The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia [1st ed.] 9783030500313, 9783030500320

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Encyclopedia of Seas

Igor S. Zonn · Andrey G. Kostianoy Aleksandr V. Semenov · Aleksandar Joksimović Mirko Đurović

The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia

Encyclopedia of Seas

This Encyclopedia of Seas series is designed to accumulate and systematize our knowledge about the unique natural water areas – the Aral, Caspian, Black, Arctic, Far-Eastern, and Baltic seas; their wealth; the events that took place on its waters and shores; and the remarkable people whose lives were and are closely intertwined with the seas. The Encyclopedia series contains thousands of terms and concepts related to the seas. It describes geographical features: rivers, lakes, straits, and bays; provides information about towns, seaports, transport communications, basic aquatic biological species, nature reserves, national and international programs for the study of the sea, research institutes, historical monuments, activities of prominent explorers and travelers, researchers, and scientists. Each Encyclopedia includes a chronology of major historical events connected with these seas for several centuries. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14357

Igor S. Zonn • Andrey G. Kostianoy • Aleksandr V. Semenov • Aleksandar Joksimovic´ • Mirko Ðurovic´

The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia With 300 Figures

Igor S. Zonn Engineering Research Production Center for Water Management Land Reclamation and Ecology “Soyuzvodproject” Moscow, Russia

Andrey G. Kostianoy P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Moscow, Russia S.Yu. Witte Moscow University Moscow, Russia

S.Yu. Witte Moscow University Moscow, Russia Aleksandr V. Semenov S.Yu. Witte Moscow University Moscow, Russia

Aleksandar Joksimović Institute of Marine Biology University of Montenegro Kotor, Montenegro

Mirko Đurović Institute of Marine Biology University of Montenegro Kotor, Montenegro

ISBN 978-3-030-50031-3 ISBN 978-3-030-50032-0 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-50033-7 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia

The book is dedicated to the Adriatic Sea, which is part of the Mediterranean. The encyclopedia contains about 700 entries on the hydrographic and geographic objects, hydrological features of the sea, biological resources, as well as administrative-territorial units of the Adriatic countries. The most significant natural objects like islands, peninsulas, bays, rivers, and mountains and their geographical peculiarities are briefly described. The economy, culture and history, cities, ports, international agreements, research institutions, and activities of outstanding scientists, researchers, and travelers are also presented in the publication. The chronology of the main historical events that have become significant landmarks in the history of discovery and exploration of the Adriatic Sea from the 625 BC to the present day is given. Igor S. Zonn (1) Engineering Research Production Center for Water Management, Land Reclamation and Ecology “Soyuzvodproject”, Moscow, Russia (2) S.Yu. Witte Moscow University, Moscow, Russia Andrey G. Kostianoy (1) P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences (2) S.Yu. Witte Moscow University Moscow, Russia Aleksandr V. Semenov S.Yu. Witte Moscow University Moscow, Russia Dr. Aleksandar Joksimović Institute of Marine Biology, Kotor, Montenegro Dr. Mirko Đurović Institute of Marine Biology, Kotor, Montenegro Igor S. Zonn Andrey G. Kostianoy Aleksandr V. Semenov Aleksandar Joksimović Mirko Đurović

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Preface

The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia is the first book in a series of books dedicated to the Mediterranean seas. It continues the series of encyclopedias describing the seas of Russia entitled Encyclopedia of the Russian Seas, which was begun in 2004 with The Caspian Sea Encyclopedia1 published in Russian edition by the publishing house International Relations (Moscow, Russia). Since 2010, all the books in this series began to be published in English by Springer Publishing House (Germany)2. In 2016, Springer Reference established a new book series entitled Encyclopedia of Seas where encyclopedias of the seas are now published (http://www.springer.com/series/14357). For centuries, the Adriatic Sea has been a sea of blessed living. Being a large bay of the Mediterranean Sea, it has been the cradle of European civilization, seamanship, maritime culture, and commerce since ancient times. Until 1991, due to its location between the eastern coast of the Apennine Peninsula and the western coast of the Balkan Peninsula, it washed the shores of three European states – Italy, Yugoslavia, and Albania – and then six – Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania with a common population of over 75 million people. Fleet played a great role in the historical development of these nations. It was an important factor that significantly influenced their prosperity. The people of the Adriatic were not only excellent sailors but also skillful and brave warriors.

Earlier the publishing house “International Relations” (Moscow) published the following books: Zonn I.S. “The Caspian Encyclopedia” (2004); Grinevetskiy S.R., Zonn I.S., Zhiltsov S.S. “The Black Sea Encyclopedia” (2006); Zonn I.S., Glanz M.G. “The Aral Sea Encyclopedia” (2008); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G. “The Japan Sea. Encyclopedia” (2009); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G. “The Okhotsk Sea Encyclopedia” (2009); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G. “The Barents Sea Encyclopedia” (2011); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Kumantsov M.I. “The Bering Sea Encyclopedia” (2012); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Kumantsov M.I. “The Chukchi Sea Encyclopedia” (2013); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G. “The Kara Sea Encyclopedia” (2013); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G. “The Laptev Sea Encyclopedia” (2014); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Semenov A.V. “The White Sea Encyclopedia” (2014); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Semenov A.V. “The East-Siberian Sea Encyclopedia” (2014).

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Zonn I.S., Glantz M., Kostianoy A.G., Kosarev A.N. “The Aral Sea Encyclopedia” (2009); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Kosarev A.N., Glantz M. “The Caspian Sea Encyclopedia” (2010); Grinevetskiy S.R., Zonn I.S., Zhiltsov S.S., Kostianoy A.G., Kosarev A.N. “The Black Sea Encyclopedia” (2015); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Semenov A.V. The Eastern Arctic Seas Encyclopedia (2016); Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Semenov A.V. The Western Arctic Seas Encyclopedia (2017). vii

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The creation of The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia is due to the growing popularity of the coast of this magnificent and clean sea, with numerous picturesque islands, gulfs, and bays, its magnificent beaches, the extraordinary beauty of the mountains, historical monuments, entertainment, sports, tourist, and cultural centers. If you once visit the Adriatic coast, you will fall in love with it. And this love remains forever. The Adriatic Sea is marked by many landmarks of historical events of different eras. There are traces and testimonies of different civilizations and cultures: antiquity, medieval, and Renaissance. In the prehistoric times of the Neolite, our European ancestors came here. Here the ancient Greeks traded, the Romans waged wars with the Illyrians and built their villas, the Byzantines created the first Christian basilicas, the Venetians fought with varying success with the Slavic kings in the early Middle Ages, and they all united against the Ottomans in the years of the Turkish expansion in the Balkans. Here the pirates of the Adriatic hid themselves, and whole dynasties and schools of sailors, painters, and jewelers grew up. After the Venetians and Serbian kings, the Austrians built their fortresses here, and during the period of resistance to Napoleon, the Russian flag waved over the cities of the Montenegrin bays. Despite its beauty and “kindness,” the Adriatic Sea sometimes shows its temper, and then a catastrophe occurs, as it was in November 1966 in Venice, when, as a result of the upsurge, the water level in the city rose 2 m higher than usual. The call “Save Venice!” was heard all over the world, which came to its aid. The popularity of the Adriatic Sea and its coast is growing every year, as evidenced by the intensive development of land and sea tourism; the creation of tourist infrastructure, super-modern yachts, boats, catamarans, ferries, and sightseeing ships; and the introduction of the most modern forms of recreation – diving, rafting, windsurfing, and underwater fishing. A lot of tourists are attracted by the “Pearl of the Adriatic” – Venice (Italy), the palace of the Roman emperor Diocletian in Split (Croatia), a well-preserved Roman amphitheater of the first century AD in Pula (Croatia), the smallest city in the world (total population – 30) Hum (Croatia), listed in the Guinness Book of Records, the fortress City of Dubrovnik (Croatia), the island-hotel Sveti-Stefan (Montenegro), and many others. The encyclopedia contains about 700 concepts and terms covering the description of the Adriatic Sea and its coasts. It gives a characteristic of geographical objects: rivers, lakes, straits, and gulfs. It contains information about cities, seaports, transport communications, basic aquatic biological species, sanctuaries, national and international programs for the sea studies, scientific institutes, historical monuments, and activities of outstanding travelers and navigators, researchers, and scientists. The encyclopedia includes a chronology of the main historical events related to the Adriatic Sea, starting from 625 BC.

Preface

Preface

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This encyclopedia in a relatively small, generally available edition is intended to satisfy the need of many readers to understand the history and geography of the Adriatic. Anticipating possible comments on the text, we want to draw the reader’s attention to the fact that this encyclopedia is the author’s approach, primarily to the selection of natural-historical facts that, in our opinion, give an idea of the past and present of the Adriatic Sea and its adjacent territories. Therefore, we are responsible for any inaccuracies and interpretations that may occur. The difficulty of selecting and writing entries was, on the one hand, the abundance of historical and tourist information and, on the other, that this information is presented in various languages. Naturally, the information presented on the encyclopedia pages is not exhaustive. For us, this is an invitation to scientists and specialists to devote themselves to the study of the Adriatic Sea Basin, the systematization of accumulated knowledge in various areas of sea life and international cooperation. Many people, directly or indirectly were involved in the work on the encyclopedia of the Adriatic Sea. Some of them are listed in the references. The use of these materials unwittingly made them our coauthors. We would like to express our gratitude specially to Elena V. Kostianaia (Scientific-Coordination Oceanological Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences at the P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow) for a considerable time, which she generously spent on searching and selecting materials and illustrations related to various entries of the encyclopedia, as well as to Dr. Sergey M. Shapovalov, Head of the Scientific-Coordination Oceanological Center, for supporting our work in creating such encyclopedias. An invaluable assistance in preparing the encyclopedia for publication was provided by Larisa A. Abakumova, whose benevolence and interest allowed us to complete this work. We express our deep gratitude to the leadership of the S.Yu.Witte Moscow University, charitable foundation “CREATION XXI Century,” and to late Nikolai G. Malyshev, the Chairman of its Board of Trustees, for financial support of translation and preparation of the manuscript. Moscow, Kotor 1 October 2020

Prof. Igor S. Zonn Prof. Andrey G. Kostianoy Prof. Aleksandr V. Semenov Dr. Aleksandar Joksimović Dr. Mirko Đurović

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Preface

ITALY

CROATIA

Capital – Rome Area – 301,340 km2 Population – 60.4 million people (2018) Natural resources – various ores, marble, granite, tuff. Unified on March 17, 1861. A member of the United Nations since 1955.

Capital – Zagreb Area 56,594 km2 Population – 4,1 million people (2019) Natural resources – oil, gas, coal, bauxite Declared on June 25 1991. A member of the United Nations since 1992.

SLOVENIA

MONTENEGRO

Capital – Ljubljana Area – 20,273 km2 Population – 2,1 million people (2019) Natural resources – lead and zinc, uranium, and mercury ores. Declared on June 25, 1991 A member of the United Nations since 1992.

Capital – Podgorica Area - 13,812 km2 Population – 631 thousand people (2020) Natural resources – bauxite, iron ore, coal. Declared on June 3, 2006. A member of the United Nations since 2006.

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Capital – Sarajevo Area – 51,129 km2 Population – 3,3 million people (2019) Natural resources – coal, iron ore, mineral salt. Declared on April 6, 1992 A member of the United Nations since 1992.

Map of the Adriatic Sea Created by Norman Einstein, May 20, 2005 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea#/media/File:Adr iatic_Sea_map.png

ALBANIA Capital – Tirana Area – 28,748 km2 Population – 2,9 million people (2017) Natural resources – oil, gas, lignite, various ores Declared on November 28, 1912 A member of the United Nations since 1955.

Basic Abbreviations and Acronyms Used in the Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia

AD ASL AS UkrSSR AS USSR BC Bln Cent. Cm COE EC Et al. EU FAO Glf. Hg. IAEA ICZM Is. Isl (s) Kg Km Lat. Long. Max Mln Mm MSP NM NATO Navy OSCE Pen. PR R/V RAS

Anno Domini Absolute sea level Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences of the USSR Before Christ Billion Century Centimeter Council of Europe European Commission And others European Union Food and Agricultural Organization (United Nations) Gulf Mercury column International Atomic Energy Agency Integrated Coastal Zone Management Island Islands Kilogram km Kilometer Latitude Longitude Maximum, maximal Million Millimeter Marine spatial planning Nautical mile North Atlantic Treaty Organization Naval Forces Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Peninsula Petroleum refinery Research vessel Russian Academy of Sciences

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SL SFRY T UN UNESCO USSR WTO Yrs.

Basic Abbreviations and Acronyms Used in the Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia

Sea level Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Ton United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics World Trade Organization Years

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Abruzzo Abruzzo – (until 1963, the name of AbruzzoMolise) is an administrative region in Italy. Located in the central part of the Apennine Peninsula, the famous Italian “boot” on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, about 80 km east of Rome. It borders the Marche region in the north, Lazio in the west and south-west, and Molise in the southeast. In the east it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. Abruzzo includes four provinces: L’Aquila, Pescara, Teramo, and Chieti. The population of the region is 1.3 million people (2012). The area of the region is 10,763 km2; two-thirds of the territory is occupied by mountains. It is one of the most mountainous regions of Italy. The highest points of Abruzzo and the highest peaks of the Apennine Mountains are Corno Grande (2912 m) and Monte Amaro (2793 m). The capital city of Abruzzo is the city of L’Aquila (in 2009, it was subjected to an earthquake). The most significant city is the port city of Pescara. In addition, there are still three ports: Ortona, Vasto, and Giulianova. There is an international airport. The territory of the region is characterized by a variety of landscapes: the mountains in the central part of the peninsula, the hilly coast of the Adriatic Sea with numerous beaches, and four national parks. The rivers, although numerous, are limited by seasonal runoff, except for the largest ones – Pescara and Sangro. In the inner part of the

Abruzzo region a national park is situated. Its area is 500 km2. Rare species of Mediterranean flora and fauna (wolves, bears, golden eagles, chamois) are preserved in the park. Agriculture includes small properties prospering due to modernization and the production of high-quality products. Wine, grains, sugar beets, potatoes, olives, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products are produced here. Traditional products are saffron and liqueurs. Since the 1970s light industry has been developed in the region, which is taking a leading place now. A large number of factories producing clothing and leather goods are located in the Teramo and Alba Adriatica areas. There and in Pescara city, high-quality furniture is produced. The coast of the Adriatic Sea, which is 130 km long, stretches between Tronto and Trigno rivers. There are sandy, flat beaches with numerous villas and popular resorts, including Tortoreto-Lido, Pineto, Pescara on the southern coast of Abruzzo, Sylvi Marina in the central part of the coast, which is believed to have the best sand in Italy, and Alba-Adriatic and Martinsicuro on the northern coast. The tourism is widely developed. Ski resorts and bases work in the winter in the mountains. The Adriatic coast is popular in the summer holidays. The territory of Abruzzo, for some time, was the part of the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Since 1861 it has been a

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

“ACTA ADRIATICA”

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Ada Bojana Island, Ada Bojana Ostrvo

Abruzzo, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Abruzzo#/media/File:Abruzzo_in_Italy.svg)

part of united Italy, which, initially, was a kingdom, and since 1946 it has been a republic. Until 1963, Abruzzo and the modern region of Molise constituted a single administrative unit of Abruzzi-e-Molise. Ancient Roman and medieval buildings are preserved in the cities.

“ACTA ADRIATICA” “ACTA ADRIATICA” – International Oceanographic Journal, published by the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in Split, Croatia, since 1932. For all the years of publication, the purpose of the journal has remained unchanged: the publication of scientific papers on various disciplines, mainly fauna and flora, which help to understand the Adriatic Sea as well as the Mediterranean Sea, since it is a part of it. The journal publishes papers written by domestic and foreign scientists. Much of the articles are published in English. Since 1979, the magazine is released twice a year.

Ada Bojana Island, Ada Bojana Ostrvo – the island which is located on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea in Montenegro, on the border with Albania, at the mouth of the Bojana River, which serves as the state border. This is the only river island on the Adriatic. It is an almost regular triangle, washed on both sides by the fresh waters of the two arms of the Bojana River, and on the third by the Adriatic Sea. Its area is 4.9 km2. According to one of the legends, the island appeared as a result of the three fishermen quarrel: their boat sank, and they did not come to a common opinion, so they could not lift it. For centuries, the Bojana River carried sand and silt to this barrier in its course. Over time, the river was divided into two arms, creating a river island. According to another version, in 1858 the schooner Merito from Trogir (Croatia) sank in the mouth of the river, around which an island was formed due to the inflow of sand. The island has a beautiful sandy beach with a length of almost 3 km and a width of 30 m. It is connected to the mainland by a bridge. The island has a unique flora and fauna for the southern Adriatic. Here is a center for water sports and horseback riding. Above the river from a side of Montenegro, a number of fish restaurants built on stilts stretched for almost a kilometer. In Albania, during the dictatorship of the Communists, led by leader E. Hoxha, the island was a military zone with a well-protected coastal line.

Adige River Adige River – the river of the Adriatic Sea basin. The second largest river in Italy. The river has its source in the slopes of the Ötztal Alps; it flows into the Adriatic Sea. The length is 410 km, and the basin area is 14,700 km2. The mean water discharge is 224–266 m3/s, and the maximal one is 382 m3/s (June). Along the upper reaches of a river (it is called Etsch) it flows between the Ortles and Ötztal massifs. Breaking through the

Adriatic

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Giulianova seaside. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo#/media/File:Lungomare_giulianova.jpg)

mountains from Verona, it enters the Venetian Lowland and flows parallel to the Po River, connecting with it by streams. In the lower reaches it forms large meanders. It flows in between the embankments, floods the lowland, and is partially regulated. There is small shipping to the mouth of the Eisack River. The cities of Merano, Bolzano, Trento, Verona, and others are located on banks of Adige River. The railway route from Italy to Austria passes through the valley of Adige River.

small cities in Italy: (1) Hadria in South Pitzen, the birthplace of the ancestors of the emperor Hadrian; (2) Atria in Venice, arose in 1376 BC on the site of the Etruscan, and later the Greek colony, which gave the name to the Adriatic Sea; city in northeastern Italy. The village of Adria was the ancient Roman port on the Adriatic Sea; the sea was called in honor of the city. In 69 BC the part of the naval forces of the Emperor Vitellius was based in Adria in his war against rivals. Later, Adria was 22 km further from the coast as a result of a change in the coastline; (3) The Adriatic Sea, the abbreviation was first used by the English poet Milton.

Adria Adria – city in central Italy. Ancient Adria pertained to Picen region. In the second Punic War, Hannibal took Adria in 217 BC. In 209 BC Adria sent money and manpower to Rome, supporting him in the war. The name of two

Adriatic Adriatic – unofficial abbreviated name of the Adriatic Sea and its surrounding areas.

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Adriatic Archipelago

Ada Bojana Island. (Source: http://chernogoriyatury.ru/info/281-ada-boyana.html)

Adriatic Archipelago Adriatic Archipelago – This is a common name of the island archipelago of the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea.

Adriatic Croatia International Club, ACI Adriatic Croatia International Club, ACI – Croatian nautical tourism company, founded in Opatija in 1983, that manages a network of marines along the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea. It was originally called the Adriatic Club of Yugoslavia, and then renamed to the Adriatic Yacht Club. From 1982 to 1985 the company built 16 marines

and opened them to tourists in the summer of 1986. On the islands of Korčula and Opatija, marinas were opened in 1989 and 1990. This network was expanded to 21 marines in 1994. The company is also known as the organizer of the annual “ACI Match Race Cup” regattas, the first of which took place in 1987. The company is the biggest single member of the Croatian Association of Marinas (Udruženje hrvatskih marina).

Adriatic Euroregion Adriatic Euroregion – declared on June 30, 2006, in Pula, Istria, Croatia, with the aim of transnational and interregional cooperation between the regions of the Adriatic Sea. Regional and local authorities of the Adriatic Euroregion are an

Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1799)

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Adria. (Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Adria)

institutional framework organization for jointly defining and solving important problems in the Adriatic region. The Adriatic Euroregion includes 26 members: the regions of Italy are Apulia, Molise, Abruzzo, Marche, Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia-Guilia; Izola metropolitan area, Slovenia; Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, Bosnia-Herzegovina; Istria, Primorye – Gorski Kotar, Lika-Senj, Zadar, Sibenik-Knin, SplitDalmatia and Dubrovnik-Neretva, Croatia; municipalities of Kotor and Tivat, Montenegro; Fier, Vlorë, Tirana, Shkoder, Durrës, Lezhë, Albania counties; Prefectures of Thesprotia and Corfu, Greece. The purposes of the Adriatic Euroregion are: to create an area of peace, stability, and cooperation; protection of cultural heritage; protection of the environment; sustainable economic development in particular of tourism, fishery, and agriculture; solution of transport and other infrastructure issues. The structure of Adriatic Euroregion includes six technical commissions: commission for tourism and culture; commission for fisheries; commission for transportation and infrastructure; commission for environmental protection; commission for economy; and commission for welfare. In 2008, the environmental company approved an integrated strategy for the environmental protection in the Adriatic region, where the

Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Marine Spatial Planning are defined as strategic purposes.

Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1799) Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1799) – the Italian campaign of Russian Admiral F.F. Ushakov to assist the Army of Field-Marshal A.V. Suvorov in expelling the French from Italy. In April 1799, the Army under command of A.V. Suvorov and the Fleet under command of F.F. Ushakov received an order to assist the royalists in the restoration of the monarchy. The mission of the squadron of Admiral F.F. Ushakov was to support from the sea the actions of the Russian Army in northern Italy, to expel the French garrisons from the coastal cities and fortresses in southern Italy, and to master together with the English Fleet on Malta Island. In April 7, 1799, A.V. Suvorov launched his Italian march, and a week later the Russian troops entered Milan. At that time, a detachment of three Russian frigates, two Turkish corvettes and four gunboats, and one Neapolitan frigate under the command of Captain 2nd Rank A.A. Sorokin with the prescription “to liberate

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the shores of Pulia to Manfredonia.” Two weeks later, the squadron under command of rearadmiral P.V. Pustoshkin consisting of three battleships, four frigates, a corvette, and several small ships headed off to the North Adriatic with the mission to cruise in the Gulf of Venice, blocking the Ancona and delivering supplies to the Russian Army. The actions of the detachment of A.A. Sorokin off the coast of Apulia were quite successful. Inspired by successes of A.V. Suvorov’s Army, the royalists rebelled when F.F. Ushakov’s ships appeared, destroyed republican rule, and joined the Russian landing troops. The enemy was so shocked by the fall of the Corfu fortress that only seeing the ships of F.F. Ushakov left their positions in a panic. So it was, for example, on April 23, when the detachment of A.A. Sorokin appeared in front of the Brindisi fortress. “. . . Five hundred French, when they saw our squadron approaching soon, left everything,” as it is said in F.F. Ushakov’s report, “they did not have time to take anything with them, even the silver and money collected in contribution, left in great fear distractedly, they fled inside the firm land to the side of Naples . . ..” A week later, as a result of a bombardment from the sea, the city of Mola surrendered, and a day later, the city and the fortress of Bari surrendered to landing forces. The French did not resist even with the further advancement of the detachment. Dwellers of coastal villages greeted Russian ships with waving national Italian flags. On May 9, a detachment of A.A. Sorokin landed in the Gulf of Manfredonia with about 600 people with six guns to offense the Naples. Landing troops were headed by Lieutenant Commander G.G. Baillie (Henry Baillie), the commander of the 32-gun frigate, who joined A.A. Sorokin’s ships during the capture of Brindisi. On May 11, Baillie’s assault force captured the city of Foggia and moved west to Naples. In 2 weeks he crossed the Apennine Peninsula and united with Cardinal Ruffo, an eight thousand royal army. By early June, these combined forces reached the southeastern approaches to Naples.

Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1805–1807)

Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1805–1807) Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1805–1807) – the transition of Russian Mediterranean squadron under the command of ViceAdmiral D.N. Senyavin from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic Sea and fighting of the Russian Fleet in the Adriatic to defend the Black Sea coast from the growing threat of France and divert its forces from the Danube and Crimean directions. It was held during the war of the 3rd and 4th Coalitions against France. The squadron blocked the coasts of the Adriatic Sea occupied by the French, took part in the defense of the Ionian Islands, fought the French Fleet on its communications, and assisted the Adriatic people in their fight against Austrian rule and the French troops. After Turkey entered the war (December 1806), on the side of France, the Russian squadron, leaving a part of the forces in the Adriatic, moved into the Aegean Sea, where it conducted military operations against the Turkish Fleet. On November 24, 1805, Alexander I, the Emperor of Russia, who faced the threat of Napoleon’s invasion in Russia, ordered Russian troops to be returned from the Mediterranean theater of war, leaving small forces on Corfu. On December 14, 1805, a squadron was ordered to leave the Ionian Islands and pass to the Black Sea. However, D.N. Senyavin received this order only at the end of March 1806, when the naval and land forces led by the Admiral launched active military operations in the Adriatic and achieved significant military and political successes. On his own initiative, D.N. Senyavin made a bold decision: taking advantage of the favorable political situation, capture the base on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, and prevent the transfer of Slavic areas to the French. Under the terms of the Treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon’s troops were to occupy these areas by the end of January 1806. However, fearing the Russian Fleet, the French did not dare to send troops to Dalmatia and Cattaro region by sea. Their progress along the mountain roads

Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1805–1807)

along the coast took a lot of time. This allowed D.N. Senyavin to steal a march on the French. In addition, he was counting on actions against the occupiers of the Slavic population of these regions, who were waiting for the Russians as their liberators. Determining the most profitable landing area for landing troops and the creation of a base for Russian forces, D.N. Senyavin chose Cattaro area (the Italian name of the region is Bokko di Cattaro). The Bokesians – the inhabitants of this region – as Orthodox, submitted to the church and secular leader of Montenegro Petar Njegoš. Montenegro, surrounded on all sides by the Ottoman Empire, could communicate with the outside world only through Kotor Bay and, therefore, was economically closely related to Bocco di Cattaro. To defend the independence of his people, Petar Njegoš turned to the Russians for help. Cattaro region was of great strategic importance. D.N. Senyavin believed that Russia, if enters this area, would be able to keep Turkey from aggression and prevent it from entering into an alliance with France. At the same time, the strategic positions and conditions for the basing of the Russian Mediterranean Fleet have significantly improved. The Admiral was counting on strengthening his squadron at the ships and sailors of the Cattaro region, which had about 400 different ships and, according to D.N. Senyavin, “up to 5000 marvelous sailors.” On January 29, 1806, the Austrian commandant of Bokko di Cattaro informed the population that the city of Cattaro (Kotor) and the region would be transferred to the French authorities. The Bockesians proposed the Montenegrins to start a joint struggle and simultaneously turned to D.N. Senyavin asking for support and patronage of Russia. Even before this, the Admiral sent a detachment of ships under the command of Commander G.G. Baillie to the shores of the Cattaro region with troops on board, in order to block the French from the sea and to provide support to the Bokesians and Montenegrins in their struggle for independence. At the same time, the detachment commander was warned that he could land troops only at the direct request from the population.

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On February 16, Baillie squad consisting of the battleship, frigate, and schooner began blockade operations at the entrance to Cattaro Bay and on the same day captured the French 16-cannon shebec under the walls of the fortress Castelnuovo. From land, this fortress, which covered the entrance to Cattaro Bay, was surrounded by detachments of the Bokesians and Montenegrins. Baillie established contact with Petar Njegoš, who commanded the forces of the Montenegrins, and coordinated further actions with him. Commander G.G. Baillie issued an ultimatum to the Austrians about the transfer of fortresses from the Cattaro region to representatives of the Bokesians. The Austrian command refused to give the fortress to the rebels, but then gave them to the Russians. On February 21, landing troops from the ships took all the fortified points. Soon the troops arriving from Corfu entered the Cattaro region and declared it under the protection of Russian arms. To strengthen the defense of the region from the sea D.N. Senyavin strengthened the detachment G.G. Baillie and arrived in Castelnuovo himself. Without interfering in the internal affairs of the Bokesians, he helped to strengthen the organs of selfgovernment. D.N. Senyavin also provided Petar Njegoš great financial support and supplied his troops with weapons and food. Inhabitants of the Cattaro region, at their own expense, equipped up to 30 armed ships, which became part of the Russian squadron. D.N. Senyavin used them for cruising. The occupation of the Cattaro region significantly strengthened the position of the Russian armed forces in the Mediterranean and helped D.N. Senyavin to expand Russian influence on the east coast of the Adriatic, as well as to ensure the safety of sea communications. Three battleships, two frigates, two brigantines, and a schooner, supported by several battalions of rangers, were sent there to liberate Dalmatia from the French. These forces were headed by Commander G.G. Baillie. According to the plan proposed by D.N. Senyavin, they were supposed to block the Dalmatian ports, seize the island of Curzola

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(Korčula) and other islands. Then it was planned the landing of troops who arrived from Corfu with the task of liberation of Dalmatia together with the local population on the mainland coast. At the same time, the Russian and the Bokesian ships set off to conduct active operations on enemy communications at the Cattaro and Ragusa gulfs, between Southern and Northern Dalmatia, Istria, and Venice. At the end of March when the ill-fated Tsar’s order of December 14, 1805, on the cessation of hostilities with the French and the return of all warships and transports to the ports of the Black Sea was obtained by D.N. Senyavin, he waited for a new order, similar to that of February order, which canceled the recall of the ground forces. However, he decided to restrict the activity of the Fleet, to temporarily abandon the liberation of Dalmatia, although the plan for occupying the Dalmatian islands remained in force. By this time, on March 30, 1806, G.G. Baillie detachment had already captured the fortress of Curzola. Soon the French managed to fight this island back, but a day later they were again driven from there. The Russian Fleet continued fighting to disrupt enemy communications and to protect its communications in the Adriatic Sea. Ships under the command of D.N. Senyavin in a short time captured a significant number of enemy merchant ships and valuable cargo. The struggle against French shipping in the northern part of the sea was so successful that Napoleon demanded that the Austrians close their ports for Russian ships. This ban inflicted great damage on the maritime trade of the inhabitants of the Cattaro region. When the commandant of Trieste detained about 50 Bokesian ships sailing under the Russian flag, Vice-Admiral D.N. Senyavin with three battleships and a frigate arrived and demanded to release them, which was done. In May 1806, D.N. Senyavin received new instructions that canceled the order to return the Fleet to the ports of the Black Sea. The Admiral was given the right to conduct military operations of his own. D.N. Senyavin resumed the implementation of the plan of Dalmatia liberation. However, time was lost. On May 15, 1806, French General Loriston, following the order of

Adriatic Expedition of Russian Navy (1805–1807)

Napoleon, with a detachment of a thousand soldiers entered the city of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) – the capital of the Republic of Ragusa, located between the Cattaro and Dalmatia regions. Before the receipt of a new order, D.N. Senyavin intended to take this city as an advantageous position, without violating the neutrality of the Republic of Ragusa, which was under the protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. However, this could be done only with the consent of Ragusians. D.N. Senyavin entered into negotiations with the Senate of the Republic. However, its ruling circles decided to let French troops into Ragusa. D.N. Senyavin fed into battle 1700 soldiers of General Vyazemsky and 2500 Bokesians and Montenegrins, commanded by Njegoš, against the 5000 Franco-Ragusian garrison. A detachment of Rear Admiral A.A. Sorokin consisting of four battleships, frigate, and shebeks was sent to assist them from the sea. During June, these forces fought successful battles; however, the 3000 French detachment went through the Turkish possessions to the rear of the Russian troops besieging Ragusa. The siege of the city had to be removed. In early July 1806, D.N. Senyavin imposed a blockade of Ragusa from the sea in order to prevent the supply of food for the 20,000-strong grouping of French troops concentrated here. On July 8, 1806, in Paris a Peace Treaty was signed with France, according to which it was necessary to immediately transfer to the French the Cataro region. Having received a report on the conclusion of peace, D.N. Senyavin ceased hostilities, but decisively refused to leave the Cataro region. He did not believe that this shameful treaty, which hamstrings all the successes of the Russian armed forces in the Mediterranean, would be ratified. Indeed, Alexander I did not approve the Treaty, and the war with France resumed in September 1806, now in alliance with Prussia. On September 18, 1806, French troops launched an offensive in Cattaro region. Despite their numerical superiority in forces, they could not capture the Cattaro fortresses. Soon after this failure, Napoleon ordered the transfer of the basic units of his troops from Dalmatia to the Austrian border. D.N. Senyavin decided to take advantage

Adriatic Sea

of this to strengthen his position. In November and December, the squadron ships landed troops on Curzola Island and on another fortified Dalmatian island – Brazza (Brač). With the effective support of naval artillery, they captured the fortresses located here. On December 17, 1806, 16-cannon brigantine “Alexander” left on patrol at Brazzo Island was attacked by five French ships with a detachment of infantry on board. The crew of the Russian ship under the command of Lieutenant I.S. Skalovsky defeated three enemy attempts to capture the brigantine by grapple. The French retreated, losing two gunboats and more than 200 people. On the Russian ship five people were slained and seven wounded. The Mediterranean campaign of 1806 ended with this glorious sea battle. As a result, its Russian forces dug in on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea and thereby stopped the expansion of the French aggression in the Balkan Peninsula.

Adriatic Gulag Adriatic Gulag – detention centers for politically disadvantaged citizens on the Grgur and Goli Otok islands in former Yugoslavia (now Croatia). The island of Grgur is located at about 1 km north of the island of Rab. Until the 1960s, there was a women’s prison. Previously, the name “Tito” and a five-pointed star (petokraka) were carved on a bare rock in huge letters. The island of Goli Otok (“Naked Island”) is located east of Grgur Island. This is a treeless rock where they exiled communists who remained loyal to the USSR after the break in 1948 of Tito and Stalin. About 15,000 “informers,” supporters of the Soviet Information Bureau, passed “correctional education” here.

Adriatic Highway, Yadran Magistrala Adriatic Highway, Yadran Magistrala – It runs along the Adriatic Sea, connecting Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzegovina and Croatia. In Ploče, Croatia, the highway turns from the

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Adriatic Sea on Opuzen, and from this road there is a turn east to Mostar and Sarajevo in BosniaHerzegovina. The highway passes through the delta of the Neretva River.

Adriatic Research Institute Adriatic Research Institute – nonprofit research and educational institution created by immigrants from Yugoslavia in the United States. It is situated in the San Francisco Bay Area near the University of California at Berkeley. The aim of the institute is to promote humanitarian ideas and improve the human living conditions.

