiles’ return from Babylon.108 An illustrative example is the commentary by Karl Elliger. In his view, the passage addresses those who are anxious to cross the desert between Babylon and 105

See Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 89–94. E.g. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 79. 107 Barstad, Way, 27. 108 Cf. my review in Poulsen, “New Ways,” 30–31. 106

6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds

369

Palestine. Accordingly, the emergence of water and trees is taken to be a divine promise that there will be water to drink and trees to provide shadow for the burning heat on the journey home. 109 Among others, Bradley Spencer has correctly drawn attention to the lack of “travel imagery”.110 Instead, the dominant motif is one of fertility and restoration which brings 41:17–20 closer to those passages that deal with the reversal of Jerusalem’s fortunes (e.g. 49:19–21; 51:1–3; 55:12–13). Similar to Elliger, however, Spencer’s interpretation reduces the meaning of the present passage into a mundane promise of transforming the economic situation in Judah for those in Babylon who are anxious to return. In my view, much more is going on in the passage than simply economic restoration. As my own reading presupposes, the profound concentration on the motif of perceiving and understanding YHWH’s actions suggests deeper, spiritual matters. 6.6.1. Isaiah 41:17–20: Text and translation ‫הָ ﬠֲנִ יִּ ים וְ הָ אֶ בְ יֹ ונִ ים ְמבַ קְ ִשׁים מַ יִ ם‬ ‫וָאַ ִין‬ ‫לְ שֹׁ ונָם בַּ צָּ מָ א נָשָׁ תָּ ה‬ ‫ֲאנִ י יְ הוָה אֶ ֱﬠ ֵנם‬ ‫ֱא הֵ י ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל ל ֹא אֶ ֶﬠזְבֵ ם‬ ‫ל־שׁ ָפיִ ים נְ הָ רֹ ות‬ ְ ‫אֶ פְ תַּ ח ַﬠ‬ ‫וּבְ תֹ ו בְּ קָ עֹ ות מַ ﬠְ יָנֹ ות‬ a ‫אָ ִשׂים ִמ ְדבָּ ר ַל ֲאגַם־מַ יִ ם‬ ‫וְ אֶ ֶרץ צִ יָּה לְ מֹ וצָ אֵ י מָ ִים‬ ‫אֶ תֵּ ן בַּ ִמּ ְדבָּ ר אֶ ֶרז ִשׁטָּ ה‬ ‫ַוהֲדַ ס וְ ֵﬠץ שָׁ מֶ ן‬ ‫אָ ִשׂים בָּ ﬠ ֲָרבָ ה בְּ רֹ ושׁ‬ ‫וּתאַ שּׁוּר יַחְ דָּ ו‬ ְ ‫ִתּ ְדהָ ר‬ ‫לְ מַ ַﬠן ִי ְראוּ וְ י ְֵדעוּ‬ ‫וְ י ִָשׂימוּ וְ י ְַשׂכִּ ילוּ יַחְ דָּ ו‬

17

When the poor and needy seek water, and there is none,

and their tongue is parched with thirst, I YHWH will answer them, I the God of Israel will not forsake them. 18 I will open rivers on the bare heights, and fountains in the midst of the valleys; I will make the wilderness a pool of water, and the dry land springs of water. 19 I will put in the wilderness the cedar, the acacia, the myrtle, and the olive; I will set in the desert the cypress, the plane and the pine together, 20 so that all may see and know, all may consider and understand,

109 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 169: “Verheißen wird nicht die allgemeine Umwandlung der physischen Existenzbasis für alle Welt oder auch nur für Israel in seinem Lande, so daß der Wasser- und der Baumreichtum nur als Beispiele zu gelten hätten. Vielmehr wird für das bestimmte, einmalige Ereignis der Rückwanderung, das den Exilierten bevorsteht, wirksame Hilfe in den beiden Hauptschwierigkeiten zugesichert, die für den Marsch seiner solchen Menge durch die fast wasser- und schattenlose Berg- und besonders Steppenlandschaft zwischen Babylonien und Judäa zu erwarten sind.” 110 Spencer, “New Deal,” 584–86. Cf. Barstad, Way, 21–36; Tiemeyer, Comfort, 176– 78; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 203: “Most of the commentators assume that these benevolent acts are to facilitate the anticipated return from the Babylonian diaspora, but the passage says nothing of this.”

370

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

‫כִּ י יַד־יְ הוָה ָﬠ ְשׂתָ ה זּ ֹאת‬ ‫וּקְ דֹ ושׁ ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל בְּ ָראָ הּ‬

that the hand of YHWH has done this, the Holy One of Israel has created it.

a The plural form in the LXX εἰς ἕλη (“into marshlands”) might reflect ‫( ל ְַאַג ִַמּים‬cf. the footnote in BHS). Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 202) and Elliger (Deuterojesaja, 157) adopt this reading.

6.6.2. Isaiah 41:17: The needy seeking wisdom YHWH’s monologue in vv. 17–20 opens with a statement about the poor and needy seeking water. Those in need are not further identified. In light of the context, however, it seems reasonable that this group refers to YHWH’s own people. In 41:14, Jacob is called a “worm,” an insignificant being. YHWH does not address them directly, but rather speaks about them. The people are invited “to overhear rather than hear” what he will do for those who seek him.111 Focus remains on YHWH himself and his creative power to transform dry and dead land into fertile, blossoming areas. For those who listen and recognize, a hope may emerge that YHWH will transform their hardened mind to one of faith and understanding. The terms “poor” (‫ ) ָﬠנִ י‬and “needy” (‫ )אֶ בְ יוֹן‬can refer to social and economic matters, for instance, regarding poverty and impoverishment. Occasionally, this group of poor and helpless people form a contrast to the leading classes of society who have not treated the former group properly (e.g. Isa 3:14–15). In 41:17, however, the terms seem to render a general idea of religious and spiritual suffering of those seeking God. 112 They are spiritually weak and powerless, contrasting God who is powerful and caring, characteristics which they seek and hope to experience for themselves. This understanding of the terms is typical in Psalms, which pair the terms in the context of grief and lamentation: “As for me, I am poor and needy [‫] ָﬠנִ י וְ אֶ בְ יוֹן‬, but YHWH takes thought for me” (Ps 40:18).113 At first glance, the suffering of the needy relates to thirst and failure to find water in the wilderness. Literally, this may refer to a situation of drought (cf. Jer 14:2–6) or to the lack of water on the journey through the dry desert.114 In my view, however, it is more likely that we encounter metaphorical language: “Nicht im Stillen des Durstes besteht das Ziel, sondern in der

111

Goldingay, Message, 120. See e.g. Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 160–61. By contrast, Spencer (“New Deal,” 587–88) interprets the terms in a strictly economic sense. 113 Cf. e.g. Ps 86:1; 109:16. For other parallels in Psalms, see the review in Goldingay, Message, 122. 114 Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 172: “The utterly destitute refugees march across the Syrian desert on the way to Israel and seek water to quench their desperate thirst.” Cf. Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 169. 112

6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds

371

Gotteserkenntnis.”115 Rather than water, the people are thirsty for God and knowledge about him (cf. v. 20a).116 First, the verb “to seek” (‫ )בקשׁ‬often denotes the search for God. This is the case in other passages in Isaiah, for instance, in YHWH’s appeal in 51:1: “Listen to me […] you that seek YHWH [‫”]מבַ קְ שֵׁ י יְ הוָה‬ ְ (cf. 45:19; 65:1). Interestingly, this term shows up in Moses’ address to Israel in Deut 4:25–31. In the future, according to this passage, YHWH will punish his people because of idolatry and scatter them among the nations. Yet, “from there you will seek [‫ ]וּבִ קַּ ְשׁתֶּ ם‬YHWH your God, and you will find him if you search after him with all your heart and soul. In your distress, when all these things have happened to you in time to come, you will return to YHWH your God and heed him” (Deut 4:28–29; cf. Jer 29:13). Similarly, according to Hosea, the people will repent or return and seek YHWH (Hos 3:5; cf. Jer 50:4). Second, “water” (‫ )מַ יִ ם‬is the source of life and its association with knowledge is a central idea in the wisdom tradition.117 The righteous person is like a tree planted by streams of water (Job 29:19; Ps 1:3; Jer 17:7–8). In Jeremiah, YHWH refers to himself as “the fountain of living water” ( ‫ְמקוֹר‬ ‫)מַ יִ ם־חַ יִּ ים‬, reflecting his role as the source of blessing and life for his people (Jer 2:13; 17:13). Although Isaiah does not contain such comparisons, there are other features pointing to the metaphorical sense of water. As a river of life-giving water, torah – knowledge of the will of YHWH – will go forth from Zion to people who are thirsty for wisdom (2:3; cf. Ezek 47:1; Joel 4:18; Zech 14:8). In the eschatological hymn of Isa 12, restoration and renewed divine presence accompany the hopeful statement that “with joy you will draw water from the wells of salvation” (12:3). Finally, 44:3 explicitly juxtaposes water in the wilderness and the life-giving spirit and blessing of YHWH (see below). Third, the reference to a parched tongue emphasizes the intensity and desperation of the situation. “Thirst” (‫ )צָ מָ ה‬is often associated with the desert (e.g. Ps 107:5; Hos 2:5) and also occurs in the context of deportation and slavery under a foreign power (Isa 5:13; Deut 28:48). Some passages suggest the idea of spiritual thirst. This thought is implicit in the vision of torah flowing out from Zion in Isa 2:2–4 and in the appeal to everyone who thirsts to come to the waters in 55:1. A more explicit association is found in Ps 42:3: “My soul thirsts [‫ ]צָ ְמאָ ה‬for God, for the living God.” Albeit employing a

115 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 200; cf. Goldingay, Message, 121: “The passage is playing lyrically with the symbolism of water. It suggests that v. 17 refers to a metaphorical rather than a literal thirst.” 116 Cf. the rendering of the verse in the Targum: “The poor and the needy long after instruction [‫]לְ ֻאל ָפנָא‬, as the thirsty after water, but do not find it; their spirit faints in affliction.” 117 See Fabry and Clements, “‫ מַ ִים‬mayim,” 280–82; Pokrifka, “Life,” 432–34.

372

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

different word for “search”, Ps 63:2 parallels the motif of seeking with that of thirst: “I seek you [‫] ֲאשַׁ ח ֲֶר ָךּ‬, my soul thirsts for you.” Finally, Amos explicitly explains YHWH’s punishment of thirst with the absence of divine revelation: “I will send a famine on the land; not a famine of bread, or a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of YHWH” (Amos 8:11; cf. 8:13). As a consequence, the people shall wander or stagger (‫ וְ נָעוּ‬of ‫ ;עוע‬cf. Cain in Gen 4:12, 14) back and forth in search of God. They will become completely disorientated, looking for guidance to no avail. The perspective in Isa 41:17 is different than that in Amos. The certain willingness of YHWH to intervene forms a beautiful response to the anxiety of those who are thirsty and seeking. Construing the first lines of the verse as a conditional statement, which is common in modern translations (“when or if the poor and needy seek…”), further underlines the eagerness of YHWH to act. Whenever someone calls for him, he will answer (‫ ;ענה‬cf. 58:9; 65:24). Unlike the powerless idols which can neither respond nor save (46:7), YHWH is devoted to answering and sustaining those who call: “I will not forsake them” (‫ ;ל ֹא אֶ ֶﬠזְבֵ ם‬cf. 42:16). The reliability of this promise is warranted by YHWH’s dense self-presentation: “I am YHWH, the God of Israel.” 6.6.3. Isaiah 41:18–19: Transforming the wilderness The manifestation of divine power occurs in vv. 18–19 in the transformation of nature. YHWH’s deeply personal engagement is significant: “I will open” (‫)אֶ פְ תַּ ח‬, “I will make” (‫)אָ ִשׂים‬, “I will put” (‫)אֶ תֵּ ן‬, and “I will set” (‫)אָ ִשׂים‬. The central motifs are the bringing forth of water in v. 18 and of trees in v. 19. In both cases, the verses render an idea of completeness. In v. 18, the different kinds of locations (bare heights, valleys, wilderness, and dry land) taken together point to the totality of divine intervention. Everything is being transformed. In v. 19, seven different types of trees (known and unknown)118 symbolically refer to completeness (cf. the seven minor streams in 11:15). Verses 18–19 pick up the motif of water from v. 17. Certainly, there are some similarities with the theme of divine provision in the wilderness in terms of supplying the thirsty people with water (Exod 17:1–7; Num 20:1–13; Ps 107:35–43; cf. Isa 43:20; 48:21; 49:10). Nevertheless, the very act of transformation rather than the satisfaction of thirst forms the center of the message of vv. 18–19.119 Five terms depict the state of death and infertility

118

See the reviews in Elliger (Deuterojesaja, 158, 166–67) and Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 174–75). According to Spencer (“New Deal,” 589), the expensive, high-quality wood of the listed trees points to a complete restoration of the ruined economy of Judah. 119 Goldingay, Message, 124: “vv. 18–19 are about new creation rather than new exodus.”

6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds

373

which is to be transformed: “bare heights” (‫)שׁ ָפיִ ים‬, ְ 120 “valleys” (‫)בְּ קָ עֹ ות‬, “wilderness” (‫)מ ְדבָּ ר‬, ִ “dry land” (‫)אֶ ֶרץ צִ ָיּה‬, and “desert” (‫)ﬠ ֲָרבָ ה‬. In general, the wilderness is a threatening place. Its sphere lies outside the reach of civilization and it is generally considered to be a place of death and disorder.121 As the creator and master of nature, however, YHWH has the power to transform these dead regions into fertile land. Just as he is able to open the eyes of the blind and the ears of the deaf, he can open rivers of life in the valleys of death.122 The transformation of the natural environment here is possibly representative of the transformation of the people. In support of this claim are a handful of passages in Isaiah which make a close and explicit link between the transformation of nature and that of individuals.123 The opening verses of 29:17–24 present a series of images which picture the coming age of salvation. New growth symbolizes restoration as Lebanon will become a fertile field which will be deemed as a forest. This increase of fertility parallels the vision in the succeeding verse that the ears of the deaf will hear and the eyes of the blind will see (cf. 42:18–20; 43:8). Then, the meek (‫ )ﬠְ ַנָוִ ִים‬and the neediest people (‫ )אֶ בְ יוֹנֶי אָ דָ ם‬shall exult because the oppressor and those who do evil are gone. As in 41:17, this miserable group likely refers to the afflicted and confused community that looks to YHWH for help. Growth and lushness mirror sight and joy. A similar movement occurs in 32:15–18. The outpouring of “a spirit from on high” (‫ )רוּחַ ִממָּ רוֹם‬upon “us” has immediate consequences for the natural world. As in 29:17, the wilderness (‫)מדְ בָּ ר‬ ִ will become a fertile field which will be regarded as a forest. Justice (‫)מ ְשׁ ָפּט‬ ִ and righteousness (‫ )צְ דָ קָ ה‬which belong to the sphere of human society and ethics will literally dwell in the wilderness and in the fertile field. Natural and social categories merge. The rough and undesirable places of the wild become quiet, secure, and peaceful dwellings for the exiled people of YHWH: “instead of being displaced refugees, Yhwh’s people will once again have a home.”124 In a similar manner, the great vision of 35:1–10 intertwines motifs of natural and social transformation. 125 Initially, the wilderness (‫)מ ְדבָּ ר‬, ִ dry land (‫)צִ יָּה‬, and desert (‫ )ﬠְ ַָרבָ ה‬will blossom and rejoice. The transformation of the 120 Cf. Isa 49:10. For the exact sense of this rather rare term, see the discussion in Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 163–65. 121 Eggleston, “Wilderness,” 843–44. 122 The verb ‫ פתח‬is elsewhere used about opening ears (35:5; 50:5). The synonymous verb ‫ פקח‬is used about opening eyes and ears (35:5; 42:7; 42:20). These inner connections are emphasized in LXX Isaiah, because the Greek translator chose ἀνοίγω to translate both of the Hebrew terms; see Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations, 145. 123 See also Ps 107:35–38 where the transformation of nature initiates the restoration of social life. 124 Goldingay, Message, 124. 125 Cf. Poulsen, Representing Zion, 144–46.

374

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

desert leads to new hope and encouragement for the weak and anxious. It is likely that the dry area stands as a symbol for ruined Zion. This is the case in Isa 51:3 which juxtaposes consolation and restoration: “YHWH will comfort Zion; he will comfort all her waste places, and will make her wilderness [‫]מ ְדבָּ ָרהּ‬ ִ like Eden, her desert [‫ ] ַﬠ ְרבָ תָ הּ‬like the garden of YHWH” (see Chapter 2). The transformation of the people and the natural world stand side by side in vv. 5–7. The first part announces the healing of individuals: the blind shall see, the deaf shall hear, the lame shall walk, and the dumb shall speak. The second part envisions the healing of nature: water and streams break forth in the wilderness, and the burning sand and thirsty ground become life-giving sources. The social ability to orient oneself in the world by sensing and moving mirrors the abundance of life and vegetation in the desert. Unlike in 41:17–20, however, the climax of the vision occurs in vv. 8–10 in the holy way leading to Zion, and the transformation of nature and people seems to function as a figurative introduction to this central matter.126 The parallelism of wilderness and people in 44:3–4 is fascinating. In v. 3, YHWH states: “For I will pour water on the thirsty land,127 and streams on the dry ground; I will pour my spirit upon your descendants, and my blessing on your offspring.” The similar structure of the two utterances, revolving on the common verb “I will pour out” (‫)אֶ צֹּ ק‬, suggests that there is an implicit comparison.128 One could say that the two statements stand to each other as an allegory to its interpretation, insofar as the latter interprets, explains, and specifies the former. Water and streams which provide life in dry and dead areas mirror YHWH’s spirit and blessing upon his people and their descendants. These are two sides of the same coin. As much as the dry and thirsty ground longs for water to bloom and prosper, so the people long for the divine spirit of life to flourish and grow in insight. Spiritual blessing leads to physical blessing as v. 4 shows. The verse expertly continues the nature imagery by comparing the emergence or sprouting of people to willows by streams of water. The close association between wilderness and people in 44:3 is remarkable. A similar association could be at play in 41:18–19. Recent studies have proposed that the desert here does not refer to a geographical area but works instead as a symbol for the people and their unendurable situation.129 The dry desert represents divine judgment and the absence of God. It is the human

126

Wildberger, Jesaja, 1363. The MT has “the thirsty one” (‫)צָ מֵ א‬, but many interpreters read “the thirsty land” (‫ )צָ מָ א‬due to the logic of the parallelism; cf. the Peshitta and Targum. 128 Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 226–27) stresses the figure of comparison by reading the initial ‫ כִּ י‬in the sense of “even as” (cf. Isa 55:9; 62:5) and by presupposing a “so” (‫ )כֵן‬at the opening of the second statement (cf. the addition of ‫ כן‬above the line in 1QIsaa). 129 See Navarro, El desierto, and the helpful review in Lund, Way Metaphors, 73–85. 127

6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds

375

condition after Eden, that is, the condition experienced by everyone in spiritual exile: a profound and critical separation from the communion with God.130 Within such imagery, the people were once a fertile and blooming garden, but like their ruined land they have become a poor and miserable desert, a garden without water (cf. 1:30). Accordingly, the transformation of the wilderness symbolizes a spiritual renewal of the people.131 The sources of divine life and wisdom will reopen and reshape the blind and ignorant people into one of sight and understanding – an outstanding forest of wise and precious trees. 6.6.4. Isaiah 41:20: A complete understanding of YHWH’s acts The preceding observations correspond with the ambiguity at the opening of v. 20. Transformation will take place so that (‫ )לְ מַ ַﬠן‬people will see and understand that YHWH has done this (cf. 43:10 above). It is not entirely clear whether it is the miraculous transformation of nature that provokes new insight or the implied transformation of the dry and hardened minds that make the people able to see and acknowledge. Perhaps the thought is that the experience of external transformation in turn causes an internal one (cf. above). Elsewhere in the Old Testament, extraordinary events occur as a catalyst for bringing about acknowledgement, for instance, the exodus out of Egypt through which the people shall know that YHWH is God (Exod 6:7). In the final line of his prayer in Isa 37:16–20, King Hezekiah urges YHWH to save his people “so that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that you alone are YHWH.” Another helpful illustration is found in the final verses of Isa 29:17–24. The people of Jacob will no longer be ashamed or afraid, perhaps because they have finally begun to look for YHWH and put their trust in him alone. In any case, their experience of his actions will result in acknowledgment and praise. In v. 23, YHWH states: “for when the children of Jacob see the work of my hands in their midst, they will sanctify my name.” 132 Significantly, experience of God’s activity is rendered by the word “to see” (‫)ראה‬. In language close to that of 41:20, divine activity is referred to as “the work of my 130

Smart, History and Theology, 75: “The desert […] is frequently for Second Isaiah a symbol of the life of men who are cut off from the sources of strength and joy in God.” 131 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 204: “Der Ansicht von einer spirituellen Erneuerung Israels […] [liegt] in der Bildsprach der Naturverwandlung verborgen.” 132 Literally, the verse reads: “for when he sees his children the work of my hands in his midst, they will sanctify my name.” Whether or not one regards “his children” to be an explanatory gloss (cf. the footnote in BHS), the word defines the suffix “he” in ‫( בִ ְראֹ תוֹ‬cf. e.g. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, 242) and does not explain or identify “the work of my hands” (cf. the wrong rendering in the NSRV: “for when he sees his children, the work of my hands, in his midst”).

376

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

hands” (‫)מַ ﬠֲשֵׂ ה יָדַ י‬. Presumably, this work denotes the salvific actions that occur for and in the midst of the people: the wilderness will become a fertile field, the blind will see, the deaf will hear, and the anxious will exult due to their release from oppression (29:17–21). 133 The people’s sanctification of YHWH’s name is a powerful expression of their final recognition of him as the only true God. He is holy, no one else. He is to be trusted, no one else. Verse 24 develops this idea by introducing a motif of repentance and reorientation. The people are portrayed as “those who err in spirit” ( ַ‫)תֹ ֵﬠי־רוּח‬, expressing their deep confusion and disorientation. Furthermore, they are “those who grumble” (‫)רוֹגְ נִ ים‬, that is, they are attracted to falsehood and whispering behind one’s back (cf. Prov 16:28). Now, they will recognize the failure of their own arrogant ways and accept divine instruction. The emphasis on renewed knowledge and recognition is strong: they shall “know understanding” (‫ )ידע בִּ ינָה‬and “learn instruction” (‫)למד לֶקַ ח‬. The verse refers to “an existential grasp of truth.”134 The people will experience and acknowledge the ways in which YHWH acts and they will learn from this. Returning to 41:20, the concentration on the motif of perception as found in 29:24 is striking. Four near-synonymous verbs, balancing the four verbs of divine action in vv. 18–19, render an idea of complete understanding.135 The lack of a clear subject which, nevertheless, appears to be the poor and needy people of v. 17 puts “the emphasis on the act of recognition or even the one recognized rather than the recognizers.”136 The first two verbs are very familiar: “to see” (‫ )ראה‬and “to know” (‫)ידע‬. The third one seems to be elliptical for “set to heart” (‫ ;שׁים לֵב‬cf. 41:22) and denotes careful attention or meditation. The fourth verb (‫ שׂכל‬in Hiphil) has an interesting range of meanings. It refers to having or acquiring knowledge (e.g. Gen 3:6: “the tree was to be desired to make one wise [‫ ;”]לְ הַ ְשׂכִּ יל‬cf. Isa 44:18 above) but also to acting with insight and piety (e.g. Isa 52:13; Jer 23:5 about the righteous branch: “he shall reign as king and deal wisely [‫)”]והִ ְשׂכִּ יל‬. The latter sense suggests that gaining insight will have ethical consequences as the people will learn from experience and live in accordance with it (cf. 29:24). Nevertheless, the primary object of the people’s attention and recognition is spelled out in the latter part of v. 20. They will see and acknowledge that YHWH has done (‫ )עשׁה‬all of this; indeed, he has created (‫ )ברא‬it. He is the true God, the Holy One of Israel. Interestingly, YHWH’s creative power is captured by the phrase “the hand of YHWH” (‫)יַד־יְ הוָה‬. It was by this hand 133

Wildberger, Jesaja, 1144. Oswalt, Isaiah 1–39, 541. 135 Cf. Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 168: “Dem Reichtum der Gaben wird der Reichtum und die Tiefe der gläubigen Erkenntnis entsprechen.” 136 Goldingay, Message, 129. 134

6.6. The transformation of the hardened minds

377

that he punished his people (40:2) and made them drink from the cup of wrath (51:17). The divine hand that judged is now the hand that transforms and saves (cf. 11:11; see Chapter 5). Within the larger literary context of Isaiah, the vision of complete understanding of YHWH’s acts contrasts with earlier descriptions of the people’s failure and refusal to see and acknowledge the work of their God. The people did not know (‫ ;)ידע‬indeed, they even despised the Holy One of Israel (1:2–4). They did not see (‫ )ראה‬the deeds of YHWH (‫ )פֹּ ַﬠל יְ הוָה‬and the work of his hands (‫ ;)מַ ﬠֲשֵׂ ה יָדָ יו‬they were exiled without knowledge (5:12–13). Under God’s will they remained blind and were kept from seeing (‫)ראה‬, understanding (‫)ידע‬, or comprehending his actions with their heart (6:9–10). They refused to look for him who did it ( ָ‫ ;עֹ שֶׂ יה‬22:11). In a magnificent way, 41:20 announces that this unfortunate time of blindness and ignorance is to be over. God will again make understanding of himself possible, and the people will see and comprehend. Their dry, infertile, and hostile minds will be transformed into a garden of spiritual life and wisdom. A final text that I would like to take up here is 58:10–11. The overall problem of this chapter is that in terms of religious and ethical behavior, the people are not paying attention to what God really wants. Nevertheless, if they behave well by removing the yoke of suppression and taking care of the hungry and needy, YHWH will repay them well. Their light will rise in the darkness and their gloom will be like the noonday. Certainly, there is a motif of enlightenment at play in which the gloom of the people’s minds will be illuminated. Continually, YHWH will guide (‫ )נחה‬them. He will satisfy their needs or souls (‫ ) ֶנ ֶפשׁ‬in parched regions and give them renewed strength. The people will be like a watered garden. They will be like a spring of water ( ‫מוֹצָ א‬ ‫)מַ יִ ם‬, whose waters never fail (or lie; ‫ כזב‬in Piel). They will never run dry of faith or insight. To use another famous picture from Isaiah: “the earth will be full of the knowledge of YHWH [‫ ]דֵּ ָﬠשה אֶ ת־יְ הוָה‬as the waters cover the sea” (11:9). 6.6.5. Summing up The poetic richness of Isa 41:17–20 is remarkable. Those who suffer from spiritual affliction and seek wisdom – the very source of life – will not be disappointed because YHWH will respond to their search with eagerness. He will reveal his creative power in a complete transformation of nature and of the minds of his hardened people. The people will grow in insight and they will finally discern and acknowledge YHWH’s role in history and creation.

378

Chapter 6: Blindness and disorientation

6.7. Conclusion 6.7. Conclusion

The people’s lack of attention to YHWH initially resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile. The passages about the present condition of the people examined in this chapter bear witness to the fulfillment of judgment proclaimed in Isa 6. Exile has resulted in a significant and purposeful distance between YHWH and his people. They have become existentially isolated and alienated from their God. Several cognitive images render the critical state of the people, concentrating on their failure to see, listen, perceive, and understand. The people are blind and deaf. They are obstinate and stubborn. They turn to idols and selfchosen ways. A key theme is the people’s failure to observe and recognize YHWH’s actions. Either they do not understand the significance of past and present events or they wrongly assign the occurrence of them to others who are not YHWH. They even fail to grasp that he brought about the disasters that stroke them. There is a persistent immunity to divine teaching. In the end, there is a profound denial of YHWH’s unique sovereignty. A powerful expression of spiritual confusion and disorientation relates to the metaphor of “the way”. The people have walked away from YHWH to self-made images or to self-chosen ways. There is a loss of direction and a lack of leadership to unite and guide the people. Just as YHWH is thought to have blinded them and kept them in a state of spiritual hardship, the hiding of his presence in the world has similarly left it in a state of confusion and despair. Nevertheless, there are small glimpses of hope. YHWH’s transforming power lies behind his repeated exhortations to the blind and deaf to see and listen. A faint confession among the people indicates a slight emerging awareness of sin. If YHWH deliberately blinded his people and made them go astray, he can also make them see again and make his will known to them. As teacher and shepherd, he can guide them and ensure that they stay on the right path. As creator, he has power to transform. Just as he can level the rough mountains, he can transform the hostility and obstinacy of his people into renewed faith and understanding.

Chapter 7

Abandonment and bereavement: Social images This final chapter analyzes the cluster of texts in Isaiah which portray the state of exile by means of social images. While the last three chapters have looked at the exiled people with regard to enslavement, worldwide scattering, and spiritual disorientation, this chapter focuses on the destiny of their capital city left behind, destroyed and empty. Several texts in the latter part of Isaiah compare the desolate state of Jerusalem to the social conditions of marginalized women. The city is portrayed as a forsaken woman who has been abandoned by her husband and left alone without children. She is thoroughly vulnerable to shame and exploitation. In previous chapters, we have come across the association of exile with social issues such as honor and shame. The sign act of the naked prophet illustrated the exposure of war prisoners to public humiliation (20:2–4) and the arrogant steward Shebna was hurled away to encounter a disgraceful death in a foreign land (22:18). Regarding Jerusalem’s destiny, the oracle of doom in 22:1–14 presented the prophet’s heartfelt lament over the coming ruin of “my people’s daughter,” a poetic synonym for the city. YHWH would remove “the covering of Judah” and leave his city open to conquest and public derision. She drank from his cup of wrath (51:17–23), and he abandoned her in great anger (54:7–8). The chapter opens with an introduction to female imagery in the context of destruction and exile, particularly in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Lamentations, and provides an overview of images of women in Isaiah, particularly in the lament of the fall of Lady Babylon in Isa 47. A close reading of Isa 49:14–21 and 54:1–6 follows. Both of these passages explicitly liken the present state of Jerusalem to that of an abandoned wife and a bereaved mother who are in desperate need of restoration from suffering and dishonor.

380

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

7.1. Female imagery and issues of destruction and exile 7.1. Female imagery

The personification of Jerusalem-Zion as a woman is a common feature in the Old Testament.1 The biblical motif is part of a broader literary tradition in the Ancient Near Eastern world of personified cities, perhaps reflecting an older idea of seeing the city as a goddess married to its patron god.2 In any case, in likening the city and/or its inhabitants to a woman, a series of images and associations are used which deliver strong emotions and drama in portraying their experience.3 The frequent comparison of YHWH’s covenantal relationship with his people to a marital relationship likewise encompasses female imagery.4 The people (or their capital) are cast in the role of YHWH’s wife who is expected to remain faithful to him alone. In other words, understanding this figuratively, the people are expected to worship YHWH exclusively. As an important implication of the marriage metaphor, issues of honor and shame, central to the social interaction among people, come to the fore. Just as an unfaithful wife destroys the honor of her husband, the sinful people are thought to destroy the honor of YHWH.5 In response, YHWH takes retribution against his adulterous people/wife with the use of violence and shame. Notable here is the use of vivid sexual imagery, both to render the people’s shameful behavior and the shame of their punishment which implies a loss of status in the eyes of others.6 Hosea, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel employ such imagery intensely.7 In Hos 2, YHWH accuses Israel of being a whore who has shamefully gone away after her lovers; as punishment, he will strip her, uncover her nakedness, and expose it in the sight of her lovers. Likewise, in Jer 2–3, the prophet casts Jerusalem as YHWH’s lovely bride who by means of sexual infidelity and raw lust for lovers has turned herself away from her God. The simile of Jer 3:6–11 presents the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern Kingdom of Judah as two sisters who are married to YHWH. The first was adulterous and constantly “played the whore”. The subsequent exile of the Northern Kingdom by the Assyrians is depicted as a divorcee. YHWH states: “I had sent her away with a decree of divorce” ( ָ‫;שׁלַּחְ ִתּיהָ וָאֶ תֵּ ן אֶ ת־סֵ פֶר כְּ ִריתֻ תֶ יה‬ ִ 3:8). Even in light of her fate and urgent calls to 1

For an overview, see Berges, Klagelieder, 52–64; Dille, “Women,” 853–57; Low, Mother Zion, 53–69. 2 E.g. Biddle, “Figure.” 3 Sawyer, “Daughter of Zion,” 104: “the physical weakness of a woman, her vulnerability and her dependence on another person give the Zion poems a special poignancy.” Cf. Franzmann, “The City as Woman,” 3–4. 4 See Parker, “Marriage,” 535–37. 5 Hadjiev, “Honor,” 337. 6 Hadjiev, “Honor,” 337. 7 See Maier, Daughter Zion, 94–140.

7.1. Female imagery

381

return to YHWH, her younger sister Judah did not turn away from her adulteries. The following chapters in Jeremiah describe how this proud woman – Judah and/or Jerusalem – will suffer from fear, pain, and punishment (e.g. 4:19–21, 30–31; 6:1–2; 10:17–22). The language of sexual infidelity and divine violence is extreme in Ezekiel. In Ezek 16, YHWH took care of the girl Jerusalem and clothed her with precious ornaments, and her fame spread among the nations on account of her beauty. In spite of this, her worship of other gods and her trust in foreign powers increased. Language of religious betrayal (worshiping idols, making political alliances) blends with that of sexual behavior which links the girl to prostitution. 8 Jerusalem becomes “an adulterous wife [‫]הָ ִאשָּׁ ה הַ ְמּנָאָ ֶפת‬, who receives strangers instead of her husband” (16:32). Unlike a prostitute, she even gave her lovers gifts as part of her sexual advances. In Ezek 23, the two sisters from Jer 3 reappear, more shameless than ever. They were constantly attracted to foreign lovers (Assyria and Babylon) and relied on them instead of YHWH. In both chapters, YHWH’s punishment consists of shaming Jerusalem by exposing her nakedness to the world. YHWH states: “Because your lust was poured out and your nakedness uncovered [ ֵ‫ ]ו ִַתּ ָגּלֶה ﬠ ְֶרוָת‬in your whoring with your lovers […] I will gather them against you from all around, and will uncover your nakedness [ ֵ‫ֵיתי ֶﬠ ְרוָת‬ ִ ‫ ]וְ גִ לּ‬to them, so that they may see all your nakedness. […] I will deliver you into their hands […] they shall strip you of your clothes and take your beautiful objects and leave you naked and bare [‫( ”] ֵﬠירֹ ם וְ ֶﬠ ְריָה‬16:36–39; cf. 23:22–29). The irony of this destiny is striking. First, YHWH, who clothed Jerusalem in her youth with beautiful garments, will now uncover her and turn her into an object of public disgrace. Second, the woman who uncovered herself in the act of sexual intercourse will now be a victim of sexual abuse by her former lovers. They will strip her of her clothes and take away her fine jewels (cf. 23:26). Interestingly, the use of ‫ גלה‬in the sense of “uncovering” may consciously allude to the disastrous effects of the exile in terms of enemy invasion, devastation, and the removal of inhabitants.9 The reference to the burning of “your houses” in 16:40 certainly points in this direction. It is worth noticing that the portrait of personified Jerusalem in Jeremiah and Ezekiel serves primarily to highlight the transgressive behavior of the

8

Dille, “Women,” 855. See Klein (“Uncovering the Nymphomaniac”), who argues that this double meaning of ‫ גלה‬which provides a link between sexual violence and exile may stem from Jer 13:18– 22 and its play on the double meaning of the term by juxtaposing the statements “all Judah is taken into exile [‫ גלה‬in Hophal], wholly taken into exile [‫ גלה‬in Hophal]” (v. 19) and “and if you say in your heart, ‘Why have these things come upon me?’ it is for the greatness of your iniquity that your skirts are lifted up [‫ גלה‬in Niphal], and you are violated.” 9

382

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

city and its inhabitants.10 The people have been idolatrous in their worship of other gods and in their reliance on alliances with foreign empires. The result is that the city, like a punished woman, is destroyed and left “naked and bare.” 7.1.1. The lonely woman in Lamentations Lamentations describes the critical state of Jerusalem after the ravage of enemies and the removal of people. The focus lies on the sorrow for the abandoned and devastated city. Several references are made to the enemies’ attack on the city and their destruction of its gates, walls, strongholds, and temple (e.g. 2:5–9). In some of the five poetic laments contained in this book, ZionJerusalem appears as a personified city who mourns the killing and deportation of her inhabitants. 11 According to Adele Berlin, two dominant female images illustrate the suffering and isolation of the city: a wife who has lost her husband and a mother who has lost her children.12 Common to both types of women is their unfavorable social position. They are lonely and vulnerable without a husband or children to protect them.13 Without a male protector, there is no one to guard or restore their honor. The opening verses of Lam 1 contain a condensed series of female images.14 The initial word ‫“( אֵ י ָכה‬Alas!”) points to the sudden change from a glorious past to the present suffering and humiliation, a change as profound as that from life to death.15 In v. 1, three images of women illustrate this change. The mother-city that was once full of people sits empty and lonely with no one to help; the city that was great among the nations due to the presence of her divine husband has become like a mourning and abandoned widow; and the city that was like a princess (‫ )שָׂ ָר ִתי‬and controlled her kingdom independently of others is now a slave girl (‫ )מַ ס‬subjugated to the rule of foreigners. In v. 2, not even her lovers or friends are there to comfort her because they have turned out to be her enemies. The reference to “lovers” ( ָ‫ )אֹ הֲבֶ יה‬may suggest infidelity, like that of an adulterous wife (cf. 1:19 and Hosea, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel above). 16 The present fate of Jerusalem is thus hardly undeserved. 10 Cf. Low’s claim (Mother Zion, 56–57) that “Jeremiah and Ezekiel predominantly identify the wife of YHWH with the sinful people, thus presenting her as an adulterous spouse.” 11 For the relation between Lamentations and Mesopotamian lament traditions, see Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, 30–96. 12 Berlin, Lamentations, 7–9. 13 Cf. Naomi in the book of Ruth and the widow of Zarephath in 1 Kings 17:8–24. 14 Cf. Berlin, Lamentations, 47: “a kaleidoscope of images turns quickly from a lonely widow, to a degraded princess, to a whore, to a rape victim, to a betrayed lover, to an abandoned wife.” 15 Berges, Klagelieder, 95–96. 16 Berlin, Lamentations, 50–51.

