Iconographic Exegesis and Third Isaiah (Forschungen Zum Alten Testament 2.Reihe) 9783161500299, 9783161511349, 3161500296

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Forschungen zum Alten Testament Edited by Bernd Janowski (Tübingen) · Mark S. Smith (New York) Hermann Spieckermann (Göttingen)

36

Izaak J. de Hulster

Iconographic Exegesis and Third Isaiah

Mohr Siebeck

Izaak J. de Hulster, born 1979; 2008 PhD (Universiteit Utrecht); 2007–2008 postdoc Universiteit Utrecht, since 2009 post-doc Georg-August-Universität Göttingen.

e-ISBN PDF 978-3-16-151134-9 ISBN 978-3-16-150029-9 ISSN 0940-4155 (Forschungen zum Alten Testament) Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. © 2009 by Mohr Siebeck Tübingen. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was printed by Gulde-Druck in Tübingen on non-aging paper and bound by Buchbinderei Held in Rottenburg. Printed in Germany.

Preface

When the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT; Cambridge, MA) embarked on a project for human-powered flight, they faced the problem of needing someone who would be able to pilot an aeroplane and produce sufficient energy to keep the pedal-powered aircraft flying. Finally, it was the Greek racing cyclist Kanellos Kanellopoulos who – after several tryouts to practice and test the material – on the 23rd of April 1988 made a 116.5 kilometre flight in the Aegean with the ‘Muskelkraftflugzeug’ named ‘Daedalus’.1 A similar problem of who would be able to achieve a multiple accomplishment requiring enterprise is faced in the task of developing a method for iconographic exegesis. Essential to this venture are archaeology, art history, and Biblical Studies. The present study takes on the challenge of responding to this task. Beside these three areas and their overlaps, hermeneutics and cultural anthropology provide important inputs for the present project. This project is not meant to provide a final answer, but is rather an invitation to continue on the road towards the systematic incorporation of iconography and pictorial material into the exegesis of the (Hebrew) Bible. Or with the flight metaphor: this book reports the flight, provides the details of technique and tools, and shares the circumstances endured or taken advantage of. Readers from different backgrounds are warmly invited to contribute with their experience and expertise. Realizing (or in any case hoping) that people with different backgrounds and interests might read this book, the footnotes attempt to serve them abundantly with suggestions for further reading and many references to publications which contributed to the development of the ideas presented in this work. Like1 For more on this project: http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/daedalus/ (11. V. 2007). Paul MacCready, however, was the first to develop a successful aircraft for human-powered flight in 1977 and one which flew across the Channel in 1979 (cf. e.g. http://www.progressiveengineer.com/PEWebBackissues2003/PEWeb%2042%20Se p%2003-2/MacC.htm (11. V. 2007)).

VI

Preface

wise, a number of footnotes refer to other places within the book; let the reader not be disturbed by these footnotes, but enjoy them as an aid to tracing passages which deal with the same subject matter. Furthermore, the references sustain the unity of this study and direct the reader to further information on certain topics, as it is available in the book at hand. When books are published by several publishing houses, or if a publisher has several addresses, in both cases only the first is mentioned. For instance, the German books in the OBO-series are always referred to as ‘Freiburg: Universitätsverlag’2 (or equivalents in French or English), without mentioning: ‘Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht’. Numbers in superscript before the year of publication indicate the edition of a book. Often, complete information concerning an image is unavailable. Due to this lack of information, the present study suffers the same shortcomings. First of all the scale of the images is not indicated; an extenuating circumstance is that the context often makes clear what is the approximate size of an object bearing the image (the image carrier) and that the focus of the present study is on the contents of the images (admitted, size should not be overlooked and the image carrier is an indispensible element in the existence of images and in image hermeneutics). Secondly, for most of the images, dates are given which vary from rough to more precise. Although information on collections and museums is often lacking, biblioghraphic references are given for each of the images. Permission has been requested for all images used. In some cases this has been granted tacitly, in others the appropriate fees have been paid. In several cases where copy-right holders have requested acknowledgement, this is indicated by the addition of the caption ‘reprinted with permission’. Bible quotations in English are taken from the NRSV. The terms ‘Hebrew Bible’ and ‘Old Testament’ alternate, both referring to the same. The study makes use of the abbreviations ‘BCE’ and ‘CE’, in which ‘CE’ means ‘Christian Era’ as well as ‘Common Era’, according to the preferences of the reader.

2

Since 2003 ‘Freiburg: Academic Press Fribourg’.

Acknowledgements

A book is written in an academic community. As the bibliography makes clear, this is an academic community partially found in libraries. Besides those who are engaged in the dialogue which constitutes this book, there are those who were present in person. Besides many colleagues whose cooperation, talks and advice at SBL, EABS and OTW meetings is much appreciated, there are some who need to be mentioned by name, as without their efforts this book would not have been published. First of all, I would like to express my debt of gratitude to B.E.J.H. Becking, M. Dijkstra and K.J.H. Vriezen for supervising the PhD dissertation (Illuminating Images: An iconographic method for Old Testament exegesis with three case studies from Third Isaiah, Utrecht, 2008) which forms the starting point and the basis for the present publication. I extend my sincere thanks to Christoph Uehlinger and Jürgen Zangenberg for their reading of the manuscript and their advice; even when the present book still contains matters of debate and suffers from imperfections and insufficiencies, for which I am responsible. I cordially thank Othmar Keel for his indispensible inspiration. Finally, I express my appreciation to H. Spieckermann, M.S. Smith, B. Janowski and H. Ziebritzki for accepting this book in the FAT-II series. Writing in a foreign language requires native speaker friends; I owe much to Beth Houdijk-Abbess and Nicolas Yuilles for preventing me from grammar mistakes and clumsy wording. The readers probably enjoy much more their work much more than they realize. An academic book is written within community. I would like to specially thank my friends and relatives for their support in this enterprise; above all my beloved, loving wife, Dorottya. Izaak J. de Hulster Utrecht & Göttingen, March 2009

Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V VII IX XIV

I

Towards a way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

1

Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Application to Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Relevance of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Structure of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Method of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 2 3 4 5 6

2

Hermeneutical reflections 2.1 The hermeneutical spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Hermeneutics and exegetical method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 What is a text? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4 Communication and meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.5 Structuring the diversity of exegetical methods . . . . 2.1.6 Theological ‘plus’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.7 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Iconography within the hermeneutical spectrum . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Theoretical basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 7 7 8 10 11 13 16 17 18 18 21

II

The way constructed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

3

Theory for a Method of Iconographic Exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Why images? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 The importance of considering images . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Images as an answer to a textual problem . . . . . . . . .

24 24 24 25

X

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3.2 Key to the chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.1 Understanding through word and image . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.2 Interdisciplinarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Approach to the chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.1 Starting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.3 Aspects of biblical exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Framework: history, theory and archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Archaeology and art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.1 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.2 Cognitive archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.3 Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.4 Art? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Preliminary remarks on images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 What is an image? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Iconography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Defining culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Linking text and image in culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Searching for images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Which images? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Theme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 Concentric circles: culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Researching images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1 Study of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2 Panofsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3 Bätschmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.4 Other approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Relationship of the exegetical and hermeneutical task . . . 3.9.1 Historical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.2 Social science approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.3 Archaeological and sociological approach combined 3.9.4 Imagination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.4.1 System of associated commonplaces . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.4.2 Imagination: the future and the past . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.4.3 Imagination and history writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26 26 26 28 29 29 30 32 37 37 38 40 40 43 44 46 47 48 48 52 52 52 58 63 64 65 67 67 71 77 83 88 89 91 91 93 95 95 95 97 98

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XI

3.9.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.5.1 Concluding remarks on imagination . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.5.1 Conclusion on hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Conclusion: an iconographic method of exegesis . . . . .

100 100 101 102

4

Iconography of Metaphors 4.1 Some mainlines of metaphor theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Cumulative theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Metaphor theory and iconography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

105 106 106 109 110 115 118

III

Walking the way constructed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119

5

Application of the Iconographic Method of Exegesis to Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 About Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 About this chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 About the case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Isaiah and Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Dating and locating Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Theological issues of Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Isaiah 56:1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5 Isaiah 60:1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6 Isaiah 63:3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Yehud in the Persian period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Excursus: pictorial archaeological material . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

120 120 120 120 122 122 125 126 128 128 129 129 138 138 140

Isaiah 56:1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Isaiah 56:1-8, the focus on yad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The meaning of yad in Isaiah 56:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Towards the exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 The exegetical task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Cultural background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Pictorial material for Isaiah 56:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Standing stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

144 144 145 147 151 151 154 154 154 155

6

XII

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6.6 Exegesis of Isaiah 56:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Evaluation and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

163 167

7

Isaiah 60:1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Light in Isaiah 60:1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Pictorial material for Isaiah 60:1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Rosette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Rosettes as a solar motif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Corroborations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 BMC Palestine XIX 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.3 History of interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.4 Other observations: a unique coin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Thematically related studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.1 Samarian seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.2 Pharao als “vollkommene Sonne” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.3 Rosette, royalty and sun deity in the wider circles . 7.7 The sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7.1 The sun in the Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7.2 The sun in Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7.3 The sun in Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Exegesis of Isaiah 60:1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.1 Verse-by-verse exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.2 Justice and righteousness in Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3.1 Lines within the pericope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3.2 Contribution of the pictorial material . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3.3 Light in Isaiah 60:1-7 concluded . . . . . . . . . . . . .

169 169 173 176 178 178 183 192 194 194 195 201 203 204 205 205 208 210 214 214 216 218 219 220 224 225 225 226 228

8

Isaiah 63:(1)3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Wine press treading in Isaiah 63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Viticulture as context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Images of wine press treading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2 Images of trampling enemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.3 Wine pressing and afterlife punishment . . . . . . . . . . .

230 231 232 233 234 235 237 238

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XIII

8.4.4 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Exegesis of Isaiah 63:3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.1 Verse-by-verse exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.2 Motifs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Conclusion to Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

242 247 248 248 251 254 254

Recapitulation and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Towards a historical method for iconographic exegesis . 9.2 Basis for the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 A procedure for iconograhic exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 Application to the study of metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Isaiah 56:1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.3 Isaiah 60:1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.4 Isaiah 63:(1)3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.5 Contribution to Third Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 To be continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

258 258 259 259 261 262 262 262 263 264 264 265 265

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index of Scripture References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index of Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

267 338 342 353

9

List of Figures

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

Aspects of historical exegesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meanings of ‘image’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Model of iconographic interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Panofsky’s schedule of interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two examples of Panofskian interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bätschmann’s first chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bätschmann’s second chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rose’s spectrum of visual methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Imagination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36 53 72 74 77 80 81 85 99

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11

Translation of Isaiah 56:1–8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standing stones in a desert sanctuary near Eilat . . . . . . . . . . . . Standing stones at Hazor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standing stones at Gezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standing stones at Hartuv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Row of five massebes at Tel Dan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stele with the name of Tiglath Pileser III in Assur . . . . . . . . . Phoenician stele depicting a massebe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Obelisk-shaped stone from Petra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coin from Byblos depicting a temple with a betyl . . . . . . . . . . Coin from Tyre with two betyls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

148 157 158 159 159 159 160 160 161 162 162

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

Masoretic text and English translation of Isaiah 60:1–7 . . . . . Deities in winged disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deity in winged disk from Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ishtar with ‘melammu’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deity with corona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deity in lotus nimbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bull with ‘wheel’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure in nimbus between two worshippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two rosettes from Stratum 9 of the City of David . . . . . . . . . .

171 175 175 175 177 177 178 178 180

List of Figures

XV

7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25

Rosette from Ramat Rah.el . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Persian period rosette bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BMC Palestine XIX 29 (TC 242.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulla WD 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bullae WD 3A, 10A, 11B, 12, 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulla WD 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulla from Shechem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pharaoh as sun deity 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pharaoh as sun deity 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pharaoh as sun deity and porter of heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diadem of Sat-Hathor-Joenit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Funerary stele of Zinjirli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detail from funerary stele of Zinjirli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Head of Neo-Hittite king with rosettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stele of Hammurabi (top) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seal of Adda from the Akkad II period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

186 186 196 206 206 207 207 209 209 210 210 212 212 213 213 218

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24

Masoretic text and English translation of Isaiah 63:1–2 . . . . . Masoretic text and English translation of Isaiah 63:3–6 . . . . . Tomb of Nakht: wine press treading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grape treading scene in the tomb of Petosiris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vase of Amasis painter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vase of Amasis painter (detail) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Senusret III in the guise of a sphinx trampling enemies . . . . . Front of Tutankhamun’s sandal chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Side of Tutankhamun’s sandal chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ramses II trampling an enemy and slaying another . . . . . . . . Ivory with sphinxes trampling enemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pharaoh in disguise as a bull trampling an enemy . . . . . . . . . . Pharaoh in disguise as a winged sphinx trampling an enemy Pharaoh in disguise as a sphinx trampling an enemy 1 . . . . . . Pharaoh in disguise as a sphinx trampling an enemy 2 . . . . . . ‘Das blutrünstige Keltergerät’ 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sack press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Papyrus Torino 1781 from ‘The book of Amduat’ . . . . . . . . . . Papyrus Berlin P3148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘Das blutrünstige Keltergerät’ 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beheaded damned upside down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beheaded damned with torches on their torsos . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grape treading (Bethlehem, around 1910) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Periodization of Judah/Yehud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

230 232 236 236 237 237 239 239 240 240 241 241 241 241 241 242 243 244 244 245 247 247 249 257

Part I

Towards a way

Chapter 1

Preliminaries

Whenever biblical scholars link texts with images, the question arises whether these links are legitimate or not. What is the methodological basis for explaining Old Testament texts in the light of ancient Near Eastern images? These questions have largely remained unanswered in biblical studies. Case studies may contain their contextual argumentations; some scholars may present their examples as ‘obvious’. The academic reader of such publications is likely to wish to participate more in the train of thought leading to this obviousness; nevertheless, many of these publications are highly recommended.1 Indeed, their existence is an impetus for the present project: presenting an iconographical method of exegesis. Even though the authors of those publications favour an inductive approach, the present study aims to contribute to their concern for method as well, hoping to stimulate further reflection on method and to give a hand to those who want to look for a thorough theoretical basis for iconographic exegesis, for instance when writing or lecturing on a specific text.

1.1 Statement of the problem Being aware of the lack of explicit theoretical reflection in studies linking texts with images, this project aims to investigate possibilities for an iconographic method of exegesis, focusing on the Old Testament.2 An exegetical method is a specification of a procedure (within one or more frameworks/ approaches) to explain a text. The iconographic method of exegesis (iconography as an exegetical method) to be elaborated is a procedure to explain Hebrew Bible texts within a pictorial (iconographic) 1

Although a historical survey is beyond the scope of the present book, a reference to the Fribourg School is appropriate here as a token of appreciation and recommendation; works by Othmar Keel and e.g., Silvia Schroer, Thomas Staubli and Christoph Uehlinger. 2 Cf. W EISSENRIEDER and W ENDT (2005) regarding the New Testament.

1.2. Application to Third Isaiah

3

and historical framework.3 In order to reach this aim, the research will try to find an answer to the following question: How do images from the Ancient Near East provide a better understanding of the Old Testament? In order to answer this question, this study will deal with the theoretical basis for such an enterprise and construct a method of iconographic exegesis, based on these theoretical reflections and on exegetical practice. Iconography (understood as the interpretation of images) will be examined as a topic in other disciplines in order to gain insight into pictorial hermeneutics and iconographic methods. This study will focus on art history and its hermeneutics, especially on the works by Erwin Panofsky and Oskar Bätschmann. This examination will be embedded in theoretical reflections on culture and hermeneutics. The theoretical foundation for an iconographic method of exegesis sustains the attempt to determine the criteria for using images in explaining the Old Testament and thus provides a key to deciding which images provide what kind of information and how these images convey this information. With the answer to these (and related) questions, this study will make an attempt to (re-)formulate a method for the interpretation of images. Chapter 4 will pay special attention to the iconographic exegesis of metaphors in the Old Testament. Attempting to construct a theoretical foundation for and (re-)formulating an iconographic method of exegesis, the present study aims to develop a method, μεθοδος, way, path, itinerary,4 step-by-step manual for iconographic exegesis.

1.2 Application to Third Isaiah The publication of Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors we live by5 has renewed interest in metaphors and has made it a topic of thorough study in philosophy, theology and linguistics. Various aspects of metaphor, as studied in different fields, come together in the field of theology. It turns out that metaphors in the Bible can only be understood by using the insights of several other disciplines that make use of metaphor theory. Thus, the iconographic model to be developed in this study will be tested by applying it to (selected) ancient Near Eastern images, in order to gain an understanding of biblical metaphors (and other figures of speech). 3 The present chapter will argue for the choice to work within a historical approach. The study aims to found this approach in hermeneutics (for this term see section 2.1.1) and show how images can be adopted in exegesis. The word ‘iconographical method’ does not imply that other (esp. historical) methods are excluded (see further chapter 2). 4 Cf. the metaphor of the roadmap in T IFFANY and R INGE (1996). 5 L AKOFF and J OHNSON (1980).

4

1. Preliminaries

In this way, working out and applying a theory of iconographic exegesis can be relevant for the understanding of biblical metaphors as well. Isaiah 56–66, commonly known as Third Isaiah, contains various types of metaphors, offering a case to test the theory, which this study will develop. The choice of Third Isaiah is ‘at random’, as it was given by the research program for Biblical Studies of the Utrecht University theology department and therefore not merely chosen to fit nicely and support the outcome of this study. As the research will work with examples from Third Isaiah, introductory questions to this part of the Old Testament, and exegesis of the verses dealt with, will be given, but only as far as is necessary within the framework of this study. The scope of the study is only to provide a methodological basis for iconographic exegesis and to demonstrate this with case studies from Third Isaiah. Besides its focus on metaphors, this study will show how iconography in tandem with images from the Ancient Near East can contribute to a better understanding of other figures of speech and other elements of the Old Testament as well.

1.3 Relevance of the study Present studies using iconographic exegesis link the areas of archaeology, exegesis and theology in general. However, the absence of a clear, elaborated method or a comprehensive methodological statement causes a considerable risk of haphazard use and application of iconographic sources. It is even more important to open up the area of iconographic exegesis to a broader circle of biblical scholars, as the present lack of clear methodology makes this kind of exegesis a privilege for ‘insiders’. A contribution to the method of iconographic exegesis will stimulate discussion about the importance of, the use of and the specific steps to be taken in this form of exegesis. According to Uehlinger, the project ‘olam ha-tan¯ak failed, due to ‘methodologische Unsicherheit’ (uncertainty regarding method – sic!) and because the exegetes, trained only in dealing with texts, were unable to work with images.6 Hopefully, this study may be a stimulus to pave the way for a more thorough and broader application of iconographic exegesis and use of pictorial material. Applying iconography to exegesis, and in particular to the exegesis of metaphors, is significant for Old Testament study. It clarifies interpretation (of the metaphors) by giving new insights or affirming past interpretations; and ultimately this will have consequences for other disciplines in theology which depend on Old Testament study. 6

U EHLINGER (2000a) 402.

1.4. Structure of the study

5

A systematic approach to iconographic exegesis is an effective device against the neglect of the visual in Biblical Studies, in particular in areas where material images (pictorial material from the Ancient Near East) turn out to be an adequate means to contribute to the understanding of what immaterial images (such as Hebrew Bible metaphors) contain/communicate.

1.4 Structure of the study Chapter One (the current chapter) describes the research question, the relevance, the structure and the methodology of the study. Chapter Two portrays the proposed place of iconography as an exegetical method within the historical7 approach8 in Old Testament study, within the spectrum of hermeneutics. Chapter Three attempts to research the possibilities and formulate a theoretical model for the iconographic method of exegesis. This chapter reasons from the general to the particular. Although many examples could be discussed, the present book aims to provide a broad, though succinct proposal and prefers theoretical reflections and elaboration of its own examples to discussion of others’ examples of iconographic exegesis.9 It formulates a method for iconographic exegesis, based on interdisciplinary theoretical reflections, borrowing from archaeology and art history. Thus this study will take a position concerning hermeneutics of images, as applied to the pictorial material of the Ancient Near East. Chapter Four will build further on this and define guidelines for an iconographic method for the exegesis of Old Testament metaphors. As much has been written on this topic, which does not need to be repeated in the course of the present study, section 4.1 especially is restricted to the most necessary considerations concerning metaphor theory: the approach of the present study, a definition of metaphor and a ‘cumulative survey’. Based on this, section 4.2 points out how iconographic exegesis can also specifically contribute to the exegesis of metaphor. Section 3.9 follows up on section 2.2 with a reflection on the hermeneutical spectrum, which thus encapsulates the formation of the presented method for iconographic exegesis. Part Three starts in Chapter Five with a brief introduction to Third Isaiah. Thus having provided a historical context, this part applies the investigated iconographic method of exegesis to ‫ יד‬in Isaiah 56:5 (Chapter Six) and to two metaphors in Third Isaiah: light in Isaiah 60 (Chapter Seven) and the Lord as wine-press treader in Isaiah 63 (Chapter Eight). 7 8 9

Cf. subsection 3.2.2.3. On the distinction between method and approach, see: subsection 2.1.1. One is referred to DE H ULSTER (2008) esp. chapter 2 and subsection 3.1.4.

6

1. Preliminaries

Chapter Nine rounds off the study by summarising the theoretical outcome and evaluating the case study on Third Isaiah. It will further make recommendations concerning the development of iconographic exegesis and the implementation of iconography in biblical interpretation.

1.5 Method of the study The whole study demands knowledge of philosophy of science, in order to have an appropriate, correct and consistent method of reasoning.10 This is a ‘conditio sine qua non’ for dealing with the work of others, as well as for evaluating and possibly incorporating their concepts, caveats and conclusions into the present model of a method of iconographic exegesis. Besides theoretical reflections, a book on method cannot do without examples. Theory, method and examples are only available in tandem. For a study like this, the question is: which comes first? As indicated in the introduction to this chapter, studies providing examples of the incorporation of ancient Near Eastern pictorial material into their exegesis stimulated the present study. The following chapters will therefore first discuss theory and method, before turning to practical application. Whereas the theoretical part provides a basis for the examples, the examples in Part III will have to uphold the usability of the theoretical framework. Therefore, although Part II will have its starting point in theory, it does not exist without Part III, as building up a theory is impossible without keeping an eye on practice.11 Chapter 4 takes its as point of departure the theories of metaphor as developed by Black, Lakoff and Kittay, the reflections on these by Lakoff and Stienstra and later contributions by Kövecses and by scholars in Old Testament Studies. Based on these – cumulatively discussed – theories and the language theory of Sperber and Wilson (and its application by Gutt), this study will set out its position in section 4.1. After this section 4.2 will extend the reflections of chapter 3 and point out how iconographic exegesis can contribute to the exegesis of metaphor in particular. Apart from the iconographic method, as developed in the preceding chapters, Part III will also employ common methods of Old Testament study, limiting itself to what does not contradict a historical approach. 10 Cf. the primer: M URPHY (2001); cf. Barton’s statement: “Biblical criticism is not the application of “scientific” methods to the Bible, except in the sense that science shares with the humanities a common concern for evidence and reason.” (BARTON (2007) 6); method is not to tie, but to guide. 11 Cf. TALSTRA (2002).

Chapter 2

Hermeneutical reflections

This chapter outlines the hermeneutical position of the present study. This outline is twofold: firstly biblical hermeneutics as a whole is considered, and secondly the position of iconographic exegesis within the hermeneutical spectrum.

2.1 The hermeneutical spectrum How does one find a way within the range of exegetical possibilities which form the hermeneutical spectrum? How does one balance the different interpretational approaches and methods? In order to answer this question, which the foregoing two questions formulated in parallel, this section will start with the relation between exegetical approaches/methods and hermeneutics. As this section deals with textual hermeneutics, is should also consider the question ‘what is a text?’. Text will bring the discussion to language, communication and meaning and this will become the basis for structuring exegetical methods and taking a position. 2.1.1 Hermeneutics and exegetical method This study works with the following definition of hermeneutics in general: preliminary considerations about interpretation. This broad definition is intended to serve hermeneutics as a whole, without distinguishing between hermeneutics of texts and of images (or artefacts, etc.). This abstract level is the starting point from which this study moves towards a practical application. The definition, expressed as briefly as possible, contains the following substantive cores: ‘preliminary considerations’ and ‘interpretation’. The former refers to the complex entirety of reflections, suppositions and decisions made in advance as well as the awareness of the act of interpretation, which includes evaluating the process of inter-

8

2. Hermeneutical reflections

pretation. The latter, comprising the focus of the former: ‘interpretation’, includes reading, explanation and understanding.1 In the context of the current section, as a kind of narrowed definition for textual hermeneutics the phrase ‘theory and methodology of exegesis’2 suffices. Exegesis, in turn, is 1. the explanation of a specific text; and 2. the academic realm of tools for, and the practice (‘skill’)3 of, the explanation of texts. These definitions show the relation between hermeneutics and exegesis as one of a theoretical, methodological frame (1) and practice, which also includes evaluation of the use of method-specific tools (2).4 This means that hermeneutics reflect on the criteria, aims and limits of sound exegesis. Exegesis, in the sense of ‘the academic realm of tools for, and the practice of, the explanation of texts’, describes the particular steps of the individual methods to research a text. In other words: exegesis, as a discipline, evaluates the process of an exegetical method, whereas hermeneutics reflect on one’s approach as a framework of interpretation and exegetical method as a way of illuminating a text. This exegetical illumination, this explanation of a specific text, is the basis for further interpretation and/or application of the text (in different disciplines of theology). In dealing with textual hermeneutics and exegesis, the explanation of texts, one should answer the fundamental question: ‘what is a text?’. 2.1.2 What is a text? The fact that the question ‘what is a text?’ matters, becomes clear when comparing, for instance, New Criticism, socio-pragmatism and 19th century historical criticism. New Criticism assumes the text to be autonomous; in this way all meaning should come from the text itself, excluding e.g. authorial intention.5 In socio-pragmatic hermeneutics (part of the reader response approach), the reader’s response is the meaning of a text.6 19th century historical criticism, in turn, aims to find the original meaning or 1

Cf. e.g. A LONSO S CHÖKEL (1998) 13–18; T HISELTON (1992) 28, 48. Exegesis taken as technical term in relation to (mostly written, read) texts. 3 Talstra speaks about ‘ambacht’, TALSTRA (2002) 33, 37, 38 et passim. 4 Bernard Ramm pointed out that interpretation is as much science as it is art; this science involves rules. Scholars developed hermeneutics as rules for exegesis by distilling these rules from exegetical practice (cf. previous footnote). Ramm even remarks: “Therefore any division between exegesis and hermeneutics is somewhat artificial.” (R AMM (1971) 9–11, quotation: 11.) 5 W ELLEK and WARREN (1949). T HISELTON (1992) 59, 60; BARTON (1996) 140– 179. 6 E CO (1979). Cf. T HISELTON (1992) 515–550, 587–590. 2

2.1. The hermeneutical spectrum

9

the author’s intention.7 These differences stem from different definitions of ‘text’ or ideas on textuality.8 Among others, Jeanrond, being aware of these differences, urges the definition of the notion ‘text’ in theological works9 and, among others, Jonker fulfils this task.10 Acknowledging this work to be preliminary and accepting the lack of space to scrutinize all relevant literature, the following must suffice, in this study, as a definition of text: a text is an ordered whole of morphemes, words, sentences and larger units, spoken out or written by an author as a – mostly communicative – expression. The preliminary nature of this section holds also for this definition, as it should function as a working definition, which does not fix meaning, but allows space for asking the correct critical questions. Practice should redefine theoretical definitions.11 Defining a text as an ‘ordered whole’ consisting of ‘units’ implies that it is delimited and structured, e.g. by grammar, semantics and possibly literary devices (as oral or literary means). Texts are not necessarily composed in writing (written in nature), as they can have an oral Vorlage, or exist only orally. Texts may exist in writing or in oral expression or tradition, which (eventually) may be written down. Most texts serve to communicate, to transfer content or merely to ask for attention; an exception could be a personal diary, as this may solely have the purpose of expressing oneself (e.g. as a personal therapeutic means). Texts may have served a the primary purpose of communicating towards God, but are now also received by the people of today. A text is defined as an ‘expression’ to distinguish it from language, the source which enables texts to come into existence. Language will be further defined in the next section, where the relation between text, language and communication will also be under discussion.

7 In the works of J. Wellhausen, F. Delitzsch and C. F. Keil. E.g. D ELITZSCH (1872) 76, 77 et passim. Cf. on 19th century historical criticism also: ROGERSON (1984) and C HEYNE (1970). 20th century German historical criticism builds further on this; see the classical books: F OHRER, H OFFMANN and H UBER (1983); S TECK (1989) (English: Old Testament Exegesis: A Guide to the Methodology, tr. J.D. Nogalski, Atlanta, 1995). 8 Cf. T HISELTON (1992) 55–141. 9 J EANROND (1986) (English: Text and Interpretation as Categories of Theological Thinking, Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1988) His book describes, as the title indicates, ‘text’ and ‘interpretation’ as categories of theological thinking. Comparable is Vanhoozer’s theology of interpretation: VANHOOZER (1998). 10 J ONKER ([1996]). 11 Cf. M UCKENHAUPT (1986) 5, 30, who holds the same for defining ‘image’.

10

2. Hermeneutical reflections

Defining ‘text’ as having the purpose of ‘communication’ (a topic briefly reflected on in 2.1.4) leads to further implications regarding hermeneutics and exegesis. 2.1.3 Language Language is a complex whole of – user group related – (parts of) words (as well as word groups, expressions, sayings, set phrases) and rules as well as conventions to arrange these words into utterances, sentences and texts, in order to be intelligible, enabling people to describe (experienced) reality and to reflect, order and express thoughts and emotions and to communicate these thoughts and emotions to other members of the same user group.12 This definition says ‘user group related’, because different languages (Akkadian, Chinese, a click language, English, Hungarian) have different parts of words with which a user can also form new words. It says user group, and not e.g. ‘nation’, as language does not match with ethnic borders and as a person can belong to more than one user group (linguistic community); and neither does it say e.g. ‘speaker group’, as people can use a language in writing, thinking and speaking.13 ‘User group’ refers to people who have linguistic and literary competence in a certain language.14 ‘(Parts of) words (etc.)’ denotes phonemes (for spoken language and theory), morphemes and words. ‘Expressions, etc.’ include metaphors; they are crucial in communication15 ‘Rules’ refers to grammar (morphology to arrange morphemes into words and new words; and syntax, respectively macro-syntax to arrange words into sentences and into larger units) and other rules and conventions regarding intonation, structure, genre, etc. which constitute meaning. It should be noted, however, that such rules and conventions are concluded from actual language use and therefore grammar and dictionary writing is a matter of ‘chasing the sun’.16 Restricting language to (parts of) words, leaves out (for the purpose of this study) pictorial language, computer language, sign language, non12

This definition was formulated, reflecting on courses at Summer Institute of Linguistics, Horsleys Green, England (‘Translation principles’ by Leslie Pride, summer 2000) and Free University, Amsterdam (‘An introduction to Bible translation’ by Lourens J. de Vries, September – December 2000). 13 Likewise, ‘parts of words’ are not referred to as sounds or phonemes. 14 By studying another language people become part of other language user groups. 15 On metaphor see chapter 4. 16 Cf. G REEN (1996) vii.