Adriatic Sea Adriatic Sea – (Ital. Mare Adriatico, Sloven. Jadransko morje, Croatian and Bosn. Jadransko more, Alb. Deti Adriatik, Lat. name Mare Superum, Mare Hadriaticum) the semi-enclosed sea, which is the most extensive gulf of the Mediterranean Sea, with deep indraught into its northern coast between the Apennine and Balkan Peninsulas. It washes the shores which belong to Italy (1249 km), Slovenia (47 km), Croatia (1777 km), Bosnia and Herzegovina (21 km), Montenegro (249 km), and Albania (427 km). The entrance to the Adriatic Sea, called the Strait of Otranto, is situated between the Corfu Island (Greece), which is situated on the southwestern coast of the Balkan Peninsula, and Santa Maria di Leuca Cape (Italy), which is located on the Apennine Peninsula. This strait is 75 km wide and 850 m deep. It connects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the southern boundary of the Adriatic Sea as a line from the mouth of the Butrint River (Albania) to the Karagol Cape on Corfu and through this island to Kefali Cape and to Santa Maria di Leuca Cape. The Adriatic Sea is extended at about 770–796 km inland, the width of the sea varies from 93 to 248 km, the average width of the sea is

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160 km, in the Bar area it is 355 km. The chain of islands, which are located in the northern part of the eastern shore, reduces the width of the open sea by 145 km. The total area is 138,600 km2, which is 5.6% of the area of the Mediterranean Sea. Large bays are Gulf of Venice, Gulf of Trieste, Gulf of Manfredonia, and Bay of Kotor. The sea is deep near the shores, which makes shipping comfortable here. There are more than 1300 islands in the Adriatic, mainly along the east coast. About 70 of them are uninhabited. Italians believe that this number should be increased by the islands of the Po River Delta, and small islands of the

Adriatic Sea

Venetian and Grando lagoons. They include 79 major islands, 525 islets, and 642 rocks. The largest islands in Croatia are Cres (406 km2) and Krk (406 km2), the highest is Brac Island (396 km2), the height of which reaches 780 m above the Hvar Sea (299 km2), Pag (287 km2), and Korčula (276 km2). There are 48 Croatian islands which are constantly inhabited; the most populated among them are Krk and Korčula. Islands located along the western Italian Adriatic coast are small and less populated, compared to the eastern coast. There are 117 well-known islands, on which Venice was built. According to the IHO, the boundary

The Adriatic Sea, physical map. (Source: http://2grandcru.blogspot.com/2019/03/the-wrong-side-of-history-and-adriatic. html)

Adriatic Sea

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The Adriatic (Croatian) Islands. (Source: http://mediterranean.panda.org/stories/stories_from_marine_protected_areas/ zrinka_adriatic_islands_marine_protected_areas/)

passes through several small Greek islands in the Adriatic Sea, one of which is located northwest of Corfu Island. The Adriatic Sea is shallow. The continental shelf (the outer edge of the shelf occurs at a depth of 200 m) covers an area of 102,000 km2, or 74% of the sea area. Depth of the Adriatic Sea is gradually increasing in the direction from northwest to southeast. In general, the sea depth varies from 20 to 50 m in the northern part of the sea, and up to 1230 m in the southeast, with an average depth of 252 m. Depth of the Adriatic Sea near the coasts is closely interconnected with the physical geography of the coastline. In the areas, where shores are high with cliffs, impending above, there the sea depth is large, as noted for the Istra and Dalmatian coasts of Slovenia and Croatia. The Italian coast is low and sandy, and the sea is shallow, as is observed in the vicinity of Venice and further south to the mouth of the Po River. The total volume of the Adriatic Sea is about 35,000 km3. The bottom is a hollow with a smooth slope from northwest to southeast. The sediments are represented by foraminiferal sands and silts. Near the coast they are presented by gravel, pebble, and sand. The western shores are predominantly low, the eastern ones are mountainous. Near the east coast the Dalmatian islands

are situated, which are the peaks of the Dinaric Alps coastal ridges, the intermountain valleys of which were flooded during lowering the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. The shores are heavily indented by bays and abound in advantageous harbors. In the northern part, the shallow sea is quickly filled with sediment from rivers, mainly from Po and Adige. This is the main reason, why the ancient ports located at their deltas, such as Aquila, Adria, are currently located at a distance of more than 25 km from the sea. The coast of the Adriatic Sea at the Balkan Peninsula looks like a series of valleys flooded by the sea water. These valleys are lying parallel to the coast, which is Dalmatian type of coast, which results in an abundance of large and small islands. The Italian coast of the Adriatic Sea is very different, as its coastline shape is smooth. A significant difference between the Italian and Croatian shores should be noted: despite the fact that they are close to each other, the Croatian coast and beaches are much cleaner than the Italian ones. Croatia is known for its crystal clean sea water. The Italian coast is greener, and the coastal waters are less clean due to their richness in suspension and plankton. The transparency of water in the sea reaches 40–50 m; it is one of the most transparent seas of the world.

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Geographically the Adriatic Sea is divided into northern, central, and southern parts. The northern part of the sea is bounded by a line connecting Karlobag (Croatia) and Ancona (Italy), the middle – Ploče (Croatia) and the Gargano Peninsula (Italy), and the southern – Strait of Otranto. The middle part is located between the line Ancona (Italy) and Zadar (Croatia) with a deep Middle Adriatic Basin of 270 m, also called the Pomo or Jabuka Depression. The main rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea are Po, Adige, Soča, Krka, Neretva, Drin, Bojana, and Vjosë. The area of the Adriatic Sea catchment is 235,000 km2. The climate has Mediterranean specificities; however, it differs significantly from the climate of the Mediterranean Sea itself. The area is characterized by the specific local winds (bora, mistral, sirocco), affecting air temperature. The average wind speed throughout the year in most areas is approximately 3 m/s and only around the Port of Trieste in the winter months it is 5–6 m/s. During the summer months winds are relatively weak on the Adriatic. Hydrological regime of the Adriatic Sea is determined by water exchange with the Mediterranean Sea and the climatic conditions of the area. In addition, the hydrological regime of the sea is influenced by its extension in the north-west direction, significant difference in the depths of the north-western and south-eastern parts of the sea, and embayment. High water temperature, high salinity, slight fluctuations in the sea level, weak currents, and low frequency of high waves are specific for the hydrological regime of the Adriatic Sea. The water temperature varies in summer from 24 °C to 26 °C from north to south in August, at the bottom it ranges from 11.5 °C to 12.7 °C. In February it varies from 7 °C to 13 °C. Salinity is high enough – approximately 38.3‰, which is less than the salinity of water in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea (39‰) and higher than in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea (37‰). In the northern part of the sea, under the influence of river runoff, salinity decreases and varies here from 25‰ to 30‰ in the area of the mouth of the Po River and to 37‰ in the Kvarner Gulf.

Adriatic Sea

The constant tidal and wind currents are observed in the Adriatic Sea. High speeds are not specific for currents of the Adriatic. The constant currents of the Adriatic Sea are counterclockwise, which are apparently a continuation of the general circulation of the waters of the Ionian Sea. The waters of the Ionian Sea, penetrating into the Adriatic Sea across the eastern part of the Strait of Otranto, determine the coastal north-western course. This current continues along the northeast coast of the Adriatic Sea to the islands of Mljet and Lastovo. These islands deviate the current somewhat to the west and then it flows offshore the islands stretching along the coast of Dalmatia, and partly flows between them to the Istrian Peninsula. From the north-west coastal current in the region of the islands of Mljet and Lastovo, the branch of the current is separated in the direction of the islands Palagruža and Testa del Gargano Cape. At the southern point of the Istrian Peninsula, the current turns to the southwest; sometimes it is found further north off the western coast of the Istrian Peninsula. However, in the northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea, to the north of the line connecting the Port of Ancona with Dugi Otok Island, the system of currents is very complex and changeable. There are a number of circuits due to the aforementioned coastal northwestern flow, river runoff, coastline shapes, and other factors. Turning to the southwest near the Istrian Peninsula or doubling the northernmost part of the sea, the coastal current flows further along the shores of Italy in the general direction to the southeast. On the approaches to the Strait of Otranto, a branch moves eastward from the southeastern coastal flow, connecting with the northwestern coastal flow and closing the water circulation in the Adriatic Sea. However, the main part of the southeastern coastal current continues to flow in a southern direction and penetrates the Ionian Sea. The constant coastal current velocity is variable. It largely depends on wind and time of year and averages about 15–26 cm/s. The tides are irregular and semi-diurnal (up to 1.2 m). The movement of water masses in the Adriatic Sea depends mainly on its geomorphological, meteorological, and hydrographic factors. In

Adriatic Sea

Surface water circulation in the Adriatic Sea. (Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2019. 00177/full#B58)

addition to geomorphological ones, other factors are usually of seasonal or local importance for the water masses dynamics. Water masses of the Adriatic Sea are divided into three layers: surface layer, interlayer, and bottom layer. The surface layer in the middle and southern Adriatic Sea covers approximately the upper 40 m and varies with the season and year. The interlayer in the southern part of the Adriatic Sea varies from 40 to 400–500 m. The special configuration of the Adriatic Sea is the reason that storms happen here more frequently, more unexpectedly, and less predictable. Storms are mainly observed in the area of the bora wind, that is, on the northeastern and northern coasts of the sea, and are most frequent between November and March. The average monthly number stormy days during this period varies from 2–3 in the City of Dubrovnik to 4–9 in the Port of Trieste. On the southwest coast of the sea, the

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number of stormy days during this period usually does not exceed one per month and only in the Port of Ancona it may reach 3 days. In summer, storms, as a rule, are short-termed and they are observed as separate squalls. The flora and fauna of the Adriatic Sea is quite rich – more than 7000 species. There are 407 species and subspecies of fish dwelling in Adriatic Sea. There are 353 species and subspecies related to Osteichthyes group and 54 species related to Selachii or Chondrichthyes group, which makes up 70% of the known species and subspecies of the fish dwelling the Mediterranean Sea (about 579 species and subspecies). There are more than 750 species of algae related to the three divisions: red, brown, and green. In the coastal zone there are many species of gastropods and bivalved mollusks with thick, solid shells, securing them from the impacts of waves, as well as echinoderms and crustaceans. Oysters, mussels, limpets, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and small crabs dwell in shallow water. Within the thickets of algae swim the seahorses. Large crustaceans – lobsters, large crabs, as well as octopus, cuttlefish, starfish, dwell in deeper waters. Eels and moray eels also swim here. The water mass is abundant with plankton and young fish. The sea is dwelt by flocks of sardines, bonetta, air bladder mackerel and frigate mackerel, bonito, and tunas. Currents bring many tender, transparent jellyfish and hydroids gleaming in the night. The most common among the sharks are pygmy shark, spiny dogfish, blue shark, and also thresher shark. In rare cases, there may be met basking shark. Among the mammals, dolphins and monk seals are endangered. In recent years, crawfish invaders (Callinectes sapidus and Percnon gibbesi) have appeared in the sea. Oil and gas are being extracted on the shelf of the Adriatic Sea near the coast of Italy and exploration drilling has enabled the discovery of oil deposits on the continental shelf near the Port of Vaspo and off the coast of Croatia. More than 3.5 million people dwell on the shores of the sea. The largest cities are Bari, Venice, Trieste, Ravenna, and Rimini (Italy), Split, Rijeka, Zadar (Croatia), Durrës, Vlorë (Albania), Koper (Slovenia), and Budva, Bar (Montenegro).

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There are 19 large ports situated on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, playing a significant role in the economy of coastal states, each of which handles more than one million tons of cargo per year. These are Rijeka, Split, Pula, Dubrovnik (Croatia); Bar, Kotor (Montenegro); Koper (Slovenia); Durrёs, Vlorё (Albania); Trieste, Venice, Bari, Ancona, Brindisi (Italy). The largest cargo seaport of the Adriatic Sea is Trieste, the largest passenger port is Split. In addition to the largest ports, there are numerous small ports that are important for local transportation (Šibenik, Zadar, etc.). The shortest sea and air routes between the Apennine and Balkan Peninsulas pass through the Adriatic Sea. Railways and highways to Central and Eastern Europe begin from the northern ports of the Adriatic Sea. Experts from the Italian Institute of Marine Research concluded that 20,000 of toxic bombs and missiles lie at the bottom of the Adriatic Sea and pose a great threat to the environmental safety of the entire region. After the Second World War, a large number of chemical weapons were flooded in the lower Adriatic, which was not used by both warring parties during the hostilities. Underwater “burials” were made, as a rule, at a significant depth and far from the coast. Four such landfills for chemically hazardous explosive devices have been found, mainly on the basis of the mustard gas. Due to the fact that the corps of bombs and mines are extremely rusted in seawater, there is a danger of contamination of the Adriatic basin. Experts from the Institute of Marine Research have prepared a detailed map of the seabed with projectiles located on it. Significant role in the Adriatic Sea economy development play fishing and tourism. Fishing (sardines, mackerel), mariculture (oysters, mussels) in the Adriatic Sea, especially in the northern part, is one of the most fish-rich areas in the Mediterranean. The river flow to the shallow shelf of the North Adriatic, in addition to the mixed bottom sediments, makes the sea highly productive. The central and southern parts of the Adriatic are less productive. However, their susceptibility to the influence of the Northern Adriatic and the periodic increase in the influence

Adriatic Sea Coasts

of the Mediterranean waters also contributes to the productivity of these areas. The open waters of Adriatic are considered as areas for pelagic fisheries. The areas around Ancona, Italy, and around the threshold of Palagruža are rich in fish, especially pelagic. The coast of the Eastern Adriatic is a traditionally important fishing area for professional and sports fishermen who use small-scale gear in their fishing practice. Coastal areas are characterized by high productivity compared to the open sea due to the relatively shallow depths, proximity to the coast and freshwater runoff. The tourism industry is the most rapidly developed in Croatia. The coast in Croatia is famous for resorts such as Dubrovnik, Split, Sibenik, Makarska Riviera, Pula, as well as resorts of the Dalmatian Islands. The main resort area of Montenegro is the Budva Riviera. On the small Adriatic coast of Slovenia there are four resort cities – Koper, Izola, Piran, and Portorož. Bosnia and Herzegovina has only one seaside resort – Neum. Albanian resorts are located in the Durrës region and on the “Coast of Flowers” (the coast from Vlorë to Sarandë). The resorts of Rimini, Bellaria, Igea Marina, Cattolica, Pescara, Senigallia, the Venetian Riviera (Lido di Jesolo and Lignano), and the Palm Riviera (the coast from Mare Gabicce to San Benedetto del Tronto) are popular on the Italian coast of the Adriatic Sea.

Adriatic Sea Coasts Adriatic Sea Coasts – Northeast and southwest coasts of the Adriatic Sea are significantly different in appearance. Almost along the entire southwestern coast of the sea, there is a hilly, sometimes terraced plain (with width up to 10–18 km), composed of Pliocene and Pleistocene marine sediments. Along the south-west coast of the sea, flattened accumulative shores dominate, bordered by wide sandy and gravel beaches. In the north of the Gargano Peninsula, the Apennine Peninsula is formed by a large barrier-lagoon complex with extensive lagoons and narrow sandy spit covered with dunes with sparse shrub vegetation. Only within small areas are low erosion slopes

Adriatic Sea Coasts

developed in weakly compacted marine and alluvial-marine sediments, with narrow beaches. The cliffs in the bedrock are especially specific for the east coast of the Gargano Peninsula, in the area of the Plateau Le Murge and south of it. At the eastern end of the Salentin Peninsula (between the capes of Santa Maria di Leuca and Otranto) lies typical abrasion-bay shore. In general, accumulative shores predominate to the north of the Gargano Peninsula, and to the south, abrasive shores. The main source of the sediment inflow into the coastal zone is the outflows of numerous rivers and, to a lesser extent, the abrasion of the coast. Sediment inflows from the seabed, the participation of biogenic and aeolian material is minimal. Therefore, the intensive development of river sand-gravel sediments in recent decades for construction purposes and the construction of seawalls along the abrasion coastal areas to protect the railroad bed located close to the sea resulted in a sharp reduction in sediment inflow to the coastal zone. In many places it caused a strong erosion of the beaches. The continuing sediment accumulation is confined only to the mouths of some rivers (e.g., Ofanto) or to areas adjacent to the abrasion benches. In the central part of this coast (between the Tronto and Fortore rivers) there is a general divergence of sediment flow to the north and south of the Penna Cape region. South of the Gargano Peninsula, the total sediment flow is directed to the southeast. Sandy outflows of the Ofanto River, the largest river in this region, actively move along the coast in this direction and contribute to the drift of the neighboring port harbors. On the northwest coast of the sea, the Po River annually washes out up to 20 million tons of sediments (7% is clayey material, 70% is silty material, and 23% is sandy material) and actively moves its multi-lobate delta into the sea (40 m/ year on average). Adding sediment (especially suspended) from the north – from the Brenta and Adige rivers – also contributes to the growth of the delta edge. Coastal currents pick up a part of the thin outflows of these rivers and move them to the south. On both sides of the Po River Delta the flattened accumulative coast of the lagoon type is

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stretched. The chain of lagoons stretches with short breaks (mainly along river deltas) almost along the entire northwestern coast of the sea. Among them is the famous Venetian Lagoon, on the inner lagoon islands where the city-museum of Venice is situated. At present, many areas of the accumulative coast are eroded, especially near the tidal channel connecting the lagoons and the sea. Since rivers are the main source of sediment inflow into the coastal zone, a change in their regime and flow distribution significantly affects the condition of the adjacent coastal areas. This relation is clearly observed in the delta district Tagliamento, Italy. From about 1908, the main flow of the river runs through the western part of its delta, which caused an active growth of this area (at a speed of 22 m/year) and intensive movement of sediment along the coast westwards to the small lagoon of Porto Basel. As a result, the mouth of the latter is gradually “squeezed out” in the same direction due to the long-termed growth of the “windward” spit and erosion of the “leeward.” Currently, storm waves reach the ridges of coastal dunes here and in some places break through it. Most of the coast of the northeast coast of the Adriatic Sea is mountainous, in relation to tectonic structures. It refers to a well-defined longitudinal type. Nearly all along the sea stretches the Dinaric Highland, the coastal part of which (altitude up to 2500 m) is composed of Mesozoic limestones, and partly, with flysch. The rocks are crumpled into large anticlines that extend parallel to the shoreline. Vaults of anticlines are often destroyed by denudation processes. As a result of the combined action of the Holocene transgression and tectonic descent of the coast, the sea invaded synclinal depressions and denudation depressions in the vaults of positive structures and formed numerous long and narrow bays stretched along the mountainous seacoast. The Croatian Adriatic coast is one of the most indented in the world. It has 1185 islands with a total coastline of 4058 km. There are many large and small islands of longitudinal orientation situated along the coast, corresponding to a series of positive tectonic folds. The “inner” shore is well protected from the wave effect by the barrier

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Adriatic Sea Coasts

Adriatic Sea Coasts (Croatia). (Source: https://www.croatia-yachting-charter.com/en/destination-guide/adriatic-sea-andweather)

of the islands. It practically was not changed by the sea impact and clearly preserved the traces of its initial partition (tectonic and denudational). This kind of coast is especially specific for the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, where it is presented so typical that this geographical name has become a common for the coast with a primary structural-denudation partitioning – the Dalmatian type. To the northwest (Istrian Peninsula) and southeast (Montenegrin coast), the Dalmatian type of coast loses its specificity due to a certain change in the structure of the coastal mountainous massifs and a smaller tectonic settling of the coast. The archipelago of elongated islands almost disappears here, and abrasive areas are becoming increasingly important in the shaping of the mountainous coast. Benches are usually worked out along the abrasion areas, at a depth of 8–10 m a clear terraced step is observed (especially at capes), which can be traced almost along the whole Adriatic coast and, apparently, marks the ancient position of the sea level. Accumulative areas, sometimes with lagoons (north of the Istrian Peninsula), within the coast of Croatia, are confined mainly to river mouths. On those parts of the coast, where coastal cliffs are composed of Mesozoic and Tertiary limestones, forms of coastal and underwater karst are widely developed. They are

associated with the leaching effect of sea water on calcareous rocks. In Dalmatia, karst spreads to depths of about 10–15 m. Numerous limestone protrusions, hollows, craters, deep trenches, and ridges intersect with each other and create a highly dissected microtopography form in the surf zone. In some places, a typical corrie surface is formed, and dissolution niches are formed along the line of the edge – an analogue of wave-cut recess. The dimensions of karst forms usually do not exceed 1–2 m in diameter; however, merging with each other, they form a very rugged bottom surface. Along with the karst processes, the bioerosion also accelerates limestone coastal ledges. The destruction of the rock is caused by the vital activity of endolytic microorganisms and animals eating the microflora – gastropods and sea urchins. The first ones corrode the surface of the rock, the second ones scraped off the rock particles in the process of searching for food. The products of limestone destruction by 10–30% dissolved in water, and the remaining 70–90% are characterized by the following mechanical composition – from silt to fine sand. The distribution of organisms in the coastal zone is subjected to a certain zonality, which is due to physicochemical and biological factors. This zonality leads to a difference in the rates of bioerosion in different parts of the littoral (0.1–1.1 mm/year) and to the

Adriatic Sea Marine Protected Areas (MPA)

development of a biogenic erosion niche at the base of the cliff at the tide level. In general, 11 kg of limestone is removed annually from 1 m of shore. About 9 kg of this amount is represented by a fine material, which makes up 3–25% of coastal sediments. Changes in the distribution of organisms significantly affect the rate of erosion and sedimentation. Thus, active reproduction of the sea urchins in the area in the 1970s almost doubled the rate of coastal limestone destruction. The forming of corrosion sites – “sidewalks” in many places below the encroachment line of corrosion areas, is due to the impact of the biochemical and bioerosional processes, which are very specific for the entire Mediterranean. The coast of Albania has a slightly different look. Limestone ridges of 300–400 m high approach the coastline in the north and south of the Albanian coast from a certain angle, causing the appearance of a series of high capes. The southern section of the coast is the most elevated (between Cape Kefali and Vlorё Bay), where the height of coastal mountains reaches 2000 m or higher. Mountain slopes sharply cliffing to the water, forming high and inaccessible rocky cliffs. On the northern coastal region of the mountains are much lower. Ridges here are divided by broad lowlands, which are developed on the site of syncline depressions parallel to the mountain ridges, filled with loose alluvial deposits of the Neogene and Pleistocene ages. This structure of the coast determines the alternation of accumulation and abrasion areas along the coast. In the central part of the Albanian coast between the Gulf of Vlorё at the mouth of the Drin River, the mountains depart from the coastline, giving way to a wide (up to 15–18 km) Albanian hilly plain drained by several river valleys. Its coastal strip is bogged.

“Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia” (The Authors – I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov, A. Joksimovic´, M.I. Kumantsov) “Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia” (The Authors – I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov, A. Joksimović, M.I. Kumantsov) – The Russian-

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Montenegrin Encyclopedia (in Russian) was published in Moscow in 2014. It contains about 600 articles on hydrographic and geographical objects and hydrological specificities of the sea, as well as administrative and territorial units of the Adriatic countries. The most significant natural objects such as islands, peninsulas, bays, rivers, their geographical specificities, economy, culture and history, as well as the information on cities, ports, water, biological resources, international agreements, research institutions, activities of outstanding scientists, researchers, travelers, and navigators are briefly presented. The chronology of the main historical events that have become significant landmarks in the history of discoveries and exploration from the eleventh century to the present day is given. Second edition of this book authored by Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Semenov A.V., Joksimovich A., Djurovic M. was published in 2017 by S.Yu. Witte Moscow University.

Adriatic Sea Marine Protected Areas (MPA) Adriatic Sea Marine Protected Areas (MPA) – created by the Adriatic countries to preserve biodiversity of the marine environment. In Italy: there are 378 MPAs for all seas. In the Adriatic Sea most of them are located in the northern and southern parts of the coastline, among them are Miramare, Torre del Serrano, Tremiti Islands, Torro Guaseto, etc. In Slovenia: there are 31 MPAs, but the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean (MedPAN) indicates that three MPAs have been established along Slovenia’s seashore with a total surface of 1.2 km2. In Croatia: there are 293 MPAs, but the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Mediterranean (MedPAN) indicates that six MPAs have been established along Croatia’s seashore with a total surface of 311 km2. Marine environments in Croatia are mainly protected under two main categories, namely, National Parks and Special Marine Reserves. In Bosnia-Herzegovina: No.

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In Montenegro: Tivat Saline Ramsar Site, Wetland of International Importance. In Albania: Butrinti National Park (category II) (Park Kombetar), Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park, Karaburun-Sazan Marine National Park (category II) (Park Kombetar), KaraburunSazan Marine National Park, Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance (Barcelona Convention).

Adriatic Sea Ports Adriatic Sea Ports – There are 19 large ports with a turnover of more than one million tons per year. Among them, there are the largest cargo ports in Italy: Trieste (cargo turnover is about 40 million tons per year), Ancona (10.5 million tons), Bari (3.2 million tons), Barletta (1.4 million tons), Brindisi (10.7 million tons), Chioggia (about 3 million tons), Ortona (1.3 million tons), Manfredonia (1.3 million tons), Monfalcone (4.5 million tons), Porto Nogaro (1.4 million tons), Venice (32 million tons), Ravenna (27 million tons). In Albania: Durrёs (3.4 million tons); in Slovenia: Koper (17 million tons); in Croatia: Ploče (5.1 million tons), Rabac (1 million tons), Rijeka (15.4 million tons, the largest cargo port), Split (2.7 million tons, the largest passenger port); in Montenegro: Bar (0.8 million tons). In 2010, the northern Adriatic seaports of Trieste, Venice, Ravenna, Koper, and Rijeka founded the Association of North Adriatic Ports to ensure a more favorable position of the EU transport system.

Adriatic Sea, Names Adriatic Sea, Names – Originally, in the Roman era, it was called Mare Superum (Latin), later this name was replaced by (H)Adriaticum. The etymology of the name “Adriatic Sea” is associated with the Etruscan settlement of Adria, the ancient port had the same name. According to Herodotus and Euripides, this name was popular among the Greeks only to the northern, upper part of the sea,

Adriatic Sea Ports

and from the 4 BC this name was used for the entire Adriatic Sea within modern boundaries. In the ancient period, the sea was known as the “Sea Adriaticum” (“Mare Adriaticum”), simply “Adria,” or more rarely the “Sea Superum” (“Mare Superum”). At one time it was called the Gulf of Venice (Cantelli map, 1684). The name “Adria” comes from the Illyrian word “adur,” meaning “water” or “sea.” Currently in Montenegro the Adriatic Sea is often called the Jadran Sea. In the Greco-Roman period there was the name “Dalmatian Sea” (“Mare Dalmatianum”), which referred to the waters off the coast of Dalmatia and Illyria.

Adriatic sole, Sogliola adriatica, Pegusa impar Adriatic sole, Sogliola adriatica, Pegusa impar – the euryhaline, eurythermal fish of the Soleidae family which lives in the Adriatic, Marmara, Black Sea, and Kerch Strait. It has several names that are common among ichthyology systematists: snouted sole, sole, Mediterranean tongue sole, sandy sole. It is able to live in sea water bodies with different salinity indices, from 10 to 35‰, and different thermal conditions. It has an oblong-oval body with a rounded head, covered with a small scale; its eyes are located on the right side. Its crescent-shaped mouth is small, located under the cephalic border. Nasal openings on the blind side are small, and are widely spaced. The dorsal fin begins in the middle between the tip of the snout and the upper eye; dorsal fin has 75–93 and anal fin has 59–79 soft rays, and both fins are connected with the tail stalk by the dermal membrane. The pectoral fin of the blind side is slightly smaller than the fin of the eyed side. The posterior half of the pectoral fin on the eyed side has a specific large black spot. The eyed side has a light brown (for young species), light or dark olive color, with large dark uneven spots. Dorsal and anal fins have a white edge. The blind side is usually white or light gray, and for older individuals it is sometimes with a yellowish tint.

“Adriatica”, Russian Journal

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Adriatic sturgeon. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Adriatic_sturgeon#/ media/File:Acipenser_sp. 1_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae. JPG)

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The species length up to 50 cm is extremely rare. It is usually 25–30 cm in catches. The weight of large species varies from 1 to 1.8 kg. Commercial sizes are considered at a length of 18 cm and weight at 300–400 g. Typical seafloor inhabitants, often entering the desalinated limans and estuaries of rivers. Usually they dwell in vast coastal areas with a flat bottom with depths varying from 5 to 30 m. In late autumn they migrate to greater depths, concentrating within the continental shelf at a depth whichever is less 60–80 m. During the daytime, they are inactive, camouflaging among the sea landscape, burying in sand. However, at the dusk, they begin to feed actively, emerging in shallow waters, with a silty or sandy bottom rich in zoobenthos: polychaetes, various types of mollusks, crustaceans, and small schooling fish. It spawns from the beginning of June until the end of September at a water temperature of at least 15–16 °С, casting out about 7–104 thou eggs, with 1.2–1.5 mm in size, characterized by a good buoyancy. They begin to feed most intensively after spawning, in September and October, emerging for intensive feeding to sand ridges heated up during the daytime.

and a mass of 25 kg; however, usually it is much smaller. It is quite similar to the Russian sturgeon. It differs from the latter by a large number of gill rakers: it has 30–35 of them, while the Russian sturgeon usually has less than 30. It has 10–14 spinal scutes, 32–42 lateral scutes, and 8–11 abdominal scutes. It has 36–48 rays in dorsal fin and 24–31 in the anal fin. The color of the body varies from grayish-brown to almost black; the belly is whitish. It is anadromous species. It enters the rivers of northern Italy, Croatia, and Albania – Po, Adige, Brenta, Livenza, Cetina, etc. for spawning. In the sea, it dwells near the coast, at depths from 10 to 40 m, usually near the mouths of rivers. It goes to the rivers of Italy during the first months of the year, stays in fresh water until October. Spawning occurs in February and March. Growth, reproduction, fertility, development of caviar, nutrition, and other aspects of its biology are slightly studied. Due to its rarity, it has no economic importance. There are no available data on its abundance. At present, attempts of artificial breeding of this species are being made.

Adriatic sturgeon

“Adriatica”, Russian Journal

Adriatic sturgeon – is a fish of sturgeons family (Acipenser naccarii). It is a rare underinvestigated species. As an exception, it reaches a length of 2 m

“Adriatica”, Russian Journal – The digest, the first issue published in Budva, Montenegro, in 2009, included all the best about Montenegro, which

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Adriatic-Ionian Initiative (AII)

Russian Journal “Adriatica”. (Source: https://ar-ar.facebook.com/pg/rusadriatic/posts/)

was published in journals from 2007 to 2009. Its purpose is to give a comprehensive idea of the history, nature, people, traditions, and beauty of this country for Russian citizens who have settled and annually come to rest in Montenegro, as well as for Montenegrins. Publishers have resumed the spread of the Russian word in the country, since the first who have done this were White Guard immigrants who published the Russian-language magazine Rossica in 1930.

Adriatic-Ionian Initiative (AII) Adriatic-Ionian Initiative (AII) – the political initiative launched by Rome at the Conference on the Foreign Affairs Ministerial Level held in Ancona, Italy, from May 19 to 20, 2000. Alongside Italy, it was attended by representatives of Greece, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Albania. It is noticeable that a month before the conference in Ancona the project was referred to as the Adriatic Initiative, which was reflected in the joint Italian-Croatian declaration in April 2000. Apparently, the transformation of the name was caused by the desire of Greece not to stand aside in this project. The purpose of the initiative is the arrangement and post-crisis development in the Balkans, which could make the Balkans one of the main centers of attraction for the countries of South-Eastern Europe in the future. Its structure consists of the Adriatic-Ionian Council of senior officials and round-table meetings. This platform provides communication

between the countries of the two seas for international cooperation and security for Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia.

Adriatic-Mediterranean Project Adriatic-Mediterranean Project – the regional FAO project launched in 1999 on scientific cooperation to maintain responsible fisheries in the Adriatic Sea. The project is supported by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM FAO), and financed by Italy and the European Commission (Dg MARE, General Directorate for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, the Ministry of agriculture forestry and food policies – MiPAAF). The project includes countries of the Adriatic Sea – Albania, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, and Italy. The purpose of the project is to support and enhance cooperation at the institutional level, in terms of resource management and exploitation policies; by enhancing technological cooperation between research organizations and national governments of the Adriatic countries. The main pressing issues are: enhancing communication tools between organizations involved in fisheries to improve coordination and cooperation; supporting the implementation of a system for monitoring fish resources based on standardized methodologies; identifying specific fisheries management plans applied experimentally in some areas to enhance Adriatic regional cooperation in resource

Albania, Republic of Albania (Shqipe¨ria, Republika e Shqipe¨rise¨)

management; increasing harmonized fisheries legislation to aid decision-making on the management of shared fishing resources; support the development of responsible marine aquacultures.

“Adrion” “Adrion” – is a common trademark developed by the Adriatic and Ionian Chambers of Commerce Forum.

Agrippa Marcus Vipsanius (64/63–12 BC) Agrippa Marcus Vipsanius (64/63–12 BC) – Roman naval commander, reformer of the Roman Fleet and statesman. He was born in Dalmatia. Powerful commander of the Emperor Octavian Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar, Emperor Caesar Augustus). He won a number of victories. In the period of governorship in Gaul in the years 39–38 BC he crossed the Rhine with his troops and founded a settlement for ubii around Cologne. He was a consul in 37, 28, and 27 years BC. In 31 BC in a naval battle, he defeated a Fleet of Anthony and the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra near the Greek Cape Actium. Having married the daughter of Augustus, he consolidated his position of the second man in the Empire. He defined the military policy of the emperor and was his plenipotentiary in Rome and the provinces. Agrippa himself financed the construction of numerous public buildings and structures, in particular the Pantheon, the plumbing and thermae in Rome. The geodetic survey of the entire Roman Empire, carried out under his supervision, was used as the basis for compiling the world map, which became the prototype of the Peutinger’s tabula. At the end of his life, Agrippa reformed the Roman Fleet, dividing it into two separate Fleets: Julian Fleet with a base in the Port of Julia (at Misenum) for domination in the southern and western parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and Ravenna Fleet, consisting of 250 ships with a base

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in the North Adriatic near Ravenna to control throughout the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea.

Alba Adriatica Alba Adriatica – resort city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea in the region of Abruzzo, Italy. The population is 10,400 people. The length of the beach is 3 km with a gentle sandy bottom and shallow depth. For the specific color of the sand it is called “silver” beach. The beach has been awarded the prestigious award “Blue Flag” 13 times.

Albanian Lowland Albanian Lowland – located in the western part of the coast of the Adriatic Sea between the bay of Vlorё and the mouth of the river Drin, Albania. Its width is 8–57 km. The coastal strip is marshy; it gradually rises and becomes hilly as we move away from the coast.

Albania Veneta Albania Veneta – name of the area, stretching from Dubrovnik to Durrёs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Its center was considered the city of Kotor.