7.1. Female imagery

383

YHWH has made her suffer for her transgressions. Verses 3–5 depict the exile of Judah and the lost home left behind. The people now live among the nations and find no resting place (cf. Deut 28:64–65). Zion has become a place of mourning because no one comes to the festivals. She has even seen her children – “her small babies” ( ָ‫ – )עוֹ ָללֶיה‬go away, captives before the foe (cf. 1:18). Verses 6–7 develop the image of her present abasement. All her splendor has departed from her. Formerly, her leaders went hunting; now, they are like hunted animals. Enemies have plundered her treasures and she has become an object of disgraceful mockery. In vivid language, vv. 8–10 expose her impurity and shame. Those who formerly honored her now despise her for they have seen her nakedness (‫;ﬠ ְֶרוָה‬ cf. Ezek 16:37; 23:29). Verse 10 depicts the enemy invasion of the city with allusions to a brutal rape: “Enemies have stretched out their hands over all her precious things; she has even seen the nations invade her sanctuary, those whom you forbade to enter your congregation.” As in Ezekiel, punishment involves shame as Jerusalem’s honor, her sacred space, is sexually violated and exposed to public derision. In addition to the skillful use of female images, Lamentations is of relevance to the study of Isaiah, particularly Isa 49–54, because of the apparent interactions between these biblical books in their shared focus on desolate Jerusalem. Where Lamentations depicts Jerusalem as a suffering, abandoned, and childless woman, Isaiah addresses this woman with divine promises of marriage and innumerable children. Recent studies devoted to intertextual matters have attempted to show that the author(s) of Isa 49–54 deliberately reused language and images from Lamentations to respond to its dire laments and theological issues. 17 As Patricia Tull Willey claims, “attention to the language and motifs of Lamentations reveals a deeply contrapuntal relationship between the two books.”18 An illustrative example is the motif of despair and discomfort which occurs frequently in Lamentations.19 At the opening of the book, there is no one who responds to Jerusalem’s sobbing at night: “she has no one to comfort her” (1:2; cf. 1:9, 17). Her misery is as vast as the sea so no one is able to console her (2:3). Depressed and discouraged, she must be aware that while many hear her mourning, there is no one to comfort her (1:21). It is of significance that the term for comfort in all five cases is ‫ נחם‬which is a key term in Isaiah. Similar to Lamentations, this prophetic book refers to Zion as “uncomforted” (‫ ;ל ֹא נֻחָ מָ ה‬Isa 54:11). Moreover, in the state of divine judgment, 17

E.g. Linafelt, Surviving Lamentations, 62–79; Sommer, Prophet, 127–30; Tiemeyer, Comfort, 347–61; Willey, Remember, 48–50, 86–89. See my review in Poulsen, “Bibelske kontrapunkter.” 18 Willey, Remember, 89. 19 Poulsen, “Bibelske kontrapunkter,” 12.

384

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

the children of Jerusalem are unable to console her (Isa 51:19–20). Nevertheless, while God remains silent in Lamentations, he speaks in Isaiah. Escaping the silence of the black hole, the opening words of Isaiah 40 are “comfort, O comfort my people.” Heavens, earth, and mountains shall praise YHWH for the comfort of his people (49:13). He will comfort Zion and all her wasted places and restore her into a paradisiac garden full of music (51:3). He will comfort her as a mother comforts her child (66:13). In fact, one could place Lamentations in the gap between Isa 39 and 40 and read the latter half of Isaiah as one extended response to the key issue in Lamentations: “a call to God to be Zion’s comforter.”20 7.1.2. Zion as a woman in Isaiah and the abasement of Lady Babylon The book of Isaiah contains several instances where Zion-Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman.21 As we will see in the close reading of 49:14–21 and 54:1–6, the latter part of book frequently compares YHWH’s restoration of desolate Zion to that of a woman who has been abandoned by her husband and bereaved of her children.22 The former part of the book exhibits a mixture of female images. Most of them cast Zion-Jerusalem in a negative light but there is an exception. In 37:21–29, the city of Jerusalem appears as a fearless and independent woman who in her refusal of the offers from the Assyrian King Sennacherib remains strong in her trust of YHWH: “She despises you, she scorns you – virgin daughter Zion [‫ ;]בְּ תוּלַת בַּ ת־צִ יּוֹן‬she tosses her head – behind her back, daughter Jerusalem [‫]בַּ ת ְירוּשָׁ ָל ִם‬.” The personification of Zion-Jerusalem occurs right at the beginning of the book, yet in a rather depressing tone. In 1:8, daughter Zion is left lonely as a booth in a vineyard and a shelter in a field while aliens have ravaged and destroyed the surrounding land. In 1:21, YHWH laments the current state of the city which is full of crime and transgression: “How the faithful city [ ‫קִ ְריָה‬ ‫ ] ֶנ ֱאמָ נָה‬has become a whore [‫ ”!]זוֹנָה‬The introductory word “how” or “alas” (‫ )אֵ י ָכה‬highlights YHWH’s assessment of the severity of the situation which is as grave and dark as the mourning which follows after destruction and death (cf. ‫ אֵ יכָה‬in Lam 1:1; 2:1; 4:1–2). The city is full of murder and has been seriously polluted by the arrogant behavior of its citizens. What is worse, the shameful condition of the city destroys the honor of its divine protector, YHWH. An illustration of the citizens’ transgressions is found in the judgment against the daughters of Zion (‫ )בְּ נוֹת צִ יּוֹן‬in 3:16–4:1. As haughty upper-class 20

Berlin, Lamentations, 48. For an overview, see Berges, “Personifications”; Low, Mother Zion, 63–68; Sawyer, “Daughter of Zion”; Schleicher, “Døtre”; Schmitt, “Motherhood,” 560–63; van der Woude, “Comfort of Zion.” 22 Dille, “Honor Restored,” 242–47. 21

7.1. Female imagery

385

women, they have behaved flamboyantly. YHWH’s punishment consists of a reversal of their fortune. He will afflict their heads with scabs and lay bare their foreheads or perhaps their genitals (the meaning of ‫ ָפּ ְתהֵ ן‬is disputed). Cutting off their hair not only implies public humiliation but also casts them as prisoners of war (cf. 2 Sam 10:4 and my comments on Isa 20:4 in Chapter 3). Their status as leading women of society will be turned into one of slaves, taken captive by foreigners (cf. Amos 4:1–3). The removal of all sorts of jewels and suspicious religious items also testifies to their social degradation. A poor outfit and a smell of dirt will replace their gaudy garments and perfume. In the latter verses of the passage, the focus shifts to the divine threat against the city itself. Because of Zion’s loss of men and warriors in battle, “her gates shall lament and mourn; ravaged, she shall sit upon the ground” (3:26). The language of mourning is close to Lamentations (e.g. Lam 1:4: “the roads to Zion mourn”; cf. 2:8).23 Furthermore, the image of the mourning woman sitting on the ground recalls the widowed and bereaved wife in Lam 1:1. According to Isaiah, Zion shall be ravaged or, better, emptied (‫)וְ נִ קָּ תָ ה‬24 of her inhabitants who will be carried off or killed (cf. 6:12).25 The mother-city will be left abandoned, desolate, and lamenting; her laments mirror those of the prophet over “the destruction of my people’s daughter” in 22:4. The women who nevertheless remain in the desolate city will desperately seek a husband to protect them. In comparison with Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Lamentations, it is striking that Isaiah does not contain an elaborate account of the desolation of woman Zion. Certainly, there are hints at her coming humiliation and destruction (e.g. 3:26; 6:12; 22:4) and reflections of her ruined and desolate state (e.g. 49:14–21; 54:1–10; 64:9–10). Nevertheless, one looks in vain for a lengthy description of the abandonment of the woman-city and its ultimate demise. Such a description simply disappears into the black hole at the center of the book and we have no access to it. At the opening of Isa 40, Zion-Jerusalem is in a state of despair and in great need of divine comfort (40:2), yet Zion is soon thereafter called to be a herald of good news to others (40:11; cf. 41:27). Jerusalem will be rebuilt and inhabited again (44:26, 28), and YHWH promises to 23

Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, 147–48. The basic sense of the verb ‫ נקה‬is “to be bare or cleaned,” implying that the city will be cleaned out or emptied of its inhabitants. Williamson’s “emptied” (Isaiah 1–5, 297) is closer to this sense than Wildberger’s “vereinsamt” (Jesaja, 146–48), but both agree on interpreting the image as that of an abandoned woman; cf. the paraphrase in the LXX which may have been influenced by Isa 49:21: “and you shall be left alone” (καὶ καταλειφθήσῃ μόνη). 25 On a deeper level, the removal of hair corresponds to the removal of inhabitants, and the baldness of the upper-class women in 3:17 thus corresponds to the desolate and barren state of their city in 3:26 since both images refer to the critical lack of growth; cf. Schleicher, “Døtre,” 167, note 8. 24

386

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

put salvation in Zion (46:13). These initial and brief announcements of restoration point forward to the extended development of this theme in Isa 49– 66.26 Nevertheless, Isa 47, which depicts the downfall of Lady Babylon, is of immediate relevance to our concern here.27 First, the chapter portrays Babylon as a woman – “virgin daughter Babylon” (‫ ;בּתוּלַת בַּ ת־בָּ בֶ ל‬47:1; cf. the similar wording about virgin daughter Zion in 37:22) – and the punishment of her draws immensely upon female imagery, including motifs of shame and public disgrace.28 Second, in these chapters of Isaiah, Babylon and Zion are polar opposites. The fortunes of both are to be reversed. Where Lady Babylon will fall from her throne to a shameful state of public humiliation, woman Zion will rise from the dust and experience a glorious future as the wife of YHWH.29 Several shared images and themes between Isa 47 and Isa 49–54 indicate these parallel reversals of fate. 30 There exists an intrinsic link between the destinies of Babylon and Zion insofar as the restoration and exaltation of desolate and downtrodden Zion presuppose the downfall and degradation of her foreign overlord, Babylon. However, there is another significant implication of these interrelated destinies because through Babylon’s punishment we get an impression of the disgraceful state from which Zion is to be restored. In other words, the humiliation of Babylon presents us with a reflection, or at least a glimpse, of how YHWH treated woman Zion inside the black hole.31 The satirical lament over Lady Babylon in Isa 47 opens with a double command to Lady Babylon to “come down and sit” (‫וּשׁבִ י‬ ְ ‫ ְ)רדִ י‬in the dust (in 26

Goldingay, Message, 318. Cf. Franke, “Satiric Lament,” 417: “The address to Virgin Daughter Babylon in Isa xlvii can be seen to function as a foil or point of comparison and contrast to the figure of Daughter Zion in what follows in Second Isaiah” (my emphasis). 28 See Franzmann, “The City as Woman.” In addition to Isa 47, there are two other instances in Isaiah where foreign cities are portrayed as women. Both Tyre and Sidon in Isa 23 are given this treatment, the latter of which is referred to as “virgin daughter Sidon” (‫ ;בְּ תוּלַת בַּ ת־צִ ידוֹן‬23:12). While Sidon shall suffer the shameful fate of a childless woman (23:4), Tyre shall serve as a prostitute and her income will be spent on the restoration of Zion (23:15–18). 29 Grimm and Dittert, Deuterojesaja, 287: “Babel und Jerusalem, zwei ‘Schwestern’ der Völkerfamilie, ist ein Tausch ihrer Plätze angesagt: die Königin wird zum Aschenputtel erniedrigt […], das Aschenputtel zur Königin erhöht.” 30 Biddle, “Alter Ego,” 129–33; Franke, “Satiric Lament,” 416–18. 31 The same literary phenomenon seems to be at stake in Isa 34–35 in the judgment against Edom and the restoration of Zion. Initially, the restoration of Zion presupposes the defeat of its archenemy, Edom. Below the surface, however, YHWH’s treatment of Edom in fact mirrors that of Zion; like Edom, Zion had been turned into a wilderness, a dry land, and a desert which, however, is to become fertile and bloom like a paradisiac garden through YHWH’s salvific intervention. 27

7.1. Female imagery

387

contrast to Jerusalem in 52:2 who is urged to shake herself from the dust and rise). To sit in the dust alludes both to a state of mourning – Babylon will lament the fate of her city like desolate Jerusalem in Lam 1:1 – and to a shameful state of brutal humiliation.32 She will be completely abased by sitting on nothing but the ground rather than on a precious throne: “Der Staub wird zum Thronsitz Babel.”33 Her descent into the dust runs parallel with her degradation of social status. The powerful and noble queen who was “tender and delicate” (‫)רכָּה ַו ֲﬠנֻגָּה‬ ַ will sink to the lowest class of society and undertake the work of a poor slave girl. Her veil and robe, symbols of nobility, will be removed. She will have to cross the river by wading through it bare footed rather than on a boat as in former days. Perhaps crossing the river even alludes to deportation and exile, like those of the Babylonian gods in 46:1–2, and thus represents another inversion of Israel’s fate.34 Verse 3 develops the image of stripping off clothes into a disgraceful scene of punishment: “Your nakedness shall be uncovered, and your shame shall be seen” ( ‫ִתּגָּל ﬠ ְֶרוָתֵ גַּם‬ ֵ‫)תֵּ ָראֶ ה חֶ ְר ָפּת‬. Lady Babylon will be publicly humiliated and punished as if she were a simple prostitute or an adulterous wife (Lam 1:8; Ezek 16:37; 23:29; Hos 2:12). Perhaps the stripping off of her clothes is also a prelude to rape as a cruel and mortifying punishment (cf. Isa 13:16).35 In any case, judgment is certainly at stake because Babylon’s downfall is YHWH’s vengeance on behalf of his people. He is “our Redeemer” (‫)גֹּ ֲאלֵנוּ‬, the Holy One of Israel. Verse 5 picks up the initial command of v. 1: “Sit [‫]שׁבִ י‬ ְ in silence, and go into darkness, daughter Chaldea!” At first sight, silence and darkness appear to signify a depressing state of mourning (see Lam 2:10). But the image goes deeper down. “Silence” (‫ )דוּמָ ם‬and “darkness” ( ֶ‫ )חֹ שׁ‬really refer to the silence and darkness of divine judgment and death (see my analysis of these motifs in Chapter 1). Babylon is going to enter into an eternal and unescapable prison. She is about to descend into the black hole which, by divine intervention, the 32

Dopps-Allsopp, Weep, 129–33; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 288–89. The resemblance of language and images from Lam 1 in Isa 47 is generally recognized, see Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 481; Goldingay, Message, 317: “Lamentations 1 advertises many motifs that will follow in Isa. 47.” Nevertheless, Sawyer (“Daughter of Zion,” 91) draws attention to the fact that there are no obvious references to a city in Isa 47: “even though she is named in v. 1 as the ‘daughter of Babylon,’ it is important to notice that there is not one detail in this chapter that refers explicitly to a city: nothing about walls or gates or sieges. It tells the story of the overpowering and humiliation of a woman. […] The personification is complete, the story autonomous and consistent.” 33 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 481. 34 Berges, Jesaja 40–48, 485: “Das Schicksal von Exilierung und Deportation, das das Gottesvolk mit seinem Aufenthalt jenseits des Euphrats erfuhr, soll nun die einstige Zwingherrin am eigenen Leib erfahren. […] Auch fährt man nicht mehr mit Prunkschiffen auf den babylonischen Wasserstraßen […], sondern die einstige Königin geht in demütigender Haltung und Bekleidung in die Verbannung.” 35 See the discussion in Franzmann, “The City as Woman,” 12–14.

388

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

people of YHWH are escaping and being restored from. Again, their fates are reversed. Babylon shall no more be called “the mistress of kingdoms” ( ‫גְּ בֶ ֶרת‬ ‫ ;מַ ְמלָכוֹת‬cf. v. 1). She will become perpetually captive to the realm of Sheol, like the fate of the empire’s king in 14:9–20. Lamentations’ two central images of women reappear in vv. 8–9. Babylon is portrayed as an arrogant and frivolous lady, a “lover of pleasure” (‫)ﬠ ֲִדינָה‬. In her false security and pride, she thought of herself as a goddess, invulnerable and, due to her reliance on magic, immune to coming disasters: “I am, and there is no one besides me; I shall not sit as a widow or know the loss of children!” It is exactly these two miseries which will strike her. They will come suddenly and in full measure. Similar to Jerusalem in Lamentations, she will experience the loss of children and become a lonely widow.

7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother (Isaiah 49:14–21) 7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother

Isaiah 49:14–21 pictures the city of Jerusalem as an abandoned wife and a bereaved mother. Initially, there are strong accusations against YHWH that he has forgotten his favored city. In response, YHWH assures that he would never forget Zion and proclaims the imminent restoration and repopulation of the destroyed and empty city. The passage is framed by Zion’s complaint of abandonment (“YHWH has forsaken me”) and of social isolation (“I was left alone”). The opening of v. 14 (‫“ ;וַתּ ֹאמֶ ר‬but [Zion] said”) corresponds to the opening of v. 21 (‫“ ;וְ אָ מַ ְר ְתּ‬but you will say”).36 In terms of content, a division of the passage into two minor parts seems reasonable. The key issue of vv. 14–16 concerns the assertion that YHWH has abandoned and forgotten Zion and his intense reply and assurance of continuous and persistent attention to the fate of his city. Verses 17–21 reveal a skillful intertwining of two overlapping themes regarding the restoration and repopulation of desolate Zion. Those who will restore the city are hurrying to arrive as those who destroyed it disappear and, in great astonishment, Zion will witness how her empty, wasted space becomes overcrowded with returning inhabitants. Isaiah 49:14–21 forms the first unit in the larger literary block of 49:14– 50:3.37 This block occurs between the two servant sections of 49:1–13 and 50:4–11. With regard to 49:1–13, our passage initially picks up the reference to the restoration of the land and the desolate places in v. 8 and the release and return of exiles in vv. 9–12 (see Chapter 5). Although the harsh tone of 36 Westermann (Isaiah 40–66, 218) offers an alternative proposal according to which the lament in v. 21 introduces a minor unit in vv. 21–23. 37 Goldingay, Message, 383.

7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother

389

Zion’s rather abrupt assertion in v. 14 contrasts remarkably with the joyful exultation of YHWH’s comfort and compassion towards his people in the hymn of v. 13, YHWH’s reply to Zion in vv. 15–16 uses similar words, confirming those used earlier on. Within the literary section of 49:14–50:3, the initial unit presents important themes about abandonment and childlessness which the succeeding units as three distinct tales develop and respond to. These units are 49:22–23 (introduced by ‫)כֹּ ה־אָ מַ ר ְאַדֹ נָי יְ הוָה‬, 49:24–26 (introduced by a rhetorical question), and 50:1–3 (introduced by ‫)כֹּ ה אָ מַ ר יְ הוָה‬. The first of these units continues the image of the bereaved mother by its emphatic and enthusiastic proclamation of the return of Zion’s children from far away. The second unit describes the intervention of YHWH which makes this return possible. The third unit takes up the issue of forsakenness by depicting Zion as a woman who has been sent off and, possibly, divorced. The explicit reference to spousal abandonment in 50:1 corresponds to the complaint of 49:14 which likely alludes to this theme (see below). With regard to the larger composition of the book, 49:14–21, with its initial lament, parallels the complaint of Jacob and Israel at the opening of 40:27–31: “My way is hidden from YHWH, and my right is disregarded by my God.” In terms of content, the people’s lament also concerns the anxiety of being ignored and rejected by God. From a structural point of view, both laments set crucial themes which dominate the following chapters: Isa 40–48 reflects on the issue of Jacob’s fate in exile (cf. 40:27) while Isa 49–54 reflects on the issue of desolate Zion left behind (cf. 49:14).38 7.2.1. Isaiah 49:14–21: Text and translation ‫וַתּ ֹאמֶ ר צִ יֹּ ון ֲﬠזָבַ נִ י יְ ה ָוה‬ ‫וַאדֹ נָי ְשׁ ֵכחָ נִ י‬ ‫ה ֲִת ְשׁ ַכּח ִאשָּׁ ה עוּ ָלהּ‬ ‫ בֶּ ן־בִּ טְ ָנהּ‬a‫מֵ ַרחֵ ם‬ ֵ‫גַּם־אֵ לֶּה ִת ְשׁכַּחְ נָה וְ אָ נֹ כִ י ל ֹא אֶ ְשׁכָּח‬ ‫הֵ ן ַﬠל־ ַכּ ַפּיִ ם חַ קֹּ ִתי‬ ‫חֹ ומֹ תַ יִ נֶגְ דִּ י תָּ ִמיד‬ ִ‫ ְמהָ ְרסַ י‬b ִ‫ִ ֽמ הֲרוּ בָּ ָני‬ ‫וּמַ ח ֲִרבַ יִ ִממֵּ יֵצֵ אוּ‬ ‫ְשׂ ִאי־סָ בִ יב ֵﬠינַיִ ְוּר ִאי‬ ‫ֻכּלָּם ִנקְ בְּ צוּ בָ אוּ־ ָל‬ ‫חַ י־אָ נִ י ְנ ֻאם־יְ ה ָוה‬ ‫כִּ י ֻכלָּם ָכּﬠ ֲִדי ִתלְ בָּ ִשׁי‬ ‫וּתקַ ְשּׁ ִרים ַכּ ַכּ ָלּה‬ ְ 38

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 219.

14

But Zion said, “YHWH has forsaken me, my Lord has forgotten me.” 15 Can a woman forget her nursing child, or show no compassion for the child of her womb? Even these may forget, yet I will not forget you. 16 See, I have inscribed you on the palms of my hands; your walls are continually before me. 17 Your builders are hasting; your destroyersc and those who laid you waste go away from you. 18 Lift up your eyes all around and see; they all gather, they come to you. As I live, says YHWH, you shall put all of them on like an ornament, and like a bride you shall bind them on.

390

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

ִ‫כִּ י חָ ְרבֹ תַ יִ וְ שֹׁ ְממֹ תַ י‬ ‫וְ אֶ ֶרץ ה ֲִרסֻתֵ י‬ ‫כִּ י ַﬠתָּ ה תֵּ צְ ִרי ִמיֹּ ושֵׁ ב‬ ִ‫וְ ָרחֲקוּ ְמבַ לְּ ָﬠי‬ ִ‫ֹאמרוּ בְ אָ ְז ַני‬ ְ ‫עֹ וד י‬ ִ‫בְּ נֵי ִשׁ ֻכּ ָלי‬ ‫צַ ר־לִ י הַ מָּ קֹ ום‬ ‫גְּ שָׁ ה־לִּ י וְ אֵ שֵׁ בָ ה‬ ֵ‫וְ אָ מַ ְר ְתּ בִּ לְ בָ ב‬ ‫ִמי ָילַד־לִ י אֶ ת־אֵ לֶּה‬ d ‫סוּרה‬ ָ ְ‫ַו ֲא ִני ְשׁכוּלָה וְ גַלְ מוּדָ ה גֹּ ָלה ו‬ ‫וְ אֵ לֶּה ִמי גִ דֵּ ל‬ ‫הֵ ן ֲאנִ י נִ ְשׁאַ ְר ִתּי לְ בַ ִדּי‬ ‫אֵ לֶּה אֵ יפֹ ה הֵ ם‬

19

Surely your waste and your desolate places and your devastated land – surely now you will be too crowded for your inhabitants, and those who swallowed you up will be far away. 20 The children born in the time of your bereavement will yet say in your hearing: “The place is too crowded for me; make room for me to settle.” 21 Then you will say in your heart, “Who has borne me these? I was bereaved and barren, exiled and put away – So who has reared these? I was left all alone – where then have these come from?”

a The vocalization of ‫ מֵ ַרחֵ ם‬suggests an infinitive in Piel with a particle which is linked to the finite verb in the former line, that is, “Can a woman forget […] so as not to have compassion…”. The footnote in BHS, however, proposes to repoint the word to the participle ‫“( ְמ ַרחֵ ם‬one who shows compassion”), whereas Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 334) takes ‫ מֵ ַרחֵ ם‬to be a rare noun in the sense of “young woman,” parallel to ‫ ִאשָּׁ ה‬in the previous line. Although these proposals are unnecessary, reading a parallelism of woman/young woman would offer a sound explanation for the occurrence of “these” (‫ )אֵ לֶּה‬in the final line of the verse. b The MT has “your sons” ( ‫)בָּ נָי‬, whereas the common translation of “your builders” ( ‫) ֹבּ ַנ ִי‬ reflects the ancient versions (cf. 1QIsaa, the LXX, and the Vulgate). There might be a deliberate play on meanings (see the exegesis of the verse). c This rendering respects the atnach in the MT. The NRSV translates: “Your builders outdo your destroyers, and those…”; cf. the footnote in BHS; also see Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40– 55, 309) who reads ‫ מֵ הֹ ְרסָ ִי‬for ‫מהָ ְרסַ ִי‬: ְ “Those who build you up work faster than those who tore you down.” d Symmachus and Vulgate have “and imprisoned” (καὶ αἰχμάλωτος and et captiva), presumably reading ‫ַסוּרה‬ ָ ‫ו ְַא‬. Paul (Isaiah 40–66, 339) believes it is possible that the aleph was omitted. He mentions Qoh 4:14 as an example where ‫סוּרים‬ ִ ָ‫ בֵּ ית ה‬appears to reflect ‫בֵּ ית‬ ‫ַסוּרים‬ ִ ‫“( הָ ְא‬a prison house”).

7.2.2. Isaiah 49:14–16: God’s continuous attention to Zion The bitter complaint of Zion in v. 14 appears suddenly and sharply: “YHWH has forsaken me, my Lord has forgotten me.” The language of this brief utterance is close to that of the Psalms, expressing the desperate and distressed feeling of being ignored by God and far away from his protective presence (e.g. Ps 13:2; 22:2; 42:10; 44:25; 77:10). An initial question, however, concerns the identity of “Zion”.39 One option is that Zion is a symbol for its in39

Goldingay, Message, 384–85.

7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother

391

habitants, whether they have been forced away into captivity or they dwell among the ruins of the destroyed city (cf. Lamentations). Perhaps Zion could refer to both groups as the one people of YHWH (cf. the parallelism between “my people” and “Zion” in 40:1–2, 9). In favor of this type of interpretation is the almost parallel wording of the complaint put in the mouth of the people of Jerusalem in Lam 5:20: “Why have you forgotten us [‫]תּ ְשׁ ָכּחֵ נוּ‬ ִ completely? Why have you forsaken us [‫ ]תַּ ַﬠזְבֵ נוּ‬these many days?” Against this interpretation is that in 49:14–21 Zion appears to be set over against its returning inhabitants. She is portrayed as a mother that has lost her children; she is alone and barren and her places and land are desolate and wasted (see vv. 19–21 below). In other words, Zion is rather a reference to the city itself which is personified as still suffering from the experience of defeat and deportation.40 To be more precise, Zion here is really a personification of an empty city which has been destroyed and bereaved of its inhabitants. The first word of the complaint offers a significant clue: “[YHWH] has forsaken me” (‫) ֲﬠזָבַ נִ י‬. This central term occurs in the oracle of doom in Isa 6:11–13. Following a complete removal of the people, “forsakenness” or “emptiness” (‫ )הָ ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬is said to become great in the midst of the land. It is possible that 49:14 reflects the fulfillment and terrifying consequences of this prediction: judgment came to pass and Jerusalem was left as a city emptied of its population (cf. 3:26). Further evidence in favor of this claim can be found in the following chapters in the recurrent address to the city as a woman who has been “forsaken” (‫ ;ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬54:6; 60:15; 62:4). Moreover, reading 49:14 in light of these instances suggests that a metaphor of divorce might be implied.41 YHWH is accused of having deserted or left his wife Zion, thereby exposing her shame, both in the eyes of others and in her own.42 Perhaps the address to “my Lord” (‫)אַדֹ נָי‬ ְ is a subtle reference to YHWH’s role as spouse, that is, “my husband has forgotten me.”43 The language of divorce is at stake in 27:8 according to which Judah or Jerusalem is depicted as YHWH’s wife who has been dismissed and forced away (see Chapter 5). Furthermore, similar language recurs at the end of 49:14–50:3. In 50:1, YHWH addresses the exiles with a rhetorical question: “Where is your mother’s bill of divorce with which I put her away?” The

40

Low, Mother Zion, 66–67, 76–77: “Zion does not represent the people and their guilt, but as the city, she is the innocent mother that was separated from YHWH because of the children’s sin” (77). 41 Maier, Daughter Zion, 164. 42 Dille, “Honor Restored,” 235: “Shame is experienced when a bond of trust breaks down, when a relationship is not honored.” 43 For ‫ אָ דוֹן‬in the sense of “husband,” see, for instance, Gen 18:12; Judg 19:26; Amos 4:1; Ps 45:12.

392

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

image draws upon that of a divorce process, as reflected in Deut 24:1.44 Apparently, this image is used to describe the relationship between YHWH and the city as a disrupted marriage. Zion has been sent off as a wife is sent off from her husband’s house. Nevertheless, YHWH’s request for seeing the divorce paper (‫ )סֵ ֶפר כְּ ִריתוּת‬is not clear.45 Perhaps he asks for it because it does not exist, that is, he never divorced Zion but merely left her for a limited period of time (cf. 49:14).46 Or perhaps he asks for it because he wants to destroy it and thereby annul the divorce in order to remarry. The final line of 50:1 seems to confirm that Zion was indeed sent away but only because of the transgressions of her inhabitants.47 Returning to 49:14–15, it might be a point, then, that YHWH only responds to the complaint that he should have forgotten her. 48 Indirectly, he affirms that he abandoned Zion (cf. 52:7). Indeed, he did and the city was left empty and destroyed. Still, he did not forget it. The prominence of the verb “to forget” (‫ )שׁכח‬which occurs four times in vv. 14–15 shows that this is a key theme. However, Zion’s fear of being erased not only from the map, but also from God’s memory is without reason. The people might forget YHWH and his salvific actions (e.g. 17:10; 51:13; 65:11) but he will never forget his beloved city. The employed comparison for describing YHWH’s continuous attention is fascinating. His care and compassion for Zion are like those of a mother for her child. References to breast-feeding (‫ עוּל‬literally means “suckling”) and child birth (“son of the womb”) point to a deep, intimate, and bodily relationship. Nevertheless, YHWH’s remembering also goes beyond this image. While it is possible, although implausible, that even women forget their children,49 it is simply impossible that YHWH will forget his city. Zion

44 See Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 346. Reading Zion’s complaint in light of the promised return of the exiles in 49:8–13, Low (Mother Zion, 84) states: “The copula ‘but’ beginning in v. 14 implies that Zion raises an issue in connection with their return: How can the people have a home if God has abandoned and forgotten the city?” 45 Cf. Goldingay, Message, 395. 46 Cf. Borocin-Knol (“Zion,” 202–6), who argues that Zion in 49:14, 50:1, and 54:6–8 is depicted as an ‘agunah (“a chained woman”), that is, a woman chained to a marriage that no longer exists, either because her husband has disappeared or refuses to divorce her properly. 47 Low (Mother Zion, 75–76) claims that Zion was indeed blameless and must only suffer because of the guilt of her children. She was only separated from God, never divorced. 48 Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 57. 49 In line with most commentators, I take “these” (‫ )אֵ לֶּה‬in v. 15 to refer to mothers/women in general. Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 59) offers a different interpretation by taking “these” as a reference to the children living abroad but soon to return (cf. 49:12, 21): “Selbst wenn es auf Seiten der Diaspora ein ‘Vergessen’ Zions geben sollte, JHWH wird diese Mutterstadt nicht vergessen!”