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verbal communication, etc. as is defendable in this context of textual hermeneutics. ‘Reality’ has the adjective ‘experienced’, as observation or experience is the only access to reality; similarly ‘(experienced) reality’ includes transcendent reality and misconceptions about reality. Besides describing things, rules of language help to be clear in reflection and thought, which are together a ‘conditio sine qua non’ for intelligible communication. Language is the range of possibilities which can be used to make a concrete text.17 As communication is the main aim of texts and the highest aim of language, the survey turns to ‘communication’.18 2.1.4 Communication and meaning Describing ‘text’ (and ‘language’) in terms of communication makes text part of a communication matrix. Communication comprises the act of expression in order to be understood. This implies an utterance, a message. In other words: communication is the event, in which a person (sender) sends a message to another person (recipient).19 This message can be an imperative, a piece of information, an expression of emotion, etc. ‘Sender’20 and ‘recipient’ are two aspects that should be underlined in defining communication as an event. By being an event, communication is characterized by mutuality and communality. ‘Sender’ and ‘recipient’ need a common ground, such as the understanding of language, culture, etc. This is also the condition for mutuality: a message does not exist in a vacuum, but in a context, which contains a reason or trigger for sending the message and which anticipates a reaction. The intentional senders of the biblical texts are the authors, collectorseditors and redactors.21 The medium under discussion is the biblical texts. The recipients are readers through different centuries. Talstra speaks about ‘old readers and new readers’.22 Concentrating exegesis on communica17

Cf. ‘langue’ (language system) and ‘parole’ (language use), as introduced by F. de Saussure. Cf. his posthumously published lectures from 1906–1911 in: DE S AUS SURE (1994) e.g. 39. 18 Cf. B RÜMMER (1995) 18–40 (English: idem, Theology and Philosophical Inquiry, London, 1981, 35–63); A LONSO S CHÖKEL (1998) 94–110. Regarding the sections above, cf. T HISELTON (1998) and J OHNSTONE (1998). 19 Or with e.g., B EN Z VI (2009) footnote 13: ‘communicator’ and ‘decoder’. 20 The person can send the message on behalf of another person or a group. 21 Cf. V RIEZEN and VAN DER W OUDE (2000) 52. 22 Compare the title of TALSTRA (2002): Oude en Nieuwe Lezers: Een Inleiding in de Methoden van Uitleg van het Oude Testament (Old and new readers: an introduction to the methods of interpretation of the Old Testament).

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tion gives space to study the authors, the medium and its contents, and the recipients of all ages (the old readers and those after them in all the stages of the reception history) together with their contexts and mutual interactions. As ‘text’ is linked with ‘communication’, (transferring) meaning can be characterized as the aim of communication. Therefore, text becomes the medium, the vehicle, to convey meaning from the author to the recipient. The author is responsible for expressing himself and the recipient has the task of making every reasonable effort possible to understand, to grasp the meaning (or better: the meaning most likely understood as the best assumed author’s intention).23 Meaning is the intention and contents which the author expresses in a text, in order to communicate with the reader or hearer.24 This also implies that a task is required of the hearer. In particular the word ‘contents’ provides the reader with the option of denying this responsibility (or of choosing a different position regarding this responsibility, possibly relating it more to the contents than to the author) and of concluding a meaning which was not intended to be communicated. The question before those of ‘what is meaning?’, ‘how to understand?’ and ‘is communication possible?’ is: ‘what is understanding and knowledge?’; this question should be answered in epistemology. This section is not the proper place to deal with these problems at length.25 If critics regard this way of defining several ideas as too author-oriented, one should bear in mind what Thiselton’s book argues: “most (not necessarily all) biblical texts are optimally understood with reference to a directedness willed by an author towards a situational context for which some reconstructive imagination and enquiry is invited”.26 This author-oriented position is modified in two ways. Firstly, taking into account that the text often did not serve only one communicational event, one has to be aware of most texts’ multiple authorship; the person or people who wrote down a text or perhaps edited it, possibly into a larger whole, are not necessarily those who – maybe orally – communicated first.27 Secondly, beyond this, 23 E.g. following relevance theory; see: S PERBER and W ILSON (1995) (see: subsection 4.1.3). The doublet ‘most likely’ and ‘best assumed’ occurs as it is impossible to enter the author’s head and to be 100% sure about his or her intention(s); the ‘meaning most likely understood’ leaves space for the possibility to reconstruct as far as possible the meanings understood by earlier readers in the reception history. 24 Meaning, like text, usually functions in a context of communication. 25 See also subsection 3.2.1.1. Cf. e.g. AUDI (1998). 26 T HISELTON (1992) 583. 27 Cf. subsection 2.1.6; especially the quotation from TALSTRA (2002) 306 which implies that God communicates through the text.

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the present study emphasizes the importance of communication, focusing on the readers as well, in which the text provides the essential access28 to the the first and later communications.29 Additionally, the Form Criticism Seminar of the Society of Biblical Literature (Buss c.s.), Rousseau and Jonker put exegesis and its different methodologies into the (unifying) light of communication.30 Hence this section leads to the main question of 2.1: how does one deal with the variety of exegetical possibilities within the hermeneutical spectrum? 2.1.5 Structuring the diversity of exegetical methods For decades, scholars have observed a great deal of different methods in exegesis. Several authors have ordered the different methods into matrices. Oeming, for example, divides the methods he reviews into a quadrangle with the corners: authors, texts, recipients and matter.31 He discusses 28

But the ability to understand a text requires knowledge about the (different) context(s), which includes culture in its material and cognitive aspects. 29 For a recent elaboration of ‘communication’ as paradigm for hermeneutics: B ROWN (2007); cf. H ARDMEIER (2003-2004). 30 J ONKER ([1996]) 43–45, 54–59, 76–79, 315–332. 31 O EMING (1998) 5, 176; into ‘authors’ he places: historical-criticism, socio-historical exegesis (historical sociology), historical psychology, New Archaeology; under ‘texts’ he lists: linguistic methods (linguistic-structuralist methods), New Literary Criticism / Narrative approach, canonical exegesis, exegesis as speech-act; for ‘recipients’ (readers) he gives: Wirkungsgeschichtliche Exegese (history of effect), (depth) psychological exegesis, symbol oriented exegesis (symbolic exegesis), bibliodrama, liberation exegesis and feminist exegesis; and for ‘matter’ dogmatical exegesis, fundamentalism and existential interpretation. It is not exactly clear what Oeming means by ‘Sachen’; he writes: “Es geht um die Wirklichkeit, die die Autoren angerührt hat, die die Texte hervorgerufen hat und die schließlich die Leser umgibt.” (O EMING (1998) 140 – italics his) Taking into account the exegetical methods Oeming mentions here, ‘reality’ would be too broad. On the one hand, the ‘Sachen’ are the reality diachronically shared by author, text and recipient (and as such closely related to their worlds and horizons). On the other hand, the methods related to ‘Sachen’ and to ‘texts’ seem to show that – broadly speaking – text can be divided into subject matter (content) and structure, aesthetics, etc.; the content is related to reality as subject matter is to (material and mental) matter. In the present study, ‘matter’ functions as an equivalent for the German: “Sachen”; the English translation reads here: ‘methods focused on the reality behind the text’; (O EMING (2006) vi); this confuses those who are familiar with ‘the world behind the text’ as the author’s world (besides the text itself and the ‘world in front of the text’ as the one of the reader); it seems to be better to refer to this as ‘matter’ or contents or, even better, ‘doctrine (and faith) communicated through the text’, because it comprises the dogmatic and existential which – regardless of history and historical change – is common to all groups behind, in and in front of the text.

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the positive and problematic sides of all of these methods. In this way he weighs up the different methods, and he provides an overall schedule in which he places them. In spite of its complexity, Oeming chooses a multiplicity of approaches. He does so with six restricting guidelines, of which the – for the present point in the current discussion – most important ones can be summarized as follows: – The primacy of the original sense (and likewise the historical-critical method) over those of the reception and that these need to be distinguished from each other.32 – Pluralism should not lead to autarkic isolation and indifferent tolerance. Individual methods should grow together. – Method is not as objective as explaining in exact science; it is rather ‘understanding’, which requires dealing with the text(s).33 Oeming’s restriction in the first point above is very important for the further course of this study. The primacy of the original, or ultimately canonical sense is defendable as a calibration mark and this underlines the need for historical methods and a historical approach. Contrary to what Oeming claims, this is not necessarily accompanied by the use of the historical-critical method.34 Admittedly, it requires historical method(s), but not inevitably the beaten tracks of the historical-critical method (which is actually an approach).35 An example of a more integrated approach of the multidimensionality of exegetical method is that of Jonker. Following Buss c.s. and Rousseau, he uses the concept of communication to unify different exegetical methods into his model. He explains the synchronic and diachronic dimensions of the six elements36 of his multidisciplinary approach. The synchronic Cf. Barton’s schedule, BARTON (1996) 240 (see also BARTON (2007) 75); and Alonso Schökel’s, which adds ‘language’ to the elements author, work, theme, recipient; A LONSO S CHÖKEL (1998) 53. 32 Similarly e.g. PÄPSTLICHE B IBELKOMMISSION, Die Interpretation der Bibel in der Kirche, (http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/pcb_documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_19930415_interpretazio-ne_ge.html, 1993) Schlußfolgerungen (4. IV. 2006). 33 O EMING (1998) 175–84, his β, δ and η. 34 In whatever kind of application; cf. J ONKER ([1996]) 22–24. Oeming does, however, stress the need to modify the historical-critical method; O EMING (1998) 42-46. 35 F ITZMYER (1994) 39 speaks about the ‘historical-critical method’, implying that it has a fixed mode of procedure, and categorizing e.g., narrative, rhetorical, canonical, psychological and feminist ‘readings’ as approaches, arguing that they do not offer ‘complete’ exegeses, but should be rather employed to contribute nuances (refinements) to the historical-critical method. 36 See J ONKER ([1996]) 316: sender, sender-medium, medium, medium-recipient, recipient, communication process/act.

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approach is given with the text. The diachronic approach increases the model, as specialist readings of a text may add a method for competent reading and likewise extend the model. New readings, however, extend the model also diachronically. Jonker further distinguishes between specialized and competent reading. He parallels these with, respectively, diachronic and synchronic reading.37 It seems more appropriate to distinguish not just one diachronic axis with respect to the model given by Jonker, but (besides the synchronic reading) two axes: 1. a historical one: the diachronic axis in the real sense, i.e. that the addition of new competent readings refines the interpretation of a text38 and makes the reception history grow; and 2. a methodological one, because the specialist who adds a new method extends the model in another direction by providing a new way for the competent reader. Extension via the historical axis is given by time and even more by the number of competent readings added. Extension of the model via the axis of new methods depends mainly on the productivity (which depends on time and creativity) of the specialists. The focus of Jonker’s study was the relation between the diachronic and the synchronic method. These two ‘methods’ contain other methods, and are better called ‘approaches’. These two approaches are often a topic of research. Many times it is argued that the synchronic approach should precede the diachronic.39 Besides Jonker and Oeming, also Thiselton, Talstra and Barton (among others) consider the range of exegetical possibilities. For Barton, differences in method correspond to the different questions one can ask a text. While criticizing several methods, he maintains multiplicity. He does not put the different methods into a certain order of application or hierarchy.40 37

“A competent reading of the biblical text is only possible if a variety of exegetical methodologies highlights the multi-dimensionality of the communicative process. A specialized reading only finds its own identity when it is integrated into a communication process by a competent reading. The plurality of exegetical methodologies then functions as an ecclesia of research without anyone claiming exclusivity.” (J ONKER ([1996]) 328; italics his) 38 There is no space here to deal with problems of intertextuality here, but it should be remarked that later texts can dominate the approach and meaning of a text. Refining the interpretation of a text includes the ‘unmasking’ of ‘wrong’ meanings by showing that these meanings/interpretations did not refine the interpretation of the text. 39 E.g. B ECKER (1993) 26–37; TALSTRA (1987) 217 (English: TALSTRA (1993) 264); TALSTRA (2002) 112–117. Berges suggests a circle, naming his programme ‘diachron reflektierte Synchronie’: “Von der Synchronie zur Diachronie und zurück zur gewachsenen synchronen Endgestalt.” He applies this to Isaiah. B ERGES (1998) 535. Cf. DE M OOR (1995b) (esp. the contributions: BARR (1995) and C LINES (1995). 40 E.g., BARTON (1996).

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Talstra suggests a process of reading, starting from general linguistics, continuing via the study of literature and philology to exegesis. In the final step he incorporates ‘old and new readers’ (the reception history).41 Thiselton, also, does not put the different methods into a certain order, but scrutinizes possible contributions from each method and formulates criteria to decide on the fruitfulness of applying a method. For example, he proposes: “Any theory of textuality which cannot make room for these textual functions [i.e. praise, truth, judgment, comfort, etc. – IdH] cannot be given a paradigmatic place in biblical interpretation.”42 He also states that biblical texts transcend single goals.43 2.1.6 Theological ‘plus’ There are many scholars who point out that exegesis serves goals beyond gaining understanding of a text and, likewise, requires more than theoretical engagement. According to Oeming, one should live in the house of the Bible, always discovering new rooms and places (even small ones, such as drawers in a cupboard). One should do so as a “lebendiges Umgehen mit der Bibel im Vertrauen darauf, daß sie sich selbst durchsetzen wird. (. . . ) die ausgelegte Bibel wird zur auslegenden.”44 Talstra, likewise, closes his book with the remark: “Maar het is niet vreemd om met oudere lezers de pretentie te aanvaarden, dat niet alleen mensen over God spreken, maar dat evenzeer JHWH over mensen spreekt.”45 Excursus: Knowing God and acting according to His Word can be considered the ultimate goal of hermeneutics and exegesis within theology,46 in the lives of those who want to live accordingly. Thus, new interpretations are added and the preliminary character of this effort becomes – also theologically – clear. One can examine the reception history up to oneself, knowing it will continue with him/her and thereafter, up to the eschaton.47 41

Cf. TALSTRA (1987) (TALSTRA (1993)); TALSTRA (2002). T HISELTON (1992) 132. 43 T HISELTON (1992) 131. 44 O EMING (1998) 183. 45 TALSTRA (2002) 306 (cf. footnote 27). Cf. 1. A LONSO S CHÖKEL (1998) 27, where he distinguishes between the Christian and the unbeliever as readers, as the Bible is open for everyone; before this and immediately after referring to the Spirit, he remarks: “In order to read a text, the ideal is to be able to share the same spirit in which it is produced.” 2. Brueggemann (in B RUEGGEMANN (2002a)), after underlining the Bible as inherently ‘the live Word of God’ (11–13), writes that the Spirit ‘teaches, guides and heals’ through the text (24) and that the world needs the truth of a creating, redeeming and consummating God (25). 46 Cf. Scripture (read historically) as the soul of theology; and theology as a – what Fitzmyer calls – ‘plus’ (he also speaks about ‘the presupposition of faith’) to philology or philological method(s) in this reading (F ITZMYER (1994) 29–31) 42

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Likewise, exegesis can serve the church.48 The fact that revelation took place in history49 underlines once more the importance of historical research and exegesis.50 Likewise, the first communication of the text functions as a calibration mark in the reception history.

2.1.7 Concluding remarks This study acknowledges the considerable range of interpretational methods. In regard to these methods, two criteria need to be taken into account. 1. An exegetical method needs to be scrutinized to discover its valuable and weaker points. 2. Regarding a specific explanation, historical methods and the task of loyalty to the text should be the check points of sound exegesis. The text is the topic of research; therefore one should respect the text. Historical methods, including iconography applied within this framework, can be used to discover the historical context (e.g. religious, social, cultural, political and economical context, the situation of the author, ideas, etc.) of the text and to reach the understanding of the first receiving communities (the first to receive the text and the first to receive the canonical text). As stated above: exegetical illumination and explanation of a specific text forms the basis for further interpretation and/or application of the text (in different disciplines of theology).51 In other words: linguistic hermeneutics form the basis for theological study, as linguistics has a facilitating task for biblical or theological hermeneutics. This forms the reason for Thiselton’s criteria52 for discerning whether methods can serve larger hermeneutical aims. In his book, he works out ‘the hermeneutics of pastoral theology’.53 Thiselton attacks ‘anarchy’ in hermeneutics: “If interests determine how to read the Bible, the biblical texts instrumentally serve these interests, without being able to judge or evaluate them.”54 The Bible, though, should be able to transform, modify and/or ‘tell something new’. There47

Cf. J EANROND (1986) 151 (English, 1988, 153); T HISELTON (1992) 617–619. Cf. F EE (2000) esp. 3–15. 49 Cf. e.g. E NNS (2005). 50 Cf. Hoerth and McRay (in their popular version of respectively H OERTH (1998) and M C R AY (1998)): “The authors’ aim is to provide historical, geographical, and literary material that will enrich the knowledge of everyone who is interested in a fuller understanding of the Bible in its cultural setting and thus provide a basis for deeper faith and appreciation of what God has done throughout history to bring about the fulfilment of his promises.” (H OERTH and M C R AY (2005) 6). 51 See subsection 2.1.1. 52 T HISELTON (1992) 611–619. 53 T HISELTON (1992) 556–620. 54 T HISELTON (1992) 602. 48

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fore he makes an application to pastoral theology. Similarly, Osborne composed his hermeneutical introduction to serve homiletics.55

2.2 Iconography within the hermeneutical spectrum 2.2.1 Theoretical basis Agreeing with the complementariness of exegetical methods, this study aims to work out one of the methods of the spectrum: iconography. As stated in the previous section, historical methods should form a calibration mark or check point in exegesis, not necessarily a form of historical criticism. A historical approach has the task of reconstructing the context of the creative process (composition and editing) of the text(s). Iconography, as will be worked out in the current study, will contribute to this historical examination of the biblical texts and their backgrounds. Proceeding from Jonker’s model, this study works on the axis of the specialist and adds a new method. However, in this case it is better to say – especially in honour of all those already practicing iconography in Old Testament study – that the aim is to systemize a method which is in practice already, albeit tacitly. This is done in the hope that new competent readings will be added onto the historical axis. In other words: it is hoped that the study at hand make iconographic exegesis available or at least more accessible to a broader circle of biblical scholars (as stated in 1.3) and to (other) students of the Bible. Along with the hope of ‘familiarization’ comes the warning, however, that iconographic exegesis is not just staring at images or illustrating biblical stories, but a valid and valuable approach which provides a route towards a better understanding of biblical texts. Iconographic exegesis could be defined as the explanation of texts with the help of pictorial material.56 Until 2005, Oeming was the only scholar to describe iconography as a method of exegesis in a manual, handbook or survey.57 He does so un55

O SBORNE (1991). See subsection 3.9.5.2. 57 A book such as the manual by Steck draws attention to the ‘historical setting’ and deals with the ‘realities’ (next to the political and social situation), but does not point to pictorial material (S TECK (1995) 151–157). Besides the specific call from the work of Keel and its reception, one should mention here the dictionary entries on iconography and the Bible (most of them written by members of the Fribourg School: K EEL (1992a), S CHROER (1998), U EHLINGER (2001b)) and e.g., S CHROER (1987) 8– 10, C ORNELIUS (1990) 26 and D IJKSTRA (1999a) 108–109. In 2005, an article on this topic was published by Weissenrieder and Wendt, which is the first publication which deals with iconographic exegesis from a methodological point of view (W EISSENRIEDER and W ENDT (2005)). 56

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der the heading ‘Neue Archäologie’.58 He writes: archaeology in Israel started as digging for finds related to the Bible. As more and more from all epochs was found, ‘biblical archaeology’ became ‘archaeology in Palestine’. The paths of the exegete and the archaeologist split. With the help of different disciplines in exact science, archaeology attempts to reconstruct everyday life. “Dazu kam die systematische Erschließung der Inschriften (Epigraphie) und der Bilder (Ikonographie).”59 He further states: “Von Theorien der Kulturanthropologie inspiriert, erstrebt die “New Archaeology” die Rekonstruktion der kulturellen Transformationen und Prozesse, aus der statistischen Katalogisierung und Datierung einzelner Funde soll allmählich dass Bild der Geschichte Israels ohne jegliche Benutzung der biblischen Texte entstehen.”60

It is in this context that Oeming devoted two lines to the exegetical work of Keel on the book of Psalms, Song of Songs and Job.61 He continues with Keel and Uehlinger’s GGG62 (what Oeming called their ‘Theologiegeschichte’: ‘history of theology’).63 After discussing G. Theissen’s ‘emblematic explanation’ of Matthew 11:7,64 he stresses the exegetical importance of reconstructing the everyday life of the biblical authors. However, he criticizes this method because he thinks that they might have drawn too many conclusions from the materials studied; bearing in mind the very ambiguous nature of images.65 Thus,Oeming closes: “Man kann und darf sich zur Rekonstruktion der Welt der Autoren nicht wirklich von den Texten lösen.”66 58 It is not totally clear why Oeming refers to ‘New Archaeology’; his information is mainly based on the article of W.G. Dever, until 1989 a representative of ‘New Archaeology’, see: D EVER (1992) (both refer to G.E. Wright, ‘The “New Archaeology”’, BA, 38 (1974) = W RIGHT (1975) – sic!). Dever wrote his article for ABD in 1989 (compare the dates of published and forthcoming publications); in his address to the Second International Congress on Biblical Archaeology in Jerusalem (1990), he advocates ‘contextual archaeology’ (esp. D EVER (1993) 713). 59 O EMING (1998) 57. 60 O EMING (1998) 58. Here is the only place where Oeming mentions ‘New Archaeology’. This current in archaeology started in the United States, where archaeology is a part of anthropology. This shows the redundancy of referring to inspiration from cultural anthropology. 61 K EEL (1972) / K EEL (1997b); K EEL (1986) / K EEL (1994a); K EEL (1978b). 62 K EEL and U EHLINGER (1992) / K EEL and U EHLINGER (1998). 63 O EMING (1998) 59; the English version cautiously just speaks about ‘historical processes’ (O EMING (2006) 52); ‘Religionsgeschichte’, ‘history of religion’ would have been a better fit. 64 T HEISSEN (1985). 65 O EMING (1998) 61. 66 O EMING (1998) 55–62, (quotation: 62).

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It is erroneous to categorize Keel as a representative of New Archaeology.67 At the very least, Keel deals with texts; he calls his hermeneutical approach ‘holistic’: it is textual critical and studyies biblical texts in the light of contemporary biblical and extra-biblical texts and archaeological remains, of which images are the most ‘eye-catching’; it also takes into account the whole culture of a certain period.68 Especially in their ‘history of religion’, Keel and Uehlinger stress that a history of religion cannot be composed by only taking texts into account; particularly with respect to belief (‘religiösen Vorstellungswelt’), images are indispensable.69 The idea that New Archaeology does not deal with texts is also found explicitly in Vieweger’s recent description of archaeology.70 It is true that New Archaeology strongly suspects biblical texts of being ideologically biased regarding the history of ancient Israel. However, it employs, besides texts, many other methods, of which many are related to natural sciences (e.g. dendrochronology, carbon-14 dating, pollen dating, X-ray fluorenscence, atomic absorption spectrometry, mortuary analysis, etc.).71 With these warnings, iconography – as a historical method which is part of the historical approach – is intended to illuminate biblical texts (their contents, concepts, ideas, etc.) and their historical contexts (religious, social, cultural, political, economical) with the help of images in order to understand the text as much as possible in the way the first receiving communities did.72 Similarly, the present study adds iconography to Walton’s survey of comparative study.73 He urges study of: history, to gain knowledge about events; archaeology, to recover life-style; language for insight into semantics, lexicography, idioms and metaphors, and literature to penetrate “the hearts and souls of the people who inhabited the ancient

67

Cf. subsection 3.3.3.1, esp. footnote 75. K EEL (1998) 218–219. 69 K EEL and U EHLINGER (1992) 10–12, 453–457 / K EEL and U EHLINGER (1998) 9–12, 393–396; cf. also e.g. K EEL and U EHLINGER (1992) 321 / K EEL and U EHLINGER (1998) 281. 70 V IEWEGER (1999) 124. He refers only to D EVER (1993), which indeed pleads for more dialogue between ‘contextual archaeology’ and Biblical Studies, but which does not state that New Archaeology does not methodologically deal with texts. Ten years before him N OORT (1979) and C RÜSEMANN (1979) made the same plea. In 2003 Dever states that archaeologists failed to achieve such a dialogue (D EVER (2003)). A striking detail is still the suggestion by T.W. Davis that Dever’s choice for ‘New Archaeology’ would have been caused by its abiblical nature. (DAVIS (2004b) 25.) 71 D EVER (1992), D EVER (1993); D EVER (1981); W RIGHT (1975). 72 Cf. subsection 2.1.5. 73 See: WALTON (2006) 28. 68

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world that Israel shared.”74 Especially regarding this last/mentioned goal, iconography provides an important contribution. 2.2.2 Case studies This anticipated position of iconography within the multiplicity of hermeneutical approaches or methods is in agreement with the case studies to be made. Third Isaiah contains figurative language, especially metaphors. In order to understand metaphors, ‘literary competence’ (as John Barton calls it)75 is required. To have ‘literary competence’ means to grasp genre, cultural context, etc. Iconography can provide a method for more informed reading, for what may be referred to as ‘cultural competence’. Thus, iconography provides a way to share in the mental map of a culture, the framework of understanding that underlies an expression (as will be worked out in Part II). Although he introduces various theories of Old Testament reading quite objectively,76 Barton places most emphasis on the literary aspect of studying the Old Testament.77 While we agree on the complementariness of exegetical methods, nevertheless, next to the literary aspects, historical aspects should also be considered. Iconographic exegesis deals with artefacts from the Ancient Near East. Ed Noort, in his inaugural lecture in Kampen in 1979, distinguished Old Testament exegesis as illuminating the Sitz-in-der-Literatur, whereas biblical archaeology deals with the Sitzim-Leben.78 Parallel to this, Barton’s slight structuralist preference makes him focus on the Sitz-in-der-Literatur. Iconographic exegesis, however, approaches texts from the Sitz-im-Leben, studying a text and its possible links with the material Umwelt; however not to the detriment of literary material. Material culture, mainly known from excavations, provides historical background information about the context of the Bible. It helps in gaining insight into the ‘context(s)’, i.e. into the societies in which the ‘pro74

WALTON (2006) 28; cf. independently formulated: “An approach should be defended in which the Hebrew language system, the authorial strategies, and the reader’s mental representation are integrated.” (VAN W OLDE (1998) 161; cf. C ROATTO (1998) 195–196). 75 BARTON (1996) 11. T HISELTON (1992) 499–502 and TALSTRA (2002) 91, 105 take a similar position. 76 Barton prefers ‘theory’ above ‘method’ (BARTON (1996) 244); and as the title of his book already indicates, he regards the different approaches to the OT as theories of reading. 77 In presenting theories of reading, Barton’s key-word ‘literary competence’ (mainly genre recognition) shows his slight structuralist preference. 78 N OORT (1979) 32.

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duction’ of the biblical texts took place. Archaeology provides us with images; here the attempt will be made to link these images with texts, to biblical texts, in particular Trito-Isaian texts, especially focusing on how they contribute to the interpretation of figurative language, imagery. Because not everything needed for the interpretation of texts can be drawn from the text,79 images also should be incorporated into interpretation. In its exegesis of texts, this study deals with text-illuminating images and the illumination of these images.80

79

Or other texts; this study does not sustain the idea that images are texts as well Cf. concerning this chapter also: K LEIN, B LOMBERG and H UBBARD (1993); C ON RADIE et al. (1995); TATE (1997); M AIMELA and K ÖNIG (1998); L UNDIN , WALHOUT and T HISELTON (1999); S CHREINER (1999) and G ORMAN (2001). 80

Part II

The way constructed

Chapter 3

Theory for a Method of Iconographic Exegesis

After responding to the essential question ‘Why images?’ in section 3.1, section 3.2 will deal with the aim, character and structure of the present chapter and outline the contents of the other sections of this chapter.