Albania, Republic of Albania (Shqipe¨ria, Republika e Shqipe¨rise¨) Albania, Republic of Albania (Shqipëria, Republika e Shqipërisë) – is a state located in the western part of Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. The name of the country comes from the Illyrian olba – “village.” In the Middle Ages, the country was called “Arber,” and from the

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Albania, Republic of Albania (Shqipe¨ria, Republika e Shqipe¨rise¨)

Albania. (Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Albania)

sixteenth century, it was called Shqipëria. The self-name Shqipëria means “Country or Land of the Eagles” (an eagle in Albanian is shqiponjë). According to another version, this name comes from the Albanian word shqip – “speak clearly.” The capital of the country is Tirana (557,400 people), the other largest city is Durrёs. The Strait of Otranto separates Albania from Italy. Albania shares its borders with the partially recognized Republic of Kosovo to the northeast (112 km), with Montenegro to the north-west (172 km), with Macedonia to the east (151 km), and with Greece to the south (282 km). On the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea, and on the extreme south-west – by the Ionian Sea. Albania is stretched over 340 km from north to south and 150 km from west to east. The area of Albania is 28,748 km2. The coastal length is 427 km, 273 km of which is washed by the Adriatic Sea, and 154 km by

the Ionian Sea. The western part of the coast, stretched along the Adriatic Sea, is presented by the lowlands, and the rest area (about 70%) is presented by mountainous areas with an average height of 700 m. The highest point is Mount Korab (2764 m) in the eastern part of the country. The most famous beaches of the Adriatic coast of Albania are Velipoje, Durres, Hawaiian beach on the coast of Kavajë, Shëngjin, as well as Lalsit Bay. The climate of the coastal part of the country is Mediterranean, becoming continental in the eastern part. The average January temperature is 8–9 °C, and in July it is 24–25 °C. The amount of precipitation is 800–2000 mm per year. The total volume of renewable water resources is about 42 km3. Rivers in Albania flow through deep valleys and have a mountainous specificity with a large hydropower potential. The rivers are mainly rain-fed. The largest river of Albania is

Albania, Republic of Albania (Shqipe¨ria, Republika e Shqipe¨rise¨)

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The Albanian Alps. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania#/media/File:Valbona_nga_Kukaj.jpg)

Gjipe beach in Albania on the confluence of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Albania#/media/File:Gjipe_beach,_Albania.JPG)

Drin (280 km) which flows through the northern regions of the country. Among other rivers are Mat, Vjosë, Shkumbin, and Seman. Almost all of the rivers flow into the Adriatic Sea. Three largest and deepest tectonic lakes of the Balkan Peninsula are partially located in Albania. Lake Shkodër (Lake Skadar), the third part and 57 km

of the coast of which belong to Albania, is located in the north of the country, on the border with Montenegro. Lake Ohrid is divided between Albania and the Republic of Macedonia. The lake is characterized by a depth of 289 m and unique flora and fauna, and it is protected by UNESCO. Lake Prespa is divided between

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Albania, Republic of Albania (Shqipe¨ria, Republika e Shqipe¨rise¨)

Albania, Macedonia, and Greece, and lies somewhat further south. There are more than 3000 of vegetation species. Maquis is widely spread on the coast. About a third of the territory of Albania (mostly mountainous areas) is covered with forest, which is inhabited by brown bears, wolves, jackals, lynxes, and forest cats, as well as wild boars, roe, and deer. In coastal areas, some of which are lagoons, there are many water birds. There are deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, chromium, phosphates, copper, nickel, and salt in Albania. Albania is a parliamentary republic. The head of state is the President. The parliament of the country is the one-chamber National Assembly (140 seats). The executive authority is the Council of Ministers. The Kingdom of Albania was known since February 1272. Albania was kept under the control of the Ottoman Empire for five centuries. The country gained its independence from it in 1912. During the First World War, Albania was occupied by Serbia and Greece. Under the Second Treaty of London in 1915 with Italy, the Allies made a secret promise to turn Albania into a protectorate of Italy. The first parliament of Albania was created in 1920 during the struggle for the independence of the country and against its partition according to Paris Peace Treaty between Greece, Italy, and Yugoslavia. In 1928, the parliament was dissolved, Albania was declared a monarchy. In April 1939, fascist Italy occupied Albania. In September 1943, it was occupied by Hitler’s Germany. As a result of the national liberation war of the Albanian people (1939–1944), in November 1944, during the Soviet Army offensive in the Balkans, the country was liberated from the occupiers. In 1945, parliamentary elections were held, in which the Democratic Front headed by the Communists won 97.7% of the vote. In 1946 Albania was declared a national republic. Gradually, Enver Hoxha – Albanian Stalin, concentrated power in his hands. Until 1956, Albania maintained relations with the USSR. However, after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (February 14–25, 1956), a policy of political isolation was adopted. Relations were

maintained only with China and Romania. In December 1976, the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania was declared. In the early 1990s Albania began a policy of cautious economic reforms and expansion of relations with other countries. In 1990, a multiparty system was adopted. In 1991, the name of the state was changed to the Republic of Albania, the democratization of the country and the transition to a market economy began. Since April 2009, Albania is a NATO member, a member of the UN, The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), The Council of Europe (CoE), and since 2009 an associate member of the European Union. The territory of Albania is administratively divided into 12 prefectures or counties (“Karks”), but, as a rule, Albania is divided into two parts – the northern (Ghegeria) and the southern (Toskeria). Six prefectures of Albania overlook the Adriatic Sea coast: Shkodër, Lezhë, Durrës, Tirana, Fier, and Vlorë. The population is 2.9 million people (2017). Ethnic composition is 95% Albanians, 3% Greeks, and others (Wallachian, Gypsies, Serbs, Macedonians) 2%. Among the believers there are about 60% of Muslim. About 53.5% of the population lives in urban areas, 46.5% in rural areas. Albania is an agrarian-industrial country. Economic structure is the following: agriculture contains 20.6%; industry contains 18.8%; service sector contains 60.6%. In recent years, tourism is being developed. The industry includes the following areas: food processing, textiles, and clothing; wood processing, oil extraction, chromite mining, copper mining, iron-nickel ore mining, brown coal mining, natural bitumen mining. There is also concrete production and hydropower. Wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, and grapes are grown in Albania. Animal husbandry is also developed. Goats, sheep, and cattle breeding are developed. There is also tobacco production. Albania exports: chromites, crude oil; asphalt, vegetables, tobacco products. The main buyers are Italy, Greece, and China. Albania imports: machinery and equipment, food, textiles, and chemical products. The main suppliers are Italy, Greece, Turkey, Germany, China, and Russia. There are four sea ports: Durrës, Vlorë, Shengjin, Sarandë. There is a naval base in

Ancona

Vlorë. There is one international airport in the country – “Mother Teresa,” located in 20 km away from Tirana in Rinas. The road transport is developed. The railway network is represented by two roads – Tirana-Durrës (built by Soviet engineers) and Durrës-Pogradec. It is interesting that there are about 600,000 of permanent fire positions in the country – bunkers built in almost every yard during the dictatorship of E. Hoxha.

Albanian Naval Force, Forcat Detare Shqiptare Albanian Naval Force, Forcat Detare Shqiptare – one of the branches of the armed forces of the Republic of Albania. The Navy (headquarters in the city of Tirana) consists of a Fleet and coastal defense forces, geographically divided into two regional naval areas (RNR). The first RNR (headquarters in the city of Durrёs) includes the Durrёs naval base and the Schengin base station (BS). The second RNR (headquarters in the city of Vlorё) includes the naval base Vlorё and BS Saranda. The composition of each RVRM includes the division of two divisions of combat boats. The combat structure of the Navy includes 4 warships, 20 combat boats (torpedo, patrol), 2 divisions of minesweepers, and 2 auxiliary vessels. The total number of troops is 2000 people.

Albanian Riviera Albanian Riviera – a narrow strip of the Adriatic Sea coast in the southwest of Albania, to the south of Vlorё Bay. It is protected from the north and east by mountains, has a warm, moderately humid climate (average January temperature is +9 °C, July +25 °C, and precipitation is 1100–1200 mm per year). Water sources used for irrigation run from the mountains. Maquis thickets are preserved there. The most favorable conditions are observed on the flat part of the coast, adjacent to Lake Vutrinto, where the center of Albanian Riviera,

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the city and port of Sarandë is situated. There are plantations of olives, citruses, vineyards, fields of wheat, rice, and cotton on the plain.

“AMBO” Oil Pipeline “AMBO” Oil Pipeline – the name of the planned oil pipeline from the abbreviated names of the states “Albania,” “Macedonia,” and “Bulgaria,” which is supposed to connect the shores of the Black (Burgas, Bulgaria) and the Adriatic (Vlorё, Albania) seas. Its capacity will be 37 million tons of oil. The length of the pipeline will be 912 km. The preliminary cost is about $1.2 billion. The pipeline should supply oil refineries in Skopje and the market of Macedonia, as well as Italy. The pipeline was proposed in 1993. On January 31, 2007, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Albania signed a trilateral convention on the construction of the AMBO pipeline. This document was ratified by the Parliaments of all three countries and governed the construction, operation, and maintenance of the pipeline. The project has not been implemented yet.

Ancona Ancona – city, seaport, the capital of the province of Ancona, Marche region in the center of Italy on the shores of the Adriatic Sea. Population is 101,300 people (2015). The port is located on the western side of the mountainous Apennine Peninsula. Depths at the entrance to the port are 10 m. The city is situated in the east of the port of Ancona. It is constructed as an amphitheater and is surrounded by the hills of Guasco, Cardalo, and Astanio, towering on the rocky Carnaro Cape. It is an important industrial and commercial center; shipbuilding, car building, bridge construction, oil refining, pharmaceutical, footwear industry, sugar production, majolica and glass products, and fishery are developed here. Oil is imported (mooring berths accept large-capacity tankers), while coal, chemicals, grain, sulfur, asphalt, oil

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Ancona

City of Sarandë. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania#/media/File:CIty_of_Saranda_Albania_2016.jpg)

products, and other cargoes are exported. Through the ferry terminal, regular ferry services are carried out with Durrёs (Albania), Split, Stari Grad, Vis, Zadar (Croatia), and Igoumenitsa, Patras (Greece). A large number of churches, monuments and historical landmarks are located here. At one of the port breakwaters of Rizzo stands the famous Triumphal Arch of Emperor Trajan, 18 m high (probably built after 115 AD), which expanded the natural harbor, turning it into a well-fortified port. The largest pilgrimage center of the Christian world, the Basilica della Santa Casa, is located in the environs of Ancona. The city was founded in approximately 390 BC Mention of Ancona is found in Strabo. When exactly Ancona became a colony of Rome is not precisely known. It was occupied by the Roman Fleet in the Illyrian War (178 BC, Emperor Titus Livius). Julius Caesar took possession of the city immediately after crossing the Rubicon. When Octavian Augustus introduced a new administrative division in the Roman Empire, Ancona was assigned to the five most

important maritime cities. Anconian harbor was of great importance during the rimes of the empire, as it was closest to Dalmatia. Between 538 and 551 AD the city was occupied by the Goths. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Ancona often fell under the authority of various foreigners – the Lombards, Hungarians, Normans, and also Saracen pirates. In 839 AD they almost completely burned the city. Thanks to the port, the city retained its political significance. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the first large colonies of Ancon merchants appeared in the city. The rival of Ancona on the Adriatic was the Venetian Republic. The economy of the Adriatic part of Italy was saved only by the fact that wealthy refugees from the territories occupied by Muslims reached here: Jews, Greeks, Albanians, and Armenians. An independent Anconian Republic was created. The Anconian dwellers decided to go under the protection of Pope Clement VII, who annexed Ancona to the Papal States in 1532. By the beginning of the eighteenth century the port city was in a pitiful state. In 1732,

Ancona Lighthouse, Faro di Ancona

Pope Clement XII again allowed free trade with the cities of Italy and abroad. The economy of the region quickly came to life and grew stronger. In 1797 the region was occupied by the French Army, and the area was pillaged and razed. In 1799, under the onslaught of Austrian, Russian, and Turkish soldiers, Napoleon’s troops left the city; however, the French were able to return to Marche. In 1808, Napoleon and Pope Pius VII signed an agreement according to which the Marche region became part of the new Kingdom of Italy, and Ancona became the capital. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna restored the rights of the Papal States; however, the Anconian dwellers protested against this. In 1817 a rebellion broke out here. When, in 1860, Garibaldian detachments liberated Ancona, it joined the United Kingdom of Italy as part of Marche. During the Second World War, in July 1944, during the bombing of the Anglo-American troops, the city was severely destroyed. After the war, the city was rebuilt and reconstructed.

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Ancona Lighthouse, Faro di Ancona Ancona Lighthouse, Faro di Ancona – about 20 m high, built in 1859 on the Cappuccini Hill by the initiative of Pope Pius IX. The lenses of the French engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel were used there. The lighthouse is situated in Ancona, Italy. Later, a so-called telegraph was attached to the lighthouse, where in 1904 Marconi experimented with the first radio signal. In 1965, due to geological conditions in the place where the old lighthouse stood, a new one was built at 200 m from it, which fulfills its functions today. It also uses Fresnel lenses. The new lighthouse is 15 m high and has the shape of a square tower. Not far from the lighthouse there are the remains of a military arsenal, which was once a part of the urban defense system. Until the recent times, the old lighthouse can be visited – a group of volunteer enthusiasts kept it in fair condition. However, a few years ago it was closed to the

Ancona. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancona#/media/File:AnkonPanorama.jpg)

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public. Since then, the people of Ancona have been agitating for the restoration of the old tower and its reopening as a tourist attraction and a symbol of the city.

Angler (Lophius piscatorius)

Angler (Lophius piscatorius) Angler (Lophius piscatorius) – a sea fish of Lophiidae family. Body up to 2 m long, flat, attenuating toward the tail with numerous tines. The upper side of body is brown, and the lower is white. It is found at the bottom; partly buried in the ground and masked. It is predator, attacks large (sharks, rays, etc.) and small fish; eats once in 2–3 days. Angler lays 1.3 million eggs. It has little industrial value.

Apennine Peninsula, Italian Peninsula

Faro di Ancona. (Source: https://it.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Ancona_24-10-2010_Cardeto_Vecchio_Faro.JPG)

Angler. (Source: http://fish. kiev.ua/pages/ukrfishm/ ukrfishm96.htm)

Apennine Peninsula, Italian Peninsula – is the medium one among the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe (the others are the Balkan and Iberian), occupies a central position (extends into the Mediterranean Sea), dominating along with the Island of Sicily over the communication routes between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. Received its name from the Apennine Mountains, has the nickname “Boot.” The three smaller peninsulas that make this distinctive appearance are called Calabria, Salento, and Gargano. The Apennine Peninsula is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean: from the west by the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas, from the east by the Adriatic

Apennine Peninsula, Italian Peninsula

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Apennine Peninsula. (Source: https://maps-for-free.com/)

Sea and from the south by the Ionian Sea. In the south, it is separated from Sicily by the narrow Strait of Messina (3.5–22 km). The area of the Apennine Peninsula is about 149,000 km2. Its length is approximately 1100 km, and width varies from 130 to 300 km. In the north it is bounded by the vast fertile Padan Lowland of the Po River, swept from the north by the powerful arc of the Alps. Along the central part of the Apennine Peninsula the mountain ridge of the Apennines (the maximum height of the Mount Corno is 2912 m) passes. Apennine mountains do not occupy the entire peninsula. The north of the Apennines stretches along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, bordering the south of Padan Plain. The narrow strip between the mountains and the sea is called the Riviera: the French – in the west, and the Italian – in the east. Within the peninsula the Apennines deviate to the south-east and stand quite far from the Tyrrhenian Sea. To the upper reaches of the Arno River, the mountains are called the Northern Apennines. In this part they are composed of Paleogene, mostly loose rocks and rarely exceed 2000 m. The predominance of clayey deposits in the structure of the Northern Apennines creates conditions for the development of landslide phenomena, which

are intensified due to the destruction of forests. Many residential places in the Northern Apennines are located in deep tectonic depressions. In one of these basins lies the ancient city of Florence. To the south, the Central Apennines are composed of Mesozoic limestones and fall into high massifs separated by deep depressions and tectonic valleys. The slopes of the massifs are mostly steep and bare. The highest parts of the mountains experienced glaciation, and their glacier forms are clearly expressed in their topography. Forest depletion contributed to a very strong development of karst formation in the Central Apennines. In the very south, the Apennines come extremely close to the Tyrrhenian coast and in some places plunge directly to the sea. The activity of the tidal bores has developed in the limestones specific topography forms of the coastline. The activity of the tidal bores developed in the limestones specific topography forms. In the west and east between the mountains and the coast lies a strip of flat or hilly topography; the structure is not related to the Apennines. On the west coast, steep shores alternate with low ones. There are also many bays and gulfs. The east coast in the north and in the central part is a lowland; it is marshy, with abundance of lagoons.

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The coastal stripes of Tyrrhenian and the Adriatic Sea on the Apennine Peninsula are characterized by the different structure and topography. The strip along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea reaches its greatest width in the north, where among the low, hilly plains rise the separate crystalline massifs – part of the same ancient land as the mountains of Calabria. Further to the south, the ancient and young volcanic formations begin to play a significant role in the structure and topography of the area adjacent to Apennines. There are a number lost volcanoes rising and plains stretching composed of volcanic rocks and dissected by rivers. On the hilly volcanic plain stands the capital of Italy, Rome. In many places of this area there are hot spring outlets. Further south, in the area of Naples, a double cone of Vesuvius, one of the most active volcanoes in Europe, rises. The vast areas around Vesuvius are covered with lava, which has poured out during numerous eruptions, and is covered with masses of volcanic ash. The most severe volcano eruption at the beginning of our era led to the death of three cities: Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae (79 AD), located at its foot. As a result of the excavations that began in the last century, Pompeii was partially liberated from under the strata of volcanic rocks that covered them and turned into a museum-reserve, widely known throughout the world. Stromboli Volcano on Stromboli Island located north of Sicily is active continuously throughout the entire historical time and was called the “lighthouse of the Tyrrhenian Sea,” the highest and most active volcano in Europe, with a height of 924 m. Strong earthquakes are not uncommon for the Apennine Peninsula. From the side of the Adriatic Sea at the foot of the Apennines lies a raised hilly strip, which is called Subapennin. In the southern part of Subapennines, they turn into a karst limestone plateau up to 1000 m high, which stretches from the Gargano Peninsula to the Salento Peninsula. On the Apennine Peninsula the main part of Italy, the Republic of San Marino and the Vatican state are located. The climate of the peninsula is Mediterranean, especially in the western part. However, highaltitude climate zone is of great importance, so that the actual Mediterranean climate is specific only for a relatively narrow coastal strip. From north to

Apennine Peninsula, Italian Peninsula

south, there is also a significant change in climatic conditions. The most typical Mediterranean climate is specific for the islands, especially for Sicily, as well as for the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula. The orography has a great influence on the climate, especially on the distribution of precipitation. In general, in the west the climate is warmer and more humid than in the east. The climatic specificities of the region largely depend on the Alps rising to the north of it, which are an almost formidable obstacle to the invasion of cold air from the north. Only in rare cases, at intervals of several decades, when an unusually severe winter begins in Western Europe, the cold air masses pass through the Alps or flow around them and spread far to the south. At the same time, there are frosts and snow all over the Apennine Peninsula. Especially soft is the climate of the coast of the Ligurian Sea – Riviera. This narrow coastal strip lying close to the sea from the north is protected by mountains from the invasion of cold air masses. Winter is usually warmer here than in the more southern regions of the Apennine Peninsula (average January temperature +8 °C); precipitation is abundant – up to 3000 mm, and their maximum falls in autumn. Summer is sunny and dry, intense heat is moderated by the proximity of the sea. Frosts on the Riviera are very rare phenomena, as well as the snowfalls. In the northern part of the peninsula, the climate is not so much mild as on the Riviera. The average January temperature in Florence and Rome is +5 °C and +6 °C, with frosts and snowfall occurring every year. The amount of precipitation in the west exceeds 1000 mm, and in the east it is usually no more than 500 mm; their maximum occurs in the fall and spring, when the polar front passes through these areas. The average July temperature is +24 °C and +25 °С. The climate of Calibria is much warmer, and Sicily is one of the warmest places in Europe. The average January temperature in Sicily is +11 °C . . . +12 °С, precipitation does not exceed 600 mm, they fall out within three winter months, and all other seasons are rainless. The climate gets cooler as we move up the mountains. In the Apennines at the latitude of Rome, the snow lies from November to March, and the slopes of Etna above 2000 m are covered with snow for a significant part of the year.

Apulia (Puglia)

The region is not rich with surface waters, and therefore, there are no long navigable rivers. The largest river is the Tiber (400 km long), on which stands the capital of Italy, Rome. The river regime is uneven and very clearly reflects the climate. All streams become shallow in the dry summer period, sometimes completely dry. They overflow with water during the winter and in the north during the autumn–spring rains. During especially heavy rainfall falling simultaneously in different parts of the basin, catastrophic floods occur. Thus, during the severest flood in November 1966, the Arno River rose several meters and flooded Florence with a layer of liquid mud. As a result, many art masterpieces, which were stored in the museums of this city, were lost. The Apennine Peninsula and the adjacent islands are characterized by a vegetation diversity, especially at a small height above sea level. The elements specific for the temperate zone still predominate in the natural and agricultural vegetation cover in the north. Only in the southern half of the peninsula and on the islands the vegetation and soils acquire a typically Mediterranean character. Some exception is the Riviera. It is one of the largest resort areas in Europe with rich decorative vegetation. The alleys of palm trees, groves of orange, olive and fig trees, vineyards, planted groves of cork oak, roses, and other flowering aromatic plants stretch along the coastline. On the shores of the northern part of the island, the vegetation and soils do not have manifested Mediterranean specificities. Deciduous trees and shrubs play an important role in the composition of the flora. Typical maquis and evergreen forests appear in the west around the area of Livorno, and as for the east, they occur only on the south of Ancona. As a rule, shrub vegetation is common at the site of destroyed forests, and primary shrubs in many places have given way to diverse crop vegetation. The natural evergreen forests have almost completely disappeared. In many places, groves of artificially planted Italian stone pines or evergreen oaks are common. Tangles of oleanders, brightly blossoming in spring, stretch along the river valleys. Among the cultivated plants the olive tree, grains, and vines dominate. Citrus plantations begin at the south of Rome, with the

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Calabria Peninsula best known for their orange groves. In the mountainous areas at an altitude of 500 m in the north and 1000 m in the south grew deciduous and mixed forests on brown forest and podzolic soils. However, most of these forests are carved out. The bare slopes of mountains are observed from everywhere. In these places, the intensive processes of soil slump and erosion occur. All of these processes are the result of deforestation, which in some places becomes catastrophic. On the tops of the highest mountains there are areas of alpine meadows; however, these areas are relatively small. On the slopes of Etna, there is a specific alpine relic vegetation. There are widespread tangles of shrubs, which include birch – a relic of the ice age. Due to the intensive forests devastation, wild fauna has been relatively poorly preserved. There are almost no large mammals. In rare cases, in the Apennines, chamois may be met. There are also wild sheep mouflon and the Sardinian wild mountain goat. Among the small mammals there is a ferret, wild cat, hedgehog, and hare. There are a lot of different birds and reptiles. Coastal waters are rich in fish. Tuna and sardines are especially appreciated. The region is not as rich in minerals as other parts of southern Europe. There are almost no reserves of mineral fuels; however, there are small deposits of iron ore. The latter are concentrated in the Tyrrhenian Alpine region. The crystalline rocks of many regions are a valuable building and cladding material.

Apulia (Puglia) Apulia (Puglia) – a region in southern Italy, the southeastern brow of the Apennine Peninsula with Cape Otranto, the easternmost point of the country. It is characterized by the longest coastline among continental areas, washed from the east by the Adriatic Sea and the Strait of Otranto and from the southwest by the Gulf of Taranto of the Ionian Sea. Apulia is an “Italian shoe heel.” It is bordered by the areas of Basilicata, Campania, and Abruzzo to the west. It includes the provinces

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of Bari, Brindisi, Lecce, Taranto, and Foggia. Its area is of 19,360 km2. The main cities are Bari, Taranto, Brindisi, Foggia, and Lecce. The population is 4.1 million people (2016).

Apulia (Puglia) area, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Apulia#/media/File:Apulia_in_Italy.svg)

Apulia (Puglia)

Plains (53.3%) and hills (45.3%) are specific for Apulia, 1.5% of its territory is covered by mountains, which makes the region the least mountainous in Italy. Forest area contains only 5%. The predominant vegetation is an evergreen shrub (maquis). The Gargano massif (over 1000 m), the Tavoliere Plain, Le Murge Plateau, and the Salento Peninsula stand out due to their natural conditions. The limestone Gargano massif is mountainous in the inner part of its area and marshy near the coast. It is not suitable for settlement and economic activity. The flat Tavoliere Plain adjacent to Gargano massif from the west is characterized by its fertile soils, and thus, it is the breadbasket of Apulia. The hilly Le Murge Plateau is abundant with deep depressions and hollows, and it is riverless. It is situated to the south from Gargano massif. The Salento Peninsula is a hilly lowland, almost entirely used for vineyards, olive plantations, and orchards, including industrial crops. The climate is Mediterranean, and the annual precipitation is 500–600 mm. There is little surface water. The main river is Aufidus River (at the present it is Ofanto River). There are orchards and vineyards on the irrigated areas. Apulia is one of the main agricultural areas of Italy. About 30% of the cultivated area is occupied by orchards, olive, and fruit trees. Horticulture is developed on the

Torre Sant’Andrea (Lecce). (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia#/media/File:Torre_Sant’Andrea_(Lecce).jpg)

Aqua Alta

coast, and in some places truck gardening. More than 50% of the population are employed in agriculture. Apulia takes the first place in Italy for the grapes harvest and the wine production, and for the olives harvesting and olive oil production. It takes the second place for tobacco and almonds harvesting. There is significant cereal production (wheat, oats, barley) in Apulia, which was a traditional baker in ancient Rome. Horticulture and melon-growing (mainly on the Adriatic coast) are developed. As well as in the most of southern regions, the industry there is poorly developed. In Apulia there are the largest salt mines in Italy (Margherita di Savoia) and bauxite mines (Gargano Peninsula). Among the manufacturing industry, the most important are wine making, olive oil production, tobacco, and flour-grinding industry. There are separate enterprises of machine-building (shipbuilding), woodworking industry, metallurgy (Taranto), petroleum refining (Bari, Brindisi), petrochemical industry, fertilizer manufacturing, papermaking, garment industry, textile industry, and rubber industry (tire works in Bari). The main industrial centers and ports are Bari, Taranto, and Brindisi. In Taranto, the second most important naval port of Italy, there are shipyards and an arsenal. The ancient dwellers of Apulia were aveons (or apuls) who originally belonged to the local tribes, and later to the Illyrian ones. During the times of Augustus Apulia belonged to the second region of Italy. Diocletian transformed Apulia into the province. Appia and Trajan roads passed through Apulia. In the eighth to fifth centuries BC, Apulia was under the Greek colonies. It was the Greeks who founded the cities of Luceria, Venusia, Canusium, Sypontum, Gardenia, etc., as well as the ports of Brundisius, Bari, and Hydrup. The land was severely ravaged by the Romans during the times of the Samnite and Punic Wars. At the end of the Republic and during the Age of Empire, Apulia was a district of large extensive livestock farms, where large masses of slaves were concentrated. In 568, Apulia was conquered by the Lombards. In the first half of the ninth century the Arabs were established there. Later, however, they were pushed out by the

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Byzantines. A large role in the struggle against the Normans who raided Apulia was played by the Russian (so-called Varyag-Russians) troops (druzhinas), who were at the service of Byzantium. In the eleventh century, the Normans, led by Guilliame the Iron Hand, occupied Apulia. The Normans chief, Robert Guiscard, who received the title of Duke of Apulia in Calabria from the Pope, in 1071, captured the Byzantine stronghold in Italy – the city of Bari. In 1127, under Roger II reign, Apulia became a part of the Kingdom of Sicily. In the thirteenth century together with Southern Italy Apulia was passed to Charles of Anjou and became a part of the Kingdom of Naples, which in 1442 was conquered by Aragon after the unification of Aragon and Castile into a single Kingdom of Spain. Since 1502, Apulia has been a part of the Spanish Realm until 1713, when the Kingdom of Naples was separated from Spain. As a member of Kingdom of Naples, Apulia joined Italy. In 1861 the region became part of the Kingdom of Italy, with the new capital city in Turin.

Aqua Alta Aqua Alta – (Italian, “high water”) the name of a storm surge, often repeated in Venice. These storm surges occur about 20–30 days a year from October to March. The main reasons for “high water” are a decrease in atmospheric pressure, rain, winds, and seiche oscillations of the Adriatic Sea. Local decreases in atmospheric pressure to 736 mm and lower are able to cause a rise in the water level in the lagoon by 10–20 cm, and in exceptional cases by 30 cm. Seiches, the standing waves in the Adriatic Sea that can raise the level of the lagoon by 65–90 cm, are also associated with atmospheric pressure variations. Atmospheric precipitation falling in the area of Venice in winter, including the catchment basin of rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea, causes seasonal rises in the water level by 10–20 cm. The most significant rise in the water level is caused by the southeastern wind – Sirocco, which drives a storm wave into the lagoon. With a wind speed of about

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Aquarium of Piran

Aqua Alta in Venice on 13 November 2019. (Source: Marco Bertorello/AFP via Getty Images, https://edition.cnn.com/ 2019/11/13/world/gallery/venice-flooding-autumn-2019-intl/index.html)

60 km/h, the water level in the lagoon can rise more than 90 cm, without taking into account the height of the waves. The possible maximum of the level rise is about 250 cm. The probability of such a disaster is one case in 10,000 years, and events equal to the strongest flooding of November 4, 1966 (194 cm) are once in 250 years. Specifically “high water” is considered a water level rise of more than 110 cm. At the same time, up to 70% of the territory of Venice is flooded, where landmarks are 107–130 cm above average sea level. Over the past 100 years, 68 cases of “high water” have been recorded, and in the first 65 years, this occurred on average one time in 5 years, in the next 25 years annually, and in the last 10 years three times a year. Artificial changes in the lagoon and, especially, in its straits (with the deepening of the latter, the extinguishing role is reduced) and the sitting of the city and lagoon contribute to the increase in “high water.” With large storm surges, water usually floods the central square of St. Mark (Piazza San Marco) in Venice at 1.5 m, and then you can see the gondolas floating on it and even under the colonnade of the Doge’s Palace. According to the records of the Tide Monitoring

and Forecast Centre of Venice, the second high water between the maximal documented levels was observed on November 12, 2019 (187 cm).

Aquarium of Piran Aquarium of Piran – is a large aquarium located in the old harbor of Piran, Slovenia. Opened in 1964 in a former high school, it consists of 25 containers of 12 m3 each. They use only sea water, which constantly supplied and discharged into the sea with the help of pumps. Here you can observe the life of many fish, mollusks, and crustaceans which are specific for the waters of the Adriatic coast.

Aquileia Aquileia – Ancient Roman city in the eastern region of Veneto, 45 km from Trieste, Italy. It was founded in 181 BC as the Latin colony of Rome to protect the northeastern borders of Italy

Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)

from the barbarians and pirates. Aquileia was an important trading center on routes to Northern and Eastern Europe, from the eastern ports of North Africa and Greece; since the time of Marcus Aurelius Aquileia has been one of the fortresses of the Roman Empire. At the walls of Aquileia in 167 AD Marcomanni were defeated; in 238 AD it was besieged by the troops of Maximinus of Thrace; in 361 AD, it was conquered by Julian; and in 452 AD, it was completely razed by Attila. In the Middle Ages, Aquileia became an independent clerical city-state, which was nominally subordinated to Byzantium and the Patriarchate. Aquileia belonged to the inner Istria. Subsequently, Aquileia fell under the control of the Austrian Habsburgs. Currently it is a small seaside town. The population is about 3300 people. (2017). The city is famous for the National Archaeological Museum (founded in 1882), one of the largest in the north of Italy. To the east of the ancient city, a river port with a 300-m quay wall was excavated.

“ARTS HALIEUTICA” “ARTS HALIEUTICA” – program of study, research, and presentation of the experience of people living at sea. The main objective of the program, launched in 1986, is a comprehensive scientific reconstruction, preservation of the heritage of polytechnic knowledge, art and craftsmanship of shipbuilders, fishermen, sailors, and a broad presentation of the maritime cultural heritage of the Croatian Adriatic coast. The program initiated a project for the reconstruction of a traditional fishing boat from Komiža on Vis Island – falkusha (gajeta falkuča). Subsequently, the program included projects for the reconstruction of other historical ships of the Adriatic. Since 1992, the program has been integrated into the International Scientific Project under the auspices of UNESCO “The Evolution of Wooden Shipbuilding in the Eastern Mediterranean during the XVIII-XIX Centuries.” Since 1995, the program has also been developed by the Commission for the Study and Preservation of Croatian Shipbuilding Heritage in the Shipbuilding Division of the

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Scientific Council of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. In 1996, the program was merged with the international cultural project of the EU “Raphael.”

Association of Mediterranean Maritime Museums (AMMM) Association of Mediterranean Maritime Museums (AMMM) – created as a nonprofit organization to maintain, enhance, and strengthen the activities of the maritime museums of the Mediterranean Basin. The association aims to guarantee the preservation of maritime history and culture in accordance with professional quality standards in relation to collections, heritage, ships, and projects; raising professional standards and supporting research related to maritime heritage and maritime history; ensuring and preserving maritime heritage; development of cooperation between members of the organization in the field of research publications, exhibitions, etc.; supporting the legislation favoring the realization of declared purposes. In addition, the association should work on the implementation of the aims declared by the International Congress of Maritime Museums (ICMM) and the International Council of Museums (ICOM), and act as an advisory committee in both organizations. The association is headed by a president and a vice president. Its work is carried out by the General Assembly and the Executive Committee in accordance with the existing Statutes. The headquarters of the association is located in the Maritime Museum of Barcelona, Spain.

Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) – a pelagic sea fish of a Scombridae family. Fishes of this genus are the largest ones. Its length is up to 2 m, weight is up to 500–600 kg. It is a sea thermophilic predator, which prefers water with a temperature of 18–22 °C, salinity approximately

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37–38‰. The specificity of the Atlantic bluefin tuna anatomy is that scales preserved around the head and form a “corset.” This is the only fish body temperature which is higher than the water temperature. Atlantic bluefin tuna is constantly in motion, and it can reach speeds of up to 45 knots (83 km/h), opercles open in tact with the movements of the caudal fin, that is, stop for him is equivalent to death. The taste of its valuable meat is like veal, and sometimes it is called “sea veal.” It has a great commercial value. The catch quota for Atlantic bluefin tuna in 2010 was 13,500 t. In recent years there has been a sharp decrease in the livestock population of Atlantic bluefin tuna, over the past 20 years, the Atlantic bluefin tuna population in the Mediterranean has decreased by 85%. The farming of Atlantic bluefin tuna is carried on in Italy and Croatia.

Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda)

Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda) Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda) – a schooling predatory pelagic fish of the Scombridae family. The color of the back is blue-green, the sides and belly are silvery-white. On the upper half of the body there are usually at least nine oblique longitudinal dark stripes. Its length is up to 90 cm (average 60–65 cm), and weight is up to 7 kg (usually 3–4 kg). Spawning is portional. Fecundity is 0.4–4 million eggs. Maturation occurs in 2 years. It is growing fast. Juveniles feed on crustaceans, and adults on large fish (horse mackerel, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, etc.). It is widely spread throughout the Adriatic Sea; however, it is most frequently found in its middle part. In the eastern part of the sea, catches reach approximately 100 t. It is suitable for canning and smoking. The meat has a rich chemical composition. It contains chlorine and sodium, sulfur and zinc, manganese and fluorine, phosphorus, potassium, iodine, and other elements. In addition, the fish contains a lot of vitamins (A, B, C, E). It is believed that regular consumption of dishes cooked of this fish promotes tissue regeneration and improves the general condition of the brain and spinal cord.

Atlantic Horse Mackerel, European Horse Mackerel (in the USA), Common Scad, Scad, and Saurel (Common Mackerel, Trachurus Trachurus)

Adriatic Bluefin tuna. On 29 October 2018, Zoran Srdarev Mure has caught a tuna fish weighting 317 kg near Cres Island, Kvarner Region, Croatia. (Photo: Ante Baranic, Source: https://www.croatia-times.com/the-adriatic-times/ the-largest-adriatic-tuna-caught-near-cres/)

Atlantic Horse Mackerel, European Horse Mackerel (in the USA), Common Scad, Scad, and Saurel (Common Mackerel, Trachurus Trachurus) – marine pelagic schooling fish of the Carangidae family. The back is dark, and the belly is silvery. There is a dark spot at the upper edge of the operculum. Body length is up to 40 cm, and weight is up to 1.8 kg. The fish of 15–25 cm long is usually caught. Keeps at depths of 80–200 m, and sometimes up to 600 m. It is found everywhere in the Adriatic Sea. Catches reach 400 t.