7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother

393

will realize that YHWH’s relation to her far supersedes any bonds between humans.50 His love and compassion are incomparable. Verse 16 stresses YHWH’s continuous and unwavering attention to Zion. He has inscribed her on his palms and her walls are constantly before him. These images refer to a deep-rooted and enduring concern. The verb “to inscribe” (‫ )חקק‬elsewhere denotes the writing on tablets (10:1; 30:8) or the carving on stones (cf. Shebna’s work on his tomb in 22:16). The latter instance suggests an idea of permanence, an inscription or tattoo that cannot be erased and will stand forever. It will continually be visible and will always catch the attention of YHWH. The reference to “walls” (‫ )חוֹמֹ ת‬in the final line indicates that the inscription on God’s hand is more than simply a name (cf. 44:5); it might be a representation of the entire city. Curiously, the prophet Ezekiel was instructed to draw (‫ )חקק‬the city of Jerusalem on a brick which should serve as a sign for a future state of siege due to divine judgment (Ezek 4:1). In Isa 49:16, the notion of a drawing is a sign of divine restoration. It is almost like “a heavenly prototype or model” for the rebuilding and repopulation of the city. 51 In any case, the explicit reference to walls offers a nice bridge to the following verses about the restoration of the desolate city. 7.2.3. Isaiah 49:17–21: Restoration and repopulation of the empty city Verses 17–21 describe the imminent restoration and repopulation of the empty city. In a superb poetic manner, one of the initial words in v. 17 invites a double reading. Reading “sons” ( ִ‫ )בָּ נָי‬points to the return of the scattered children of Zion, whereas reading “builders” ( ִ‫ )בֹּ נַי‬points to the restoration of the walls of the city, mentioned in the previous verse. In the first case, the children hurry to return to their mother. In the second case, those who shall rebuild the city, presumably the children, Cyrus (45:13), or foreigners (60:10), hurry to have the work done. In both cases, the destroyers and devastators of Zion are leaving to go to an uncertain destination.52 The latter reading fits the rest of the verse well as the act of building (‫)בנה‬ offers a sharp contrast to that of destroying (‫ הרס‬in Piel) and laying waste (‫ חרב‬in Hiphil).53 The identity of the ravaging enemies is not clear and there is

50

Schleicher, “Døtre,” 174. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 311) refers to the sketch of the Sumerian city of Lagash on the lap of the statue of its ruler King Gudea as a possible parallel. See also Prov 8:22– 31 for the idea that the entire world was brought into being according to a preexisting plan. Cf. Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 60–61. 52 The Targum reads: “those who destroyed you and laid you waste shall go away from you into exile [‫”] ִיגלוֹן‬ 53 Cf. the juxtaposition of these terms in Jer 24:6: “I will bring them back to this land. I will build them up, and not tear them down [‫יתים וְ ל ֹא אֶ ֱה ֹרס‬ ִ ‫]וּבְ ִנ‬.” 51

394

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

no indication of divine agency.54 Among the three other instances of ‫ הרס‬in Isaiah, however, one associates the verb with the cruelty of the Babylonian king “who made the world like a desert and overthrew its cities [‫”]וְ ָﬠ ָריו הָ ָרס‬ (14:17).55 In light of this verse and the reappearance of the Babylonian king just before the black hole at the center of the book, this foreign king and his troops certainly overthrew the city of Zion and left it as empty as King Hezekiah’s treasury (39:6). Now, those who were taken away are about to return. The opening of v. 18 puts mother Zion into a passive position. Rather than acting, she will simply lift up her eyes and observe the events that are about to take place. In 39:6, “all” (‫ )כֹּ ל‬in the house of Hezekiah should be carried away; now, “all of them” (‫ ) ֻכּלָּם‬shall return to Zion. They shall “gather” (‫קבץ‬ in Niphal) and “come” (‫)בוא‬. The lack of a conjunctive waw between the two verbs suggests eagerness and enthusiasm; they hurry to assemble and come with great speed.56 The motif of gathering presupposes a state of scattering (see Chapter 5). Likely, the people are thought to return from all corners of the earth as the allusion to the compass in the preceding passage indicates (49:12; cf. 11:11–12; 43:5–6). Perhaps the return of YHWH to his wife Zion is implied here as he is the one who gathers and guides the dispersed ones (e.g. 40:10–11; 49:9–11). In any event, Zion shall lament no more because the people will come to her from all directions of the world. A divine oath, “as I live” (‫)חַ י־אָ נִ י‬, adds credibility to the message of universal gathering of the scattered ones that come to repopulate Jerusalem. All of those who return will be ornaments of a restored Zion. The language of dressing up is interesting. YHWH instructs Zion “to put on” (‫ )לבשׁ‬the returning children like an ornament. Elsewhere in Isaiah, the verb denotes the putting on of garments or robes, regardless of their literal or symbolic meanings (4:1; 22:21; 52:1; 59:17; 61:10). No doubt, the image here presupposes that until now the clothes of Zion have been simple and poor. Perhaps she has even been naked, a motif which would correspond to the image of the empty city. She has been uncovered completely by the removal of her inhabitants (see v. 21 below). As we saw in the exegesis of Isa 20, the prophet Isaiah appears naked to embody the disgraceful and dishonorable treatment of prisoners of war who are forced away, naked and exposed, to public ridicule (see Chapter 3). Perhaps we should see Zion in a similar light: enemies of Zion

54

In contrast, for instance, to YHWH’s direct involvement in Lamentations: “in his wrath he has broken down [‫ ]הָ ַרס‬the strongholds of daughter Judah” (Lam 2:2), and “he has demolished [‫ ]הָ ַרס‬without pity” (Lam 2:17). 55 Regarding ‫ חרב‬in Hiphil, which only occurs six times in biblical Hebrew, Ezekiel applies it in the allegory of the enemy conquest of Jerusalem by the Babylonian king in the time of King Jehoiachin: “He ravaged their strongholds, and laid waste their towns [ ‫וְ ָﬠ ֵריהֶ ם‬ ‫( ”]הֶ ח ֱִריב‬Ezek 19:7). 56 Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 336.

7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother

395

have stripped off her garments and left her in a humiliating and shameful state of nakedness. In 52:1–2, Zion is urged to dress up attractively and replace her bonds of subjugation with beautiful garments. In 49:18, she is asked to put on her inhabitants and enrich her poor outfit or naked body with expensive and elegant jewels. In the prophetic literature, wearing “ornaments” (‫ )ﬠ ֲִדי‬is considered to be negative insofar as it testifies to the self-pride and arrogance of the city or its people (e.g. Jer 2:32; 4:30; Ezek 7:20; Hos 2:15).57 Here, however, the image is certainly a positive one, a sign of glorious restoration comparable to the vision in 54:11–12 where restored Zion will be rebuilt with malachite and sapphires and covered with precious stones. Interestingly, Westermann claims that “ornament” in 49:18 is not about value or beauty as such but more about being adorable in the sight of others; in the world’s eyes, Zion will regain her honor by the impressive return of inhabitants.58 Until now, Zion has been an object of public disgrace and humiliation; now, she will be adored for her splendid and luxurious appearance. The final line of v. 18 develops the metaphor by stating that Zion will bind (‫ קשׁר‬in Piel) the returning exiles like a bride. Since the noun form of the verb (‫ )קִ שֻּׁ ִרים‬denotes bands, sashes, or similar attire (Isa 3:20; Jer 2:32), an idea of adornment seems implied. The explicit comparison to “a bride” (‫ ) ַכּ ַכּלָּה‬is remarkable. In light of the possible allusion to divorce in v. 14, the image of Zion as a bride offers a significant response to her prior state of abandonment. Dressed up nicely, Zion is not only adorable in the eyes of the world but also in the eyes of YHWH. He will remarry her (cf. 54:5–6; 62:4–5 below). This language reappears in 61:10: Jerusalem shall exult because YHWH has clothed her (‫ לבשׁ‬in Hiphil) with garments of salvation, and covered her “as a bride adorns herself with her jewels” ( ָ‫) ַכּ ַכּלָּה תַּ ﬠְ דֶּ ה ֵכלֶיה‬. The opening of v. 19 offers a rough description of the present state of Zion. The line consists of three substantives for devastation: “your ruins” ( ִ‫)חָ ְרבֹ תַ י‬, “your desolate places” ( ִ‫)שֹׁ ְממֹ תַ י‬, and “your devastated land” ( ‫אֶ ֶרץ‬ ‫)ה ֲִרסֻתֵ י‬. Picking up two terms from v. 17 (‫ הרס‬and ‫)חרב‬, we encounter the city in the state that its enemy ravagers left it. Curiously, the line has no verb; it ends abruptly with a clear break, rendered by the NSRV with a dash “–”. The literary style mirrors the content of the verse. 59 The small yet significant break points to the period of destruction and emptiness when no one was there, just as the major break between Isa 39 and 40 does in the overall structure of the book. The three substantives reflect the major destruction of Zion that occurred inside of this black hole (cf. my analysis of 63:7–64:11 in 57

Goldingay, Message, 388. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 220. 59 There is thus no reason for altering the three substantives into verbs as proposed by the footnote in BHS. 58

396

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

Chapter 2). The reference to “your ruins” reflects the prediction in 5:17 of animals grazing among “the ruins” (‫ )חָ ְרבוֹת‬of the destroyed city. The intertextual link to the anticipation of doom in 6:11–12 is more explicit.60 Responding to the prophet’s question of “how long?”, YHWH states: “Until cities lie waste without inhabitant [‫ ]…[ ]מֵ אֵ ין יוֹשֵׁ ב‬and the land is utterly desolate [‫;]שׁמָ מָ ה‬ ְ until YHWH sends everyone away [‫]וְ ִרחַ ק‬, and vast is the emptiness in the midst of the land [‫]בְּ קֶ ֶרב הָ אָ ֶרץ‬.” Certainly, this immense devastation occurred. Nevertheless, as the latter half of v. 19 joyously informs us, these waste places without inhabitants shall now be crowded “with inhabitants” (‫)מיֹּ ושֵׁ ב‬ ִ and those who swallowed up Zion shall be far away (‫)וְ ָרחֲקוּ‬. There is a subtle play on space in v. 19 as a whole. The wasted and devastated places, representing emptiness and vast nothingness, will be turned into crowded and vastly overloaded spaces because of the great number of returning exiles. Literally, Zion will become too “cramped” (‫ )צרר‬for the inhabitants. The term suggests a state of distress and claustrophobia.61 This scenario is clearly ironic in light of the previous state of confinement – the dark holes in the ground – from which YHWH has redeemed those who return (see Chapter 4). The desire for more space is central in v. 20, which explicitly portrays Zion as a mother. She will overhear the returning children speaking to each other and demanding more space: “the place is too cramped for me [‫]צַ ר־לִ י‬: make room for me to settle [‫( ”]וְ אֵ שֵׁ בָ ה‬cf. the previous verse). The reference to “the place” (‫ )הַ מָּ קֹ ום‬might allude to the promise in 14:2 about the nations bringing the enslaved people back “to their place” (‫ל־מקוֹמָ ם‬ ְ ֶ‫)א‬. Interestingly, v. 20 refers to those returning to Zion as “the children of your bereavement” ( ִ‫)בְּ נֵי ִשׁ ֻכּלָי‬. Apparently, these children are ones born after the loss of the first children.62 It is possible that the returning children have been raised far away in captivity in a foreign land but are now coming to a city that they have never seen. 63 In any case, Zion’s conviction that she did not give birth to the returnees is a key theme in v. 21. The opening of v. 21 (“you will say”) mirrors the opening of v. 14 (“Zion said”). The entire passage culminates in this verse and the different roles of Zion as a mother, as childless, and as a divorcée come together. Three ques60

Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 53–54; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 337: “Isa 6:11–12 left its imprint on this verse.” 61 Cf. the noun ‫ צָ ָרה‬derived from the same root in the experience of those who are under divine judgment: “they will look to the earth, and will see only distress [‫ ]צָ ָרה‬and darkness” (Isa 8:22); and Jonah’s feeling inside of the fish: “I called to YHWH out of my distress [‫”]מצָּ ָרה לִ י‬ ִ (Jonah 2:3). 62 Goldingay, Message, 389. 63 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 312: “This new family would be those who survived the disasters, were deported, and returned – themselves or their descendants – to repopulate the city and the land.”

7.2. The children of Zion shall return to their mother

397

tions, all of which contain the term ‫אֵ לֶּה‬, are artfully intertwined with Zion’s self-description of her painful state. In astonishment, Zion asks about the origin of the returnees in relation to who fathered them and who reared them (notice the masculine form of ‫ ילד‬and ‫ גדל‬in Piel)64 and where the returnees have been and where have they come from. In light of the huge number of returnees, Zion’s question is really about whether she could possibly have given birth to so many people without recalling anything about it. Can a woman forget her child (v. 15)? Apparently, Zion could. The main impulse for Zion’s astonishment is her self-perception, as revealed by two “I”-statements. Initially, Zion perceives herself as one who has been deprived of children and is infertile. The first term, “bereaved” (‫)שׁכוּלָה‬, ְ elsewhere refers to the loss of children or cubs (e.g. 2 Sam 17:8; Hos 13:8). Jeremiah juxtaposes this fate with that of becoming a widow: “let their wives become childless [‫ ]שַׁ כֻּלוֹת‬and widowed” (Jer 18:21; cf. Isa 47:8–9 below). The second term, “barren” (‫)גַלְ מוּדָ ה‬, occurs only three times in addition to this one, in reference to a barren night (Job 3:7), a barren company of godless individuals (Job 15:34), and those who are gaunt with hunger (Job 30:3). The word “barren” is used to refer to a state of desolation and sterility, as the infertile soil unable to produce anything. In the ancient world, such infertility was a public shame and Zion’s self-perception here points to her shame in the eyes of the world. The self-image of a bereaved and infertile woman is followed immediately by two words: “exiled and put away” (‫סוּרה‬ ָ ְ‫)גֹּ לָה ו‬. At first sight, the purpose of these two words is to explain and interpret the preceding image into a more literal scenario of defeat and deportation.65 The Qal form of ‫ גלה‬in this sense occurs in 5:13 about the people being forced away as prisoners of war (cf. Lam 1:3: “Judah has gone into exile [‫ )”] ָגּלְ תָ ה‬and, possibly, one could read “and bound/imprisoned” for “and put way” (see the textual notes). Accordingly, the barrenness of Zion is explained as a state of exile or captivity.66 In light of the female images, however, there might be a conscious play on the meaning of the terms. “To turn away” (‫ )סור‬might imply divorce, as when a man rejects and sends off his unfaithful wife (cf. v. 14 above). Moreover, 64 It is probable that the masculine verbs refer to YHWH who is thought to have given birth to or at least raised Zion’s children. Reading 49:24–26 in light of this statement, Low (Mother Zion, 117) argues that in the divine liberation of the children from the hand of the tyrant, “the act of birth is highlighted as a work of power.” 65 Berges (Jesaja 49–54, 27, 68) and Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 309) consider “exiled and put away” to be metrically intrusive and thus a gloss. Against this claim, I would argue that the placement of the phrase at the center of the verse points to its significance. In any case, Low’s (Mother Zion, 78) erasing of the phrase from her translation and exegesis of the passage is dubious and unfortunate. 66 Cf. Tiemeyer, Comfort, 292: “the expression ‫ גלה וסורה‬describes the mother Zion as ‘exiled’ in the sense that she is far away from many of her children.”

398

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

taking ‫ גלה‬in the sense of “reveal” or “uncover” suggests an idea of nakedness and shame. Indeed, Zion was uncovered; first, YHWH’s removal of his protective shield left Jerusalem open to capture and public disgrace (22:8); then, the removal of her inhabitants by enemies left her naked and alone, deprived of all of her covering (cf. the allusion to children as ornaments in v. 18). Zion’s final self-description highlights this state of social isolation and complete solitude: “I was left all alone” (‫) ֲאנִ י ִנ ְשׁאַ ְר ִתּי לְ בַ ִדּי‬. The thought here is rather close to Lam 1:1 – “How lonely sits the city that once was full of people!” – since Zion is depicted as a mother who has lost her children and a wife who was left by her husband. Implied or hiding behind Zion’s lament is a divine promise to reverse her fate. Once again, YHWH will take her to be his wife and she will be full of people once more. As was noted above, the present state of Zion from which YHWH will restore her is exactly the fate that awaits Lady Babylon in Isa 47. She will uncover (‫ גלה‬in Piel) her veil and legs; her nakedness will be uncovered (‫ גלה‬in Niphal) and her shame will be seen (47:2–3). In her pride, she claimed that she should never sit as a widow or know the loss of children (‫;)שׁכֽ וֹל‬ ְ both of these things will come upon her in full measure: the loss of children and widowhood (47:8–9). 7.2.4. Summing up Isaiah 49:14–21 sets the destroyed and empty Jerusalem over against its exiled inhabitants. The personification of the city serves to express and intensify the sufferings after siege, capture, and deportation. There are plenty of female images: the capital city is a divorcée who has been abandoned by her divine spouse and a bereaved mother who has been left alone after the loss of her children. The complete removal of inhabitants indicates a state of nakedness and vulnerability, a critical loss of social status. Nevertheless, by the mass return of the excited people, the mother-city will wear the returnees like ornaments and regain her lost honor. She will again become an object of adornment and YHWH shall remarry her.

7.3. The barren mother shall conceive (Isaiah 54:1–6) 7.3. The barren mother shall conceive

Isaiah 54:1–6 pictures Jerusalem as an infertile mother and a deserted wife. Nevertheless, the mother-city will rejoice because she will conceive innumerable children and the forsaken wife will forget the shame of her past because YHWH will call her back and marry her. The passage constitutes the initial third of 54:1–17a which deals at large with YHWH’s renewed involvement in the fate of Zion and her glorious restoration. In terms of content and imagery, this chapter is close to 49:14–21

7.3. The barren mother shall conceive

399

and, similar to this passage, Isa 54 is preceded by a servant passage in 52:13– 53:12.67 This famous poem portrays the removal of an unnamed individual to a meager destiny in a foreign land as a type for the people’s exile (see my analysis of 53:7–9 in Chapter 3). Isaiah 54, then, turns the attention to an unnamed and barren woman, likely alluding to an empty and abandoned Zion. The chapter consists of two parts: vv. 1–10 and vv. 11–17a.68 The key issue of the first part is YHWH’s past treatment of Zion and her miserable state as a barren and abandoned place. The central topic of the second part is the restoration of Zion. Verses 11–13a depict the marvelous rebuilding and beautification of the city, whereas vv. 13b–17a describe the righteousness, peace, and security that will fill the restored city. There are contrasting views on the structure of 54:1–10. Many interpreters divide the ten verses into two or three minor units: vv. 1–8 and vv. 9–10, or vv. 1–3, vv. 4–8, and vv. 9–10.69 In contrast to these proposals, I will argue that a better division consists of the following three sub-units: vv. 1–3, vv. 4– 6, and vv. 7–10.70 Despite thematic continuity within vv. 4–8, there is a significant break between v. 6 and v. 7, initially indicated by the concluding phrase “says your God” ( ִ‫ )אָ מַ ר ֱא הָ י‬in v. 6. The speaker in vv. 1–6 is presumably the prophet who speaks on behalf of his heavenly master, whereas YHWH’s own voice appears vv. 7–10 in his direct address and assurance to Zion. Furthermore, while vv. 1–6 portray Zion by explicit comparisons with suffering women, this imagery is toned down in vv. 7–10 (see my analysis of these crucial verses in Chapter 1).71 An outer frame of vv. 1–6 is established by the phrase “says YHWH/your God” ( ִ‫ )אָ מַ ר יְ הוָה\ ְ ֶא הָ י‬in vv. 1 and 6. Both units compare the afflictions of Zion with those of a woman: vv. 1–3 urge the barren mother to burst into joyful singing because she will conceive innumerable children and vv. 4–6 exhort the abandoned wife not to be humiliated because her husband will call her back and remarry her. The double exhortation to sing in v. 1 matches the double command to neither fear nor be discouraged in v. 4. The form of the single verses/units is dominated by shifts from command to reason. In v. 1, the prophet urges the barren woman to sing because (‫ )כִּ י‬she will bear chil67

See Sawyer, “Daughter of Zion,” 99–100. In addition to these two parts, a brief statement about the servants’ vindication in v. 17b links the chapter as a whole backward to the suffering servant and the notion of his offspring in 52:13–53:12 and forward to the emergent theme of righteous servants in the final chapters of the book. 69 E.g. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 357–58; Goldingay, Message, 522; Paul, Isaiah 40– 66, 415. 70 Cf. Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 286–87; Childs, Isaiah, 428–29; Low, Mother Zion, 99; Stassen, “Marriage,” 61; Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 271. 71 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 273: “In verses 7f., which point out the real reason for the great change, Deutero-Isaiah speaks directly, without metaphor.” 68

400

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

dren. In vv. 2–3, the mother-city is urged to extend her living space because (‫ )כִּ י‬she will spread out to the surrounding regions. In vv. 4–6, the prophet consoles the abandoned woman and exhorts her not to be discouraged because (‫ )כִּ י‬she will forget the shame of her past, because (‫ )כִּ י‬her husband will remarry her, and because (‫ )כִּ י‬YHWH will call her back as a forsaken wife. 7.3.1. Isaiah 54:1–6: Text and translation ‫ָרנִּ י ﬠֲקָ ָרה ל ֹא ָי ָלדָ ה‬ ‫פִּ צְ חִ י ִר ָנּה וְ צַ הֲלִ י ל ֹא־חָ לָה‬ ‫י־רבִּ ים בְּ נֵי־שֹׁ ומֵ מָ ה‬ ַ ִ‫כּ‬ ‫ִמבְּ ֵני בְ עוּ ָלה אָ מַ ר יְ ה ָוה‬ a

‫הַ ְרחִ יבִ י ְמקֹ ום אָ ֳה ֵל‬ ‫וִ ִיריעֹ ות ִמ ְשׁכְּ נֹ ותַ יִ יַטּוּ‬

‫שׂכִ י‬ ֹ ְ‫אַ ל־תַּ ח‬ ‫הַ ֲא ִריכִ י מֵ יתָ ַריִ וִ יתֵ דֹ תַ יִ חַ ֵזּקִ י‬ ‫וּשׂמ ֹאול ִתּפְ רֹ צִ י‬ ְ ‫כִּ י־י ִָמין‬ b ‫ירשׁ‬ ָ ִ‫וְ ז ְַר ֵﬠ גֹּ ויִ ם י‬ ‫ושׁיבוּ‬ ִ ֹ‫וְ ﬠ ִָרים נְ שַׁ מֹּ ות י‬ ‫ושׁי‬ ִ ֹ‫ל־תּ ְיר ִאי כִּ י־ל ֹא תֵ ב‬ ִ ַ‫א‬ ‫ל־תּכָּלְ ִמי כִּ י ל ֹא תַ חְ פִּ ִירי‬ ִ ַ‫וְ א‬ ‫כִּ י בֹ שֶׁ ת ﬠֲלוּמַ יִ ִתּ ְשׁ ָכּחִ י‬ ‫וְ חֶ ְר ַפּת אַ לְ ְמנוּתַ יִ ל ֹא ִתזְכְּ ִרי־עֹ וד‬ c

ִ‫כִּ י בֹ ֲﬠלַיִ עֹ שַׂ י‬ ‫יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹ ות ְשׁמֹ ו‬ ‫וְ גֹ ֲא ֵל קְ דֹ ושׁ ִי ְשׂ ָראֵ ל‬ ‫ֱא הֵ י ָכל־הָ אָ ֶרץ יִ קָּ ֵרא‬ ַ‫כִּ י־כְ ִאשָּׁ ה ﬠֲזוּבָ ה ַוﬠֲצוּבַ ת רוּח‬ ‫קְ ָראָ ְיה ָוה‬ ‫עוּרים כִּ י ִתמָּ אֵ ס‬ ִ ְ‫וְ אֵ שֶׁ ת נ‬ ִ‫אָ מַ ר ֱא הָ י‬ a

1

Sing, O barren one who did not bear; burst into song and shout, you who have not been in labor! For the children of the desolate woman will be more than the children of her that is married, says YHWH. 2 Enlarge the site of your tent, and let the curtains of your habitations be stretched out; do not hold back; lengthen you cords and strengthen your stakes. 3 For you will spread out to the right and to the left, and your descendants will possess the nations and will settle the desolate towns. 4 Do not fear, for you will not be ashamed; do not be discouraged, for you will not suffer disgrace; for you will forget the shame of your youth, and the disgrace of your widowhood, you will recall no more. 5 For your Maker is your husband, YHWH Zebaot is his name; the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer, the God of the whole earth he is called. 6 For like a wife forsaken and grieved in spirit YHWH has called you, like the wife of a man’s youth when she is cast off, says your God.

The Hiphil form of the MT in the third person plural (‫ )יַטּוּ‬apparently refers to an unidentified group, presumably the children of v. 1, that is, “[the children] shall stretch out…”. The Greek revisions, however, seem to have understood a Hophal form (‫ ;יֻטִּ וּ‬cf. ἐκταθήτωσαν), that is, “the curtains […] shall be stretched out.” A better reading is reflected in other ancient versions which translate the verb as a feminine singular (‫ )הַ טִּ י‬which corresponds to the other feminine imperatives of vv. 1–2 (cf. the LXX, Peshitta, and Vulgate).

7.3. The barren mother shall conceive

401

b

1QIsaa has a plural form of the verb (‫ )יירשו‬which accords with the plural form of ‫ושׁיבוּ‬ ִ ֹ‫ י‬in the next line. Despite incongruity, it seems more plausible that “your offspring” ( ‫ )ז ְַר ֵﬠ‬is the subject of both verbs (cf. the translation in the LXX and Vulgate) than to assume changing subjects, for instance, “your offspring shall dispossess nations, and [the nations] shall settle the desolate towns,” as Goldingay (Message, 526) proposes. c The plural forms – literally, “your husbands [are] your Makers” – are best explained as a way of exalting the divinity of YHWH. 1QIsaa has singular forms: ‫ בעלכי‬and ‫עושך‬, however with the ‫ י‬written above the line; see Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 422.

7.3.2. Isaiah 54:1–3: A mother giving birth to innumerable children The bereaved and barren mother of 49:21 recurs in the opening verse of 54:1– 3. The prophet urges a feminine addressee, Zion, to burst into songs of joy. Implied in this command is a call to change the voice from one of suffering and lament into one of ecstasy. Since the employed terms for singing (‫רנן‬, ‫פצח‬ ‫רנָּה‬,ִ ‫ )צהל‬occur frequently in Isaiah in the universal praise of YHWH and his salvific work (e.g. 42:11; 44:23; 49:13; 55:12), Zion is in fact urged to join this worldwide praise. In light of her present condition of barrenness, the command to sing appears paradoxical. There is thus a note of astonishment and shock which is close to Zion’s experience in 49:19–21. Three synonymous terms portray Zion as an infertile mother: “O barren one” (‫)ﬠֲקָ ָרה‬, “one who did not bear” (‫)ל ֹא ָילָדָ ה‬, and “one who did not labor” (‫)ל ֹא־חָ לָה‬. Zion is unable to have children and must suffer from public humiliation. She thereby shares a fate with famous women in the history of Israel. These include Sarai (Gen 11:30), Rebekah (Gen 25:21), Rachel (Gen 29:31), and the mother of Samson (Judg 13:2–3). However, just as YHWH enabled them to conceive and give birth to healthy sons, so shall Zion become the mother of innumerable children. 72 This promise of increase draws from YHWH’s power to create and restore (cf. v. 5 below). He can open the womb of the barren woman and create life out of the infertile and dead ground. As an illustration, the psalmist gives praise to YHWH who “gives the barren woman [‫ ]ﬠֲקֶ ֶרת‬a home, making her the joyous mother of children” (Ps 113:9). A similar shift is implied in Isa 54:1. The lament of the childless mother shall be turned into rejoicing. The latter half of v. 1 presents the reason for the prophetic command to sing joyously (cf. the introductory ‫)כִּ י‬: the children of the desolate woman (‫ )שֹׁ ומֵ מָ ה‬are, or will be, more than the children of the married one (‫)בְ עוּלָה‬. Rather than literal referents – for instance, the new Jerusalem in relation to the former73 – the comparison applies to general literary figures, as is the case in Hannah’s prayer: “The barren has borne seven, but she who has many

72

Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 294. Interestingly, the Targum reads “for the children of Jerusalem [‫ ]בְ נֵי ְירֻ ושׁלַם‬that was laid desolate shall be more than the children of the inhabitants of Rome [‫]מבְ נֵי רוֹמֵ י יָתֵ יבתָ א‬.” ִ 73

402

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

children is forlorn” (1 Sam 2:5). The two types of women refer to different social positions. In addition to being barren, the desolate woman might have been deserted by her protector and finds herself in a socially vulnerable situation.74 She thus forms a suitable contrast to the married woman who receives protection and status through her husband. 75 The promise that the desolate woman shall receive more children than the married one indicates a significant change of social status. She will be adorned for the abundance of children and, implicit in the promise, she will receive proper protection from their father (cf. vv. 4–6 below). In contrast to 49:14–21, however, it is not clear whether numerous children return to their mother-city from afar and fill her, or desolate Zion herself is thought to give birth to a new population. The allusion to the barren matriarchs adds weight to the latter option. Moreover, the vision of mother Zion in 66:7–13 describes a miraculous birth of children. It is likely that this passage in the final chapter of the book draws upon earlier chapters, constituting a subtle example of textual reinterpretation. 76 Shared themes and vocabulary with 54:1 include birth and labor pains, rejoicing, and countless children.77 The initial verse of 66:7–13 states: “Before she was in labor [‫]תָּ חִ יל‬, she gave birth [‫ ;] ָילָדָ ה‬before her pains [‫ ]חֵ בֶ ל‬came upon her she delivered a son.” Zion conceived a child even before the beginning of birth pangs, that is, before any clear indications that a birth would occur. As in 54:1, there is a note of surprise; the birth of a son appeared promptly and unexpectedly. As in the case of the barren matriarchs giving birth, YHWH has accomplished “the totally unexpected.”78 A series of rhetorical questions in 66:8 underlines the miraculous and unique nature of this event: “Who has heard of such a thing? Who has seen such things?” The sudden occurrence of the birth is central in the following questions: “Shall a land be born in one day [‫ ?]בְּ יוֹם אֶ חָ ד‬Shall a nation be delivered in one moment [‫”?] ַפּ ַﬠם אֶ חָ ת‬79 These questions also explain the birth imagery as signifying a complete restoration of the land and its inhabitants. In 74

Cf. the fate of Tamar in 2 Sam 13:1–22 who after the rape and abandonment by her brother Amnon is referred to as “a desolate woman” (‫ ;שֹׁ מֵ מָ ה‬2 Sam 13:20). 75 Goldingay, Message, 524. 76 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 304–5; cf. Sawyer, “Daughter of Zion,” 97–98. 77 In addition to these themes, 54:1 and 66:7–13 share an allusion to the barren matriarchs. YHWH’s rhetorical question in 66:9, “Shall I who cause birth shut the womb [‫”?]וְ ָﬠצַ ְר ִתּי‬, likely alludes to Sarah’s address to Abraham in Gen 16:2: “You see that YHWH has prevented me [‫ ]ﬠֲצָ ַר ִני‬from bearing children [‫”]מלֶּדֶ ת‬. ִ See also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 305–6; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 619. 78 Childs, Isaiah, 541. 79 Interestingly, an example of sudden disaster in contrast to the scene here is found in the doom of Lady Babylon in Isa 47:9, where the loss of children and widowhood shall come upon her “in a moment, in one day” (‫)רגַע בְּ יוֹם אֶ חָ ד‬. ֶ

7.3. The barren mother shall conceive

403

a moment, the new Zion rose from the ashes to be populated by a new people. The final line of v. 8 confirms this unbelievable scenario: “Zion was in labor [‫ ]חָ לָה‬and at once gave birth [‫ ]גַּם־יָלְ דָ ה‬to her children [ ָ‫]בָּ נֶיה‬.” The command to Zion in 54:1 to join the worldwide praise of YHWH is slightly altered in 66:10–12. Here, all those who love Jerusalem and “all those who mourn over her” ( ָ‫ ) ָכּל־הַ ִמּ ְתאַ בְּ לִ ים ָﬠלֶיה‬are urged to rejoice with her. As in 49:14–21, there is a clear distinction between Zion herself and her inhabitants. Their relationship to the city is again depicted by mother-child imagery. Zion is portrayed as a mother with heavy breasts full with milk, and the inhabitants are suckling children, slurping from them with delight. YHWH will turn Jerusalem into a fertile and abundant place of life, wealth, and joy. The final verse of 66:7–13 applies the mother-child imagery to YHWH’s relation to his people: “As a mother comforts [‫]תּ ַנחֲמֶ נּוּ‬ ְ her child, so I will comfort you [‫ ;] ֲאנַחֶ ְמ ֶכם‬you shall be comforted [‫]תּנֻחָ מוּ‬ ְ in Jerusalem.” Curiously, 54:11 refers to Zion as “uncomforted” (‫)ל ֹא נֻחָ מָ ה‬. However, according to this vision, Jerusalem will become the place of divine consolation. Returning to 54:1, the term “desolate” (‫ )שֹׁ ומֵ מָ ה‬invites for a double reading (cf. Lam 1:4, 13). On the one hand, it refers, as we have seen, to the socially isolated woman who is without children. On the other hand, the term frequently refers to the condition of Judah and its capital after conquest and defeat, including references to “desolate heritages” (‫ ;נְ חָ לוֹת שֹׁ מֵ מוֹת‬49:8), “your desolate places” ( ‫ ;שֹׁ ְממֹ תַ ִי‬49:19), and “former devastations” (‫;שֹׁ ְממוֹת ִראשֹׁ נִ ים‬ 61:4). Due to its ambiguity, the word carries a double meaning, pointing to Zion as a barren woman who suffers from childlessness and social isolation and to Zion as a physical city which suffers from the aftermaths of defeat and destruction.80 In both images, YHWH’s power to restore comes to the fore. The restoration of Zion is a central topic in vv. 2–3. The increasing number of children will be in need of more space (cf. 49:20) and the city will expand in great measure. Verse 2 compares the rebuilding and expansion of the mother-city to the raising of a tent by means of four terms: “tent” (‫)אֹ הֶ ל‬, “curtain” (‫) ְי ִרי ָﬠה‬, “cord” (‫)מֵ יתָ ר‬, and “stake” (‫)יָחֵ ד‬. In Jer 10:20, similar words occur in mother Jerusalem’s lament over destruction and exile: “My tent [‫ ]אָ הֳלִ י‬is destroyed, and all my cords [‫ ]וְ ָכל־מֵ יתָ ַרי‬are broken; my children have gone from me, and they are no more; there is no one to spread my tent again, and to set up my curtains [‫]יְ ִריעוֹתָ י‬.” The vision of 54:2 reverses this depressing experience of the past.81 Four imperatives now call for the re-pitching, enlargement, and firm securing (‫רחב‬, ‫יטה‬, ‫ארך‬, all in Hiphil, and ‫ חזק‬in Piel) of the destroyed tent. The exhortation “do not hold back” (‫)אַ ל־תַּ חְ שֹׂכִ י‬, which forms the center of v. 2 and parallels the urge neither to fear nor to be dis80 Cf. Low (Mother Zion, 138–44), who nevertheless too quickly rules out the image of a bereaved mother in favor of a ruined city unable to have children in her devastated state. 81 Sommer, Prophet, 39–40; Willey, Remember, 242–43.

404

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

couraged in v. 4, serves to convince and console Zion that, despite potential attacks in the future, this new tent will stand for eternity (cf. 54:14–17).82 On a deeper level, the image of a tent might allude to the ancient past of Israel, for instance, to the wilderness sanctuary. In light of the allusion to the barren matriarchs suddenly giving birth in v. 1, a reference to the age of the patriarchs is also plausible (see 51:2). They lived in tents and received the initial promise of land and innumerable descendants. The restoration and repopulation of Zion in 54:2 draws from and fulfills the ancient word given to the ancestors. Moreover, in v. 3 we might find a reflection of the old promise of increase given to Jacob in Gen 28:14: “your offspring [ ‫ ]ז ְַר ֲﬠ‬shall be like the dust of the earth, and you shall spread abroad [ ָ‫ ]וּפ ַָרצְ תּ‬to the west and to the east and to the north and to the south.” In a similar manner, the opening of v. 3 states: “you shall spread out [‫]תּפְ רֹ צִ י‬ ִ to the right and to the left.” Like the four points of the compass, the pairing of “right” (‫ )י ִָמין‬and “left” (‫)שׂמ ֹאול‬ ְ denotes the surrounding areas in all directions (cf. the division of the land between Abram and Lot in Gen 13:9).83 The sense of increasing or multiplying (cf. also Exod 1:12; Hos 4:10 1 Chr 4:38) is a more specific meaning of the verb “to make a breach” (‫)פרץ‬, for instance, in a wall (e.g. Isa 5:5). These violent associations of the term prepare for the following statements about taking control of foreign peoples and settling the desolate towns. Both statements appear to concern the territory outside of Jerusalem which the “offspring” of Zion ( ‫ )ז ְַר ֵﬠ‬will possess and repopulate. Rather than possessing the nations (‫)ירשׁ גּוֹיִ ם‬, they are likely thought to dispossess them, that is, expel them from their land and resettle it.84 This motif clearly draws from Deuteronomistic thought (cf. Deut 9:1; 11:23; 18:14; 19:1; 31:3) and its view on the conquest of the Promised Land as a fulfillment of the promise to the patriarchs. 85 A similar scenario of expansion is present in 11:14 where the reunited people of Israel will conquer their neighboring states to restore the kingdom of David (see Chapter 5). The settlement of the desolate towns ( ‫ָﬠ ִרים‬ ‫ ) ְנשַׁ מֹּ ות‬points to the restoration of the entire land (cf. Ezek 36:35; Amos 9:14).