3.1 Why images? 3.1.1 The importance of considering images The present section addresses the question: ‘why should images be used as a source in exegesis?’. Section 1.1 formulated the problem as: ‘How do images from the Ancient Near East provide a better understanding of the Old Testament?’. Mentioning the ‘Ancient Near East’ points to the chosen historical approach, even though material from the Ancient Near East exists in such variety that some of it is dated as far before the origin of the writings of the Hebrew Bible as the present book is after it. In other words: ancient Near Eastern material can be as little contemporary as modern material. Still, one may assume that this ancient material is culturally closer to the biblical record.1 Images as part of the archaeological record constitute an important source, which the historical approach can employ to get more information about the act of communication (of which the text is part) and its background. Images depict and reflect the society and culture of which they form a part. Section 2.1.4 urged that one should make every reasonable, possible effort to understand the meaning most likely understood as the best assumed by the author against the communicational background (which includes an understanding of society).2 Therefore, images should be included in a historical approach to the text in order to reach a better-balanced view against which the results of other 1

The issue of place will more precisely put this statement into perspective. That is: ‘the background of the situational context of a given communication’, but as the background is the context and as communication, defined as event, can be identified as situation; this sentence has been condensed to: ‘communicational background’. 2

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(historical) exegetical methods can be pondered and with which they can be calibrated. In short: why images? Because they form an important part of the society/culture to which the text(s) under consideration belong(s).3 3.1.2 Images as an answer to a textual problem Othmar Keel’s work shows that it was often one word that brought him to iconographic exegesis; for instance Joshua’s javelin (Joshua 8:18,26),4 ‫ מְשׂ חֶקֶת‬in Proverbs 85 or the ostrich in God’s speech to Job.6 In other works by Keel, images served as the clarification of themes. When starting from a text, often just one word may inspire a search for its meaning. Sometimes texts are linked with themes, such as world view, the role of the king, etc. and thus the text urges research into these concepts or themes.7 As many questions as the text can raise, so many are the points of interest for exegesis.8 Most of these questions are brought together in Figure 3.1 (page 36) which visualises the different interests of biblical exegesis. In case other methods do not yield satisfying answers to questions, iconographic method should be tried – and ‘artisanal skill’ will help to decide which problems offer a change to being solved through iconographic exegesis. Section 3.8 will deal with this further. Thus, the question: ‘why images?’ comprises a general question (answered in 3.1.1) and the question of why images should be consulted for the research of a specific problem in the text. The latter is answered by pointing to the potential of images to give insight, in response to questions arising from the text, into the culture and circumstances of which images and texts are a part.9 3

Or in Keel’s words: “Many, many Biblical texts can be understood better in the context of the time they were written when you look at pictorial evidence”; K EEL (2005) 57. When texts are available to study a period or region, this is no excuse for not considering material culture (archaeology); cf. the similar plea in A NDRÉN (1998) esp. v–vi, 1–8, 134, 179–183. For a similar starting point concerning the complementarity of textual sources and archaeology within New Testament Studies, see the volume K ÜCHLER and S CHMIDT (2006). It should further be noted that scholars need both text and image to understand what was made millennia ago, whereas for the ancients things were probably clear from the image (cf. W INTER (1989) 582–583) or the text alone. 4 K EEL (1974b) 21–88, 136–138 and K EEL (1999) 205–214. 5 K EEL (1974a). 6 K EEL (1978b). Later, Keel stated that a seal with an image of an ostrich reminded him of Job 39; K EEL (1985) 146. 7 As Keel did, for instance, in his epoch-making work K EEL (1972) / K EEL (1997b). 8 In practice these are questions on the product and public side of the text; likewise, imagining oneself in the position of the producer can bring similar questions. 9 Cf. subsection 3.2.2.1.

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3.2 Key to the chapter This section discusses the aim of this chapter and the approach in formulating an iconographic method for exegesis of the Old Testament. Thus, section 3.2.1 introduces more specifically the task of this chapter and discusses the place of this chapter in the whole of the present study. Section 3.2.2 makes a choice between text and image as a starting point for iconographic exegesis. Subsection 3.2.2.2 provides an overview of the following sections. Finally subsection 3.2.2.3 introduces the different areas in which iconographic exegesis aims to be useful. 3.2.1 Aim 3.2.1.1 Understanding through word and image Comparatively speaking, little attention has been given to the exegetical employment of pictorial data. The importance of these data becomes clear in several fields. One of these fields, which may not seem the most obvious, is (neuro)biology, as the following quotation demonstrates: “An intimate relationship has existed between drawing and writing for thousands of years. (. . . ) Neuroconstructivist theory supports the naturalness of this connection as well as its usefulness for learning. The history of art demonstrates that drawing alone and writing alone do not suffice to tell the tale.”10

In order ‘to tell the tale’, one needs words and images. This is true for many areas of knowledge. When studying a culture far away in place or time, one needs to somehow share in the experience of this culture. In case such a culture is only geographically far away, one can do ethnographic research. In case one is studying the Ancient Near East, one is faced with the fact of not being able to go there.11 The tale told in words and images is known through images, as unearthed by archaeology.12 Traditions which were oral and performed, were ‘immortalized’ in drawing (e.g. in 10 S HERIDAN (1997) 55–56. This is quoted from a book for educators which argues that verbal and visual literacy (and translational) skills should be taught together, reasoning from child psychology, educational theory and practice, art history, history of writing and neurobiology. Another interesting observation is: “Whether we are sighted or blind, touch informs our mental images.” in: S HERIDAN (1997) 65, based on K ENNEDY (1997). John Kennedy’s research is on pictures in vision and touch and metaphor in language and pictures and he gives special attention to drawing by blind persons; see: http://www.utsc. utoronto.ca/~kennedy/ (17. III. 2006), also for his other (e.g. more recent) publications; he also studied blind persons’ use of visual imagery (cf. e.g. K ENNEDY (1993) 216–251). 11 At least physically; in spite of the famous opening line of Hartley’s The Go-Between: “The past is another country; they do things differently there.” (e.g. H ARTLEY (1961) 9). 12 Cf. R ENFREW (2005) 43.

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pre-literate societies) before they were transmitted in writing. Furthermore, text and image are linked in the fact that emerging scripts employed drawing (together with homonymy).13 Sometimes image and text accompanied each other.14 Given that all humans, cognitively speaking, are homo sapiens sapiens, we are able to share the perception of specific people from a specific time and place.15 However, historical circumstances enable us to share only partially in experiences, perception and likewise understanding. As the aim is to share in a culture; ideally, one should have enough data, time and other resources to get to a full understanding (or so to speak: native experience) of a culture.16 The more one realizes how little is left (i.e. how little the vast archaeological record is in comparison with what existed in the ancient days), the more one is compelled to employ all possible data to reconstruct societies of the past. In spite of these limitations, hermeneutically it is still worth examining texts and adding exegetical explanations to the synchronic, historical and

13 Cf. R ENDSBURG (2003). For hieroglyphs: M ORENZ (2004); the case of Mesopotamia is slightly more complicated, cf. G LASSNER (2000). Egypt and Mesopotamia both show a development which includes images, ideographic and phonetic signs; for the latter its early stage is linked with book keeping; cf. N ISSEN, DAMEROW and E N GLUND (1993); DAMEROW (1999) – S CHMANDT-B ESSERAT (1992) 199 concludes that “writing was a by-product of abstract counting.” Cf. also E LKINS (1999) 120–132. 14 Egypt may be the stock example, where even the role of script may be taken as text as well as image. H ORNUNG (1973) 106 states on hieroglyphs used as attributes: “Hier verwischt sich die Grenze zwischen Beischrift und Attribut, zwischen Schrift und Bild.”. The close relation between image and word in Egypt is almost a stereotype (on this connection, cf. G OLDWASSER (1995); M ORENZ (2004)). The implication which is often drawn from this, that such a close connection is absent elsewhere, is too simple. W IG GERMANN (1981-1982) discusses the word lahmu, ‘the hairy one’, written on the arm of < a naked figure on a terracotta relief from Assur. Another example of the co-occurrence of image and text are the epigraphs on Assyrian reliefs. When the Babylonians attacked Nineveh they destroyed, besides the ‘life-important’ parts (nose, eyes, mouth, ears; and thus also the face as mark of identity) names and titles inscribed on the reliefs; see BAHRANI (2000) 151–153; cf. H EINZ (2002). Next to captions, Mesopotamian art sometimes has text written on figures in relief; cf. R EADE (1983) 26–28, images 29, 30, 32 and ANEP, image 617. Nevertheless, despite putting the stereotype into more perspective, its truth cannot be denied; cf. e.g. W IGGERMANN (1995) 77–78. 15 A problem with sharing experiences is a researcher’s reflection on him/her-self as participating person, i.e. person and researcher bringing experiences from elsewhere which influence the level of sharedness concerning the experiences of ‘locals’. 16 Ideally as ‘homo universalis’, although too much knowledge might also hinder sharing in the ‘native experience’.

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3. Theory/Method: Deductive Approach

methodological axes.17 One of the extenuating circumstances is the fact that the human authors of the Hebrew Bible, and maybe even more the first hearers (readers), had only partial knowledge about their context.18 Traditional approaches to the Hebrew Bible primarily deal with texts.19 But as much as images require a material and cultural context, so do texts. Therefore, one should employ all available archaeological data to reconstruct the societal and cultural context of a text. As this endeavour requires specialization, the present study will briefly sketch the parameters, the framework within which such exegesis can take place and it will then aim to provide a model for examining pictorial data. 3.2.1.2 Interdisciplinarity The preface has already indicated the interdisciplinary character of formulating a method of iconographic exegesis. Likewise, doing iconographic exegesis benefits from familiarity with different fields, as the preceding subsection may have illustrated. As with the previous considerations about the complexity of an understanding of the past,20 interdisciplinarity indicates the comprehensiveness of this enterprise as well. In spite of the incompleteness of our knowledge, this comprehensiveness still compels us to remain focused on the development and formulation of a method of iconographic exegesis of the Old Testament. Because of this focus the following chapter will not provide wide-ranging introductions to the different fields which contribute to the exposition of this chapter. Aware of the fact that one person cannot cover all the specializations involved in this enterprise, this book will do its share in constructing an iconographic method of (Old Testament) exegesis. It is open for critique which may improve the theory in order that iconographic exegesis will be an even more helpful practice in the study of the Hebrew Bible (and the New Testament). This chapter endeavours to respond to the statement of the problem (see section 1.1) by formulating a methodology of how to adopt iconography for material from the Ancient Near East in order to be able to employ 17

In reference to Jonker’s model (J ONKER ([1996])) which with a synchronic and a diachronic axis can be improved by speaking about a synchronic, a historical and a methodological (cf. his specialist reading) axis. 18 The perspective of revelation underlines this historical aspect of revelation as well; cf. the final paragraph of 2.1.7. 19 An attempt to work out the idea of an iconographic Bible commentary failed due to ‘methodologische Unfähigkeit’, because the exegetes who were trained only in dealing with texts were unable to work with images. See: U EHLINGER (2000a) 402. Only two volumes appeared, in ‘olam ha-tan¯ak (mentioned in section 1.3). 20 Cf. also subsection 3.3.1 on historical knowledge.

3.2. Key to the chapter

29

it also for iconographic exegesis. Chapter 4 will link the position of the present chapter with metaphor theory. This forms a bridge to the application of the formulated model for iconographic exegesis, as it provides the supplemental theoretical basis for the case studies on the light and wine-press metaphors in Third Isaiah. As mentioned in section 1.4, the present chapter will deal with several areas. In answering the questions formulated in the following section, disciplines and fields such as art history, iconography, archaeology, anthropology will be employed; and issues of history, hermeneutics, sociology and others have to be addressed. With the help of these disciplines, theoretical issues are to be addressed which will be done in the service of the methodological proposal. This study develops a method for iconographic exegesis within the historical approach and takes into consideration the importance of the cultural context: a method for iconographic exegesis within a historical-cultural approach. Investigating the potential of the iconographic approach is beyond the scope of the present study. 3.2.2 Approach to the chapter 3.2.2.1 Starting point Keeping in mind the pair ‘text and image’, the topic of the present study can be formulated more sharply as: this study deals with iconography as a method of textual exegesis of the Old Testament. The word ‘textual’ may sound paradoxical in relation to ‘iconography’. Text and image are two different forms of appearing. The present chapter will deal with the possibilities of how their contents can mututally illuminate each other and especially how the pictorial material can shed a helpful light on texts under consideration. The word ‘textual’ implies that the exegesis has texts as an object and indicates the starting point of the exegetical task in which the present study participates.21 The leading question of what it is that pictorial material can contribute to the illumination of the Hebrew Bible text, takes its starting point in the text. Interaction with the text may prompt a reader to exegete the text 21

The possibility of taking a starting point in a theme (cf. e.g. S TRAWN (2005)) is put aside; based on what follows in this chapter, it may be concluded that the study of a theme also leads to studying texts and images in their own right and bringing the results of both into dialogue. Another starting point could be the image; this may be exemplified by S CHROER and K EEL (2005) and S CHROER and K EEL (2008) and the other planned volumes in this series (FANT and R EDDISH (2008) shares this starting point, but it is historical rather than exegetical). On the issue of starting points, see also DE H ULSTER (in press).

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iconographically.22 Thus, this study wants to put itself in the position of the student (writing an exegesis paper), the minister (who has to preach or prepare a Bible study), the scholar working with the text and especially the commentary writer or whoever else with questions that primarily concern the text. Moreover, from a textual exegetical perspective, the starting point, the first request or question, comes from the text because the text asks for interpretation. The text as starting point is a condition for this being a text exegetical method.23 Does an approach which starts from images do more justice to the images? An affirmative answer to this question should be qualified by pointing out that both starting points should be balanced with each other. Images studied because of a text should also be studied in their own right. It would be helpful if a thorough study of the images to be considered would be available before they are related to a text. One should, however, be aware that the image interpretation does not rule out the contribution of the text itself to its interpretation.24 3.2.2.2 Procedure In taking a text-based iconographic approach in exegesis, one has to deal with the question: how to select images which might be useful for a better understanding of the considered text? This involves, on the one hand: which images are useful? And, practically, on the other hand: where to find images? It also leads to the task of interpreting the pictorial material. The final question of this set, which covers the method25 in a nut shell, is: how to relate text and image? This ‘final’ question: ‘how to relate text and image?’ is a methodological issue as well as a theoretical one, as this underlying question for the present enterprise may be phrased as: how are text(s) and image(s) related? How are text and image connected? Do they have something to do with each other, intrinsically? This theoretical question should be answered in order to constitute the method.26 Part of this underlying the22

Cf. subsection 3.1.2. In a sense, text interpretation is limited to questions which arise from the text; in reflection on R ICOEUR (1991) 43–64, esp. 61–63. 24 Therefore it would be practical to have a handbook or dictionary which deals with topics on which important pictorial and textual material could be brought into conversation and balanced; see section 9.4) 25 ‘Method’ in the sense of the ‘way to follow’ in iconographic exegesis, the ‘procedure’. 26 ‘Method’ in the broad sense (of one possible elaboration within the spectrum of the pictorial approach), and thus also in the narrow sense of ‘procedure’. 23

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oretical question is answered by the remarks of subsection 3.2.1.1; section 3.5.2 will further develop this topic within the perspective of culture. Another constituting question is: why involve images? This question has been answered in general in subsection 3.1.1 and as a methodological concern for particular texts in section 3.1.2. These two groups of questions, methodological and theoretical, form27 the main line of the present chapter. Again, as said before, dealing with these issues will be focused on ancient Near Eastern images and the Hebrew Bible (and its interpretation today) as much as possible. As soon as the text is the starting point of exegesis, the question of the importance of images arises. When this is clear, issues appear, such as: ‘which images?’ and ‘from where?’. After responding to these, text and image will be explained and finally related. This is, in a nutshell, what should be theoretically worked out in the present chapter and applied in the next part of the study. Thus, this chapter addresses theoretical issues and their translation into a practical method which is an itinerary for iconographic exegesis. Therefore, after subsection 3.2.2.3 touches on Biblical Studies, iconography, archaeology and their overlap, and provides a heuristic overview of the interests of historical exegesis; section 3.3 addresses archaeology, as well as history and theory, as part of the framework for the development of a method for iconographic exegesis. After section 3.1 has dealt with the question of why (ancient) images should be used as a source in exegesis and section 3.4 defines ‘image’ and ‘iconography’, section 3.5 introduces culture as the framework which connects image and text.28 Section 3.6 discusses how/where to search for images and presents two heuristic criteria for the selection of the images which are to be studied in a context of iconographic exegesis. Section 3.7 presents a model for the interpretation of images. Section 3.8 will work out on which aspects of biblical interpretation an iconographic model of exegesis can shed light. Section 3.9 recapitulates what was said before (see section 2) about exegesis and hermeneutics and adds the results of the current chapter to these considerations. Section 3.10 will draw the conclusions of this chapter and give 27 In reverse order, as sections 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 are of theoretical concern and sections 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8 address the methodological issues. 28 Because the emphasis of the present study is on images, with a focus on the illumination of texts, the relationship of image to text is of such an importance that a whole section is devoted to the framework ‘culture’, which connects image and text. Other parts of the framework which are considered complementary or auxiliary to the cultural approach are discussed in 3.3; even when archaeological finds combine textual and pictorial evidence, culture remains the framework to examine these data.

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an outline of the proposed method for iconography as a text exegetical method. 3.2.2.3 Aspects of biblical exegesis Iconography and archaeology29 are two important areas of study which may enter into fruitful dialogue with Biblical Studies. The present study focuses on their relevance for Biblical exegesis as independent disciplines. Although there are many examples of studies which relate two of these three fields, the present study limits itself to the area where the three disciplines of iconography, archaeology and Biblical exegesis meet. Because of the contribution of archaeology, the present study is restricted to historical exegesis.30 Iconography determines the focus on pictorial material.31 Biblical Study ‘hosts’ the endeavour by providing the research question and the text as starting point. The question for section 3.8: ‘what aspects of biblical exegesis can be illuminated with pictorial material?’ is an invitation to brainstorm what one finds in the Hebrew Bible and what can be depicted in one way or another. The interests of exegesis, in general and in its most wide-ranging form, come together with again the comprehensiveness of knowledge of society preferred for exegesis. Within the historical perspective of the present study, the focus is on aspects of historical exegesis. This results in an emphasis on the author, the text as a communicative medium and on the first receiving communities. An enumeration at this point, has heuristic value. Section 3.6 will examine how images can be found to gain more information about the subjects enumerated. The conclusion of this chapter (section 3.10) will evaluate the usefulness of pictorial material in studying the following areas or aspects of the Hebrew Bible. 29

Alongside historical studies (e.g., on culture, politics, religion, economics). The area of intersection of iconography and Biblical Studies deals with (later) reception history, e.g., as Christian archaeology or in contextual theology. Also, for later, present-day cultures: “The expressions of art, and especially the expressions of pictorial art, visualize life- and worldviews.” (B ERGMANN (2003) 114) As such this is the other way around from the current enterprise: studying a text and examining, with the help of images, how it was influenced by its historical context. It needs to be realized here that tracing influences cannot be concluded with a complete set of factors which have determined a certain expression. On the one hand, expressions always go beyond the constituting and influencing factors, especially beyond the (possibly incomplete) reconstruction of these factors. On the other hand, the artistic expressions studied in contextual theology represent the whole less than the expressions of the Ancient Near East. 31 Chapter 6 will touch on the issue of (an)iconicity and the almost fluid border between object and image. 30

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The interest of (historical) exegesis concerns the context in which the text emerged. As mentioned before, this involves the complexity of society, culture, the political situation in a natural environment and the perception of the text-producing people about these things and themselves. In short: the interest of exegesis is the world in reality and thought as communicated through the text and playing a role in the communication / understanding of the text. The following enumeration and accompanying chart (Figure 3.1 on page 36) is an attempt to cover this complexity.32 1. observable, perceivable: what is perceived by the five senses: hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch.33 (a) nature i. celestial bodies ii. four elements34 (in their common shape and in the form of disasters): air/ wind and hurricane; light/ heat and fire; water and flooding (although this was regarded as positive along the Nile); earth and earthquakes; iii. flora35, 36 iv. fauna37 v. human38 (b) culture i. human;39 on the cultural side, one can specify: ii. individual 32 Examples with pictorial material will be given in the course of this study, e.g. in section 3.8. 33 Thus it is more comprehensive than just what is visible, tangible or material, including e.g. spoken language as well. 34 These are chosen because of their universality, realizing that they occurred for example among the ancient Greek philosophers and in Korea (see e.g. the South Korean flag). 35 Cf. the schema in D EIST (2000) 138. 36 It would have been possible to distinguish ‘scenery’ as a separate category, but it is present as the result of adding ‘flora’ with the elements ‘earth’ and ‘water’ (cf. 1.a.ii and 1.a.iv). Likewise ‘place’ is not distinguished separately. 37 Cf. the schema in D EIST (2000) 128. 38 Discussion can rise about the question of whether ‘human’ should be counted as ‘fauna’; biology brings up arguments for doing so. A further debate deals with the issue of whether culture can be explained biologically. Related to this is the question of ethics and evolution. On these topics, cf. footnote 39. Because ‘human’ belongs in the categories of nature and culture, it is mentioned separately in the category of nature and not taken together with ‘fauna’. 39 ‘Human’ is mentioned both on the natural and on the cultural side, as humans can be studied biologically and culturally/socially (as e.g. in biological and social (cultural) anthropology, cf. footnote 143). Cf. Dixon’s: “By nature we are part of nature. By nature we are apart from nature.” (D IXON (1996) 18; quoted by S TONE (2003) 21) An endeavour to theologically describe humans in this dualism is Hefner’s The Human Factor (cf. esp. H EFNER (1993) e.g., 45, 102–103, 131), which proposes a completely natural-theological ‘created co-creators’ theory, dealing with nature & culture, freedom,

34

3. Theory/Method: Deductive Approach A. material: cultural material things are parts of nature, processed by man (cf. production and skills) – food – artefacts – utensils – semi-utensils: those items of which the usefulness can be debated, such as amulets, jewels, etc. which are therefore not catalogued as ‘utensils’; and just as some people see the usefulness of non-utensils, such as trinkets and knickknacks and gimcracks, so they also fit into this category as possible semi-utensils. – decoration is mentioned here separately because it deserves special attention, i.e. as art, it forms a part of media, like (semi-)utensils and architectural units (therefore it is mentioned there as well); – architecture – decoration – built structures, such as buildings (houses, store-houses, temples, etc.) villages, harbours, cities, etc. but also roads; because of these larger structures, it is also mentioned under infrastructure; – infrastructure – built structures; – other cultivated areas, of which cultivated land is the most obvious example; B. speech, and text as its written companion. The schedule points here to the sense of hearing; it gets its material form when speech becomes written text with a medium (tablet, scroll or book for the ancients; now computer screens, etc. as well); this indirect relation is indicated with an arrow. C. acts – acts necessary for life, such as breathing, eating, etc. – production + skills: cultivation, food processing, manufacturing (of cloth, tools, non-utensils, etc.), building, construction, etc. – manners, rituals; such as manners of dress, greeting, etc. (manners), but also religious practices (rituals). iii. collective; this can be considered on the micro, meso and macro level. These represent levels of scale especially in the number of people involved, the geographical and historical extent (event, conjuncture and longue durée)40 and in abstraction (e.g. generalization of culture; see section 3.5.1); the abstract names for the levels make it possible to keep this part multi-dimensional;

original sin and altruism, within the framework of biocultural evolution; Hefner assumes that this altruism is surpassed by self-sacrificing love, which has its origin in what really is (God), and has its best example in Jesus Christ, whose life is the image of sacrificial living as a paradigm for being human and shows that God has never been alienated from us. 40 According to the division of the Annales School.

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A. (social) interaction, such as communications, relationships, etc.;41 B. transaction or (material) exchange, commonly studied as economics;42 C. structure, especially family ties and rule (politics on different levels: government, administration, management); 2. experience and thought (a) material world/observable43 (b) person(s) including their thoughts, feelings, (c) history/ time44 (d) abstract i. ideas ii. values iii. world view iv. symbol system (e) supernatural The question may rise whether other aspects or interests of exegesis are present in the tree chart and if ‘yes’, how. Ideology might be such an interest of exegesis;45 as far as historical exegesis is concerned this is part of the node ‘abstract’, specified as ‘values’. Thus, the ‘historical chart’ does not include the reception history and the ideologies or values of receiving communities – broadly speaking – after the canon was defined. Another group of aspects which is underrepresented in the tree chart concerns text-immanent features, 41

These are related to feelings on the micro level of interacting individuals; feelings are incorporated in the schedule under the heading ‘person(s)’ as part of experience. On the meso (regional) and macro (global) level of collective humans as nations these include, for instance, war and peace; however a certain war (which can be meso level with regard to the number of individuals involved) is on the micro level of histoire événementielle (for history further cf. footnote 44) - this is an example of the multi-dimensionality. 42 The word ‘material’ is bracketed, because the material exchange may be in one direction or material may lack altogether, when only services (or knowledge) are exchanged. 43 Cf. footnote 36: scenery and place are not explicitly mentioned, similarly ‘space’ is not mentioned separately here. Where ‘space’, like other elements of the observable, are ‘more deeply rooted’, they form part of ‘world view’ (2.d.iii). For more on place and space, cf. section 3.5. On space cf. B RINKMAN (1992), although the book changes in topic from space (as counterpart of time and component of world view) to spatiality (dealing with measurement, proportion and the relationship between shapes and areas); likewise the concluded small difference in perception of space between the Old Testament and modern man, may actually be a small difference in the perception of spatiality, whereas difference in the perception of space may be more extensive (a proper definition of space, ‘ruimte’ in Dutch, (and of spatiality) seems to be lacking, whereas most of the text has been devoted to defining ‘perception’ e.g. in relation to ‘experience’. It is, however, possible to argue that spatiality should be considered or defined as the smallest or most concrete level of space). 44 History has been mentioned here explicitly because of its time factor; its operational aspect is present in ‘act’ and in ‘collective’, where the aspects of ‘histoire événementielle’, ‘histoire conjuncturelle’ and ‘longue durée’ play a distinguishing role and the notions of individual and collective are applied. Cf. footnotes and 40 and 41. 45 Also because of the recent interest in this aspect, within the context of the Hebrew Bible in relation to history writing: cf. A MIT (1999); BARR (2000).

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Figure 3.1: Aspects of historical exegesis

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such as text structure. Indirectly this is present in the node ‘tablet/ scroll/ book’. If this category, abstractly termed ‘structure’ were to be given a place in the chart, it would be grouped in the vague category of ‘ideas’. This underlines that the emphasis of the chart is on observable things. Such an emphasis is not intended to anticipate the conclusion; rather, the stress on observable things is due to the fact that it is amplified because the reflection of section 3.8 requires more details in this part of the chart. Different – more detailed – aspects of the ‘experience and thought’ side of the tree chart will be elaborated as well in this section. All these areas are related to, and can be argued to be part of, biblical exegesis, in the sense that exegesis is concerned with the background of the text in its comprehensiveness. A problem arising here, however, is the relation between background information and the task of exegesis. Firstly, this problem is parallel to the problem of the starting point in text or in an image: if one starts by examining images, one draws conclusions about what exegesis can employ as background for the text;46 if one starts from the text, one searches for relevant information which can be concluded from – among other sources – the pictorial material. Secondly, this problem is parallel to the question of what belongs to the field of Biblical Studies and how to demarcate the common ground of archaeology, iconography and Biblical Studies.47

3.3 Framework: history, theory and archaeology Before turning to the core of the present chapter, in addition to the hermeneutical considerations in chapter 1, it is necessary to consider history, theory and especially archaeology as important methodological prerequisites in order to develop a method of iconographic exegesis. 3.3.1 History As mentioned in section 2.2, the present enterprise is historical. It poses a historical question regarding imagery and associations of a society/culture from the past. The postmodern question of whether it is possible to have secure knowledge of history is beyond the scope of the present study. Aware of the problems involved, this study – along with the classic Collingwood, Lorenz and Tosh48 – takes it for granted that (intersubjective) knowledge about the past is possible.49 Tosh points out that in history writing one should be aware of difference, context and process. Difference points to the changing material conditions of life and of mentalities and the cau46 In this case ‘background’ is understood as the background which involves aspects usually examined by the disciplines of history or archaeology. 47 Cf. the first paragraph of subsection 3.2.2.3 and footnote 30. 48 C OLLINGWOOD (1994); L ORENZ (2002); T OSH (2002) esp. 164–203. 49 Cf. e.g. the brief discussion applied to the history of Israel/Yehud: G RABBE (2004) 3–16; also references to other literature.

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tion one should practice when dealing with cultures from other periods;50 context is the historical setting of the specific historical interest one deals with; and process denotes the setting within the course of history. Tosh emphasises the difference of mentality the most, which includes differences concerning values, fears, hopes and priorities between the history writers and the people they write about.51 Knowledge about history is intersubjective, preliminary, provisional, and heuristic. Therefore, what is plausible cannot be precluded;52 history writing can make valid claims.53 The next subsection about theory will extend these considerations by taking history as an example of a discipline with theory.54 3.3.2 Theory Another introductory and underlying problem is ‘theory’. Formulation of theory should be kept in touch with practice;55 theory is useful only in tandem with practice and, moreover, not all practice can be expressed in theory, as part of it is ‘artisanal skill’.56 On the other hand: theory is indispensable! For instance, Morley, writing about the history of classical antiquity, remarks that advocates of theory in ancient history regard historical accounts with little or no theory as “inadequate, because they depend on a set of implicit and problematic assumptions masquerading as ‘common sense’.”57 Opponents of theory “maintain that any account of antiquity using modern concepts and theories is illegitimate and misleading, 50

Which also holds for other places; this meanwhile points out that a process of change does not always link up two or more different situations, as situations can be independently different, not connected by any historical development. 51 T OSH (2002) 9–12. 52 Cf. KORPEL (2006) esp. 61. As Fustel de Coulanges put it in his ‘hermeneutical’ remarks on ancient authors (especially Roman history writers): ‘Le fond de l’esprit critique, quand il s’agit de l’histoire du passé, est de croire les anciens.’ (DE C OULANGES (1893) 408) 53 Cf. e.g. C ARR (2006) 242. 54 The present study will not deal with images as employed by historians for reconstructing history via images and their use (e.g. propaganda); cf. B URKE (2001); E LLE NIUS (1998); H ARDEN (1993). What is important for the use of images in history writing is the conviction that images can be used as historical evidence. Cf. W HYTE (2006) 157 and footnote 229. 55 This is ‘theory’ in the sense of a ‘philosophical model’ (which is prior to and reshaped by practice and experience), not understood as ‘hypothesis’ (or complex of hypotheses’); in this latter case, theory should be tested against evidence, whether in the natural sciences, or in e.g. history writing. 56 Cf. subsection 2.1.1. 57 M ORLEY (2004) 1.