Atlantic stargazer (loc.) (Uranoscopus scaber)

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Atlantic bonito. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Atlantic_bonito#/ media/File:Sarda_sarda. jpg)

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Atlantic horse mackerel. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Atlantic_horse_mackerel#/ media/File:Atlantic_Horse_ Mackerel.jpg)

Atlantic Mackerel. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Atlantic_mackerel#/ media/File:A_mackerel. jpg)

Atlantic Mackerel, Boston Mackerel, Norwegian Mackerel, Scottish Mackerel, or Mackerel (Scomber Scombrus) Atlantic Mackerel, Boston Mackerel, Norwegian Mackerel, Scottish Mackerel, or Mackerel (Scomber Scombrus) – a pelagic schooling fish of Scomber genus, Scombridae family. The body is fusiform, slightly compressed from the sides, and entirely covered with fine scales. The head is pointed. The mouth is large, the eyes are large, and the teeth are small. Its back has a bluish color with numerous transverse curved black stripes above the lateral line. The belly is bright silver. The length of the fish is up to 50 cm, and weight is up to 1.8 kg. It becomes sexually mature in the third year of life, performs long-distance

migrations, and serves as food to predatory fish. The meat is delicious. In the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea catches reach 150 t.

Atlantic stargazer (loc.) (Uranoscopus scaber) Atlantic stargazer (loc.) (Uranoscopus scaber) – It belongs to the family of Uranoscopidae, a specific group of bottom fish, tracking down prey swimming over them from an ambush well disguised in the ground. Its mouth and eyes are located on top, which creates the impression that it is constantly looking through the water at the sky (hence the name). It has small spikes on its broad head and operculum; the longest one, reverted, is located on

“Atlas of the Lagoon of Venice”

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the proscapula. The main color is gray-brownish or gray-brown, dark on the back, and more lightful on the belly; on the sides there are dark longitudinal stripes, and the first dorsal fin is black. The length reaches 30 cm. It wages a sedentary lifestyle, and most of the time it lies buried in the sand, exposing only the eyes and half-open mouth, luring prey by a long, worm-like, mandibular respiratory membrane. Stargazer occurs in many areas of the Adriatic Sea, mainly at depths from 10 to 200 m. It breeds from May to August, fertility up to 125,000 eggs. Small fishes, such as bull-calves, goatfish, atherina, mollusks, and others, serve as food to it. Stargazer has no commercial value. It is also rare in amateur catches. To see it under water when it lies low is very difficult. When handling the stargazer, one must be careful, since the punctures of its spines are very painful.

“Audache” pier “Audache” pier – separates the two basins of the Old Port in Trieste, Italy. In 1740, in this place, the San Carlo sailboat sank, and the city authorities used it as the basis for the construction of the lighthouse. In 1751, a 95 m long pier was built, which was named in honor of the sailing ship. By 1860, the pier was enlarged to 246 m. On November 3, 1918, at the end of the First World War, the first ship of the Italian Navy, the destroyer “Audace” (“The Brave”) entered the port of Trieste and the Italian division landed. In memory of this event, the pier bears his name. At the end of the pier, a memorial sign was erected in the form of a windrose with an inscription glorifying the heroism of the destroyer sailors. At the present days, passenger ships are moored here.

“Atlas of the Lagoon of Venice” “Atlas of the Lagoon of Venice” – In 2002, the Laguna Natural Observatory was formed with the aim of creating an “Atlas of the Lagoon of Venice.” In 2003–2005 a book version of the atlas was created and printed. In 2006, the atlas was available online (the English version was created in 2009). The atlas is based on an ecosystem approach that determines its content: Venice Lagoon, its catchment and coastal areas. The atlas includes 103 illustrations grouped into five main thematic sections: geosphere (climate, geology and geomorphology, water resources); biosphere (animals, plants); anthroposphere (pollution, territorial transformation); environmental protection (social dynamics, administrative control); and integrated analysis (combinations of topics and relationships between them). The atlas was created as a result of cooperation between the Institute of Marine Sciences, the Venice Institute of Sciences, Literature and the Arts, the Technical University (Berlin, Germany), and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute (Boston, USA).

Aufidus Aufidus – see “▶ Ofanto River.”

Augustus (Gaius Octavius Until 44 BC, from 44 BC Gaius Julius Caesar Octavius, from 27 BC Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus) (63 BC–14 AD) Augustus (Gaius Octavius Until 44 BC, from 44 BC Gaius Julius Caesar Octavius, from 27 BC Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus) (63 BC–14 AD) – Roman Emperor (from 27 BC), commander. After the victory over the combined Fleet of Mark Antony and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra (31 BC), he became an absolutist dictator. The Senate awarded him the honorary title of

Augustus (63 BC–14 AD)

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“Augustus,” which means “Exalted by the gods.” He founded a political regime, which was called the principate. During the Augustus reign, the conquest of Spain was accomplished. Then Egypt, Moesia, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Germany were conquered. He continually improved the Army organization.

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Augustus. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augus tus#/media/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg)

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Bacchiglione Bacchiglione – the river in the north of Italy related to the basin of the Adriatic Sea, flowing into the Adriatic Sea. The basin area is approximately 6 km2. It is one of the typical reservoirs of Naccari sturgeon or Adriatic sturgeon.

Baillie Henry (About 1763–1826) Baillie Henry (About 1763–1826) – Rear Admiral. In 1783, he was taken from the English Fleet to serve in the Russian Fleet as a Midshipman and sent to the Don Flotilla. In 1784–1787 he commanded a small ship in the Sea of Azov as a Lieutenant. In 1788, as a commander of the schooner “Pobedoslava Dunaysky,” cruised with the Fleet and participated in the battle of Fidonisi. In 1789 he was promoted to Captain-Lieutenant and conducted a campaign on the Black Sea. In 1790 he was in cruise and participated in the battles of the Kerch Strait and Hajibey, and in 1791 at the Kaliakra Cape. In 1792–1798 he commanded the frigate on the Black Sea. In 1798, Baillie went with the archipelago squadron of F.F. Ushakov on the Mediterranean Sea, and participated in the liberation of the islands of Cerigo, Zante, in the blockade of Corfu. In 1799, Baillie was promoted to Captain 2 rank, commander of the frigate “Schastliviy.” He

commanded the landing operations at the city of Manfredonia, Italy, from where he began a victorious march to Naples, captured the city of Foggia, and occupied Naples. When Emperor Paul I learned about this, he declared: “Baillie surprised me, and I will surprise him too!” He awarded the Lieutenant-commander with the General’s Order of St. Anna of I class. In 1800–1801 he was at the shores of Naples. In 1802 he returned to Sevastopol. In 1803 he was promoted to Captain of the 1st rank. In 1804, he commanded the ship “Azov” in the squadron of Admiral D.N. Senyavin, moved from Sevastopol to Corfu, and the next year he cruised in the Mediterranean. In 1806, with a detachment of three ships, he arrived from Corfu in the Adriatic Sea and captured the Port of Cattaro (Kotor) in Montenegro, which became the base for the Russian Mediterranean squadron, as well as the Curzalo fortress and Lissa Island. In 1807, he sailed in the Adriatic Sea, participated in the blockade of Patras Island, and was inducted into the rank of Captain commanders. In 1808–1812 (as an Englishman, since there was a war with England) by the highest order he was sent to Saratov. In 1812 he returned and was appointed to command the ship on the Black Sea, and in 1813 at the Port of Sevastopol. In the years 1814–1816 he commanded the 59th Naval crew in Sevastopol. In 1816 he was promoted to Rear Admiral. In 1817–1826 commanded the 3rd Naval brigade in Sevastopol.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Henry Baillie. (Source: http://impereur.blogspot.com/ 2019/01/henry-baillie-1763-1826.html)

Balkan Peninsula Balkan Peninsula – the peninsula in southern Europe. The area is about 505,00 km2. The greatest distance from west to east is approximately 1260 km, from north to south – 950 km. It is washed from the west by the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea, from the east the Black, Marmara, and Aegean seas. Conventional continental borders of the Balkan Peninsula are the Danube River to the mouth of the Sava River, and then the line to the top of the Gulf of Trieste of the Adriatic Sea. Bulgaria, the most of the territory that was previously part of the state of Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, the southern regions of Romania, the western regions of Turkey, and a small northeastern region of Italy are situated on the Balkan Peninsula. The shores are heavily dissected. They are mostly high, steep, with small bays of a Dalmatian type in the west and lobed type in the south. The coastline of the Adriatic Sea is extremely embayed. There are also a large number of islands, especially in the Aegean Sea. The total

Balkan Peninsula

area of islands adjacent to the Balkan Peninsula is about 21,500 km2. The topography of the Balkan Peninsula is predominantly mountainous. It is characterized by the extreme roughness of the surface, and the presence of numerous intermontane depressions. In the northeast of the peninsula there are the Pirin Mountains, Rila (Musala, 2925 m, is the highest mountain in the Balkan Peninsula), and the Rhodope Mountains. To the north of the Rhodope Mountains stretch the Stara Planina Mountains, separated from them by longitudinal hollows. In the north they gradually fall to the hilly Danube Plain. These mountains are characterized by the predominance of relatively gentle slopes and peaks of soft outlines. In Rila and Pirin alpine type the relief occurs. Along the entire western margin of the Balkan Peninsula stretches the Dinaric Plateau to the south in the mountains of Pind and the mountains of the Peloponnese Peninsula. These mountains are characterized by steep slopes and an abundance of deep gorges; they are characterized by plateau-like summits. Karst topography forms are widely developed, especially in the west and north-west of the Dinaric Highland (Karst Plateau or Kras). The plains are mainly related to marginal areas, and partly to intramountain depressions. The largest of them are the Thracian, Thessaloniki, Thessalian, Albanian Lowlands, the southern parts of the Lower Danube, and Middle Danube Plains. The climate in the central and northern regions of the Balkan Peninsula is moderately continental, and in the rest part of the peninsula it is Mediterranean. In addition to these basic types, there are various transitional climates. In the mountains, there is a high-altitude climate zone. The average July temperature in the north is 22–23 °C, and in the south 25–27 °C; the average January temperature, respectively, is from 1 °С to 2 °С (in the mountains it decreases below 5 °С) to 8–11 °С. In the mountainous west, the annual precipitation is 1000–1500 mm; in the eastern and southern part of the Balkan Peninsula (except for high mountains) the precipitation is less than 1000 mm; and in some places it is less than 500 mm. The longest rivers are the Maritsa, Morava, Iskar, and Struma and the border Danube and

Balkan Peninsula

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Balkan Peninsula. (Source: https://maps-for-free.com/ #close)

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Sava Rivers. Most of the rivers are mountainous, cataracted, tumultuous (especially along the upper reaches); they are often alternate with parts of the mountain and plain flows. The rivers are deep in winter and spring. Low water occurs in summer. Small rivers in the southern and eastern parts of the peninsula dry up in summer. Rivers are characterized by energy value, they are used for irrigation, and the largest ones are suitable for shipping. The large lakes are Skadar, Ohrid, and Prespa which are located in tectonic depressions. There are many karst lakes. Lakes in the Rila Mountains are of glacial origin. There are many crescentic lakes in the valley of the Danube River. Subtropical brown and mountain brown typical and calcareous soils predominate in the southern part of the peninsula; on the Adriatic coast, the red terrarosa soils are widespread. In the mountainous and foothill regions of the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, there are mountain-forest brown and mountain-forest humus-calcareous, and brown forest soils are developed. On the Danube Plain chernozems and transitional types from brown forest soils to brown soils are widely spread. The black compacted Smolnitsa soils occur on the Maritsa River Lowland.

There are more than 6500 species of plants on the Balkan Peninsula. There is a large percentage of endemic species (about 27%). The slopes of the mountains are often rocky and bare. On the south in the lower mountainous belt zone there is Mediterranean vegetation with evergreen oak and pine forests and tangles of shrubs (maquis). Above 400–500 m, as well as in the areas located further to the north, there is a transitional belt with forests of evergreen and deciduous broadleaf trees; tangles of xerophytic deciduous shrubs (shibljak) are specific for this area. In the north and in the mountains of the inner part of the Balkan Peninsula, the forests formed of Central European species prevail: in the lower zone, there is mainly deciduous oak, and in the higher areas, and there are beech and coniferous (fir and pine) species. The upper boundary of the forest is located at an altitude of 1800–2000 m. On the plains of the extreme northeast, steppe vegetation occurs. Steppe and forest-steppe plains, the northern and eastern parts are plowed up; corn, wheat, tobacco, grapes are cultivated; there are also plum and apple orchards. In addition, in the south olives, citrus fruits, and pomegranates are cultivated. On the most part of the Balkan Peninsula farming requires artificial irrigation.

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Among mammals there are fox, otter, wildcat, wild boar, red deer, roe deer, chamois, bear, jackal, Iberian lynx, mole rat, and bats. The fauna of birds, reptiles (lizards, snakes, Greek tortoises), amphibians (tritons, frogs, toads, in the western part of the caves – olms), and mollusks are rich and diverse. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, and Turkey are situated on the Balkan Peninsula. Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, and Croatia are members of the European Union. Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia, and Turkey are members of NATO. On the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, there are important transport routes connecting Western Europe with South-West Asia. The Balkan Peninsula is home to many ancient cultures and civilizations.

Balkan Union Balkan Union – military-political union of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro. The union was created in 1912 under the auspices of the Russian Empire against AustriaHungary. The Balkan Union began feud with the Ottoman Empire, since a large number of Bulgarians, Greeks, and Serbs lived in the weakening empire. In addition, the Bulgarian government wanted to extend the borders of Bulgaria, creating a Greater Bulgaria – an empire that was supposed to cover the entire eastern part of the Balkans. The Serbs desired an access to the Adriatic Sea, annexing Western Macedonia and Albania to their country. Montenegrins sought to occupy the large Turkish ports on the Adriatic and Novi Pazar sandjak. The Greeks, as well as the Bulgarians, needed to extend the boundaries of their country. There were, however, contradictions in the union. Thus, Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia argued about the identity of Macedonia, and Greece and Bulgaria about the identity of Thrace.

Balkan Union

Balkan Wars Balkan Wars – two wars of 1912–1913 and 1913, which occurred shortly before the First World War, as a result of which the countries of the Balkan Peninsula pushed the Turks out from European territory. (1) The First Balkan War – the war of the Balkan Union (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire from September 25 (October 8), 1912, to May 17 (30), 1913. The cause of the war was the desire of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece to expand their territories. The war ended with the London Peace Treaty. The first period of the war (October–December 1912) was characterized by a large-scale offensive by the forces of the Balkan Union. During the truce, the fightings were ceased by Turkey, Serbia, and Bulgaria; however, Greece and Montenegro continued the war. The second period of the war (February–May 1913) was characterized as a positional war, with the exception of the assault on Adrianople (Audrin). At the end of the First Balkan War, the countries participating in the Balkan Union were not satisfied with the London Peace Treaty, which led to the Second Balkan War. (2) The Second Balkan War (Interallied War) – short termed war of June 29–July 29, 1913, for the division of Macedonia between Bulgaria, on the one hand, and Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece, on the other, as well as the Ottoman Empire and Romania, which joined the military actions against Bulgaria. The war was provoked by diplomats from AustriaHungary and the German Empire, who sought to destroy the Balkan alliance. Bulgaria, which had unleashed the war, was defeated, as a result of which France, Austria-Hungary, and Germany enhanced their influence on the Balkan Peninsula, undermining the position of the Russian Empire. The territory conquered by Bulgaria in the First Balkan War was divided among the victor countries.

Bar

Bar Bar – the city, the largest port and resort on the coast of the Adriatic Sea in the south of Montenegro. The ancient Greeks called the city Antibareos (Antibareos), the Romans – Antibarium, and the Slavs – Bar, the Albanians call it Tivar (Tivari), the Italians – Antirivo. Historians believe that the settlement of Bari on the Apennine Peninsula in Italy gave the city the prefix “anti,” that is, “Opposite.” Subsequently, in the sixth to seventh centuries, the Slavs who came here shortened the Greek word, and so the city became Bar. The city consists of two parts – Old Bar and New Bar. New Bar is a modern city, rebuilt after the First World War. Population is approximately 42,000 people (2011). There is a junction of the railway Bar – Podgorica – Belgrade, built in 1976. The seaport (the sea gate of Montenegro), built in 1954, consists of three parts: marina – parking for launches,

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boats, yachts designed for 600 moorings at sea and 250 on the shore in winter for vessels of a maximum length of 35 m; ferry moorings and an open port for the entry and stay of civilian and military coast guard courts; ferries Sveti Stefan and Sveti Stefan II go from here to the cities of Italy, such as Bari and Ancona, as well as to Albania. The port allows to ship and take 4.5 million tons of cargo. Here is a large petroleum depot. The local population has long been engaged in crafts, production, and sale of olive oil. In the 1920s olive oil has been exported to America, France, and Germany. Bar is famous for the “Primorka” food industry enterprise located here, producing olive oil and pomegranate juice. In the municipal region there are 110,000 olive trees and approximately 80,000 citrus fruits (lemons, oranges, tangerines, and grapefruits). Since 1937, the center for the cultivation of subtropical crops has been operating

The City of Bar, Montenegro. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar,_Montenegro#/media/File:Bar-Montenegro2018.jpg)

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Bar

Marina in Bar. (Source: Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

in Bar. In the future, it is planned to develop new industrial zones and preparation for the creation of a tax free zone. The Old Bar is located 4 km east of Bar, a fortress on a hill at the foot of the Rumija Mountain, which has been built for many centuries. This is the historical center of modern Bar. The first mention of it dates back to the ninth century. Bar reaches its prosperity in the period from 1183 to 1443. In 1443 it was passed to Venice, and in 1571 the city was occupied by the Turks. In 1878, the Montenegrins liberated the city. Historians tend to believe that it was founded by the Byzantines, although there is an assumption that a Roman Castle was located on the same plateau. The oldest monument of the past centuries, preserved to the present day in Bar, is the city gate (tenth to eleventh centuries). Not far

from the gate there is the citadel, which served the local people for defense. In the old part of Bar, you can see the preserved foundation of the cathedral, built in the eleventh century in the Romano-Gothic style, two churches, constructed in the Gothic style, as well as a powder factory and a bathhouse (hamam) are monuments preserved from the time of Ottoman reign. The walls of St. Nicholas Church, built in the thirteenth century, are preserved in the western part. On a small square in the center of the Old part there is a well-preserved church of St. John. The old part of Bar is also famous for the remains of the aqueduct of the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries, which supplied the city with water from the mountains. In 1979, the Old Bar was destroyed by an earthquake, but subsequently not fully restored.

Bar Riviera

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Old Bar. (Source: Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

Bar is often called the city of olives. According to the Montenegrin legend, every inhabitant should plant 10 olives, otherwise one will not meet his love. Olive is a symbol of the city. Bar is a city of historical records: the oldest olive tree in the world, or “Bar olive,” in Mirovice, dating back 2000 years, with a trunk diameter of 10 m (since 1957 it is under the protection of the state), is related to the four oldest trees in the world (others in Athens, Jerusalem, and Palermo); the first monument of writing; the “railroad” Limlyani village from the Guinness Book of Records. The world’s first wireless telegraph radio transmission was conducted by Italian engineer G. Marconi (pioneer of wireless telegraph research, Nobel Prize winner) from Bar to Bari across the sea in 1904. The ruins of the ancient city are called “Montenegrin Pompey.” In the port of Bar there

is the submerged yacht of King Nikola, and in the port area on the seabed lies the German cruiser “Vorwarts”.

Bar Riviera Bar Riviera – the name of the resort area of the city of Bar, Montenegro. It starts at cape Dubovitsa right behind the Budva Riviera and ends in the area of Cape Stary Ulcinj, where the Ulcinj Riviera begins. The main specificity of the coastline of the Bar Riviera, the length of which is 44 km, is a frequent drop in the depths of the sea. First of all, Bar Riviera is the city of Bar itself, Old Bar or just the Old City. The coastal line in the area of Bar is very flat and

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Baratynskiy Ilya Andreevich (1776–1837)

Stara Maslina (Old olive tree). (Source: Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

quite broad one. To the south of Bar there are the Dobri Vodi, Dubrava, and Utjeha areas. In this area, the coast is very indented, abundant with deep bays. In a short distance there are two fortresses – Golo Brdo and Hai-Nehaj. There are numerous old olive trees – one of the main historical attractions of the place with more than two thousand years of history. This also includes the small town of Sutomore with a large sandy beach. The famous golden beaches are covered from the mainland by cypresses and pines. Between Shushan (northern suburb of Bar) and Sutomore there are two beautiful beaches: closer to Bar is the pebbled beach of Zukotrlitca, surrounded by a thick pine forest, and Red Beach, which was named so due to the color of sand and small pebbles covering the coast.

Baratynskiy Ilya Andreevich (1776–1837) Baratynskiy Ilya Andreevich (1776–1837) – Russian Rear Admiral. In 1788 he graduated from the Marine Corps and was promoted to Midshipmen. Cruising with the Fleet in the Baltic Sea, in 1788–1790 he took part in the battles of Gogland, Öland, Krasnaya Gorka, and Vyborg. Sent then to Arkhangelsk, Baratynskiy in 1792–1793 he made the transition from Arkhangelsk to Kronstadt on the frigate “St. Michael”; in 1793–1795, he was promoted to Lieutenant and sailed to the German (the North Sea) and the Baltic Seas and near the shores of England. At the end of the campaign in 1795, Baratynskiy entered the English Fleet as a volunteer and from 1790 to 1798 sailed in the

Bari

Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Spain annually, and for participation in the battle of the English Fleet against the Spanish at San Vincent. In 1797 he was inducted into the rank of CaptainLieutenant. In 1798 he was called to Russia. There Baratynskiy was granted an aide-de-camp and commanded the “Parmen” and then “Yaroslavl” ships. In 1799, in the squadron, which departed from Arkhangelsk to the shores of England under the command of his elder brother, Vice-Admiral B.A. Baratynsky, he sailed to the German Sea. In 1800, having transferred from the squadron to Portsmouth, Baratynskiy took Russian landing troops onto the board of “Yaroslavl,” returned to Reval (Tallinn) with them, and then was inducted into the rank of the Post Captain. From 1802 to 1805, Baratynskiy commanded the Second Rowing Squadron, and then, taking command of the ship “St. Peter,” sailed from Kronstadt to Corfu; in 1806 and 1807 he sailed in the Adriatic waters, participated in the capture of the Tenedos Fortress and in the battles against the Turkish Fleet at the Dardanelles and at Mount Athos, after which he moved from the Archipelago to Bocca di Cattaro. For the campaign of 1807 he was inducted into the rank of Captain-commander. After that, in 1808, Baratynskiy returned from Dalmatia to St. Petersburg and was granted the rank of Rear Admiral.

Bari Bari – (1) a city in southern Italy, the center of the Apulia region and the province of Bari. It is situated on the bank of the Adriatic Sea. The population is 326,800 people (2015). It is a large port, industrial center, railway junction, and the international airport. Oil refining, steel and tube-rolling industry, food, tobacco, and chemical production are also presented here. Fishing is developed. There are also University, Higher Commercial School, Archaeological Museum, architectural and religious monuments of the twelfth and

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Ilya Andreevich Baratynskiy. (Source: https://ru. wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D0% B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA% D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%98%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1% 8F_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5% D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87)

thirteenth centuries, including the NormanoSvevo castle (1132), built by the founder of the Kingdom of Sicily, King Roger II, the cathedral of 1178, the Aqueduct Palace, the Pinakothek with collection of paintings from the eleventh century. Interesting is the Swabian Castle, built by the German Emperor Frederick II, as well as the Cathedral of San Sabino. The spirit of the city is its theaters – Piccini, Petruzzelli, and Margarita, as well as the magnificent promenade built in the time of Mussolini. Between the old and the new harbor lies the old city of Bari. There is basilica, in which the reliquiae of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (in Russian, Nikolaos of Myra) are located, equally revered by Christians of all faiths. In 1087, the reliquiae were secretly taken out of Myra in Lycia and since then stored in the crypt

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Bari

The City of Bari, Italy. (Source: https://www.civitatis.com/en/bari/bike-tour/)

of the Basilica of St. Nicholas, specially built to accommodate them. The Orthodox St. Nicholas Church is also located here, designed in the way of the Old Novgorod City (in Russia) by the famous Soviet architect Academician A.V. Shchusev, in which the offices are conducted by the Russian priest of the Moscow Patriarchate. Founded by the Romans (Lat. Barium). In the Roman era, Bari played an important role as a handling terminal in trade between Rome and the east. In 109 AD Via Traiana passed through Barium, which branched off from Via Appia and ran through Brundisium (present-day Brindisi), Beneventum (Benevento), and Kanusium (Canosa di Puglia). Since the vast majority of the Roman cargo traffic to Greece, Egypt, and Asia Minor accounted for Brundisium, the shortening of the Rome-Brundisium trade route was of great importance. Barium, as one of the transition points along the way, received its share of economic and administrative benefits. In the ninth century power over Barium was at hands of the

Saracens, who created the Bari Emirate and laid here a fortress, first captured by the Byzantines, and then in 1071 by the Normans. In 1096 Peter the Hermit preached in Bari. His speeches inspired a large party of crusaders to sail from the city to the Holy Land. In 1098, a council was held in Bari under the chairmanship of Pope of Rome Urban II on the question of schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. William the Wicked pillaged Bari in 1156; however, Frederick II considered it necessary to restore its fortifications. A new period of commercial and urban flourishing occurred in the city during the Normans reign between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the city was ruled by a ducal dynasty, during which the city fell into decay. Much has been done to restore his well-being by Isabella of Naples (it is supposed that it was she, who inspired to create the image of Mona Lisa). Later, the duchy returned to the Kingdom of Naples.

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The Port of Bari. (Source: https://www.cruisemapper.com/ports/bari-port-73)

(2) One of the most important seaports in Italy, which is located 20 km north-west of the MoladyBari harbor. It is of great economic importance, because the trade of Bari is made through it. The port consists of the New and the Old Harbor, protected by an advanced breakwater system. The old harbor, located opposite the eastern part of the City of Bari, is shallow and suitable only for ships with shallow draft. Before the Second World War, the port was expanded and re-equipped. The new harbor was built in the Bay of Bari, piercing into the shore of the western Old Harbor, and is used for the anchoring of large ships and ferries. In 1943, the port was bombed by German bombers, during which 17 Allied cargo ships were sunk, and 6 more were damaged. Among the sunk ships was Liberty-type transport “John Harvey” with a load of mustard gas belonging to the American Army. As a result of the distribution of mustard, some military personnel and the local population were poisoned, including lethal cases. According to various sources, from 70 to 1500 people died. The port is connected with ferry crossings of Croatia (Dubrovnik), Greece

(Corfu, Igoumenitsa, Patros), Montenegro (Bar), and Albania (Durrёs).

Barletta Barletta – city in the region of Apulia, port on the Adriatic Sea, Italy. The population is 94,500 people (2017). It is also a railway station. Winemaking center, chemical industry, fishing industry are located here. There are also architectural monuments of the Romanesque and Gothic style of the twelfth to fifteenth centuries. The Castle is a structure initially erected in the tenth century by the Normans. It was upgraded and enlarged substantially under the reign of Frederick II between 1225 and 1228. The castle was later expanded under the House of Anjou; in 1527 Barletta became an important center of Aragonese-Spanish control in the area. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, had the building expanded again and the four massive bastions added to create the present fortress form.

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Battle of Lissa

Barletta. (Source: https://napoli1.com/publ/informacija_o_gorodakh_regionakh_i_ostrovakh_italii/gorod_i_kommuna_ barletta_region_apulija_juzhnaja_italija/1-1-0-1742)

Battle of Lissa Battle of Lissa – (1) The battle on the Adriatic Sea in 1811, which was a secondary theater of the Napoleonic wars. Adriatic campaign of 1807–1814 included the British Royal Navy, defending control of the Adriatic, as well as the Fleet of the Kingdom of Naples, France, and Italy. During the campaign, the Royal Navy occupied the Vis Island (Lissa) and established its base in the port of St. George on the east coast of the island. The Battle of Lissa in 1811 was a culmination of the campaign. As a result of which the British and Austrian forces liberated the cities of the eastern Adriatic coast from the French. The French-Italian squadron under the command of captain Bernard Dubourdieu which contained nine ships (four frigates, two corvettes, etc.) met on March 13, 1811, with the English squadron under command of William Hoste which contained three frigates and one corvette. During the battle, the British sank one and damaged two French frigates.

(2) The battle between the Italian and Austrian Fleets in the Adriatic Sea, near the Island of Vis (Lissa) during the Austro-Italian War of 1866. In an effort to reunite the Venetian region, which was under Austrian rule, Italy concluded an agreement with Prussia in April 1866 and opposed Austria. This is the first major battle of steam armored ships. Italian Fleet (11 battleships and 17 other ships) under the command of Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano, on July 16, left Ancona in order to take control of Lissa – the fortified base of the Austrian Fleet (on Lissa there were 9 longterm fortifications, 11 batteries with 88 guns, and the island’s garrison was about 3000 people). C. Persano planned to strike at the fortifications with the main forces of the Fleet in the bay of St. George, with the help of landing force to attack them from the rear and to make a demonstration in the bay of Komiža. The attack on Lissa on July 18 and 19 was unsuccessfully organized. After learning about the actions of the Italian Fleet, Austrian Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff headed with his Fleet (7 battleships and 20 other ships) to Lissa with the aim to give general battle.

Bay of Bakar, Bakarska zaliv

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Battle of Lissa (1811). (Source: Nicholas Pocock https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lissa_(1811)#/media/File: Battle_of_Lissa_1811.jpg)

On the morning of July 20, he discovered Italian ships 5 miles north of the island’s western tip. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Italians, the Austrians suddenly attacked the Italian Fleet, focusing fire on the lead ships. However, the duel of the ironclads was unsuccessful. The outcome of the battle was decided by a ram attack by the flagship battleship of the Austrians “Erzherzog Ferdinand Max” on the Italian battleship “Re d’Italia,” which together with the crew of 400 people was sunk. Another Italian ship “Palestro” after the shelling caught fire was out of whack and exploded. As a result, the Italians lost 2 ironclads and 643 crewmen. The losses forced C. Persano to start a withdrawal, but W. Tegetthoff, who lost 38 people, did not pursue the enemy.

town of Ortona on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, Italy. The battle took place on December 20–28, 1943, between two battalions of German paratroopers and two battalions of Canadian troops. It was the culminating battle on the Adriatic front in Italy during the “Bloody December.” After an eight-day battle, the exhausted German troops left the city. The battle was so fierce that Winston Churchill called it “Little Stalingrad.” Canadians lost 1375 killed in a battle both in Ortona and around the city, which accounted for a quarter of all Canadians killed in the Italian campaign. At the military cemetery in Ortona, there are 1615 graves, 52 of them unnamed. Among the dead: 1375 Canadians, 169 British, 421 New Zealander, 16 South Africans, 5 Indians, and 4 Australians.

Battle of Ortona

Bay of Bakar, Bakarska zaliv

Battle of Ortona – one of the short but fiercest battles of the Second World War near the small

Bay of Bakar, Bakarska zaliv – It extends into the northeast coast of the Rijeka Bay of the Adriatic

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Bay of Kotor

Battle of Lissa, 20 July 1866. The Austrian Navy against the Italian Fleet. The RN Re d’Italia is sinking after being rammed by Tegetthoff’s flagship, the SMS Ferdinand Max. (Source: Carl Frederik Sørensen, Heeresgeschichtliches

Museum Wien https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_ Lissa_(1866)#/media/File:Soerensen_Seeschlacht_bei_ Lissa_1866_Rammstoss.jpg)

Sea, 900 m north of the Tikhi Strait, Croatia. The entrance to it is situated between Cape Oshtro, on which the lighthouse stands, and the cape, located 900 m north-west of it. From the Gulf of Rijeka, a broad strait with a length of approximately 2 km leads to the bay. The shores of the strait are relatively gentle, and the shores of the bay are high and steep. The depth at the entrance to the bay is 46 m, and in its inner part – 30–38 m. The bay is subject to the action of the bora.

are from 30 to 42 m, at the top of 14–20 m. Visibility is usually between 15 and 35 m. The stony, vegetated northern shore of the bay, formed by the slopes of Mount Kason, abruptly descends to the water. The eastern shore of the bay is also formed by steep, and sometimes almost sheer, cliffs of the Pestingrad mountain massif with an altitude of up to 1100 m. The villages are stretching as a solid line along the south-western shores of the Bay. Many villages in the bay have piers for small vessels. Bay of Kotor is a good natural harbor. At the top of the bay is the Port of Kotor. In the City of Kotor, there is an Institute of Marine Biology.

Bay of Kotor Bay of Kotor – a bay in the Adriatic Sea, located in the northeastern part of the Boka-Kotorska Bay, Montenegro. It first stretches to the east, then to the south, and at the top becomes narrow. The northeastern part of the bay is known as Ljuta Bay (named after the river, which flows into it). Depths

Bečiči Bečiči – a fairly large modern suburb resort in 2 km south-east of Budva, located in the Budva

Bijela

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Battle of Ortona. (Source: https://wartimes.ca/battle/world-war-ii/italian-campaign/battle-of-ortona/)

Bay, Montenegro. Bečiči is separated by Cape Mogren from Budva. There is located the largest hotel in Montenegro “Splendid.” The sandy (green sand) beach of the Budva Riviera (1800 m) is considered one of the best on the Adriatic coast of Montenegro; in 1935 it was awarded the Grand Prix from the authoritative international commission in Paris as the best, most beautiful and the cleanest beach in the Mediterranean. At the end of the beach Bečiči is located the fishing village of Rafailoviči, where there are a number of fish restaurants, sports complexes, and tennis courts.

Bibione Bibione – a small island connected to “mainland” by a long bridge. It is the part of the Venetian Riviera, Italy: 8 km of the softest and cleanest sand (the width of the beach reaches 400 m). Here you can go paragliding, yachting, windsurfing, and diving. A few kilometers from the beach,

there is an aquapark and a large amusement park with a magnificent sea aquarium. A popular thermal resort is opened annually.

Bijela Bijela – the industrial settlement and shipyard on the northern shore of the Gulf of Tivat on its northern shore. It is located in 12 km from the town of Herceg Novi. The town is the Homeland of Montenegrin shipbuilding. It is said that the shipyard was here at the time of the founder of Herceg Novi, King Tvrtko. The first official mention of the city was found in 1351 in the charter of King Dusan. It grew from the settlement of fishermen, sailors, shipbuilders, and winegrowers. The ancient traditions of shipbuilding in Bijela became the basis for a powerful shipbuilding and ship repair factory – the largest in the southern part of the Adriatic Sea. It was organized in 1927. Its area occupies 120,000 m2, and the water area is 350,000 m2. It has two floating docks of 250 m

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Biograd na Moru

Bay of Kotor, Montenegro. (Source: Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

and 184 m length. During the SFRY period, Soviet military vessels were served here. This is one of the largest and most profitable commercial repair enterprises in Montenegro. The Azalea Maritime Training Center is located here, where yacht crews are offered various courses in rich traditions of seafarers. The main attraction of Bijela is the Church of the Protection of the Blessed Virgin, built in the fourteenth century, which houses the “Octoechos” of 1493. The population is 3750 (2003).

were crowned as monarchs of Croatia. In 1125, on Good Friday, the Venetians destroyed the city to the ground. Later, the city suffered significant losses during the hostilities between the Venetians and the Turks, especially in 1646. Modern Biograd na Moru is a large resort. Tourism is developed here. From here, tourists follow on Vrana and Kornati Islands. Southeast of Biograd na Moru the Vransko Lake (30.7 km2) is located parallel to the sea – the largest lake in Croatia. Due to the proximity of the sea, it is home to both marine and freshwater fish. This is a widely known ornithological sanctuary.