82

Goldingay, Message, 525–26. Even if Paul’s claim (Isaiah 40–66, 419–20) that “right” and “left” here stand for south and north is correct (cf. Ezek 16:46; Ps 89:13), it does not change the rhetorical purpose of the phrase. 84 Notice the pairing of ‫ ירשׁ‬and ‫ ישׁב‬in the account of the Assyrians’ treatment of Samaria in 2 Kings 17:24: “The king of Assyria brought people from Babylon, Cuthah, Avva, Hamath, and Sepharivaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria in place of the people of Israel; they took possession [‫ ] ַו ִיּ ְרשׁוּ‬of Samaria, and settled in it cities [ ָ‫] ַויּ ְֵשׁבוּ בְּ ָﬠ ֶריה‬.” 85 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 362. 83

7.3. The barren mother shall conceive

405

7.3.3. Isaiah 54:4–6: A forsaken and rejected wife is called back The imagery in this unit shifts from that of a childless mother to that of a forsaken wife. Just as vv. 1–3 proclaimed a removal of the barren mother’s suffering, vv. 4–6 proclaim a removal of the abandoned or widowed wife’s shame.86 The initial exhortation in v. 4 not to fear (‫ל־תּ ְיר ִאי‬ ִ ַ‫ )א‬sets a general tone of comfort, whereas the second one not to feel humiliated or dishonored (‫ל־תּ ָכּלְ ִמי‬ ִ ַ‫ ;א‬cf. 50:7) links the prophetic consolation directly to the key theme of the verse. The dense repetition of virtually synonymous terms for shame and disgrace is significant. Zion shall neither be ashamed (‫ )בושׁ‬nor disgraced (‫ חפר‬in Hiphil) but she will forget her shame (‫ )בֹּ שֶׁ ת‬and disgrace or reproach (‫)חֶ ְר ָפּה‬. The repetition serves to underline and reassure that the painful time of shame, humiliation, and disgrace is really over and should be erased from memory.87 The past humiliations of Zion are referred to more specifically as “the shame of your youth” ( ִ‫ )בֹ שֶׁ ת ﬠֲלוּמַ י‬and “the disgrace of your widowhood” ( ִ‫)חֶ ְר ַפּת אַ לְ ְמנוּתַ י‬. In light of the previous verses, the reason for Zion’s shame would be her childlessness. Without children, she would have no one to care for her and secure her social position. In light of the following verses, however, it is more likely that the reason for her shame is her abandonment.88 Her husband deserted or divorced her and turned her into an object of public reproach due to her vulnerable and widow-like status. It is noteworthy that the women in 4:1 who are experiencing great disasters are desperately willing to give up the traditional benefits of marriage just to get a husband who can take away the “disgrace” (‫ )חֶ ְר ָפּה‬of being lonely without a protector. The image of Zion as an abandoned wife or widow is thus a strong metaphor for the humiliating state of exile, a state of divine absence in which the city has been abandoned by its God and protector (cf. Lam 1:1: “How like a widow [‫ ]כְּ אַ לְ מָ נָה‬she has become”). Insofar as the image of widowhood refers to the period of desolation following divine banishment and enemy invasion, the reference to Zion’s vigorous youth could allude to the sinful acts leading up to it.89 At the opening of 86

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 273. Goldingay, Message, 527. 88 Alternatively, “the shame of your youth” refers to the suffering of childlessness and “the disgrace of your widowhood” refers to the ignominy of widowhood; cf. the pairing of these conditions in 47:8–9 and, possibly, 51:19. A major point against this proposal, however, is that the three other instances of ‫ַלוּמים‬ ִ ְ‫ ﬠ‬suggests youth in the sense of vigor and freshness (Job 20:11; 33:25; Ps 89:46) which hardly fits the state of barrenness. 89 Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 421. Goldingay, Message, 527: “Ms Zion’s widowhood is the period that began with the city’s fall in 587. Her youth would then be the period of the monarchy that saw both shameful deeds on her behalf and shameful experiences.” Commenting on the two women in 54:6, Childs (Isaiah, 429), however, rejects this proposal: “The desolation portrayed is clearly shaped by the misery of the exile, but there is no evidence 87

406

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

Ezek 23, the initial crime of Samaria and Jerusalem is described with a reference to their youth: “they played the whore in Egypt; they played the whore in their youth [‫עוּריהֶ ן‬ ֵ ְ‫ ;]בִּ נ‬their breasts were caressed there and their virgin bosoms were fondled” (v. 3; cf. 23:8, 19, 21). Similarly, in Jer 31:19, Ephraim looks back and regrets his sins of the past: “I was ashamed [‫]בֹּ ְשׁ ִתּי‬, and I was dismayed [‫ ]נִ כְ ל ְַמ ִתּי‬because I bore the disgrace of my youth [ ‫חֶ ְרפַּת‬ ‫עוּרי‬ ָ ְ‫]נ‬.” 90 Since the overall theme which lies behind the dense talk about shame in Isa 54:4 seems to be the issue of divine abandonment, it is also possible that “the shame of your youth” refers to the time before YHWH chose Zion to be his spouse. Such a scenario is reflected in Ezek 16:1–8, where Jerusalem is portrayed as an abandoned and lonely baby girl whom YHWH finds and takes care of. When she becomes a woman, he covers her nakedness and marries her. However, in her later abominations and prostitution she forgets the days of her youth when she was naked and YHWH took care of her (Ezek 16:22). In contrast to these proposals, Low has strongly mounted the case that “the shame of your youth” does not refer to moral shame but social shame and that it does not necessarily imply guilt.91 According to her, the phrase points to “Zion’s sorry state rather than to any sordid past.”92 Although I think that she overstates the issue of Zion’s innocence, especially in light of the outburst of YHWH’s anger in 54:7–8, she is nevertheless right that references to Zion’s guilt are surprisingly vague and ambiguous in this passage and in Isa 49–54 generally. The key focus is suffering and humiliation rather than infidelity.93 In any case, against the background of the dire image of humiliated Zion in v. 4, the message of v. 5 is one of true relief. The implied spouse in the comforting words of v. 4 is finally identified as none other than the sovereign God, the husband and redeemer of Zion! Verse 5 contains two parallel statements about the power of YHWH and his special relationship with Zion. Each of the statements opens with a participle with is followed by divine epithets: “your Maker” corresponds to “the Holy One of Israel,” whereas the mighty name of “YHWH Zebaot” corresponds to the universal power of “the that two different historical periods are being symbolized through this figurative language.” For a general review of past interpretations, see Stassen, “Marriage,” 63–65. 90 See also the people’s confession of their idolatrous behavior in Jer 3:24–25: “But from our youth [‫עוּרינוּ‬ ֵ ‫]מ ְנּ‬ ִ the shameful thing [‫ ]הַ בֹּ שֶׁ ת‬has devoured all for which our ancestors had labored […] Let us lie down in our shame [‫]בְּ בָ ְשׁתֵּ נוּ‬, and let our dishonor [‫]כְּ לִ מָּ תֵ נוּ‬ cover us; for we have sinned against YHWH our God, we and our ancestors, from our youth [‫עוּרינוּ‬ ֵ ‫]מ ְנּ‬ ִ even to this day; and we have not obeyed the voice of YHWH our God.” 91 Low, Mother Zion, 100–104. 92 Low, Mother Zion, 104. 93 Cf. Sawyer, “Daughter of Zion,” 94: “She was partly to blame, but the single reference to ‘the shame of her youth’ […] is insignificant beside the repeated references to her suffering and his love.”

7.3. The barren mother shall conceive

407

God of the whole earth.” In his relation to Zion, YHWH is “the one who marries you” ( ִ‫ )בֹ ֲﬠלַי‬and “the one who redeems you” ( ‫)גֹ ֲא ֵל‬.94 The participle forms imply that at this very moment YHWH is marrying the deserted woman and is restoring her fortune.95 Now the close but disrupted bond between YHWH and Zion – as close as that between a husband and his wife – is being reestablished. It is noteworthy that YHWH is referred to as “redeemer” (‫)גֹּ אֵ ל‬. As we have seen in Chapter 4, the cultural and social associations of this term imply a familial link between YHWH and his people. A near relative, YHWH is committed to deliver them from indentured service and imprisonment. The use of ‫ גֹּ אֵ ל‬in 54:5 suggests a similar scenario: the poor and forsaken Zion is in desperate need of a redeemer who can protect her through marriage and take away her disgrace (cf. 4:1 above).96 Similarly, YHWH is portrayed as Zion’s kinsman who feels obligated to help and restore her (cf. Boaz’s redemptive act towards the widowed Ruth). A further implication is that YHWH’s intervention is more about reestablishing or reconstituting a relationship that has been broken than establishing a completely new one. It is thus marriage in the sense of remarriage. YHWH did abandon Zion (49:14) and send her away (50:1) but he did not forget her or his obligations towards her. The marriage imagery occurs prominently in 62:4–5 too. 97 Zion is portrayed as a bride at a royal wedding (cf. the reference to what seems to be a wedding crown in 62:3). She will receive a new name and thereby a new status. The employed names symbolically refer to YHWH’s past and present attitudes towards his city. Previously, Zion has been called “Forsaken” (‫)ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬ and her land “Desolate” (‫)שֹׁ מֵ מָ ה‬98 to illustrate the shame of divine abandonment and the severe consequences of this punishing act; now, she will receive the name “My Delight Is in Her” (‫ )חֶ פְ צִ י־בָ הּ‬and her land will be called “Mar-

94 Berges, Jesaja 49–54, 302: “Die Aussage [in v. 5] zielt allein darauf ab, wer JHWH für Zion ist.” 95 Goldingay, Message, 528. 96 Halvorson-Taylor (Enduring Exile, 116–18) argues that exile as slavery and exile as bereavement are tributaries to an overriding metaphor of redemption: “once exile has been likened to the servitude in Egypt and to debt slavery, both of which require the intervention of the ‫ ֹגאֵ ל‬, exile can also be likened to the situation of anyone in need of a redeemer, such as the destitute woman who needs redemption through marriage.” See also Dille, “Honor Restored,” 232: “Second Isaiah’s metaphor of God as the redeeming kinsman (go’el) is integral to [the] restoration of honor.” 97 Maier, Daughter Zion, 180–82. 98 Reading a feminine participle “forsaken” (‫ ;שֹׁ מֵ מָ ה‬cf. 1QIsaa: ‫שׁוממה‬, the Peshitta, and the Vulgate and in accordance with Isa 54:1) for the MT’s noun “forsakenness” (‫;שׁמָ מָ ה‬ ְ cf. LXX: ἔρημος); see also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 232–33; Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 553.

408

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

ried” (‫ )בְּ עוּלָה‬to illustrate YHWH’s renewed concern for her fate.99 The etiological explanation in the final line of v. 4 further highlights the new and valuable status of Zion in the eyes of YHWH: “for YHWH delights [‫ ]חָ ֵפץ‬in you [ ָ‫ ]בּ‬and your land shall be married [‫]תּבָּ ﬠֵל‬.” ִ The motifs of delight and marriage are paralleled by the names in 62:12 according to which Zion shall be called “Sought Out” (‫)דרוּשָׁ ה‬ ְ and “A City Not Forsaken” (‫)ﬠִ יר ל ֹא ֶנ ֱﬠזָבָ ה‬. Isaiah 62:5 develops the wedding imagery in a surprising manner. In light of 50:1 and 54:5–6, one would expect YHWH to be the husband of Zion. But the text reads: “for as a young man marries [‫ ]יִ בְ ַﬠל‬a young woman, so shall your sons marry you [ ִ‫]יִ בְ ﬠָלוּ בָּ נָי‬.”100 The close and intimate bond which the marriage represents does not concern YHWH’s relation to Zion, but rather the inhabitants’ relation to their mother-city. They will marry her. It is likely that there is a wordplay on the double meaning of ‫ בניך‬in the sense of “builders” ( ִ‫ )בֹּ נַי‬and “sons” ( ִ‫ )בָּ נָי‬so that the image points to both the complete restoration and repopulation of the destroyed and empty city (cf. 49:17 above). Nevertheless, in the latter half of v. 5, YHWH reappears in the role of bridegroom: “as the bridegroom rejoices over the bride, so shall your God rejoice over you.” Returning to 54:6, YHWH will call Zion back like an inconsolable woman who has been forsaken or a young wife who has been cast off. Both similes point to the reestablishment of the broken relation between God and his city. In the first simile, “a wife forsaken” (‫)אשָּׁ ה ﬠֲזוּבָ ה‬ ִ corresponds to the former name of Zion in 62:4 (cf. 60:15); a wife “grieved in spirit” ( ַ‫ )ﬠֲצוּבַ ת רוּח‬points to a truly miserable state of suffering and hopelessness (cf. Prov 15:13). In the second simile, the verb ‫מאס‬, which designates the rejection of the wife of one’s youth, is a strong one. It is used about the people’s rejection of YHWH’s ordinances which leads to their abandonment from the land (Lev 26:43). Likewise, in 2 Kings, the people’s rejection of YHWH (“they des-

99

Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 376. Perhaps to avoid the unpleasant image of sons marrying their mother, a footnote in BHS proposes to read “your builder” ( ‫) ֹבּ ֵנ‬, an emendation which initially was suggested by Robert Lowth and was followed, for instance, by the translators of the NRSV; cf. the review in Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 233. This reading is inspired by Ps 147:2 (“the builder of Jerusalem is YHWH” [‫ )]בּוֹ ֵנה ְירוּשָׁ ַל ִם ְיהוָה‬and actually corresponds well with the latter half of v. 5 about YHWH’s rejoice over Zion. There is, however, no textual warrant in the ancient versions for such a reading. Although maintaining “your children,” Blenkinsopp’s own translation also attempts to escape the insensitive language by a dubious rendering of ‫ בעל‬with “to be united,” that is, “your children [will] be united with you.” See also the recent and careful review of 65:5 in Niskanen, “Text.” He considers the phrase to refer to the first of three stages in an ancient Jewish marriage – the procession – and offers the following translation: “For as a young man goes forth in a wedding procession to take up residence with his future bride, so shall your children come in a festive procession to dwell in you.” 100

7.4. Conclusion

409

pised [‫ ]וַיִּ ְמאֲסוּ‬his statutes,” 17:15) results in divine banishment: “YHWH rejected [‫ ]וַיִּ ְמאַ ס‬all the descendants of Israel; he punished them and gave them into the hand of plunderers, until he had banished them from his presence” (17:20). Also relevant is YHWH’s punishment of Jerusalem in 2 Kings 23:27: “I will reject [‫ ]וּמָ אַ ְס ִתּי‬this city that I have chosen” (cf. Jer 7:29; Ps 78:59, 67). Similar language shows up in the people’s final prayer in Lamentations: “Restore us […] unless you have utterly rejected us [‫]מָ אֹ ס ְמאַ ְסתָּ נוּ‬.” These parallels clearly suggest that YHWH’s rejection of Zion lies just below the surface of the employed metaphor in Isa 54:6. Nevertheless, in contrast to the uncertain future suggested in Lamentations, Isaiah’s vision of a bright and prosperous future is certain: YHWH will call his rejected wife back. He will choose Zion again and show her the greatest love, devotion, and compassion that one can imagine (54:7–8). 7.3.4. Summing up Isaiah 54:1–6 employs two central images for rendering the fate of Jerusalem. The city is portrayed as a barren mother who will suffer from public humiliation because of her infertility and as a deserted wife who will suffer from the shame of abandonment. Due to YHWH’s power to create and restore, however, the devastated city will rejoice because soon it will be full of inhabitants. The city will be restored and people will spread out and resettle the desolate cities of the land. Like a deserted wife, Jerusalem will be redeemed through marriage and YHWH will again protect the honor of his city.

7.4. Conclusion 7.4. Conclusion

Prophetic predictions of destruction and exile leading up to the great gap at the center of Isaiah came true. Jerusalem was defeated and left empty of people. References to ruins, desolate places, and devastated land bear witness to the fulfillment of divine judgment. The recurrent image of Jerusalem as a woman in the latter part of the book is a personification of this destroyed and empty city, and she desperately complains about her miserable destiny. Although there is no explicit account of the defeat of Jerusalem, the severe punishment of Lady Babylon in Isa 47 offers glimpses of what might have happened: a dramatic degradation from queen to slave girl, public humiliation, and banishment into silence and death. Two central images of women, which Isaiah shares with Lamentations, dominate the poetic portrayal of Jerusalem’s destiny. The city is portrayed as a forsaken wife and a childless mother. Common to both females is the socially weak and marginalized position they share without a protector. The deserted wife must suffer from the disgrace of divorce and the childless

410

Chapter 7: Abandonment and bereavement

mother from the shame of infertility. The removal of protectors illustrates YHWH’s abandonment of his city and the complete removal of its inhabitants. Zion was left lonely and exposed to public derision. Nevertheless, promises of restoration envision a sudden and astonishing reversal of fortune. The divine protector of Zion will remarry her and uncountable numbers of returnees will cover her naked body like jewels. She shall regain her lost status and bitter complaints shall be turned into songs of joy. The examined visions of the restored mother-city repeatedly invite double readings. Zion is desolate, both as an isolated and vulnerable woman and as a captured and destroyed capital. Builders or children return to her to restore her and her honor. The raising of walls mirrors the reappearance of protectors. The wasted places will become crowded with inhabitants and they will demand more space. They will expel foreigners from their regained territory and settle the desolate towns. The vision of restoration stresses the transforming power of YHWH. He is restorer and redeemer. He can miraculously open the barren womb of the childless woman. Through marriage and renewed protection, he can redeem the poor and forsaken woman from her dire state of social marginalization. His intimate concern for his city-wife is indisputable. He will never forget her and carries the plans for her glorious future upon the palms of his powerful hands.

Conclusion This monograph has focused on exile as a literary and theological theme in the book of Isaiah. Curiously, exile appears to be a central issue and yet there are considerably few explicit allusions to it. While this topic has been rather under-appreciated in past scholarship, I have attempted to shed light on it and its significance for our reading of Isaiah. Fundamental to my approach is the thesis that exile conceals itself as a “black hole” in the peculiar gap between Isa 39 and 40. Despite its apparent absence, this theme plays a vital role for the literary structure, poetry, and theology of the book. In Chapter 1, I approached the “hole” between Isa 39 and 40. An initial overview of how past readers have understood its function and purpose in the context of Isaiah as a whole led to the presentation of my own thesis that the literary break at the book’s center is not an accident and that this gap can be compared to a black hole in space. Two attempts were made to enter into this gap of vast nothingness. First, my reading of 5:11–17 revealed the close association of exile and death. Sheol is portrayed as an all-consumptive power – similar to the black hole between Isa 39 and 40 – that draws everything into a state of silence, darkness, and death. Second, my analysis of theological assertions showed that the full manifestation of YHWH’s furious judgment against his people is to be found within the black hole itself. This hidden event mirrors YHWH’s own hiding which as a metaphor for abandonment and punishment is closely related to his anger and silence. Nevertheless, several instances in Isa 40–66 suggest that a radical shift has taken place because YHWH himself looks back on the gap between Isa 39 and 40 as a period of judgment that has ended. A significant implication of comparing exile in Isaiah to a black hole in space is that like the latter, the former can only be studied by looking at its effects on the surroundings. In Chapters 2 and 3, I explored anticipations and reflections of exile and their impact on the literary structure of the prophetic book. In Chapter 2, I argued that the predictions of destruction and deportation in 6:1–13, 22:1–14, and 39:1–8 point forward to the empty space while the desperate lament in 63:7–64:11 looks back at it. In all four passages, there is a considerable emphasis on the totality of judgment. The devastation of Jerusalem and its temple is absolute and the enemy will remove the surviving

412

Conclusion

inhabitants to foreign places. Everything will be taken away until the capital is completely empty of life, wealth, and significance. In Chapter 3, I considered a handful of individual figures who experience exile and argued that they can be read as literary types representing the destiny of the people as a whole. The portraits of the prophet Isaiah (20:1–6), Shebna and Eliakim (22:15–25), and King Hezekiah (38:1–22) point forward to the deportation and humiliation of the defeated people of YHWH – events that occur inside the black hole – whereas the poem of the suffering servant (52:13–53:12) points back at these events. I showed that each of these literary characters is rich in their potential to express general existential experiences associated with the conditions of exile: social marginalization, public humiliation, and the vulnerability of living among foreigners. In Chapters 4–7, I explored different kinds of poetic imagery that are used in the book of Isaiah to convey the critical state of exile, including forced labor, imprisonment, worldwide scattering, spiritual disorientation, and abandonment. An important observation was that most of the passages that employ this kind of language regard the dire conditions to have ceased. Focus is rather on the proclamation of a reversal of fortune, and images of divine redemption, gathering, guidance, and restoration often eclipse those of past and present suffering. In Chapter 4, I analyzed texts that depict exile as slavery and captivity. Common to these images was the people’s need for divine redemption as subjects of a brutal regime, ill-treated slaves or prisoners in dark and claustrophobic dungeons. Nevertheless, the divine voice in 40:1–2, which is able to escape the gravity of the silent hole, proclaims the end of punishment. My analysis of a series of minor passages (14:1–4a; 42:6b–7, 22; 51:13b–14; 52:1–6) demonstrated the central role of a foreign abusive power. Political and spatial images come together in the portrait of a terrifying tyrant – the Babylonian king – who swallows the people (cf. Sheol in 5:14 and the black hole between Isa 39 and 40). YHWH is thought to be the only one who can liberate his people, either by paying ransom for them (43:1–4) or by bursting the gates of Babylon and creating a way out of darkness and confinement (43:14–21). In Chapter 5, I examined texts that depict exile as worldwide scattering and dispersion. The repeated proclamation of YHWH’s future gathering of his dispersed people presupposes that they have been scattered to the ends of the earth, whereas the desolate and forsaken Jerusalem is left as the empty center of a compass. My analysis of a series of passages (11:11–16; 27:7–13; 40:10–11; 43:5–7; 49:9b–12) observed the emphasis on complete banishment and division of the people to the four corners of the earth. The idea of universal scattering, however, is balanced by the vision of divine gathering and reunification of the one people in Jerusalem. I demonstrated the role of agri-

Conclusion

413

cultural and pastoral associations in the visions of YHWH as a farmer collecting the harvest and a shepherd gathering his dispersed flock. In Chapter 6, I studied texts that depict exile as spiritual blindness and disorientation. Scattered to the ends of the earth the people have lost their sense of direction and exile is described as a state of ignorance and confusion. My analysis of two key passages (42:18–25 and 48:1–8) revealed a depressing portrait of the exiled people. They are unable to see or comprehend YHWH’s actions in the world and fatally ascribe the occurrence of events to idols. Furthermore, the motif of going astray and away from God is a strong expression for the self-destructive obstinateness of the people, a motif that is balanced, however, by the vision of renewed divine guidance and the spiritual rebirth of the people (41:17–20). In Chapter 7, I explored texts that depict exile as abandonment and bereavement. The focal point is the city of Jerusalem which, destroyed and forsaken by its inhabitants, is portrayed as an abandoned and bereaved woman, vulnerable to public shame and humiliation. I demonstrated that the poetic description of the fall in Babylon of Isa 47 serves as a mirror for the destruction of Jerusalem which must take place in the black hole at the center of the book. My reading of two central passages (49:14–21 and 54:1–6) and a number of minor parallel texts showed that social issues such as shame, resulting from exposure and nakedness as a form of divine punishment, occur in the image of the destroyed and empty city. Nevertheless, Jerusalem shall regain its former honor and glory by the return of the exiles and by the restoration of a close bond between YHWH and his city. To summarize, I believe I have demonstrated that exile constitutes a significant theme in the book of Isaiah. The black hole between Isa 39 and 40 forms an anti-climax – a center of destruction, darkness, and death – in the overall literary structure of the composition and several passages stress its importance by either pointing forward to it or looking back at it. The theme shapes the poetic imagery of the book insofar as many of the marvelous visions of restoration presuppose a critical state of exile (e.g. political subjugation, imprisonment, geographical dispersion, cognitive disorientation, and social marginalization) that the people need to be redeemed and restored from. Finally, exile constitutes a central element in the theological message of Isaiah and the concern for the fate of Zion. In contrast to the explicit and extensive emphasis on YHWH’s protection of Zion and its future glorification, exile represents an anti-type – a destroyed and forsaken Jerusalem – and is present exactly as a negation of life, vision, and hope as the blank space between Isa 39 and 40 indicates. Drawing from these insights, I would like to make two proposals for the future study of Isaiah. First, rather than following the flow of the prophetic book, my own study has approached the textual material by grouping it according to literary genres and poetic images. I chose this procedure in order

414

Conclusion

to better detect and examine language of exile in Isaiah and to compare it to that of other biblical books. The next step is now to conduct a reading of the book from beginning to end, thereby exploring how the theme of exile develops through all of its sixty-six chapters. A particular concern of such a reading could be the complex interplay between Zion and exile focusing on the distinctive tension throughout the overall narrative of the book resulting from the two being viewed as literary counterparts. Another concern could be to understand the diachronic development of the theme of exile and to approach its location and function in the formation of Isaiah from the view of redaction criticism. Second, I propose a new investigation of the theology of Isaiah that deals with the theological testimonies of the prophetic book as a whole. My own study has highlighted YHWH’s ambiguous way of acting insofar as he is responsible both for the exile of his people and for the cease of this state. The complexity of this assertion is indeed theological: YHWH punishes by hiding and saves by revealing himself and he destroys and creates anew (Isa 45:6–7, 15). He hardened his people and forced them into a critical state of alienation. He gave them into the hands of enemies and removed his protective shield. He forced his people away, scattered them to the ends of the earth, and made them go astray. Nevertheless, according to Isaiah, one can only look to YHWH for proper help. He alone has power to redeem prisoners, gather the dispersed ones, guide the blind, and restore those who suffer from fear and public humiliation.

Bibliography Abernethy, Andrew T. Eating in Isaiah: Approaching the Role of Food and Drink in Isaiah’s Structure and Message. Biblical Interpretation Series 131. Leiden: Brill, 2014. Ackroyd, Peter R. Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century BC. London: SCM, 1968. –. “An Interpretation of the Babylonian Exile: A Study of II Kings 20 and Isaiah 38–39.” Scottish Journal of Theology 27 (1974): 329–52. Reprinted in Ackroyd, Studies, 152– 71. –. Studies in the Religious Tradition of the Old Testament. London: SCM, 1987. Aejmelaeus, Anneli. “Der Prophet als Klageliedsänger. Zur Funktion des Psalms Jes 63,7– 64,11 in Tritojesaja.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 107 (1995): 31– 50. Ahn, John J. Exile as Forced Migrations: A Sociological, Literary, and Theological Approach on the Displacement and Resettlement of the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 417. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011. –. “Exile.” Pages 196–204 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Ahn, John J., and Jill Middlemas, eds. By the Irrigation Canals of Babylon: Approaches to the Study of the Exile. Library of Hebrew/Old Testament Studies 526. London: T & T Clark, 2012. Albertz, Rainer. Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Translated by D. Green. Society of Biblical Literature Studies in Biblical Literature 3. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003. Allis, O. T. The Unity of Isaiah. London: Tyndale Press, 1950. Baldauf, Borghild. “Jes 42,18–25: Gottes tauber und blinder Knecht.” Pages 13–36 in Ein Gott – Eine Offenbarung. Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese, Theologie und Spiritualität. Festschrift für Notker Füglister OSB zum 60. Geburtstag. Edited by F. V. Reiterer. Würzburg: Echter, 1991. Balentine, Samuel E. The Hidden God: The Hiding of the Face of God in the Old Testament. Oxford Theological Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. –. “Isaiah 45: God’s ‘I am,’ Israel’s ‘You are.’” Horizons in Biblical Theology 16 (1994): 103–20. –. “The Prose and Poetry of Exile.” Pages 345–63 in Interpreting Exile: Displacement and Deportation in Biblical and Modern Contexts. Edited by B. E. Kelle, F. R. Ames, and J. L. Wright. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 10. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011. Balogh, Csaba. The Stele of YHWH in Egypt: The Prophecies of Isaiah 18–20 concerning Egypt and Kush. Oudtestamentische Studiën 60. Leiden: Brill, 2011.

416

Bibliography

Baltzer, Klaus. “Liberation from Debt Slavery after the Exile in Second Isaiah and Nehemiah.” Pages 477–84 in Ancient Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross. Edited by P. D. Miller, P. D. Hanson, and S. D. McBride. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987. –. Deutero-Jesaja. Kommentar zum Alten Testament X/2. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1999. Barré, Michael L. “ʼṛṣ (h)ḥyym – ‘The Land of the Living’?” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 41 (1988): 37–59. –. The Lord Saved Me: A Study of the Psalm of Hezekiah (Isaiah 38:9–20). Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 39. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 2005. Barrett, Rob. “Idols, Idolatry, Gods.” Pages 351–55 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Barstad, Hans M. A Way in the Wilderness: The ‘Second Exodus’ in the Message of Second Isaiah. Journal of Semitic Studies Monograph 12. Manchester: University of Manchester, 1989. –. The Myth of the Empty Land: A Study in the History and Archaeology of Judah During the “Exilic” Period. Symbolae Osloenses 28. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1996. –. The Babylonian Captivity of the Book of Isaiah: “Exilic” Judah and the Provenance of Isaiah 40–55. Oslo: Novus forlag, 1997. Batchelder, Caroline. “Undoing ‘this people,’ becoming ‘my servant:’ Purpose and Commission in Isaiah 6.” Southeastern Theological Review 4 (2013): 155–78. Becker, Uwe. Jesaja – von der Botschaft zum Buch. Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments 178. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997. Becking, Bob. “In Babylon: The Exile as Historical (Re)Construction.” Pages 4–33 in From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition. Edited by B. Becking, A. Cannegieter, W. van de Poll, and A.-M. Wetter. London: Equinox, 2009. Becking, Bob, Alex Cannegieter, Wilfred van der Poll, and Anne-Mareike Wetter. From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition. London: Equinox, 2009. Becking, Bob et al. “Exile.” Pages in Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception. Volume 8. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014. Beentjes, Pancratius C. “Relations between Ben Sira and the Book of Isaiah: Some Methodological Observations.” Pages 155–59 in The Book of Isaiah. Le Livre d’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de l’Ouvrage. Edited by J. Vermeylen. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 1989. Begg, Christopher T. “2 Kings 20:12–19 as an Element of the Deuteronomistic History.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 48 (1986): 27–38. –. “The Reading at 2 Kings xx 13.” Vetus Testamentum 36 (1986): 339–41. –. “Babylon in the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 121–25 in The Book of Isaiah. Le Livre d’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de l’Ouvrage. Edited by J. Vermeylen. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 1989.

Bibliography

417

Begrich, Joachim. Der Psalm des Hiskia: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis von Jesaja 38:10– 20. Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments 42. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1926. Ben Zvi, Ehud. “Isaiah, a Memorable Prophet: Why was Isaiah so Memorable in the Late Persian/Early Hellenistic Periods? Some Observations.” Pages 365–83 in Remembering Biblical Figures in the Late Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods: Social Memory and Imagination. Edited by D. V. Edelman and E. Ben Zvi. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Ben Zvi, Ehud, and Christoph Levin, eds. The Concept of the Exile in Ancient Israel and Its Historical Context. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 404. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Berges, Ulrich. Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition und Endgestalt. Herders Biblische Studien 16. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1998. –. “Personifications and Prophetic Voices of Zion in Isaiah and Beyond.” Pages 54–82 in The Elusive Prophet: The Prophet as a Historical Person, Literary Character and Anonymous Artist. Edited by J. C. de Moor. Oudtestamentische Studiën 45. Leiden: Brill, 2001. –. Klagelieder. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2002. –. Jesaja 40–48. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2008. –. “The Literary Construction of the Servant in Isaiah 40–55: A Discussion about Individual and Collective Identities.” Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 24 (2010): 28–38. –. Jesaja: Der Prophet und das Buch. Biblische Gestalten 22. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2014. –. Jesaja 49–54. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2015. –. “The Individualization of Exile in Trito-Isaiah: Some Reflections on Isaiah 55 and 58.” Pages 63–78 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and C. Power. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Berges, Ulrich, and Willem A. M. Beuken. Das Buch Jesaja: Eine Einführung. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2016. Berlin, Adele: Lamentations. Old Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002. Beuken, Willem A. M. “Jesaja 33 als Spiegeltext im Jesajabuch.” Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 67 (1991): 5–55. –. Isaiah 28–39. Translated by B. Doyle. Historical Commentary on the Old Testament. Leuven: Peeters, 2000. –. Jesaja 1–12. Translated by U. Berges. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2003. –. “The Manifestation of Yahweh and the Commission of Isaiah: Isaiah 6 Read against the Background of Isaiah 1.” Calvin Theological Journal 39 (2004): 72–87. –. Jesaja 13–27. Translated by U. Berges and A. Spans. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2007. Bewer, Julius A. “Jonah.” Pages 1–65 in A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and Jonah. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1912.

418

Bibliography

Biddle, Mark E. “The Figure of Lady Jerusalem: Identification, Deification and Personification of cities in the Ancient Near East.” Pages 173–94 in The Biblical Canon in Comparative Perspective: Scripture in Context IV. Edited by K. Lawson Younger, Jr., W. W. Hallo, and B. F. Batto. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1991. –. “Lady Zion’s Alter Egos: Isaiah 47.1-15 and 57.6-13 as Structural Counterparts.” Pages 124–39 in New Visions of Isaiah. Edited by R. F. Melugin and M. A. Sweeney. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 214. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996. Bleeker, L. H. K. “Jojachin, der Ebed-Jahwe.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 40 (1922): 156. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 1–39. Anchor Bible 19. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. –. Isaiah 40–55. Anchor Bible 19A. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. –. Isaiah 56–66. Anchor Bible 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. –. “Hezekiah and the Babylonian Delegation: A Critical Reading of Isaiah 39:1–8.” Pages 107–22 in Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na’aman. Edited by Y. Amit, E. Ben Zvi, I. Finkelstein, and O. Lipschits. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2006. Boda, Mark J. “Scat! Exilic Motifs in the Book of Zechariah.” Pages 161–80 in The Prophets Speak on Forced Migration. Edited by M. J. Boda, F. R. Ames, J. Ahn, and M. Leuchter. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 21. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015. Boda, Mark J., Frank Ritchel Ames, John Ahn, and Mark Leuchter, eds. The Prophets Speak on Forced Migration. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 21. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015. Borocin-Knol, S. “Zion as an ‘Agunah? An Interpretation of Isaiah 49:14; 50:1 and 54:6– 8.” Pages 191–206 in “Enlarge the Site of Your Tent:” The City as Unifying Theme in Isaiah. Edited by A. L. H. M. van Wieringen, and A. van der Woude. Oudtestamentische Studiën 58. Leiden: Brill, 2011. Bosman, Hendrik. “Myth, Metaphor or Memory? The Allusions to Creation and Exodus in Isaiah 51:9-11 as a Theological Response to Suffering during the Exile.” Pages 71–81 in Exile and Suffering: A Selection of Papers Read at the 50th Anniversary Meeting of the Old Testament Society of South Africa. OT-WSA/OTSSA, Pretoria August 2007. Edited by B. Becking and D. Human. Oudtestamentische Studiën 50. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Bosman, Hendrik Jan, and Harm W. M. van Grol. “Annotated Translation of Isaiah 24– 27.” Pages 3–12 in Studies in Isaiah 24–27: The Isaiah Workshop – De Jesaja Werkplaats. Edited by H. J. Bosman, H. van Grol et al. Oudtestamentische Studiën 43. Leiden: Brill, 2000: 3–12. Bosshard-Nepustil, Erich. Rezeptionen von Jesaja 1–39 im Zwölfprophetenbuch: Untersuchungen zur literarischen Verbindung von Prophetenbüchern in babylonischer und persischer Zeit. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 154. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997. Brandscheidt, Renate. “Die Verborgenheit Gottes und die Frohbotschaft von der Retteroffenbarung Jahwes (Jesaja 45,14–17).” Trierer Theologische Zeitschrift 117 (2008): 1– 14. Brown, Michael L. “Jewish Interpretations of Isaiah 53.” Pages 61–83 in The Gospel According to Isaiah 53: Encountering the Suffering Servant in Jewish and Christian Theology. Edited by D. L. Bock and M. Glaser. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2012. Brownlee, William Hugh. The Meaning of the Qumrân Scrolls for the Bible with Special Attention to the Book of Isaiah. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.