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as the evidence has been corrupted and distorted with anachronism.”58, 59 This chapter searches for a balance between an overemphasised ‘common sense’ hermeneutical approach and an approach abounding in anachronisms (such as style and genre). The chapter shows a consciousness of the importance of giving an account of one’s method, in the hope that the theory presented will be inspiring and productive,60 not only for the following chapters, but also for others who are willing to embark on iconographic exegesis. Theory cannot be formulated without concepts. The following sections will make use of concepts, some of which might be supposed to be so much a part of the vernacular that defining them seems redundant. However, when applied in different disciplines, the meanings of these words vary so much that clarity is not only an academic prerequisite for dealing with the concept in question, but also a necessity for making sense. Therefore, a word like ‘image’ needs to be explicated because it will be technically applied; whereas words like ‘culture’ or ‘society’ need to be defined because they are much debated, although their definitions will be kept close to everyday language. Four steps can be distinguished: theory, approach, method and practice. Reflection is a prerequisite for purposeful practice. Theory shapes the framework (approach) and supports the construction of tools. Method forms the bridge to put an applied theory (approach) into practice. This bridge should be continuously used in both directions, the scholar being aware of the fact that practice inductively contributes to theory. Thus, ‘walking the way’ puts theory into practice through (and at the intersection of) approaches,61 and likewise practice also validates theory and the approaches and methods shaped by it. Roughly speaking, theory constitutes the ‘why’, whereas method deals with the ‘how’.62 Approximately speaking, the methodological sections of this study follow on from the

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M ORLEY (2004) 1. To extend this example of history with regard to the considerations concerning theory, Martin argues that historians need a bottom-up approach in order to improve the practice by careful considering what is actually done, and that a top-down approach helps them to value the cognitive status of their work; M ARTIN (2006). 60 Cf. M ORLEY (2004) 1–31. 61 Cf. the end of subsection 3.2.1.2; this study especially works at the crossroads of the historical(-cultural) and a pictorial/iconographic approach. 62 Approach or framework rather shows ‘what’ and ‘where’. 59

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theoretical sections,63 from section 3.6 onwards,64 after which Part III focuses on practice. 3.3.3 Archaeology and art 3.3.3.1 Archaeology Chapter 2 dealt with textual hermeneutics, chapter 3 provides a model for incorporating pictorial material within textual exegesis, answering the question of how ancient Near Eastern images can illuminate texts from the Hebrew Bible. Archaeology is part of the framework of this enterprise. The focus of this subsection is on archaeology, mainly for its approach within the context of the present chapter. Therefore, this section will not deal with the history of archaeology,65 in particular66 in Israel/Palestine,67 nor with the debate about the name of the field,68 nor with historical questions such as the minimalist–maximalist debate.69 Archaeology (especially field archaeology) is a discipline which has a primary focus on non-textual remains of past cultures and peoples. In the case where no textual remains are available, cross-cultural comparison should be employed with caution in order not to make cross-cultural generalizations. If there are textual sources, these should be taken into ac63

The number of theoretical issues dealt with is limited; the main topics needed for establishing an (historical-)iconographic method for Old Testament exegesis are dealt with in the present chapter. Themes which are rather text of epoch related can be found in chapter 5; the clearest example of these may be the specific kinds of (pictorial) media available, as has been applied in section 5.4. 64 The reflections on approach are mainly found in chapter 2. 65 In general: e.g. T RIGGER (2006). 66 Cf. subsection 3.3.3.3. For the political and ideological side of archaeology in the Ancient Near East (and neighbouring regions) cf. e.g. M ESKELL (1998); BAHRANI (2000); K LETTER (2006). As S HANKS and T ILLEY (1987b) 136 put it: “Archaeology’s appropriation of the past is a moral and political act.” 67 Cf. DAVIS (2003); DAVIS (2004a) (American viewpoint with emphasis on Albright and Wright); M OOREY (1991); D ESSEL (2003) (a historical overview of handbooks); for biblical archaeology as a field: cf. C URRID (1999); V IEWEGER (2003). 68 Cf. e.g. D EVER (2003); Z EVIT (2004). 69 Cf. e.g. the discussion on http://bibleinterp.com/articles/Minimalism_essays.htm with contributions by Philip Davies, William G. Dever, Norman K. Gottwald, Charles David Isbell, Iain Provan, Niels Peter Lemche, Robert D. Miller II, V. Philips Long, Jens Bruun Kofoed, Jim West (see: bibliography: websites). Moreover, this discussion has little relevance from the perspective of the case study in the following chapters, which has its emphasis on the Persian period. Still it should be remarked that “too often negative criticisms of tradition are based on arguments from silence” (YAMAUCHI (2004) 88). In line with this, the ancient documents should be credited unless there is evidence against them (cf. S COLNIC (2004); M ILLARD (2004)).

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count because neglecting textual sources heavily increases the danger of making generalizations.70 Likewise, it is also important to consider both textual and material (including iconographic) remains when the focus of one’s study is the clarification of textual material.71 Tosh’s threesome of difference, context and process72 similarly underscores the importance of historical context and includes the same warning against generalization. The history of the archaeological discipline can be roughly divided into three partly successive stages. 1. traditional archaeology; 2. processual archaeology, also known as ‘New Archaeology’; 3. postprocessual archaeology, also known as interpretative archaeology. The rise of archaeology includes the development from studying surface finds (and transporting them to museums) to more systematic research of excavated material73 and the methodological study of stratification. The notion of ‘culture’ played an important role which is clear in the flourishing of ethnoarchaeology and in ‘culture history’.74 Processual archaeology focused on the creation of methods which would allow verifiability of results within the discipline. Archaeology developed more and more subdisciplines oriented towards natural science, and incorporated applications of many sciences (e.g. such as archaeobotanics, archaeogenetics, archaeozoology, osteology, etc.) due to its multidisciplinary orientation.75 Postprocessual ar70

Cf. section 3.1 and also A NDRÉN (1998) (see footnote 3) and H ILLS (2005). Similarly, for instance, numismatics and epigraphy should take into account the archaeological context of its data. 72 See subsection 3.3.1 above. 73 Especially architectural vestiges, ceramic, metal (and other) utensils, epigraphic and numismatic remains. The 1950s extended this with a growing interest in climate, the floral and faunal world and research into seed and bone remains; as such this period can be regarded as the ‘running-in time’ of the widening interest coinciding with processual archaeology. 74 “An approach to archaeological data that orders structures and artefacts into a basic sequence of events in time and space, usually as a generalized description of human achievement under broad period-based headings. Widely regarded as a rather traditional approach to archaeological investigation, the culture history view has been criticized by processual archaeologists and postprocessual archaeologists for the fact that explanations in terms of migration or invasion are not explanations or understandings at all but merely descriptions of events. Nonetheless, the development of a robust culture history remains the object of some archaeological work, especially the geographical and chronological mapping of cultures and cultural influences.” (‘culture history’, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology, article by Timothy Darvill (Oxford University Press, 2002) Oxford Reference Online: (16. V. 2006)) (see footnote 197). This is also complicated by the different levels of history (cf. footnote 44), the changes on these levels and their interplay. 75 Oeming (in subsection 2.2.1) linked Keel with New Archaeology. Keel started to 71

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chaeology rose as a critique of processual archaeology. This kind of archaeology puts an emphasis on the immaterial. It focuses on social aspects,76 meaning, power, symbolism, etc. Thus archaeology is becoming more hermeneutical.77 Also, because archaeology touches on so many aspects, material and immaterial: “Archaeology is a tool that can greatly help the biblical scholar better understand the background of the Bible stories.”78 Soil provides an archive with a great deal of information. Archaeology researches the soil to obtain this information. Archaeologists unearth the items and structures which contain this information, and while one researcher is more eager to collect material remains, another is more eager to draw conclusions. In both these ways archaeology studies the complexity of (a past) society,79 examining the interrelatedness and interplay of social organization, environment, subsistence, technology, contacts (exchange), thoughts (and beliefs), human beings (biologically seen) and the change of these elements.80 No hierarchy should be proposed for these factors,81 although in some cases one factor or the other may have been of particular importance. Archaeology digs into the soil for items and traces of culture and past environmental circumstances which give information. It is not known how much information is still available in the soil, what will become available and when. Therefore archaeology depends on what might be referred to as ‘archaeological contingency’ (archäologischer Zufall): a random element is involved in the (availability of) material with which archaeologists work. This ‘bestows’ upon archaeology a preliminary character: new finds can always improve our knowledge and modify our paradigms.82 In

publish several years after the first steps in New Archaeology (cf. e.g. B INFORD (1962); B INFORD (1972)), but still coincided with its rise. Contrary to processual archaeology, Keel’s approach is much more hermeneutical-exegetical. 76 Cf. e.g. S HANKS and T ILLEY (1987a); S HANKS and T ILLEY (1987b).’ More recently on social theory in archaeology: S CHIFFER (2000). 77 Contrary to the more technical archaeology (cf. D EVER (1994) e.g. 106). On processual/interpretive archaeology: cf. T HOMAS (1996); T HOMAS (2000). Cf. also C ONRAD (1999); B ERNBECK (2003) (from a perspective of Biblical Studies). 78 M ERLING (2004) 40. 79 Cf. the adage: ‘archaeology is the past tense of anthropology.’ 80 Cf. R ENFREW and BAHN (2004). 81 Cf. S HANKS and T ILLEY (1987b) 59. 82 Next to modification (in their function of ‘network of resistance’; S HANKS and T ILLEY (1987a) 104), archaeological finds can also confirm what imagination came up with in order to fill knowledge gaps (cf. subsection 3.9.4.3).

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Mildenberg’s words: “Der Schoß der Erde ist voller Überraschungen.”83 As the present project and the kind of research involved in it depends on archaeological material, the results of the case studies have a preliminary status.84 3.3.3.2 Cognitive archaeology The present research question, which is an attempt to look into the mind of people from ages ago, can also be approached through cognitive archaeology. Renfrew describes this field as: “the study of past ways of thought as inferred from the surviving material remains.”85 Cognitive archaeology seems restricted to material evidence, in which pictorial expressions deserve special attention. Renfrew claims that “cognitive archaeology does not depend on literary sources for its validity.”86 Renfrew and Zubrow employ cognitive archaeology for prehistoric research.87 This implies that images suffice to draw conclusions. When textual material is also available, this should be taken into consideration.88 Section 3.1 argues the other way around. Although initially, inspired by cultural anthropology, processual archaeology aimed to be holistic, soon natural science took the lead. Cognitive archaeology, however, returned the hermeneutic aspect to processual archaeology. A positivistic way of searching for truth or objective conclusions has been repudiated. Hermeneutics suffice to gain a historical reconstruction, which is also the best possible in history89 and archaeology. Hermeneutics coincide with the attempt to reach the highest level of intersubjectivity and plausibility.90 83

M ILDENBERG (1988) 728. For archaeological method: H ODDER and H UTSON (2003) (like Tilley and Shanks, see e.g. footnote 76, Hodder and Hutson emphasise the historical character of archaeology); M ASCHNER and C HIPPINDALE (2005). For this subsection: R ENFREW and BAHN (2004); R ENFREW and BAHN (2005). On archaeology and the Bible also: Don. C. Benjamin ‘Stories and Stones: Archaeology and the Bible, an introduction’, http://www.doncbenjamin.com/Archaeology_&_the_Bible.pdf (17. IV. 2007), its references and B ENJAMIN (2009). For a recent general textbook on archaeology, see e.g., G RANT, G ORIN and F LEMING (2008). 85 R ENFREW (2005) 41. 86 R ENFREW and BAHN (2004) 428. 87 Cf. R ENFREW and Z UBROW (1994). 88 Cf. footnote 70. 89 Cf. subsection 3.3.1. 90 Cf. D EVER (1994), a plea for reflection on epistemology, hermeneutical reflection on history, see subsection 3.3.1. 84

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Cognitive archaeology, thus, also points to the hermeneutical importance of a complete picture. Every detail bears importance. To be able to interpret the images exactly for their own sake, it is important to have as much information as possible concerning the images. The carriers of the images, the material of these carriers, where this material was found, the shape of the carrier and where such a shape was produced and used must all be taken into consideration. The place of provenance of the images, in which context the image was excavated (especially also the location on a site: house, temple, street, store room, tomb, etc.) must be considered. Other items found in its vicinity, not only to identify the location, but also to consider whether they were used together, must be taken into account. Reliable information on the date should also be identified.91 Often, however, not all the information is available.92 First of all, not all excavations are published in full. Secondly, excavation reports might provide the information of interest to those who publish the dig, but still lack answers to the questions of the readers/researchers. Observations of excavators or the considersations of publishers may differ from what the ‘armchair’ researcher would have concluded or decided in their place. Thirdly scientific methods might not have been applied to the material, such as specific dating methods. Some information is simply lost as items were bought on the market93 or details of the excavation were not recorded, for instance because the importance of these data was not realized at the time of the dig.94 In spite of the incompleteness of the data, the researcher is also stimulated to employ a hermeneuntical approach and to draw conclusions concerning past ways of thought. 3.3.3.3 Ancient Near East Subsection 3.6.3 will point out that phenomena and entities should be understood in their context(s) and that this can be understood best when compared to the closest material. In order to do so, it presents the model of ‘concentric circles’. Subsection 3.5.1 states that culture can be understood on more concrete and more abstract levels. As the present study deals with a method for the understanding of the Hebrew Bible, Israel/Palestine and 91 Giving account of what is wear and tear from use and what is decay from being in the ground for centuries? (Cf. VAN DER KOOIJ and I BRAHIM (1989) 29). 92 Cf. subsection 3.7.3 and Baetschmann’s concern to include as many information as possible. 93 Cf. footnote 206. 94 On cognitive archaeology cf. also: F LANNERY and M ARCUS (1998); R ENFREW and BAHN (2004) 393–428; VAN DE W IEL (planned for 2009) chapter 2 on cognitive archaeology.

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the Ancient Near East should be touched on as context for this collection of writings. Usually, Israel/Palestine is taken as the context of the Hebrew Bible,95 which can be specified according to periods.96 As a broader, more abstract context, it is usually referred to as the ‘Ancient Near East’. In this case this includes Egypt, although this is often considered another centre of culture97 and therefore is sometimes mentioned separately.98 Egypt, however, was a great power and between about 1550 and 1150 it occupied at least the southern Levant.99 Egyptian influence on Levantine art remained for centuries after the occupation.100 For the later periods, especially after the ‘exile’, the Aegean101 and the Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean102 are also part of the Umwelt to be considered for cultural comparisons. While dealing with the Ancient Near East, one should respect its conceptual autonomy (Eigenbegrifflichkeit),103 its (different) world view(s), ideas, ‘imagination’,104 values, etc.105 In the case of dealing with pictorial material, matters such as composition and perspective (the ancient Near Eastern aspectivity),106 etc. should be taken into account. 95

Exile will also be dealt with in subsection 3.5.1. Cf. the appendix, Figure 8.24 on page 257. 97 Cf. the conclusion of different ‘structures’: BACHMANN (1996). 98 Reflection on S NELL (2005). 99 Reflection on K UHRT (1995) esp. I: 317–329; cf. e.g. 8.4.2. 100 E.g. in amulets (scarabs) and the Samarian ivories. 101 Cf. e.g. B ROWN (2003); A LKIER and W ITTE (2003); A LKIER and W ITTE (2004) and the references in S UTER and U EHLINGER (2005) XXI, note 7. 102 Cf. K ARAGEORGHIS (1976); N IEMEYER (1982); AUBET S EMMLER (2001). 103 The German ‘Eigenbegrifflichkeit’ was probably first used by Benno Landsberger (cf. B. L ANDSBERGER, ‘Die Eigenbegrifflichkeit der babylonischen Welt’, Islamica, 3 (1926)); Landsberger wrote, in an epilogue to the 1965 edition, that he wanted to revise this ‘programme’, but his age and work did not allow him to do so. The English equivalent ‘conceptual autonomy’ was coined by William W. Hallo in an article about ‘Sumerian hermeneutics’ in the 1973 issue of Perspectives in Jewish Learning. Cf. H ALLO (2004) 164, also for some further reading. The English translation of L ANDSBERGER (1926) adopted Hallo’s translation. Cf. Hallo’s ‘contextual approach’: e.g. H ALLO (1990). 104 With Figure 3.9 (page 99): A2. 105 Cf. subsection 3.9.2. 106 Ancient Near Eastern, especially Egyptian, images are characterized by aspectivity, a multiplicity of approaches; they are called ‘thought-pictures (‘Denkbilder’). Egyptians represent (express in images) what one thinks (concerning an item or idea), a Denkbild; whereas a Sehbild would be natural for the observer. Wolf describes a change from ‘Denkbild’ to ‘Sehbild’ (see W OLF (1957) 37, 278–285, 392–393, 658–662, 687–688 (note 79,1); for the explanation of the difference, see also: S CHÄFER (1919), or a later edition). Cf. e.g. B RUNNER -T RAUT (1990). 96

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3.3.3.4 Art? This chapter deals with artefacts and it will employ art history as an auxiliary discipline to formulate a method for the inclusion of (artefacts and their) images in the exegesis of texts (in the Hebrew Bible). Does this book deal with art? Archaeology is not art history, but art history in the present study is due to the focus on objects studied, confined to the limits of the field of archaeology.107 Karen Stone writes: “Image making is universal in human history;”108 and: “For the earliest humans, “art” as we know it today did not exist. We may call their objects and images art, but they did not.”109 She adds: “Art and its purposes have been changing continually over the centuries.”110 Thus, if such human expressions nowadays deserve the label ‘art’, this anachronism implies a broad definition of art111 as a human product, made by intention, requiring knowledge and skill, and serving an aesthetic purpose (not necessarily for both producer and public). It is usually an expression of reality (possibly both outside and inside the producer (artist or craftsman)). Art can be functional, expressive, decorative and imitative (as in representations of reality or other art).112 The term ‘art’ is used for the kind of expressions studied because it is about artefacts, about hand-made objects of former generations. They also might regularly meet aesthetic standards of what is called art today. The artists in the Ancient Near East were craftsmen.113 That is also why studies on ancient Near Eastern iconography speak of schools and workshops. Creativity was collective rather than individual, according to reconstructions. As mentioned above,114 the artistic expressions studied in contextual theology represent the corporate culture less than the expres107

Likewise, this book employs archaeology in its focus on pictorial material. Cf. the opening paragraph of subsection 3.2.2.3. 108 S TONE (2003) 32. 109 S TONE (2003) 37. 110 S TONE (2003) 43. 111 Not just ‘l’art pour l’art’, but rather a definition which includes the design (not in the aesthetic, but in the functional sense: how things look like, how they are shaped) of artefacts as well. 112 Cf. also E LKINS (2001) 83–84 (ancient) and E LKINS (1999) (general). 113 Although art and creativity are human characteristics which hold for Ancient craftsmen as well (cf. T URNER (2006), esp. D ONALD (2006) and F ERRARI (2006); and on the perception of creativity: K AUFMAN and S TERNBERG (2006)), fantasy and creativity are rather to be considered characteristics of later art. Note, however, that e.g. Lewis in his discussion of the artisan’s role only focuses on the production and not on the invention of the design of cultic images (L EWIS (2005) 88–90). 114 See footnote 30.

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sions of the Ancient Near East. However, even if it is true that Gombrich’s ‘art is born of art’115 would hold true for the Ancient Near East, rather than for the periods Gombrich had in mind, and if likewise collective memory takes a larger share in the case of the Ancient Near East, still the individual cannot be excluded. Even when taking into account the possibility of individuals’ intentions and meanings, the analysis of the (pictorial) material assumes and confirms that the level of collectivity suffices – by and large – the conclusions drawn.116 3.3.3.5 Concluding remarks In a plea to combine archaeology and cultural anthropology, Brumfield states: “Archaeology is important to the study of history because the material remains of the past supplement and interrogate historical documents.”117 This statement should not be understood as a subordination of archaeology to history or anthropology, but rather as a plea to credit how both of them contribute to a better understanding of the past. This statement shows the interplay of text and artefact. Both of them are found among the remains of literate societies, cultures. Within this interplay, the following section concentrates on text and image – however, not to the denial of artefacts, as ancient material images get known due to the survival of their carriers. The present subsection has introduced archaeology and the preliminary nature of the studies which are based on archaeological results. Archaeological remains can be studied from different angles and with a large variety of methods. Archaeology assists in the analysis of material data, which provide information about the material and immaterial past. The main interest of the present study is how to draw conclusions concerning the immaterial past from the material remains of that past. As the present study restricts itself to material data containing pictorial material, it will deal with culture as the entity where image and immaterial past are connected, and will present an art-historical method to analyse the pictorial data. The contribution on archaeology underlines that knowledge about immaterial aspects of society is possible and it points to a hermeneutical approach. Due to the inclusion of a cultural approach focused on the Ancient Near East and the art-historical element in this study, this subsection was touched on the Ancient Near East and art (history) as well. 115

See G OMBRICH (1977) 20 and footnote 259. On ancient Near Eastern art history cf. BAHRANI (2000); H EINZ and B O NATZ (2002); S UTER and U EHLINGER (2005). 117 B RUMFIELD (2003) 205. 116

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3.4 Preliminary remarks on images As this study cannot give wide-ranging introductions to related topics, this chapter cannot deal with questions concerning the theology of images in the Ancient Near East and especially the relation between images and the image ban in Israel/Palestine;118 nor with the later opinions about the use of and reactions to images.119 It is also beyond the scope of this study to examine the reasons why images ‘got into the picture’ of today’s science (because of photography, continuing excavations, social change through television, ideas about an iconic or pictorial turn). This is not the place to scrutinize the abstract philosophical levels of iconology (Bildwissenschaft).120 The impetus for the present study is the fact that there are images which are expected to shed light on the Ancient Near East as the context of the Hebrew Bible and which have shed this light in publications, especially over the last 35 years.121 After the previous section underlined that images are an important source when studying a culture, this section continues with definitions of ‘image’ and ‘iconography’. 3.4.1 What is an image? An image – in the broad sense – is a mediated representation. The importance of the medium is emphasised most strongly by Hans Belting;122 he speaks about ‘intermediality’123 in the case when an image is represented by another medium, e.g. a picture of a painting shown on television. Belting underlines ‘body’, identifying the entity represented, the medium and the perceiving persons as bodies.124 ‘Mediated representation’ is a formulation within the perspective of the product. Put in the producer perspective, an image is a processed medium designed to represent. Put in the 118

Cf. on these topics: S CHROER (1987); S CHMIDT (1995); B ERLEJUNG (1998); O R (2005b). 119 Cf. BARASH (1992) about ‘icon’/ image in Classical and Early Christian thought; iconoclasm (e.g., B ESANÇON (1994); next to many books about ‘iconoclastic incidents’); and e.g., film censorship (cf. WALSH (1996)). 120 These and other restrictions are more explicitly mentioned at the end of subsection 3.7.1. 121 As a benchmark, one may refer to K EEL (1972) (K EEL (1997b)). 122 Cf. B ELTING (2001) and B ELTING (2005) (he characterizes this article as “an attempt to summarize and to extend the discussion of my book Bild-Anthropologie”; see his second footnote). 123 E.g. B ELTING (2005) 314–315. 124 Cf. also the collection he edited: B ELTING, K AMPER and S CHULZ (2002). NAN

3.4. Preliminary remarks on images

49

public perspective, an image is a medium which can be recognized as a representation. Peters125 modifies ‘representation’, distinguishing it from expression, as the former refers to a real object and is based on similarity, whereas the latter refers to a thought object and is an expression of an inner quality. The present study uses ‘representation’ in a broad sense for both, although Peters’s remarks are linguistically preferable. The entity or phenomenon represented is usually absent.126 An image can make use of various media: 1. material media, such as canvas (as used in oil paintings), stone (as used in sculpture and relief), water (as in a natural mirror image), etc. 2. the brain and perception as medium, e.g. in thinking about things and making an image of them in the mind (in this case the thing represented is not present before the eye).127 3. language can be the medium of images, in the case of descriptions and imagery as a literary device. This division, together with subdivisions, is represented in the chart of Figure 3.2 on page 53, and is accounted for and worked out with examples at the end of this section (see page 50). The present subsection and also chapter 4 further elaborate on this chart. A material image (an image in the narrow or more common sense) is a possibly coloured combination of lines and planes which represents an entity or a phenomenon.128 Thus, the image is mediated by colours, lines and planes. The image can be from two up to three dimensional.129 From a perspective of function, (material) man-made images can – parallel to texts – be defined as ‘predominantly communicative expressions’. Thereby, man-made images are mediated by the interpretation of the producer as well. In the case of scale models one might argue that the scale is the medium, because the scale makes one aware of the fact that the model is an image. In the case of a replica (or a forged item), the difference becomes less clear, but a replica also mediates the presence of an absent entity. Things 125

P ETERS (1996) 53–56. On ‘entity: Object (utensil, building, etc.), animal, person, landscape, etc. On ‘phenomenon’: this is added to cover things (like wind or death) which can only be indirectly (symbolically or causally) represented. ’‘Usually’, although in some instances image and what/ who is represented is present as well; think e.g. of a passport check in an airport. Absence is advocated by Belting, who regards the death cult as the origin of image making (cf. B ELTING (2001) esp. 143–188 and B ELTING (2005) 307–308). Substitution is also in other cases the reason to make images, cf. S TUMPEL (1996), K IEFT (1999), VAN DER V ELDEN (2000). 127 A mirage is an image which is present before the eye, but without material substance; this kind of image forms a separate category: perceptual image without material image. 128 Again in the product perspective. Cf. the first paragraph of subsection 3.4.1. 129 Aware that ‘relief’ can be taken as a category in between, it says ‘up to’. 126

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which exist in duplicate or plural are not each other’s image. E.g. two replicas of a seal or a ship are images of the original and not of each other. An image exists in the tension of not being the thing represented and often, exactly because of its absence, representing it.130 Thus, the image tries (or is intended) to be a substitute.131 The image enters here the domain of virtual reality.132 Images gain their expressiveness from economizing and idealizing. Thus, images are not similar to what they mediate, but economizing and idealizing make them closer to what they (intend to) represent.133 Key to Figure 3.2 Image134 – material135 – natural, e.g. mirror images, shadows (even of artificial objects) – can be moving or still images – man-made136 – still (motionless): sculpture (3D), relief (3D/2D), painting/ drawing (2D)137 130

Cf. Belting’s ideas; cf. e.g. footnote 126. Bonatz, writing about the perception of the phenomenon ‘image’ in the Ancient Near East, distinguishes two kinds of images: s.almu, a kind of animated anthropomorphic image, which represents a deity or a human being; and tamšilu, an image in the sense of a copy or a substitute. Whereas with the former one presumes complete identification, the latter is a representative. See: B ONATZ (2002). 132 As such, virtual reality is as old as the making of images; cf. e.g. G RAU (2001) about virtual reality in Roman paintings. 133 Cf. J ONAS (1995); for this paragraph also: B OEHM (1995); for this section cf. also M IRZOEFF (1999) chapter 1: 37–64; E LKINS (1999) esp. 52–91; M ITCHELL (1994b). 134 These categories are one possible model. It was made while reflecting on M IT CHELL (1984) (= M ITCHELL (1986) 7–46) and P ETERS (1996) esp. 39–65. 135 Peters distinguishes visual and aural images; apparently because he deals with imitation instead of (visual) image. 136 No difference is made between images of general concepts and images of existing objects, e.g. between a drawing of a bike and a drawing or picture of your bike. 137 The difference is between 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional images; relief forms a category in between and is described as 3D/2D, as it does not belong to the 2D category because it is not ‘flat’ to a certain extent, neither completely to the 3D category because it is not 360 degrees to a certain extent. Usually 2D images represent 3D realities; strategies and techniques are needed to create 2D images with a 3D perception. The Ancient Near East was aspectivic and had its own ways to represent 3D objects and spatial distribution of objects. Cf. for Egyptian art: e.g. S CHÄFER (1919); ROBINS (1994); ROBINS (1997); L EPP (1996); for an application to Pithoi A and B from Kuntillet ‘Ajrud: S CHMIDT (2002). Peters here adds the category of ‘halfbeelden’, encompassing mainly text shapes like layout in general, visual poetry and the like. In this category he also counts ideograms, in which he includes – alongside the pictorial scripts of China and Ancient Egypt (although no writing system is ideographic in the strict sense; C OULMAS (1996) 224–225) – dia131

3.4. Preliminary remarks on images

51

– moving (visual and audiovisual): theatre (3D), play (3D), dance (3D), film/television (2D) – perceptual images without a material image, such as mirages138 – mental images – subjective perception of material things (or their images), such as seeing an animal in a shadow, in a stain on wall paper, in an unhewn stone or in a cloud, or having a perceptual image different from the related object139 – subjective, such as dreams, memories, fantasies, ideas (which have visual counterparts) – collective (intersubjective)140 – literal141 – in a figurative sense · archetypes or (mythological) symbols · conceptual metaphors · ideas, as in imagology and of abstract things (e.g. the image of justice, despair, etc.) – verbal – literal – descriptions, from an object or image denoting words via definitions to vivid, visualizing descriptions; ‘telling’, lively descriptions. grams, charts, graphs and curves and graphical representations of invisible phenomena. Nevertheless, the relation between sign in ideogrammatic language and image may be more complicated, as these signs can represent abstract as well as concrete phenomena (P ETERS (1996) 44, 65; on hieroglyphs, cf. G OLDWASSER (1995); M ORENZ (2004)). 138 Mitchell’s category of ‘perceptual images’ is not included, because this type of image is merely the recipient perspective of a material image (cf. M ATLIN (2004) 22–66); the only case in which this is a separate category is in the case when one sees something and thinks that it is really there when it is not. Likewise, the category of material images is not called ‘objective’ by Peters, because these images can be discussed from the perspectives of production, presence (the existence of the image as such) and perception. It should be admitted that the perception perspective of a material image can differ from the material image in (one or both of) its other perspectives. This is a matter of interpretation, which ideally does not lead to disagreement. More about this in footnote 139. 139 The qualification ‘or their images’ is given here, as material things (which may be both 2D and 3D, therefore not ‘objects’, which are 3D) can be, say, photographed and – also possibly therefore – lead to misperception. This misperception is related to the possibility of disagreement (mentioned in footnote 138). The present category of ‘subjective perception’ is in fact the perception perspective of the material image, but as such not to be discussed because it is assumed here that intersubjectivity (as quasi–objectivity) suffices in the context of this schedule. Furthermore this is not the place to deal with the epistemological and (neuro)biological aspects of this topic. 140 These images are usually shared by a social group or subculture and therefore they can be described as collective or intersubjective. Taking the figurative sense of images makes the images no longer literally figures. 141 Shared knowledge of the kind ‘everyone knows what an X (e.g. horse, chair) looks like’.

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3. Theory/Method: Deductive Approach – figurative – metaphor – metonym – symbol

This survey, put into a schedule without the examples, can be found in Figure 3.2 on page 53. This schedule follows the enumeration above and modifies it by twice adding tree perspectives (as mentioned in the first paragraph of subsection 3.4.1. As it is difficult to speak about (the intention of) the producer of natural images, ‘producer’, ‘product’ and ‘public’ are put in reverse order to mark that only the public and product perspective are relevant in the study of natural images. 3.4.2 Iconography In section 2.1.1, hermeneutics and (textual) exegesis were defined. The current subsection should, pursuant to defining ‘image’ in the previous subsection, define iconography.142 In the present study, ‘iconography’ comprises three areas: hermeneutics of images, a model of interpretation, and its practice. Hermeneutics was defined as ‘preliminary considerations about interpretation’, and in the case of iconography (the hermeneutics of images) concerns the interpretation of images. Iconography is further parallel to (textual) exegesis, as it contains a model for the interpretation of material images and the practice of interpreting material images.