Biograd na Moru Biograd na Moru – city and port, located about 20 km south-east of Zadar on the Adriatic coast, Croatia. The population of 5600 people (2011). Founded in Medieval times. King Petar (Peter) Kresimir IV in the middle of the eleventh century transferred the archbishopric from Split here. From 1102 in Biograd na Moru Hungarian kings

Biological Laboratory Biological Laboratory – established in 1946 in Dubrovnik, Croatia. The main purpose of the Laboratory was to maintain fishing in the southern deep waters of the Adriatic Sea. The laboratory together with the Biological Institute of the

Biological Laboratory

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Bijela shipyard. (Source: http://portnews.ru/news/268693/)

Biograd na Moru. (Source: https://www.chorvatsko24. com/ru/%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0% B5%D1%80%D1%8B/%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2% D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F-%D0%

B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86% D0%B8%D1%8F/%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0% B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4-%D0%BD%D0%B0-% D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83/)

“BIOS II”

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Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts served as the basis for modern scientific research at the Institute for Marine and Coastal Research, University of Dubrovnik.

“BIOS II” – research vessel of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in Split, Croatia. Its length 27.7 m, width 7 m, draft 2.8 m, displacement 173 reg. t, speed 12 knots, activity range 3000 miles. The crew consists of 5 people and 16 researchers. The area of the laboratories is 38 m2. The crew conducts research work in the open sea.

island is in the south-eastern part with the Straženica Mountain, which is 240 m high. The coast is rocky. There are several small villages on the island. There are vineyards. Above the small port of Biševo there is a seasonal settlement and two beautiful caves. However, the main attraction is the “Blue Cave” (Modra Špilja), located in the eastern part of the island. It is famous for its light refraction effect. When the sea is calm, people and objects in the cave are cast in blue on the surface of the water and in silver under water. The most beautiful shades can be observed at noon. It can only be accessed from the sea. At the end of the nineteenth century, Venetian painter Eugene von Ranssonne-Ville opened the passage into it with the help of dynamite so that boats could swim into it. Tourists called it “Austrian Capri”.

Biševo Island

Biševo Strait

Biševo Island – is an island, located about 8 km south-west of Vis Island, Croatia. The island is small, mountainous. The greatest height of the

Biševo Strait – lies between the Vis and Biševo Island, located to the southwest from it, in Croatia. This strait is usually used by vessels sailing from

“BIOS II”

Blue Cave on Biševo Island. (Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/132646954@N02/48693793831)

Blackspot Seabream (Red Seabream, Spanish Bream, Pagellus bogaraveo)

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the south-eastern part of the Adriatic Sea to the northwest and back, as the shortest route.

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Black Seabream (Spondyliosoma cantharus) Black Seabream (Spondyliosoma cantharus) – rather deep bodied fish with a relatively small head. The jaws behind reach the frontal edge of the eye. Its teeth are sharp, attenuating, slightly curved, and not very large. The size of the teeth and their shape in the anterior part of the jaw and on its sides are the same, and only the front teeth are slightly larger. The top is grayish; sides are silvergray with six or seven vertical dark stripes. The fins are also grayish; the edge of the tail fin is darkcolored. As an exception, it reaches a length of 51 cm and a mass of 3 kg. However, commonly, it is about 35 cm, and in catches its weight is 0.5 kg. Black seabream is a fairly common fish in the seas of Northern Europe. However, in the waters to the north from the English Channel it appears only in summer. The fish is a typical inhabitant of rocky areas, although in the Mediterranean Sea it is usually found on sandy or seaweed-covered bottom. This is one of the few porgies fishes that builds nests. The male digs pits on the sandy bottom, in which the female lays eggs. The male guards the eggs until hatching; the youngsters keep in the nest area for several weeks after hatching. In some areas, amateur anglers catch it and it is even an object of fishing. However, its numbers are not large enough to serve as the basis for intensive fishing. About 460 t are caught in the Mediterranean Sea, and in the Adriatic Sea catches are about 40 t per year.

Black seabream. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Black_seabream#/media/File:Spondyliosoma_cantharus. jpg)

Blackbellied angler. (Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Lophius_budegassa.jpg)

to the upper part of the head and widely spaced. The body is bare, and the color is ash-chestnut, sometimes pinkish-gray. Body length is up to 70 cm, usually 30–40 cm, and weight up to 8 kg. It is distributed throughout the Adriatic Sea on a muddy bottom. It is buried in silt at depths of 20 to 400 m, usually between 100 and 170 m. It reaches sexual maturity at a length of 34 cm. It feeds on fish and crustaceans. Catches amount in the Adriatic Sea reaches 600 t annually.

Blackbellied Angler (Lophius budegassa) Blackbellied Angler (Lophius budegassa) – marine fish of Lophiidae family. The head is large and broad. The mouth is wide, rounded, with a lower convex jaw. Its eyes are large, shifted

Blackspot Seabream (Red Seabream, Spanish Bream, Pagellus bogaraveo) Blackspot Seabream (Red Seabream, Spanish Bream, Pagellus bogaraveo) – a fish of the

“Blue Flag”

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Sparidae family. It has an oval, flattened laterally torso with a convex profile of the head with a small depression above the eyes. Operculum is without spines, the rim of preoperculum is smooth. It has short, blunt snout, and big eyes (diameter larger than the length of the snout). Small buccal opening; jaws are slightly extended, of equal length. Both jaws have short, curved, pointed teeth at the front, followed by small, rounded teeth; Vomer and palatines without teeth. Long, undivided dorsal fin with 12–13 spikes and 11–13 soft rays. Anal fin with 3 spiny rays and 11–13 soft rays. Pectoral fins with one ray-thorn and five soft rays. Color: vary from gray to pink; adults always have a large black spot at the beginning of the lateral line (under the first ray of the dorsal fin); in the species that are shorter than 20 cm long, this typical spot may be absent. Their length reaches max. 50 cm (maximum age of 15 years). It dwells mainly above the muddy bottom at a depth of 150–700 m; young fish sometimes penetrate into shallower waters, up to 40 m depth, where they prefer rocky bottom and sunken shipwrecks as places of living. Little is known about the lifestyle of this species, a widespread species of seabreams, which often forms abundant schools, except those, who dwell the Adriatic Sea and northern areas. Spawning time is winter. It feeds on crustaceans, some mollusks, etc.

“Blue Flag” “Blue Flag” – an international symbol award. Since 1987 it has been annually awarded to beaches and marinas that meet high environmental standards and have high-quality safety and service facilities. The “Blue Flag” is a free certificate of beaches quality, a symbol of high standards of service quality maintained by them for a long time, which is issued only for 1 year. Prize candidates usually have to be approved at the national level, and then the final decision is made by the European jury. France is considered the birthplace of the “Blue Flag,” where the first award ceremony took place in 1985. The “Blue

The beach awarded by the “Blue Flag”. (Source: http:// www.palazzosiena.com/blue-flag-program-salentotriumphs-in-puglia-with-4-award-winning-locations/)

Flag” nomination is managed by the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), which is a nonprofit nongovernmental organization. The fund consists of 65 organizations located in 60 countries of the world and representing Europe, Africa, Oceania, Asia, North and South America. Eligibility criteria for the “Blue Flag” require observing strict water quality, safety, and environmental education standards. For places located in the EU countries, full eligibility for the adopted directives is also necessary. The annual award ceremony takes place on June 5 (for countries of Europe, Canada, Morocco, Tunisia, and similar geographical location) and on November 1 (for countries of the Caribbean, New Zealand, South Africa, and the others like them, located in the southern hemisphere). All countries located on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, except Albania and Bosnia-Herzegovina, participate in the program of “Blue Flag.” In the beginning of 2020 there are more than 100 Adriatic blue flag beaches in Italy, 9 in Slovenia, more than 100 in Croatia, and 31 beaches in Montenegro. Currently, 47 countries of the world participate in the “Blue Flag” program.

Blue Shark (Prionace glauca) Blue Shark (Prionace glauca) – a species of cartilaginous fish from the Carcharhinidae family. It

Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix)

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Blue shark. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Blue_shark#/media/File: Prionace_glauca_1.jpg)

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is one of the most common sharks on Earth. This species is specific for subtropical and moderately warm waters. It lives at depths from 0 to 350 m. It has elongated slim body with long pectoral fins. Body color on the top is blue, on the sides it becomes brighter, and the belly is white. The shark reaches 3.8 m in length and weighs 200 kg. The maximum recorded weight was 391 kg. The first dorsal fin begins at the caudal margin of the pectoral fins. Ridge between dorsal fins is absent. The small growths occur at the tailset. The teeth are triangular, beveled, with jags, but without lateral teeth. The lower ones are significantly different from the upper ones: they are less massive and not always jagged. Usually Blue sharks hunt on bony fish, mollusks such as squids, cuttlefish, and octopuses, and crustaceans. Also, its diet includes small sharks, mammals’ corpses, and sometimes sea birds. The remains of whales and common porpoises were found in the stomachs of the caught Blue sharks. It is known that Blue sharks eat cod caught in trawl nets. They rarely hunt tunas. Adolescent Blue sharks do not have natural enemies in nature, except humans. Juveniles may fall prey to large sharks. This is a viviparous species of sharks. A placental junction is formed from the yolk sac between the mother and the embryo. The number of baby sharks in litter varies from 4 to 135 with size of about 40 cm. Pregnancy lasts for 9–12 months. Females reach

sexual maturity at the age of 5–6 years, and males 4–5. During the prelude to mating, the male bites the female, so the sex of sharks can be easily identified by the presence or absence of scars on the back. The skin on the back of females is by three times thicker than of males. Blue sharks’ meat is used in food; however, it is not very popular. On the world market, the meat of this shark sometimes comes under the following names, for example, “gray fish,” “stone salmon,” and “sea eel.” A high content of heavy metals (mercury, lead) has been reported in meat of Blue sharks. In addition, a fish meal is made of the Blue shark, fins are used for soup, and vitamins are made of liver fat.

Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) – schooling pelagic fish of the Pomatomus genus, Pomatomidae family. The head is oval, the mouth is large, and the teeth are large and sharp. The back is greenish or greenish-blue, and the belly is silvery. It can reach a length of up to 1 m and a weight of 10 kg, and usually the species are 20–50 cm. It occurs throughout the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas. The fish makes summer migrations. Its roe is pelagic. The fertility varies between 100 thousand and 1 million eggs. The

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Blue World Institute of Marine Research and Conservation (BWI)

Bluefish. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Bluefish#/media/File:Very_ Large_Bluefish.JPG)

incubation period is 2 days. Voracious predator consuming large quantities of sardine, mackerel, and anchovy. According to FAO statistics, annual catches in the Mediterranean reach approximately 15,000 t.

Montenegro. One of the numerous versions of Atlantis is connected with this corner of the Adriatic.

Bogue (Boops boops) Blue World Institute of Marine Research and Conservation (BWI) Blue World Institute of Marine Research and Conservation (BWI) – works to protect the marine environment in the Adriatic Sea. It was established in 2000 in Veli Lošinj, Croatia. The Blue World Institute operates three programs – research, education, and conservation. BWI research focuses mainly on large marine vertebrates (dolphins and whales, sea turtles, sharks, and giant devil rays) informing the education activities and conservation projects. BWI works from the Adriatic islands of Lošinj, Murter, and Vis, with the local communities, and collaborate nationally, regionally, and internationally to advance sustainable marine management and environmental sustainability in the Mediterranean Basin.

Bobovaс Bobovaс – sunken city in the Bay of Kotor, in the Adriatic Sea, near the resort town of Tivat,

Bogue (Boops boops) – sea fish, porgies family (Sparidae). The body is cylindrical, the sides are slightly flattened, and the eyes are large. Coloring is silver-greenish, and sides are silvery with 3–5 golden stripes. It can reach a length of 35 cm and a weight of 0.5 kg. The catches usually reach up to 0.2 kg. It lives on the seabed up to 200 m depth. It feeds on zooplankton and crustaceans. Meat is valuable and tasty. Annual catches reach approximately 500 t in the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea.

Bojana (Buna) River Bojana (Buna) River – is a river, which passes the state border of Montenegro and Albania. It is the only river flowing out of Lake Skadar on the territory of Albania. The place, where it flows into the Adriatic Sea, is called Buna. It is the country’s most water-abundant river and an important inland path. The length of the river is 41 km, the catchment area is 5187 km2, and the average discharge is 320 m3/s. Near the mouth of the riverbed is divided by Ada (or Ada Bojana)

Boka-Kotorska Bay

Island into two branches, forming a delta, overgrown with reeds. The position of branches is mostly constant; however, their depths alternate, and one of the branches is navigable. Depths in

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the mouth depend on winds and tides. The average depth at the mouth is 1.5 m. It is navigable up to the village of Oboti. On the left bank of the river there is the city of Shkodër, a significant shopping center in Albania. In 2005, the Bojana River was included in the list of wetlands of the Ramsar Convention.

Boka-Kotorska Bay

Bogue. (Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91% D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81_(%D1%80%D1%8B%D0% B1%D0%B0)#/media/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9% D0%BB:Boops_boops_Karpathos_01.JPG)

Boka-Kotorska Bay – The origin of the name refers to the Italian Bocche (“bocca” – mouth, chaps) di Cattaro and the name of the city of Kotor, includes four bays (gulfs): Herceg Novi, Tivat, Risan, and Kotor itself. Sometimes six gulfs are presumed, including Morinj and Ljuta. This sunken river canyon five million years ago is the largest gulf on the Adriatic, and it is the Adriatic fjord. The strait leads from the Adriatic Sea to Herzeg Novi Bay, which is an entrance to

Bojana River near Shkoder. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bojana_(river)#/media/File:Buna,_Shkoder.jpg)

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Boka-Kotorska Bay

Boka-Kotorska Bay, Montenegro. (Source: https://maps-for-free.com/ #close)

Boka-Kotorska Bay. From the south, the bay is covered by the Luštica Peninsula. There are numerous villages, the old cities of Tivat, Herceg Novi and Kotor, Risan, Perast, Bijelo, Melin, Dobrota, Zelenika and the beautiful small towns Topla, Baonic, Kumbor, Stoliv, Meline, Djenovici, and Igalo sanatorium, located on the shores of the gulf. Many villages in the gulf have small quay piers and embankments suitable for mooring small vessels. The bay area is 87 km2. The length of the coastline of the bay is 106 km, the width at the entrance is 3 km, and the narrowest part of the bay in the Verige gorge is 300 m. Boka-Kotorska Bay is available for ships of any displacement. Depth at the entrance of the Bay is 65–70 m, and then makes up 20–40 m, decreasing only to the shores. The maximum depth in the bay itself is 45 m. The high and rocky shores of the entrance are carved indented by the small bays. In the southern part of the entrance is the Mamula Island. The shores of the bay are mountainous, formed by high slopes of coastal mountains overgrown with forests and bushes. They, surrounding the bay from the north and west, protect it from cold winds and contribute to the mild and warm climate of its coast. In the area of the bay, bora and sirocco winds are blowing with great force; they burst into the bay through mountain ridges, ravines

and valleys with hard squalls. Most of the year, usually immediately after dawn, the coastal breeze begins to blow for several hours. Currents in the gulf are mainly dependent on fluctuations in the water level. In summer, the current is weaker than in winter. Along the east side of the entrance to the bay, the current is directed to the north-west at a speed of 0.7 knots. After heavy and long rains, a rather strong current is formed, which is directed south-east along the western side of the entrance to the bay. This flow in the straits can reach 2.5 knots. On average, the water in the strait is less saline than in the rest of the Adriatic due to the inflowing rivers and springs. Despite the fact that usually Boka-Kotorska Bay is called “The southernmost fjord of Europe,” it is scientifically proven that the bay is exactly the former river canyon, which was destroyed as a result of tectonic shifts and went under water. Nature has done everything to make this place a real pearl of the Adriatic – a bizarrely shaped gulf framed by the high Lovchen Mountains. The bay is a natural, convenient harbor for ships. Since the times of the Illyrians and the Romans, traditions of navigation have been established here, and 809 is considered the beginning of navigation. The ancient Bokesians were always considered the best sailors and pirates.

Bora

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Coasts of Boka Kotorska Bay. (Source: Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

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“Bocca” in Italian means “mouth,” “chaps.” Such a figurative name was given to this amazing place by navigators. Now, the descendants of those coastal Slavic sailors are sometimes distinguished into a nation called “Bokesians.” The very first settlement on the coast of BokaKotorska Bay arose in 229 BC in place of the modern city of Risan. The first Illyrian City of Rhizón gave the initial name to the bay Rhizonicus Sinus and only much later, during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I and the rise of Cattaro (present-day Kotor) as the capital of the region, the existing name of the bay was established. Sometimes the bay is called the Bay of Saints. In addition to natural attractions, the area is of great cultural and historical importance not only for the peoples inhabiting it but also for the whole world. On the shores of the bay there are many ancient Orthodox and Catholic churches, churches which are places of pilgrimage. The most famous are the Catholic Cathedral of St. Tryphon in Kotor and the Orthodox monastery Savina in Herceg Novi. Most of all, BokoKotorska bay is interesting for its historical heritage, which is under the protection of UNESCO, and filled with cultural events of life. At the entrance to the bay at the bottom lies the ship “Szent István,” in the area of Zaník which was a patrol ship. Since 2006, Boko-Kotorska bay

has been reckoned among the 28 most beautiful bays of the planet. “The Lord created the world in 6 days, and in the seventh, slowly, created this beautiful bay,” said English biologist John Boyd about it. Another Englishman, playwright Bernard Shaw, wrote to his wife: “I greet you from the most beautiful corner of the whole world. There are not enough words. Here I must be silent and enjoy”.

Bokel´ Sea Bokel´ Sea – so in antiquity was called the BokaKotorska Bay. It is also mentioned in the hymn of Our Lady of the Rocks.

Bora Bora – strong, blustery, cold, dry northeast wind. The air masses are directed down the slopes of the Dinar and Julian Alps toward the Adriatic Sea. It occurs in places where a low mountainous ridge borders the sea. Bora is one of the main causes of extreme and dangerous situations on the coast. Another reason may be the sharp drops in

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temperature and atmospheric pressure between the mainland and island parts of the Adriatic. The greater the difference in pressure, the stronger the blast of wind. Under conditions of high pressure, cold air masses reach the continent and accumulate in the area behind the mountain ridge of the Dinar Alps. Then they pass through the mountains and are drawn down in valleys like a funnel, as a result of which the air speed increases significantly. Finally, the wind reaches the Adriatic directly, forming the so-called descending Bora. However, the wind reaches its maximum strength at the “ascending Bora.” Bora frequently occurs locally in a particular area, whereas at the same time the windless calm prevails, as we move a little northwards or southward. The strength of the wind increases as it moves further from the coast to the open sea; along with it, the heave becomes stronger. The strongest blasts of Bora are usually observed in the territory from Cres Island to Miletus Island on the west coast of Dalmatia. The higher the island is located above sea level, the less it is able to reduce the wind speed. On the contrary, high islands contribute to an increase in its speed. Bora may occur at any time of the year; nevertheless, it predominantly blows in the winter. In the period from May to October, it blows much less frequently, while its strength rarely exceeds 6–7 points on the Beaufort scale. But on the Velebit Canal, in Split, in the Vrulja Bay area (north of Makarska) and on the territory of Žuljana (Pelješac Peninsula), Bora’s blasts even in summertime can reach 8–9 points. In the summer it usually blows for 2–3 days, but sometimes it appears for only a few hours. In July and August, Bora may be absent for several weeks. Bora of medium intensity can produce a positive effect – it cools the air and makes it more transparent. In the northern and central Adriatic in winter, Bora may blow for several weeks with short pauses. From November to April, the waters of the Velebit Canal become one of the most dangerous places in the world. Bora, just like Sirocco, has two forms. Under good weather conditions, an anticyclonic Bora usually occurs,

Borino

whereas its cyclonic form is accompanied by dense clouds cover and rain. It begins after the Sirocco, mainly in the northern Adriatic. It is often preceded by lightning in the north or in the east. Bora is characterized by a great harshness. Bora’s speed can reach 40 m/s, and with duration – from several days to several weeks. Sometimes the wind is so strong that it breaks the sails of yachts, turns over cars and boats. At such times, ferry communication between the mainland and the islands ceases. With such a strong wind, if it blows from the mountains covered with snow, the buildings and ships are covered with a crust of ice. Strong Bora causes considerable heaving of sea off the coast and poses a danger to ships anchored in the harbor. As a rule, Bora has a diurnal course: it is intensified in the morning and in the evening and weakens by nightfall. Bora is specific for the eastern coast of the Adriatic. The most intensive Bora happens on Hvar Island and around the ports of Šibenik, Zadar, Pula, and Trieste.

Borino Borino – summer winds from the northeast. Usually they are weaker than bora winds; however, sometimes they achieve great strength. Borino, as a rule, does not last longer than 3 days and blows under a clear sky.

Boškovic´ Ruđer Josip (1711–1787) Bošković Ruđer Josip (1711–1787) – the great physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher of his time, an outstanding personality of Croatia. A native of Dubrovnik, he engaged in the study of the Adriatic Sea. His most famous work is the Theory of Natural Philosophy, reduced to a single law of forces existing in nature (1758). The Institute for Atomic Physics Research is named after him in Croatia.

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Bora. (Source: https://www.asta-yachting.hr/en/blog/the-wind-bora.html)

sea. Currently, it has neither strategic nor economic value. The only settlement in the corridor is Neum village with a population of 4960 people (2013).

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosna i Hercegovina

Ruđer Josip Bošković. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Roger_Joseph_Boscovich)

Bosnia and Herzegovina Corridor Bosnia and Herzegovina Corridor – is a coastline of the Adriatic Sea 21 km long (9 km along the Adriatic highway). The corridor was transferred to the republic after 1945 to provide access to the

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosna i Hercegovina – the state in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula, consists of two autonomous administrative units of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska and Brcko District. The name of the country originates from the name of the river Bosna and the German title “Duke,” which in the fifteenth century was granted to voivode Stefan Vukčić Kosać. It borders in the west and north with Croatia, in the east with Serbia, in the south-east with Montenegro. It has a small outlet to the Adriatic Sea with a coastline of 21 km. Area of the country is 52,200 km2. The capital is Sarajevo (356,450 people). The population is 3.3 million people (2019). Major cities are Tuzla, Banja Luk a, Mostar, and Zenica.

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Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosna i Hercegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina. (Source: https://www. 123rf.com/photo_ 36855015_stock-vectorbosnia-and-herzegovinapolitical-map-with-capitalsarajevo-national-bordersimportant-cities-rivers-. html)

Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost entirely situated within the Dinar Highlands of the Balkans. About 90% of the country is occupied by mountain formations. The height above sea level tends to decrease from the center to the south, to the Adriatic coast, and to the north, to the Sava River, along which the lowland stretches in a narrow strip, which is the southern edge of the Middle Danube Plain. Slightly southwards there is a strip of low mountains and fertile intermountain basins, turning into the Dinar Highland, the height of which reaches 2000–2400 m. There are various karst topography forms (karst craters, gaps, caves, underground rivers and karren). In the intermountain depressions, extensive karst fields are widespread, the largest of which is Livansko Polye (405 km2). The highest point in the country is Mount Maglić (2386 m). Most of the country is located in conditions of a continental climate, characterized by warm summers (average July temperature varying from 12 °C to 23 °C) and cool winters (average January temperature from 0 °C to 7 °C).

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located on the territory of two historical regions – Bosnia, which occupies the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries, and Herzegovina, located to the south, in the basin of the Neretva River. In the sixth and seventh centuries Bosnia and Herzegovina is situated on the territory of the Slavs. In the twelfth century the Bosnian principality is formed (from the fourteenth century it was kingdom, including Herzegovina). Since 1463, the territory of Bosnia, and since 1482, and Herzegovina falls under the authority of the Ottoman Empire. After the uprising of 1875–1878 Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary (annexed in 1908). From 1918, it was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929, Yugoslavia). In 1941, it was occupied by German troops and incorporated into the “Independent State of Croatia.” During the People’s Liberation War in Yugoslavia in 1941–1945 it was liberated by troops under the command of Josip Broz Tito and in November 1945 incorporated into Yugoslavia as a federal republic.

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosna i Hercegovina

In the spring of 1992, it announced its withdrawal from the former Yugoslavia and declared the official name of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in May 1992 it entered the UN. In the middle of 1992 there was a sharp aggravation of interethnic contradictions, which led to a civil war. On November 21, 1995, peace agreements (signed in Paris on December 14, 1995) for the settlement of the Bosnian conflict were initialed in Dayton (USA). The official name is changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the constitution, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a “soft” confederation, whose members have a high level of independence in political, economic, and other areas of life. The collective head of state is the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of three members of the constituent peoples. The term of office of the Presidium is 4 years. Competence includes foreign policy issues, the appointment of ambassadors and other international representatives from the country, submission to the Parliament of budget proposals, etc. The highest legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which consists of two chambers: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The highest executive body is the Council of Ministers, which consists of nine ministries: foreign affairs, security, defense, finance, foreign trade and economic relations, communications and transport, civil affairs, human rights and refugee affairs, and justice. On December 14, 1995, the Dayton Peace Agreements approved the administrativeterritorial division of Bosnia and Herzegovina, according to which the following entities were selected: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine) and Republika Srpska (Republika Srpska or Republika Srpska), and Brčko District (Distrikt Brčko or District Brčko), the status of which was to be determined later. In the early years of the SFRY Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the least developed countries in its composition. After the Second World War, it became one of the main strongholds of the industrialization of the SFRY. The deposits of coal, iron ore, and salt rock were rapidly developed. New chemical and

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electrochemical, timber working and cellulose and paper enterprises, and metallurgical plants were reconstructed and built. By the 1960s Bosnia and Herzegovina accounted for 99% of iron ore and 100% of coke production, 40% of coal production, 2/3 of iron, and 50% of steel production in Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina took the first place in Yugoslavia in timber production and played a prominent role in the chemical industry (in the years of the SFRY only in Bosnia and Herzegovina soda (Lukavac) and chlorine was available). Heavy industry was mainly located in the east of Bosnia, between the rivers Sava, Drina, and Bosna. In the south of this region, north and north-west of Sarajevo, large brown coal mines produced the most of the coal in Yugoslavia. Brown coal and lignite were mined in the Tuzla, Zenitsa, Kakani, Breza, Banovići, and other districts. The Vareš and Ljubija iron mines, a manganese mine, and thermal power plants were located here. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the main center of ferrous metallurgy of Yugoslavia, the city of Zenica, where a concern with a full cycle of metallurgical production was located. In Bosnia and Herzegovina there were two more metallurgical plants: the old metallurgical plant in Vares and the new metallurgical plant in Iljash. Bauxite was mined mainly for export. Two-fifths of all hydropower resources of SFRY were concentrated in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the south of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where there is the possibility to obtain cheap energy at hydropower plants on the Neretva River, and near the town of Jablanica and Vrbas, enterprises of the electrochemical industry (Jajce) and an aluminum plant were established. A factory for the production of nitrogen fertilizers was located in Goražde. The products of the timber industry complex in Bosnia and Herzegovina went both for domestic consumption in the SFRY and for export. Large sawmills were located mainly in the western and central parts of the country: Zavidovichi (assembly factory), Banja Luka, Sarajevo, Drvar. Bosnia and Herzegovina took the first place in the SFRY for the production of cellulose. Cellulose mills were located in Prijedor, Banja Luka, Maglai, and Drvare. Tobacco production in Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Bougainvillea

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was of great importance. It took place at four relatively large factories: in Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Travnik, and Mostar. In agriculture, 1/2 of the territory is used, 50% of which is cultivated (used for arable land, vegetable gardens, vineyards, orchards); the remaining 50% were occupied by mountain pastures and meadows. The main agricultural crops of Bosnia and Herzegovina are tobacco, corn, wheat, and sugar beet. The valleys of the Sava and Drina rivers were occupied by large seeds of corn, as well as wheat, barley, and oats; rye and millet were sown in the mountains. Among the industrial crops, tobacco was of great importance in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the seeds of which were located in the south of Herzegovina. In the north of Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the border with Serbia, the main area of fruit growing is located. The most important horticultural district of Yugoslavia was located along the valleys of the Sava, Drina, Vrbas, Bosna, and Una rivers and in the foothills. Bosnia and Herzegovina produced about 40% of the plum harvest in the Yugoslavia. The south of Bosnia and Herzegovina is dominated by southern fruits, as well as almonds and olive trees. Winegrowing was developed in the country (the best vineyards were located near Mostar and Stolac). Breeding of sheep and goats prevails in animal husbandry, in the north of the country, large cattle prevails. Bosnia and Herzegovina is famous for its horse breeding due to the special small Bosnian horses, which are distinguished by their endurance and are excellent for use in mountainous areas. The collapse of the SFRY and the subsequent civil war (April 1992–November 1995) caused heavy damage to the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. About 80% of enterprises were damaged or destroyed, and oil imports dropped sharply due to the blockade of Croatian ports on the Adriatic. The economy and social sphere were almost completely destroyed. The economic recovery of Bosnia and Herzegovina occurred mainly within the framework of the international reconstruction program. Gradually, the mining, metallurgical, and oil refining industries are

being restored in the country. The production in the textile industry, components for automobiles, the aviation industry, and household devices is growing. By the beginning of 2000, with the support of the German company “Volkswagen” and the Czech “Skoda,” the production of cars was launched, which, because of their low cost, are in demand in neighboring countries. One of the main investors in the industry Bosnia and Herzegovina is Slovenia. The main export items are machinery and equipment, and also furniture. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the UN, OSCE, and COE. Since 2008 it is an associate member of the EU.

Bougainvillea Bougainvillea – genus of evergreens of the Nyctaginaceae family (Noctiflorous). The genus is named after Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811), a French traveler, the leader of the first French round-the-world expedition, a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Representatives of the genus are evergreen scrambling shrubs, sometimes low trees. In nature these plants reach a height of 5 m. The flowers are small, inconspicuous, enclosed in brightly colored (usually purple) broad bracts, which determine the decorative value of representatives of this genus, they climb the walls of houses, retaining walls, just as rock climbers, decorate other non-inconspicuous trees.

Brač Brač – (the former Brazzo) is the third largest island in the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea and the largest in Central Dalmatia, Croatia. It is 40 km long and about 12 km wide. The area is 396 km2. The population of the island is 14,400 people. It is located opposite the city of Split. The low mountains occupy the most of the island Brač territory. In the south it is sharply cliffing toward the sea, with the highest

Brač

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City of Mostar. (Source: https://www.pinterest.ru/ pin/809662839235027278/)

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point of Vidova Gora (778 m). The northern slopes are gentle and terraced. Karst phenomena are developed. On the slopes grow tangles of evergreen shrubs and forests of stone oak, Aleppo and black pines. Vineyards and olive trees are cultivated in the lower parts of the slopes and in the valleys. Brač is connected to the city of Split, which is located on the opposite side, by ferry. There is an administrative center and Port of Supetar (4100 people, 2011). The international airport is “Brač.” Numerous bays, sandy, and pebble beaches stretching for tens of kilometers are located on the heavily indented coastline of Brač. There are also located some good tourist centers. The most famous of them, which are located in the south of the island, is Bol, with the world famous Golden Cape (Zlatni-Rat) beach. This is a former fishing village, a visiting card of Croatia. The symbol of

the bay, the beach of golden gravel of the same name, immersed in a pine forest and shaped like a horn, stretches into the sea by almost 300 m. During the day, under the influence of wind and waves, the beach changes configuration several times. Precisely these factors determine where the beach will be. The island was inhabited during the Neolithic period, as evidenced by archaeological finds in Kopacin’s cave near Supetar. The island also preserved traces of settlements of the Bronze Age, as well as the Greek and Roman colonization. The oldest known tribes that inhabited Brac were Illyrians. During the period of Roman colonization and later, stone was mined on the island. This stone served as a building material for Diocletian’s palace, which was built in Split (later the White House was built from the same stone in Washington, USA). In the early Middle

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Brach Strait, Brač Kanal

Ages, the island was under the protectorate of Byzantium, and in ninth century it was inhabited by Slavic tribes. From 1807 to 1815, the island was the base of the squadron of the Russian Fleet commanded by Admiral D.N. Senyavin. In 1806, a naval battle was fought near the Brac island between the Russian 16-gun brig “Alexander” under the command of Lieutenant I.S. Skalovsky and five French ships. The French lost 2 ships and more than 200 people were slained. On the Russian side, only five men were slained.

Brach Strait, Brač Kanal

Bougainvillea. (Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/% D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0% B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%8F#/ media/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB: Bougainvill%C3%A9e_Generalife_Espagne.jpg)

Brach Strait, Brač Kanal – lies between the mainland coast of the Balkan Peninsula and Brač Island, Croatia. A line connecting Cape Laschatná (eastern extremity of Brač) with Baska-Voda Bay on the mainland coast is accepted as an eastern boundary of the strait, which separates it from the Hvar Strait. Western part of the Brač Strait adjoins Split Strait. The coast of the strait is mountainous and poorly indented. The depth varies here from 50 to 70 m. Numerous settlements are scattered on both banks. The largest settlement on the northern coast of the mainland is Omiš.

Brač Island. (Source: https://www.cruisemapper.com/ports/brac-island-port-3753)

Brenta River

Bragozzo Bragozzo – a two-masted fishing vessel used in the Adriatic Sea, especially off the coast of Venice, Italy. The nose and stern are raised, and flat bottom without keel; the steering wheel has a large surface and lowered far below the bottom of the vessel. Sails are triangular. Only the helmsman’s cabin overlooks the flat deck. The hull and sails are usually decorated with paintings. The length is 8.5–14 m, the width is 2.3–3.8 m, and the draft is 0.8–1.2 m.

Вreamfish, Salema, Salema Porgy, Cow Bream or Goldline (Bamboo Fish, Sarpa salpa) Вreamfish, Salema, Salema Porgy, Cow Bream or Goldline (Bamboo Fish, Sarpa salpa) – benthic marine fish, of Sparidae family. The body is oval, high, with flattened sides. The head is short. The eyes are small. The color is gray-silver with 11 yellow-gold stripes on its sides. It is widely spread along the whole coast of the Adriatic Sea. The maximum depth, where it could be found, is Bragozzo. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Bragozzo#/media/File: Bragozzo.jpg)

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30 m. However, most often it can be found at the depth of 15 m. It reaches sexual maturity at a length of 20 cm. Meat is tasty and valuable. In the Mediterranean Sea, salemas’s catches make up approximately 2000 t, in the Adriatic – approximately 200 t. It is sold fresh.

Brenta River Brenta River – is a river of the Adriatic Sea basin in the northern Italy. The catchment area is 1600 km2; its length is 174 km. The average runoff of water is of 68–78 m3/s, and maximum is 98 m3/s (May). The river rises in the Dolomites from the lake Caldonazzo (Tirol) at an altitude of 450 m, comes out of the mountains to the Venetian Lowland near the town of Bassano del Grappa. Floods occur in spring and autumn. In the lower course of the river the river bed is embanked. The river is turbulent in its upstream flow. Then it is divided into separate branches, as it enters the Venetian lowland, and, hence, becomes more tranquil. The lower current is regulated by channels. In spring and autumn there is a sharp increase in the water level and, therefore, heavy floods occur. It is used for irrigation. Previously it

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“Bride of Adriatic” (Sposa di Adria)

74 Вreamfish. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Salema_porgy#/media/File: Sarpa_salpa_.jpg)

flowed into the Venice lagoon. In 1896, an artificial estuary was created to prevent its sedimentation.