Bibliography

419

Brueggemann, Walter. Isaiah 40–66. Westminster Bible Companion. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998. Buhl, Frants. Jesaja. Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel and Nordisk Forlag, 1912. Bürki, Micaël. “City of Pride, City of Glory: The Opposition of Two Cities in Isaiah 24– 27.” Pages 49–60 in Formation and Intertextuality in Isaiah 24–27. Edited by J. T. Hibbard and H. C. P. Kim. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 17. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013. Burnett, Joel S. Where is God? Divine Absence in the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010. Byron, John. “Cain and Abel in Second Temple Literature and Beyond.” Pages 331–51 in The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation. Edited by C. A. Evans, J. N. Lohr, and D. L. Petersen. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 152. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Calvin, John. Commentary on Isaiah. Volume 3. Translated by W. Pringle. Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 2005. Campbell, Stephen. “The Placement of the Sixth Chapter of Isaiah and its Significance.” Doon Theological Journal 12 (2015): 91–102. Carroll, Robert P. Jeremiah: A Commentary. Old Testament Library. London: SCM, 1986. –. “The Myth of the Empty Land.” Semeia 59 (1992): 79–93. –. “Blindsight and the Vision Thing: Blindness and Insight in the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 79–93 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Volume 1. Edited by C. C. Broyles and C. A. Evans. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 70/1. Leiden: Brill, 1997. –. “Deportation and Diasporic Discourses in the Prophetic Literature.” Pages 63–85 in Exile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Conceptions. Edited by J. M. Scott. Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism 56. Leiden: Brill, 1997. –. “Exile! What Exile? Deportation and the Discourses of Diaspora.” Pages 62–79 in Leading Captivity Captive: ‘The Exile’ as History and Ideology. Edited by L. L. Grabbe. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 278. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998. Cassuto, U. A Commentary on the Book of Genesis. Part I. From Adam to Noah. Genesis I–VI 8. Translated by I. Abrahams. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1961. Childs, Brevard S. Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis. Studies in Biblical Theology 2/3. London: SCM, 1967. –. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979. –. Isaiah. Old Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Clements, Ronald E. Isaiah 1–39. New Century Bible Commentary. London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1980. –. “Beyond Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaiah’s Development of First Isaiah’s Themes.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 31 (1985): 95–113. Clifford, Richard J. “The Use of ‘Hôy’ in the Prophets.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 28 (1966): 458–64. Clines, David J. A. I, He, We & They: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 53. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 1. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1976. Coats, George W. Genesis with an Introduction to Narrative Literature. The Forms of the Old Testament Literature 1. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. Coetzee, Johan H. “‘The Song of Hezekiah’ (Isaiah 38:9-20): A Doxology of Judgement from the Exilic Period.” Old Testament Essays 2 (1989): 13–26.

420

Bibliography

–. “Review of Michael L. Barré: The Lord Saved Me: A Study of the Psalm of Hezekiah (Isaiah 38:9–20) (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 2005).” Biblica 89 (2008): 123–25. Cole, Robert L. “Isaiah 6 in Its Context.” Southeastern Theological Review 2 (2011): 161– 80. Cook, Paul M. A Sign and a Wonder: The Redactional Formation of Isaiah 18–20. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 147. Leiden: Brill, 2011. Croatto, J. Severino. “The “Nations” in the Salvific Oracles of Isaiah.” Vetus Testamentum 55 (2005): 143–61. Cuéllar, Gregory Lee. Voices of Marginality: Exile and Return in Second Isaiah 40–55 and the Mexican Immigrant Experience. American University Studies. New York: Lang, 2008. Dahood, Mitchell: “The Value of Ugaritic for Textual Criticism.” Biblica 40 (1959): 160– 70. –. “‫‘ חֶ דֶ ל‬Cessation’ in Isaiah 38,11.” Biblica 52 (1971): 215–16. Daiches, Samuel. “An Explanation of Isaiah 27.8.” The Jewish Quarterly Review 6 (1916): 399–404. Darr, Katheryn P. “Like Warrior, Like Woman: Destruction and Deliverance in Isaiah 42:10–17.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 49 (1987): 560–70. –. Isaiah’s Vision and the Family of God. Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994. Daube, David. Studies in Biblical Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947. Davidson, Robert. Genesis 1–11. Cambridge Bible Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Day, John. God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of a Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. de Boer, P. A. H. “Notes on the Text and Meaning of Isaiah xxxviii 9–20.” Pages 170–86 in Notes on Hebrew Grammar and Etymology. Edited by G. J. Thierry. Oudtestamentische Studiën 9. Leiden: Brill, 1951. Delitzsch, Franz. Biblischer Commentar über den Propheten Jesaia. Leipzig: Dörffling und Franke, 1879. Dempsey, Carol J. “Words of Woe, Visions of Grandeur: A Literary and Hermeneutical Study of Isaiah 24–27.” Pages 209–25 in Formation and Intertextuality in Isaiah 24–27. Edited by J. T. Hibbard and H. C. P. Kim. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 17. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013. Dille, Sarah J. “Honor Restored: Honor, Shame and God as Redeeming Kinsman in Second Isaiah.” Pages 232–50 in Relating to the Text: Interdisciplinary and Form-Critical Insights on the Bible. Edited by T. J. Sandoval and C. Mandolfo. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 384. London: T & T Clark, 2003. –. Mixing Metaphors: God as Mother and Father in Deutero-Isaiah. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 398. London: T & T Clark, 2004. –. “Women and Female Imagery.” Pages 847–60 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W. Weep, O Daughter of Zion: A Study of the City-Lament Genre in the Hebrew Bible. Biblica et Orientalia 44. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1993. Downs, David J. “The Specter of Exile in the Story of Jonah.” Horizons in Biblical Theology 31 (2009): 27–44.

Bibliography

421

Doyle, Brian. The Apocalypse of Isaiah Metaphorically Speaking: A Study of the Use, Function and Significance of Metaphors in Isaiah 24–27. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 151. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 2000. Driver, G. R. “Some Hebrew Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns.” Journal of Theological Studies 30 (1929): 371–78. –. “Linguistic and Textual Problems: Isaiah I–XXXIX.” Journal of Theological Studies 38 (1937): 36–50. Driver, S. R., and Ad Neubauer, eds. The Fifty-Third Chapter of Isaiah According to the Jewish Interpreters. I. Texts, II. Translations. Library of Biblical Studies. New York: Ktav, 1969. Duhm, Bernhard. Das Buch Jesaia. 5th edition. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968. Eggleston, Chad L. “Wilderness, Desert.” Pages 843–47 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Elliger, Karl. Deuterojesaja. 1. Teilband: Jesaja 40,1–45,7. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament XI/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978. Emerton, J. A. “The Textual Problems of Isaiah V 14.” Vetus Testamentum 17 (1967): 135–42. –. “The Translation and Interpretation of Isaiah vi. 13.” Pages 85–118 in Interpreting the Hebrew Bible: Essays in Honour of E. I. J. Rosenthal. Edited by J. A. Emerton and S. C. Reif. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Engnell, Ivan. The Call of Isaiah: An Exegetical and Comparative Study. Uppsala Universitets Årsskrift 1949:4. Uppsala: A.-B. Lundequistska Bokhandeln, 1949. Eusebius of Caesarea. Commentary on Isaiah. Translated by J. J. Armstrong. Ancient Christian Texts. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2013. Evans, Craig A. “On the Unity and Parallel Structure of Isaiah.” Vetus Testamentum 38 (1988): 129–47. Fabry, Heinz-Josef and Ronald E. Clements: “‫ מָ ִים‬māyim.” Pages 265–88 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume VIII. Edited by G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry. Translated by J. T. Willis and D. E. Green. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. Fey, Reinhard. Amos und Jesaja: Abhängigkeit und Eigenständigkeit des Jesaja. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 12. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1963. Fichtner, J. “Isaiah among the Wise.” Pages 429–38 in Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom. Edited by J. L. Crenshaw. New York: Ktav, 1976. Fischer, Georg. Jeremia 1–25. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2005. –. Jeremia 26–52. Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2005. Fohrer, Georg. “Die Gattung der Berichte über symbolische Handlungen der Propheten.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 64 (1952): 101–20. –. Die symbolischen Handlungen der Propheten. Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments 25. Zürich: Zwingli, 1953. –. Das Buch Jesaja. 3. Band, Kapitel 40–66. Züricher Bibelkommentare. Zürich: Zwingli, 1964.

422

Bibliography

Franke, Chris A. “The Function of the Satiric Lament over Babylon in Second Isaiah (XLVII).” Vetus Testamentum 41 (1991): 408–18. –. “Reversals of Fortune in the Ancient Near East: A Study of the Babylon Oracles in the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 104–23 in New Visions of Isaiah. Edited by R. F. Melugin and M. A. Sweeney. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 214. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996. Franzmann, Majella. “The City as Woman: The Case of Babylon in Isaiah 47.” Australian Biblical Review 43 (1995): 1–19. Fretheim, Terrence E. “Theological Reflections on the Wrath of God in the Old Testament.” Horizons in Biblical Theology 24 (2002): 1–26. –. “‘I Was Only a Little Angry’: Divine Violence in the Prophets.” Interpretation 58 (2004): 365–75. Friebel, Kelvin G. Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s Sign Acts: Rhetorical Nonverbal Communication. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplements 283. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999. –. “Sign Acts.” Pages 707–13 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Fullerton, Kemper. “A New Chapter out of the Life of Isaiah.” American Journal of Theology 9 (1905): 621–42. –. “Shebna and Eliakim: A Reply.” American Journal of Theology 11 (1907): 503–9. Ganzel, Tova. “Isaiah’s Critique of Shebna’s Trespass: A Reconsideration of Isaiah 22.15– 25.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 39 (2015): 469–87. Gerstenberger, Erhard. “The Woe-Oracles of the Prophets.” Journal of Biblical Literature 81 (1962): 249–63. Gertz, Jan Christian. “Military Threat and the Concept of Exile in the Book of Amos.” Pages 11–26 in The Concept of the Exile in Ancient Israel and Its Historical Context. Edited by E. Ben Zvi and Chr. Levin. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 404. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Gesenius, Wilhelm, and Frants Buhl. Hebräisches und aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament. Berlin: Springer, 1962. Gile, Jason. “Deuteronomy and Ezekiel’s Theology of Exile.” Pages 287–306 in From Our Good Always: Studies on the Message and Influence of Deuteronomy in Honor of Daniel I. Block. Edited by J. S. DeRouchie, J. Gile, and K. J. Turner. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013. Ginsberg, H. L. “Some Emendations in Isaiah.” Journal of Biblical Literature 69 (1950): 51–60. Goldenstein, Johannes. Das Gebet der Gottesknechte. Jesaja 63,7–64,11 im Jesajabuch. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 92. NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2001. Goldingay, John. “Isaiah 42:18–25.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 67 (1995): 43–65. –. The Message of Isaiah 40–55: A Literary-Theological Commentary. London: T & T Clark, 2005. –. Isaiah 55–56. International Critical Commentary. London: T & T Clark, 2014. –. The Theology of the Book of Isaiah. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014. Goldingay, John, and David Payne. Isaiah 40–55. Volumes I-II. International Critical Commentary. London: T & T Clark, 2005. Gordon, Robert P. Holy Land, Holy City: Sacred Geography and the Interpretation of the Bible. Exeter: Paternoster, 2004.

Bibliography

423

Goswell, Greg. “The Literary Logic and Meaning of Isaiah 38.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 39 (2014): 165–86. Goulder, Michael. “‘Behold My Servant Jehoiachin’.” Vetus Testamentum 52 (2002): 175– 90. Grabbe, Lester L., ed. Leading Captivity Captive: “The Exile” as History and Ideology. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 278. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998. Greenberg, Moshe. Ezekiel 1–20. Anchor Bible 22. New York: Doubleday, 1983. Gregory, Bradley C. “The Postexilic Exile in Third Isaiah: Isaiah 61:1-3 in Light of Second Temple Hermeneutics.” Journal for Biblical Literature 126 (2007): 475–96. Grimm, Werner, and Kurt Dittert. Deuterojesaja: Deutung – Wirkung – Gegenwart. Calwer Bibelkommentare. Stuttgart: Calwer, 1990. Gudme, Anne Katrine de Hemmer. “Barnemorderen Manasse. Kong Manasse af Juda i Kongebøgerne og i Krønikebøgerne – og i virkeligheden.” Pages 75–87 in Bibelske genskrivninger. Edited by J. Høgenhaven and M. Müller. Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 17. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums Forlag, 2012. Gudme, Anne Katrine de Hemmer, and Ingrid Hjelm, eds. Myths of Exile: History and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible. Copenhagen International Seminar. London: Routledge, 2015. Haag, Ernst. “Der Weg zum Baum des Lebens: Ein Paradiesmotiv im Buch Jesaja.” Pages 35–52 in Künder des Wortes: Beiträge zur Theologie der Propheten. Josef Schreiner zum 60. Geburtstag. Edited by L. Ruppert, P. Weimar, and E. Zenger. Würzburg: Echter, 1982. Haag, Herbert. Der Gottesknecht bei Deuterojesaja. Erträge der Forschung 233. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985. Habel, N. “The Form and Significance of the Call Narratives.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 77 (1965): 297–323. Hadjiev, Tchavdar S. “Honor and Shame.” Pages 333–38 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Hägglund, Fredrik. Isaiah 53 in the Light of Homecoming after Exile. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II/31. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. Halvorson-Taylor, Martien A. Enduring Exile: The Metaphorization of Exile in the Hebrew Bible. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 141. Leiden: Brill, 2011. –. “Displacement and Diaspora in Biblical Narrative.” Pages 498–508 in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Narrative. Edited by D. N. Fewell. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology. Revised edition. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979. Hardmeier, Christof. “Geschichtsblindheit und politischer Opportunismus in Jes 22,1–14: ‘Laast uns essen und trinken, denn morgen sind wir tot.’ (Jes 22,13).” Pages 374–95 in Essen und Trinken in der Bibel: Ein literarisches Festmahl für Rainer Kessler zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by M. Geiger, C. M. Maier, and U. Schmidt. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2009. Hartenstein, Friedhelm. Die Unzugänglichkeit Gottes im Heiligtum: Jesaja 6 und der Wohnort JHWHs in der Jerusalemer Kulttradition. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 75. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1997. –. “… ‘dass erfüllt ist ihr Frondienst’ (Jes 40,2). Die Geschichtshermeneutik Deuterojesajas im Licht der Rezeption von Jesaja 6 in Jesaja 40,1–11*.” Pages 101–19 in ‘Sieben

424

Bibliography

Augen auf einem Stein’ (Sach 3,9): Studien zur Literatur des Zweiten Temple. Festschrift für Ina Willi-Plein zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by F. Hartenstein and M. Pietsch. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1997. Hasel, Gerhard F. The Remnant: The History and Theology of the Remnant Idea from Genesis to Isaiah. Andrew University Monographs. Studies in Religion 5. Berrien Springs: Andrew University Press, 1974. Hays, Christopher B. Death in the Iron Age II and in First Isaiah. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 79. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011. Head, Peter M. “The Curse of Covenant Reversal: Deuteronomy 28:58–68 and Israel’s Exile.” Churchman 111 (1997): 218–26. Hibbard, J. Todd. “Isaiah xxvii 27 and Intertextual Discourse About ‘Striking’ in the Book of Isaiah.” Vetus Testamentum 55 (2005): 461–76. –. Intertextuality in Isaiah 24–27: The Reuse and Evocation of Earlier Texts and Traditions. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II/16. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006. Hoffer, Vicki. “An Exegesis of Isaiah 38.21.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 56 (1992): 69–84. Holladay, William L. Jeremiah 1. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986. –. Jeremiah 2. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989. Hrobon, Bohdan. Ethical Dimension of Cult in the Book of Isaiah. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 418. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Høgenhaven, Jesper. Gott und Volk bei Jesaja: Eine Untersuchung zur biblischen Theologie. Acta Theologica Danica 24. Leiden: Brill, 1998. –. “Hvem lider tjeneren for?” Pages 18–32 in Lidelsens former og figurer. Edited by B. Ejrnæs and L. Fatum. Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 12. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums Forlag, 2002. –. “‘All who make idols are nothing’: Polemics against idolatry in Second Isaiah.” Pages 214–32 in Historie og konstruktion: Festskrift til Niels Peter Lemche. Edited by M. Müller and T. L. Thompson. Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 14. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2005. –. “Livets måltid – dødens gab: Spisemetaforik i Esajas’ Bog.” Pages 54–80 in Mad og drikke i bibelsk litteratur. Edited by F. Damgaard and A. K. d. H. Gudme. Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 19. Copenhagen: Det Teologiske Fakultet og Forlaget Anis, 2015. Høgenhaven, Jesper, Frederik Poulsen, and Cian Power, eds. Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Janssen, Ernst. Juda in der Exilzeit. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Entstehung des Judentums. Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments 69. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1956. Jenner, Konrad D. “The Big Shofar (Isaiah 27:13): A Hapax Legomenon to be Understood Merely as a Metaphor or as a Crux interpretum for the Interpretation of Eschatological Expectation?” Pages 157–82 in Studies in Isaiah 24–27: The Isaiah Workshop – De Jesaja Werkplaats. Edited by H. J. Bosman, H. van Grol et al. Oudtestamentische Studiën 43. Leiden: Brill, 2000. Jenni, Ernst. Die politischen Voraussagen der Propheten. Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments 29. Zürich: Zwingli, 1956. Jensen, Joseph. The Use of tôrâ by Isaiah: His Debate with the Wisdom Tradition. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 3. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1973.

Bibliography

425

Jenson, Philip Peter. Obadiah, Jonah, Micah: A Theological Commentary. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 496. New York: T & T Clark, 2008. Jeremias, Christian. “Zu Jes. xxxviii 21 f.” Vetus Testamentum 21 (1971): 104–111. Johnson, Dan G. From Chaos to Restoration: An Integrative Reading of Isaiah 24–27. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 61. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988. Johnston, Philip S. Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press; Nottingham: Apollos, 2002. Jong, Matthijs J. de. Isaiah among the Ancient Near Eastern Prophets: A Comparative Study of the Earliest Stages of the Isaiah Tradition and the Neo-Assyrian Prophecies. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 117. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Joyce, Paul. Ezekiel: A Commentary. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 482. New York: T & T Clark, 2007. Kaiser, Otto. Der Prophet Jesaja: Kapitel 13–39. Das Alte Testament Deutsch 18. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973. –. Das Buch des Propheten Jesaja: Kapitel 1–12. Das Alte Testament Deutsch 17. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981. Kapelrud, Arvid S. “The Identity of the Suffering Servant.” Pages 307–14 in Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William Foxwell Albright. Edited by H. Goedicke. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971. Kasher, Rimon. “The Sitz im Buch of the Story of Hezekiah’s Illness and Cure (II Reg 20,1–11; Isa 38,1–22).” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 113 (2001): 41–55. Kelle, Brad E. “An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Exile.” Pages 5–38 in Interpreting Exile: Displacement and Deportation in Biblical and Modern Contexts. Edited by B. E. Kelle, F. R. Ames, and J. L. Wright. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 10. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011. Kelle, Brad E., Frank R. Ames, and Jacob L. Wright, eds. Interpreting Exile: Displacement and Deportation in Biblical and Modern Contexts. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 10. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011. Kennedy, James M. “Yahweh’s Strongman? The Characterization of Hezekiah in the Book of Isaiah.” Perspectives in Religious Studies 31 (2004): 383–97. Keown, Gerald L., Pamela J. Scalise, and Thomas G. Smothers. Jeremiah 26–52. Word Biblical Commentary 27. Dallas: Word, 1995. Kessler, John: “Images of Exile: Representations of the ‘Exile’ and ‘Empty Land’ in Sixth to Fourth Century Yehudite Literature.” Pages 309–51 in The Concept of the Exile in Ancient Israel and Its Historical Context. Edited by E. Ben Zvi and Chr. Levin. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 404. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Kiefer, Jörn. Exil und Diaspora: Begrifflichkeit und Deutungen im antiken Judentum und in der hebräischen Bibel. Arbeiten zur Bibel und ihrer Geschichte 19. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2005. Kim, Hyun Chul Paul. “Little Highs, Little Lows: Tracing Key Themes in Isaiah.” Pages 133–58 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah. Edited by R. J. Bautch and J. T. Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. –. “Isaiah 22: A Crux or a Clue in Isaiah 13–23?” Pages 3–18 in Concerning the Nations: Essays on the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Edited by E. K. Holt, H. C. P. Kim, and A. Mein. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 612. New York: Bloomsbury, 2015.

426

Bibliography

–. “Metaphor, Memory, and Reality of the ‘Exile’ in Deutero-Isaiah.” Pages 45–61 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and C. Power. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Klein, Anja. “‘Zieht heraus aus Babel:’ Beobachtungen zum Zweiten Exodus im Deuterojesajabuch.” Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 112 (2015): 279–99. –. “Uncovering the Nymphomaniac: The Verb ‫ גלה‬and Exile as Sexual Violence in Ezek 16 and 23.” Pages 167–86 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and C. Power. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Klein, Ralph W. Israel in Exile: A Theological Interpretation. Overtures to Biblical Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979. Knibb, Michael A. “The Exile in the Literature of the Intertestamental Period.” Heythrop Journal 17 (1976): 253–72. –. “Isaianic Traditions in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.” Pages 633–50 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Volume 2. Edited by C. C. Broyles and C. A. Evans. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 70/2. Leiden: Brill, 1997. Knight, George A. F. Deutero-Isaiah: A Theological Commentary on Isaiah 40–55. Nashville: Abingdon, 1965. Koenen, Klaus. “Zum Text von Jes 63,18.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 100 (1988): 406–9. Konkel, August H. “The Sources of the Story of Hezekiah in the Book of Isaiah.” Vetus Testamentum 43 (1993): 462–82. Korpel, Marjo C. A. “Structural Analysis as a Tool for Redaction Criticism: The Example of Isaiah 5 and 10:1–6.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 69 (1996): 53–71. Kostamo, Sonya K. “Mind the Gap: Reading Isa 39:8–40:1 within Early Second Temple Judah.” Pages 215–28 in History, Memory, Hebrew Scriptures: A Festschrift for Ehud Ben Zvi. Edited by I. D. Wilson and D. V. Edelman. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015. Kraus, Hans-Joachim. Psalmen. 1. Teilband. Psalmen 1–59. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament XV/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978. Kronholm, Tryggve: “‫ נָדַ ח‬nāḏaḥ; ‫ מַ דּוּחִ ים‬maddûḥîm.” Pages 235–41 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume IX. Edited by G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry. Translated by D. E. Green. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998: 235–41. Kustár, Zoltán. “Durch seine Wunden sind wir geheilt”: Eine Untersuchung zur Metaphorik Israels Krankheit und Heilung im Jesajabuch. Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen) Testament 154. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2002. Laato, Antti. Who Is the Servant of the Lord? Jewish and Christian Interpretations on Isaiah 53 from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Studies in Rewritten Bible 4. Turku: Åbo Adakemi University; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012. Lamb, David T. “Wrath.” Pages 878–83 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Landy, Francis. “Strategies of Concentration and Diffusion in Isaiah 6.” Biblical Interpretation 7 (1999): 58–86. –. “The Ghostly Prelude to Deutero-Isaiah.” Biblical Interpretation 14 (2006): 332–63.

Bibliography

427

–. “Exile in the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 241–56 in The Concept of Exile in Ancient Israel and its Historical Contexts. Edited by E. Ben Zvi and Chr. Levin. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 404. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010: 241–56. –. “I and Eye in Isaiah, or Gazing at the Invisible.” Journal of Biblical Literature 131 (2012): 85–97. –. “Metaphors of Death and Exile in Isaiah.” Pages 9–25 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and C. Power. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Lau, Wolfgang. Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56–66. Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezügen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 225. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994. Leene, Hendrik. “Isaiah 27:7–9 as a Bridge between Vineyard and City.” Pages 199–205 in Studies in Isaiah 24–27: The Isaiah Workshop – De Jesaja Werkplaats. Edited by H. J. Bosman, H. van Grol et al. Oudtestamentische Studiën 43. Leiden: Brill, 2000. Lessing, R. Reed. Isaiah 40–55. Concordia Commentary. St. Louis: Concordia, 2011. Levin, Christoph. “The Empty Land in Kings.” Pages 61–89 in The Concept of the Exile in Ancient Israel and Its Historical Context. Edited by E. Ben Zvi and Chr. Levin. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 404. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Lim, Bo H. “Isaiah: History of Interpretation.” Pages 378–91 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Linafelt, Tod. Surviving Lamentations: Catastrophe, Lament, and Protest in the Afterlife of a Biblical Book. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000. Lipschits, Oded. The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005. Lipschits, Oded, and Joseph Blenkinsopp, eds. Judah and the Judeans in the NeoBabylonian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003. Locke, Jason W. “The Wrath of God in the Book of Isaiah.” Restoration Quarterly 35 (1993): 221–33. Low, Maggie. Mother Zion in Deutero-Isaiah: A Metaphor for Zion Theology. Studies in Biblical Literature 155. New York: Lang, 2013. –. “Hiddenness of God.” Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception. Volume 11. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2015: 1017–20. Lucas, Ernest C. “Wisdom Theology.” Pages 901–12 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, Poetry and Writings. Edited by T. Longman III and P. Enns. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008. Lund, Øystein. Way Metaphors and Way Topics in Isaiah 40–55. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II/28. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007. Lust, Johan. “Exile and Diaspora: Gathering from Dispersion in Ezekiel.” Pages 99–122 in Lectures et Relectures de la Bible: Festschrift P.-M. Bogaert. Edited by J. M. Auwers and A. Wénin. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 144. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 1999. Luther, Martin. Lectures on Isaiah: Chapters 40–66. Translated by H. J. A. Bouman. Luther’s Works 17. St. Louis: Concordia, 1972. Macintosh, A. A. Isaiah XXI: A Palimpsest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Maier, Christl M. Daughter Zion, Mother Zion: Gender, Space, and the Sacred in Ancient Israel. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008.

428

Bibliography

Marböck, Johannes. “Jesaja in Sirach 48,15–25. Zum Prophetenverständnis der späten Weisheit.” Pages 305–19 in Schriftauslegung in der Schrift: Festschrift für Odil Hannes Steck zu seinem 65. Geburtstag. Edited by R. G. Kratz, T. Krüger, and K. Schmid. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 300. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000. McEvenue, Sean. “Who Was Second Isaiah?” Pages 213–22 in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken. Edited by J. van Ruiten and M. Vervenne. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 132. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 1989. McKeown, James. Genesis. Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008. Melugin, Roy F. The Formation of Isaiah 40–55. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 141. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1976. Mettinger, Tryggve N. D. A Farewell to the Servant Songs: A Critical Examination of an Exegetical Axiom. Scripta Minora 1982–1983/3. Lund: Gleerup, 1983. Middlemas, Jill. The Templeless Age: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the “Exile.” Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2007. Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16. Anchor Bible 3. New York: Doubleday, 1991. Miscall, Peter D. Isaiah. Readings. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1993. Moberly, R. W. L. “Whose Justice? Which Righteousness? The Interpretation of Isaiah v 16.” Vetus Testamentum 51 (2001): 55–68. Morgan, Donn F. Wisdom in the Old Testament Traditions. Oxford: Blackwell, 1981. Motyer, J. Alec. The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993. Müller, Reinhard. “A Prophetic View of the Exile in the Holiness Code: Literary Growth and Tradition History in Leviticus 26.” Pages 207–28 in The Concept of the Exile in Ancient Israel and Its Historical Context. Edited by E. Ben Zvi and Chr. Levin. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 404. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010: 207–28. –. Ausgebliebende Einsicht: Jesajas “Verstockungsauftrag” (Jes 6,9–11) und die judäische Politik am Ende des 8. Jahrhunderts. Biblische-Theologische Studien 124. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2012. Mulzer, Martin. “Ibn Esra und Deuterojesaja.” Biblische Notizen 173 (2017): 89–99. Murphy, Roland E. The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1990. Na’aman, Nadav. “A Violation of Royal Prerogative: The Shebna Prophecy (Isaiah 22.15– 19) in Context.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 40 (2016): 451–65. Navarro, Enrique Farfan. El Desierto Transformado: Una imagen deuteroisaiana de regeneración. Analecta Biblica 130. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1992. Nielsen, Kirsten. There is Hope for a Tree: The Tree as Metaphor in Isaiah. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 65. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989. Niskanen, Paul. “Yhwh as Father, Redeemer, and Potter in Isaiah 63:7–64:11.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 68 (2006): 397–407. –. “Who Is Going to Marry You? The Text of Isaiah 62:5.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 77 (2015): 657–67. North, Christopher R. The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah: An Historical and Critical Study. London: Oxford University Press, 1956. Obermayer, Bernd. Göttliche Gewalt im Buch Jesaja: Untersuchung zur Semantik und literarischen Funktion eines theologisch herausfordernden Aspekts im Gottesbild. Bon-

Bibliography

429

ner Biblische Beiträge 170. Bonn: Bonn University Press; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. Olson, Dennis T. “From Horeb to Nebo: Exile, the Pentateuch, and the Promise of Home in Exodus 2:1–3:6 and Deuteronomy 34:1–12.” Pages 82–92 in By the Irrigation Canals of Babylon: Approaches to the Study of the Exile. Edited by J. J. Ahn and J. Middlemas. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 526. New York: T & T Clark, 2012. Oosting, Reinoud. “Jerusalem’s Comforters in Isaiah 40:1–2: Participant Tracking in a Prophetic Text.” Pages 361–77 in Tradition and Innovation in Biblical Interpretation: Studies Presented to Professor Eep Talstra on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday. Edited by W. Th. van Peursen and J. W. Dyk. Studia Semitica Neerlandica 57. Leiden: Brill, 2011. Oswalt, John N. The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 1–39. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. Park, Song-Mi Suzie. Hezekiah and the Dialogue of Memory. Emerging Scholars. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015. Parker, Tom C. “Marriage and Divorce.” Pages 533–37 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Paul, Shalom M. Isaiah 40–66: Translation and Commentary. Eerdmans Critical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012. Perdue, Leo G. “Revelation and the Problem of the Hidden God in Second Temple Wisdom Literature.” Pages 201–22 in Shall Not the Judge of all the Earth do what is Right? Studies on the Nature of God. Edited by D. Penchansky and P. L. Redditt. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002. Petersen, David L. Haggai and Zechariah 1–8. Old Testament Library. London: SCM, 1984. –. “Prophetic Rhetoric and Exile.” Pages 9–18 in The Prophets Speak on Forced Migration. Edited by M. J. Boda, F. R. Ames, J. Ahn, and M. Leuchter. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 21. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015. Pfaff, Heide-Marie. Die Entwicklung des Restgedankens in Jesaja 1–39. Europäische Hochschulschriften 23/261. Bern: Lang, 1996. Pheiffer, Robert H. Introduction to the Old Testament. New York: Harper, 1941. Phinney, D. Nathan. “Call/Commission Narratives.” Pages 65–71 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Pilkington, Christine. “The Hidden God in Isaiah 45:15: A Reflection from Holocaust Theology.” Scottish Journal of Theology 48 (1995): 285–300. Pokrifka, Junia. “Life, Imagery of.” Pages 431–37 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, Poetry and Writings. Edited by T. Longman III and P. Enns. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008. Poulsen, Frederik. “Strukturen i salme 42–43.” Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift 70 (2007): 303– 17. –. “Eksodusbegivenheden i Deuterojesaja: Genskrivning eller overskrivning?” Pages 89– 109 in Bibelske genskrivninger. Edited by M. Müller and J. Høgenhaven. Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 17. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums Forlag, 2012. –. God, His Servant, and the Nations in Isaiah 42:1–9: Biblical Theological Reflections after Brevard S. Childs and Hans Hübner. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II/73. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014.

430

Bibliography

–. Representing Zion: Judgement and Salvation in the Old Testament. Copenhagen International Seminar. London: Routledge, 2015. –. “Bibelske kontrapunkter: Iagttagelser til Klagesangene og Esajas.” Pages 9–17 in (GEN)KLANGE. Essays om kunst og kristendom tilegnet Nils Holger Petersen på 70årsdagen. Edited by K. Garne and L. Nørgaard. Publikationer fra Det Teologiske Fakultet 62. Copenhagen: Det Teologiske Fakultet, 2016. –. “Church Lectionaries as Biblical Theology.” Pages 122–33 in Biblical Theology: Past, Present, and Future. Edited by M. W. Elliott and C. Walsh. Eugene: Cascade, 2016. –. “I babylonerkongens bug: Eksilmetaforer i Det Gamle Testamente.” TEOL-information 53 (2016): 30–33. –. “Old and New Ways of Interpreting Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 29–42 in Biblical Interpretation Beyond Historicity. Edited by T. L. Thompson and I. Hjelm. Copenhagen International Seminar. Changing Perspectives 7. London: Routledge, 2016. –. “Zionteologien.” Pages 103–24 in Fire indgange til gammeltestamentlig teologi. By A. K. d. H. Gudme, S. Holst, J. Høgenhaven, and F. Poulsen. Publikationer fra Det Teologiske Fakultet 66. Copenhagen: Det Teologiske Fakultet, 2016. –. “Luthers fortolkning af Esajas.” Pages 82–110 in Bibelen og Reformationen. Edited by M. Friis, M. Bundvad, G. Buch-Hansen, and M. Müller. Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 20. Copenhagen: Eksistensen Akademisk, 2017. –. “A Light to the Gentiles: The Reception of Isaiah in Luke-Acts.” Pages 163–80 in Rewriting and Reception in and of the Bible. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, J. Tang Nielsen, and H. Omerzu. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2018. –. “The Trope of Scattering in Isaiah: A Reading of Isaiah 11:11–16 and 27:7–13.” Pages 27–43 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and Cian Power. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Power, Cian. “Constructions of Exile in the Persian Period.” Pages 65–78 in Myths of Exile: History and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible. Edited by A. K. d. H. Gudme and I. Hjelm. Copenhagen International Seminar. London: Routledge, 2015. –. “Images of Northern Exile.” Pages 233–53 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and Cian Power. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Prokhorov, Alexander V. The Isaianic Denkschrift and a Socio-Cultural Crisis in Yehud: A Rereading of Isaiah 6:1–9:6[7]. Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments 261. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015. Quinn-Miscall, Peter D. Reading Isaiah: Poetry and Vision. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Rendtorff, Rolf: “Jesaja 6 im Rahmen der Komposition des Jesajabuches.” Pages 73–82 in The Book of Isaiah. Le Livre d’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de l’Ouvrage. Edited by J. Vermeylen. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 1989. Ridpath, Ian, ed. A Dictionary of Astronomy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Ringgren, Helmer. “‫ פּוּץ‬pûṣ; ‫ ְתּ ֶפוּצָ ה‬tepûṣâ; ‫ ָנ ַפץ‬nāpaṣ; ‫ פזר‬pzr.” Pages 509–12 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume XI. Edited by G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry. Translated by D. E. Green. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001. Roberts, J. J. M. “Double Entendre in First Isaiah.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 54 (1992): 39–48.