3.5 Culture 3.5.1 Defining culture The main impulse for the study of culture has been given by anthropology.143 Since the 1960s, sociology144 has also increased its interest in culture, perhaps because differences 142 For the meanings of the words ‘iconology’ and ‘iconography’ in their historical development, see: H ECK (1999). 143 For the purpose of the present paper, the use of ‘anthropology’ is limited to social (in the American context: cultural) anthropology (and for the American context to archaeology as well, which European art historians and classical archaeologists do not include in the field of anthropology; although some pre-historical and non-western archaeologists participate in the American circles and journal of anthropology), in distinction from biological anthropology, which works within a paradigm of evolutionary history with biological factors, combining physical anthropology and human biology (cf. S TRICK LAND (1996)). For a historical overview of anthropology, its precursors and its theories, see: BARNARD (2000). For a brief overview of anthropology by an Old Testament scholar: D EIST (2000) 82–101. 144 The difference between anthropology and sociology is historical. Anthropology dealt with primitive and non-Western societies and cross-cultural comparison, whereas socio-

3.5. Culture

Figure 3.2: Meanings of ‘image’

53

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between subcultures has become more apparent. This has led to the development of the field ‘cultural studies’ (also known as cultural criticism).145 When searching for a definition of ‘culture’, notions of time, space, environment and community merit attention. In order to get a better understanding of ‘culture’, ‘society’, as related concept, should be defined as well. Barnard describes the interest of anthropology as either society (mainly in the United Kingdom) or culture (mainly in North America).146 He provides a brief definition for both of them. Society is a social unit. Culture is a shared set of ideas, skills, and objects.147 Similarly, Deist identifies the elements of culture as: material, habitual and mental culture.148

This study suggests as a definition for culture: a culture comprises (1) means and measures of adaptation to/of one’s environment, (2) the verbal, habitual and ritual actions of a community and (3) the ideas of a community. The first element refers to the material culture; adaptation to one’s environment and of one’s environment149 in the sense of making a place liveable and thereto using the naturally available material and adjusting the given place.150 This activity usually comprises changes in the environment; in other words: adapting one’s environment in order to adapt to environment. The second, tri-partite element consists of traditional narrative and poetry (oral and written), customs, manners and religious rituals and the skills to produce artefacts and to perform these acts. The third element: ideas, comprises perception of the world in matter and time, perception of other persons (individual and collective; regarding in-group and ‘out-group’), (other) ideas, values, Weltanschauung and symbol system and views of the supernatural.151 These last two elements are described as ‘of a community’, which means that these elements are consciously or logy studied (Western) industrial societies. Over the last decades the difference has started to fade. 145 This field focuses on the study of human values in order to gain insight into cultural identity and it pays special attention – as befits its Marxist heritage – to power relations; it pays special attention to ‘low’ culture, the encounter of different (sub)cultures and conflict. Cf. H ALL (1991) chapter 2: 43–62 (= H ALL (1980)); G ROSSBERG, N ELSON and T RE ICHLER (1992); I NGLIS (1993); B ERGER (1995); V ERSTRAETE (2002); BARKER (2002). 146 BARNARD (2000) 10; cf. footnote 143. 147 BARNARD (2000) 10; in distinction from the use ‘high culture’ versus ‘popular culture’, cf. BARNARD (2000) 196. 148 D EIST (2000) 21; he does not provide a more elaborated definition. 149 When studying the culture of a people in a homeland and diaspora (although both situations may be distinguished as subcultures) is a case for a multiple environment. Cf. section 3.5.2; esp. at footnote 164. 150 The use of ‘given place’ indicates that it concerns a specific place or territory (not a ‘space’; see under, after footnote 162), which is ‘given’ in the sense that it is present, either natural or already ‘culturally’ adjusted before by other humans. 151 Cf. section 3.2.2.3; culture involves everything under the node ‘culture’ (within the perceivable realm) and ‘experience and thought regarding’ (see Figure 3.1 on page 36).

3.5. Culture

55

unconsciously ‘present’ in the individuals who form this community. The fact that it is a community also implies transmission (tradition) of culture, although this temporal aspect can involve gradual change as well.152 Society is an organized group of people.153 If one does not take into consideration associations nor primitive communal living, the definition can be more specific: a society is an organized group of people who geographically live together and share society-sustaining, unwritten (customary), economic and written (juridicial and political) systems. Culture and society are usually considered on the level of nation-state.154 As this is an anachronism for the period biblical scholars deal with, a nation-state should be understood both as the early state and on the level of segmentary societies (regional entities; tribal associations, settled farmers, pastoralists).155 Cultures on a lower level156 are known as subcultures. Sometimes subcultures are as much separated as the ‘zuilen’, socio-political segments (‘pillars’) of the Dutch society of the 1950s, and sometimes they are distinguished because of political, economic or religious differences. Thus, the subcultures may have varying degrees of communality with the dominating culture. In fact, culturally speaking, most societies are best described as ‘culturally dimorphic’.157 Subcultures are not distinguished because of assumed qualitative differences,158 nor are they necessarily demarcatable geographically. In the case of an empire, such as that of Persia in the 5th century BCE, there is a politically linked upper level of culture amongthe rulers (the government apparatus) and the economic and artistic elite.159 This upperclass represents ‘high society’ with its high culture. Besides these practi152

In reflection on K ROEBER and K LUCKHOHN (1952) and BALDWIN et al. (2006). Like other definitions, this definition was formulated in reflection on the resources of Oxford Reference Online; cf. http://www.oxfordreference.com/. 154 At this level, the terms ‘dominant culture’ and ‘civil society’ (in Dutch also: ‘samenleving’ or ‘maatschappij’) are common. 155 Depending on the level of centralization. Cf. R ENFREW and BAHN (2004) 177-182. For the early state: cf. C LAESSEN and S KALNÍK (1978) esp. 640, 642. 156 In comparison with culture as linked to society, a ‘lower level’ usually indicates a lower number of participating individuals; cf. footnote 158. 157 Not, as in recent publications, only with regard to gender differences (parallel to ‘sexual dimorphism’), but especially regarding other cultural dichotomies, such as pastoral and sedentary (it should be noted, that a binary opposition is not appropriate for some forms of difference, such as age). Cf. ROWTON (1977). 158 Descriptions of culture are supposed not to contain value judgements. 159 In this case with influence from abroad, as part of the Achaemenid art was made by foreigners; see e.g.: F RANKFORT (1946); R ICHTER (1946); P ORADA (1956) (cf. section 5.3, footnote 89.) See also subsection 5.4.1, footnote 135. 153

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cal views on culture, one can distinguish more abstract levels, e.g. parallel to the longue durée.160 An example of a study on such an abstract level is Bachmann’s structuralist analysis of Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek art.161 After these general remarks, the notions of time, space, environment and community will now be reconsidered. The time factor points to changes in society and, in the longer run, in culture as well. The factor ‘environment’ (place) is complex when discussing culture, but can be regarded as a constant factor when discussing ‘civil society’.162 Environment (place) is to be distinguished from ‘space’. The ongoing globalisation debate views the space factor in a more complex way, emphasising the difference between ‘place’ and ‘space’ more. Simply put, ‘place’ points to geographical borders, especially when they coincide with natural borders, such as mountains, rivers, etc. – it is synonymous with ‘environment’. ‘Space’ is rather the cultural and socio-economical environment, thus including the contacts a society has with communities having a similar ethnic background and with societies related through trade.163 When considering the situation of Antiquity, exile and migrant communities show that culture is not geographically limited.164 Geographical limitations are also linked with political situations; in this context it is especially important to note that sometimes there are political reasons (on the part of occupying nations) to change, or at least to influence (conquered) cultures.165

160 WALTON (2006) e.g. 18 uses the term ‘broader culture’, parallel to ‘culture’ he uses ‘cognitive environment’. 161 BACHMANN (1996). In Appendix 2 (under 1.b.iii), this abstraction is described as ‘generalization’ as well. 162 With the exception of a situation of territorrial war. 163 In reflection on e.g. M ASSEY (1994); M ASSEY and J ESS (1995), esp. M ASSEY (1995); and M ASSEY (2005); cf. also H IRSCH (1995). Anthropology, sociology, political science and economics provide a bulk of literature on globalisation, specified to space and place too. This affects the meaning of ‘local’, which should be redefined. “This redefinition becomes a problem of determining what relationships must be considered.” L EWELLEN (2002) 201, suggesting kinship, friendship, sodalities, politics and economics as such relationships. Another interesting suggestion by Lewellen is the link between globalization and capitalism, which he assumes for Mesopotamia as well; L EWELLEN (2002) 11. Space and place are distinguished in narratology as well; for an application of this to the Old Testament cf. P RINSLOO (2005). 164 Cf. the modern examples of TAMBIAH (2001); B EN -R AFAEL (2001); B ODE MAN (2001). 165 Cf. W OLF (1999).

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A community is not necessarily ethnically homogeneous. Many communities, however, are defined according to ethnic differences. When communities are linked with societies and viewed administratively or economically, ethnic dividing lines are left aside. In reference to community, the element of stratification is important.166 When studying textual data, literature and written history, the primary focus is on ‘high society’,167 taking written documents (of artistic, aesthetic quality) as an expression of high culture in a society where the literacy rate168 was low.169 This points to the question of the social stratification of the pictorial material which will be considered. A further question is to what extent the people who were participating only in the ‘low culture’ were familiar with these stories and the mental legacy they represent. This question can be turned around as well, knowing that a considerable amount of the pictorial material stems from this ‘low culture’. Taking into account that the pictorial material sheds light on the low culture and the symbolism used and the ideas present, one would like to know to what extent it can be assumed that these forms of symbolism and these ideas were common, known and accepted or refuted by people of higher cultural stratification; and the way the different levels of administration interacted with each other and with the regional population. Probably, high and low culture shared a practical literacy, the recognition of symbols and types. Inquiries should be made into local differences170 and the geographical distribution of signs and symbols. Local workshops are linked with the environment because of the natural circumstances which influence what is depicted and the material which is available and can be processed.171 Together with these geographical differences concerning the production of artefacts, one should consider the distribution of artefacts by trade, e.g. because the necessary raw materials are unavailable elsewhere.172 This distinction between pro166 Cf. e.g. H ALL and N EITZ (1993) 112–137; H ALL, N EITZ and BATTANI (2003) 43–66; for an example from Levantine archaeology: FAUST (1999). 167 This can be an ethnically mixed administrative or economic group, which as such might be regarded as a community. 168 Literacy as the ability to participate in the ‘consumption’ of literature; not just the practical ability to distinguish signs, e.g. on seals. 169 Cf. M C N UTT (1999) 150. E.g. M. Bar-Ilan takes 3% for the first centuries CE (http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/illitera.html, 22. V. 2006). 170 Cf. Keel’s distinction of workshops; cf. K EEL (1994b) 203–252; H ERR MANN (2000). 171 Cf. G. van der Kooij’s comparison between ink and clay script: VAN DER KOOIJ (1986). 172 With this factor, pottery as a packing material is distributed together with the contained products. A more complicated example is the early Yehudite minting

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duction and consumption of products shows again that culture, community and ethnicity do not completely overlap. Understanding a culture is necessary for the understanding of (means of) communication in that culture.173 This implies the understanding of a whole cultural system, the complete174 understanding of mutually related aspects of culture and society in their natural environment. 3.5.2 Linking text and image in culture The focus is now on culture. Text and image are related as cultural expressions175 of a community and can be studied within that community and in comparison with similar expressions of (neighbouring) communities. There are several other ways to link image and text (which can sustain the present endeavour); one of these was mentioned in section 3.2.1: neurobiology. Two other ways (also related to culture) to establish the link between text and image are social memory and the concept of ‘constellation’. Both were applied to ancient history by Aleida and Jan Assmann.176 ‘Social memory’ or ‘collective memory’177 is the shared memory of a group: a which ‘copies’ not only the practice of minting, but also the motives involved; see M ESHORER (1982) 21. 173 Deist argues so via relevance theory (cf. S PERBER and W ILSON (1995)): D EIST (2000) 19–33. His emphasis is on spoken/ written language; he does not deal with pictorial language. Cf. footnote 296. 174 Given the historical distance this is incomplete, but attempts should be made to have as complete a picture as possible. Cf. the last paragraph of section 3.5.2. 175 Cf. section 3.1. Keel remarks that text and image are two testimonies of culture; he poses that image is the most direct one (cf. e.g., K EEL (1998)). 176 For social/collective memory: e.g. A SSMANN, A SSMANN and H ARDMEIER (1983) e.g. 265–284 (in their project ‘Archäologie der literarischen Kommunikation’); A SS MANN (2000a); A SSMANN (2000b); cf. for ‘constellation’ see below. 177 ‘Collective memory’ is lexicalized and explained as e.g. “the memory of a group of people, typically passed from one generation to the next” (“collective memory n.”, The New Oxford American Dictionary, second edition. Ed. Erin McKean. Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference Online. כּדֹר‬

1

2

‘Who is the one that comes from Edom in garments stained crimson from Bozrah? who is the one, so splendidly robed, marching in his great might?’ ‘It is I, announcing vindication mighty to save.’ ‘Why are your robes red, and your garments like theirs who tread the wine press?’

Figure 8.1: Masoretic text and English translation of Isaiah 63:1–2.

1

DE M OOR (1997b) 344. Cf. B EUKEN (1989) A: 246. Cf. also H OLMGREN (1974). 3 These verses will not be separately considered in the verse-by-verse exegesis. The NRSV translation is modified on two points: ‫ה‬:‫ ז‬is translated as ‘the one’ in stead of ‘this’ (twice in verse 1) and the sentence order of the third part of verse 1 is changed to create more correspondence with the Hebrew (in NRSV: ‘from Bozrah in garments stained crimson?’). 2

8.1. Translation

231

8.1 Translation Figure 8.2 shows the Masoretic text and an English translation of Isaiah 63:3–6. Remarks to the translation: These verses answer the question “‘Why are your robes red, and your garments like theirs who tread the wine press?’” The cause described here refers to an event in the past and therefore the translation is in past tense.4 See, however, also the verse-by-verse exegesis concerning verse 5. Verse 3: part one: ‫פּוּרה‬: the tub, the wine press;5 the middle part of the verse is not reflected in 1QIsaa and with Ulrich,6 it is questionable whether this part belongs to the original. Therefore this part is presented between brackets; the fifth part (in MT; cf. verse 6): ‫צַח‬0‫( נ‬more often the variant ‫צַח‬:‫ נ‬is found) is often translated as ‘glory’, ‘splendour’ or ‘duration’, but HALOT – under reference to Rüthy7 – suggests the meaning ‘juice’. Regarding the first options a link is made with ‫ נצח‬which is in that case etymologically linked with fighting (in the Hebrew Bible the word is used in other contexts). ‫ נצח‬II (according to HALOT) is connected with meanings such as ‘sprinkle (all over)’ and ‘to wound (dignity)’. Within the context of the metaphor’s donor field the meaning ‘juice’ would fit well, within the recipient field the meaning ‘splendour’ can be defended.8 Excursus: D‫דר‬. The word for treading is D‫דר‬. It is used for treading the wine press in Judges 9:27; Job 24:11; Nehemiah 13:15; Isaiah 16:10; Jeremiah 48:33 and Amos 9:13. Similarly Lamentations 1:15 uses it metaphorically in the context of treading grapes. With regard to pressing olives it occurs in Micah 6:15. D‫ דר‬can also denote threshing the threshing floor, as in Jeremiah 51:33, where it is also part of a metaphor. Other occurrences of D‫דר‬, besides the meanings ‘walk’, ‘march’ or ‘bend’ (of a bow) are connected with walking (through the land) to make it a possession9 or with power over other beings.10

4

See also G ESENIUS, K AUTZSCH and C OWLEY (1910) §53p, §76c. Cf. also KOOLE (1967) 88. 6 U LRICH (2001) 303–304. 7 R ÜTHY (1942) 42–43 argues that it is impossible to decide whether ‫צַח‬0‫ נ‬points to blood or juice, but he seems to have a slight preference for the meaning ‘juice’. 8 Cf. B EUKEN (1989) A: 251–252. 9 See Jos 1:3: ‘Every place that the sole of your foot shall tread upon, that have I given unto you, as I said unto Moses.’ and 14:9a: ‘And Moses sware on that day, saying, Surely the land whereon thy feet have trodden shall be thine inheritance’. 10 See Jdg 20:43: ‘Cutting down the Benjaminites, they pursued them from Nohah and trod them down (D‫ )דר‬as far as a place east of Gibeah.’ and Ps 91:13: ‘You will tread on (D‫ )דר‬the lion and the adder, the young lion and the serpent you will trample (‫ )רמס‬under foot.’. 5

232

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

Verse 4: first part: is taken as a nominal sentence;11 second part: HALOT has the entry *‫ גּ)אוּלִי‬for Isaiah 63:4 and translates ‘blood-revenge’; BDB chooses ‘redemption’ (cf. the word ‫לָּה‬I‫גּ)א‬, ‫)גּ)אוּלָּה‬. The word ‘deliverance’ has been chosen to communicate the revenge on the one hand, and to express the freedom on the other. See further the exegesis of this verse. Verse 5: first part: Hi. of ‫נבט‬: look (in a direction), to search for help; therefore interpreted as: gaze, peer. For the translation of *ֵ‫תּוֹמ‬#‫ו)אֶשׁ‬, see the verse-by-verse exegesis. ‫י‬/‫תִּי לְבַדּ‬FJ‫פּוּרה דּר‬ ‫אִישׁ אִתִּי‬3‫וּמֵעַמִּי* אֵי‬ (‫כֵ* בְּאַפִּי‬9‫ר‬9‫)ו)אֶד‬ (‫מְסֵ* בַּחֲמָתִי‬9‫)ו)אֶר‬ ‫י‬J‫בְּגד‬3‫צְחָ* עַל‬E‫ז נ‬0‫ו)י‬ ‫מַלְבּוּשׁ י אֶג)אָלְתִּי‬3‫ל‬R)‫ו‬ ‫כִּי יוֹ* (קָ* בְּלִבִּ י‬ ‫נת גּ)אוּלַי בָּאָה‬#‫וּשׁ‬ ‫ו)אַבִּיט‬ ‫ר‬0‫ו)אֵי עֹז‬ *ֵ‫תּוֹמ‬#‫ו)אֶשׁ‬ Dֵ‫ו)אֵי סוֹמ‬ ‫ותּוֹשׁ ע לִי ז)רֹעִי‬ ‫י‬E‫תְנ‬Rָ‫וחֲמָתִי הִיא סְמ‬ ‫ו)אָבוּס עַמִּי* בְּאַפִּי‬ ‫ואֲשׁ כַּר"* בַּחֲמָתִי‬ *ָ‫צְח‬E‫יד לָאָר?@ נ‬/‫ו)אוֹר‬

3

4 5

6

the wine press I have trodden alone and from the peoples there was no one with me (and I have trodden them in my anger) (and I have trampled them in my heat) and their splendour sprinkled on my garments and all my clothes I have stained for this is the day of revenge in my heart and the year of my deliverance has come I peered but there was no helper I was appalled but there was no supporter my arm came to assist me and my heat, this supported me I have trodden down the people in my anger and I have made them drunk with my heat and I poured on the earth their splendour

Figure 8.2: Masoretic text and English translation of Isaiah 63:3–6.

8.2 Wine press treading in Isaiah 63 Whereas the study on light illuminated the metaphorical connections, in the case of the grape/wine press treading, the pictorial material clarifies the process of wine making, esp. wine press treading, and in the second instance the associations as well. This example, however, will be useful to show the distinction between the contribution to biblical studies of archaeology and specifically iconography.12 The present case deals with wine 11 It could be argued that ‫ בָּאָה‬would have a double duty and the first line should be translated: ‘for the day of revenge (has come) into my heart’; cf. WATSON (1984) 304. 12 As was also the fact in the ‫ יד‬example in chapter 6.

8.3. Viticulture as context

233

press treading and clarifies an action. According to the terminology of Figure 3.1: an observable, cultural, individual, act, production. Treading the wine press is an activity; this activity could be repeated, for instance in an experiment,13 and this activity can be depicted in a still, man-made, material image.14

8.3 Viticulture as context The north-eastern and eastern part of the Mediterranean were the earliest region where grapes were cultivated,15 from the end of the 4th millennium. Further to the east, there was a development of wine production only in the neo-Assyrian empire, from about 1000 BCE. In Egypt wine was produced from 3000 BCE and became common around 1550.16 The earliest installations to extract fluids (which were to ferment into wine) from grapes consisted of a treading floor and a collecting vat. This brief historical overview shows where images on viticulture may be found. A famous excavated winery from Ancient Israel is the wine industry at Gibeon (el-Jîb). Pritchard excavated Gibeon during the course of three seasons and concluded the winery to be dated to the 7th century.17 Although Persian period Gibeon did not flourish as before,18 occupation seems to have been continuous19 and the winery was probably in use. Wine presses and other evidence of viticultural activities have also been found in Palestine from other periods.20 Only the Arab conquest made the 13 An example of another such an experiment had as its purpose to answer the question of whether throwing a mill stone from a wall on the head of a person could have a lethal effect; see H ERR and B OYD (2002). Such an experiment functions, as does e.g. theatre, as an image. Ethno-archaeology can study a present activity and give an interpretation of this act as an image of a similar activity in the past (see footnote 22.) 14 It is superfluous to remark that archaeology does not provide any moving images from periods important for the present case study. 15 Viticulture denotes the cultivation of grapes, fruits of several types of the category vitus (vine); for the production of wine it is possible to use the less common word ‘viniculture’, from vinum (wine); ‘–culture’ means cultivation (growing and production. 16 In the rest of North-Africa, the vine was introduced by the Phoenicians in the 4th century BCE. Cf. G REENE (1995) 313. 17 Cf. P RITCHARD (1962) 79–99; P RITCHARD (1964) 1–27. 18 P RITCHARD (1993) 513: “There is only scant evidence of occupation from the end of the sixth century until the beginning of the first century BCE.” 19 C ARTER (1999) 121, 134, cf. 255 (under a reference to N.L. Lapp) supposes occupation would have ended in 538; S TERN (2001a) 576 mentions 475. Maybe nature (an earthquake?) caused a drop in activity on this site. 20 Another Iron Age example: Tell en-Nasbeh, see: WALSH and Z ORN (1998); and a Byzantine example: Kefar Sirkin and Mazor, see: S IDI, A MIT and ‘A D (2003). Cf.

234

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

wine production decrease.21 Wine has been produced in Israel/Palestine for centuries.22 Focusing on the Persian period, the continuity of wine production, which can be deduced from the material evidence, is substantiated by textual proof. Texts such as Nehemiah 13:15, II Kings 25:12 and Jeremiah 52:1623 are undisputed as evidence for the continuation of wine production during the Babylonian and Persian periods. The process of wine-making involved growing vines, picking grapes, treading (and pressing) grapes, filling wine jars and storing these jars in cellars or in wine skins. Wine harvesting used to be an annual festival.24

8.4 Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6 Grapes were often depicted on Greek coins.25 Many coins from Palestine also have representations of bunches of grapes.26 The frequent occurence of the grape at least points to its importance, this might be agriculturally, M C G OVERN (2007) 210–238; who includes archaeobotanical and iconographical (from the Lachish relief) evidence as well. 21 Certainly, there was not an abrupt stop; seventh century texts praise the wine from ˇ Gadar (Umm Qais); see: M ERSCHEN and K NAUF (1988) 131. 22 Cf. DALMAN (1935) 291–413 (with references to biblical times); for wine treading esp. figure 98. For the present cf. e.g. http://www.israelwines.co.il/ (2. IV. 2007). 23 Respectively: ‘In those days I saw in Judah people treading wine presses on the sabbath, and bringing in heaps of grain and loading them on donkeys; and also wine, grapes, figs, and all kinds of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day; and I warned them at that time against selling food.’; ‘But the captain of the guard left some of the poorest people of the land to be vine-dressers and tillers of the soil.’; ‘But Nebuzaradan the captain of the guard left some of the poorest people of the land to be vine-dressers and tillers of the soil.’ 24 Cf. DE M OOR (1971); DE M OOR (1972). For this subsection: G ALLING (1977) 362–363; R AMMANT-P EETERS (1991) esp. 13–23; M C G OVERN, F LEMING and K ATZ (1995); Z ORN (1998); F RANKEL (1999); DAYAGI -M ENDELS (1999) 15–33; WALSH (2000) esp. on the wine press: 142–165; K ING and S TAGER (2001) 98–101; M C G OVERN (2007). Cf. K LOPPENBORG (2006) esp. 278–353, discussing social and especially legal, economic and management (but not agricultural) aspects of the first century CE vineyard; the parable he deals with touches on these facets. And cf. RUFFING (1999) with a focus on vine/grape cultivation in Roman Egypt (not the processing of grapes) and its economic side. For more on agriculture in general: B OROWSKI (1987); VAN DER P LAS, B ECKING and M EIJER (1993). 25 Cf. H ILL (1932) plates 4:18–20; 7:26; 21:6; 22:22; 30:27. Related depictions of wine from Mende: Dionysius riding an ass: H ILL (1932) 20, pl. 10:11–16. 26 BMC Palestine XXV 11,12; XXXIII 7,14,15; XXXIV 1-3,20; XXXV 1-13; XXXVII 6; XXXVIII 6-11 (from Herod Archalaeus up to the second Jewish revolt). See: H ILL (1914).

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

235

economically, culturally (gastronomically), but it may also indicate that the grape was an important symbol.27 Important elements from the passage under investigation which can possibly be found in the pictorial material are scenes of: 1. wine press treading, such scenes are supposed not to be very different throughout the Aegean, the Levant and Egypt, as the technology of treading grapes did not greatly differ over these areas and through the ages; 2. deity or king trampling (and fighting) enemies; 3. viticulture and punishment; 4. clothing. The main focus will be on 1, 2 and 3, leaving other (mentioned and unmentioned) aspects for further study.

8.4.1 Images of wine press treading From textual and archaeological evidence, it is clear that viticulture was practiced in Israel/Palestine. Particularly, tubs suitable for treading grapes show that grapes were trampled in order to make wine.28 Also several verses from the Hebrew Bible point to this practice, to this part of the process of viticulture.29 As argued above: because the technology of treading grapes did not differ very much all over the viticulture-practicing parts of the Ancient Near East, images should be similar with regard to the process. Besides the process, images of wine press treading can, of course, convey other contents as well. Some examples of wine press treading are given here: Figure 8.3 shows a detail from the vintage scene in the tomb of Nakht at Thebes.30 Figure 8.6 shows a Greek mythological scene, in which satyrs are treading grapes; the scene is part of a 6th century amphora from Athens (see Figure 8.5). Figure 8.4 is a grape treading scene (as part of a wine production representation: grape picking, treading, filling bottles and bringing them for administration)31 from the Ptolemaic period.32 27

It has been found as a synagogue decoration as well; e.g. S CHULTZ and A LEXAN (1973) 25. 28 See subsection 8.3. 29 See subsection 8.1, at verse 3. 30 Cf. P RITCHARD (1969) figure 156, K ING and S TAGER (2001) 99, figure 39 or L ESKO (1995) 220, figure 14.4 for the complete scene. This image is also used in C HOURAQUI (1982-1985) Tome 4: 190. Other Egyptian grape treading scenes: in the Theban tomb #155 (see: L ESKO (1995) 217, figure 14.1). 31 See L EFEBVRE (1923) Planche XII; Figure 8.4 is a detail from this scene. 32 Petosiris lived in the 4th century. DER

236

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

Figure 8.3: Detail from the tomb of Nakht vintage scene: wine press treading; 18th dynasty; K EEL -L EU (1980) 41 (for a colour picture: L ESKO (1978) 19).

Figure 8.4: Grape treading scene in the tomb of Petosiris (L EFEBVRE (1923) plate XII). Reprinted with permission of the Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale.

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

Figure 8.5: 6th century Greek vase of the Amasis painter (regarding the source: see next figure).

237

Figure 8.6: Detail from a 6th century Greek vase of the Amasis painter. Images provided by the Martin von Wagner Museum der Universität Würzburg; photographer K. Öhrlein (cf. VON B OTHMER (1985) 113 and L EONARD J R (1995) 245, figure 15.9).

8.4.2 Images of trampling enemies Before turning to the metaphor of God trampling his foes, the trampling of enemies can be visualized. It goes without saying that soldiers were trampled underfoot33 and crushed under chariots.34 Ancient war scenes depict this. It seems, however, that this is part of the battle, of the proceeding movement of the (then) winning army. There is no indication in these scenes that the enemy was gathered together to be brutally killed by trampling them till their blood flowed. Several other Egyptian examples of trampling enemies seem to depict the motif ‘(disguised) pharaoh trampling an enemy’. Figure 8.7 shows the pectoral of Mereret with such a trampling scene.35 The sandal chest of Tutankhamun, found in the front room of his tomb, combines several images. The painting on the cover represents a hunting scene. The front and the back sides show Tutankhamun in his chariot conquering and riding over his enemies (respectively Asians and Nubians, see Figure 8.8). Both sides of the chest depict Tutankhamun, in the guise of a sphinx, trampling an Asian and a Nubian enemy (see Figure 8.9). Thus, the chest combines the motif ‘pharaoh trampling an enemy’ with a war scene in which the 33

E.g. YADIN (1963) 442–443; K EEL (1972) 276, figure 404/ K EEL (1972) 297, figure

404. 34

E.g. YADIN (1963) images on 243 (middle), 300 (under), 382–384, 402–403 (upper). The throne of Amenhotep III (cf. K EEL (1977) image 49; ROBINS (1997) 137, image 155) has a similar representation. 35

238

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

pharaoh is victorious. Without the element of disguise, the motif ‘pharaoh trampling an enemy’ is also known of Ramses (see Figure 8.1036 ). Keel gives an example of a bull, as guise for the dynasty, trampling an enemy.37 Under Egyptian influence, the motif of ‘pharaoh (in disguise) trampling enemies’ came into use in Israel/Palestine as well, usually expressed by an animal or sphinx trampling a human figure.38 Bearing in mind the image carriers of the examples from GGG, these representations had an apotropaic function. This motif has been used on ivories as well, as Figure 8.11 shows. Figure 8.13 shows an 8th century Phoenician bronze blinker from Cyprus.39 Again the sphinxes show Egyptian influence. The motif also appears on the Samarian ivories.40

8.4.3 Wine pressing and afterlife punishment In Siegfried Schott’s article on the ‘bloody wine press’,41 the main topic is an afterlife depiction which represents a punishment in ‘hell’: heads of human beings are crushed like grapes (grape pulp) in a net. This representation is known via a papyrus in Berlin (P3148)42 and a papyrus of Thutmose in the Egyptian Museum of Torino (see Figure 8.16).43 Schott mentions several references to similar representations, where this net or 36

Source: http://www.richard-seaman.com/Wallpaper/Travel/MiddleEast/RamsesCru shingEnemies1.jpg. (12. III. 2009). 37 K EEL (1992b) 175, 190, figure 162. Enemies could be trampled with the help of animals; C ORNELIUS (2004) figure 29 might be an example of this. 38 See the examples: K EEL and U EHLINGER (1992) figures 5a, 61, 99, 100, 110, 262a, 268a (figure 262b is an example of slaying); Keel and Uehlinger’s figure 99 is the present Figure 8.12. 39 K ARAGEORGHIS (1969) 78, 88, cf. 79; cf. D ONDER (1980) 79–80; T19: figure 192; T42. 40 See: Figures 8.14 and 8.15, a reconstruction of the motif (not a specific panel) by Meindert Dijkstra (see C ROWFOOT and C ROWFOOT (1938) X:3,4,5 and VII:8,8a; respectively XIV:5,7); cf. e.g. the piece of U EHLINGER (2005) 161, figure 3d. (Figure 8.14: the wings and the paws point to sphinxes, the squares in a row form the embroidered border of a dress; on both sides the foot of the human enemy can be identified.) BARNETT (1975) LXVI shows a reconstruction of a trampling scene from Nimrud. 41 S CHOTT (1937). 42 For the papyrus see Figure 8.19, for the detail with the sack press Figure 8.20. This funerary papyrus became part of the collection of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin with the acquirement of the Minutoli collection. 43 The funerary papyri in the British Museum do not have similar depictions; personal communication of Renee Friedman, curator of the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan (2. V. 2007).