“Bride of Adriatic” (Sposa di Adria) “Bride of Adriatic” (Sposa di Adria) – one of the ancient names of Venice. This name is also sometimes used for Old Kotor, Montenegro.

Brijuni Islands, Archipelago Brijuni Islands, Archipelago – (Ital. Brioni) a small archipelago in the Adriatic Sea, which is situated to the west of the southern part of the Istrian Peninsula, Croatia. It consists of 14 islands and reefs, 2 of which are large – Veli (Big) Brion and Mali (Small) Brion, and 12 small ones – Wang, Sveti Jerolim, Kozada, Gas, Vrsar, Madona, Supin, Sveti Marco, etc. From the mainland they are separated by the Fazhan Strait 3 km wide. The chain of islands stretches along the north-western exit from the port of Pula. In 1893, the Austrian industrialist Paul Kuppelviser bought the island for 100,000 marks and arranged the seaside paradise (resort) for the European

aristocracy. In 1900–1901 Robert Koch, a famous German physician and microbiologist, drained swamps here, killing malaria. In 1945, the archipelago was subjected to Anglo-American bombardment. After the Second World War, in Yugoslavia, in the Greater Brion from 1947 to 1980, there was a permanent residence – the “White Villa” of Marshal I.B. Tito, which he admired very much, spending 6 months annually here. Near the villa there are the ruins of the Byzantine settlement Kastrum. One of the pearls of the island is a pine alley, planted by P. Kuppelviser, which in 2003 met its 100 years anniversary. In 1984, the islands were granted the status of a National Park, rich in rare species of plants and animals. Currently, visitors are allowed on two islands: Veli Brion and Mali Brion. In 1945, Italian designers G. Savini and N. Fantikoli, in honor of the resort in Brioni, created in Rome a clothing line with the Brioni brand.

Brindisi Brindisi – city and port in the south-west of the coast of the Apennine Peninsula, of the Adriatic Sea, the administrative center of the province of Brindisi in Apulia region, Italy. Population is

Brindisi

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Brenta River in Bassano del Grappa, Veneto, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenta_(river)#/media/File: Bassanodelgrappa_flickr02.jpg)

Brijuni Islands, Croatia. (Source: https://www.np-brijuni.hr/en/brijuni/general-information/brijuni-in-figures)

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approximately 87,100 people (2017). It is located on the southwest coast of the inner harbor of Brindisi. An important military and passenger port in the Adriatic Sea at the entrance to the Strait of Otranto, and protected from the sea by the Sant Andrea Island. The value of the city in antiquity was extremely great. The Greeks attributed its foundation to the Odyssey’s companion Diomedes and called it Brentesius (the name of Illyrian origin). The Romans later converted this word to Brundisium, which means “deer head” (the shape of the bay is very similar to deer antlers). Until the middle of the third century BC a Greek colony was situated here. In 267 BC Brundisium was captured by the Romans and became the main trading and military-strategic port for communication with the East. During the Punic Wars, Brindism and Tarent fiercely resisted the Army of Hannibal. All Roman trade with the Eastern Mediterranean passed through these cities. In 20 BC the great Roman poet Virgil died here. In the Middle Ages, the value of the city was sharply decreased, and the most of the trade moved to Bari. The situation partially leveled after the Kingdom of Sicily was declared (1071); many crusaders went to the Holy Land precisely from Brindisi. At the end of the fourteenth century, dynastic wars for the possession of Naples

Brindisi

caused irreparable damage to the city, as well as the devastating earthquake in 1456. With the unification of Italy, Brindisi began to be developed as the base of the military Fleet. The revival of the Suez Canal in 1869 contributed to the revival of the local economy. After the fall of Mussolini (1944), the headquarters of the government was located in Brindisi, which announced the withdrawal of Italy from the Second World War. Economically, Brindisi has always been heavily depended on maritime trade. The port is located in a deep bay. Brindisi is a center of railway and air communications. A ferry cruises around from the city to Greece. Aircraft and engine building are developed. Fishing and fish conservation, production and export of olive oil, wine, and fish products are developed. Oil and industrial goods are imported. The food and chemical industries are developed, and there is an oil refinery. The coastal railway from Ancona to Lecce with a branch to Taranto passes through Brindisi. Brindisi is mostly built up with modern buildings; evidences of its ancient history are scarce. The first place among them takes the ancient column, which marked the end of the famous Via Appia. The city is partially surrounded by the remains of the fortress wall. The old Barbarossa castle is located at the northwest corner of the city.

Brindisi. (Source: https://www.shuttledirect.com/blog/brindisi-shore-excursions/)

Brusina Špiro (Spiridon) (1845–1908)

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Brotherhood of Boka Kotorska Seamen (“Bokeljska mornarica”) Brotherhood of Boka Kotorska Seamen (“Bokeljska mornarica”) – founded in the ninth century in Kotor, Montenegro, and still exists. At the beginning of the ninth century, to protect the approaches to Kotor, the life and property of citizens, the Bokesian Marine Guard was founded, which later became the School of Maritime Art, and then turned into a guardian honorary organization that accepted representatives of various classes into its ranks. The first charter was approved in 1463 and ordered to assist the sick and old sailors, and even those who did not have the money to marry. The guards helped the families of sailors who died in distant lands, buried the strangers who died in the city, and raised money for those who were captured by the pirates. The Guard united the most famous seafarers of Boka-Kotorska Bay, who were invited to serve in their Fleet by the great maritime realms. The Bokesians, the inhabitants of Boka-Kotor, were Admirals of the Spanish and many other foreign Fleets, sailed in the waters of the Baltic and Black seas, became knights of the Order of Malta. It is the oldest maritime institution in the former Yugoslavia. It was often forbidden, however, always revived. The patron saint of the Brotherhood is St. Tryphon, and the legendary Code of Brotherhood is kept in the Kotor Maritime Museum. The very first commandment that members of the Brotherhood must honor and abide by is “solidarity and mutual assistance.” At present, the Brotherhood has become a cultural and educational organization that preserves the traditions of maritime fraternity and ancient folklore. The headquarters of the Brotherhood, the professional society of seafarers, is located in Kotor, Montenegro.

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Brown meagre. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Brown_meagre#/media/File:Sciaena_umbra.jpg)

(Sciaena), family Sciaenidae. The back is blue with violet and golden hues, the sides are golden-silver with a copper tint, and the belly is silvery-white. The body is high, and sides are flattened. The head is large, and the upper profile is rounded. Its length is up to 70 cm (usually up to 20–30 cm) and weight is up to 4 kg. It is distributed throughout the Adriatic Sea coast; it is kept close to the rocky shores, sandy bottom, often overgrown with grass. It prefers depths up to 50 m. Spawning is fractional. Its roe is pelagic. Its catches on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea are approximately 20 t. Its meat is delicious.

Brusina Špiro (Spiridon) (1845–1908) Brown Meagre (Sciaena umbra) Brown Meagre (Sciaena umbra) – the marine schooling fish of the genus Brown meagre

Brusina Špiro (Spiridon) (1845–1908) – the great naturalist: paleontologist, malacologist, carcinologist, ichthyologist, ornithologist, designer of hydrobiological devices. He was

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Spiridon Brusina. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Spiridon_Brusina#/media/File:S._Brusina.jpg)

born in Zadar, Croatia. He was educated in Vienna. He founded the Croatian Museum. He was the first professor of zoology at the University of Zagreb. He organized scientific studies of the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea. He described five taxa of sturgeon fishes: double-snouted, sevenkeel, blunt-nosed, Illyrian, and Danube stellular sturgeons. Among his major works there are “On the fish of Dalmatia” (1888), “Sharks of the Mediterranean and Black Seas” (1888), “Marine mammals of the Adriatic Sea” (1889), “Fish known as ‘milk’ in Dalmatia” (1889), and “Our sturgeon” (1902).

Bubnov Aleksandr Dmitrievich (1883–1963)

Naval Academy. In the years 1910–1912, Bubnov was the senior flagship officer of the Chief of the Artillery Training Detachment of the Baltic Fleet, and in 1913–1914, he was senior officer of the cruiser “Diana.” Bubnov also professed at the Nikolaev Maritime Academy. In July 1917 he was promoted to Rear Admirals and served as chief of the Naval Directorate of the General Headquarters of the Supreme Command. After the revolution of 1917 in Russia he left the Fleet and went to Paris. From December 1918 to early 1919, Bubnov was one of the members of the Russian delegation at the Versailles Peace Conference from the government of Admiral A.V. Kolchak. In the White Movement he fought in the Armed Forces of South Russia and the Russian Army: from August 1919 to February 1920 as Chief of Staff of the Black Sea Fleet. Before the fall of the Army, he was evacuated to Turkey; however, then in June 1920 he returned to Sevastopol. Afterwards, he was in emigration, first in Paris, then in Yugoslavia. In 1923–1941 he worked as a professor in Yugoslavia at the Naval School (established in 1923) and at the Higher Naval School (established in 1931), where Bubnov professed the history of naval art and strategy, and also led the naval game and practical classes of students. Bubnov is mentioned in the Yugoslav Marine Encyclopedia, published in the late 1950s, as the only representative of naval science in the country. Bubnov died in 1963 in the Yugoslav city of Kranj (modern Slovenia). Aleksandr Bubnov is the author of a number of works and memoirs “Sea Wars from the very beginning to the Second World War” (in three volumes in Croatian, published in Dubrovnik in 1940), “Russian Maritime Problem” (1929), “The Problem of the Bosporus” (1935), and “At the Tsar’s Headquarters” (1955, reprinted in St. Petersburg in 1995).

Bubnov Aleksandr Dmitrievich (1883–1963) Budva Bubnov Aleksandr Dmitrievich (1883–1963) – Russian Rear Admiral. In 1903 he graduated from the Marine Corps, and in 1913 the Nikolaev

Budva – the largest city of the Adriatic coast of Montenegro, its resort capital. It is situated on the

Budva

Aleksandr D. Bubnov. (Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org/ wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE% D0%B2,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA% D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0% 94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8% D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#/media/%D0% A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:%D0%9A%D0%BE% D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80-%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0% BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%90% D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0% BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8% D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0% B8%D1%87_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BD% D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg)

western part of the harbor of Budva. Budva is the center of the community, which also includes the neighboring towns of Bečići, Rafailovići, Sveti Stefan, and Petrovac. Budva is the heart of the Budva Riviera, on the coast of the Budva Bay at the Adriatic Sea. It is one of the oldest settlements in the entire Mediterranean, dating back over 2500 years. Philo of Byblos (second century AD) wrote that it (Budva, Budua, Butoba) was founded by King Cadmus of Phoenician (son of the Phoenician King Agenor), who was expelled from Greece and found refuge here for himself

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and his wife Harmony (daughter of the god Ares and the goddess Aphrodite). Budva was first mentioned by the ancient Greek playwright Sophocles, who calls him an Illyrian city of the fifth century BC and called Buthoe. Later it is mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy. From the beginning of the fourth century BC and until the end of the first century BC, Budva was ruled by the Greeks, and then fell under the Romans. By the middle of the second century, this territory was occupied by the Romans, and when the Roman Empire was divided into western and eastern (Byzantium) parts, their border passed through the center of Budva. Venetians ruled Budva from about 1420 to 1797. Then it was called Budua and belonged to Venetian Albania. At the end of the eighteenth century the Austrians were established here, and in 1807 Budva was captured by Napoleon’s forces. In 1814 it passed into the hands of the Austrians again. In 1918, Budva obtained the status of a city within Montenegro. In 1941, Mussolini’s troops occupied the city along with the whole territory of Montenegro. The city experienced two catastrophic earthquakes – in 1667 and in 1979; however, it always rose from the ashes and ruins. The population of Budva is about 19,200 people (2011). The city is multiethnic, where about 4% of the entire population of Budva are Russians. The main sightseeing in Budva is the Old Town, which preserves the memory of the times of the Venetian Republic, when the mighty stone walls were erected. Old Budva is an example of a typical medieval fortress town. Originally, the Old Town was located on a small island near the coast, and later the embankment turned it into a peninsula. You can get to the Old Town through one of the five passages, two of them with gates, which in ancient times were well guarded and locked for the night. Today they are open to everyone. The city is surrounded by a wall, 2 m thick, with loopholes, built by the Venetians in the fifteenth century to protect the city against the Turks. In some places on the wall you can see the images of winged lions. This is the famous sigil of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist Mark, which in the twelfth century became the symbol of the Venetian Empire. The wall connects two fortresses. The large citadel fortress defended

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Budva

The city of Budva, Montenegro. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budva#/media/File:Budva,_veduta_02.JPG).

the city from attacks from the south, and the small fort Mogren protects it from the west. There are also several guard towers for sentries with round roofs and holes for cannons. The largest historical monument of the Old City is the medieval Citadel (the sea fortress of St. Mary), which can be seen in the southern part of the city. The building of the fortress began in 40s of ninth century. Later, due to the invention of the guns, the walls could no longer perform a protective function, and the Venetians almost completely rebuilt the original fortifications, retaining only the northern and eastern walls of the fortress, as well as the northern tower. Those walls that make up the construction of the Citadel now were only the first line of the city’s defense. The second line of defense was deeper, and its foundation a meter high can be seen now. In the twentieth century the fortress was thoroughly reconstructed using old stone processing technologies. According to the composition of the fortress, the Citadel looks like a castle with a patio, and shaped as an irregular polygon. The height of the walls (about 10 m) made the fortress unassailable. Behind the Citadel Gate there are fragments of the ancient wall, and in the south-western part of the territory there is a small hotel complex. Just north of the Citadel, you can see an important archaeological discovery made in

1979 – the ruins of Roman baths. These are fragments of a stone wall, and here there is a well-preserved small round well. Next to them is the Catholic Church of St. John – the largest and most famous temple of Budva. Its highpointed bell tower with a cross dominates over the entire city. In the city itself there are two small pebble beaches: “Richardova Glava,” located under the walls of Old Budva – the most visited on the Budva Riviera and “Pisana” near the port. On the one of the small rocks in the sea, a sculpture of the “Budvan Mermaid” is installed. The coastline around the city is called the Budva Riviera. Annually Budva accepts up to 300,000 tourists. The symbol of Budva is two fishes, which create a link – a composition that, according to legend, was created by the young stonecutter Marco Mitrov. He was in love with the girl Elena, but her parents were against it. Then Marco and Elena, holding hands, jumped into the sea. A miracle happened – having reached the water, they turned into fishes, those that Marco painted in his work, and disappeared into the depths of the waters. Seeing this, someone said: “Let two be like one” (“K’o jedno nek budu dva!”). So the name of the city, Budva, appeared. Water area of Budva is rich in flora and fauna. From sea fish there are catfish, orada, brancin, porgies, and shkrapina.

Budva Riviera, Budvanska Rivijera

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Old City of Budva. (Source: Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

Budva Bay, Budvanski zaliv Budva Bay, Budvanski zaliv – stretched from the peninsula of Luštica in the north-west to the town of Petrovac, in the south-east. The coastline is 38 km. In the area between Tivat and Budva, the bay goes deep into the mainland, and therefore, this place has long been used by fishermen as a shelter from storms.

Budva Riviera, Budvanska Rivijera Budva Riviera, Budvanska Rivijera – The coastal territory of the Adriatic Sea stretches from Cape Jaz, in the Budva district on southeast, to the city of Petrovac-on-the-Sea,

Montenegro. It is the most attractive tourist area of the Montenegrin coast. It has a low sandy beach. The area is 122 km2. The total length of the coast is 35 km, 13 km of which are occupied by the beaches of the Budva Riviera. It houses a continuous network of villages: Budva, Bečići, Rafailoviči, Reževići, Pržno, Miločer, Sveti Stefan, and Petrovac-on-theSea. Villas and private apartments can take up to 35,000 tourists. Most of the beaches have the names of cities: Platanum, Trsteno, Jaz (1200 m), Mogren I and II (350 m), Slovenska (1600 m), St. Nicholas, Bičići (1950 m), Guvence, Pržno (260 m), Milocer (280 m), Kamenovo (330 m), Sveti Stefan (700 m), Drobni Pesok (240 m), Petrovac (600 m), Lučiće (220 m), and Buljarica (1980 m) are the largest beaches on the Budva Riviera. On

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Bujovich Palace, Bujovich dvorec

Slovenska beach. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budva_Riviera#/media/File:Slovenska_Beach_in_Budva,_ Montenegro_aa.jpg)

Budva Riviera there are nine monasteries: Podlastva, Podostrog, Podmaine, Staneviči, Voiniči, Dulevo, Reževići, Gradište, and Praskvica. Olives, tangerines, lemons, oranges, pomegranates, palms, cacti, agaves, and mimosas grow in abundance on the Budva Riviera.

Bujovich Palace, Bujovich dvorec Bujovich Palace, Bujovich dvorec – one of the famous urban museums of the Adriatic coast, located on the waterfront in Perast, BokoKotorska Bay, Montenegro. It was founded in 1937 by the decision of local authorities. The collection of the museum was formed by

donations from the inhabitants of Perast, who were the descendants of famous mariner families, and today it gives all visitors the opportunity to make their impression about the glorious past of this “sailors forge.” At first, the museum was located in the building of the town hall, but in 1948, due to the expansion of the collection, it moved to the present palace, which was timed to the 250th anniversary of “instructing Russian boyars on naval affairs.” The museum exhibits the portraits of seafarers, weapons, and other objects from the history of Perast, as well as archival materials of the municipality, dating from 1441. Among the most famous exhibits is the sword of Vukša Stepanović of the end of the fourteenth century. It is richly encrusted with precious stones and decorated with gold

Burano Island

inscriptions; an original portrait of Captain Marko Martinović, who was famous for his training of Russian princes and boyars in marine affairs; a portrait of Admiral Matija Zmajević, as well as his sword with the family coat of arms; self-portrait of the famous local artist Tripo Kokol. Among the exhibits there are traditional folk costumes, jewelry, small models of old ships, and much more. An integral part of the city museum of Perast is the archive of the Visković family, consisting of a family library with books on the art of navigation. The palace itself is considered as one of the most beautiful buildings of the entire coast of the Adriatic Sea, built during the Renaissance. The palace was built at the end of the seventeenth century by order of the Bujovich brothers, Ivan and Vico, who became famous in naval battles with pirates and in trading activities. There is a legend that as a building material for the palace was used hewn stone from the destroyed city wall of Herceg Novi, which remained after the liberation of this city from the Turks in 1687. A series of inscriptions on the facade of the building indicates that construction was begun in 1694.

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Bujovich Vitsko (1660–1709) Bujovich Vitsko (1660–1709) – warrior and politician. From 1694 to 1708, he was repeatedly elected Captain (mayor) of Perast. During the Morean War (1685–1699), he commanded Perast warships in the rank of Navy commander. In March 1704 he was granted by the ducal title. At the same time, Bujovich was the commander of a large warship with a crew of 160 sailors. He served on the “Venetian border,” and his mission was not to allow a single Turkish ship into the waters of the Adriatic. P.A. Tolstoy, Russian statesman and diplomat, stayed in Bujovich’s house during his trip to the Boko-Kotorska Bay in 1699. He was killed in Dubrovnik because of the beauty of a Turkish woman during a feud with Zmajević.

Burano Island Burano Island – an island, island quarter, in the Venetian Lagoon, Italy. It is located 8 km east of Venice. The population approximately 5000 people.

Burano Island. (Source: https://citywonders.com/venice/attractions/murano-and-burano)

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It is famous for its brightly colored houses. There is situated the church of St. Martino (sixteenth century), topped by a “relative of the Leaning Tower” – a sloping kamponilla 52 m high, the baroque chapel of St. Barbara, the mayor’s palace in the Gothic style. Since the sixteenth century, it has been specialized in the production of lace. There are museum and school of lace.

Buse

Buse Buse – (Italian. buzzo – belly, belly) a large military and merchant ship of the twelfth to sixteenth centuries on the Mediterranean. The largest were Venetian Buses, which were equipped by three masts.

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Canal Grande (Grand Canal) Canal Grande (Grand Canal) – See “▶ Grand Canal.”

Caorle Caorle – a small coastal town on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Veneto Region, Italy. It is located between the mouths of the rivers Livenza and Lemeny, as well as between the two famous tourist cities of Eraclea and Bibione. There are 9 km of golden sand, picturesque lagoons. Population is approximately 11,600 people (2017). Founded in the first century BC by the Romans. Starting from the eleventh century it became one of the nine major cities of the Republic of Venice, as evidenced by the ancient buildings of the city, bridges, and canals, similar to those in Venice. Carole held an important strategic position during the First World War. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the area around Carole underwent changes, most of the forest was cut down under agricultural fields, swamps were reclaimed, and rivers were banked. The landscape became flat, without trees even along the rivers. Along the coast, erosion is constantly

changing shores. The main attraction is the Cathedral of St. Stephen, built in 1038. Its bell tower rises to a height of 48 m. This is a typical example of the Romanesque style, its cylindrical shape surmounted by a cone-shaped roof, which makes it unique. On a small cape on the shore of the Adriatic Sea the church of the Blessed Virgin of the Angel was built.

Cape of Rodon or Cape of Skanderbeg (Rodoni Cape or Skanderberg) Cape of Rodon or Cape of Skanderbeg (Rodoni Cape or Skanderberg) – rocky cape with an altitude of up to 25 m in the north of the Adriatic Sea near Durrёs, Albania. It separates the Gulf of Drin from Lalze Bay. There are the ruins of Rodoni Castle on the cape, built by the great Albanian warrior Skanderberg in 1467. In this castle his sister Mamnesa spent her last years. Then the castle was destroyed by the Ottoman Empire and re-restored in 1500 by the Venetians. There is the church of St. Anthony (fourteenth century) nearby, which is associated with the name of Skanderberg. It was completely renovated in 1999–2001. The cape is listed as a natural monument in Albania.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Capo d’Otranto (or Punta Palascı`a) Lighthouse

Cape of Rodon. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_of_Rodon#/media/File:Rodoni_Castle_2016-07-15_01. jpg)

Capo d’Otranto (or Punta Palascı`a) Lighthouse Capo d’Otranto (or Punta Palascìa) Lighthouse – It was built in 1867 in eastern Italy, in a place where the Ionian and Adriatic seas meet. It functioned until the middle of 1970s. It was subsequently restored and opened to tourists since 2008 as a museum object telling about Mediterranean ecosystems. The lighthouse is a high stone structure, rising to 32 m above the ground. The lighthouse tower emerges from the caretaker’s two-story house. It has a white color. The lighthouse is included into the list of abandoned lighthouses in the world.

from the mainland – the Apennine Peninsula, Italy. The island is almost uninhabited. Previously, small cattle were brought here from neighboring islands to local pastures. On the northeast tip of the island a lighthouse is situated.

Carrack Carrack – sailing ship, very common in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. First of all, carrack appeared in Portugal and Venice, and then in England and France. Carrack were used as cargo ships and warships. Along with sails, paddles were also used on carrack. The length of the ship is 35 m, width is 10.3 m, height is 6 m, and loading capacity is 200 t.

Capraia Cattaro Capraia – the northernmost island in the Tremiti Archipelago in the Adriatic Sea, the most distant

Cattaro – See “▶ Kotor.”

Cattaro Mutiny

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Capo d’Otranto Lighthouse. (https://it.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Capo_d%27Otranto#/ media/File:Otranto_faro_ Punta_Palascia.jpg)

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Carrack. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrack#/ media/File:Carrack_1565_(cropped).jpg)

Cattaro Mutiny Cattaro Mutiny – a revolt of the Navy sailors in February 1918 in the town of Cattaro (Kotor), which belonged to Austria-Hungary. It was a

direct continuation of the January strike of 1918, which embraced the main industrial centers of Austria-Hungary, as well as the arsenals of the Navy in Pula and Trieste. It was inspired by the October Revolution in Russia (1917). The mutiny took place on February 1 on the flagship “St. George” at a signal from the revolutionary center of Cattaro sailors. Sailors (mostly Croats) of 40 warships joined the rebels. The sailors arrested the officers and elected commanders from among themselves. On the same day, a revolutionary committee of sailors’ councils assembled on the ship “Sankt Georg.” The following demands were adopted: the election of commissioners from the sailors’ environment; permission to convene sailor assemblies; the immediate making peace on the basis of the proposals put forward by Soviet Russia; nation’s right to self-determination. “Sailor Republic” existed for 3 days. The government took decisive action to quell the uprising. Punitive detachments were sent to Cattaro (Kotor) along with German submarines and infantry units. As a result, 379 participants were brought to court-martial. The leaders of the uprising were shot.

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Cattolica

Cattolica

Cavtat

Cattolica – a city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, in Rimini Region, Italy. The population is 17,200 people (2017). The area has been inhabited since Roman times. Cattolica has been raised as a place of rest for pilgrims who went to worship the relics of St. Peter in Rome, who traveled along the route Bologna-Ancona-Rome. In 1500, Cattolica had more than two dozen taverns and inns. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the fishing industry has become a leading city economy. One of the first notable guests on the beach of Cattolica in 1823 was Lucien Bonaparte, brother of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, who preferred it to noisy Rimini. After the end of the First World War, the tourism industry became dominant. There is a crescent-shaped 2 km long beach equipped with all amenities. The indoor market, the royal museum, the aquarium, and an amusement park are also interesting.

Cavtat – resort town, located 20 km south of Dubrovnik on the shores of a large peninsula, which has two harbors on both sides of the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. It was founded by the ancient Greeks, who came from the Vis Island in the third century BC. Then it was called Epidaurus. In the middle of the fourth century, the city was destroyed by a strong earthquake and most of the city was flooded by the sea. The city center survived. In the seventh century, the city was ravaged by the Slavs. Subsequently, a fishing village Cavtat was founded here. In the fifteenth century, the Republic of Dubrovnik bought the land of Cavtat and a new city was built on the ruins. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Austro-Hungarians discovered here a place for a resort. The city is buried in pines and cypresses. The renaissance princely palace of the sixteenth century has been preserved on the coast.

Cattolica beach. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattolica#/media/File:Cattolica_beach_-_panoramio.jpg)

Cervia

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The city of Cavtat, Croatia. (Source: https://www.visit-croatia.co.uk/croatia-destinations/southern-dalmatia/cavtat/)

Central Institute for Scientific and Technological Research Applied to the Sea (ICRAM) Central Institute for Scientific and Technological Research Applied to the Sea (ICRAM) – It is situated in Chioggia, Italy. In 2008, it was merged with the Joint Research Center – Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA).

Centre for Marine Research Centre for Marine Research – included in the Ruđer Bošković Institute, Croatia. This is an interdisciplinary research center, which focuses on functional and applied oceanographic research, including ecological, physiological, and genetic studies of marine organisms and pollution effects, pollution monitoring, and sea water quality.

Cervia Cervia – (from the Lat. “Ceroris” – Abundant in Grain and Bread) – a small town and port on the shore of the Adriatic Sea, Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy. It is called “Island in the green.” The population of 28,700 people (2019). Seaside resort, famous for sandy beaches of approximately 10 km and covered by pine groves. The city grew and developed due to the salt production, which is carried out in local evaporation ponds. The population is engaged in fishing in small fishing boats. Among the sightseeings, there are the Cathedral (Santa Maria Assunta), built in 1702, The Communal Palace, and St. Michael Tower rising above the port. Guarittas – watchtowers, often repeated among salt marshes, testify to the importance of the extracted raw materials. There is even a salt museum, where pictures of the life of salt miners and salt farmers come to life, among utensils and observation towers, inside which vigilant watchmen froze. From

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Cetina River

The city of Cervia, Italy. (Source: https://www.votpusk.ru/country/kurort.asp?CN¼IT&CT¼IT109)

Cervia you can get to Milano Marittima by train or bus. Cervia has a salt museum, the exposition of which tells about the development of salt production in this region. You can go on excursions to salt lakes in the nature sanctuary Salina di Cervia – 827 ha. Another natural reserve of Pineta di Cervia is also interesting.

Cetina River Cetina River – the river, which empties into the top of the Omiš Bay on the Adriatic Sea, to the west of the harbor Omiš, Croatia. It originates at the foot of the Dinar Mountains, in its upper reaches there are many rifts, and in the lower course it cuts through the coastal mountains and flows through a narrow picturesque canyon. The lower flow of the river is available for navigation of small vessels from the mouth to the village of Radmonova Mlinice. At the mouth of the Cetina there is a small picturesque town Omiš.

Cezenatico Cezenatico – port city on the Adriatic coast of the Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy. It is situated at 30 km south of Ravenna. Popular tourist resort. There is the Maritime Museum (Muzeo della Marineria), where the main exhibits are historical fishing boats. The city is known for its 118-m-high skyscraper, which for several years was one of the 30 tallest buildings in Europe. The city was founded in 1302. Until the eighteenth century, it was considered as a part of the city of Cesena. The port and canal were built in 1500. It was originally planned to bring the canal to the city of Cesena, which is 15 km from the sea. At the request of Cesare Borgia, the channel was surveyed by Leonardo da Vinci. It is often mistakenly claimed that da Vinci designed it.

Chioggia Chioggia – a city and a port, which is situated in 5 km to the north from the mouth of the Brenta

Chioggia

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Mouth of the Cetina River in Omiš, Croatia. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetina#/media/File:Cetina_river_at_Omis.jpg)

The city of Cezenatico, Italy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesenatico#/media/File:Ponte053_fish_eye.jpg)

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Chub Mackerel (Pacific Chub Mackerel, Scomber japonicus)

The city of Chioggia, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chioggia#/media/File:Chioggia2.jpg)

River on a small island, in the passageway between the Brondole Peninsula and Pellestrina Island, in the southern part of the Gulf of Venice of the Adriatic Sea. It is situated in about 25 km from Venice, Veneto Region, Italy. Chioggia is Venice in miniature, with several channels, the main of which is the Canal Vienna, and specific narrow streets known as “calli.” The city has several medieval churches, many of which were rebuilt in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries. From the south, the port of Chioggia is protected by islands, on which the city of the same name is located, with a population of 49,100 people (2019). From the sea to the port leads an entrance canal of 500 m wide with depths of more than 4.5 m. The port includes an avantport and inner harbor, which consists of the Vito basin, the inner part of the Lombardo Interno Canal, the San Domenico Canal, the pool of the maritime station, and a small pool of the railway station. The port network is connected to the Malamocco harbor. In 1381 in the battle of Chioggia, Venetian troops from the “Pearl of the Adriatic” were defeated by

the troops of the City of Trieste. Fishery is well developed there, as well as textile industry, production of bricks, steel. Tourism is also well developed there.

Chub Mackerel (Pacific Chub Mackerel, Scomber japonicus) Chub Mackerel (Pacific Chub Mackerel, Scomber japonicus) – pelagic fish of Scombridae family. It refers to fast-growing species of fish. By the end of the first year of life, it reaches a length of 18–20 cm. In commercial catches, it is found to be from 16 to 50 cm long. Body weight varies from 60 to 1200 g. It reaches sexual maturity with a length of 27–30 cm in the third year, and in the mass in the fourth year of life. The optimum water temperature for spawning is 14–21 °С, and depth is up to 250 m on spawning grounds. Japanese mackerel is characterized by extended migrations with a speed of 100–200 to 350–450 miles per

“Coastal Plan”

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Chub Mackerel. (Source: https://fr.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Scomber_japonicus)

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month with a total length of 500–1500 miles. The ability to overcome significant distances is provided by the ability of mackerel to use the movement of water masses for traveling. In all cases, the vertical distribution is limited by the temperature jump layer and varies from 20–50 m in the summer to 200–250 m in the winter. Due to the absence of a swimming bladder in mackerel, the fish can quickly and painlessly make vertical movements in the water column. At the end of the fall, and the beginning of winter, it enters the Boka-Kotorska Bay and is well caught in the areas of Orahovac and Ljuta. It is excellent fish for table use. The meat is juicy and fatty. Its catches are approximately 4000 t in the Adriatic Sea.

Civitanova Marche Civitanova Marche – a city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Marche Region, Italy. It is located about 40 km southeast of Ancona. Famous resort. The population of the city is 42,600 people (2019). It is believed that it was founded approximately eighth century B.C at the mouth of the Chienti River, and then it was called Cluana. The Romans captured it in 268 B.C., and in 50 B.C. the new settlement of Cluentis Vicus

was founded on a hill near the sea. During the barbarian invasion, the old settlement of Clouan was destroyed by the Visigoths, and most of the population took refuge in the new city. In 1440, on the orders of Francesco Sforza, a new line of walls was built to protect the port. As a result of the attack of the Turks and pirates, internal strife, and plague, the city from the sixteenth century began to fall into a state of disrepair. After the unification of Italy in 1938, the old and new cities were merged.

“Coastal Plan” “Coastal Plan” – The project for the Adriatic, Baltic, and Black Seas was carried out from 2006 to 2008. The project enhanced spatial planning tools to increase the effectiveness of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and maritime policy. Slovakia, Italy, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Montenegro participated in the implementation of the project on the Adriatic Sea. Most of the project funding was implemented by the European Union (approximately 1.5 million Euros of the total cost of approximately 2 million Euros). The plan became the beginning of the development, introduction, and implementation of tools and

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Coastline of the Adriatic Sea

Civitanova Marche. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitanova_Marche#/media/File:Panorama_del_porto_di_ Civitanova_Marche.jpg)

procedures for the new discipline branch “sea – use – planning” in each participating country with respect to international standards, while at the same time reflecting local and regional requirements. The project was a contribution to the implementation of the EU Maritime Strategy through Marine Spatial Planning (MSP).

Cold Water Coast Cold Water Coast – is situated at about 2 km south of Vlorё, Albania, where the rocky coast of the Adriatic Sea begins. It has more than 34 karst springs with a water discharge of about 900 l of very cold water that enters the sea. Water is used for water supply of Vlorё.

Coastline of the Adriatic Sea Coastline of the Adriatic Sea – from Cape Santa Maria di Leuca on the Italian coast to Cape Glossa (or Linguetta) on the Albanian border is 3737 km (with islands 7867 km). The distribution of the coastline by the Adriatic countries (in brackets with the islands): Albania – 273 km (427 km), Montenegro – 294 km (305 km), Bosnia and Herzegovina – 21 km, Croatia – 1777 km (4012 km), Slovenia – 44 km, Italy – 1249 km (1272 km).

Coloman, King of Hungary (About 1070–1114) Coloman, King of Hungary (About 1070–1114) – Hungarian King (1095–1114) of the Arpad dynasty. Relying on an alliance with the Sicilian Normans, he fought with Venice. In 1097, he captured Belgrade. Trying to seize Galicia by interfering in the internecine struggle of the Kiev princes, he was defeated at Przemysl (1099). In

Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)

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Po, Comacchio was annexed by Rome. During the reign of Emperor Augustus, who ruled Rome from 27 BC to 14 AD, a channel was dug to deepen the lagoon in which the city is located. Part of the original wetlands was drained and divided among the settlers. Gradually, most of the wetlands disappeared, becoming agricultural land. As a result, new areas have been created. Earlier in Comacchio there was a factory for the sugar production, which closed in 1988. Today the city is the center of tourism. Comacchio is the heart of the Po Delta Natural Park. The famous local delicacy is an eel.