Bibliography

431

Rothstein, David. “Hezekiah’s Prayer and Childlessness: Variant Forms of a Tradition, as Reflected in LXX, Josephus, and Rabbinic Sources.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 128 (2016): 267–83. Saur, Markus. Einführung in die alttestamentliche Weisheitsliteratur. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2012. Sawyer, John F. A. “Daughter of Zion and Servant of the Lord in Isaiah: A Comparison.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 44 (1989): 89–107. Schipper, Jeremy. Disability and Isaiah’s Suffering Servant. Biblical Refigurations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Schleicher, Marianne. “Døtre, skøger og mødre i Jahves hænder.” Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift 63 (2000): 161–80. Schmid, Konrad. Jesaja, Band I: Jes 1–23. Züricher Bibelkommentare AT 19/1. Zürich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 2011. Schmitt, John J. “The Motherhood of God and Zion as Mother.” Revue Biblique 92 (1985): 557–69. Scott, James M., ed. Exile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Conceptions. Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism 56. Leiden: Brill, 1997. Seitz, Christopher R. “Isaiah 1–66: Making Sense of the Whole.” Pages 105–126 in Reading and Preaching the Book of Isaiah. Edited by C. R. Seitz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1988. –. “The Divine Council: Temporal Transition and New Prophecy in the Book of Isaiah.” Journal of Biblical Literature 109 (1990): 229–47. –. Zion’s Final Destiny: The Development of the Book of Isaiah. A Reassessment of Isaiah 36–39. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991. –. Isaiah 1–39. Interpretation. Louisville: John Knox Press, 1993. –. “Provenance as a Factor in Interpretation.” Pages 19–13 in The Prophets Speak on Forced Migration. Edited by M. J. Boda, F. R. Ames, J. Ahn, and M. Leuchter. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 21. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015. Sellin, Ernst. Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jüdische Gemeinde nach dem babylonischen Exil. I. Der Knecht Gottes bei Deuterojesaja. Leipzig: Deichert, 1901. Seufert, Matthew. “Reading Isaiah 40:1–11 in Light of Isaiah 36–37.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 58 (2015): 269–81. Sherwood, Yvonne. A Biblical Text and Its Afterlives: The Survival of Jonah in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Shields, Martin A. “Prophecy and Wisdom.” Pages 642–50 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Simon, Uriel. “Ibn Ezra between Medievalism and Modernism: The Case of Isaiah XL– LXVI.” Pages 257–71 in Congress Volume Salamanca 1983. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 36. Leiden: Brill, 1985. Smart, James D. “The Book of Jonah.” Pages 869–94 in The Interpreter’s Bible. Volume VI. Nashville: Abingdon, 1956. –. History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 35, 40–66. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965. Smelik, Klaas A. D. “Distortion of Old Testament Prophecy: The Purpose of Isaiah xxxvi and xxxvii.” Pages 70–93 in Crises and Perspectives: Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Polytheism, Biblical Theology, Palestianian Archaeology and Intertestamental Literature. Edited by J. C. de Moor. Oudtestamentische Studiën 24. Leiden: Brill, 1986.

432

Bibliography

Smith, Daniel L. The Religion of the Landless: The Social Context of the Babylonian Exile. Bloomington: Meyer Stone, 1989. Smith, Gary V. “Spiritual Blindness, Deafness, and Fatness in Isaiah.” Bibliotheca Sacra 170 (2013): 166–78. Smith, Paul Allan. Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 56–66. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 62. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Smith-Christopher, Daniel L. “Reassessing the Historical and Sociological Impact of the Babylonian Exile (597/587–539 BCE).” Pages 7–36 in Exile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Conceptions. Edited by J. M. Scott. Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism 56. Leiden: Brill, 1997. –. A Biblical Theology of Exile. Overtures to Biblical Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002. –. “Reading Exile Then: Reconsidering the Methodological Debates for Biblical Analysis in Dialogue with Sociological and Literary Analysis.” Pages 139–57 in By the Irrigation Canals of Babylon: Approaches to the Study of the Exile. Edited by J. J. Ahn and J. Middlemas. Library of Hebrew/Old Testament Studies 526. London: T & T Clark, 2012. Snaith, Norman H. “Isaiah 40–66: A Study of the Teaching of the Second Isaiah and Its Consequences.” Pages 135–264 in Studies in the Second Part of the Book of Isaiah. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 14. Edited by H. M. Orlinsky and N. H. Snaith. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Soggin, J. A. “Tod und Auferstehung der leidenden Gottesknechts.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 87 (1975): 346–55. Sommer, Benjamin D. A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. Spencer, Bradley J. “The ‘New Deal’ for Post-exilic Judah in Isaiah 41,17–20.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 112 (2000): 583–97. Stassen, S. L. “Marriage (and related) metaphors in Isaiah 54:1–17.” Journal for Semitics 6 (1994): 57–73. Steck, Odil Hannes. “Bemerkungen zu Jesaja 6.” Biblische Zeitschrift 16 (1972): 188–206. –. Bereitete Heimkehr. Jesaja 35 als redaktionelle Brücke zwischen dem Ersten und dem Zweiten Jesaja. Stuttgarter Bibelstudien 121. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1985. –. Studien zu Tritojesaja. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 203. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991. Stern, Philip. “The ‘Blind Servant’ Imagery of Deutero-Isaiah and Its Implications.” Biblica 75 (1994): 224–32. Stökl, Jonathan, and Caroline Waerzeggers, eds. Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 478. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2015. Stromberg, Jacob. Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford Theological Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. –. An Introduction to the Study of Isaiah. London: T & T Clark, 2011. Stuhlmueller, Carroll. Creative Redemption in Deutero-Isaiah. Analecta Biblica 43. Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1970. Stulman, Louis. Jeremiah. Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries. Nashville: Abingdon, 2005. Sweeney, Marvin A. “New Gleanings from an Old Vineyard: Isaiah 27 Reconsidered.” Pages 51–66 in Early Jewish and Christian Exegesis: Studies in Memory of William

Bibliography

433

Hugh Brownlee. Edited by C. A. Evans and William F. Stinespring. Scholars Press Homage Series. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987. –. Isaiah 1–39. Forms of the Old Testament Literature 16. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. –. Tanak: A Theological and Critical Introduction to the Jewish Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012. Terblanche, Marius D. “The Theme of the Babylonian Exile as Imprisonment in Isaiah 42:22 and Other Texts in Isaiah 40–55.” Old Testament Essays 21 (2008): 482–97. Terian, Abraham. “The Hunting Imagery in Isaiah LI 20a.” Vetus Testamentum 41 (1991): 462–71. Thompson, Thomas L. “Sheep without a shepherd: Genesis’ discourse on justice and reconciliation as exile’s raison d’être.” Pages 101–24 in Myths of Exile: History and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible. Edited by A. K. d. H. Gudme and I. Hjelm. Copenhagen International Seminar. London: Routledge, 2015. Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia. For the Comfort of Zion: The Geographical and Theological Location of Isaiah 40–55. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 139. Leiden: Brill, 2011. –. “The Lament in Isaiah 63:7–64:11 and Its Literary and Theological Place in Isaiah 40– 66.” Pages 52–70 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah. Edited by R. J. Bautch and J. T. Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. –. “Jonah, the Eternal Fugitive: Exploring the Intertextuality of Jonah’s Flight in the Bible and Its Later Reception.” Pages 255–68 in Images of Exile in the Prophetic Literature: Copenhagen Conference Proceedings 7–10 May 2017. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II. Edited by J. Høgenhaven, F. Poulsen, and C. Power. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Tull, Patricia K. Isaiah 1–39. Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary. Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2010. Turner, Kenneth J. “Deuteronomy’s Theology of Exile.” Pages 189–220 in From Our Good Always: Studies on the Message and Influence of Deuteronomy in Honor of Daniel I. Block. Edited by J. S. DeRouchie, J. Gile, and K. J. Turner. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013. Uhlig, Torsten. The Theme of Hardening in the Book of Isaiah: An Analysis of Communicative Action. Forschungen zum Alten Testament II/39. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009. –. “Too hard to understand? The motif of hardening in Isaiah.” Pages 62–83 in Interpreting Isaiah: Issues and Approaches. Edited by D. G. Firth and H. G. M. Williamson. Nottingham: Apollos; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009. van der Kooij, Arie. “Stump or stalk: Isaiah 6:13 in the Light of the Ancient Versions.” Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 40 (2014): 17–26. van der Woude, Annemarieke. “The Comfort of Zion: Personification in Isaiah 40–66.” Pages 159–67 in “Enlarge the Site of Your Tent:” The City as Unifying Theme in Isaiah. Edited by A. L. H. M. van Wieringen and A. van der Woude. Oudtestamentische Studiën 58. Leiden: Brill, 2011. van Wieringen, Archibald L. H. M. “The ‘I’-Figure’s Relations in the Poem in Isa 38,10– 20.” Biblica 96 (2015): 481–97. Vermeylen, Jacques. Du prophète Isaïe à l’apocalyptique. Isaïe, I–XXXV, miroir d’un demi-millénaire d’expérience religieuse en Israël: Tome I. Paris: Librairie Lecoffre, 1977. –. Du prophète Isaïe à l’apocalyptique. Isaïe, I–XXXV, miroir d’un demi-millénaire d’expérience religieuse en Israël: Tome II. Paris: Librairie Lecoffre, 1978.

434

Bibliography

Vincent, Jean M. Studien zur literarischen Eigenart und zur geistigen Heimat von Jesaja, Kap. 40–55. Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie 5. Bern: Lang, 1977. Vogt, Ernst. “Lähmung und Stummheit des Propheten Ezekiel.” Pages 87–101 in Wort – Gebot – Glaube: Beiträge zur Theologie des Alten Testaments. Walther Eichrodt zum 80. Geburtstag. Edited by J. J. Stamm, E. Jenni, and H. J. Stoebe. Zürich: Zwingli, 1970. von Rad, Gerhard. Theologie des Alten Testaments. Band I. Die Theologie der geschichtlichen Überlieferungen Israels. Munich: Kaiser, 1957. –. “‫ כִּ פְ ַל ִים‬in Jes 40,2 = Äquivalent?” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 79 (1967): 80–82. Wagner, Thomas. Gottes Herrschaft: Eine Analyse der Denkschrift (Jes 6,1–9,6). Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 108. Leiden: Brill, 2006. –. “More than a Source? The Impact of Isaiah 6 on the Formation of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 183–95 in ‘I Lifted My Eyes and Saw:’ Reading Dream and Vision Reports in the Hebrew Bible. Edited by E. R. Hayes and L.-S. Tiemeyer. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 584. London: Bloomsbury, 2014. –. “From Salvation to Doom: Isaiah’s Message in the Hezekiah Story.” Pages 92–103 in Prophecy and Prophets in Stories: Papers Read at the Fifth Meeting of the Edinburgh Prophecy Network, Utrecht, October 2013. Edited by B. Becking and H. Barstad. Oudtestamentische Studiën 65. Leiden: Brill, 2015. Walsh, Jerome T. “Jonah 2,3–10: A Rhetorical Critical Study.” Biblica 63 (1982): 219–29. Watts, James W. Psalm and Story: Inset Hymns in Hebrew Narrative. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 139. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1992. Weinberg, Joanna. “Abraham, Exile, and Midrashic Tradition.” Pages 223–41 in Abraham, the Nations, and the Hagarites: Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Perspectives on Kinship with Abraham. Edited by M. Goodman, G. H. van Kooten, and J. T. A. G. M. van Ruiten. Themes in Biblical Narrative 13. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Weinfeld, Moshe. “Deuteronomy, Book of.” Pages 168–83 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Volume II: D–G. Edited by D. N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Weiser, Arthur. Die Psalmen. Das Alte Testament Deutsch 14–15. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973. Wenham, Gordon J. Genesis 1–15. Word Biblical Commentary 1. Waco, TX: Word, 1987. Westermann, Claus. Isaiah 40–66: A Commentary. Translated by D. M. G. Stalker. Old Testament Library. London: SCM, 1969. –. Genesis 1–11. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament I/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1974. Wetter, Anne-Mareike. “Balancing the Scales: The Construction of the Exile as Countertradition in the Bible.” Pages 34–56 in From Babylon to Eternity: The Exile Remembered and Constructed in Text and Tradition. Edited by B. Becking, A. Cannegieter, W. van de Poll, and A.-M. Wetter. London: Equinox, 2009. Whedbee, J. W. Isaiah and Wisdom. Nashville: Abingdon, 1971. Whybray, R. N. Thanksgiving for a Liberated Prophet: An Interpretation of Isaiah Chapter 53. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 4. Shef-field: JSOT Press, 1978. Widengren, Geo. “Yahweh’s Gathering of the Dispersed.” Pages 227–45 in In the Shelter of Elyon: Essays on Ancient Palestinian Life and Literature in Honor of G. W. Ahlström. Edited by W. B. Barrick and J. R. Spencer. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 31. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984.

Bibliography

435

Wildberger, Hans. Jesaja. 1. Teilband, Jesaja 1–12. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament X/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1972. –. Jesaja. 2. Teilband, Jesaja 13–27. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament X/2. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978. –. Jesaja. 3. Teilband, Jesaja 28–39. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament X/3. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1982. Wilken, Robert Louis. Isaiah: Interpreted by Early Christian and Medieval Commentators. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. Willey, Patricia Tull. Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah. SBL Dissertation Series 161. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997. Williamson, Hugh G. M. “Isaiah 63,7–64,11: Exilic Lament or Post-Exilic Protest?” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 102 (1990): 48–58. –. The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. –. “Isaiah and the Wise.” Pages 133–41 in Wisdom in Ancient Israel: Essays in Honour of J. A. Emerton. Edited by J. Day, R. P. Gordon, and H. G. M. Williamson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. –. “Isaiah xi 11–16 and the Redaction of Isaiah i–xii.” Pages 343–57 in Congress Volume. Paris 1992. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 61. Leiden: Brill, 1995. –. “Hezekiah and the Temple.” Pages 47–52 in Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran. Edited by M. V. Fox, V. A. Hurowitz, A. Hurvitz, M. L. Klein, B. J. Schwartz, and N. Shupak. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996. –. Isaiah 1–5. International Critical Commentary. London: T & T Clark, 2006. –. “Isaiah: Book of.” Pages 364–78 in Dictionary of the Old Testament Prophets. Edited by M. J. Boda and J. G. McConville. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012. Willis, John T.: “Historical Issues in Isaiah 22:15–25.” Biblica 74 (1993): 60–70. –. “Textual and Linguistic Issues in Isaiah 22:15–25.” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 105 (1993): 377–99. –. “Yahweh Regenerates His Vineyard: Isaiah 27.” Pages 201–7 in Formation and Intertextuality in Isaiah 24–27. Edited by J. T. Hibbard and H. C. P. Kim. Ancient Israel and Its Literature 17. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013. Wilson, Lindsay. “Wisdom in Isaiah.” Pages 62–83 in Interpreting Isaiah: Issues and Approaches. Edited by D. G. Firth and H. G. M. Williamson. Nottingham: Apollos; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009. Wilson, Robert R. “An Interpretation of Ezekiel’s Dumbness.” Vetus Testamentum 22 (1972): 91–104. Wischnowsky, Marc. Tochter Zion: Aufnahme und Überwindung der Stadtklage in den Prophetenschriften des Alten Testaments. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 89. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2001. Wolff, Hans Walter. Dodekapropheton 2: Joel und Amos. Biblischer Kommentar XIV/2. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1969. –. Dodekapropheton 3: Obadja und Jona. Biblischer Kommentar XIV/3. NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1977. Wong, Gordon C. I. “Make Their Ears Dull: Irony in Isaiah 6:9–10.” Trinity Theological Journal 16 (2008): 24–34. Wright, Charles H. H. Biblical Essays. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1886. Young, Edward J. The Book of Isaiah. Volume I: Chapters 1 to 18. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965.

436

Bibliography

–. The Book of Isaiah. Volume II: Chapters 19 to 39. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. –. The Book of Isaiah. Volume III: Chapters 40 to 66. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972. Young, Robb Andrew. Hezekiah in History and Tradition. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 155. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Zimmerli, Walther. Ezechiel. 1. Teilband, Ezechiel 1–24. Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament XIII/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1979. Zipor, M. “‫ קָ שָׁ ה‬qāsâ.” Pages 189–95 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume XIII. Edited by G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren, and H.-J. Fabry. Translated by D. E. Green. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Zobel, Hans-Jürgen. “‫ ָגּלָה‬gālāh; ‫ גּוֹלָה‬gôlāh; ‫ גָּלוּת‬gālûth.” Pages 476–88 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Volume II. Edited by G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Translated by J. T. Willis. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.

Index of References Old Testament Genesis 1 1–11 2–3 2:7 2:9 2:17 2:25 3 3:3–4 3:6 3:7 3:8 3:10 3:14 3:16 3:17 3:23 3:24 4:1–16 4:9–16 4:10–11 4:11 4:11–12 4:12 4:14 4:16 5:24 6:19–20 7:11 8:21 9:15 9:19 9:22 9:22–23 10:18

52 296 218 147 38 38 173 157 120 376 173 268 173, 268 156 262 156 316 157, 164 155 156 157 156–57 156–57 156–57, 372 156–57, 164, 227, 372 157, 227 239 227 289 50, 359 50 320 173 175 297

11:1–9 11:4 11:8 11:9 11:27–12:20 11:30 12:10 13:9 13:14–18 14:19 14:22 15:18 19:20 21:14 25:21 28:14 29:31 31:18 31:26 31:40 31:50 32:29 33:12 33:13 33:14 34:21 34:29 35:7 37 37:26–28 37:34 37:35 37:36 39:22 41:5–7 41:6 41:22–24

296–97, 339 296 296 296 155 401 278 404 131 305 305 322 145 361 401 328, 334, 404 401 174, 333 174 226 152 282 220 325 333 189 267 119 269 276 172 42 132 265 321 318 321

438

Index of References

41:26–27 42:24 43:31 45:1 45:8 48:16 49:7 50:10 50:20 50:21

321 110 61, 151 61 195 280 297 118 227 254

Exodus 1:11–14 1:12 1:14 2:12 3–4 3:1 3:7 4:10 4:15 4:22–23 4:23 5:6 5:10 5:13–14 6:6 6:7 6:9 7:3 7:23 10:1 13:3 13:9 13:14 14:3 14:16 14:21 14:26–27 15 15:2 15:3 15:8–10 15:13 15:16 15:22 17:1–7 21:1–11 21:2

249 404 263 362 76 174, 325 262 85 85 140 315 262 262 262 280 375 262 143 362 89 249 303 264 112 308 289, 308 308 292 213 60 308 280, 333 82, 303, 305 220 372 277 304

21:30 22:3 22:6 22:8 23:10 25:9 27:19 28:40 28:42 30:12 31:3 32:4 32:8 33:11 33:20 34:10 34:24 38:8 38:21

283 256 256 256 306 188 195 195 175 283 38 356 361 197 84 359 107 254 216

Leviticus 1:4 5:21 5:23 14 16:4 18 19:7 19:9 19:10 20 21:18 23:22 25:1–2 25:1–7 25:9 25:23–34 25:46 25:47–66 25:50 26 26:1–2 26:3–13 26:14–26 26:14–45 26:21 26:27–45 26:31 26:31–33

255 225 225 218 189 175 255 321 321 175 308 321 72 72 322 280 260 280 254 68, 71–74, 94–95 71 72 72 6 314 72 96 94

Index of References 26:33 26:34–45 26:43 26:46 27:30–33

299 255 97, 255, 408 72 97

Numbers 1:3 4:23 8:24–25 11:12 16:30 16:32–33 18:21–24 20:1–13 21:6 22:31 28:7 31:9 33:54 35:19–27 35:31–32

254 254 254 326 41 41–42 97 372 81 116 33 267 260 280 283

Deuteronomy 2:12 2:30 3:27–28 4:6 4:9 4:25–31 4:27 4:28–29 5:15 6:4–5 8:2–3 8:16 9:1 10:17 11:23 12:3 13:6 14:22–29 14:26 15:18 18:14 19:1 19:6 20:14 22:1

146 143 131 340, 347 340, 347, 349 371 174, 297, 333 371 303 89 151 151 404 60 404 320 299 97 34 256 404 404 280 267 299

22:19 24:1 24:1–3 24:20 26:12–15 28 28:1 28:1–14 28:3–14 28:7 28:10 28:15–25 28:15–68 28:21 28:26–46 28:37 28:41 28:47–57 28:48 28:49 28:53 28:55 28:57 28:58–61 28:58–68 28:63 28:63–68 28:64 28:64–65 28:65 28:65–66 28:65–67 29:1–3 29:17 29:22 30:1–4 30:3 30:4 30:15–20 30:17 30:17–18 31:3 31:17–18 31:29 32:1–4 32:6 32:9 32:15 32:20

439 316 392 316 321 97 68, 71–73, 94–95 71 73 73 94 146 73 6, 73 94 73 174, 333 249 73 40, 276, 332, 371 130 271 271 271 314 73, 353 94 218 297–98 383 262 262 74 347 362 150 300 297 301 340 299 362 404 50 56 131 147, 305 55 90 50

440

Index of References

32:24 32:33

32 56

Joshua 1:8 4:3 4:9 6:10 6:16 7:1 7:2–26 10:12–13 11:14

224 190 190 60 60 188 188 206 267

Judges 1:16 2:14 4:11 4:17 4:21–22 5:4 6:11 6:11–17 6:18 6:25 13:2–3 14:17 16:3 16:7 16:16 16:20 18:9 18:10 18:30 19:24 21:6

158 267 158 158 195 63 320 76 197 190 401 271 220 110 271 275 60 189 37 152 197

Ruth 2:2 2:13 2:17 3:2 3:4 3:7 3:13 4:16

321 254 320 299 37 37 280 326

1 Samuel 1:3

107

2:5 2:6 2:8 2:22 9:3 9:15 9:20 11:8 11:11 12:3 13:6 13:11 13:12 14:1 14:11 17:20 18:11 20:33 23:5 28:17 30:2 30:2–3 30:20

402 53 275 254 323 37 323 97 297 283 268 320 61 190 268 60 188 188 174 172 174 261 174

2 Samuel 6:12 6:15 7:5 7:16 7:19 8:1 8:2 8:13–14 10:1–5 10:4 11:25 12:3 13:36 17:8 17:19 18:18 24:12

232 232 87 196 117 307 307 307 307 173, 175, 385 190 326 210 397 115 86 87

1 Kings 4:39 5:1 7 7:7 8:10–11

321 128, 322 116 81 81

Index of References 8:46–51 8:65 9:7 10:16–17 11:17 11:38 12:15 13:30 14:15 17:17–24 17:39 18:4 20:31–32 22:17 22:27

249, 261 322 316 116 364 196 172 33 299 205 332 268 172 298 264

2 Kings 1:1 1:8 2:3 2:10 4:1 5:7 5:11 5:24 8:1 8:5 11:3 12:18 15:29 16:9 17:4 17:15 17:20 17:21 17:23 17:24 17:30 18–19 18:3–7 18:13–20:19 18:32 19:26 20 20:1–11 20:5 20:7 20:7–8 20:8

360 172 60 239 277 227 308 217 227 227 268 171 37 106, 113 239, 264 409 267, 409 299 37 133 133 184 135 122 316 176 8, 204, 206 127, 205–6 231 231 205–6 231

20:12 20:12–19 20:13 20:19 21:1–18 21:9 21:14 22 22:14–20 22:15–17 22:18–20 23:10 23:12 23:14–15 23:26–27 23:27 23:30–35 23:34 23:37 24–25 24:3–4 24:8–9 24:8–17 24:10–12 24:14–16 24:17 24:10–19 24:12 24:13 24:14 24:15 24:20 24:20–25:21 25 25:3 25:4–6 25:5 25:7 25:9 25:10 25:11 25:12 25:13–17 25:20 25:21 25:22–26 25:26 25:27 25:27–30

441 126, 129 122–23, 133 126 135 69, 132 361 267 195 132 132 132 106 107 320 69, 132 409 193 199 199 68–69, 123 69, 132 193 192–93 193 193–94 195 68 133, 243 133 222 133 163 68 27, 110, 243 110 110 297 110, 133 150 113 94 222 133 69 37 6 69, 94 175, 264 70, 132, 194, 243

442

Index of References

1 Chronicles 3:17 3:17–18 4:9 4:38 4:40 8:8 20:25 29:3

265 243 262 404 189 316 267 150

2 Chronicles 24:24 26:16–21 26:21 28:14–15 29:6 32:31 33:9 36 36:4 36:9–21 36:19 36:21 36:22–23

145 240 240 173 188 126 361 68–69 199 69 150–51 71–72 70

Ezra 1:1–3 3:8

70 250

Nehemiah 1:3 1:8–9 5:1–5 5:8 7:4 9 9:15

113 300 277 304 189 137 332

Esther 2:3 3:15 5:10 6:1

132 112 61 226

Job 1:21 2:10 3:7 3:26

173 47 397 262

4:11 4:21 6:9 7:1 7:4 7:6 7:9 7:12 7:19 8:7 10:8–9 10:16 10:19 12:14 12:24–25 12:25 13:24 14:9 14:14 15:34 16:10 18:15 18:18 19:7 19:10 20:8 20:27 21:32 22:6 24:7 26:12 27:20–21 28:28 29:19 29:23 30:3 30:6 32:18 33:24 33:30 34:29 35:16 36:29 38:2 38:10–11 38:17 38:41 39:7 39:16

38 220 222 255 226 222 42 289 111 145 148 223 238 190, 272 143 361 50 111 255 397 41 298 227 113 221 227 115 238 173 38 289 318 339 371 41 397 268 271 283 218 50 38 108 38 42 216 223 108 143

443

Index of References 41:5 42:3

116 38

Psalms 1 1:2 1:3 2:3 2:7 6:4 6:6 9 9:5 9:8 9:14 9:15 9:16 13:2 14:2–3 15:1 16:10 17:14 18 18:7 18:29 22:2 22:16 22:30 23:1 23:2 24:3 24:3–4 24:8 28:1 28:5 28:7 29:9 30 30:4 30:6 30:10 31:7 31:23 32 34 34:15 39:2 39:5 40:18

340–41, 368 224 371 276 320 91 229–30 81, 216 81 81 216 216 272 390 359 219 272 219 213 113 48 142, 390 275 275 222 325 107, 232 84 55, 60 60, 229 35, 190 109 175 213, 230 164, 229 49 229 108 163, 240 213 213 34 60 219 370

42–43 42:3 42:5 42:7 42:8 42:10 44:10–12 44:12 44:13 44:18 44:23 44:24 44:25 45:15–16 46:4 46:6 46:7 48:8 48:15 49 49:2 49:8 49:12 49:13 49:21 51:8 52:3–7 52:7 55:11 55:18 56:2–3 56:8 56:14 58:4 59:14 61:5 63:2 65:7 66:12 68:5 68:30 69:3 69:16 71:20 74 74:1 74:2 74:3–7 74:3–8

163, 225 218, 371 225 145 163 390 238 299 146, 276–77 140 238 142 390 238 109 65 109 318 174, 333 82 219 283 188 82 82 224 218 218, 222 197 109 61 287 218 359, 362 146 219 372 43 282 109 238 321 321 164 67, 92, 144 142 144, 304 150 149

444 74:5–6 74:7 74:9–10 74:10 74:13 74:13–14 74:18 74:23 75:9 76:6 76:12 77:4 77:10 78:4 78:13 78:40 78:52 78:54 78:59 78:67 79 79:1 79:5 79:11 80:2 80:5 80:9 81:3 81:4 83:2 87:4 88:5 88:6 88:11–12 89 89:11 89:29 90 90:15 92:2–5 94 94:17 95:8 95:10 96:12 98:2 102:20–21 103:3–4 103:12

Index of References 151 144 92 144, 278 162 307 278 43 56 360 238 109 390 55 289 140 174, 220, 325, 333 305 409 409 68, 92 144, 149, 274 92 272 174, 333 91 220 34 322 60, 63, 215 289 42, 229 240 229 68 289 196 92 151 34 92 64 143 362 109 37, 115 272 229 94, 229

103:13 103:15–16 104:4 104:9 104:25 105:39 106 106:9 106:27 107:2–3 107:4–5 107:5 107:10 107:14 107:14–16 107:18 107:27 107:35–43 107:39 109:10 113:9 115:4–9 115:17 116:16 119 119:18 119:122 119:131 119:176 122:1 122:5 124:7 131:2 136:13–14 137 137:3 139:7–12 139:8 145:6 146:7–8 150:3

140 318 330 42 189 115 137 289 299 328 40 332, 371 265 276 287 216 156 372 239 156 401 357 64, 229 276 349 116 225 41, 61 361 232 81 268 223 289 68, 164, 249 261 157 42 55 264 322

Proverbs 1:12 2:6 2:22 4:1–2 4:4 4:10–19

42 339 218 339 340 340

Index of References 4:23 6:35 7:11 7:23 7:25 8:22 8:29 9:1–6 9:10 9:13–18 10:17 11:13 12:5 12:26 13:8 14:22 14:23 15:7 15:13 16:6 16:28 20:1 20:12 21:16 23:11 23:29–35 24:30–34 25:4–5 25:9 26:20 27:20 28:14 30:15–16 30:16

88 283 109 268 362 305 42 340 38, 339 340 362 115 364 362 283 362 262 298 408 120 376 34 339 362 280 34 339 318 115 156 41 143 41 239

Ecclesiastes 3:7 4:14

60 390

Song of Songs 4:16 7:6

330 222

Isaiah 1–5 1–12 1–39

43, 89 58, 295 7–8, 10–11, 16, 22– 24, 67, 136, 166, 247, 253, 255

1:1 1:2 1:2–3 1:2–4 1:3 1:3–4 1:4

1:5–6 1:6 1:7 1:7–9 1:8 1:8–9 1:10 1:11 1:12 1:13 1:21 1:21–28 1:23 1:25 1:29–31 1:30 2 2:1–4 2:2 2:2–4 2:3 2:6–22 2:8 2:9 2:10 2:11 2:17 2:19 2:20 2:21 3 3:9 3:11 3:12 3:13 3:14 3:14–15 3:15

445 106, 336 360 280, 336, 341, 348 57, 140, 377 36, 38, 87–88, 253, 304, 312 89 30, 33, 87, 97, 99, 120, 149, 255, 278, 319, 350 90, 235, 314 203 33, 46, 93, 149 304 384 27, 133, 312 87, 131 45 218 109 108, 384 98 34 58 98 141, 375 112 9 231–32 28, 66, 233, 323, 330, 342, 371 371 44 323 31, 43 43 31, 43 31, 43 43 323 43 93 83 83 87, 142, 362–63 316 87, 98 370 87

446 3:16–4:1 3:17 3:20 3:24 3:26 4:1 4:2–6 4:3 4:4–5 4:5–6 5 5:1 5:1–7 5:2 5:3 5:5 5:6 5:7 5:8–24 5:9 5:10 5:11 5:11–12 5:11–13 5:11–17

5:12

5:12–13 5:13

5:13–14 5:13–17 5:14

5:14–17 5:15 5:15–16 5:16

Index of References 39, 384 173 395 172 93, 385 394, 405, 407 98, 304 133 58 115 30, 45 76 30, 310–11, 341 187 33 98, 404 45, 293 30, 33, 43 29, 311 76, 93, 120, 149 45 34, 57 29–30, 34, 38–40 31, 39, 119, 343, 363 16, 19, 29–32, 45– 47, 54, 66–67, 98, 104, 107, 132, 178, 311, 336, 411 35, 38–39, 43, 88, 117, 148–49, 171, 219 377 11, 29, 31, 33, 35– 38, 40–42, 46, 57, 87–88, 253, 332, 352, 371, 397 11, 44, 46, 108, 163, 215, 258, 295 29–30, 33, 35, 44 29–30, 36, 41–43, 46, 64, 98, 109, 119, 216, 272, 288, 363, 412 31 44 31, 43, 45, 80 43

5:17

5:19 5:21 5:22 5:24 5:24–25 5:25 5:25–30 5:25–11:16 5:26 5:29 5:30 6

6:1 6:1–4 6:1–7 6:1–11 6:1–13 6:1–8:18 6:1–9:6 6:1–11:16 6:3 6:4 6:5

6:5–7 6:7 6:8 6:8–10 6:8–13 6:9 6:9–10

6:9–13

31, 36, 40, 44–45, 49, 98, 149, 151, 292, 396 35 343 34, 57 35, 278 55 87, 97, 256, 304, 314 30, 112 301 114, 304, 334, 391 223 65 44, 74– 78, 81–83, 87, 93, 96, 99, 137, 146, 152, 236, 251– 52, 254, 325, 378 79–81, 171, 303 79–80 74, 78 97 16, 67, 74, 100, 152, 234, 290, 411 75, 78 75 9 90, 251 90 79, 81–83, 87, 131, 141, 146, 215, 238, 274, 286 79, 82, 91, 351 84, 98, 120, 149, 255, 319 79–80, 85, 91, 303 85, 87 74, 78, 85 87, 146, 172, 266, 346 34, 87, 91, 96, 104, 131, 141–42, 152, 179, 236, 264, 291, 336–37, 346–48, 352, 377 120

Index of References 6:10

6:11

6:11–12 6:11–13

6:12 6:12–13 6:13 7 7–8 7:1–2 7:1–9 7:2 7:3 7:8 7:9 7:11 7:13 7:14 7:16 7:23–26 7:25 8:5–8 8:7 8:7–8 8:11 8:12–15 8:15 8:16–18 8:17 8:18 8:19 8:21–22 8:21–9:1 8:22 8:22–9:1 8:23–9:6 9:1 9:3

86, 88–90, 92, 96, 98, 143, 254, 315, 359 80, 85–86, 91–95, 98, 108, 142, 149, 152, 252 97–98, 232, 396 9, 14, 78–79, 83, 85, 91–92, 100, 123, 132–33, 136, 152, 252, 352, 360, 391 94–95, 98, 130, 295, 385 77, 92, 97 11, 58, 77, 86–87, 97–99, 291–92 165 75–76 129 124 112, 210, 308 98, 116–17, 129, 304 174 117 42, 232 210 232 174 93 45, 98 51 307 49 363 51 35 51, 59, 83 51, 65 27, 174 224 65 265 300 365 51 65 261

9:5 9:6 9:7–10:4 9:11 9:12 9:15 9:16 9:17 9:20 9:21 10:1 10:1–4 10:3 10:4 10:5–34 10:6 10:11 10:12 10:13 10:14 10:17 10:20–23 10:20–27 10:21 10:24–34 10:26 10:31 10:32 10:33 10:33–34 11 11:1 11:1–9 11:1–10 11:2 11:2–3 11:9 11:10 11:11

11:11–12 11:11–13 11:11–16

11:12

447 195 60, 342 54 304 97, 314 42, 362 304 97–98 304, 306 97 393 30 130 97, 304 301 267, 286 356 217 267 224 98 304 314 60 175 308 226 106, 308 197 99 301, 303 99 301 303 38, 342 143 149, 305, 323, 377 301, 305 301, 303, 305, 307, 320, 325, 327–28, 377 301, 303, 306–7, 328, 334, 394 307 9, 278, 295–96, 301–2, 304, 309, 322–23, 333, 412 298, 304–5, 308, 322, 327, 330–31

448 11:12–16 11:13 11:13–14 11:14 11:15 11:15–16 11:16 12 12:1 12:2 12:3 13–14 13–19 13–23 13–26 13:1 13:1–14:23 13:2 13:2–22 13:3 13:10 13:11 13:14 13:16 13:18 13:20–22 13:21–22 13:22 14:1 14:1–2 14:1–4a 14:2