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

239

Figure 8.7: Pectorial of Queen Mereret showing Senusret III (Kkakaure) in the guise of a sphinx trampling enemies (T IRADRITTI and L UCA (2000) 139; Cairo Museum JE 30875 = CG 52002).

Figure 8.8: Front of Tutankhamun’s sandal chest: chariot crushing Asian enemies (T IRADRITTI and L UCA (2000) 213; Cairo Museum JE 61467).

240

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

Figure 8.9: Side of Tutankhamun’s sandal chest: Tutankhamun in the guise of a sphinx trampling enemies (T IRADRITTI and L UCA (2000) 213 Cairo Museum JE 61467).

c Figure 8.10: Ramses II trampling an enemy and slaying another (Abu Simbel). Richard Seaman

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

241

Figure 8.11: Ivory from Fort Shalmaneser with ‘two falcon-headed sphinxes wearing solar disc and usekh collar trample on fallen Asians’, 9th /8th century (M ALLOWAN (1966) volume 2: 570, figure 521).

Figure 8.12: Pharaoh in disguise as a bull trampling an enemy (K EEL and U EHLINGER (1992) 83, Figure 99).

Figure 8.13: Pharaoh in the guise of a winged sphinx trampling a Negroid enemy, 8th century Phoenician bronze blinker (K ARAGEORGHIS (1969) 78, 88, cf. 79).

Figure 8.14: Samarian ivory: pharaoh in disguise as a sphinx trampling an enemy (reconstruction of the motif by Meindert Dijkstra, based on C ROWFOOT and C ROWFOOT (1938) X:3,4,5 and VII:8,8a).

Figure 8.15: Samarian ivory: pharaoh in disguise as a sphinx trampling an enemy (reconstruction of the motif by Meindert Dijkstra, based on C ROWFOOT and C ROWFOOT (1938) XIV:5,7).

242

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

Figure 8.16: ‘Das blutrünstige Keltergerät’: detail from the papyrus of Thutmose in the c Egyptian Museum of Torino, catalogue number 1781 (Museo Antichità Egizie di Torino – used with permission).

sack is used for viticultural purposes.44 An example of such a sack press is Figure 8.17. Schott’s article provides an interpretation of the images and a discussion of their differences.45 8.4.4 Interpretation The material shown and mentioned in subsection 8.4.1 leads to the conclusion that wine treading was commonly practiced as a group.46 Usually, several people trod the wine press and if they did not hold on to something to remain standing, they could hold on to each other. The people in the wine press were scarcely clothed. Around the wine press other persons were also present, for instance bringing grapes or (carefully) bottling the juice or making music. If it is possible to conclude an atmosphere from the depictions, this ambience could be described as merry. The presence 44

S CHOTT (1937) 89, note 6; see e.g. K LEBS (1915) 57; K LEBS (1922) 80; K LEBS (1934) esp. 54–55. 45 In Mesopotamia also, enemies are sometimes depicted in a net, but in those cases the net functions as a prison or simply as a container in which people are kept or handed over (P RITCHARD (1969) figures 298, 307). Nets to catch and keep are found in the book of the dead in relation to Shesmu; see: e.g. B UDGE (1953) 510–517 = FAULKNER (1985) 149–153. 46 It should be noted here that the presence of satyrs in Figure 8.6 does not necessarily deny the possibility that grapes were trodden in this way (daily life is usually reflected in myths, etc.; cf. subsection 4.1.1, referred to in footnote 8), but their presence makes the scene mythical.

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

243

Figure 8.17: Example of a sack press (Z ONHOVEN (1997) 67, figure 2).

of several people when grapes were trodden, seems to be the reason why Isaiah 63:3 explicitly states that YHWH treads the wine press alone.47 In subsection 8.4.2 the motif represented has already been mentioned: pharaoh trampling an enemy. Figure 8.10 shows a human figure with his feet on another human figure and holding the arm of a third, making a movement as if to stab this third figure. In Figure 8.13 a figure which fits the motif ‘sphinx’48 stands on one human figure. Figures 8.8 and 8.9 show a pharaoh riding over his enemies with his chariot, which can be identified with the motif ‘pharaoh trampling an enemy (in the guise of a sphinx)’. The motif expresses power. An ideal picture for this text would be a divine (anthropomorphic) figure with a robe, trampling human figures in a wine press and standing in blood. Such a picture, however, is not known. Wine press treading scenes were often part of larger representations (Figures 8.3 and 8.4 are details). Also, in Figure 8.6, several stages of the preparation of wine are represented. Most of the BCE dated representations from Israel/Palestine, 47

Most of the representations mentioned come from Egypt. On the one hand, this is because much Egyptian material has been preserved and on the other hand, as mentioned above, viticulture was commonly practiced in Egypt. Besides this, viticultural scenes, like other agricultural activities, decorated many tombs in Egypt. Cf. also S CHOTT (1948) 331; see also; L EPSIUS and NAVILLE (1972) figure II/96 (pyramid of Saqara, tomb 1) and P OO (1995) 10 (Paheri). 48 Human-headed lion body (cf. e.g. S HAW and N ICHOLSON (2002) 276–278).

Figure 8.19: Papyrus Berlin P3148; photographer: Margarete Büsing (2000), courtesy of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung (original dimensions of the papyrus about 18.5*106cm).

c Figure 8.18: Papyrus Torino 1781 from ‘The book of Amduat’ (original dimensions of the papyrus about 23.5*105cm; Museo Antichità Egizie di Torino – used with permission).

244 8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

245

Figure 8.20: ‘Das blutrünstige Keltergerät’ 2: detail from papyrus Berlin P3148; photographer: Margarete Büsing (2000), courtesy of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung.

however, are small objects of art. Such objects seem less suitable for the depictions of multi-stage themes/scenes.49 Even when considering the ‘archaeological contingency’ (archäologischer Zufall), it is still less probable that the preparation of wine and likewise a wine treading deity would have been depicted on Israelite/Palestinian miniature art. Nevertheless, such a constellation as a possible theme on miniature art cannot be excluded based on the present evidence ‘e silentio’.50 A further consideration is whether the social status of the grape treaders plays a role in the absence of deities depicted whilst treading grapes.51 The Petosiris depiction has one larger figure, of whom it may be asked whether he is more important than the others. It is striking, however, that he is not treading grapes, but – although he has joined the labour force – is the one collecting the wine, which in a figurative sense would give even more reason for a possible other status. Besides the information gathered from the depictions of wine treading and the motif ‘pharaoh trampling an enemy’, the Papyrus Torino and papyrus P3148 in Berlin provide evidence that the extraction of juice from grapes was associated with torturing human beings. This kind of torture was executed with the help of tools commonly used in the preparation of wine. These tools were employed to extract the enemies’ blood, as sub49

For instance at Chorazin a grape treading scene has been found among other related scenes; cf. G OODENOUGH (1953a) 194 and G OODENOUGH (1953b) figure 488 (for a better image of the grape treading scene: A LBRIGHT (1928) 6). 50 Cf. however also footnote 52. 51 Note that the satyrs on the vase in Figure 8.6 are servants of Dionysius, who is depicted on the other side of the vase being served wine by the satyrs (VON B OTHMER (1985) 113).

246

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

section 8.4.3 showed. Although the contents of this Papyrus Torino were probably created in the early 18th century, the copy in Torino was probably made about 200 BCE, which allows the conclusion that the contents were known in the same period as the text of Isaiah 63. Geographically, however, it belongs to a different concentric circle.52 The Papyrus Berlin P3148, like the Torino papyrus, is a funerary papyrus. The scene with the balance on the right half of the papyrus is exemplary for such a papyrus. A closer look at the detail from the upper left corner with the sack press shows that, similar to the given sack press scene, the sack press is moved with sticks and rings and not like the Torino papyrus, with rings and cords.53 The detailed photograph also clearly shows that the net contains heads. The heads drawn in the net are especially similar to the head of the body represented in the upper right corner under the sack press. One may conclude that these corpses or bodies are still to be beheaded in order to press the blood from their heads in the sack press. The upper part of the P3148 sack press torture scene got lost. In comparison with the Torino papyrus, blood stains from body members or mutilated bodies seem to be absent in P3148. Red is the colour of blood as well as fire. The Torino papyrus shows red items above the sack press. The composition suggests that these items belong to the sack press scene. These items, in other ‘book of the dead’ images, represent torches. It is not inconceivable that the bodies were beheaded and that the heads were replaced by torches.54 The Torino papyrus would show the ‘processing’ of the heads and the material to further ‘process’ the beheaded bodies. Excursus: Goodenough formulates an interpretation of wine pressing, in reference to among others a scene similar to the one in Figure 8.6, in which he points out how the dismemberment of Dionysus and the release of mystic fluids caused salvation. Then he 52 Book of the dead vignettes could be represented on scarabs (K EEL and S CHROER (1998)); the possibility that this would also be true for the wine press scene provides another possibility as to how this scene would have been (better) known in Israel/Palestine. Further evidence is gained if Sasam is identified as a reception of Shesmu. Sasam had characteristics of a deity and a demon (B ECKING (1999a) 725), similarly Shesmu took care of the wine, but also pressed the heads of ‘sinners’ (cf. footnote 94 and Caroline Seawright, ‘Shesmu, Demon-God of the Wine Press, Oils and Slaughterer of the Damned. . . ’, http://www.thekeep.org/~kunoichi/kunoichi/themestream/shesmu.html, 10. IV. 2007); for Sasam as ‘slaughterer’ cf. DE M OOR (1981-1982) 108–109. 53 ´ See also the example in N IWI NSKI (1989) figure 76. 54 See for this practice H ORNUNG (1968) 18–21. Hornung’s figures of the beheaded damned (his figure 1) and the damned with torches (his figure 3) are given in Figures 8.21 and 8.22. Sometimes the heads were not put into a sack wine press, but into an oven; cf. ´ (1989) plate 33d. H ORNUNG (1968) figure 4; N IWI NSKI

8.4. Pictorial material for Isaiah 63:3–6

247

Figure 8.21: Beheaded damned upside down (H ORNUNG (1968) 16, figure 1).

Figure 8.22: Beheaded damned with torches on their torsos (H ORNUNG (1968) 22, figure 3).

makes a parallel with Jesus Christ, the true vine who shed his blood to grant his people immortality.55 This sounds far-fetched for the interpretation of Isaiah 63. However, in both cases, blood is shed as compensation. In the case of Isaiah 63 it is the blood of the people themselves, the enemies of YHWH (in this case at least the Edomites,56 and probably also other peoples),57 while in the New Testament Christ’s blood is vicariously shed for the justification of humans. Subsection 8.5.2 will continue discussing the relation between wine and blood. Perhaps Goodenough’s interpretation is influenced by the motif ‘Christ in the wine press’.

8.4.5 Conclusion The pictorial material has shed light on the practice of treading grapes, especially pointing out that it was not usual to tread the wine press without the company of others. Secondly, it has brought the motif of ‘trampling enemies’ to our attention. The element of clothing has not been explicitly 55

G OODENOUGH (1956) 47–53. See Isaiah 63:1 as reference to Edomite territory. 57 Cf. however B LENKINSOPP (2003a) 249 who assumes a final judgement of all YHWH’s enemies. According to Schwartz, Edom is a symbol for all of Israel’s enemies (S CHWARTZ (1993) 218); and also B EUKEN (1989) A: 258 calls Edom ‘het paradigma van de volkenwereld’. 56

248

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

scrutinized, as the grape-treading scenes depict figures whose legs are for the most part uncovered, probably to avoid contact between the grape juice and the clothing as much as possible. Whereas the pictorial material clarified grape treading and the trampling of enemies, it might not have illustrated the relation between wine press treading and punishment, nor the association wine – blood. However, subsection 8.4.3 provided an example which iconographically substantiated the idea of relating the crushing of grapes with judgement and punishment.

8.5 Exegesis of Isaiah 63:3–6 Where the Hebrew Bible uses viticultural metaphors, often YHWH is to be identified with the vineyard keeper, as in Isaiah 5:1–7. Likewise, the passage under consideration depicts YHWH as one who is active in the vineyard.58 Both Lamentations 1:1559 and Joel 3:1360 employ the wine press metaphorically. In both instances, the image is negative.61 After a verse-by-verse exegesis, some motifs will be discussed which are important in the present context. There, then follows a conclusion concerning the meaning of Isaiah 63:(1)3–6 and the role of the pictorial material in this. 8.5.1 Verse-by-verse exegesis Verse 3 ‘Alone’: the pictorial material showed that the wine press was commonly trodden with others. Jeremiah 48:33 and Isaiah 16:10 also indicate that wine presses were trodden in company. Often, several people trod and in representations others could make music, bring the grapes or bottle the wine. For the present text, where the wine press metaphorically refers to God’s punishment of Edom, ‘alone’ implies in the recipient field that there was no one to intervene between Edom and YHWH and that YHWH was fighting without others on his side, as in the Chaoskampf. Further, it should be noted that while YHWH is alone, doing this exhaust58

Cf. WALLACE (2004) 127; H ØYLAND L AVIK (2007) 156–167. The Lord has rejected all my warriors in the midst of me; he proclaimed a time against me to crush my young men; the Lord has trodden as in a wine press the virgin daughter Judah.’ 60 ‘Put in the sickle, for the harvest is ripe. Go in, tread, for the wine press is full. The vats overflow, for their wickedness is great.’ 61 Cf. RYKEN et al. (1998) 954. 59

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249

Figure 8.23: Grape treading in a copper vessel; photographed by G. Ribbing in Bethlehem, around 1910 (DALMAN (1935) figure 98).

ing job,62 the enemies are many, a collective.63 Wallace suggests that the enemies who trampled God’s vineyard now become trampled.64 The *ָ‫צְח‬E‫נ‬, their splendour, splashes as juice on the clothes of YHWH. As mentioned in subsection 8.1, the translation ‘juice’ would fit the donor field, whereas the meaning ‘splendour’ shows how YHWH crushes the glory and riches of Edom.65 The garments that are referred to fit best in the donor field of the metaphor. One may think of the upheld or short clothes in the ancient depictions of wine press treading. The text seems to refer to a kind of garment as photographed by Dalman (long and not held up)66 as such a longer dress is more easily stained. The use of the word ‫ רמס‬is a reminder of Isaiah 26:6 and the pericope of which it is a part. This link would underline that the focus of Isaiah 63:1–6 is on the redemption and salvation of YHWH’s nation, Israel. 62

Cf. M ATTHEWS (1999) 27. As for the sack press punishment, humans are taken as individuals receiving punishment for personal ‘sin’. In the trampling scenes, individual and collective interplay in the sense that the depicted individuals function as a collective singular, representing the nations they belong to. 64 WALLACE (2004) 123. 65 Maybe also of the nations, cf. footnote 57. 66 DALMAN (1935) figure 98. See Figure 8.23 63

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8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

The motif of the divine warrior is clearly present in the present pericope. Often, however, links are made with the divine warrior in Isaiah 59. As there is no agreement on this, this element is left for further study.67 Verse 4 The parallelism of *ָ‫ (ק‬and ‫ גּ)אוּלַי‬again points to the ‘ad fortiori’68 of the deliverance, as mentioned previously, for similarly as a year is more than a day, ‫ גּ)אוּלַי‬is stronger and more important than *ָ‫(ק‬.69 Speaking from the metaphor, it is probably not a year, but several days, during which the grapes were trodden. For the recipient field this seems to imply a quick and efficient destruction of the enemy. Oswalt remarks on ‘in my heart’: “This expression means ‘in my plans and wishes’; thus this destruction is not the result of a sudden, uncontrollable outburst of fury.”70 This could also sustain the idea that the destruction of Edom or the punishment of the nations fits the larger aim of peace for YHWH’s nation, his congregation. Verse 5 The verbs (as in verse 6, prefix conjugation with )‫)ו‬71 point to the future and indicate that YHWH’s answer is not only an answer to the question of why his garments are red, but also predict the final judgement of the nations.72 YHWH repeats that he was alone and seems to imply that He will be alone at the last judgement. As there seems to be a larger emphasis on the judgement, in comparison with Isaiah 59:16 (and its pericope) the use of the word ‫( חֵמָה‬instead of ‫ צְדקָה‬at the end of 59:16) seems to emphasise this focus on the punishment of the nations. *ֵ‫תּוֹמ‬#‫ו)אֶשׁ‬, a hitpolel of *‫שׁמ‬, is read by HALOT as ‘to show oneself overcome with amazement’; BDB translates ‘be appalled, astounded’. Based on the 153 occurrences of the forms of (‫שׁמ*)ה‬, being appalled or dismayed seems to fit the root better than the more positively interpretable ‘amazement’. The parallelism shows here how YHWH expectantly watched for a helper and became dismayed that there was no one to support him. Then 67 Isaiah 59 and 63:1–6 surround chapters 60–62, the core of Third Isaiah; they form a chiasm when the prophecies concerning the nations (before Isaiah 59 and after Isaiah 63:1–6) are taken into account; next to parallels in details. Cf. also G OSSE (1990); G OSSE (2001). In both cases YHWH’s arm helps Him (59:16; 63:5; cf. 62:8–9). A striking detail is YHWH’s defensive weaponry in Isaiah 59, whereas Isaiah 63 confines itself to the grape-treading metaphor and does not mention any armour. 68 Cf. F OKKELMAN (2001) 74–78, who observes that the structure of parallelism is often: ‘A, what is more: B’. 69 Cf. D IJKSTRA (1999b), discussing YHWH as ‫ גּוֹאֵל‬in Second Isaiah and concluding ‫ גּ)אוּלַי‬to be redemption without payment. 70 O SWALT (1998) 599. 71 The part of verse 3 between brackets also employs the prefix conjugation with )‫ ;ו‬this part of the verse is not considered; see subsection 8.1. 72 This play with the tenses is hard to convey in the translation.

8.5. Exegesis of Isaiah 63:3–6

251

his own arm, his own strength and heat supported Him.73 In other words, as Eugene H. Peterson translates in The Message: “So I went ahead and did it myself, fed and fuelled by my rage.” Verse 6 Whereas the wine press metaphor is not clear in verse 5, it returns in verse 6 with treading and pouring. The wine is not taken care of (contrary to Isaiah 65:8). The middle part of the verse mentions that the nations, the oppressors of Israel become drunk. This leads to thoughts about God’s ‘cup of wrath’ or punishment. Among others, Koole remarks, in reference to Isaiah 51:21–23, that after Zion drank the cup, now her enemies are to drink.74 This wine cup contains God’s wrath or punishment, as in Jeremiah 25:1575 (and Revelation 16:19). This will not be further elaborated here.76 8.5.2 Motifs Divine warrior and revenge The theme of (YHWH as) the divine warrior has been discussed in many publications.77 Recently, Carvalho stated in this context that e.g. Isaiah 63:1–6 is “about divine justice, not divine violence.”78 The theme of YHWH as divine warrior is connected with YHWH as king, as judge, making cosmic order, granting political stability and first of all bringing deliverance for his people. In Ugarit the divine warrior motif was combined with the combat at the New Wine Festival. Ugaritic myth79 depicts80 Anat in the blood of her enemies. De Moor translated KTU2 (3) II,5b-15a (Baal I.ii 5b–15a) as: And look! ‘Anatu fought in the plain, she slaughtered between the two cities. She smote the people of the sea-shore, 73 Cf. S TRAWN (in press) for other examples of how God’s arm is agressive (to the nations) and also beneficient to Israel. 74 KOOLE (2001) 343. 75 Cf. M C K ANE (1980) esp. 488–492. 76 For this subsection see especially: B EUKEN (1989) A: 246–260; O SWALT (1998) 597–599; KOOLE (2001) 337–343; B LENKINSOPP (2003a) 245–251. 77 C ROSS J R (1966); M ILLER J R (1973); L IND (1980); M ETTINGER (1988) esp. 92–115 (and K ANG (1989) esp. 197–204 whose focus is on divine war in the Ancient Near East and the Old Testament); and specifically in the Psalms: BAL LARD J R (1999); K LINGBEIL (1999); and with case studies in perspective of the Bible: YODER N EUFELD (1997). 78 C ARVALHO (2006). In this paper within the context of the theme ‘Aesthetics of Violence in Prophetic Texts’, she also remarked: “It may be a disturbing picture, but it is beautifully crafted.” 79 KTU2 1.3 II,5–30 (cf. TUAT III,6). 80 As description a ‘literal verbal image’, but as a whole, as myth a figurative verbal image.

252

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6 silenced the men of the east. Heads were under her (feet) like clods of earth, on her were hands like locusts, like scales of a plane-tree the hands of the warriors. She attached the heads to her chest, tied up the hands with her girdle. she plunged her knees in the blood of the guards, her buttocks in the gore of the warriors.81

The sentence ‘she plunged her knees in the blood of the guards’ is repeated because the myth says that she is not satisfied from fighting and, after the second battle in her home, it is described that ‘she washed her hands of the blood of the guards, her fingers of the gore of the warriors.’82 Later, ‘she scooped up water and washed herself.’83 Although it is not described that her clothes became stained, this may be presumed based on the washing and the description of the amount of blood that flowed (assuming she undertook these activities whilst clothed).84 The combat would be ‘inspired by the ingathering and pressing of the grapes’ and would be a ‘sham combat’ against her worshippers.85 Thus, this text is linked with the New Wine Festival, which is also the New Year Festival.86 De Moor: “CTA 3:B is not a description of the ritual itself, but the mythological projection thereof and as such a magnification of what took place on earth. Nevertheless, there is a remote possibility that the shedding of human blood actually took place, rationalized by the idea that the sinners are the victims of the raging goddess.”87 The kind of sham combat described in relation to the supposed rituals evokes the significance to the history of religion of (holy) play88 as part of the wine festival. Although there is no direct reference to grapes in the text as it remains today, ‘plunging her knees in the blood’ evokes the divine warrior motif and can be a parallel to YHWH’s wading in the blood of his enemies. The context of the New Wine Festival provides this comparison with the additional parallel of the wine treading context and more generally the link between wine and blood, which is discussed next. 81

DE

82

DE

M OOR (1987) 5–6. Cf. his translation of CTA 3:B.5b–14: DE M OOR (1971) 88. M OOR (1987) 7. 83 DE M OOR (1987) 7. 84 Note that the figurative use of hand to indicate power is also present in the Ugaritic context; see the references in S MITH (2001) 83. 85 DE M OOR (1971) 95. 86 Cf. DE M OOR (1972). This festival is also linked with judgement (cf. also in the Christian tradition the link between the day of the resurrection, which implies a new start, and the day of judgement). 87 DE M OOR (1971) 95. 88 Cf. K RISTENSEN (1954) 204–214 (= K RISTENSEN (1910)).

8.5. Exegesis of Isaiah 63:3–6

253

Wine and blood Genesis 49:11b reads: ‘he washes his garments in wine and his robe in the blood of grapes;’ and thus names grape juice ‘blood’ (*‫)ד‬.89 See further the remarks below on God’s revenge (especially the remark concerning Egypt). Viticulture and God’s revenge De Moor keeps the possibility open that blood is shed as compensation. Similarly, Schott has pointed out how people pay with their blood, while they suffer punishment in hell. Likewise, viticulture and God’s punishment and revenge are linked in the Hebrew Bible. As an example: Psalm 75:7–8: ‘but it is God who executes judgement, putting down one and lifting up another. For in the hand of the Lord there is a cup with foaming wine, well mixed; he will pour a draught from it, and all the wicked of the earth shall drain it down to the dregs.’90 Within the Egyptian context, Poo concludes regarding Hathor: “wine was one of the things that was able to appease the goddess.”91 Wine also played a role in the restoring of the cosmic order. Besides the connection between wine and appeasement, the Egyptian context further (besides 8.4.3) substantiates the link between viticulture and punishment: the wine-press god Shesmu92 is responsible for bringing the wine but because grapes should be crushed, he is also known as ‘slaughterer’.93 The image with the sack press is related to him as well because it is his task to punish the souls which are concluded to have been unrighteous. The Berlin papyrus depicts on the right hand side a weighing of the souls scene and on the left hand side the sack press punishment. Shesmu gives the lifegiving wine to the righteous souls and takes the heads from the ‘sinners’ and crushes them, pressing the blood out of them.94

89 The subsequent verse, concluding from the parallelism, refers to the red colour of wine: ‘his eyes are darker than wine, and his teeth whiter than milk.’ It is possible that the verse contains more meaning and that the eyes are coloured by blood because of excessive drinking. 90 Without the element of punishment or revenge, Prov 4:17 speaks about the ‘wine of violence’; the connection between wine and atrocity in this verse remains for further study. 91 P OO (1995) 157, cf. 169. 92 He is actually the personification of the wine press sack in which the slurry, left after treading the grapes, is once more pressed. Cf. Z ANDEE (1960) 158, 215–216; H ELCK (1984); see also A LTENMÜLLER (1982). 93 P OO (1995) esp. 151–153; on the image in Figure 8.16 and the mental construction behind it, Poo remarks under reference to Isa 63:3: “This image of the crushing of grapes in the process of wine-making may not have been unique in the ancient imagination” (152). 94 Cf. S CHOTT (1937) Tafel VI a,b.

254

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

Excursus: The image of the wine press is continued in the New Testament, probably as reception of Isaiah 63:1–6. Revelation 19:13 reads: ‘He is clothed in a robe dipped in blood, and his name is called The Word of God.’ Revelation 14:19–20 combines the grape harvest, grape treading and wine with the execution of God’s wrath: ‘So the angel swung his sickle over the earth and gathered the vintage of the earth, and he threw it into the great wine press of the wrath of God. And the wine press was trodden outside the city, and blood flowed from the wine press, as high as a horse’s bridle, for a distance of about two hundred miles.’

8.5.3 Conclusion YHWH answers the question why he, the one coming from Edom, has his garments stained red like one who treads the wine press. He continues the image of the wine press to express how he punished the people and set his people, his congregation free. Beuken remarks: “Als zonde niet gewroken wordt, is ook het heil twijfelachtig.”95 The text communicates that the enemies are trampled, destroyed, which can literally happen in a war and be expressed through the metaphor of the wine press. The pictorial material showed that the wine press is usually trodden in company and that Isaiah 63:3,5 therefore stresses that YHWH was alone. It further gives insight into the treading of the wine press, the trampling of grapes. Another series of images substantiated the trampling of enemies as a motif. Finally, pictorial evidence was found for the relation between wine press treading and punishment. Taking into account the motifs concluded in relation to the present pericope, there is a link between the viticultural element of trampling grapes and the political (and in another realm: theological) reality of trampling enemies and thus exercising revenge or punishment. Further, the relation between grapes and blood has been established, which provides more reason for the wine press as metaphor for punishment as well. Thus YHWH’s answer emphasises how He punishes the people and redeems his people. The fact that He is alone (only having his own arm to assist Him) and that He triumphs points to YHWH as the Lord of lords, the Almighty. He has the ultimate power to punish injustice and grant his congregation freedom in line with the prosperity promised in Third Isaiah.

8.6 Conclusion to Part III Third Isaiah (Isaiah 56–66) is a part of the book of Isaiah. Third Isaiah dates to the post-exilic period but might contain earlier material. Even if a large part of Third Isaiah consists of earlier material, it is worthwhile to 95

‘If sin is not punished, salvation becomes doubtful’; B EUKEN (1989) A: 257.

8.6. Conclusion to Part III

255

consider it as a text from the Persian period because this would have been an important period in the reception history of Third Isaiah. Third Isaiah was written in Jerusalem in Judah/Yehud. This implies, that post-exilic Jerusalem forms the inner circle from which Third Isaiah should be read. For the pericope Isaiah 60:1–7 it could be specified that it belongs to the earliest parts of Third Isaiah. Isaiah 56:1–8 is usually counted among the latest material. A more specific dating of Isaiah 63:3–6 turned out to be impossible with a general consensus. Section 5.3 presented Jerusalem and Yehud in the Persian period, a time of Persian dominance but with relative freedom for the inhabitants and rising Judaism. The population of Yehud grew as people returning from exile were added in waves, to those who had remained after the Babylonian conquest. It was a formative period for Judaism, because of theological developments and the redaction of Holy Writ. Unfortunately, relatively little iconographic material is available from Yehud in the Persian period. After this introduction to the historical circumstances of Third Isaiah, section 5.4 provided an introduction to seals and coins as specific bearers of pictorial material. Although stamp seals were common in the Achaemenid empire, cylinder seals experienced a revival. Coins came into use as currency, slowly replacing non-minted silver (and gold). The case studies have provided an application of the method for iconographic exegesis, as worked out in chapter 3 and applied to the study of metaphors in chapter 4. The second case study (chapter 7) included a lengthy discussion of contemporary pictorial material dealing with some of the few examples of iconographic items from the inner circle.96 The third case study (chapter 8), like the case study of ‫ יד‬in chapter 6, was illuminated by images from the broader culture, its broader cognitive environment,97 as the history of viticulture (its changes in technology and practice) indicates that in Persian period Yehud, it was part of a relatively long continuing agricultural tradition. A similar argument of continuity holds for the pictorial evidence employed in chapter 6. The rosette motif in the case study on (solar) light was also reviewed in wider concentric circles round Jerusalem and Yehud. Corrobated by both material from the outer and from the inner circles, it was made plausible that it was viewed as a powerful symbol of YHWH’s kingship and judgement in Yehud itself. Also, the relation with the lmlk stamp seal impressions and the particular political economical situation further ‘coloured’ the meaning of the 96 Textual material was also considered, although it was not thoroughly studied for its own sake. 97 For this term cf. chapter 3, footnote 160.