Comber (Serranus cabrilla) Coloman. (Heroes’ Square, Budapest, Hungary). (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloman,_King_of_Hun gary#/media/File:Coloman_(Millennium_Monument).jpg)

1102, he approved his power in Croatia – the Hungarian-Croatian Union was made, and in 1107, he seized the territory of Dalmatia, as a result of which Hungary gained access to the Adriatic Sea.

Comacchio Comacchio – The city is situated between the hills and the opened Adriatic Sea in 48 km from the administrative center of the province of Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy. The city is located in the lagoon, north of the modern mouth of the river Reno. The city is built on more than 13 islands connected by bridges. It is the capital and queen of the lagoons. The population of the city is 22,100 people (2019). Fish is bred on these wetlands, and salt ponds are located here. The port of Garibaldi (Porto Garibaldi) is located 7 km to the east. To the south of the city are the wetlands of the Valley di Comacchio. In ancient times, after its capture by the Etruscans and Gauls, when the city was located on the main channel of the river

Comber (Serranus cabrilla) – a sea fish, in the Serranidae family. Its head is covered with scales from above and from the sides, the mouth is rather large, the body is brown-yellowish or brown, on the sides with 5–8 darker transverse stripes. Its length up to 40 cm. Weight is approximately 0.5 kg. Usually, the length of the fish reaches 20 cm in catches. It reaches sexual maturity at the fourth year. It keeps mainly on stony and rocky soils with thickets of underwater vegetation. It is widely spread throughout the Adriatic Sea at depths up to 200 m. It is a predator. It feeds on relatively large fish, as well as crustaceans. The meat is very delicious and tender. In the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea catches reach 20 t.

Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) – the most famous and most completely studied dolphin species. It is more correct to call the front part of the dolphin formed by the jaws and intended for capturing food not “nose” but “beak” or “rastrum,” since the olfacting there is absent. A dolphin breathes through a hole (a skin-muscular valve), called the “blowhole,” which is located in a small hole

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Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)

Comacchio. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comacchio#/media/File:Gate_to_Comacchio.jpg)

Comber. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serranus_ cabrilla#/media/File:Cabrilla_reina.jpg)

on the sinciput. Adult bottlenose dolphin usually has a length of 2–2.5 m and a weight of 130–200 kg; however it can reach a length of 3.8 m and a weight of 650 kg (off the coast of Great Britain). Bottlenose dolphin is common in temperate and tropical latitudes around the world.

This type of dolphin is considered coastal, although it is also found in open areas of the ocean. Life expectancy is on average about 30 years; however, it can reach 40 years. An adult bottle-nosed dolphin eats 8–15 kg of various species of fish, squids, and crustaceans per day. Dolphins are incredibly maneuverable, capable of performing precisely planned jumps into the air up to 5 m high and up to 10 m long, and also at a speed of up to 40 km/h, instantly change the direction of movement or stop completely at a braking distance of 1–2 m. They dive to a depth of 300 m, remaining under water up to 15–20 min. The dolphin is one of the most amazing and mysterious living beings of our planet, a unique creation of nature, ideally adapted to life in the marine environment, endowed with a highly developed mind and sensory system, in its parameters far ahead of existing technical systems. Throughout the history of mankind, people knew that dolphins help and rescue drowning people and disperse sharks, gathering near humans.

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Common bottlenose dolphin. (Source: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tursiops#/media/Datei:Manada.jpg)

They especially protect children. A unique specificity of dolphins is their goodwill, sociability, and desire to establish contact with human and help him. They are intelligent, good-natured, and even somewhat condescending toward people. For 2500 years of communication with a dolphin, there has not been a single case of aggressiveness of the latter, even if man would hurt them. Even despite the bottle-nosed dolphin has 88 sharp conic teeth like tiger teeth. It could easily, for example, bite a man’s hand off or kill him with a strong blow of the lower jaw, saving its life.

Common Dentex (Toothed Gilthead, Dentex dentex) Common Dentex (Toothed Gilthead, Dentex dentex) – toothed sea fish of the Sparidae family, a typical representative of white fish and one of the most important representatives of commercial and sport fishing. The body is oval, high, flattened from the sides. Length is up to 1 m, weight reaches 16 kg, and average weight is up to 1 kg. It is found throughout the Adriatic Sea on a rocky bottom to a depth of 200 m. Most often it occurs at depths

from 5 to 30 m. Avoids turbid water and sandy bottom areas. It is harvested all year round; however, it is better to catch it in spring and summer. Catch in the Adriatic Sea may reach 50–60 t, and in the Mediterranean Sea approximately 6000 t. Meat is delicious and valuable.

Common Smooth-Hound (Mustelus mustelus) Common Smooth-Hound (Mustelus mustelus) – a widespread species of cartilaginous fishes of the family Triakidae. Maximum recorded length is 200 cm. They are dwelling at a depth of 5–50 m, although there are the records of the presence of these sharks at a depth of 350 m. The number of common smooth-hounds, according to the assessments of trawler ships catches on the continental shelf of the Adriatic Sea in 1948 and 1998 remained unchanged. A study conducted in 2000 in the waters of the seas washing the shores of Italy showed that most of the common smoothhounds population is concentrated in the Adriatic Sea and near the southern coast of Sicily. Common smooth-hound has a short head and an

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Common Thresher, or Fox Shark, Zorro Thresher Shark (Common Thresher, Alopias vulpinus)

Common dentex. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Common_dentex#/ media/File:Sparidae_-_ Dentex_dentex.JPG)

elongated body. The distance from the tip of the snout to the base of the pectoral fins is from 17% to 21% of the total body length. The snout is slightly elongated and blunt. Oval large eyes are stretched horizontally. At the corners of the mouth are labial grooves. The mouth is rather short, almost equal to the eye, and its length is 2.2–3.5% of the body length. Blunted and flat teeth are asymmetrical, with a small central point. The distance between the dorsal fins is 18–25% of the body length. The pectoral fins are large, the length of the front edge is 13–17%, and the posterior edge is 8.2–14% of the total length, respectively. The length of the anterior border of the ventral fins is 6.5–9.9% of the total body length. The first dorsal fin is larger than the second. Its base is located between the bases of the pectoral and pelvic fins. The tail fin extends almost horizontally. Its color is gray or graybrown without marks. The belly is bright. Reproduces placental live birth. In addition, embryos feed on yolk. There are from 4 to 15 newborns in brood. Males and females reach sexual maturity with a length of 70–74 cm and 80 cm, which corresponds to the age of 9.1 and 10.7 years. Pregnancy lasts 10–11 months. The length of newborns is about 39 cm. The maximum recorded life expectancy is 25 years. The diet

consists mainly of benthic crustaceans such as lobsters, crabs, and shrimps. In addition, common smooth-hounds eat cephalopods and small bony fishes. The species is not dangerous to humans; however, you should be careful with these sharks, when you catch them, as they have sharp teeth, powerful jaws, and very rough skin. Meat is used for food in salted or fresh form, the liver is used to produce fat, and the skeleton is processed into fish-flour. The World Conservation Union has given this species “Vulnerable” status.

Common Thresher, or Fox Shark, Zorro Thresher Shark (Common Thresher, Alopias vulpinus) Common Thresher, or Fox Shark, Zorro Thresher Shark (Common Thresher, Alopias vulpinus) – the largest species of cartilaginous fish of the fox shark genus of the cognominal (Alopiidae) family. It reaches 7.6 m. Half of this length contains the elongated upper lobe of the caudal fin. These sharks have a streamlined body, a short and pointed snout, and medium-sized eyes. Fox sharks live in all temperate and tropical waters, although they prefer a cool temperature. They are

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Common smooth-hound. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustelus_mustelus#/media/File:Mustelus_mustelus2.jpg)

found both in the open ocean at a depth of up to 350 m and near the coast, and usually keep in the surface layers of water. Fox sharks make seasonal migrations and spend the summer at lower latitudes. Weight is up to 400–500 kg. The teeth are small. The eyes are small. The ration mainly consists of schooling pelagic fish such as bluefish, mackerel, herrings, sargans, and luminous anchovies. Fox sharks hunt using their long tail as a whip. They knock, fold, and stun their prey. This explains their name on English, “thresher shark.” These are powerful and fast predators capable of jumping completely out of the water. Their circulatory system is modified to maintain metabolic heat energy and heat the body above the temperature of the surrounding water. Breeding takes place through a placental live birth. Mating occurs in the summer, usually in July and August, and childbirth proceeds from March to June. Pregnancy lasts 9 months. Fertilization and embryo development occurs in utero. There are up to 4 newborns in litter. The length of the newborn is 114–160 cm and is directly dependent on the size of the mother. Young sharks add 50 cm per year, while adults grow only 10 cm. Life expectancy is at least 15 years, and the maximum period is about 45–50 years.

Despite its size, it is believed that fox sharks are not dangerous to humans, as they have small teeth and timid disposition. This species is an object of commercial fishing and sport fishing. Their meat and fins are highly valued. The low level of reproduction makes common sea foxes very sensitive to overfishing. Meat, especially fins are highly valued. It is consumed fresh, dried, salted, and smoked. The skin is excreted, and vitamins are produced from the liver fat.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat – Ramsar Convention Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat – Ramsar Convention – also known as the Ramsar Convention, adopted February 2, 1971, in Ramsar, Iran. It entered into force in 1975. According to the terms of the Convention, each contracting party identifies suitable wetlands on its territory that are included in the List of Wetlands of International Importance. On December 3, 1982, the Protocol

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Crabs, Brachyura

Common thresher. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_thresher#/media/File:Thresher_shark.jpg)

on Amendment of the Convention was signed, and then on May 28, 1997, amendments to the Convention were adopted. Every year on February 2, World Wetlands Day is celebrated. By 2020, 171 countries had joined the Convention. The Convention Secretariat (Bureau) is located in Gland, Switzerland.

Crabs, Brachyura Crabs, Brachyura – suborder of invertebrates of the decapod crustacean order. The head is small with eyestalks. Cephalothorax is broad, and width of chest shield varies from 2 to 20 cm. The first pair of ambulatory legs is equipped with claws. The abdomen is short, tucked under the cephalothorax; abdominal limbs of males (2 pairs) are transformed into a copulative apparatus; of females (4 pairs), they are used for carrying eggs. They dwell in the seas, in fresh water, and on the shore. All crabs, except freshwater, breed in the sea. Crab’s development occurs with metamorphosis; the larva zoea comes out of the eggs, which turns into a larva megalopa, and then into an adult Crab. Only freshwater crab (family Potamidae) does not have a free-floating larva. Pursued crab is able to break off limbs with a sharp movement, and the new limbs grow instead of the old ones. Crabs feed mainly on

invertebrates. Many crabs are edible and serve as an object of fishing. Some crabs eat commercial mollusks – oysters and mussels. There are more than 4000 known species of crabs. Crabs contain more than 20% of the marine crustaceans that are caught, grown, and sold worldwide – approximately 1.5 million tons/year. Crab meat is specified by a low calorie content, since 100 g of such meat contains 73 kcal. There are 96 kcal per 100 g in the boiled crabs, and the energy value of canned crabs is 85 kcal to 100 g. In 100 g of steamed crabs, there are 97 kcal. Crab meat has a large amount of proteins and nourishes the body with energy well. In moderate amounts, this product does not cause adiposis. Row crab meat has a jelly-like consistency and a grayish color. Edible crabmeat is in the limbs and abdomen. The limbs consist of armored tubes connected by joints. Under the shell, crab’s body is covered with a red film. It has been the basis for the forming of a new shell after crab moult, if it would remain at sea. Crab meat is not only dietary but also rich in vitamins, amino acids, and micro-elements. These include iodine, calcium, zinc, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and antioxidants: taurine and vitamins E and C. Also, crabs are useful in anemia, cardiovascular diseases, and in visual deterioration. A number of high-quality products may be produced of crabs: canned goods, boiled-frozen crab legs, dried meat. Realization of fresh and cooled crabs must be made very quickly: at a temperature not higher than

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Marbled rock crab. (https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Pachygrapsus_ marmoratus#/media/File: Pachygrapsus_ marmoratus_2009_G4.jpg)

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12–15 °C, crabs are stored for no more than 15 h, and iced they are preserved for 30–36 h. Crabs (Pachygrapsus marmoratus) are very frequently found in the Adriatic Sea.

Cres Island (Cres Otok) Cres Island (Cres Otok) – one of the western Kvarner Islands, is a narrow strip of land that begins precisely at south of the Istria coast and stretches along the entire Gulf of Kvarner, Croatia. It is one of the largest islands on the Adriatic Sea, with an area of 406 km2. The topography is rocky. The northern part of the island is covered with deciduous forest and thickets of shrubs (tromuntana), and the southern part is bare, represented by pastures. In the center of the island is Lake Vrana (an area of 5.75 km2, maximum depth of 68 m) – the main source of water for the island and its neighboring island Lošinj. In 1986, an ornithological sanctuary was founded in the eastern part of the island. The economy of the island is sheep breeding, fishing, and tourism. It is connected with the mainland by ferries and catamarans. Near the island at a depth of 25–50 m lies the merchant ship “Lina,” which sank here, hitting the reefs due to heavy fog –

this is a place for diving. In antiquity, Cres Island together with Lošinj Island were called Absyrtides. Local legend claims that here Medea killed her brother Absyrtus, who pursued her. She threw the remains of the deceased into the sea, and his hands became the islands of Cres and Losinj. From 1000 to 1358 the island was ruled by Venice, then by the Croatian and Hungarian kings. From 1409 to 1797, Cres was again the property of Venice, and after its fall passed to AustriaHungary, from 1918 to 1943 belonged to Italy, and from 1945 to the former Yugoslavia.

Crikvenica Crikvenica – The resort town which is situated to the southeast of Rijeka, opposite Krk Island, Croatia. It has been a resort since the 1890s. Tourist development began by decision of Archduke Joseph, brother of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. The Archduke named the first two hotels in honor of himself and his wife. After the First World War, Crikvenica flourished as one of the most fashionable Yugoslav resorts. Today, after the construction of modern hotels and multistorey residential buildings by the sea, Crikvenica lost its former charm.

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Croatia (Republic of Croatia, Hrvatska, Republika Hrvatska)

Croatia (Republic of Croatia, Hrvatska, Republika Hrvatska)

Cres Island, Croatia. (Source: https://maps-for-free.com/ #close)

The map of Croatia. (Source: https://twitter.com/ terriblemaps/status/ 1049353195879895040)

Croatia (Republic of Croatia, Hrvatska, Republika Hrvatska) – a state in the south of Central Europe and the west of the Balkan Peninsula. The area is 56,594 km2, and the area of water area is 33,200 km2. There are a large number of islands in the water area, their total number is 1185–1244 (according to different data), 67 of which are inhabited. The largest island is Krk, in the north there are large islands Cres, Lošinj, Pag, and Rab; in the center Dugi Otok; and in the south Brač, Hvar, Korčula, Mljet. The largest peninsulas are Istria and Pelješac. In the north, Croatia is bordered with Slovenia (501 km), in the northeast with Hungary (329 km), in the east with Serbia (241 km), and in the south with Bosnia and Herzegovina

Croatia (Republic of Croatia, Hrvatska, Republika Hrvatska)

(932 km) and Montenegro (25 km). In the western part it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Zagreb. The largest cities are Split, Rijeka, and Osijek. The population of the country is 4.1 million people (2019). The country consists of two parts: the continental, which is situated mainly in the basin of the Sava River; and Adriatic, stretched as elongated narrow strip along the coast of the Adriatic Sea. The length of the mainland coast along a conventional line is 600 km, taking into account the irregularity, 1778 km. The total coastline with islands is 5830 km. The topography of Croatia is inhomogeneous. There are plains between the rivers Sava, Drava, and Danube. Hilly foothills in the central part. Almost 47% of the country’s territory is situated above 200 m above sea level. The mountain systems are represented by the Dinar Highland with the Dinara peak with a height of 1831 m above sea level. In Northern Croatia, the continental climate prevails, in Central semi-mountainous and mountainous, and at the coast Mediterranean. Winter temperatures in the continental part reach 3 °C, in mountainous areas from 5 °C to 0 °C and from 0 °C to +5 °C in coastal areas. In summer, the coastline is the warmest area (from 26 °C to 30 ° C), the temperature in the mountains usually does not exceed 15–20 °C, and on the continent it is 22–26 °C. The main rivers of Croatia are the Danube (the country accounts for 188 km of the middle course), the Sava (from 945 km to 562 km from Croatia), and the Drava (from 707 km to 505 km flows through Croatian territory). These rivers, as well as the rivers Kupa, Una, and Sutla, are boundary rivers. Forests occupy two million hectares. Beech, oak, hornbeam, ash, spruce, pine, alder, and acacia predominate. Among the animals there occur deer, bears, jackals, wild boars, foxes, hares, and martens. In Croatia live pheasants, partridges, blackcocks, bustards, and gulls. In the mountains occur snakes, lizards, and turtles. The rivers are dwelled by carp, sander, sheatfish, gar, trout, and grass carp. Among the sea fish, there are sardines, tuna, mullet, wolffish, hamsa, and also lobsters, mussels, and oysters. Mineral resources include oil, natural gas, coal, bauxite, iron, and manganese ore.

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Croatia has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. In the pre-Roman period, several important pre-Indo-European archaeological cultures existed along the Adriatic coast, the most ancient of which was “Impresso.” In the Bronze Age, on the coast there were descendants of the “Impresso” culture, among which the Butmir culture stood out for its ceramics, and later the Kasteller culture, from which several hundred fortified settlements remained. By the beginning of AD the whole territory of modern Croatia (so-called Liburnia) was conquered by the Romans. The Croats arrived in the area in the sixth century AD and organized the territory into two duchies by the ninth century. The Slavic tribes of the Croats, which gave rise to the Croatian nation, migrated to the east coast of the Adriatic Sea in the seventh century. Then in the eighth century, the land was conquered by the Franks. At the end of the ninth century, Croats gained independence from the Franks and Byzantium. Croatia was first internationally recognized as an independent state on June 7, 879, during the reign of Duke Branimir. The Croatian Prince Tomislav in 925 proclaimed himself King and received title recognition from the Pope of Rome. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Croatian Kingdom has become one of the strongest in the Balkans. As a result of the formation of the Hungarian-Croatian Union in 1102, Croatia came under the authority of the Hungarian Kings, the Croatian Crown was united in a dynastic union with the Hungarian Crown, retaining self-government. In the middle of the fifteenth century, Hungarian rule in the north of the country was replaced by Turkish, while Dalmatia became part of the Venetian Republic. At the same time, the Dubrovnik Republic mostly retained its independence. In 1526, Ferdinand I’s successful dynastic marriage brought the Hungarian and Croatian Crowns to the house of the Hapsburgs, who ruled Croatia until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1527, faced to Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to the Croatian throne. After the fall of the Republic of Venice (The Treaty of Campoformio, 1797) Istria,

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Dalmatia, and Dubrovnik (in 1809–1813 – Illyrian provinces of Napoleonic France) were annexed to the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy. During the revolution of 1848–1849 in Austria and Hungary, Croatia gained autonomy within the framework of the Habsburg Empire. In 1868, the administrative, judicial, and cultural-church autonomy of Croatia was recognized as an integral part of the Hungarian Kingdom. In October 1918, in the final days of the First World War, the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, independent from Austria-Hungary, was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918 it was merged into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, although the coastal areas of the Austrian Primorye (Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar) were ceded to Italy under the name of Venezia Giulia (or the Julian March). In 1929, the state was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In August 1939, on the basis of an agreement, Croatia received autonomous status within the Kingdom as a separate Banovina. During the Second World War, since the Axis (Germany, Italy, Hungary) invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of the Croatian territory was incorporated into a Nazi-backed client-state, the Independent State of Croatia. In response, a resistance movement was developed and continued till the liberation of Yugoslavia by Red Army and People’s Liberation Army of Yugoslavia in October–December 1944. This led to the creation of the Federal State of Croatia on May 9, 1944, which after the war became a founding member and constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On April 7, 1963, the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) was renamed the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) and the People’s Republic of Croatia also accordingly became the Socialist Republic of Croatia. On June 25, 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on October 8, 1991. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully for 4 years following this declaration. When Yugoslav People’s Army sent in troops into the territory of Croatia, The war for independence began, which lasted until the end of 1995 (Operation “Storm”). The proclamation of

Croatia (Republic of Croatia, Hrvatska, Republika Hrvatska)

independence of Croatia and Slovenia was the beginning of the collapse of the SFRY. The integrity of Croatia was finally restored in 1998. Damage from the war amounted to about 50 billion US dollars. In April 2009, Croatia became a member of NATO. A sovereign state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a member of the European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean. Croatia is classified by the World Bank as a highincome country and has been classified 46th on the Human Development Index. The economy is dominated by service, industrial sectors, and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue, with Croatia ranked among the top 20 most popular tourist destinations in the world. The territory of Croatia is divided into 20 županija (or counties, or regions), 122 cities and 424 communities. The status of the 21st županija has Zagreb, the capital of Croatia. The leading sectors of the economy are: shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, chemical, food, textile, woodworking, electrical and electronic, pharmaceutical industry. There are three large shipyards in Pula, Rijeka, and Split, producing 80% of all ships under construction in the country. The production of soft drinks and cigarettes is developed in the country. In Croatia wheat, barley, oats, corn, sunflower, and sugar beet are grown. Viticulture, animal husbandry, fishing, aquaculture (mussels, oysters), and the production of salt are developed. Among mollusks breeding centers Mali Ston and Lim gulfs, the Novigrad Sea and the Pula region are very famous. The fishing zone of Croatia covers 31,000 km2 of the Adriatic Sea. Here, on average, 240,000 t of fish and marine organisms are harvested annually. Mackerel predominate in catches (approximately 80%). Large fish processing enterprises are located in Split, Rijeka, Zadar, Rovinj, Poreč, and Komiža on Vis Island. The main role in passenger transportation is played by road and rail transport. Between the cities of Croatia, which are situated on the Adriatic coast, cruise various ferries, motorship, hydrofoil ship. Croatia has six international

Croatian Navy, Hrvatska Ratna Mornarica

airports. In foreign trade, priority is given to Western countries, which account for up to 52% of Croatian exports. Main foreign trade partners: Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Austria, and Russia. The export is dominated by products of the processing industry. Croatia exports ships, telecommunications, as well as electrical engineering, products of the pharmaceutical, chemical and food industries, furniture. The import is dominated by engineering products, vehicles, energy – oil, natural gas, coal. Of the eight national parks, five (Brijuni, Mljet and Kornati, Poklenitsa on the Velebit and Krka ridges on the river of the same name) are open in seaside. The state language in Croatia is Croatian. In some cities of Istria, the state language is Italian. The Adriatic coast of Croatia and numerous islands are a popular destination for international tourism. In Croatia three main resort areas: Pula – Istria, Split – Central Dalmatia, Dubrovnik – South Dalmatia. Tourism on the Adriatic began to develop in the nineteenth century, in the twentieth century. The Croatian coast was one of the most developed tourist destinations in the socialist world. In the 1990s, tourism in Croatia experienced a severe recession, caused by hostilities in the former Yugoslavia and the deterioration of tourism infrastructure that did not meet Western quality standards. Since the beginning of the 2000s, the tourism industry has been developing rapidly. Particularly developed diving around the coast, windsurfing, sailing on the sea in kayaks and canoes, yachting, and speleological tourism.

Croatian Littoral (Hrvatsko Primorje) Croatian Littoral (Hrvatsko Primorje) – the name of the coastal area of the Kvarner Gulf, Adriatic Sea, so often called the Kvarner Region. It is

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situated in the northern Croatia between the Istrian Peninsula, mainland Croatia and Dalmatia. This part of the coast was mastered first in terms of tourism at the end of the nineteenth century.

C Croatian Maritime Museum (Hrvatski Pomorski Muzej) Croatian Maritime Museum (Hrvatski Pomorski Muzej) – is situated in the fortress of Grip (1657), in the eastern part of the old town of Split, Croatia. The exhibition opens with a large Roman ship found by naval archeologists. There is also a collection of naval maps, photographic documents, drawings, models and models of ships of all ages and an impressive exhibition of nineteenthcentury torpedoes created for the AustroHungarian Fleet in Rijeka by the pioneer of Croatian engineer Ivan Blažech and his English counterpart Robert Whitehead.

Croatian Navy, Hrvatska Ratna Mornarica Croatian Navy, Hrvatska Ratna Mornarica – one of the three types of armed forces of Croatia. Organizationally include Naval command, Fleet, training command, two Navy operational commands (north and south), as well as central subordinate institutions. The Fleet includes 5 missile (1 “Konchar,” 2 “Helsinki,” 2 “Korol,” all armed with the Swedish anti-ship missiles RBS-IS), 5 airborne troops (2 “Cetina,” 2 “Tip-11,” 1 “Tip-22”), 4 patrol boats (“Mirna”), the mine sweeper “Korcula,” cargo ships, landing barge, and longboats. Except for “Helsinki,” all the other ships are of local construction. Naval bases are situated in the cities of Split, Pula, Šibenik, Ploče, and Dubrovnik.

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Dalmatia, Dalmacya Dalmatia, Dalmacya – (of illyr. “Delmat” – “proud, brave person”) historical region in the northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It is one of the oldest regional and geographical formations of Europe. This is an elongated intracoastal zone about 400 km long, stretching from Novigrad and Paklenica to Cape Oshtro on Prevlaka, Croatia. It is a narrow belt of an extremely indented coast of the Adriatic Sea with adjoining numerous Dalmatian islands with narrow sea straits, countless secluded bays, beautiful pebble beaches, and crystal clear sea. The area is 11,578 km2, with islands of 15,500 km2, and the coastline is approximately 1400 km. The greatest width (40 km) Dalmatia reaches is in the north. From the east it is bordered with ridges up to 1900 m high, in the rest of the territory it is 500–1000 m high; low-lying areas are little. The Dinara mountain range (average elevation is 1500 m, with the Dinara peak at 1830 m) limits Dalmatia in the east, separating it from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ridges and islands extend from the north-west to south-east. The climate is mild Mediterranean. The average January temperature is +5 °C to +9 °C and July temperature +23 °C to +25 °C. A strong northeast wind, bora, is specific for the winter period causing a cold snap down to 4 °C to 5 °C. There are 285 sunny days in a year. Precipitation falls in winter and autumn; on the islands 500–1000 mm per year, in the east in the

mountains 1500–3800 mm per year. The river network is rare. Soil and vegetation cover on large spaces is missing. At one time, almost all the forests of Dalmatia were brought together for piles, driven to the islands of Venice. Up to a height of 300–400 m, maquis is spread on red soils and brown soils, above – oak and coniferous forests, which are highly sparse. Population is of 0.85 million people. The main occupation of the population is winegrowing, horticulture, cultivation of olive, citrus, and tourist services; in the mountains, cattle breeding (goats, sheep); and fishing (sardine, anchovy, tuna, mackerel). Tourism is developed everywhere. Dalmatia is one of the largest resort areas of Croatia. They are concentrated in the districts of Split, Zadar, Trogir, Šibenik, Dubrovnik, and Cavtat, as well as on the islands of Hvar, Brač, and Korčula. There are four national parks of the country: Kornati, Paklenica, waterfalls of the Krka River, Mljet. Three natural parks: Velebit, Telashchitsa, Biokovo. Major cities and ports: Split, Rijeka, Kotor, Šibenik, Dubrovnik, Zadar. Dalmatia is a “heart” of Croatian culture and history. The Palace of Diocletian in Split, Dubrovnik city, the Cathedral of St. Jacob in Šibenik, and the historical center of Trogir are under the protection of UNESCO. Dalmatia is divided into three parts. Northern Dalmatia is stretched from Pag Island in the north to the town of Primošten in the south. This is a region with well-developed tourist industry. There are such famous tourist centers as Zadar, Šibenik, Vodice, and Primošten. The North Dalmatian

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Dalmatian Archipelago, Dalmatinski Otoka

Dalmatia on the map of modern Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Dalmatia#/media/File: Dalmatia_(Kotor).svg)

islands are among the most numerous and most scattered in the Adriatic Sea islands in Croatia. Sometimes they are divided into two island regions – Zadars and Šibenik regions. There are about 500 islands in this region, the most famous of them are Pag, Ugljan, Silba, Vir, Murter, Pašman, Krapanj, Iž, Zlarin, Molat, as well as islands belonging to the Kornati National Park and the Telašćica natural sanctuary on the island Dugi Otok. Middle Dalmatia includes the central part of the Adriatic coast of Croatia, stretching from Primošten in the north to the small town of Gradac in the south, and many islands, including Brač and Hvar. Here is a natural park Biokovo with majestic mountains. The coast of Middle Dalmatia is considered as one of the most beautiful on the entire Adriatic. Split is the resort area of the Middle Dalmatia. Southern Dalmatia is the smallest and southernmost part of the Adriatic coast of Croatia from the town of Gradac in the north, up to the border with Montenegro, to the town of Cavtat in the

south. It includes many islands, including Koločep, Lopud, Korčula, Lastovo, and Mljet. The coast is indented by bays and gulfs, which go deep into the land. One of the longest bays is located to the north-west of Dubrovnik, the tourist center of Southern Dalmatia. A string bridge is thrown across the bay, cutting the route from Split to Dubrovnik by 8 km. Dalmatia was the part of ancient Illyria until 180 BC, when its inhabitants proclaimed their independence from King Genfius. Caesar Tiberius in 9 BC conquered Dalmatia. Therefore, it became a province of the Roman Empire, and then Byzantine Empire.

Dalmatian Archipelago, Dalmatinski Otoka Dalmatian Archipelago, Dalmatinski Otoka – Archipelago of 1246 islands in the Adriatic Sea off the coast of Dalmatia, on the Balkan

Diocletianus (245–313/316)

Peninsula. These islands are the part of the territory of Croatia. The total area of the islands is 3260 km2. The population is 122,000 people. The largest islands are (more than 50 km2): Krk, Brač, Cres, Hvar, Korčula, and Mljet. The formation of islands is associated with the descent of the western coast of the Balkan Peninsula and the flooding of the coastline by the sea. The islands are mountainous, heavily dissected by hills and lowlands with winding bays and straits with many convenient harbors. Prevailing altitudes are 500–750 m; the islands are composed of limestone and carstified. The climate and vegetation are Mediterranean. Summer is dry and hot; from May to September, the air temperature is 20–25 °C. The winter is short and warm; air temperature is 8–10 °C, water 15 °C. Spring and autumn are rainy. The amount of precipitation is approximately 800 mm/year. Large islands are densely populated. Grapes, olives, citrus fruits, and others are cultivated on terraced slopes and valleys. Sheep farming, fishing, and winemaking are developed. The extraction of marble and asphalt also takes place. Tourism is developing, and there are many resorts.

Dalmatian Coast, Dalmatinski Obala Dalmatian Coast, Dalmatinski Obala – the type of sea shore that is formed during the inundation (ingression) of land topography depressions. This type of dissection is specific for the longitudinal banks. The sea floods the longitudinal synclinal valleys and the most reduced parts of the anticlines, due to which many bays and peninsulas acquire a hammer-like form. The most characteristic shores of the Dalmatian type are observed on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea in Dalmatia, when the name came.

Department of the Marine Sciences (Dipartimento di Scienze del Mare) Department of the Marine Sciences (Dipartimento di Scienze del Mare) – one of the departments of the University of Ancona, Italy. It includes a

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number of research groups: marine biology and ecology, developmental biology and reproduction, marine chemistry, physiology of algae and plants, ecological geography, marine zoology.

Diocletianus (245–313/316) Diocletianus (245–313/316) – Roman Emperor (reigned 285–305, co-ruler from 286), Illyrian by birth, was born in 245, apparently, in the Salon, in a poor family of a freedman. At birth, was named Dioklo. He went down in history as Guy Aurelius Valery Diocletian (the name obtained after being elected Emperor). Diokles began his military service as a common soldier, managed to make a career and under Numerian became the commander of the Praetorian detachment, or bodyguards (protectores domestici), who were all the time under the emperor. In 284, in the vicinity of Nicomedia, the soldiers chose Diokles as Emperor to avenge the death of Numerian. Diokles fulfilled this order, destroying the prefect of the Praetorian Aprus, suspected of murdering the young Emperor. Diocletian’s rule fell on one of the most important and critical periods in the history of the Roman Empire. His name is associated with the establishment of a dominat – a monarchy similar to ancient Eastern despotisms. In 293, Diocletian transformed the system of double rule that existed in the late Roman Empire into a tetrarchy, based on the principle of putting people to senior posts according to their merits. The new order provided for the joint rule of two August (Diocletian and Maximian Herkulius) and two Caesars. This state system existed, in basic terms, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire and became the basis of the state system of Byzantium. Diocletian carried out a number of important state reforms: he increased the number of provinces from 50 to 100, which weakened the regions and did not allow them to raise a major insurgency, strengthened the Army, streamlined taxation, and introduced a full-fledged coin. In addition, Diocletian resolutely suppressed uprisings in the provinces such as Gaul, Britain, Africa, and Egypt; repelled the invasion of the Franks and

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Dobrota

became part of Kotor as a suburb. In 1704, the Venetians made it a separate settlement. Dobrota was considered a rich seaport, and it was the base of the largest ships of the Bay of Kotor. Here is a wide stone embankment with a water depth of 3 m along it. Two churches have been preserved here: St. Matthew and St. Eustachius. The Institute of Marine Biology is located in the former PetrovićNjegoš dynasty marine residence.

Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus)

Diocletianus. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dio cletian#/media/File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_ Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-52006.jpg)

Alemans on the Rhine; and led successful campaigns against the Persians, as a result of which the Romans strengthened their influence in Armenia and Iberia and seized power in Mesopotamia. Seriously ill, Diocletian committed an unprecedented act: voluntarily renounced power (305) and forced his co-ruler Maximilian Herculy to do the same. After that, he retired to the palace in Split, where he lived until his death (about 316), and no longer participated in politics.

Dobrota Dobrota – a small town located on the eastern shore of the Kotor Bay, in Boka Kotorska Bay in the Adriatic Sea, north of the town of Kotor, Montenegro. It is stretched from the borders of Kotor to the river Ljuta at 7 km. The population is about 8300 people (2011). In ancient times, the settlement was called Dabratum. From 1371, it

Dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) – genus of ray-finned fishes from the monotypic family of dolphinfishes (Coryphaenidae). Fish live in the Mediterranean, in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean. The body length of dolphinfish varies from 1.0 to 1.5 m. The body is elongated, compressed on the sides, covered with a small roundshaped scales of silverish golden color. The maximum length of a large dolphinfishes is 2.10 m, with maximum weight of 40 kg. The skull is blunt and rounded.

Dorada (Gilt-Head Bream) (Sparus aurata) Dorada (Gilt-Head Bream) (Sparus aurata) – the fish of Sparus genus. Its length is up to 70 cm. Maximum weight is up to 8 kg. The body is oval, laterally flattened with a steep profile of the head. There is a distinct protrusion above the eyes. The fish has large serrated scales. Its head also covered with scales. Operculum has no spines, and the rim of the preoperculum is smooth. The inferior mouth is small. The color is ash-silver with a golden hue, which quickly turns pale after death. It is found in the Adriatic and the Mediterranean seas. From the time of ancient Rome to the nineteenth century it is an aquaculture object. The fish migrates over long distances. The meat is of average quality. It has a significant content of proteins, which makes it quite nutritious. Dorada is known to the world for a long time, and has always been

Drin Bay, Pellg i Drinit

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Dobrota, Montenegro. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy) Dolphinfish. (Source: https://pt.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Coryphaena_ hippurus#/media/Ficheiro: Coryphaena_hippurus. PNG)

the most popular fish of the Mediterranean. In ancient Rome, the meat of this fish was very much appreciated, so it was specially kept and fed in salt ponds and pools. In Venice, this method of fattening existed at the end of the nineteenth century. Aquaculture of this delicious fish has been developed since very ancient times and is now widely used in France, Italy, Turkey, Greece, and other countries. To obtain tender meat and excellent taste, it is bred in exceptional conditions: in closed rooms with a special light that imitates a certain time of the year. Catch in the Mediterranean is approximately 800 t.