14:3 14:3–4a 14:4–5 14:4–21 14:4–23 14:5 14:11 14:12 14:15 14:17 14:18

Index of References 301 306 301, 306, 327 307–8, 404 307–9, 314, 318, 320, 365, 372 301, 303, 307, 311 300, 309, 333 295, 301, 371 59, 252 213 371 101, 134, 216, 257 101 100–3, 106, 134, 147, 165, 184 312 259 102, 259, 312 308 259 109 65 217, 241, 269 299 387 114 45 292 81 259–60 9, 259 250, 258–59, 267, 412 133, 258, 260–62, 269–70, 276, 330, 396 255, 262–63 259 261 134, 259, 262, 293, 388 271 241 42 197 42, 288 190, 265, 272, 394 188

14:19 14:20 14:22–23 14:24–28 14:25 14:26 14:28 14:29 15:1 15:2–3 15:3 16:3 16:3–4 16:11 16:14 17:2 17:3 17:3–11 17:9 17:10 17:12 17:12–13 17:12–14 17:13 17:13–14 17:14 18 18:4 18:7 19 19:13–14 19:16 19:18–25 19:22 19:25 20

20:1 20:1–2 20:1–4 20:1–6

20:2 20:2–4 20:2–5

229 271 259 27 112 97 171 81 65, 82, 215 118 107 37, 226 300 111 174 45, 98 115 310–11 96 392 109 43, 108 27 50, 318 65 267 165 62 238, 322 165 361 308 9 91 55, 309 11, 76, 82, 101, 128, 165–69, 174, 178, 181, 190, 239, 248, 394 165, 171, 176 167 165–66 16, 101, 154, 165– 66, 170, 182, 232, 234, 412 87, 165, 167–69, 172 171, 309, 379 166

Index of References 20:3 20:3–4 20:3–5 20:4 20:5 20:5–6 20:6 21–23 21:1 21:1–10 21:2 21:3 21:11 21:11–12 21:12 21:13 21:13–17 21:14 21:15 21:16 22 22:1 22:1–4 22:1–14

22:2 22:3 22:4 22:5 22:5–8a 22:6 22:7 22:8 22:8b–11 22:8b–13

165, 168–69, 174, 180 165, 168, 172–73, 201, 295 177 167–68, 173–75, 238, 276, 333, 385 166–67, 176 165, 175 166, 176–77 101–2 101 102 113 111 64 63–65 65 101 63 226 226 174 102, 115–16, 183– 84, 190 101, 106–9, 111, 130 100, 102–3, 113, 116 16, 46, 67, 100, 102, 104, 121, 132, 147, 153, 183–84, 186, 234, 290, 311, 337, 379, 411 43, 106–11, 113, 118, 199 107, 109–10, 199, 226, 363 36, 103, 107, 110– 12, 119, 253, 385 106, 112–13, 116, 183, 186 100, 103, 112 113–14 113–14 37, 114–16, 119, 171, 195, 398 103, 116, 199, 215 100

22:9 22:10 22:11 22:12 22:12–13 22:12–14 22:14

22:15 22:15–16 22:15–19 22:15–25

22:16 22:17 22:17–18a 22:17–19 22:18b 22:19 22:20–23 22:20–24 22:20–25 22:21 22:22 22:24 22:25 23 23:1 23:2 23:6 23:7 24–27 24:1 24:1–3 24:2 24:8 24:8–9 24:10–12 24:11 24:16 24:20

449 118 118 117, 119, 148–49, 171, 178, 219, 377 110, 116, 118–19, 183, 186, 195 100, 103, 118 120 37, 100, 103, 116, 119, 131, 149, 183, 256, 284, 319 172, 183, 186, 190– 91 186 183, 185, 241 17, 101–2, 154, 183, 198, 200, 234, 248, 412 186–87, 189–90, 393 186 186, 188–90, 192, 201, 295, 379 188 186, 189, 192, 196 183, 190 183, 195–99, 210 173, 183 183, 194–96 394 264 196–97 183, 195–97 102, 109 37 176 176 109 44–45, 295, 309, 310 298 310 190 109 35, 43 45 37 83 156

450 24:21–22 24:22 25:2–3 25:6 25:8 25:11–12 26:1 26:4 26:5 26:11 26:14 26:19 26:20–21 26:21 27 27:1

27:2–6 27:4 27:6 27:7 27:7–9 27:7–11 27:7–13 27:8

27:8–9 27:9 27:10 27:10–11 27:11 27:12 27:12–13 27:13 28:1 28:1–4 28:2 28:7 28:7–13 28:12 28:14

Index of References 217 264 45 34 322 44 44 213 44–45 60 217, 322 275, 322 315 37, 115, 217 310 162, 217, 289, 310– 12, 315, 320–21, 325 310–11, 314, 321 312 314 311–15, 319, 332 312, 314 310 45, 295–96, 309– 12, 323, 412 308, 311, 313, 315– 16, 318, 321, 330, 333, 391 120, 284, 315 120, 310–11, 316, 318–19, 322–23 45 311–12, 314 321 311, 317, 320–21, 329, 331 9, 295, 310–12, 320, 323, 327 311, 322–23, 327, 331, 333 34 34, 252 256 34–35, 57, 337, 361, 363 34–35, 337 88 131

28:16 28:23–29 28:25 28:26 28:27 29:1 29:1–8 29:2 29:4 29:5 29:7 29:9–10 29:13 29:14 29:16 29:17 29:17–21 29:17–24 29:18 29:23 29:24 30 30:1 30:1–5 30:6 30:7 30:8 30:9 30:9–11 30:11 30:15 30:20 30:20–22 30:21 30:23–26 30:24 30:25 30:26 30:27 30:27–33 30:30 30:32 31:1–3 31:3 31:4 32:3–4 32:14 32:15–18 32:19

117 341–42 297 342 320 106 27, 106 271 224 109, 355 271 337 254 343 147–48 373 376 373, 375 336, 346 148, 375 376 140 140 175 81 289 351, 393 88, 140 337, 351 351 88, 109 366 366 367 315 299 315 90, 203 55 60, 314 55 140 117, 176 256 55, 109, 224 346 45, 98 373 44

Index of References 33 33:3 33:5 33:6 33:9 33:14–24 33:20 33:21 33:24 34–35 34:2 34:5 34:13–14 34:14 35:1–10 35:5 35:5–7 35:8 35:8–10 35:9 35:10 36–37

36–38 36–39 36:3 36:10 36:17 37–38 37:1 37:2 37:3 37:8 37:11 37:14 37:16–20 37:21–29 37:22 37:26 37:27 37:30 37:30–32 37:32 37:35 37:36 37:36–38 37:37

25 226, 320 188, 346 38, 143, 342 275 98 195, 220 189 120 25 308 308 292 64 373 336, 359 374 366 374 279 119, 279 21, 27, 121, 128, 165–66, 184, 190, 198, 201, 209–10 125, 135 23, 25–26, 76, 121 185 271 133 231–32 108, 172, 200, 231 185 112 220 308 126, 231 375 384 386 108 176 174 304 60 210 65, 118 314 220

38

38–39 38:1 38:1–8 38:1–22 38:5 38:5–6 38:7–8 38:8 38:9 38:9–20 38:10

38:10–12a 38:10–17a 38:11 38:12 38:12b–14 38:13 38:14 38:15 38:15–16 38:15–17a 38:16 38:17 38:17b–20 38:18 38:19 38:20 38:21 38:21–22 38:22 39

451 21, 121–22, 129, 135, 155, 200–2, 204–9, 231–34, 248, 335 8, 25 210 129, 200, 205–6, 209, 231 17, 154, 200, 234, 412 87 206, 209–10 232 206, 229 126, 210, 213–14, 235 200, 204–5, 207, 211–13, 258 63, 164, 213–17, 219, 228–30, 272, 287 214, 218, 295 213 213, 217, 219, 240 37, 188, 219–24, 240 214, 222 223–24 224, 229 225–27, 230 213, 225 214, 225 126, 210, 227 149, 213, 222–29, 241, 272 213, 214, 228 229–30, 241, 288 213, 230 209, 214, 216, 219, 230–31 126, 129, 174, 203, 210, 230–31 200, 205, 207–9, 231 107, 206, 209, 226, 231–32 1, 11, 13, 16, 19– 20, 22, 24, 26–29, 31, 46–48, 54, 59,

452

39:1 39:1–2 39:1–8

39:2 39:3 39:3–4 39:4 39:5–7 39:5–8 39:6 39:6–7 39:7 39:7–8 39:8 39:8–40:1 40

40–48 40–55

40–66

40:1

40:1–2

Index of References 66–67, 78, 83, 99– 100, 121–23, 125, 127, 134, 152–53, 200–1, 209, 234, 236, 248, 250–51, 254, 256, 290, 337, 384, 395, 411–13 127, 134 121, 129, 131 16, 25, 67, 121–22, 125, 136, 153, 234, 257, 290, 411 126–27, 129–33 127, 129, 334 121, 130–31 129, 132–33 20, 131 121 124, 129, 131, 133, 151, 394 26, 132, 134, 216– 17, 295 81, 129, 133 124 21, 126, 134–35, 228 19 1, 11, 13, 16, 19– 20, 22–24, 26–29, 31, 46–48, 54, 59, 66–67, 78, 83, 99– 100, 123, 134, 152– 53, 200, 225, 234, 236, 248, 250–51, 254, 256, 290, 293, 337, 384, 395, 411– 13 118, 134, 357, 389 1, 7–8, 10–12, 16, 23–24, 138, 203, 234–35, 259 6, 13, 16, 21–24, 26, 66, 136, 234, 246, 411 21–22, 29, 59, 112, 254, 256, 292, 324– 25 12, 20–21, 78, 120, 250–53, 255, 260,

40:1–9 40:1–11 40:2 40:3 40:3–5 40:5 40:7 40:7–8 40:9 40:10 40:10–11 40:11 40:12–14 40:14 40:16 40:18–20 40:26 40:27 40:27–31 41:1 41:1–7 41:1–42:12 41:2–3 41:5 41:6–7 41:8–9 41:14 41:15–16 41:16 41:17 41:17–20 41:18 41:18–19 41:19 41:20 41:21–29 41:22 41:23 41:27 42

262, 270, 280, 284, 293, 391, 412 324 251, 324–25 26, 56, 253–57, 262, 319, 377, 385 309 366 37, 120, 324 252, 318 141 324 146, 286, 324–27, 333 296, 298, 300, 324, 327, 394, 412 325–26, 331–32, 385, 391 342 38 98 54, 357 358 51, 53, 61, 344, 361, 389 389 281 347, 353, 368 368 281 177 54, 357 260, 328 370 318 299 59, 61, 368, 370, 372–73, 376 291, 338, 368–70, 374, 377, 413 372 368, 372, 374, 376 372 368, 371, 375–77 54, 347, 353 376 350 246, 281, 385 54

Index of References 42:1–4 42:1–9 42:4 42:5 42:5–9 42:6b–7 42:7 42:8 42:9 42:10–12 42:11 42:13 42:13–14 42:14 42:15 42:16 42:17 42:18 42:18–19 42:18–20 42:18–25

42:19 42:20 42:21 42:21–25 42:22

42:23 42:24 42:25 43:1 43:1–4 43:1–7 43:2 43:3 43:4 43:5

244 263, 349 177 253, 358 13 250, 263, 412 164, 263–66, 268, 275, 280, 287, 330 292 21, 291, 358 292, 368 401 55, 59–62 59, 62, 65–66 60–62, 151 61 61, 336, 365–67, 372 357 219, 346–47 336 264, 344–49, 373 12, 266, 281, 285, 338, 344, 346, 349, 351–54, 362, 365, 413 345–46, 349–50 344, 346–47, 350, 359, 367 266, 349 88, 344, 349, 351 250, 258, 266–269, 287, 330, 349–50, 412 349–50, 368 350–52, 361 55, 58, 254, 271, 344, 352, 360 280–81, 285, 292, 328 250, 279, 281, 293, 304, 328, 412 269, 281, 285, 328, 344 281, 284 53, 281–85 281–84 328–29

43:5–6 43:5–7 43:6 43:7 43:8 43:8–13 43:10 43:11 43:12 43:14 43:14–15 43:14–21 43:15 43:16 43:16–17 43:16–21 43:17 43:18 43:18–19a 43:18–21 43:19 43:19b–20 43:20 43:21 43:25 43:27 43:27–28 43:28 44:2 44:3 44:3–4 44:4 44:5 44:6 44:8 44:9 44:9–10 44:9–20 44:15 44:18 44:18–20 44:19 44:22 44:23 44:24–45:7 44:25

453 9, 329–30, 333–34, 394 281, 295–96, 324, 327–28, 412 130, 328, 330, 334 281, 328–29, 331 336, 362, 367, 373 285, 347–49, 358 246, 348, 375 53, 279 348 216, 285–87, 290 285, 288, 290 250, 279, 284–85, 293, 308, 412 285–86 291 285, 288–90 285, 288 60, 284, 287 290 285 288, 290, 292 99, 291, 358 285 291–92, 372 285, 292 149, 229 359 350 55, 308 345 371, 374 374 374 393 286 348 357 367 54 98 376 357 38 149, 253, 280 289, 292, 401 48 38, 343

454 44:26 44:26–28 44:28 44:28–45:1 45 45:1 45:1–2 45:2 45:4 45:5–7 45:6–7 45:7 45:8 45:9 45:11 45:13 45:14 45:14–17 45:15 45:16 45:18–19 45:19 45:20 45:21 45:22 45:23 45:25 46:1 46:1–2 46:1–4 46:2 46:3–4 46:5–7 46:7 46:8 46:8–13 46:11 46:12 46:13 47

47:1 47:2 47:2–3 47:3 47:5

Index of References 136, 385 48 81, 136, 280, 385 281 52 264 287 356 286 52 47, 414 53, 65, 147 52, 291 147–48 147–48, 285 11, 175, 277, 281, 286, 393 52 54 47, 52–53, 58, 279, 414 357 52 371 357 53 52 355 99 356 261, 387 357 275–76 326 357 357, 372 360 360 281, 334 254, 360 386 175, 257, 274–75, 379, 386, 398, 409, 413 386–87 116 37, 398 175, 387 387

47:6 47:8–9 47:9 47:10 47:11 47:12 47:15 48:1–2 48:1–5 48:1–8 48:2 48:3 48:3–5 48:3–8 48:4 48:5 48:6–8 48:7 48:8 48:9 48:9–11 48:10 48:11 48:14–15 48:14–16a 48:17 48:18 48:18–19 48:20 48:20–21 48:21 49–54 49:1 49:1–6 49:1–13 49:7 49:7–13 49:8 49:8–9a 49:8–12 49:9 49:9b–10 49:9b–12 49:10

55, 58, 144, 148, 257 388, 397–98 56 38, 343 355 367 362 360 354 338, 353–54, 356, 360, 367, 413 149 353, 355–58 353, 358, 360 355 353, 355–59 353, 355–59 353, 358 353 57, 353, 359–60 58 57, 359 58 58 281 358 285, 367–68 350 367 280, 288–89 12, 288 291, 372 111, 383, 386, 389, 406 281 244, 332 388 285, 332 13 136, 403 332 332, 388 37, 110, 265, 280 332–33 295–96, 298, 324, 331, 365, 394, 412 40, 174, 325, 328, 332–33, 372

49:11 49:12 49:13 49:14 49:14–15 49:14–16 49:14–21

49:14–50:3 49:15 49:15–16 49:16 49:17 49:17–21 49:18 49:19 49:19–21 49:20 49:21 49:22 49:22–23 49:24–25 49:24–26 49:25 49:26 50:1 50:1–3 50:2 50:4 50:4–9 50:4–11 50:5 50:7 51:1 51:1–3 51:1–52:12 51:2 51:3 51:4

Index of References

455

51:9

146, 162, 253, 274, 290 270, 274, 289, 308 274 279, 291, 303, 307 119, 279, 292 274 12, 270, 274 258, 271, 278, 392 250, 270, 293, 412 228, 268, 271–72 57, 253, 256, 274, 377 56 55, 66, 256, 271, 273–75, 379 256 56–57, 384 56–57 57 57 246 149, 253, 258, 394 274–75, 395 239, 250, 273, 412 272, 275–76, 387 145, 274, 276–77, 279 225, 277 274 133, 239, 270, 277– 78 274, 277–78 392 274 137, 280 274 274, 288 376 235, 243, 245 17, 154, 234–35, 243, 246–47, 399, 412 10, 244–46 37, 120, 243, 245 243 235 236, 245 243

309, 333 9, 130, 333–34, 394 289, 292, 332, 384, 389, 401 53, 61, 388–92, 395–97, 407 392 388, 390 258, 379, 384–85, 388–89, 391, 398, 402–3, 413 388–89, 391 397 389 187, 393 190, 393, 395, 408 388, 393 329–30, 333, 394– 95, 398 94, 137, 258, 395– 96, 403 369, 391, 401 396, 403 37, 388, 394, 396, 401 260, 306, 330 389 133, 239, 261, 271, 275–76, 278 269, 279, 293, 389 270 270 120, 277, 316, 389, 391–92, 407–8 389 50, 303 246, 343, 367 244 388 359 405 34, 371 369 235 404 119, 137, 150, 291– 92, 374, 384 368

51:9–11 51:9–52:12 51:10 51:11 51:12 51:12–16 51:13 51:13b–14 51:14 51:17 51:17–18 51:17–23 51:19 51:19–20 51:20 51:21 51:22–23 52 52:1 52:1–2 52:1–6 52:2 52:3 52:4 52:4–5 52:5 52:6 52:7 52:7–10 52:9 52:11 52:11–12 52:13 52:13–15 52:13–53:12

53 53:1 53:1–3 53:1–11a 53:2 53:2–3

456 53:3 53:3–4 53:4 53:4–6 53:5 53:6 53:7 53:7–9 53:8

53:8–9 53:9 53:10 53:10–12 53:11 53:11b–12 53:12 54 54–66 54:1 54:1–3 54:1–6 54:1–8 54:1–10 54:1–17 54:2 54:2–3 54:3 54:4 54:4–6 54:4–8 54:5 54:5–6 54:6 54:7 54:7–8 54:7–10 54:8 54:9 54:9–10 54:10 54:11 54:11–12 54:11–13a

Index of References 219 235 243 243 236 361–64 238, 242, 245 236–37, 243, 247, 295, 399 133, 218, 236–37, 239–40, 243, 245, 278 237, 245 238, 240, 245 243 243, 245 38 235 243 48, 246 143 137, 399, 401–4 399, 401, 405 379, 384, 398–400, 409, 413 399 385, 399 235, 398–99 195, 403 400, 403 137, 404 399, 404–6 399–400, 402, 405 399 401, 406–8 395, 408 96, 391, 399, 408–9 50, 329, 399 53, 379, 399, 406, 409 48, 51, 53, 58, 66, 260, 399 50, 148 49, 57 49, 399 50 57, 319, 383, 403 395 399

54:11–17a 54:13b–17a 54:14 54:14–17 55 55:1 55:7 55:8–9 55:11 55:12 55:12–13 55:13 56–66 56:1 56:1–8 56:3 56:6 56:8 56:9–12 57:3–13 57:8 57:11 57:12 57:13 57:15 57:16 57:17 58:2 58:3 58:5 58:6–7 58:7 58:8 58:9 58:10–11 58:12 59:2 59:3 59:7 59:8 59:8–10 59:11 59:12–13 59:13 59:17 60 60–62 60:1–3

399 399 225 27, 404 244, 292–93 371 366 363–64 355 238, 401 288, 292, 369 293 7, 11–13, 16, 23– 24, 137–38 37, 120 331 260 260 300, 331 362 357 37 60 367 318 227 57, 316 51, 148, 315, 364 38 262 172 13 173 291 59, 223, 372 377 137 51 84 364 365 361 224 360 225 54, 394 28, 63 139, 146 63, 65

457

Index of References 60:1–22 60:4 60:7 60:8–9 60:9 60:10 60:14 60:15 60:21 61:1 61:1–3 61:2–3 61:4 61:10 61:11 62 62:1 62:3 62:4 62:4–5 62:5 62:6 62:6–7 62:10 62:11–12 62:12 63:1 63:6 63:7–14 63:7–64:11

63:8 63:8–10 63:9 63:10 63:11–14 63:12–14 63:14 63:15 63:15–64:11 63:16 63:17 63:17–19a

323 130, 306, 330 150 330 130 58, 315, 393 278 96, 391, 408 148 110, 203, 264, 276, 280 9, 13, 266 21 137, 403 394–95 291 62 60, 65, 151 407 96, 137, 391, 408 395, 407 408 64 63, 215 309, 333 325 279, 408 272 112 137 5, 16, 51, 62, 67– 68, 136–39, 148, 152–53, 234, 252, 346, 351, 364, 395, 411 140 140 140 55, 140–41 333 143 174 61–62, 137, 150, 219 137 140, 147, 329 55, 142, 145, 148, 236, 362, 364 139, 142, 146

63:18

66:24

112, 138, 144–46, 150 142, 144 146 142 141 141, 318 51, 141–42 140, 147–48, 329 139, 147 148, 152 149–51, 292 138, 142, 149, 385 149–51 60–62, 137, 149, 151–52 137 371 364 357 357, 392 291, 358 137 59, 372 149 357, 364 81 402–3 402 403 9 384 55 58 357 9 28, 66, 323 233 231–32, 260, 322, 330 336, 360

Jeremiah 1:3 1:4–10 1:6 1:9 1:10 2–3

37 76 85 85 190 380

63:18–19a 63:19a 64:4 64:4b–6 64:5 64:6 64:7 64:7–11 64:8 64:9 64:9–10 64:10 64:11 65–66 65:1 65:2 65:2–5 65:11 65:17 65:21–22 65:24 65:25 66:3 66:6 66:7–13 66:8 66:10–12 66:12 66:13 66:15 66:15–16 66:17 66:18 66:18–24 66:19–20 66:20

458 2:9 2:13 2:15 2:18 2:20 2:24 2:32 2:36–37 3:1 3:6–11 3:8 3:18 3:22 4:1 4:7 4:11 4:16 4:19 4:19–21 4:20 4:28 4:29 4:30 4:30–31 5:15 5:28 6:1 6:1–2 6:2 6:7 6:8 6:14 6:23 6:26 7:15 7:26 7:29 7:33 8:7 8:9–10 8:11 8:28–23 8:21 9:9–11 9:10 9:10–15 9:11 9:12–13 9:15

Index of References 316 141, 187, 371 223 176 271, 276 61 395 176 316 380 316, 380 307 90 156 93 299, 318 114, 130 109 381 355 96 96 395 381 114, 130 90 82, 322 381 70 236 93 228 109 111, 355 163 355 409 238 224 176 228 111 111 38 70, 93, 95 95 45 95 70, 298

10:16 10:17–18 10:17–22 10:19 10:20 10:21 11:19 12:7 12:10 12:10–11 13 13:1–11 13:17 13:18–19 13:22 13:26 14:2–6 14:6 14:8 14:9 14:17 14:17–18 14:19 15:2 15:3 15:4 15:7 15:8 15:10 16:1–13 16:10–13 16:13 16:18 17:5–8 17:7–8 17:13 18–19 18:5 18:12 18:17 18:21 18:22 19:1–13 19:9 19:13 19:14–15 20:1–6 20:4 20:5

144 180 381 83, 236 403 298 218, 238, 240, 242 49, 55, 70, 115 144, 150 93 169 178 111, 261, 325 193 37 175, 190 370 61 117 146 111 110 110 182 306 132 299 355 83 178–79 95 161, 189 256 341 371 117, 371 147 108 364 318 397 355 107, 178, 192 271 108 192 192 37 267

459

Index of References 20:11 21:3–10 21:5 21:8 22:5 22:10 22:10–12 22:11–12 22:13–19 22:18 22:24–27 22:24–30 22:26 22:28 22:28–30 23:1–2 23:1–8 23:3 23:5 23:13 23:19 23:32 24:5 24:6 25 25:8–13 25:9 25:15 25:18–26 25:27 26:17–19 27 27:6 27:10 27:11 28:3 28:4 29:2 29:10 29:10–14 29:13 29:14 29:20 29:22 30–31 30:8 30:10 30:14 30:16

269 70 55 218 149 193 180, 193 193 199 190 193 192–93, 242 161, 189, 193, 199 161, 163, 189, 199 193, 243 298 193 326–27 376 361 318 361 175, 316 190 70 70 181, 308 56 57 56 135 178, 181 70, 181 94, 130 260 174 175 276 48 364 371 300 316 175 6 276 130, 250, 334 140, 236 267

30:17 31:7–14 31:8 31:9 31:10 31:11 31:15–16 31:19 31:21 31:29 31:34 32 32:29 32:35 32:43 33:1 33:4 33:5 33:6 33:10 33:12 34:5 34:8 34:13 34:22 36:29–31 37 37–38 37:2 37:15 37:18 38:1–13 38:22 39 39:4 39:7 39:15 40:1 40:7 42:13–22 43:8–13 43:10 44 44:6 46 46–51 46:27 47:5 48:12

91 326, 333 326 238 299, 326 326 325 406 309 135 229 108, 169, 178 108 106 93 239 117 50 51, 91, 115 93 93 33, 190 264 249 93 199 70, 166 69 172 264 264 202 202 68, 110 110 110 239 110, 175 222 181 181–82 70, 181 182 93 166, 181 101 130, 250 82, 215 271, 320

460 48:38 48:46 49:32 49:35 49:36 50:4 50:4–5 50:6 50:17 50:33 51 51:2 51:8 51:19 51:27 51:34 51:38 51:43 51:44 51:59–64 52 52:2 52:8 52:15–16 52:31 Lamentations 1 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:3–5 1:4 1:5 1:6 1:6–7 1:8 1:8–10 1:9 1:10 1:12 1:13 1:17 1:18 1:19 1:20 1:21 2:1

Index of References 107 275 299 114 299, 319 371 307 143, 322, 362 224, 300 225, 261, 278 162 286 355 144 322 159, 162, 258, 272 224 117 162 178 27, 68 299 297 222 175

382 382, 384–85, 387, 398, 405 111, 382–83 37, 255, 397 382 38, 385, 403 249 42, 332 383 175, 387 383 111, 383 150–51, 274, 383 236 403 111, 383 236, 249, 383 110, 382 110 111, 383 384

2:1–10 2:2 2:3 2:4–5 2:5–9 2:7 2:8 2:10 2:11 2:12 2:13 2:19 3 3:2 3:4 3:8 3:10 3:34 3:38 3:48 3:53 3:54 3:55 3:55–56 4:1–2 4:2 4:3–5 4:9 4:10 4:11 4:14–15 4:21 4:22 5:7 5:11 5:18 5:20 5:22

149 190 197, 383 140 382 144, 150 385 82, 172, 387 111 110 111 110 174, 229 48, 174, 333 224 223 223 164 47, 82 111 230, 240 240 240 230 384 148 110 110 111 55 156 57 36 135 152 45, 151 142, 391 148, 152

Ezekiel 1–3 1:2 1:13 2:4 3:7 3:7–9 3:24–27 3:27 4–5

76 175 215 96, 355, 360 96, 143, 355, 360 356 83, 178 219 178

461

Index of References 4:1 4:1–3 4:3 4:13 5:3 5:5–17 5:8–9 5:12 5:14–15 6:5 6:6 6:9 6:11–12 6:14 7:2 7:7 7:18 7:20 7:21 7:21–27 7:22 7:24 8:6 8:12 9:9 11:16 11:23 12:1–16 12:11 12:14–15 12:19–20 12:20 12:27 13:10 13:14 13:16 14:8 14:21 15:8 16 16:1–8 16:22 16:29 16:32 16:36–37 16:37 17:4 17:10 17:21

393 180 180 178, 192 178 96 71 306 71 298 197 261 178 71, 93 306 112–13 118 395 242, 267 71 115 242 71, 115 49 49 94, 130, 298 71, 115 179–81 249 299 71 93 118 228 190 228 180 306 93 381 406 406 241–42 381 37 116, 383, 387 241 318 306

18:2 18:18 19:12–13 20 20:8 20:12 20:13 20:20 20:21 21:23–27 22:5 22:11 23 23:3 23:8 23:10 23:14 23:19 23:21 23:22–29 23:26 23:29 23:34 23:36–39 24:21 24:25–27 25–32 25:5 26–32 26:4 26:12 26:20 27:26 27:31 28:8 29–32 29:3 29:10 29:18–19 30:6 32:2 33:3 33:21 33:21–22 33:23–27 33:28–29 33:32 34 34:5

135 225 319 359 359 180 359 180 359 178 84 152 381, 406 406 406 116 187 406 406 381 381 383, 387 56 381 150 83 101 45, 98 177 190 190 218 318 118 272 166 162, 289 332 325 332 82, 162, 289 322 175 83 218 93 218 298 38

462

Index of References

34:5–6 34:11–16 34:12 34:14 34:15 34:16 34:21 34:28 35:4 36:3 36:4 36:20 36:34 36:35 37 37:11 37:14 37:15–28 38:12–13 39:11 39:23 39:23–24 39:29 40–48 40:1 43:9 47:1 47:13–23

298 326, 333 298 326, 332 326 322, 327 298 267 149 61 267 278 93 404 240–41, 246 240 260 178, 307 267 113 37 50 51 5 175 94 371 322

Daniel 9:17

144

Hosea 1 1:9 1:11 2 2:2 2:5 2:12 2:15 3 3:5 4:1 4:5–6 4:6 4:10 4:11 4:12

178 36 140 316, 380 307 371 116, 387 395 178 371 38, 316 82 38, 215 404 34 362

6:1 6:3 7:5 7:11 9:3–4 9:17 10:7 13:7 13:8 13:15 14:2 14:5

91 34 34 159 192 226 49, 82 223 397 318 90 90

Joel 1:6 1:7 1:13–14 1:14 1:18 2:1 2:2 2:12 2:12–17 2:15 2:25 4 4:2 4:5 4:6 4:12 4:13 4:14 4:17 4:18

223 175 119 119 112 60, 322 65 118 119 119, 322 286 81, 106, 112 112 151 94, 130, 276 81, 112 261 109, 112–13 275 371

Amos 1–2 1:5 1:6 1:9 1:11 2:4 2:4–5 2:6–16 2:16 3:5 3:6 3:11 3:14

31 106, 113 37, 175 175 158 361 101 101 173 268 47 287 197

463

Index of References 4:1 4:1–3 4:2 4:2–3 4:8 4:10 5:3 5:5 5:12 5:18–20 5:27 6:1 6:1–7 6:4–6 6:6 6:7 6:9 7:9 7:10–17 7:11 7:12–13 7:14–15 7:16–17 7:17 8:11 8:12 8:13 9:2 9:2–4 9:7 9:9 9:12

34 39, 57, 385 132 31 156 286 60, 97 37 283 30, 65, 112 39, 191 40 39 39 34 31, 40, 191 97 191 191 191–92 191 191 191 191 332, 372 156 57, 372 42 156 106, 113 156, 321 404

Obadiah 1:20

175

Jonah 1 1–2 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:10 1:11–13 1:12 1:15 2 2:3 2:3–10

157 161 161, 164, 229 161, 188 161, 164, 188, 229 161 319 161, 179, 188 161, 179, 188 213 163, 223 163

2:4–5 2:5 2:6 2:7 3:6–9 4:8 4:16

163 225, 233 163 161, 163–64, 229, 258, 287 119 57 161

Micah 1:16 2:11 2:12 2:12–13 2:13 3:4 3:5 3:6 3:10 3:12 4:6 4:6–8 4:7–8 7:4 7:19

37 34 327 327 327 50, 59, 64 361 64 215 45 327 327 327 112 229

Nahum 1:8 1:13 2:2 2:4 2:8 2:13 3:5

49 276 297 174 224 268 37, 116, 190

Habakkuk 1:14–16 2:5 2:6–20 2:9–13 3:2 3:14

57 41, 215, 258 30 215 262 297

Zephaniah 1:5 1:11 1:14 1:15 2:4

107 215 60 65 96

464

Index of References

2:6 2:14 3:10 3:11

45–46, 98 45 298 109

Haggai 2:1–2

172

Zechariah 1–8 1:12 2:1–4 2:10 2:12 2:13 3:2 3:11 4:7 4:12 6:15 7:8–14

5–6 92 299 319 149 308 50 43 108 321 130 96

7:14 9:5 9:14 10:3 10:9 10:11 12:10 13:4 13:7 14:8 14:13

319 171 322 325 130, 329 308 118 172 298 371 112

Malachi 2:3

298

Sirach 48:17–21 48:22 48:22–25 48:23 48:24–25

21 21 20 21 21

New Testament Matthew 3:4 4:8–9 Acts 10:9

172 131

107

1 Corinthians 15:32

119

Revelation 3:7

198

Author Index Abernethy, A. T. 15, 30 Ackroyd, P. R. 2, 4–5, 7–8, 25, 70, 122, 125, 129–131, 133–35, 159–60, 201–4, 207–8, 210, 229 Aejmelaeus, A. 138–39, 145, 148 Ahn, J. J. 2–4, 6, 14 Albertz, R. 5, 7, 16, 67, 69–70, 92, 137– 38, 238, 250 Allis, O. T. 21 Ames, F. R. 4, 6 Baldauf, B. 338, 345, 352 Balentine, S. E. 6, 47, 50, 52–53, 59, 61 Balogh, C. 165–67, 171–74, 176–78 Baltzer, K. 20, 254, 256 Barrré, M. L. 204–6, 211–13, 215, 217, 219–22, 224, 226–28, 240 Barrett, R. 356–57 Barstad, H. 3, 23, 73, 368–69 Batchelder, C. 79, 85, 99 Becker, U. 78, 94 Becking, B. 68 Beentjes, P. C. 20 Begg, C. T. 124, 128, 134 Begrich, J. 204, 207, 211, 213, 218, 220– 21, 226 Ben Zvi, E. 3, 26 Berges, U. 9, 13–14, 16, 23–25, 27, 30, 48, 52–59, 77–78, 101, 103, 122, 131, 139, 145, 149, 152, 214, 235–36, 239, 246– 47, 250–56, 261, 263, 265, 269, 283, 285–88, 290, 324–25, 328, 332, 334, 342, 345–48, 351–53, 355–56, 358, 367, 371, 375, 380, 382, 384, 387, 392–93, 397, 399, 401, 407 Berlin, A. 382, 384 Beuken, W. A. M. 13–14, 24–25, 30, 32– 33, 35–36, 41, 43–44, 89, 109–10, 113–14, 117, 120, 166, 184, 207, 209,

213–14, 229, 302, 304, 307–8, 310, 312–19, 321–22 Bewer, J. A. 159 Biddle, M. E. 380, 386 Bleeker, L. H. K. 242 Blenkinsopp, J. 3, 30–33, 48–49, 52, 62– 63, 77, 81, 86, 89, 98, 105–6, 112–15, 120, 122, 124, 126–28, 132, 139, 144– 45, 166, 169, 171–72, 185, 188, 196, 198, 207, 211, 217, 221, 225, 227, 229, 251–52, 265, 270–72, 274–75, 277, 290, 302–3, 310–11, 313, 317, 321, 324, 330, 343, 345, 347, 349–50, 360, 363–64, 366, 369–70, 390, 393, 396– 97, 399, 402, 404, 407–8 Boda, M. J. 6, 319, 329 Borocin-Knol, S. 392 Bosman, H. 289, 317 Bosshard-Nepustil, E. 103, 195, 199 Brandscheidt, R. 52–53 Brown, M. L. 244–45 Brownlee, W. H. 19 Brueggemann, W. 48 Buhl, F. 23, 145 Burnett, J. S. 28, 47, 339 Bürki, M. 312 Byron, J. 155 Calvin, J. 22 Campbell, S. 89 Carroll, R. P. 5–6, 8–9, 14, 70, 73, 154, 160, 162, 182, 193, 336–38 Cassuto, U. 156–58 Childs, B. S. 25, 30–31, 33, 37, 44, 52, 62, 65, 78, 80–81, 83–84, 89, 99, 101–5, 107, 111, 114–15, 120, 123, 125, 132, 141, 144, 146, 165, 176–77, 184–86, 195, 199, 201, 206, 209, 211, 235, 237–39, 241, 251–52, 255–56, 265,