256

8. Isaiah 63:(1)3–6

rosette in Persian period Yehud, likewise its mental (and ‘religious’) map, and thus the exegesis of Isaiah 60:1–7. As ‫ יד‬could be identified with an upright stone, chapter 6 explored the significance of the promise of an upright stone to the eunuch in Isaiah 56:5 with the help of archaeological and iconographic material (the former as a more general category of excavated evidence, within which the latter focuses on the pictorial material). The pictorial material (together with the ‘realia’) helped to interpret the promise as the Lord assuring the eunuch an ongoing place in his presence, witnessing that the eunuch had joined himself to the Lord. The pictorial material studied in the context of Isaiah 60:1–7 pointed to the link between light, the sun, royalty and, via the sun deity, to justice and righteousness. It also substantiated that YHWH could be depicted as a solar deity. Thus Isaiah 60:1–7 communicated YHWH’s inclusive (universal) and exclusive claim, warranting political and social order (in a time when the Persians had their imperial ideology). This pericope calls Jerusalem, the congregation of YHWH, to grow in his quality of righteousness and promises wealth. The iconographic sources applied to Isaiah 63:3–6 demonstrated that it was uncommon to tread the wine press alone, as YHWH did, and also that it seems uncommon that a deity would be depicted treading the wine press at all. This treading was linked with the trampling of enemies, which is an iconographic expression of power. Finally, the pictorial material showed that the mental map could link crushing grapes with punishment. Thus, evidence for the verbal metaphor of Isaiah 63:3–6, YHWH trampling enemies in a wine press, has been pointed out in the iconographic heritage of the Ancient Near East. All three examples underline how pictorial material can shed light on texts. Archaeological and iconographic evidence provideds a better understanding of ‫ יד‬in Isaiah 56:5. Examining visual elements of culture shows, in the case of Isaiah 60, how the prohpet employs solar symbols of power and justice together with the place of the sun in the mental map to proclaim the glory, rigteousness and supremeness of YHWH. Isaiah 63 visualises with an unusual picture the severity of YHWH’s punishment of the nations. All three cases illustrate the value of illuminating images, as they give insight into the mental map and make one aware of associations people had. These associations came to mind through phrases (verbal images) and pictorial representations; moreover, as elements of daily life were used, seeing these objects or actions which had been employed in preaching would evoke the assocations mentioned and also a memory of the prophet’s speech.

Hellenistic period Roman period

332 BCE – 63 BCE 63 BCE – 330 CE

a

Iron Age IIA Iron Age IIB Iron Age IIC Iron Age III Iron Age III or Persian period

1000 – 900 900 – 700 700 – 587/586 587/586 – 537 537 – 332 Hellenistic period Roman period

United Monarchy Kingdom(s of Israel and) Judah Palestine under Assyrian influence Babylonian period Persian or Achaemenid period

historico-political

biblical (Judean exile related) pre-exilic pre-exilic pre-exilic exilic post-exilic or restoration period

Cf. M AZAR (1992) 30; K EEL and U EHLINGER (1992) 17 (K EEL and U EHLINGER (1998) 410); C OOGAN (1998) 597–601.

Figure 8.24: Periodization of Judah/Yehud

archaeological

date

The present chapter employs different categories of dating, such as archaeological, politico-historical, and Hebrew Bible or Judean/Yehudite history related. Briefly summarized, their chronology and mutual conversion for Yehud is as follows:a

Appendix: Figure 8.24: Periodization of Judah/Yehud

8.6. Conclusion to Part III

257

Chapter 9

Recapitulation and Conclusions

9.1 Towards a historical method for iconographic exegesis Sources for knowledge about the past are artefacts, texts, images1 and other archaeological data which contribute to the reconstruction of former environments. Written documents and pictorial material especially contribute to the information available on past ways of thought and the mental maps of people in the past. As texts and images are both products of the mental map, to gain a better understanding of texts and their cultural background, other texts and also images should be studied. The study and explanation of texts with the help of pictorial material is called iconographic exegesis. The present study has investigated the possibilities for an iconographic method in the exegesis of the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) through the broad research question: ‘How do images from the Ancient Near East provide a better understanding of the Old Testament?’ More specifically, the formulation of an iconographic method in textual exegesis of the Old Testament forms the core of this research. This implies that the text is taken as the starting point.2 Designing an exegetical method is a hermeneutical endeavour. Hermeneutics investigate approaches and – together with their more concrete correlate, exegesis – methods of interpretation. Within the hermeneutical framework, this study advocates a historical interpretation.3 Next to a general historical approach, it employs a social science and a cultural ap-

1

Texts and images need carriers which are often artefacts, unless they are applied to natural objects or surfaces, such as a tree or a cliff. 2 See esp. section 1.1 and subsection 3.2.2.1. 3 A better understanding of the ancient meaning of the text is an essential, indispensable step in understanding the current relevance of the (Hebrew) Bible.

9.2. Basis for the method

259

proach. The emphasis is placed on the event of communication, of which the Old Testament is a part.4

9.2 Basis for the method 9.2.1 A procedure for iconograhic exegesis A multidisciplinary third chapter developed in a deductive (top-down) way a method (way), or path or itinerary, for iconographic exegesis. For exegesis within a historical approach, it is important that knowledge about the past be accessible. Iconographic exegesis contributes – within the historical approach – to reaching the highest level of consistency in interpreting a text and reconstructing its historical setting of communication. Designing (an exegetical) method may be a theoretical endeavour. Theory, practice and artisanal skill are essential companions. This implies that the last two mentioned are impossible without the first. Theory is interdisciplinary and borrows from, among others, the fields of history, archaeology, art history and cultural anthropology. Two important notions for the study of images in relation to text are ‘culture’ and ‘mental map’. Describing and delimiting culture provides parameters for comparison between different expressions. Time and space function as rough guidelines in distinguishing possible hermeneutical relations between utterances as part of the same or different cultures. As well as these guidelines, factors such as imperial influence, trade relationships, ethnicity and community should be taken into account. Investigating to what extent different expressions are related to wholes of expressions and cultures, contributes to the possibility of drawing conclusions about the mental map of the people who are part of the culture(s) under investigation. The mental map includes world view, thought patterns, associations, etc. Finally, an important preliminary topic for an exegetical method which relates texts and pictorial material is a reflection on images. By defining an image as a ‘mediated representation’, image serves as a term which can be used for material images, as well as for mental and verbal images. Thus, this model5 facilitates a comparison between these different kinds of images. Besides this abstract link between text and image, the mental map as their common ‘source’ has been elaborated with the notions of ‘social memory’ (‘collective memory’) and ‘constellation’ as well.6 4 5 6

See esp. sections 2, 3.2 and 3.9. Visually represented in the tree chart of Figure 3.2. See sections 3.3 up to 3.5.

260

9. Conclusion

The iconographic exegetical method of the present study comprises three stages: search, research and application. – Search In order to interpret texts with the help of images, specific images should be put into a relation with specific texts. In order to filter out the most useful images for the interpretation of a particular text, theme and culture (proximity in place and time and relatedness through community) are employed as ‘sieves’. The closer the pictorial material is to the text, in place (relative distance), time and theme, the more related they are in culture, and the more they are products of the same or similar mental maps and, likewise, the higher the value of the information for mutual explanation. – Research After images are concluded to be relevant for the explanation of the text under investigation, the images require autonomous interpretation. For this purpose Panofsky’s model of image interpretation has been discussed. Although this model has been repeatedly criticized over the decades, time has also shown this model – albeit with corrections and improvements – to be useful. Panofsky distinguished three levels in the interpretation of a (composite) image: 1. lines and planes (Which objects and events does the piece of art represent?); 2. themes/motifs (Which themes and concepts does the piece of art represent?); 3. symbolic value or ‘essential tendency of the human mind’ (What is the intrinsic or symbolic meaning or value of this piece of art?). These three levels each have a question to check (and thus underpin) the answers to these questions. This model was extended using Bätschmann’s approach, whose adage is to study, as much as possible, artist, creation, art work and reception. This is useful as a check on the results of the image interpretation, which can include a multidisciplinary interplay between, among others, cultural history and the history of mentality. – Application Having selected images which are to be considered in the interpretation of a specific text, and having interpreted this text and these images for their own sakes, the sholar should complete the task by putting text and image back in relation to each other. The results of these autonomous explanations are brought together in the application. Conclusions from the image research into the different parts of exegesis are brought into dialogue with the results of other exegetical methods (especially those that share the historical approach) with which the text under investigation has been scrutinized. Section 3.8 discussed the different concerns of exegesis7 7

In combination with subsection 3.2.2.3.

9.2. Basis for the method

261

which might benefit from iconographic exegesis and illustrated this with examples. In short, the proposed method of iconographic exegesis, within a historical (and cultural) approach, can be presented as follows: 1. the text as starting point (interaction with the text stimulates exegesis) 2. delimitation, dating and locating of the text 3. search for images, filtered by theme and culture 4. research of the images: proceeding through the three levels of interpretation (Panofsky) and considering as much relevant literature as possible with different approaches (Bätschmann) 5. application: comparing (examining similarities and contrasts) and combining the conclusions of text and picture interpretation 6. clarification of the text and substantiation, complementation and correction of its (earlier) interpretations Thus, iconographic exegesis in the present study exists in the explanation of (Hebrew) Bible texts with the help of pictorial material which is thematically and culturally as close as possible to the text studied. The proposed method fits a historical approach which focuses on the period in which the text emerged. It leaves aside the reception history of a text and the role images play in the history of reading a text. Therefore, for instance, images which function as interpretations of texts are generally not considered in this study. The present study, however, might form a useful hermeneutical and exemplary basis for other applications and methods of iconographic exegesis.8 9.2.2 Application to the study of metaphors Chapter 4 functions as a bridge towards the iconographic exegesis of metaphors. The chapter drew some rough lines through metaphor theory and situated the position of the present study in a cumulative description of the theories by Lakoff and Johnson, Kittay and Lehrer, and others. This was combined with the ‘relevance theory’ of Sperber and Wilson, to be more aware of the event of communication in which metaphors function. Further the different (cultural) perspectives on particular metaphors were emphasised in combination with the open-endedness of metaphor. The combination of metaphor theory and the designed method for iconographic exegesis allows literary metaphors to be examined, in other words: to illuminate figurative verbal images with the help of material images. Conceptual metaphors as part of the system of associated com8

See sections 3.6 up to 3.9.

262

9. Conclusion

monplaces, the mental map of people groups, a culture, can be represented in material images. When these images are examined in the way proposed in chapter 3, the conclusions on the Panofskian level of ‘symbolic value’ provide information about the mental map. On the level of ‘motif’, motifs can be concluded as associations of each other or of the items concluded on the level of description. Likewise, the level of description clarifies how people saw and represented the observable world.

9.3 Case studies 9.3.1 Third Isaiah To illustrate and substantiate the designed method, three case studies were taken from Isaiah 56–66, commonly known as Third Isaiah. This part of Isaiah was dated to the Persian period and concluded to have been written in Jerusalem. Among the introductory issues, several theological issues were discussed, among which the universal rule of YHWH, openness to foreigners and a concern for righteousness and justice are the most important. The setting in Jerusalem was further discussed as part of the situation of Persian period Yehud, where some people had remained after others had been taken into exile. In this period, when several of those exiles returned, a thorough reflection on ethnic and religious identity came about and an important editing of the ‘Holy Writ’ took place. Economically, the rise of trade provided a means of cultural exchange and brought minted coins into circulation. These coins were, next to the millennia-old seals, important image bearers which, while facilitating monetary currents, also brought along a commutation of images. 9.3.2 Isaiah 56:1–8 An exegesis of ‫ יד‬in the combination of *+‫יד ושׁ‬, as used in Isaiah 56:1–8, was the first example to illustrate the proposed method. From the evidence that ‫ יד‬can mean ‘memorial’ (as a 3D object) and *+‫‘ שׁ‬commemoration’, the conclusion was drawn that *+‫ יד ושׁ‬refers to a ‘petrified’ commemoration, a memorial statue, which also can be identified with the Hebrew synonym ‫מַצֵּבָה‬. This does not, however, exclude other meanings from playing a secondary role. ‫ יד‬in the meaning of memorial was identified as an upright stone, a stele. Images of such stones (as well as artefacts fitting this category) were collected and studied. A continuous use of memorial stelae could be concluded, albeit that the evidence for the later centuries of the Iron Age was not abundant. Based on this continuity, Isaiah 56:1–8 was interpreted

9.3. Case studies

263

in the light of archaeological and iconographic material collected over a broad period. The ‫יד‬, memorial stele (in verse 5) was promised to the eunuch who had joined himself to the Lord and spoke about himself as a dry tree. The Lord promised this sepulchral memorial to this childless person, thus fulfilling a task that the person’s children would have executed. The pictorial material confirmed that upright stones were used as representatives of human beings (next to deities) and were in particular used as memorial stele. This was confirmed by the iconographic material which showed such memorial stelae depicted on similar upright stones. In interpreting the stelae inside a temple (court), it was concluded that they either represent a deity or a person, either living or passed away, who or whose relatives guarantee(s) the presence of this person in the presence of the deity. The iconographic interpretation of the archaeological artefacts and the iconographic interpretation of the pictorial material showed that such memorial stelae functioned in a similar way to votive offerings, in the sense that they substitute for the religious or cultic activities of the person for whose sake such an upright stone has been erected. In conclusion, it can be summarized that the Lord, taking up the task of a child, provides the childless with a memorial stele and by placing it in his own presence, in his temple, it functions as a petrified prayer, a lithified liturgy of perpetual praise. 9.3.3 Isaiah 60:1–7 The case study on light in Isaiah 60:1–7 included a lengthy discussion of rosette stamps and a coin from Yehud with a representation of YHWH on a winged wheel. This iconographic material belongs to the inner circle and is as close as possible to the text.9 Beside this inner circle material, images from the widening circles were taken into account as well. This pictorial material demonstrated the link between light, the sun, royalty and also, via the sun deity, to justice and righteousness. It also substantiated that YHWH could be depicted as a solar deity. Thus Isaiah 60:1–7 communicates YHWH’s inclusive (universal) and exclusive claim, promising political and social order (in a time when these were characteristics of the Persians’ imperial ideology). This pericope calls Jerusalem, the congregation of YHWH, to grow in his quality of righteousness, and promises wealth. Thus, the prophet proclaims the universal power of YHWH with signs used by foreign and Judean kings for their own glory. The sun (or its icons), which symbolized these kings as supreme judges, becomes an 9

Bearing in mind the precision with which the text can be dated.

264

9. Conclusion

emblem for YHWH who makes the sun rise and causes Jerusalem’s radiance. 9.3.4 Isaiah 63:(1)3–6 An important metaphor in Isaiah 63:1–6 depicts YHWH as the one who treads the grapes in the wine press. As with the case study on ‫יד‬, this text can be illuminated by images from the broader culture, its broader cognitive environment, since the history of viticulture (its changes in technology and practice) indicates that, as practiced in Persian period Yehud, it was part of a relatively long continuing agricultural tradition. The iconographic sources applied to Isaiah 63:3–6 pointed out that it was uncommon to tread the wine press alone, as YHWH did, also that it seems uncommon that a deity was depicted as treading the wine press at all. This treading was linked with the trampling of enemies, which is an iconographic expression of power. Finally, the pictorial material showed that the mental map could link pressing grapes with punishment. Thus, evidence for the verbal metaphor of Isaiah 63:3–6, YHWH trampling enemies in a wine press, has been pointed out in the iconographic heritage of the Ancient Near East. 9.3.5 Contribution to Third Isaiah The present study contributes to the research on Third Isaiah because of its case studies. Hermeneutically, it dated its reading of Third Isaiah to the Persian period, assuming that it was written down in this period. It sketched three case studies against the background of this period as the inner circle of cultural reference, widening this geographically and temporally. Isaiah 56:1–8 was taken from the heat of the debate between particularist and universalist, showing how uprooted outcasts return as a recruiting religious remnant. Isaiah 60:1–7 exemplifies, alongside a call for justice, the hope for Jerusalem’s future magnificent glory in line with the Jerusalem solar tradition; thus it is Zion-centred. To substantiate this, the study made a case for royal and solar imagery in Persian period Yehud. Isaiah 63:1–6 demonstrates the punishment of the nations, for which Edom functions as a type. Thus, the main theological issues of Third Isaiah have been illustrated: these chapters’ universalism and openness to ethnic and other outsiders;10 the centrality of Zion; the punishment 10

Third Isaiah proclaims that YHWH’s power includes authority over all people; the word ‘universal’ as a synonym for ‘all-encompassing’ could be used here; this inclusivism

9.4. To be continued

265

of those who do not belong to YHWH’s people; a warning against syncretism;11 and the glory in which those who have joined themselves to the Lord, to his congregation, share. 9.3.6 Conclusion What some may have concluded from intuition and based on text research, is affirmed and extended by the iconographic record. Iconographic exegesis makes the scholar aware of the visual elements in a culture, how they are related to the mental map and even more practically what the impact was of what people actually saw and how such information sheds (new) light on a text. Thus through illuminating images by interpreting what they communicate, they become text-illuminating images.

9.4 To be continued This has been written in the hope that the considerations of this study on the methodological basis of iconographic exegesis (the itinerary) will further pave the way for iconographic exegesis to obtain an established place in the hermeneutical spectrum. On the other hand, it also trusts that other scholars who take a historical approach (and maybe even those who do not) will esteem and benefit from the above considerations. Taking iconographic exegesis as a vital contribution within the hermeneutical spectrum allows for a broader application of a method which deserves to become widely known of its essential contribution to Old Testament Studies. Texts and images should both be used: better to walk the path with both legs! Epilogue: dictionary idea; and case studies on the way to a ‘pictorial Bible’12 Keel contributed to a project which aimed to write iconographic commentaries on the books of the Hebrew Bible.13 The contribution of iconographic exegesis fills an important blind spot in exegesis. But is it possible to comment on any given Old Testament text iconographically? An honest answer might be that it is not, although the present chapter showed that pictorial material can serve the interpretation of texts in many ways. Nevertheless, the contribution of iconographic exegesis is important. It requires, however, spe(of the Lord’s all-inclusive power) is the consequence of the Lord’s exclusive power: only He has this power. Third Isaiah also proclaims ‘universalism’ in contrast to particularism by welcoming all people(s) to join themselves to the Lord; this kind of universalism is well decribed by the word ‘inclusivism’. 11 Implicit in the first two case studies, and explicit in other chapters of Third Isaiah. 12 Cf. chapter 3, footnote 24. 13 See: subsection 1.3 (page 4).

266

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cialization.14 If writing a commentary series fails, e.g. because one needs all the different kinds of exegesis to scrutinize a text, one might launch a project as a kind of dictionary;15 perhaps not one which only discusses pictorial entries, but one which pays due attention to concepts. While exegeting biblical texts, scholars, ministers and others think of concepts (like for example ‘righteousness’) and it would be useful to have resources which help in scrutinizing the concept iconographically as well. Such a project would take three steps in the direction of those who are dealing with Old Testament texts, taking these texts as their starting points. Firstly, it would provide images; and as it is often hard to find images, the dictionary should be abundant in references to these images (especially mentioning the museums or collections where these images are).16 Secondly, such a dictionary would do a great deal of the image interpretation, which for some scholars might be too specialized. The description of the method in the present chapter, however, provides them with an insight into the method (worked out here within a historical approach) which should at least allow scholars to check an iconographic exegesis of a text by themselves; also because the present chapter pointed to several areas which are important in iconographic exegesis. Thirdly, by not only providing entries which coincide with the first level of Panofsky’s model, but also entries on the other levels, exegetes will be able to enjoy the contribution of iconographic exegesis in every phase of their exegetical craft. Pictorial material should be methodologically employed because iconographic exegesis is a complementary and also a foundational form of exegesis (especially within a concept of holistic exegesis). A dictionary can provide a clearly-laid-out project which succeeds in succinctly providing necessary information for the (non-iconographically-specialized) exegete.17 Alongside the idea of a dictionary, the challenge remains to gather and organize the growing number of examples of iconographical exegesis. A first step might be to extend Paulist Press’ Parallels to the Old Testament18 with a volume ‘Pictorial Parallels to the Old Testament’. This might be a first step forward towards a concise iconographic commentary on the Old Testament or perhaps even towards a pictorial Bible, containing pictorial material from the Ancient Near East (and for the New Testament from other parts of Antiquity as well) and documenting how this pictorial material provides us with a better understanding of the Bible.

14

Cf. Jonker’s model (J ONKER ([1996]); subsection 2.1.5). The project described here goes much beyond D OHMEN (1995), which is a popular illustrated lexicon, employing images to visualize, but not to convey information, as iconographic analysis would yield. 16 As biblical scholars usually work with images of images and publish photographs or drawings of them. 17 An important step towards such a dictionary might be the pictorial material collected in the Bibel+Orient Database Online (http://www.bible-orient-museum.ch/bodo/), as the background information on the images provided in this database contains a lot of material which should be incorporated in such a dictionary. 18 M ATTHEWS and B ENJAMIN (1997). 15

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Index of Scripture References

Genesis 1 1:17 11:4 15:11 19 22 28 28:18 32:12 32:32 35:14 35:20 49:11

174, 221 149 151 153 173, 221 163 157 152 110 173 152, 153 152, 153 253

Exodus 10:22-23 15:26 22:2 23:24 24:4 28:36 34:13 35:22 39:30

221 221 173 153, 154 153 194 153 90 194

Leviticus 8:9 26:1 26:30

194 149, 153 153

Numbers 14:29 14:32,33 18 24:17

153 153 165 173

Deuteronomy 7:5

153

Deuteronomy – (continued) 12:3 153 16:22 153 23:2 165-167 23:2-9 165 28:66,67 223 33:2 173 34:9 111 Joshua 1:3 8:18 8:26 14:9

231 25 25 231

Judges 6:5 9:27 9:33 20:34

224 231 173 231

1 Samuel 15:12 17:46

149 153

2 Samuel 14:7 18:18 23:3 23:4 1 Kings 6:18 6:29 6:32 6:35 7:29 7:30

150 147, 149-150, 152 217 173, 217 194 194 194 194 194 194

339

Index of Scripture References 1 Kings – (continued) 7:36 10:27 14:23 17:10

194 153 153 153

2 Kings 3:2 3:22 9:30 10:26 10:27 18:4 19:35 23:14 23:17 25:12

153 173 65 153 153 153 153 153 153 234

1 Chronicles 18:3

149

2 Chronicles 14:3 20:24,25 31:1

153 153 153

Psalms – (continued) 34:6 37:5-6 42:5 46:6 48:10 72 72:1-14 75:7-8 84 84:12 85:14 88:14 91:13 93 94:1,2 95-99 97:2 89:14 104 104:22 112:4 119:105 136:7-9

174 226 111 221 111 217, 229 121 253 216 222 219 221 231 225 216 225 215 215 217 173 173 222 173 253 173 25 150 217 151

Nehemiah 13:3 13:15

165 231, 234

Proverbs 4:17 4:18 8 10:7 16:15 27:19

Esther 8:16

221

Ecclesiastes 1:5

173

Song of Songs 1:15 4:1-7 5:10-16 6:4 6:10 7:2-6

106 97, 106 106 96-97 110 97, 106

Isaiah 1:9 1:31 2:3 2:5 5:1-7 6:13

173, 221 173, 221 222 173, 221 248 152

Ezra 6:19-21

165

Job 3:4 3:25 4:14 9:7 14:7 18:17 20:10 23:15 24:11 39 Psalms 5:4 19

174 223 223 173 167 150 147 223 231 25 221 216, 221

340

Index of Scripture References Isaiah – (continued) 8:23-9:1 12:2 13:10 14:19 14:22 16:10 17:12-14 19:16-17 19:19 26:6 30:26 31:9 34:3 37:36 45:1 45:7 49:6 49:18-22 51:4 51:21-23 55:3 55:13 56:1-8 56:3 56:5 57:5 57:7 57:8 57:15 57:18,19 58:3-12 58:8 58:10 59:1,2 59:15-21 59:16 59:17-20 59:19 59:20 59:21 60:1-6 60:1-7

60:9 60:13,14 60:19

173 223 173 153 150 231, 248 223 223 153 248 173 173 153 153 136 136 226 223 225 251 226 149-150 128, 144-168 262-264 120 109, 120, 144168, 255-256 120 150, 166-167 150 150 121 224 120, 121, 217 121, 173 121 225, 250 121, 250 120 150 169 150, 169 121, 229 120, 121, 128 169-229, 255-256, 263-264 150 121 121

Isaiah – (continued) 60:21 61:3 62:1 62:2 62:3 62:8-9 62:8 63:1 63:2 63:1-6 63:1-2 63:3-6 63:7 63:10 63:12 63:14 63:16 63:19 64:1 64:6 64:7 65:1 65:2 65:2-3 65:5 65:8 65:22 65:23 66:1 66:2 66:5 66:6 66:14 66:14-16 66:22 66:24 Jeremiah 25:15 31:12 31:21 31:40 33:5 36:16 36:24 41:9 43:13 48:9 48:33

150 120 121 150 121, 150 250 121 120, 247 110 225, 230 230 120, 121, 128 230-256, 264 224 120 150 150 121, 150 150 150 121, 150 121 150 150 121 121 251 150 120 121 150 150 120 150 120 150, 165 153, 173, 221 251 174 153 153 153 223 223 153 153 153 231, 248

341

Index of Scripture References Jeremiah – (continued) 51:14 110 51:33 231 52:16 234

Malachi 3:20 4:2

173, 216-217 see 3:20

Judit Lamentations 1:15

2:20

110

231, 248

Ezekiel 3:9 6:5 9:9 21:24-25 26:11 32:7 39:15 43:7 43:12 43:9 47:21-23

110 153 111 149 153 173 153 153, 157 157 153 165

Hosea 3:4 10:1 10:2

153 153 153

Joel 3:13

248

Amos 2:9 5:20 8:3 9:13

110 221 153 231

Jonah 4:8

173

Micah 2:1 5:12 6:15

173 153 231

Nahum 3:3 3:17

153 173

Habakkuk 1:9

110

Matthew 2:1-12

121, 229

Ephesians 3:1-12

121

Revelation 14:19-20 16:19 19:13

254 251 254

Index of Authors

Aalders, G. C., 153 Aalen, S., 220, 223 Aaron, D. H., 105 Abitz, F., 209 Ackerman, S. E., 127 Ackroyd, P. R., 147, 149 Adams, G., 61 Afnan, R. M., 136 Aguilar, M. I., 95 Aharoni, Y., 185, 186 Akerman, J. Y., 203 Albertz, R., 130, 131, 137, 205 Albright, W. F., 151, 160, 183, 189, 245 Alexander, D., 235 Alexander, R. L., 211 Alkier, S., 45, 86 Allen, L. C., 153 Allen, S. L., 87 Alonso Schökel, L., 8, 11, 14, 16 Altenmüller, H., 253 Altenmüller, H., 199 Amir, Y., 70 Amiran, R., 190 Amit, D., 233 Amit, Y., 35 Anderson, A. A., 149 Andrae, W., 160 André, J. M., 188 Andrén, A., 25, 41 Anthes, R., 215 Arendse, R., 22 Ariel, D. T., 143 Armstrong, J., 141 Arneth, M., 217 Arnold, T. J., 203 Ash, P. S., 208 Assmann, A., 58 Assmann, J., 58–61, 214, 215, 217, 218 Astley, H. J. D., 97 Aubet Semmler, M. E., 45

Audi, R., 12 Avi-Yonah, M., 187 Avigad, N., 63, 129, 140 Avner, U., 155–157 Bachmann, M., 45, 56 Baer, D. A., 123, 170 Bahat, D., 129 Bahn, P. G., 42–44, 55, 87, 90 Bahrani, Z., 27, 40, 47, 87 Balch, D. L., 95 Baldauf, C., 113 Baldwin, A., 142 Baldwin, J. R., 55 Ball, M. S., 85 Ballard Jr, H. W., 251 Balmuth, M., 90, 140 Banks, M., 69, 70 Barag, D., 197, 202 Barash, M., 48 Barbash, I., 70 Barkay, G., 143 Barker, C., 54, 60, 86 Barnard, A., 52, 54 Barnard, M., 84, 85 Barnett, R., 186, 238 Barnier, J., 70 Barr, J., 15, 35, 94, 97 Barstad, H. M., 130, 133 Barton, G. A., 95 Barton, J., 6, 8, 14, 15, 21 Bätschmann, O., 77–82, 88, 117 Battani, M., 57 Batto, B. F., 215 Baumgartner, W., 337 Baumgärtel, F., 123 Baykal-Seeher, A., 211 Beach, E. F., 65, 100, 115, 215 Becker, J., 15

Index of Authors Becking, B. E. J. H., 66, 123, 130, 133, 137, 151, 155, 167, 246 Belting, H., 48, 49 Ben-Rafael, E., 56 Bendor, S., 94 Benjamin, D. C., 43, 94, 266, 336 Benzinger, I. G. A., 90 Ben Zvi, E., 11 Berges, U., 15, 123, 124 Bergman, J., 147, 149 Bergmann, S., 32 Berlejung, A., 48 Bernbeck, R., 42 Bernett, M., 159 Berquist, J. L., 131, 138 Berry, G. R., 221 Besant, W., 201 Besançon, A., 48 Betlyon, J. W., 132, 133, 135, 141–143, 186, 196, 199 Beuken, W. A. M., 125, 126, 145, 220, 230, 231, 247, 251, 254 Biddle, M. E., 220 Biebuyck, B., 113 Binford, L. R., 42 Biran, A., 159 Bittel, K., 179 Bivar, A., 143, 196 Black, M., 111, 113 Blenkinsopp, J., 94, 126–130, 134, 136, 137, 149, 220, 224, 247, 251 Bloch-Smith, E., 156 Blomberg, C. L., 22 Blumenberg, H., 220 Boardman, J., 130 Boas-Vedder, D., 131 Böcher, O., 220 Bodeman, M., 56 Bodine, W. R., 85 Boehm, G., 50 Boman, T., 94 Bonatz, D., 50, 76, 87 Bordreuil, P., 140 Börker-Klähn, J., 149 Borowski, O., 94, 234 Bothmer, D. F. von, 237, 245 Boyce, M., 132, 136, 174, 188, 192, 214, 215 Boyd, M. P., 233 Braun, J., 90