466

Author Index

275, 282–83, 287, 290, 310–12, 316, 345, 348, 350, 353, 363, 366–67, 399, 402, 405 Clements, R. E. 31, 36, 44–45, 65, 75, 77, 83, 85, 87, 89, 97, 103, 106, 114, 123– 24, 128, 165, 170, 176, 184–85, 190, 196, 198, 200–1, 206, 295, 302, 305, 310–11, 316, 321, 336, 371, 375 Clifford, R. J. 30, 33 Clines, D. J. A. 237–39 Coats, G. A. 156–58 Coetzee, J. H. 203, 211, 213, 233 Cole, R. L. 89 Cook, P. M. 166–67, 176–77, 181 Croatto, J. S. 306 Cuéllar, G. L. 10 Dahood, M. 127, 219 Daiches, S. 317–18 Darr, K. P. 15, 59 Daube, D. 131 Davidson, R. 157 Day, J. 162 de Boer, P. A. H. 207 Delitzsch, F. 26 Dempsey, C. J. 310 Dille, S. J. 15, 58, 380–81, 384, 391, 407 Dittert, K. 254–55, 268, 386 Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W. 111, 382, 385 Downs, D. 160–61 Doyle, B. 311, 313, 315, 317, 320, 322 Driver, G. R. 33, 313, 317 Driver, S. R. 236, 245 Duhm, B. 7, 23, 115, 234, 244, 316, 331– 32 Eggleston, C. L. 373 Elliger, K. 251–52, 255–56, 263–65, 269, 281–83, 285, 287, 290, 292, 345, 368– 70, 372–73, 376 Emerton, J. A. 32–33, 87 Engnell, I. 77, 84, 97, 243 Eusebius of Caesarea, 21 Evans, C. A. 19 Fabry, H.-J. 371 Fey, R. 39 Fichtner, J. 341 Fischer, G. 162, 182

Fohrer, G. 24, 166–69 Franke, C. A. 134, 386 Franzmann, M. 380, 386–87 Fretheim, T. E. 54 Friebel, K. G. 167–70, 179–81 Fullerton, K. 198 Ganzel, T. 186, 188–89, 195, 197 Gerstenberger, E. 30 Gertz, J. C. 31, 39 Gesenius, W. 23, 145 Gile, J. 297–98 Ginsberg, H. L. 186 Goldenstein, J. 89, 138–40, 142–44, 148– 49, 152 Goldingay, J. 20, 38, 47–49, 52, 55–56, 59–63, 80, 137, 142–43, 145–46, 149, 152, 235, 237, 240–42, 252–53, 261, 263–65, 267–73, 275–77, 279, 284, 286, 291–92, 324–25, 329, 333–34, 342, 344–49, 351–52, 354–55, 358, 363, 366, 370–73, 376, 386–88, 390, 392, 395–96, 399, 401–2, 404–5, 407 Gordon, R. P. 157 Goswell, G. 207, 209–10, 213, 231–32 Goulder, M. 242–44 Grabbe, L. L. 3 Greenberg, M. 180–81 Gregory, B. C. 9–10, 13, 266 Grimm, W. 254–55, 268, 386 Gudme, A. K. de H. 3, 6, 15, 133 Haag, H. 241–42, 244 Habel, N. 76 Hadjiev, T. S. 380 Hägglund, F. 10, 235, 237–38, 245–46 Halvorson-Taylor, M. A. 6, 11–13, 15, 71, 73, 154, 252, 254–55, 257, 264, 266– 67, 269–71, 279, 407 Hanson, P. D. 138–39, 144 Hardmeier, C. 103, 106 Hartenstein, F. 81, 251 Hasel, G. F. 76 Hays, C. B. 32, 41, 185, 187, 189–90, 215–17, 219, 222, 230 Head, P. M. 73–74 Hibbard, J. T. 295, 310–12, 314–15, 321, 323 Hjelm, I. 3, 6, 15

Author Index Hoffer, V. 90, 203–4, 231–32 Holladay, W. 162, 179, 181–82 Hrobon, B. 80, 84 Høgenhaven, J. 6–7, 34–35, 38, 40, 65, 88, 357, 361 Janssen, E. 73 Jenner, K. D. 322 Jenni, E. 198 Jensen, J. 341, 343 Jenson, P. P. 159–61, 163–64 Jeremias, C. 207 Johnson, D. G. 310–11, 317, 321 Johnston, P. S. 41, 216, 272 Jong, M. J. de 78, 94 Joyce, P. 179–180 Kaiser, O. 31–33, 65, 75, 77, 83–84, 91, 94, 97–98, 101, 103, 105, 111, 123–24, 127, 166–67, 169, 185–86, 190, 197, 215, 217, 243, 259–60, 302–3, 308, 310, 313, 317, 321, 342, 366 Kapelrud, A. S. 242–43 Kasher, R. 205, 209 Kelle, B. E. 2, 4 Kennedy, J. M. 201 Keown, G. L. 182 Kessler, J. 6, 9, 14, 67, 72–74 Kiefer, J. 3 Kim, H. C. P. 12, 43, 80, 101, 107 Klein, A. 290, 381 Klein, R. 5, 7, 174 Knibb, M. A. 2, 20 Knight, G. A. F. 24 Koenen, K. 145 Konkel, A. H. 122, 205 Korpel, M. C. 31–32, 34 Kostamo, S. K. 26–27 Kraus, H.-J. 163 Kronholm, T. 299 Kustár, Z. 15, 90, 205, 232, 235–36 Laato, A. 241 Lamb, D. T. 54–56 Landy, F. 1, 10–11, 13, 28, 35, 38, 41–42, 44, 64, 75–76, 78, 80, 82, 85, 90–92, 95, 98, 251, 337 Lau, W. 138, 140, 145, 148–149, 151 Leene, H. 235, 311, 314, 318

467

Lessing, R. R. 21 Leuchter, M. 6 Levin, C. 3, 69 Lim, B. H. 19, 23 Linafelt, T. 383 Lipschits, O. 3 Locke, J. W. 54, 58 Low, M. 15, 56, 380, 382, 384, 391–92, 397, 399, 403, 406 Lucas, E. C. 339 Lund, Ø. 15, 40, 332–34, 345, 351, 361– 62, 374 Lust, J. 296–97 Luther, M. 22 Macintosh, A. A. 63–65 Maier, C. 380, 391, 407 Marböck, J. 20 McEvenue, S. 20 McKeown, J. 158 Melugin, R. F. 25, 76, 250–51, 344 Mettinger, T. N. D. 245 Middlemas, J. 2–5, 7–8, 14, 137 Milgrom, J. 85 Miscall, P. D. 204, 233 Moberly, R. W. L. 32, 44–45 Morgan, D. F. 339, 341 Motyer, J. A. 21 Müller, R. 72, 75, 78, 90, 93 Mulzer, M. 22 Murphy, R. E. 339 Na’aman, N. 184–85 Navarro, E. F. 374 Neubauer, A. 236, 245 Nielsen, K. 15, 77–78, 97–99 Niskanen, P. 147, 408 North, C. R. 236, 241–42, 244–45, 330 Obermayer, B. 15, 54 Olson, D. T. 155, 158, 297, 339 Oosting, R. 253 Oswalt, J. N. 21, 32–33, 36, 42, 45, 64–65, 75, 77, 89, 95, 102–4, 106–7, 113, 122, 128, 132, 171–72, 176, 186–87, 189, 195, 211, 213, 216, 220, 225, 230, 260, 302–3, 305, 309, 311, 316–17, 321–22, 351, 360, 366–67, 376

468

Author Index

Park, S.-M. S. 28, 122–23 Parker, T. C. 380 Paul, S. M. 16, 37, 43, 45, 49–50, 52, 56– 59, 62, 141–43, 145, 237, 239–41, 246, 251–52, 257, 261, 264–65, 268, 271, 273, 275, 278, 283, 286, 288–90, 319, 325–26, 329–30, 334, 343, 345–46, 349, 353, 363–64, 366, 370, 372, 374, 387, 390, 392, 394, 396, 399, 401–2, 404–5, 407 Payne, D. 235, 237, 240–42 Perdue, L. G. 47 Petersen, D. L. 5, 96 Pfaff, H.-M. 76 Phinney, R. H. 76 Pilkington, C. 47 Pokrifka, J. 341, 371 Poulsen, F. 7, 13, 22, 27–28, 70–71, 82, 95–97, 109, 112, 114–15, 163, 177, 195, 230, 234, 239, 244, 257, 263, 274, 285, 295, 304, 306–8, 323, 326, 331– 33, 338, 349, 368, 373, 383 Power, C. 5, 7 Prokhorov, A. V. 78, 86

Simon, U. 22 Smart, J. D. 159–62, 253, 265, 268, 272, 338, 347, 350, 355, 375 Smelik, K. A. D. 122 Smith, D. L. 4 Smith, G. V. 89 Smith, P. A. 138 Smith-Christopher, D. L. 4, 10, 160, 163, 249 Snaith, N. H. 245 Soggin, J. A. 240–41 Sommer, B. 383, 403 Spencer, B. J. 369–70, 372 Stassen, S. L. 399, 405 Steck, O. H. 16, 24–25, 75–77, 81, 139, 295–96 Stern, P. 347 Stökl, J. 3 Stromberg, J. 13, 16, 24, 138, 301, 306 Stuhlmueller, C. 279, 282 Stulman, L. 179, 182 Sweeney, M. 19, 23, 25, 30, 65, 75–77, 87, 97, 99, 101–3, 106, 114, 122–23, 125– 26, 166, 196–97, 205, 214, 233, 259, 301–2, 310–11, 316, 319

Quinn-Miscall, P. D. 204 Rendtorff, R. 76, 89, 91, 96, 251 Ridpath, I. 28 Ringgren, H. 297 Roberts, J. J. M. 321 Rothstein, D. 210, 242 Saur, M. 339 Sawyer, J. F. A. 380, 384, 387, 399, 402, 406 Schipper, J. 235–36, 244 Schleicher, M. 384–85, 393 Schmid, K. 101, 114, 199 Schmitt, J. J. 384 Scott, J. M. 2 Seitz, C. R. 7, 25, 27, 31, 76–77, 92, 97, 103, 109, 115, 122, 128–29, 132, 135, 165, 177, 201, 206, 209, 213–14, 251– 52, 302, 304, 311, 316–17 Sellin, E. 241–44 Seufert, M. 21 Sherwood, Y. 160, 162, 164 Shields, M. A. 341–42

Terblanche, M. D. 269 Terian, A. 57 Thompson, T. L. 158–59 Tiemeyer, L.-S. 7, 16, 138–39, 159, 161, 286, 290, 329, 369, 383, 397 Tull, P. K. 30, 107, 383 Turner, K. J. 72, 74, 297 Uhlig, T. 15, 76, 81, 84, 89–90, 139, 143, 345, 351, 355–56 van der Kooij, A. 87 van der Woude, A. 384 van Grol, H. W. M. 317 van Wieringen, A. L. H. M. 213 Vermeylen, J. 24, 198 Vincent, J. M. 23 Vogt, E. 83 von Rad, G. 203, 256 Waerzeggers, C. 3 Wagner, T. 25, 76, 80, 202, 213, 221 Walsh, J. T. 163

Author Index Watts, J. W. 207–8, 229 Weinberg, J. 155 Weinfeld, M. 339 Weiser, A. 163 Wenham, G. J. 156, 158 Westermann, C. 37, 47–49, 52, 56, 60, 62– 63, 137–38, 141, 145, 151, 156–58, 237, 239, 252, 265–66, 269, 274–78, 281, 285–86, 290, 296, 325, 328, 344– 46, 349, 363, 367–68, 388–89, 395, 399, 405, 408 Wetter, A.-M. 37, 300 Whedbee, J. W. 341 Whybray, R. N. 237, 239–42 Widengren, G. 298, 300 Wildberger, H. 31–35, 44, 63, 75–79, 81– 82, 84, 86, 88–90, 97–99, 101, 103, 105–7, 113–15, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126–28, 130, 132, 134–35, 165–66, 169, 171–73, 176–77, 183–85, 189–90, 195–99, 205, 207, 211, 213, 217, 224– 25, 227, 230, 259–60, 262, 302–4, 306–7, 310–11, 313, 317, 320–21, 343, 350, 366, 374, 376, 385 Wilken, R. L. 22

469

Willey, P. T. 383, 403 Williamson, H. G. M. 1, 23–25, 31–36, 39–40, 42, 44–46, 75, 77, 96, 122, 136–38, 204, 251, 259, 302–4, 336, 341, 351, 385, 396 Willis, J. T. 184, 186–89, 195–96, 198, 310–11, 321 Wilson, L. 341–42 Wilson, R. R. 83 Wischnowsky, M. 111 Wolff, H. W. 39, 160, 191–92 Wong, G. C. I. 89 Wright, C. H. H. 159, 163 Wright, J. L. 4 Young, E. J. 21, 25, 35–39, 44, 52, 65, 81, 89, 106–7, 109, 112–14, 132, 135, 144, 148, 151, 170, 173–74, 176, 186, 189, 207, 210, 216, 220, 223, 252, 255–56, 303, 311, 316–17, 321, 366 Young, R. A. 122 Zimmerli, W. 179, 181 Zipor, M. 355 Zobel, H.-J. 36

Subject Index 1QIsaa 19, 48, 55–56, 58, 62, 106, 113, 126, 145, 147, 171, 217, 222, 226, 228, 237, 252, 260, 269, 275, 285–86, 289, 313, 324, 331–32, 345, 354, 363, 374, 390, 401, 407 1QIsab 63 Aaron 92, 162, 356 abandonment 15, 49, 66, 71–72, 95, 115, 159, 242–43, 260, 318, 329, 385, 388– 89, 395, 402, 405–13 Abel 155, 158 Abiram 41 Abraham 22, 91, 155, 195, 277, 322, 328– 29, 331, 355, 402, 404 Adam 155, 157, 164, 316 Africa 283 Ahaz 75, 112, 116, 129, 171, 206 Ahimaaz 115 Amaziah 39, 191–92, 200 Ammon, Ammonites 45, 93, 173, 300, 302, 307 Amnon 210, 402 Amos 39, 173, 191–92, 200 anger 16, 19, 47, 49–51, 54–59, 66, 92, 97, 134, 141, 148, 157, 161, 261, 274, 304, 315, 345, 352, 359, 364, 379, 406, 411 Aquila 80, 213, 316 Ar 82 Arabia 63, 283 Aram 106, 113–14, 281 Ariel 106, 271 Ashdod 103, 165, 167, 170–73, 176, 182 Asherah 86 Ashkelon 82 Assyria, Assyrians 3, 22, 39, 54, 69, 107, 112, 122, 125, 127–28, 133, 165, 170– 71, 173, 176–78, 182, 184, 192, 206,

220, 224, 278, 301–2, 305, 307–9, 313–14, 322, 329, 331, 380–81, 404 Aswan 334 Babel, tower of 296–97, 338–39 Babylon, Babylonians 1, 2–4, 7, 10, 20, 25, 31, 36, 45, 54, 68–71, 81, 93, 102, 107–8, 110–11, 113, 115–18, 121–34, 136, 151, 153, 155, 159–60, 162, 166– 67, 177, 179–83, 189, 192–94, 216, 224–25, 236, 241, 243, 245–46, 249– 50, 257, 259–63, 265, 267–70, 275–76, 278–79, 284–90, 292–94, 299, 305, 311–12, 316, 328, 334–55, 358, 362, 368–69, 381, 386–88, 404, 412–13 Babylonian captivity, exile 2, 6, 9, 12, 22, 26, 31, 67–68, 123, 159–60, 178, 203, 242–43, 246, 250, 264–65 Babylonian king 42, 68, 71, 121, 127–28, 132, 134, 144, 162, 194, 243, 258, 261, 271, 394, 412 banner 305, 322, 335 Baruch 181 Benjamin 197 Bethel 119, 191–92, 328 black hole 1–2, 16, 19, 28–29, 43, 46, 59, 64–67, 83, 99–100, 136, 153, 234, 250–51, 253–54, 296, 384–87, 394–95, 411–13 blessing 13, 28, 48, 62, 71–73, 128, 135, 140, 143, 146, 256, 293, 340, 371, 374 blind, blindness 12, 15, 17, 34–35, 88, 115, 179, 263–66, 269, 281, 285, 326, 333, 336–39, 342–49, 351–52, 361–63, 365–67, 373–78, 413–14 see also ignorance Boaz 407 Budde, K. 158 Baal, Baals 108

Subject Index Cain 49, 154–59, 161, 164, 227, 233, 235, 240, 372 call narrative, commission 75–77, 87, 89, 91, 93, 160, 215, 251–52, 337 Calvin, J. 22 Canaan, Canaanites 176, 242, 297 Chaldea, Chaldeans 69–70, 93, 257, 284, 286–88, 387 cognitive metaphors 17, 35, 39, 333, 336, 338, 348, 361, 378, 413 compass, metaphor of the 295–96, 305, 328, 334, 394, 404, 412 Condamin, A. 186 covenant 37, 50, 69, 71–74, 150, 196, 229, 263, 316, 340, 345, 358, 380 creation 24, 28, 42, 47, 84, 95, 118, 138, 143, 149, 244, 282, 285, 288–89, 291– 92, 340–41, 353, 355, 357–58, 365–66, 368, 372, 377 creator 47, 52, 65, 83, 99, 102, 118–19, 147, 281–82, 285–86, 288–89, 291, 333, 342, 357–58, 368, 373, 378 cup of wrath 57, 256, 274, 377, 379 Cyril of Alexandria 22 Cyrus 11, 22–23, 52, 68, 70, 159, 250, 265, 280–81, 283, 286–87, 355–56, 393 Daham 41 Damascus 39, 45 Daniel 119, 154 Daughter Zion 36, 42, 82, 111, 216, 273, 275–76, 380, 384, 386, 391, 407 David 20, 39, 99, 105–6, 173, 175, 188, 195–96, 205, 210, 214, 221, 306–7, 326, 355 Davidic king, kingship 99, 136, 143, 153, 193, 210, 307 Davidic monarchy 70, 77, 99, 102, 123– 24, 132, 184, 195–99, 210, 248, 307, 322–23, 404 Day of Judgment 112 desert 40, 45, 63–64, 101, 137, 202, 285, 291–93, 309, 316, 318, 330, 332–33, 341, 366, 368–71, 373–75, 386, 394 see also wilderness Deuteronomistic History 4–5, 69, 122, 124, 166 Deuteronomistic Law Code 72

471

Deuteronomistic tradition 69, 74–75, 127, 160, 166, 171, 350, 404 diaspora 3–6, 8, 10, 14, 68, 155, 160, 164, 260, 289, 296–97, 301, 304–7, 333, 369, 392 disorientation 15, 17, 35, 142, 336, 361, 365, 376, 378–79, 412–13 dispersion 15, 17, 238, 245, 295–97, 300, 322, 333, 361, 412–13 see also scattering divorce 316, 380, 391–92, 395, 397, 409 see also marriage drinks, drinking 29–30, 33–35, 39–41, 43, 45–46, 56–57, 105, 119, 337, 341, 343, 363 Dumah 63–64 Döderlein, J. C. 22–24 Eden 150, 155, 157–58, 173, 292, 316, 374–75 Edom 36, 54, 63–64, 158, 281, 302, 307– 8, 330, 386 Egyptian captivity, slavery 220, 262–64, 280, 303 Eichhorn, J. G. 23 Elam 105, 113–14, 300, 302, 305, 319 Eliakim 17, 21, 102, 154, 183–84, 190, 194–200, 248, 412 Elkanah 107 empty land 5–6, 9, 14, 72–74, 153, 255, 319 Ephraim 34, 115, 302–3, 306, 310, 406 see also Northern Kingdom Esar-haddon 210 Esau 146 Esther 68, 154 Ethiopia 165, 169–71, 174–75, 177, 182, 281, 283, 302, 305, 333 Euphrates 286, 299, 302, 307–8, 313, 322 Eusebius of Caesarea 21 Eve 155, 164 exodus 5, 8, 73–74, 280, 288, 290, 303, 307, 333, 355, 372, 375 Exodus tradition 303, 307–8, 333, 355 Ezekiel 76, 82–83, 88, 178–182, 238, 247, 356 female imagery 379–88, 397–98, 409 see also woman, women

472

Subject Index

fertility 71, 340, 368–69, 373 forced migration 4, 6, 14, 297, 300 Gad 87 gathering 9, 222, 251, 281, 295–96, 300–1, 303, 305–6, 309–12, 320–24, 326–30, 334–35, 344, 361, 364, 394, 412–13 Gesenius, W. 23 Gideon 76, 320 Gilgal 37, 39 Gog of Magog 113 Gomorrah 87 grave 42, 98, 161, 186, 188–89, 192, 212, 228–29, 233, 236–38, 241–44, 247, 258, 270, 272, 275, 384 see also pit, prison, Sheol Greeks 94, 276 guidance 61, 85, 143, 174, 279, 292, 325, 333, 336, 338, 342–44, 352–53, 361, 365–67, 372, 412–13 see also shepherd, shepherd imagery Hagar 361 Haman 61 Hamath 302, 305, 404 Hannah’s prayer 53, 401 hardening 15, 34, 75–76, 78, 85, 87–92, 95, 100, 131, 137, 139, 141–42, 152– 53, 174, 236, 252, 254, 264, 337–38, 346, 351, 364, 368, 370, 375, 377, 414 healing 86, 90–91, 126, 129, 201, 203, 205–6, 214, 225, 227, 230–33, 236, 291, 308, 315, 346, 365, 374 see also illness heavenly court 20, 251 Hermon 39 Hezekiah 1, 11, 17, 19–22, 25, 28, 37, 63, 77, 90, 102, 107–8, 112, 121–36, 151, 154–55, 161, 163, 172, 183–85, 198, 200–11, 214–19, 221–36, 240, 248, 257–58, 272, 287, 295, 335, 375, 394, 412 hiddenness 16, 19, 47–48, 50–54, 58–59, 141, 315, 338 highway 301–2, 309, 318, 366 Hinnom 106, 108, 192 Holiness Code 5, 72

honor 57–58, 92, 127–28, 189, 194, 196, 285, 292, 359, 379–80, 382–84, 395, 398, 407, 409–10, 413 see also shame Hosea 178, 361 Hoshea of Samaria 264 Huldah’s prophecy 132 Ibn Ezra 22, 244–45 idols, idolatry 54, 107–8, 110–11, 115, 121, 179, 261, 299, 311–12, 314, 316, 318–20, 323, 336, 338, 347, 353–57, 359–62, 364, 367, 371–72, 378, 381, 413 Idumea 63 see also Edom ignorance 34–35, 39, 42, 46, 87–88, 100, 102, 254, 264, 282, 337–41, 343–44, 347, 350, 352, 359, 361, 377, 413 illness 15, 73, 90, 121–22, 124, 127–29, 135, 200–2, 204–7, 209, 211, 214, 229, 231–33, 235–36, 245, 247–48 Immanuel, Immanuel-sign 202, 232 Jacob 4, 51, 55, 119, 155, 245, 258, 260, 280–82, 286, 297, 310, 313–14, 318, 320, 323, 325–28, 331–32, 334, 342, 345, 350, 354, 370, 375, 389, 404 Jehoahaz 193 Jehoiachin 68–69, 123, 133, 175, 189, 191–94, 199–200, 241–45, 247, 264– 65, 394 Jehoiakim 184, 190, 193, 199–200 Jehoshaphat, valley of 106, 112 Jeremiah 69, 71, 76, 85, 88, 109, 111, 169, 178–79, 181–82, 192, 200, 202, 238, 242, 246–47, 271, 276 Jeroboam 191, 299 Job 148, 246–47 Jonah 42, 154–55, 159–64, 188, 201, 215, 223–25, 229, 233, 240, 246, 258, 272, 287, 319, 396 Jonathan 115 Joppa 161 Joseph 61, 151, 155, 174, 195, 249, 254, 265, 269, 276 Joshua 197 Josiah 132, 135, 184, 193, 195, 198, 302 justice 1, 28, 30, 32, 44, 108, 115, 215, 237, 239, 265, 342–43, 349, 361

Subject Index Kenites 158 Kidron 106 Kir 82, 105–6, 113–14 Korah 41 Lady Babylon 37, 55–56, 175, 274, 343, 379, 384, 386–87, 398, 402, 409 Lady Folly 362 Lady Wisdom 305 laments, lamentation 4, 33, 61–62, 83, 100, 111, 121, 137–38, 157, 164, 172–73, 175, 213, 218–19, 222, 225, 236, 240, 252–53, 269, 271, 274, 276, 284, 290, 295, 343, 370, 382–85, 389 leadership 176, 332–33, 336, 361, 363, 366, 378 Lebanon 329, 373 Levi, Levites 254, 297 Leviathan 310, 312, 315, 321 Lilith 64 liturgy, liturgical 91, 137–38, 213, 251, 305, 322 Lot 404 Luther, M. 22 Malchiah, cistern of 202 Manasseh 132–33, 198, 267, 306, 361 marriage 178, 380, 383, 392, 405, 407–10 see also divorce Masoretes 188, 214, 217, 318 Masoretic text (MT) 32–33, 37, 51, 55, 58, 62–63, 97, 105–6, 126, 144–45, 164, 171, 186, 188, 211, 217, 222, 226, 228, 237, 266, 269, 273, 281, 285–86, 327, 331, 343, 345, 363, 374, 390, 400, 407 Masoretic tradition 59, 171, 173, 213–14, 366 Media 113 Mediterranean Sea 305 Megiddo 193 Merodach-baladan 25, 121, 123–25, 127, 134 Mesopotamia 113, 189, 307 Messiah, messianic figure 1, 60, 198, 202, 242, 265, 301 see also Davidic king, kingship Micaiah, son of Imlah 264, 298 Midianites 320 Minor Prophets 297

473

Moab 44, 93, 111, 174, 271–72, 275, 300, 302, 307, 360 Moloch 106 morning 32–34, 65, 192, 197, 212, 223, 367 see also night Moses 41, 72, 76, 85, 92, 155, 195, 220, 283, 297–98, 320, 340, 346, 358, 371 Mount of Olives 106 Mount Scopus 106 naked, nakedness 11, 37, 40, 116, 165, 168–70, 172–73, 175, 182, 190, 232, 248, 268, 379–83, 387, 394–95, 398, 406, 410, 413 Naomi 326, 382 Nathan 87, 326 Nebuchadnezzar 25, 27, 68–70, 110, 114, 123, 150, 162, 177, 181–82, 193–94, 224 Neo-Assyrian empire 31 New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) 16, 32–33, 37, 73, 80, 97, 105, 142, 144–45, 162, 164, 171, 209, 211–13, 226, 240, 252, 263, 272, 303, 314, 317, 329, 332, 345, 390, 408 night 7, 63–65, 111, 180, 212, 222–23, 226, 262, 318, 340–41, 383, 397 see also morning Nile 181, 332 Nineveh, Ninevites 45, 109, 116, 119, 133, 161, 174, 287 Noah 49, 175, 227, 296, 320 Nob 106 Nod 157–58, 227 Northern Kingdom 3, 69, 77, 97, 134, 191, 200, 267, 306, 310, 380 see also Ephraim Obed 326 Oholah 116 oracles against the nations 100–1 Palestine 169, 268–70, 329, 369 Pashur 191–2, 200 Pathros 302, 305 Paul 119 Pentateuch 71–72, 95, 154, 264, 279, 297 Persia 22, 70

474

Subject Index

Peshitta 63, 147, 186, 263, 269, 316, 331, 374, 400, 407 Pharaoh 82, 89, 92, 162, 181, 193, 195, 199, 288–90 Philistia, Philistines 61, 94, 165, 176, 275, 302, 307 pit 12, 42, 61, 161, 163–64, 202, 212, 218, 228–30, 233–34, 240–41, 248, 258, 270, 272, 283, 288 see also grave, prison, Sheol praise 34, 44, 60, 64, 80, 82, 140, 202–3, 207, 212–13, 216, 218, 221, 229–31, 233–34, 285, 291–92, 328, 349, 375, 384, 401, 403 see also worship Priestly ideology, texts 2, 4, 72–73, 84, 175, 195, 254 Primeval History 158 prison 12, 37, 164, 194, 217, 230, 233, 239, 243–44, 249–50, 254, 258, 263– 64, 272, 287, 330, 387, 390 see also grave, pit, Sheol Promised Land 155, 219, 289, 297, 404 prophecy 4, 6–7, 21–23, 25, 30–31, 69–70, 72, 89, 94, 103, 120, 123, 132–35, 138, 151, 165, 174, 176, 184, 191, 193, 228, 277, 346 Ptolemy 139 rabbinic tradition 22, 55, 159, 202, 210, 236, 278 Rachel 325, 401 Radak 244–45 Rashi 244 Rebekah 401 Red Sea, the 220, 284–85, 288–89 redemption 8, 12–13, 65, 91, 229–30, 249– 50, 254, 264–65, 270, 278–81, 283–84, 287–89, 291–93, 304, 310, 328, 355, 407, 412 remnant 11, 49, 60, 76, 97–98, 133, 174, 178, 180–81, 217, 245, 267, 301–4, 307, 309, 326–27 revelation 21, 28, 37, 44, 64, 80, 84, 91, 106, 115, 324, 338, 349, 351, 365, 372 Riblah 71 Ruth 154, 246, 254, 320–21, 407

Sabbath 49, 70, 72, 255 Samaria 10, 39, 49, 57, 82, 115, 172, 264, 299, 310–12, 404, 406 Samson 275, 401 sanctuary 55, 92, 107, 112, 137, 142, 144– 45, 149–50, 164, 219, 267, 274, 355, 383, 404 see also temple Sarai 401 Sargon II 103, 165, 170–71, 177 Saul 61, 188, 320 savior 57–58, 66, 117, 270, 279, 282, 293– 94, 348, 367 scattering 9, 15, 17, 48, 95–96, 141, 156, 178, 236, 260, 295–301, 306–8, 310– 11, 318–20, 324, 329, 334, 338, 361, 379, 394, 412 see also dispersion Seba 281, 283 Second Temple 9, 247 Seir 63–64, 146 Sennacherib 21, 27, 103, 106, 210, 384 Septuagint (LXX) 32–33, 51, 62–64, 86– 87, 89, 98, 105–6, 126, 142–43, 145, 147, 157, 172, 185–86, 210, 218, 221, 228, 237, 251–52, 274–75, 281, 286, 297, 303, 313, 324, 331, 345, 354, 364, 370, 373, 385, 390, 400–1, 407 seraphs, seraphim 79–82, 84, 100, 251 Servant Songs 234, 241, 244 Shalmaneser 3 shame 37, 56, 116, 170–71, 175–76, 182, 189, 248, 257, 357, 379–80, 383, 386– 87, 391, 397–98, 400, 405–7, 409–10, 413 see also honor Shebna 17, 21, 102, 154, 161, 183–92, 194–200, 241, 248, 295, 379, 393, 412 sheep 33, 45, 105, 158–59, 174, 182, 220, 224, 236, 238, 245, 248, 298–300, 306, 322–27, 335, 361–62 see also shepherd, shepherd imagery Sheol 11, 19, 28–32, 36, 41–43, 46, 64, 66, 163–64, 212, 214–17, 219, 223, 229– 30, 233, 248, 258, 272, 287–88, 295, 363, 388, 411–12 see also grave, pit, prison shepherd, shepherd imagery 38, 40, 158– 59, 174–75, 182, 212, 220–22, 233, 281, 298–300, 306, 317, 324–27, 332– 35, 362, 365, 367, 378, 413 see also guidance, sheep

Subject Index Shilo 107 Shinar 302, 305 shofar 309, 322–23, 331, 335 Sidon 94, 276, 386 sign act, symbolic action 11, 82, 101, 107, 165–74, 177–83, 239, 248, 379 silence 2, 16, 19, 29, 43, 46–47, 59–66, 82–83, 100, 123, 139, 142, 151, 153, 178, 188, 192, 215, 223, 238, 241, 245, 247, 250, 253–54, 384, 387, 409, 411 Sinai 339 Sirach 20–21 Solomon 127, 130, 133, 322 Southern Kingdom 123, 301, 306, 310, 380 spirit 20–21, 74, 98, 140, 143, 174, 212, 227, 262, 265–66, 330, 342, 361, 371, 373–74, 376, 400, 408 Stade, B. 158 suffering servant 17, 80, 90, 123, 154, 218, 232, 234–36, 241–42, 244, 246–48, 295, 361, 399, 412 Syene 331–32, 334 Symmachus 80, 316, 345, 390 Syro-Ephramite war 75 Targum 32, 65, 147, 185–86, 223, 226, 251, 264, 275, 316, 331, 345, 371, 374, 393, 401 Tarshish 37, 161, 330 teaching 28, 265, 336, 340–44, 349, 351, 362–63, 367–68, 378 see also guidance Teman 328, 334 temple 14, 21, 23, 27, 45, 48, 55, 58, 68– 69, 71, 73, 79, 81, 84–85, 97, 100, 107–8, 110, 112–13, 115, 123, 128, 130, 132–33, 136, 138, 144–45, 147, 149–53, 163–64, 172, 188, 190–92, 200, 202–4, 206–7, 216, 218–19, 222, 225–26, 230–34, 240, 246, 251, 259, 268, 274, 278, 303, 382, 411 see also sanctuary Theodotion 80, 213, 316 Tigris 113 torah 35, 97, 140, 339–41, 343, 349, 351– 52, 371 Tyre 94, 102, 109, 177, 218, 276, 386

475

Uzziah 79–80, 171, 240 vineyard 30, 45, 93, 98, 144, 150, 306, 310–12, 314, 321, 384 Vulgate 51, 64, 80, 126, 143, 147, 157, 185–86, 190, 213, 220–21, 252, 263, 269, 275, 287, 303, 316, 324, 331, 354, 390, 400–1, 407 warrior 55, 59–62, 173, 269, 284, 324–25, 334 watchman motif 62–65, 363 Wellhausen, J. 2, 158 wilderness 40, 45, 58, 71, 73, 93, 101, 136, 140, 147, 149–50, 152–53, 155, 157, 174, 285, 291–93, 319, 325, 333, 341, 361–62, 366, 368–76, 386, 404 see also desert wind 65, 96, 141, 161, 188, 299–300, 302, 306–9, 312, 315, 317–20, 330–33, 335, 341 wisdom 30, 38, 89, 266, 299, 333, 338–43, 349, 362–63, 370–71, 375, 377 wisdom literature 34, 38, 43, 338–39 woe, woe-oracle 29–30, 33–34, 39, 47–48, 65, 82–83, 177, 311 woman, women 37, 39, 59–61, 93, 96, 107, 111, 116, 152, 246, 249, 254, 261, 267, 274, 280, 306, 327, 379–92, 397, 399–410, 413 see also female imagery worship 39, 68, 71, 74, 81–82, 107–8, 121, 141, 151, 164, 179, 202, 218, 233, 240, 261, 289–90, 292, 309, 311, 313, 320, 322–23, 339–40, 353, 357, 360–61, 364, 380–82 see also praise Yam 289 Yehud 26, 138 Zadokite community 139, 144 Zaphon 328 Zedekiah 68–70, 110, 117, 133, 166, 180, 194, 199, 243 Zerubbabel 108, 159, 172