343

Brentjes, B., 139 Briant, P., 130 Briggs, C. A., 147, 337 Brock, B., 75 Broshi, M., 202 Brosius, M., 131, 132 Brown, F., 147, 337 Brown, J. K., 13 Brown, J. P., 45, 135 Brown, W. P., 100, 105, 217, 222 Brueggemann, W., 16, 97, 98, 127, 130, 138 Brumfield, E. M., 47 Brümmer, V., 11 Brunn, S. D., 60 Brunner, H., 214 Brunner-Traut, E., 45 Budge, E. A. T. W., 242 Bultmann, R., 220 Buren, E. D. van, 179, 190, 213, 218 Burgh, T. W., 90 Burghardt, W. J., 220 Burgon, T., 140 Burke, P., 38, 61 Burwick, F., 71 Bush, F. W., 122 Cahill, J. M., 180–186, 191 Caldarola, V. J., 70 Campbell, E. F., 206 Cannuyer, C., 220 Carr, D., 38 Carradice, I., 141, 197 Carroll, R. P., 130 Carstens, P., 176, 221, 227 Carter, C. E., 130, 135, 140, 183, 233 Cartwright, L., 68 Carvalho, C., 251 Cavedoni, C., 195 Chandler, D., 86 Chéhab, M. H., 155 Cheyne, T. K., 9 Childs, B. S., 122, 124, 128 Chilton, B., 166 Chipiez, C., 180 Chouraqui, A., 235 Claessen, H. J. M., 55 Clements, R. E., 220 Clermont-Ganneau, C. S., 201 Clines, D. J., 15

344

Index of Authors

Coffey, H., 65 Collier, M., 70 Collier Jr, J., 70 Collingwood, R. G., 37 Collon, D., 139, 175, 181 Colpe, C., 136, 220 Conder, C. R., 70, 204 Conrad, D., 42 Conrad, E. W., 226 Conradie, E., 22 Cook, A. B., 196, 198 Cook, S. A., 202 Cooke, G. A., 153, 162 Cornelius, I., 18, 179, 209, 238 Cornfeld, G., 158 Coulanges, F. de, 38 Coulmas, F., 50 Cowley, A. E., 145, 231 Croatto, J. S., 21 Crook, Z. A., 95 Cross Jr, F. M., 251 Crowfoot, G. M., 238, 241 Crowfoot, J. W., 238, 241 Crüsemann, F., 20, 127 Culley, R. C., 93 Cullimore, J., 140, 195, 204 Currid, J. D., 40 Dalman, G., 161, 234, 249 Damerow, P., 27 Davies, P. R., 131 Davis, T. W., 20, 40 Dayagi-Mendels, M., 234 Deist, F. E., 33, 52, 54, 58, 84, 88, 94 Delcor, M., 150 Delitzsch, F. J., 9 Del Brassey, P., 105 Dessel, J., 40 Dever, W. G., 19, 20, 40, 42, 43 Dhamija, J., 180 Dijkstra, M., 18, 58, 70, 127, 131, 136, 153, 162, 164, 166, 182, 250 Dille, S. J., 105 Diness, M., 70 Dion, P., 219 Dixon, J. W. J., 33 Donald, M., 46 Donbaz, V., 211 Donder, H., 238 Donner, H., 165

Doumet, C., 139 Downey, S. B., 178 Doyle, B., 105 Dozeman, T. B., 217 Driver, S. R., 147, 195, 196, 337 Duhm, B., 122 Duling, D. C., 60 Dumbrell, W. J., 187 Dyck, J. E., 226 Ebach, J. H., 153 Eberlein, J. K., 76 Eco, U., 8, 86, 101 Edelman, D. V., 130, 133, 134, 136, 181, 195, 197, 202 Edles, L. D., 85 Eerdmans, B. D., 161 Ehring, C., 130 Eidevall, G., 105 Eisenberg, E., 158 Elayi, A., 143, 198, 200 Elayi, J., 143, 198, 200 Elkins, J., 27, 46, 50, 67, 68, 84 Elliger, K., 124, 128 Elliott, M. W., 125 Elsen-Novák, G., 86, 87 Engemann, J., 76 Englund, R. K., 27 Enns, P., 17 Eph‘al, I., 135, 205 Erlemann, K., 220 Eshel, H., 140 Esler, P. F., 60, 94 Ettlinger, L., 60 Evans, J., 204 Eynikel, E., 86 Fant, C. E., 29 Farkas, A., 179, 188 Fauconnier, G., 115 Faulkner, R. O., 242 Faulkner, S. L., 55 Faust, A., 57 Fee, G. D., 17 Ferrari, G., 46 Finkelstein, I., 189 Fischer, O. C. M., 115 Fischer, S., 214 Fishbane, M., 165 Fittschen, K., 197

Index of Authors Fitzmyer, J. A., 14, 16 Flannery, K. V., 44, 87 Fleming, N., 43 Fleming, S. J., 234 Flint, P. W., 170 Fohrer, G., 9, 65, 124 Fokkelman, J. P., 125, 250 Fónagy, I., 115 Forceville, C. J., 115 Fortin, M., 211 Fossum, J. E., 174 Frankel, R., 234 Frankfort, H., 55, 190, 212, 214 Frankfort, H. A. G., 190 Frick, F. S., 94 Fried, L. S., 130 Frye, R. N., 98 Funk, R. W., 113 Gallagher, C., 59 Galling, K., 157, 158, 161, 164, 187, 234 Gardiner, A., 209 Garrison, B. M., 140 Gasser, M. P., 138, 182 Gates, C., 192 Gavin, C. E., 70 Gelfer-Jørgensen, M., 179 Gemünden, P. von, 105 Gerson, S. N., 141, 208 Gerstenberger, E. S., 128, 130 Gese, H., 179 Gesenius, H. F. W., 145, 231 Gesenius, W., 194 Geva, H., 129 Gibson, S., 70 Ginsburg, C. D., 201 Gitler, H., 141, 143, 197–203, 205 Giveon, R., 140 Glassner, J.-J., 27 Goldenberg, R. G., 131 Goldingay, J. E., 122, 128, 217, 220, 225 Goldwasser, O., 27, 51 Gollwitzer, H., 95 Gombrich, E. H. J., 47, 59, 60, 73, 75, 82 Gonda, J., 215 Goodenough, E. R., 245, 247 Gordis, R., 147 Gorin, S., 43 Gorman, M. J., 22 Gosse, B., 146, 224, 250

345

Gottdiener, M., 86 Gottwald, N. K., 93, 94, 96, 107, 130 Goulder, M., 125 Grabbe, L. L., 37, 94, 127, 130, 131, 133, 135–137, 185, 200, 206 Graesser, C. F., 155–157, 163 Graf, D. F., 134 Graham, W., 95 Grant, J., 43 Grau, O., 50 Gray, G. B., 123 Green, J., 10, 131 Greenblatt, S., 59 Greene, J. A., 233 Grenet, F., 132 Greßmann, H. E. F. W., 63, 154, 156, 160, 161, 201 Grether, O., 150 Griffeth, R. J., 156 Grimshaw, A., 67 Groot, J. de, 152, 154, 156, 160, 164 Guevin, B. M., 100 Gurney, O. R., 179 Gutbub, A., 90 Gutt, E.-A., 113 Hadley, J. M., 162 Haettner Blomquist, T., 159 Hagelia, H., 124 Halbwachs, M., 59 Hall, J. R., 57 Hall, S., 54 Hallo, W. W., 45, 158 Hamilton, R., 187 Hammock, C. E., 164 Hanson, P. D., 124 Harden, D., 38 Hardmeier, C., 13, 58 Harpring, P., 72 Hartley, L. P., 26 Hausmann, J., 127, 134 Hayes, K. M., 105 Head, B. V., 201 Hecht, M. L., 55 Heck, T. F., 52 Hecke, P. J. P. V., 105 Hefner, P., 33 Heinz, M., 27 Heinze, R., 77 Helck, W., 253

346

Index of Authors

Helmbrecht, J., 115 Henkelman, W., 132, 215 Hens-Piazza, G., 59 Herbordt, S., 181 Hermisson, H.-J., 220 Herr, D. D., 233 Herrmann, G., 57, 65 Heßler, E., 136 Hestrin, R., 187 Hill, G. F., 161, 180, 194, 196, 198–201, 203, 234 Hills, C., 41 Hiraga, M. K., 115 Hirsch, E., 56, 115 Hjelm, I., 205 Hodder, I. R., 43 Hoerth, A. J., 17 Hoffmann, H. W., 9, 65 Höffken, P., 122–124, 192 Höfner, M., 179 Høgenhaven, J., 127 Hoglund, K., 134, 135 Holly, M. A., 76 Holmgren, F., 230 Hornung, E., 27, 150, 246, 247 Horsley, R. A., 94 House, P. R., 128 Howe, K. S., 70 Howgego, C., 140 Høyland Lavik, M., 248 Hubbard, D. A., 122 Hubbard, R. L. J., 22 Huber, F., 9, 65 Hulster, I. J. de, 5, 29, 101, 229 Hurowitz, V., 163 Husser, J.-M., 217 Hutson, S., 43 Hutton, P. H., 61 Hvidberg, F., 152 Ibrahim, M. M., 44, 90, 189 Inglis, F. C., 54 Irwin, W. A., 190 Jacobsen, T., 61, 190 Jakiel, R., 141 Janowski, B., 217–221 Japhet, S., 126, 130, 147, 149, 152 Jastrow, M. J., 63 Jay, M., 67

Jeanrond, W. G., 9, 17 Jeremias, A. K. G., 215 Jeselsohn, D., 202 Jewitt, C., 85 Johnson, M., 3, 105, 111, 113 Johnston, P. S., 150 Johnstone, W., 11 Jonas, H., 50 Jong, A. F. de, 136, 174 Jonker, L. C., 9, 13–15, 22, 28, 266 Jüngling, H. W., 122 Kagan, D., 140 Kaiser, W., 131 Kanael, B., 195, 201, 202 Kang, S.-M., 251 Kantor, H. J., 211 Kany, R., 59 Karageorghis, V., 45, 238, 241 Katz, S. H., 234 Kautzsch, E. F., 145, 231 Kee, H. C., 94 Keel, O., 18–20, 25, 29, 48, 57, 58, 60– 63, 65, 75–78, 90, 91, 110, 130, 131, 138, 140, 150, 158, 159, 162, 163, 173, 175–177, 181, 182, 191, 208–210, 215–219, 221, 237, 238, 241, 246, 257, 337 Keel-Leu, H., 236 Keizer, J., 220, 229 Kelber, W. H., 60 Kelle, B. E., 105 Kempinski, A., 211 Kennedy, J. M., 26 Kiefer, J., 130 Kieft, G. J., 49 Kienle, H., 194–196, 200–202 Kindler, A., 202 King, L. W., 213 King, P. J., 94, 234, 235 Kippenberg, H. G., 75, 82 Kitchen, K. A., 125 Kitchener, H. H., 70 Kittay, E. F., 64, 112, 113 Kittel, R., 154 Kiziltan, Z., 211 Klebs, L., 242 Klein, R. W., 130 Klein, W. W., 22

Index of Authors Kletter, R., 40, 182, 184, 185, 188–191, 216 Klingbeil, M., 77, 105, 121, 251 Kloppenborg, J. S., 234 Kluckhohn, C., 55 Knauf, E. A., 161, 234 Knoppers, G., 130 Knowles, M., 113–115 Knowles, M. D., 137 Knudtzon, J., 215 Koch, U., 214 Koehler, L., 337 Koenen, K., 124, 133 Kooij, A. van der, 170 Kooij, G. van der, 44, 57, 90 Koole, J. L., 125, 150, 220, 231, 251 Kopp-Schmidt, G., 76 Korpel, M. C. A., 38, 105, 113, 114, 125 Kotzé, Z., 105 Kövecses, Z., 113, 114 Kraay, C. M., 196 Kraus, H.-J., 126, 129 Kress, G., 86 Kreuzer, S., 95 Kristensen, W. B., 252 Kroeber, A. L., 55 Kroneman, D., 100, 114 Küchler, M., 229 Kühn, D., 160, 161 Kuhrt, A., 45, 130 Kustár, Z., 217 Laidlaw, S., 65 Lakoff, G., 3, 105, 111–113 Lamprichs, R., 76 Landsberger, B., 45 Lang, F., 87 Langer, B., 220, 228 Langer, S. K. K., 75 Lapp, P. W., 136, 155 LaSor, W. S., 122 Lau, W., 124, 128, 165 Lawrence, L. J., 95 Lawrie, D., 22 Leclerc, T. L., 124, 225 Leeuwen, T. van, 86 Leeuwen, T. V., 85 Lefebvre, G., 235, 236 Lehrer, A., 64, 112 Leibovitch, J., 214, 215

347

Leith, M. J. W., 63, 130, 135, 205, 206 Lemaire, A., 137, 138, 205 Leonard Jr, A., 237 Lepp, J. V., 50 Lepsius, C. R., 243 Lesko, L. H., 235, 236 Lettinga, J. P., 146, 152, 172 Levine, L. I., 129, 131, 137 Levit-Tawil, D., 187 Levy, M. A., 195, 204 Lewellen, T. C., 56 Lewis, T. J., 46, 86, 150, 164 Lind, M. C., 251 Lindheim, L. T., 203 Lindsey, S. L., 55 Lipi´nski, E., 174 Lipschits, O., 130, 134, 137, 193 Loeb, I., 201 Long, G. A., 96, 97 Loprieno, A., 179 Lorenz, C., 37 Loretz, O., 149 Lund, Ø., 121 Lundin, R., 22 Lupu, A., 158 Lurker, M., 190 Luschey, H., 179 Luynes, H. T. P. J. d’Albert de, 196, 198, 201 Ma, W., 123 Maarsingh, B., 153 MacCarter Jr, P. K., 149 Machinist, P., 135, 143 Macky, P. W., 105 Mac Cormac, E. R., 113 Madden, F. W., 204 Magness-Gardiner, B., 139 Mallowan, M. E. L., 65, 181, 241 Manor, D. W., 161 Marcus, J., 44, 87 Markus, H. R., 61 Martin, K., 182 Martin, R., 39 Massey, D. B., 56 Matlin, M. W., 51 Matthews, V. H., 90, 94, 249, 266 Matthiae, P., 179 Mattingly, H., 140 Mauchline, J., 149

348

Index of Authors

May, H. G., 95, 130 Mayer, L. A., 143 Mayer-Opificius, R., 90, 215 Mazar, A., 157, 159, 182, 216, 257 Mazar, B., 129 Mazzoni, S., 188 McGovern, P. E., 234 McKane, W., 251 McKay, J. W., 219 McNutt, P. M., 57, 105 McRay, J., 17 Mead, M., 70 Meis, S. D., 98, 141 Mendelsohn, I., 189 Mensching, G., 220 Merling, D., 42 Merrillees, P. H., 140, 181 Merschen, B., 234 Meshorer, Y., 58, 63, 135, 141–143, 179, 196–199, 201–203, 205 Meskell, L., 40 Mettinger, T. N., 154, 155, 160–162, 251 Metzger, M., 181, 187, 208 Meyers, C. L., 224 Meyers, E. M., 134 Middlemas, J., 130 Mildenberg, L., 43, 141–143, 196, 199, 200, 202 Millard, A., 40 Miller Jr, P. D., 251 Miroschedji, P. de, 157, 159 Mirzoeff, N., 50, 67, 68 Mitchell, T., 215 Mitchell, W. T., 50, 84 Miziołek, J., 179 Molyneaux, B. L., 70 Momrak, K., 135 Monem Joussef Abubakr, A. el, 211 Moon, R., 113–115 Moor, J. C. de, 125, 145, 156, 157, 161, 164, 169, 170, 179, 230, 234, 246, 252 Moorey, P. R. S., 40, 187 Moran, W. L., 215 Morenz, L. D., 27, 51 Morenz, S., 150 Morgan, L., 140 Mørkholm, O., 197 Morley, N., 38, 39 Morphy, H., 69, 70

Moscati, S., 155 Moser, S., 70 Motyer, J. A., 122, 125 Mouw, R. J., 220 Muckenhaupt, M., 9 Murdoch, I., 100 Murphy, F. J., 131 Murphy, N. C., 6 Mylonas, D. G., 179 Na’aman, N., 181, 187 Nänny, M., 115 Nardoni, E., 225 Naville, É., 243 Negbi, O., 202 Neiman, D., 153 Neitz, M. J., 57 Neubauer, A., 201 Neusner, J., 166 Newell, E. T., 197, 198 Nicholson, P., 209, 214, 243 Niebuhr, R., 100 Niehr, H., 217, 221 Nielsen, K., 120, 167 Niskanen, P., 150 Nissen, H. J., 27 Niwi´nski, A., 246 Nodet, É., 131 Nogales, P. D., 113 Noort, E., 20, 21 North, R., 94 Novák, M., 86, 87 Nunn, A., 140 Nurmela, R., 218 O’Connor, M., 146, 172 Oded, B., 130 Oeming, M., 13, 14, 16, 19 Ogden, C. K., 113 Olick, J. K., 60 Olley, J. W., 225 Oppenheim, A., 176 Oppenheim, L., 188 Oppenheim, M. A. S. F. von, 211 Ornan, T., 48, 174 Ortlund Jr, R. C., 105 Osborne, G. R., 18 Osborne, T. P., 220 Osman, C., 70

Index of Authors Oswalt, J. N., 122, 125, 150, 220, 221, 225, 250, 251 Otto, E., 101 Overholt, T. W., 93 Ozenfant, A., 179 Packer, J., 90 Panofsky, E., 74–76 Park, K.-C., 123, 224, 225 Parker, S. B., 151 Parrot, A., 155 Patrich, J., 160 Pauritsch, K., 124 Pedersen, J., 94 Peil, D., 113 Peirce, C. S., 115 Perdue, L. G., 98 Perrot, G., 180 Peters, J. M., 49–51, 91 Petersen, D. L., 226 Pilcher, E., 138, 142, 199, 202 Pinder, M., 203 Pink, S., 68, 69 Pitard, W. T., 224 Pittman, H., 139, 182 Platvoet, J., 98 Podella, T., 174, 176 Polonsky, J., 214 Poo, M.-c., 243, 253 Porada, E., 55, 133, 139, 187, 190 Porten, B., 131 Pottier, E., 211 Price, I. M., 213, 214 Price, M. J., 140 Prinsloo, G. T., 56 Pritchard, J. B., 63, 90, 188, 196, 211, 212, 233, 235, 242 Prosser, J., 69 Provençal, P., 182 Puech, É., 160 Qedar, S., 142, 143, 196, 199, 205 Rad, G. von, 128 Radner, K., 164 Raento, P., 60 Rahmani, L. Y., 160, 187, 188 Rainey, A. F., 215 Ramm, B. L., 8 Rammant-Peeters, A., 234

Rappaport, U., 143 Rast, W. E., 95 Reade, J. E., 27 Reddish, M. G., 29 Reifenberg, A., 143, 179 Rendsburg, G. A., 27 Renfrew, A. C., 26, 42–44, 55, 87, 90 Ribichini, S., 154, 163 Rice, M., 179 Richards, I. A., 113 Richter, G. M., 55, 133 Ricoeur, P., 30, 113 Riemschneider-Hoerner, M., 211, 213 Ringe, S. H., 3 Ristau, K., 137, 226 Ritmeyer, K., 131 Ritmeyer, L., 131 Ritter, S., 197 Robins, G., 50, 237 Robinson, G., 147 Rofé, A., 124 Rogerson, J. W., 9 Rollinger, R., 176 Romanoff, P., 143 Ronen, Y., 142, 143 Root, B. W., 143, 200 Root, M. C., 132, 173, 179, 188 Rose, G., 60, 67, 84, 85 Rose, J. C., 181 Rosen, S. A., 219 Rosen, Y. J., 219 Rosenberg, R. A., 215 Rosendal, B., 225 Roskill, M. W., 75, 84 Rosovsky, N., 70 Ross, J. F., 206 Rostovtzeff, M., 178 Rothenberg, B., 158 Roux, J. H. le, 95 Rowley, H., 218 Rowton, M. B., 55 Ruffing, K., 234 Ruszkowski, L., 123, 127 Rüthy, A. E., 231 Sadka, Y., 146 Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H., 130 Sass, B., 187 Saussure, F. de, 11 Schäfer, H., 45, 50

349

350

Index of Authors

Schaper, J., 214 Schipper, B. U., 208 Schmandt-Besserat, D., 27 Schmid, H. H., 215 Schmidt, B. B., 48, 50 Schmidt-Colinet, C., 90 Schmitt, R., 182 Schnutenhaus, F., 173 Schoors, A., 220 Schott, E., 210 Schott, S., 238, 242, 243, 253 Schottroff, W., 94 Schramm, B., 124 Schreiner, J., 22 Schroer, S., 18, 29, 48, 63, 152, 162, 167, 182, 194, 246, 337 Schulin, E., 61 Schultz, H., 235 Schwartz, J., 247 Scolnic, B. E., 40 Searle, J., 113 Sedgwick, M., 142 Segall, B., 132 Sehmsdorf, E., 146 Seifert, B., 105 Seitz, C. R., 122, 124 Sekine, S., 124 Sellers, O., 183 Sellwood, D., 140 Semon, R. W., 59 Servet, J.-M., 141 Shahbazi, A. S., 132 Shanks, H., 129, 131, 143 Shanks, M., 40, 42, 98, 115 Shaw, I., 209, 214, 243 Sheridan, S. R., 26 Shiloh, Y., 130 Sidi, N., 233 Silberman, N. A., 163 Simms, N. T., 76 Sinclair, L. A., 131 Singer, K. H., 105 Sinsheimer, K., 70 Six, J., 195, 201 Skalník, P., 55 Skupinska-Løvset, I., 187 Slanski, K. E., 213 Slive, S., 116 Smelik, K. A., 214 Smiles, S., 70

Smith, G. W., 85 Smith, M. A., 217, 219, 252 Smith, P. A., 124, 127 Smith-Christopher, D. L., 130 Soden, W. von, 147, 149 Soggin, J. A., 124 Sonesson, G. H., 86 Soskice, J. M., 113 Spaer, A., 202 Sparks, K. L., 101, 165, 166 Sperber, D., 12, 58, 113 Spode, H., 76 Stafford, B. M., 67 Stager, J. M. S., 151 Stager, L. E., 94, 234, 235 Stähli, H.-P., 219 Stambaugh, J. E., 95 Staubli, T., 162, 224 Stausberg, M., 132, 136, 139, 215 Steck, O. H., 9, 18, 65, 123, 124, 126, 128 Steenbergen, G. J. van, 123 Stern, E., 130, 134, 135, 140, 142, 143, 182, 185–188, 192, 193, 201, 202, 207, 216, 233 Stienstra, N., 105 Stockton, E., 157, 163 Stone, K., 33, 46 Störk, L., 182 Strange, J., 219 Straten, R. van, 72, 86 Strawn, B. A., 29, 105, 113, 121, 140, 227, 251 Stricker, B., 205 Strickland, S., 52 Stronach, D., 192 Stumpel, J., 49, 163 Sturken, M., 68 Sukenik, E. L., 195, 201 Sussmann, V., 187 Swanson, K. A., 182 Sweeney, M. A., 122, 149 Tadmor, H., 166 Tadmor, M., 188, 191, 192 Tal, O., 141, 143, 197–203, 205 Talmon, S., 149 Talstra, E., 6, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 21 Tambiah, S. J., 56 Tate, W. R., 22 Taub, S. F., 116

Index of Authors Taylor, J. G., 219 Taylor, L., 70 Teissier, B., 139 Temizer, R., 179 Tenney, M., 90 Thareani-Sussely, Y., 181, 187 Theißen, G., 19 Thiselton, A. C., 8, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 21, 22, 98 Thomas, J., 42 Thomas, P. M., 186 Thompson, 90 Tiffany, F. C., 3 Tilia, A. B., 188 Tilley, C., 40, 42, 98, 115 Toorn, K. van der, 219 Török, L., 188, 211 Tosh, J., 37, 38, 59 Trigger, B. G., 40 Tristram, H. B., 70 Trufaut, S. M., 176, 178 Tufnell, O., 179 Tulunay, F., 211 Turner, M., 115 Tushingham, A. D., 211 Tuzcular, A., 211 Tyler, T., 201

Vreumingen, D. van, 94 Vriezen, T. C., 11

Waard, J. de, 172, 223 Wahrman, D., 70 Walford, E. J., 116 Walhout, C., 22 Wallace, H. N., 248, 249 Wallis, L., 94 Walsh, C. E., 233, 234 Walsh, F., 48 Waltke, B. K., 146, 172 Warburg, A. M., 60 Wardle, K. A., 186 Warren, A., 8 Warren, C., 70 Watts, J. D. W., 122, 135 Weber, O., 211 Wegelin, M., 214 Weinfeld, M., 216 Weingreen, J., 146 Weippert, H., 60 Weiser, W., 133, 197 Weiss, A. L., 105 Weissenrieder, A., 2, 18, 76 Welker, M., 217, 218 Wellek, R., 8 Wells, R. D., 165, 166 Uehlinger, C., 4, 18–20, 28, 61, 63, 90, 129, Welten, P., 187, 189 131, 140, 151, 163, 175–178, 182, Wendt, F., 2, 18, 76 191, 206, 208, 216, 238, 241, Westermann, C., 124, 144 257, 337 Wheeler, R. E. M., 133 Ulrich, E., 231 Whybray, R. N., 129 Ussishkin, D., 135 Whyte, W., 38 Widengren, G., 130 Wiegand, W., 116 Vanderkam, J. C., 131 Wiel, M. van de, 44, 152 Vanhoozer, K. J., 9 Wiesehöfer, J., 130 Vaughan, P. H., 152 Wiggermann, F. A. M., 27 Vaughn, A. G., 98 Wiggins, S. A., 217, 219, 221 Vaux, R. G. M. de, 94 Wiig, A., 105, 222 Velde, C. W. M. van de, 70 Willi, T., 130, 137 Velden, H. T. van der, 49 Willi-Plein, I., 163 Vermeylen, J., 124 Williams, R. H., 60 Verstraete, G., 54 Williamson, H., 125, 129, 134 Vieweger, D., 20, 40 Wilson, C. C., 70 Vigneau, A., 179 Wilson, C. W., 70 Vogels, W., 165 Wilson, D., 12, 58, 113 Volz, P., 124 Wilson, R. R., 94, 95 Vos, H. F., 90 Winkle, D. V., 145, 147, 149 Vovelle, M., 61

351

352 Winter, I., 25 Witte, M., 45 Wodecki, B., 126, 226 Wolde, E. van, 21, 152 Wolf, E. R., 56 Wolf, W., 45 Wolff, S. R., 159 Woude, A. S. van der, 11, 94 Wright, G. E., 19, 20, 206, 207 Wroth, W., 197 Yadin, Y., 90, 157, 237 Yamauchi, E. M., 40, 130, 131 Yellin, J., 183, 185 Yildiz, F., 211 Young, E. J., 170 Zachhuber, J., 220 Zakia, R. D., 88 Zandee, J., 253 Zangenberg, J., 86 Zehnder, M. P., 105, 121 Zertal, A., 130 Zevit, Z., 40, 159, 161 Zias, J., 160 Ziegler, J., 123, 170 Zimmerli, W., 128, 153 Zimmermann, R., 113 Zonhoven, L., 90, 243 Zorn, J. R., 133, 134, 185, 233, 234 Zsengellér, J., 205 Zubrow, E. B., 43

Index of Authors

Index of Subjects

Anat 251–252 approach 2, 3, 7–8, 14–15, 20, 39 archaeology 19–21, 25–29, 31–32, 37, 40– 44, 47, 86–87, 90, 95, 99, 101– 102, 120–121, 130, 140 archaeological contingency 42, 193, 245 art 46–47, 77–83 ‘bloody winepress’ 238, 242–248 BMC Palestine XIX 29 see ‘yhw(h)’ coin communication 11–13 cognitive archaeology 43–44 cognitive metaphor 106-107, 115, 118 conceptual autonomy see ‘Eigenbegrifflichkeit’ culture 24–25, 54, 65–67 discourse analysis 85–86 donor field 112, 117, 231, 249 ‘Eigenbegrifflichkeit’ 45 exegesis 8 hermeneutics 7–8 historical criticism 8, 13–14, 18, 65, 92, 93, 98, 101 historical method(s)/ approach 14, 17, 18, 20, 29, 61 image 48–53 language 10–11 light 169–229 massebah (standing stone) 144, 153–168 meaning 12 memory (collective) 47, 58–60, 73, 259 metaphor 105–118 method 2, 3, 6, 7–8, 30

numismatics 140–143 open-endedness 110, 113, 261 recipient field see donor field relevance theory 12, 58, 113, 261 rosette 176–194, 198, 199, 210–216, 219, 227–228 seals 130, 132, 135, 136, 138–140, 181– 194, 205–208 semiotics 68, 76, 83, 85–87, 115 Shesmu 246, 253 simile 109–110 standing stone 144–168 sun 106, 132, 164, 173–176, 178–205, 208– 228 system of associated commonplaces 62, 91, 95–97, 108, 111, 114, 116–118, 227, 261 text 8–9 trampling-an-enemy 237–241 universalism 126–127, 134, 137, 224, 226, 264–265 woman-at-the-window 65 wine (and viticulture) 230–256 Yehud 66, 126, 129–143, 189–194, 200– 205, 208, 216, 219, 226–228, 255– 257, 262–264 ‘yhw(h)’ coin 194–205, 214, 220, 227 YHWH 120, 121, 127–128, 130, 133, 135, 137, 150, 157, 191, 200–205, 216– 229, 243, 247–256, 262–265 – as judge 218–223, 225–228, 247–255, 263 – as king 121, 222, 225–228, 251, 255 – as son 109, 167 – as warrior 120, 129, 225, 250–252