Drach Drach – See “▶ Durrës port in Albania.”

Drin Bay, Pellg i Drinit Drin Bay, Pellg i Drinit – one of the largest bays on the northeast coast of the Adriatic Sea, which washes the shores of Albania and Montenegro. It goes into the coast between Cape of Rodon and

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Drin River, Drini

Drin of the Adriatic Sea, and the northern one connects with the Bojana River (Buna), flowing from Lake Skadar. It is not navigable, but available for small vessels to the village of Lezhë, located 8 km from the mouth. During the autumn-winter flood, part of the water flows to the Skadar Lake. Drin’s waters are of great importance for the generation of electric power.

Dubrovačko Primorje Dorada. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilt-head_ bream#/media/File:Sparus_aurata_Sardegna.jpg)

Cape Mendra which is spaced away from it by 50 km to the north-west. The banks of the gulf for a short distance are covered with forested mountain ranges the altitude of which is up to 300 m high. At the confluence of the rivers Mati, Drin, and Buna, the shores are low. Coast of the Drin Bay is significantly indented by river mouths and numerous shallow lagoons. On the shores of the bay there are many villages, whose inhabitants are engaged in farming and gardening. The tourism is widely developed here. The largest settlement is located in its northwestern part is the City of Ulcinj, Montenegro.

Drin River, Drini Drin River, Drini – the largest river in Albania of the Adriatic Sea basin. It flows into the Gulf of Drin. The average discharge is 352 m3/s. The catchment area is 14,173 km2. It is formed by a confluent of Black Drin near the town of Kukes (Serbia–Albania) (flows from Lake Ohrid) and White Drin (Macedonia–Albania) (originates in the Albanian Alps). Its length is 335 km with source in Black Drin. In the upper and middle reaches there is a mountain river with rifts and main streams. Before entering the Skutari Plain, Drin breaks through the mountains of Cukalit, flowing into a deep and long gorge (the depth of which reaches 1000 m over 50 km) and divides at the exit: the southern arm flows into the Gulf of

Dubrovačko Primorje – It is located to the southeast of Ston, in the direction of the City of Dubrovnik. It covers the seaside belt from the Ston isthmus to the river Rijeka Dubrovačka. This is a growing area of vast Mediterranean vegetation. There are subtropical and continental samples of flora bred in numerous gardens and nurseries – lemons, oranges, kiwi, tangerines, various palm trees, and agave. Many of these species are brought here from long-distance travels of Dubrovnik navigators.

Dubrovnik (Ragusa) Dubrovnik (Ragusa) – a city, large seaport, tourist center on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It is also called “Slavic Venice,” “pearl” of Croatia, and the Stone Pearl of the Mediterranean. It is situated in the south of South Dalmatia to the north-west of the border with Montenegro, the economic and administrative center of Southern Dalmatia. “You need only one glance to fall in love with Dubrovnik,” they say here. The population is 42,600 people (2011). This is the city where time has stopped. It remembers the sails of Roman galleys, caravels of Venetian nobles, and omnipresent merchants. The Franciscan and Dominican monasteries, the princely palace, luxuriant and comfortable at the same time, a fountain-reservoir of the fifteenth century that supplied the city with spring water and pharmacy of the fourteenth century, the oldest one in Europe, remained here. In the Middle Ages, Dubrovnik was a city republic, which included

Dubrovnik (Ragusa)

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Drin River, Albania. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drin_(river)#/media/File:Albania._-_panoramio.jpg)

Dubrovnik, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubrovnik#/media/File:Old_Port_and_historical_center_of_ Dubrovnik,_Croatia,_a_view_from_the_south_(48613003236).jpg)

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part of the coast of Dalmatia and a number of nearby islands of the Adriatic Sea (Mljet, Lastovo, Korčula, Hvar, Brač, etc.). The center of the republic was the city of Ragusa (hence the Ragusa or Dubrovnik Republic), founded in the seventh century. Croats came here from the nearest town Epidavros (Epidaura, now Cavtat), who fled after its destruction by the Slavs. Then they settled in the Old Town, which was an island called Laus. Then the narrow strait between the mainland and the island was filled up. Since seventh century Ragusa, like the rest of Dalmatia (conquered by Emperor Justinian in the sixth century), has been politically dependent on Byzantium. In 1205, the city came under the Venetian reign. Venetians held out here until 1358, and then Dubrovnik became a vassal of the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom, although in fact it was made an independent city-state. By the middle of the fourteenth century the city commune became the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik Republic). Initially, the main occupation of the inhabitants of Dubrovnik was agriculture and fishing. From the ninth century, the importance of trade increased, mainly intermediary, between the Slavic population of the Balkan Peninsula and the Italian merchants. By the fifteenth century the city became ethnically Slavic. By the beginning of the sixteenth century Dubrovnik dominion passed to the Ottoman Empire, which had a detrimental effect on Dubrovnik’s internal situation during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Dubrovnik was under the patronage of Spain as well as of the papacy. From the end of the sixteenth century the decline of the Republic begins: trade routes move to the Atlantic Ocean. In the eighteenth century its economy is going through hard times. In 1808 France conquered the Republic, its many suburbs were devastated, and Dubrovnik was incorporated into the Illyrian provinces. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna handed Dubrovnik to the Austrians, who included it into the newly formed province of Dalmatia. Austrian dominance continued until 1918. Since 1918, Dubrovnik has been included into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which in 1929 was named the Kingdom of

Dubrovnik (Ragusa)

Yugoslavia. During the Second World War, Dubrovnik was captured by Italian fascists and later incorporated into the Croatian State. In 1943, Dubrovnik was occupied by the German Nazi troops. In 1944, Dubrovnik was liberated by detachments of Yugoslavian Army. In 1979, the historical center of Dubrovnik was included by UNESCO in the World Heritage List. At the end of 1991, the city suffered as a result of repeated bombardments and shelling of Serbian artillery, aircraft, and Navy. Since 1992, Dubrovnik has become a member of Croatia. Dubrovnik is the cradle of Croatian art and tourist center. The city itself is an open-air museum. However, there are museums in the proper sense of the word: Archaeological, Cultural-Historical, Maritime, Ethnographic, Museum of Contemporary History, House of Marin Držić. The city fortress is one of the most monumental fortifications in Europe and an example of the architecture development of fortresses on the shores of the Adriatic Sea. It consists of a series of bastions, casemates, towers, and detached fortresses, built from the ninth century to the sixteenth century. The thickness of the main city wall in the continental part is from 4 to 6 m, from the sea 1.5 to 3 m, the height is from 15 to 25 m. In plan view, fortifications look like incorrect parallelogram. At the four key points it is additionally protected by fortresses. In the north it is the massive round Minčeta Tower, in the east the city port is defended by the detached Revelin fortress, from the southeast is the St. John fortress, the western approaches to the city are protected by the Bokar fortress. In addition, in the case of a threat from the sea and land, on the west side, the impregnable fortress Lovrijenac (St. Lawrence Fortress) was built, towering on a 37-m-high rock. Precisely above the entrance to Lovrijenac the legendary phrase that made Dubrovnik’s motto was written: “Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro” (“Freedom is not to be sold for all the treasures in the world”). In total, there are 12 quadrangular towers, 5 forts, and 2 corner towers in the city fortification system. The main street of the historic center of the city is very interesting – Stradun, the prince’s court,

Durre¨s (Durres)

the church of St. Vlach, the cathedral, customs house, three large monasteries. George Bernard Shaw, an eminent British writer, was fascinated by Dubrovnik’s beauty and called it “heaven on earth.” Dubrovnik is one of the most popular resorts in Croatia. Carnival and the feast of St. Blaise are held annually in February in Dubrovnik, as well as the famous international summer festival in July–August, during which about a hundred different performances take place. The harmony of the sea, the sun, beaches, vast vegetation, and ancient walls make it unique. Dubrovnik is included in 10 main cruise ports of Europe.

Dubrovnik Republic, (Ragusa Republic) Dubrovnik Republic, (Ragusa Republic) – the aristocratic republic. It was formed in 1358, after Dubrovnik finally got rid of Venetian domination, nominally recognized the suzerainty of the Hungarian-Croatian state and became an independent republic. The earlier name of the republic – “The Commune of Dubrovnik” (Communitas Ragusina) – was later changed to “Republic of Dubrovnik” (Respublica Ragusina). The aristocracy of Dubrovnik took power into their own hands and organized a government headed by the prince, the Great Chamber, the Small Chamber, and the Senate. In 1372, the Constitution of the Republic of Dubrovnik was created, which, with several amendments, was valid until the fall of the Republic in 1808.

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Dugi Otok Island Dugi Otok Island – The “long island” is the largest and most remote from the coast of the islands of the Zadarsky Archipelago in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea, off the coast of Croatia (Dalmatia). It stretches as a narrow strip from the south-east to north-west, 16 km from the mainland. The area is of 120–125 km2. Its length is 43 km, and its width is 4.5 km. The surface is hilly, and the largest altitude is 340 m. The population is about 2000 people, and it is mainly concentrated on the east coast. The western shore is rocky, with vertical cliffs. The coastline is heavily indented. The vegetation is vast and diverse. The island is connected to the mainland – Zadar by catamarans and ferries. The main ports are Sali, Božava (a village with 150 inhabitants), and Brbinj (ferry port), which are at the same time small villages living through fishing and tourism in the summer. Grapes, olive, and fig trees are grown there. On the northwestern tip of the island there are many spacious sandy beaches. There is also situated the lighthouse Veli Rat, built by the Austrians in 1849, its height is 42 m – the largest one on the Adriatic. According to legend, the powerful walls of the lighthouse were built with the help of egg white (100,000 eggs were used) in order to make them resistant to wind and sea waves. The south of the island is occupied by the Telašćica Bay, the largest one on the Adriatic islands. The territory around the bay has been declared a National Park, which directly passes into another National Park – Kornati.

Durre¨s (Durres) Dubrovnik Riviera, Dubrovačka Riviera Dubrovnik Riviera, Dubrovačka Riviera – a place located 10 km south of Dubrovnik, on the coast of the Zupa Gulf, on the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. This is a chain of tourist villages that occupy a green strip of the coast, bordered by a chain of mountains: Cavtat, Mlini, Plat, and Solins.

Durrës (Durres) – (1) an open, shallow bay located between Cape Laga and Cape Durrёs, which is located at 18 km north of Cape Laga, Albania. On the northern shore of the bay there is the port of Durrёs. The city bearing the same name is adjacent to the port. The depth at the entrance to the bay is 10–12 m, which is gradually decreased as we move toward the shores.

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Durre¨s (Durres)

Dugi Otok Island. (Source: https://www.reddit.com/r/europe/comments/b1q122/tela%C5%A1%C4%87ica_nature_ park_dugi_otok_island_croatia/)

(2) City (Durrësi) Dyrrhachion, Drač, Durazzo, the main seaport of Albania on the shores of the same-named bay, one of the important economic centers on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. The population is 175,100 people (2011). The city is located in the north-western part of the bay bearing the same name. A seaway canal with a depth of 8.2 m leads to the harbor of the port. Vessels with a draft of 6.5 m moor to the pier. The sea cargo turnover is three million tons. Chromium ore, copper, industrial equipment, and vehicles are among the main cargoes. In the port there are shipyards building coasters. It is connected by railway with Tirana (built with the assistance of the USSR) and Elbasan. The highway also connects the city and Tirana. Durrёs is a motorway junction. There are situated shipyard, tobacco factory, power plant, and mills. The port handles the main foreign trade cargoes of the country. Seaside climate resort is with a long beach. There is also Balkan oil pipeline Drač – Burgas (2003). In

2009, a tunnel was opened (265 km of highway), which connected the port of Drač with the capital of Kosovo, Pristina. In ancient times Durrёs was a Greek colony of Epidamnos, founded in the seventh century BC on the territory inhabited by pro-Albanian tribes. This was the sea gate of Illyria. From here pirate ships of the queen Teuta were going to the Adriatic Sea. Piracy grew, and in the third century BC the Romans were forced to capture the city and rename it to Dyrrachium (the name has been preserved in the Middle Ages). From here, the Romans stretched their famous Egnatius Road (Via Egnatia) to Constantinople, Turkey. During the domination of Rome and in the Middle Ages, Durrёs continued to be a major Mediterranean port. In seventh and eighth centuries the area around Durrёs inhabited by Albanians was significantly Slavicized, the city itself was conquered by Byzantium. In the ninth century Theme of Dyrrhachium (Byzantine Military Administrative

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The city of Durrёs, Albania. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs#/media/File:Panorama_of_Durres_ Port.jpg)

District) was created. In the eleventh century Durrёs for a short time was under the Bulgarian reign. From 1272 it became part of the Kingdom of Naples, from 1336 it was part of Serbia, from 1392 it belonged to Venice, in 1501 it was captured by the Turks and was called Dıraç. During the First World War, it was occupied by Italian in 1915, and in 1916–1918 – by Austrian troops. In 1918–1920 it was the capital of Albania. In 1939, Durrёs was captured by fascist Italy. After the capitulation of Italy, the city was occupied by the Nazis (1943). Thanks to the victory of the Soviet Army in the Second World War, the National liberation Army of Albania liberated Durrёs in 1944. There is not much left in the city from

ancient history. Now you can see a small amphitheater of second century BC; the summer palace of King Zog which also was the summer dacha of the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Albanian Party of Labor, Enver Hoxha; ruins of a fortress of sixth century; and the modern mosque Madhe, built in 1993. Next to it, there is a monument to Illyrian warriors. (3) The region in the central part of the Adriatic coast of Albania. It borders on the Lezhë region in the north, Dibra in the east, and Tirana in the south; from the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. The administrative center is Durrёs. The area is 766 km2. Population is 262,000 people (2011).

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Earthquakes in the Adriatic Earthquakes in the Adriatic – The northern belt of the Mediterranean, where the coast of the Adriatic Sea is included, is a territory of high seismic danger. In April 15, 1979 in the area of the cities of Bar and Ulcinj, Montenegro, a catastrophic earthquake occurred. The epicenter of pushes was under the bottom of the Adriatic Sea in 15 km from the coast. The earthquake claimed the lives of 136 people, and a huge damage was caused to the entire economic complex of the Montenegrin seaside. In coastal areas, the impact force reached 9 points on the МSK-64 scale (12-point intensity scale). Numerous historical and cultural monuments suffered, the old Kotor, Risan and Perast, Herceg Novi were destroyed, the famous citadel was also destroyed, etc. In 2007, the famous scientist R. Barret from Tucson University, Arizona, USA, reported that along the bottom of the Adriatic Sea there is a tectonic fault, threatening with a catastrophic earthquake in Italy, Croatia, Montenegro, and Albania. Recently, the Northwestern Albania was struck by a strong 6.4-magnitude earthquake with an epicenter 16 km west-southwest of Mamurras on November 26, 2019. The earthquake lasted at least 50 s and was felt in Albania’s capital Tirana, and in places as far away as Taranto (Italy) and Belgrade (Serbia), 370 km northeast of the epicenter. A total of 51 people were killed in the earthquake, with about 3000 injured. It was the strongest earthquake to hit Albania in more than

40 years, the deadliest earthquake in 99 years, and the world’s deadliest earthquake in 2019.

Elaphiti Islands Elaphiti Islands – (“Deep Islands”), sometimes called the Deer Islands (from the Greek “elafos” – deer) an archipelago that separates the narrow Koločepski Channel from land, stretching between the city of Dubrovnik and the Pelješac Peninsula, in the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. There are 14 islands. The largest three inhabited islands are Koločep, Lopud, and Šipan, each of which is a tourist attraction. All three islands are connected with Dubrovnik by ferry.

Emilia-Romagna Emilia-Romagna – an administrative region of Italy, occupies its northern and northeastern parts. Area is 22,400 km2. Population is 4.4 million (2012). Proclaimed on June 7, 1970. It is one of the largest regions of Italy. It stretches from the Adriatic Sea in the southeast through the Apennine Mountains, to the west almost to the Tyrrhenian Sea, separating mainland Italy from areas on the Apennine Peninsula. In the east, it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. In the north it borders with the regions of Veneto and Lombardy, in the

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Elaphiti Islands, Croatia. (Source: https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elafitski_otoci#/media/Datoteka:Pogled_s_utvrde_ Sutvra%C4%8D.JPG)

west with Liguria (the border is only 8 km) and Piedmont, and in the south with Tuscany, Marche, and the Republic of San Marino. The region consists of two historical parts: northwestern Emilia and southeastern Romagna. The first occupies a significant part of the Po Valley, where the country’s most important agricultural lands are located. The second stretches along the coast of the Adriatic Sea – from the delta of the Po River and borders the areas of Veneto and Marche. It includes nine provinces: Bologna, Ferrara, ForlìCesena, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Ravenna, Reggio Emilia, and Rimini. It is one of the richest and most developed areas of Italy. The main sectors of the economy are food, mechanical, electrical, textile, ceramic, automotive, and agriculture. The predominance of agricultural land located on the slopes of hills and mountains explains the high proportion of the production of tracked tractors. This is a specificity of agricultural engineering in Italy, its international specialization. Tractor construction is most

developed in the cities of Reggio Emilia, Modena, Bologna, Piacenza, and Suzzara. An important source of income is agriculture (grain growing, potato growing, onion and tomato cultivation, viticulture and fruit growing, cattle breeding, pig breeding, etc.). Emilia-Romagna is one of the gastronomic and wine making centers of Italy: Parmigiano cheese (parmesan), Parma raw smoked ham, wines (brands) “Lambrusco” dry and semi-dry (production of 50 million bottles per year), “Trebbiano,” “Sangiovese,” homemade pasta production. The tradition of violin masters (Sesto Rocky, etc.). The automotive industry is represented by such giants as Lamborghini, Ferrari, Ducati, and Maserati. Tourism is developed as a network of resorts on the Adriatic coast. Since ancient times, various tribes lived here – Umbri, Celts, and Etruscans. In 187 BC, the Romans laid through these lands the most important strategic road Via Aemilia. During the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the lands were ruled by Byzantium. The region has a significant

Epidaurum (Epidavr Illirian)

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one of the reasons for the Peloponnes war. In Roman time, Epidamnos–Dyrrachium, the most important crossing over the Adriatic Sea from Brindisi (Brundisium) to modern Durrës, the main port of Albania.

Epidaurum (Epidavr Illirian)

Emilia-Romagna region, Italy. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia-Romagna#/media/File:EmiliaRomagna_in_Italy.svg)

number of historical cities: Bologna, Rimini, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Ravenna, Reggio Emilia, Ferrara.

Environmental State Environmental State – the form of the state system and, in particular, the economic system in which production provides a balance with the environment through sustainable development. On September 20, 1991, the first in the world Environmental State was proclaimed, which is Montenegro.

Epidamnos (Epidamn) Epidamnos (Epidamn) – (Greek: Epidamnos) colony of Kerkyra (Corfu) and Corinth on the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic Sea. The expulsion of the oligarchs from Epidamnos in 435 BC served as

Epidaurum (Epidavr Illirian) – (Greek. Epidauros, Roman. Epidaurum) is a port city. In the Tiha Bay in the Gulf of Breno in the Adriatic Sea, near the coastal town of Cavtat (Croatia), underwater archaeologists discovered the ancient sunken city, almost entirely at the bottom, Epidauros of Illyria. It was founded by immigrants from the Greek Epidauros, situated in the northeast of the Peloponnese near Corinth and Mycenae. At the beginning, Adriatic Epidaurum, as well as the other northern colonies, played an important role in the trade in cattle and bread with the barbaric Illyrian tribes surrounding it. Philip of Macedon, Alexander’s father, conquered Illyria and greatly increased its wealth. A century later, the Romans came here and the famous Illyrian Wars of 229 and 219 BC began. Being the cantonment of the Seventh and Ninth Legions, Epidaurum became a recruitment point. It is even known that many emperors of Rome were sons of Illyrian officers. The great Byzantine Emperor Justinian was also an Illyrian by birth. In Epidaurum he deployed his Fleet and from there waged a struggle with the Visigoths. In the middle of the sixth century AD Epidaurum fell under the blows of the barbarians and was plundered and burned. However, only part of it was left from another terrible catastrophe: in the mid-60s of fourth century there was a sudden sinking of land. A large coastal part of the city with a trading center, craftsman workshops, and residential buildings plunged to the bottom of the sea. In 1947, German prisoners of war discovered the ruins of a wall that went under water, and in its niche there was a treasure of ancient coins. Detailed underwater research of the ancient city was carried out by a group of scuba divers from the ship “Pagan” led by the Australian Ted

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Falcon-Barker (he wrote about this in the book “1600 Years Under the Sea,” which was published in the USSR in 1967). The line of investigation was shown by traces of ancient Roman roads and the branch of the aqueduct, which approached the Cavtat harbor and cut off near the shore. The hopes of scientists were fully justified. The walls and foundations of houses were well preserved under the sea, and amphorae, Greek and Roman coins, jewelry, and other household items were found near them. One of the ancient chronicles tells of a miracle performed by St. Hilarion. “It was in this year, an earthquake all over the world happened, soon after the death of Julius Apostates. The sea left its shores, as if the Lord our God again sent a flood to the earth, and it turned back, to the chaos that was the very beginning. And the sea washed ashore ships and scattered them on the rocks. When the inhabitants of Epidaurus saw this, they were afraid of the power of the waves and were afraid that the mountains of water would flood onto the shore and the city would be destroyed by them. And so it happened, and they began to look at it with great fear. Then they entered the house of the old man (i.e., St. Hilarion) and brought him ashore, as they did whenever they started the war. He drew a cross three times on the sand and stretched out his hands to the sea, and everyone who saw it stood still in amazement and joy, for the sea stopped at his feet and boiled and began to boil, as if angry at its shores, and then slowly receded and fell silent. And he became famous for this in the city of Epidaurus, as elsewhere in this country, where his fame goes from fathers to children, and this tale lives between people here.”

and a sailing school; festivals and exhibitions are regularly held. This is a great place for those who love not only to sunbathe but also excursions in the suburbs.

Eraclea

European Anchovy (Engraulis encrasisolus)

Eraclea – Eraclea is called the “green pearl” of the Adriatic. The resort of Italy. Venetian Riviera. Its magnificent beaches (total length, 3 km) are surrounded by ancient pine forests. The beaches have tennis courts, cinema, a horse riding center,

Europe Europe – part of the world, forming together with Asia, the mainland of Eurasia; its western part. In the north it is washed by the seas of the Arctic Ocean – the White, Barents, Kara; in the west the Baltic, North, Norwegian, Atlantic Ocean; and in the south Mediterranean, Black, Azov, and Caspian seas. Area of Europe is about 10.2 million km2. Approximately 730,000 km2 of which is presented by archipelagoes and islands. The largest among them are the British Isles, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, and Svalbard. The coastline is heavily indented, and its length is approximately 38,000 km. About 25% of the territory of Europe falls on the peninsulas, and the largest of them are Kola, Scandinavian, Pyrenean, Apennine, and Balkan. There are many bays and gulfs. Population is approximately 746 million people (2018). There are 50 sovereign states which are totally located on the territory of Europe, and another five are partially located on it.

European Amazonia European Amazonia – This is the common name of Ada Bojana Island, in the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. It is called so for its pure undisturbed nature.

European Anchovy (Engraulis encrasisolus) – sea pelagic schooling fish of the genus anchovy (Engraulis) family of anchovy (Engraulidae). Body is elongated, and head is compressed

European Anchovy (Engraulis encrasisolus)

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Europe. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe)

European anchovy. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ European_anchovy#/ media/File:Ansjovis.jpg)

laterally. Snout is porrected. The mouth is very big. The lower jaw is long and narrow. Body length is 20 cm, and weight is up to 50 g; usually in the catches the length of fishes is about 7–15 cm and weight is less than 20 g. The fish dwells in the Adriatic Sea at depths of up to 300 m. The fish is the most frequently appeared in the northern and central parts of the Adriatic Sea at depths from 30 to

100 m. The caviar of the fish is pelagic. Fecundity contains approximately 35,000 eggs. It feeds on plankton, caviar, and fish larvae. The catch reaches 13,000 t. Meat is delicious and it is in the greatest demand on the Italian Adriatic coast. Salted and fried is used. It may be dried and preserved. The famous anchovy paste (pogaca od srdele) is made of anchovies.

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European Barracuda or Mediterranean Barracuda (Sphyraena sphyraena)

European barracuda. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphyraena_sphyraena#/media/File:Barracuda.JPG)

European Barracuda or Mediterranean Barracuda (Sphyraena sphyraena) European Barracuda or Mediterranean Barracuda (Sphyraena sphyraena) – sea pelagic fish of the Sphyraenidae family. The body has elongated, cylindrical shape, covered with small cycloid scales. The head is elongated. Its mouth is large. The lower jaw is extended forward. Teeth are large. Eyes are round and large. The tail fin is forked. The back is greenish-blue, with transverse dark stripes above the lateral line. The belly is silvery white. It can reach a length of 1.8 m and a weight of up to 8 kg, and the usual length is up to 1 m. It occurs at depths of up to 100 m. It feeds on fish and mollusks. It is most often found in the bay and near the mouth of the Bojana River, and in rarely in the northern and central parts of the Adriatic Sea. The catches of European barracuda in the Adriatic Sea reach approximately 2 t. Meat is delicious, especially when frying. Because of the shape of the body, it is often called “sea wurst or sausage”.

European Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) European Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) – a sea predatory fish of the Moronidae family. The body is elongated. The scales are large. There are two fins on the back. On the frontal fin, there are sharp spikes. The color is silver, and the back is gray or olive. Length of the fish is up to 1 m. It reaches a weight of 13 kg. The average weight is 0.5 kg. It is widely spread all over the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It is more common at the confluence of the rivers

and the sea. It does not go deeper than 100 m into the sea, and it is usually found at a depth of 20–30 m. It approaches the coast for spawning. About 450 t of fish is caught in the Adriatic Sea. However, in recent decades, catches have been decreased. It is grown as aquaculture, in closed natural and artificial ponds with sea salt water. Such business is popular mostly in France, Tunis, Turkey, and Morocco. The meat is delicious. The European bass is often called the European sea bass. Sometimes European bass is called sea pikeperch, wolf of the sea, capemouth, etc.

European Conger (Conger conger) European Conger (Conger conger) – a large serpent fish of Congridae family. The body has serpentine form, and the head is flattened. Skin is mucous that does not allow to take it in hand. The color is grayish or blackish. It can reach a length of 3 m. Weight up to 70 kg, average weight in catches – 1 kg. It breeds in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean over depths of more than 3000 m. Spawning has also been detected in the Mediterranean Sea. Adult fish after spawning die. The larvae spread over considerable distances and undergo a complex transformation. It is predator and eats fish. The meat is delicious. It can be found throughout the Adriatic Sea. Annual catch is approximately 150 t.

European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) – a fish of Osteichthyes (bony fishes) taxonomic order,

European Eel (Anguilla anguilla)

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European bass. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_bass#/media/File:Dicentrarchus_labrax01.jpg)

European Conger. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_conger#/media/File:Conger_conger_Gervais.jpg)

Anguillidae family. It dwells in fresh water, and dies in salt water. It is easily distinguished from all others by a cylindrical, strongly elongated, serpentine body, covered with scales so small that they are not visible. The color of the back is brown or dark green, the sides are yellow, and the belly is yellowish or white. The eyes are small. They have numerous teeth. European eel is voracious predator, eating small fish, frogs, and crayfish. In winter, it digs deep into sludge and hibernates: highfat content (up to 25%) allows it to go without food for a long time. Life cycle of the European eel has been a riddle for a long time, in the resolution of which great merit belongs to the Danish

ichthyologist J. Schmidt (1922). It was found that adult eels roll into the sea from European rivers and head to the Atlantic Ocean, where in the Sargasso Sea at depths from 1000 to 3000 m with a water temperature not lower than +7 °C and salinity of at least 35‰ they spawn. Adult fish then die, and the leptocephalus larvae hatch which are then caught by the warm currents of the Gulf Stream and drift to the shores of Europe for 2 years, turning into glass eels (6.5 cm long). In the fourth year of life, they enter the rivers, where they acquire pigmentation. In rivers European eel live up to 12 years, reaching a length of 1 m and 4 kg of weight. Usually the average weight in

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European eel. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro pean_eel#/media/File:Anguilla_anguilla.jpg)

catches reaches 200 g. Valuable commercial fish. Meat of European eel is extremely fat and has excellent taste, especially in smoked form.

European Flat Oyster (European Oysters, Ostrea edulis) European Flat Oyster (European Oysters, Ostrea edulis) – the true oyster, which disappeared in Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century. In Croatia, where it survived, it is called kamenica. The body of European flat oyster (kamenica) is enclosed in two inequal shells (inequivalve), conjugated by a strong muscle. The leg, which the majority of mollusks have, is absent in adult European flat oysters as they lead an immobile way of life. Young European flat oysters have the leg; however, it eventually disappears. European flat oysters (kamenica) dwell in shallow water, in coastal waters up to 10 m depth. Plantations must be well protected from the strong effects of the sea, and they need an influx of fresh water and a lot of light, without which the European flat oyster (kamenica) cannot survive. The optimum salinity is 25–35%, with a temperature change % on ‰ of 2–22 °C. Places rich in nutrients and phytoplankton are particularly suitable for the cultivation of diamonds (kamenica). European flat oyster (kamenica) feed on plankton. Their enemies are: starfish, snails, crabs, and some species of fish.

European Flat Oyster (European Oysters, Ostrea edulis)

The Croatian climate and nature are perfect for growing of high-quality European flat oysters with a high gastronomic value. There are: all the bays and canals of Istria, Klimno Bay, Novigrad Sea, Pirovac Bay, Pasman Source, Šibenik Bay, small bays around the town of Mali Ston (Small Ston). The largest oyster farms are located in the Lim Channel (Pula) and Mali – Ston Bay, in the bay of Klimno and in the Pirovac Bay. Even the ancient Romans considered oysters (kamenica) an extraordinary delicacy. And especially the ancient gourmets, as the chronicles testify, were appreciated by European flat oyster from Dubrovnik, or from the Gulf of Mali Ston. In addition to the delicate taste, European flat oysters (kamenica) have a lot of valuable properties. Meat is very nutritious as it contains a lot of protein, carbohydrates, and vitamins A, B1, B2, C, and D. Most often, they are eaten raw, watering with lemon juice. Sometimes fried or bake. European flat oysters (kamenica) are considered to be a rejuvenating, malestimulating product since ancient times. They are recognized as the most powerful natural aphrodisiac.

European Hake (Merluccius merluccius) European Hake (Merluccius merluccius) – benthic fish of Merluccius genus, Gadidae family. The color is silver-gray, and the top of the head and the back are dark gray. First dorsal fin has a normal structure. The second dorsal and anal fins are long, with a deep excision in the back. At the base of the pectoral fin, there is a small blackish spot. Body length reaches 1 m, and weight reaches 5 kg. It usually dwells at the bottom (up to 500 m), but can reach the middle layers of water and even to the surface. Sexual maturity begins at the age of 7–10. Spawning happens at a considerable depth – approximately 100 m. During this period they form large clusters. Eggs and larvae are pelagic. It feeds on fish (sardines, crustaceans). Migrates. It has economic value.

European Union (EU)

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European flat oyster. (https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Ostrea_edulis#/media/ File:Ostrea_edulis_01.jpg)

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of 13–15 °С. The roe is pelagic. It feeds on crustaceans and phytoplankton. It is the most important object of fishing. In the Boka-Kotorska Bay, European pilchard fishing has been known since the thirteenth century.

European Union (EU)

European hake. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Merluccius_merluccius#/media/File:Merluccius_merlu ccius.002_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG)

European Pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) European Pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) – marine schooling pelagic fish of the Sardina genus of the Clupeidae family. The mouth is small. Behind the operculum on the body of the fish there is a spot, and several dark spots behind it. The length does not exceed 21 cm. The average weight is 30 g, usually 30–33 g. It reaches sexual maturity in the second year of life, with a length of 13 cm. Spawning occurs from September to June, near the shores at a depth of 20–25 m at a temperature

European Union (EU) – integration association of 27 independent states (February 2020): Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Finland, France, Croatia, Czech Republic, Sweden, and Estonia. In January 2020, the United Kingdom became the first member state to leave the EU. The Treaty on European Union (EU) was signed in 1992 in Maastricht (the Netherlands) by the heads of state and government of the 12 member states of the European Economic Community (EEC). The EEC was formed by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, France, and Italy in 1958 with the aim of creating a common market for goods, capital, and labor by abolishing customs duties and other restrictions on trade. Later, Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, and Greece joined the EEC. Later, another 16 countries joined the EU. The main

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European Pilchard. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ European_pilchard#/media/File:Sardina_pilchardus_ 2011.jpg)

European Union (EU)

objectives of the integration process are set out in the Maastricht and Amsterdam (1997) treaties. These treaties define the transition of countries from the common market to economic and monetary unions, joint foreign and security policies, coordination of domestic, social and legal policies, EU expansion as candidates meet its requirements. To join the EU, the candidate country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, which were adopted in 1993 and confirmed in 1995 at the EU meeting in Madrid. The criteria require that states maintain democratic principles, the principles of freedom and respect for human rights,

European Union countries (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union)

European Union (EU)

as well as the principles of the rule of law. There should be a competitive market economy in the country. The EU bodies are: the European Council, the European Parliament (with monthly sessions in Brussels and Strasbourg), the EU Council (Council of Foreign Ministers or other sectoral ministers), and the Commission of the

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European Union is a supranational executive body that carries out day-to-day work on the implementation of EU policies, Human Rights, Chamber of Auditors. Since 2002, a single currency, the Euro, has been introduced in the field of cash circulation among 19 EU member states.

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Falconara Marittima

Fano

Falconara Marittima – a small town on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Ancona region, Italy. Population of the town is approximately 25,900 people (2019). The main feature of the city is a long sandy beach, where beach volleyball, tennis, and football are very popular in the summer. There is the airport of Ancona. The city was formed around the castle, which in the second half of the sixteenth century was bought by a noble family of Bourbon del Monte. The Falconara castle was part of a defense system built around Ancona to control territory. There is a zoo in the city.

Fano – a city and a small port on the coast of Adriatic Sea, Marche Region, Italy. It is situated on the Ancona-Rimini railway line. The population of the city is 60,900 people (2019). Food processing (production of olive oil, pasta, canned food), woodworking, textile industries, and fishing are developed here. Since 1939, the Observatory of Marine Biology has been situated in Fano. Beach resorts are located at 12 km south-east of Pesaro. The city is ancient. It was first mentioned in 49 BC. The city has preserved many architectural monuments, starting from the times of the Roman Empire.

Falkusha (Falkuša, Gajeta falkuša) Fažana Falkusha (Falkuša, Gajeta falkuša) – traditional Dalmatian fishing boat with two triangular sails, built in the village of Komiža (q.v.) on the Adriatic Vis Island. As a rule, boats transported salt on Palagruža (q.v.), which is situated in about 70 km. Due to the favorable conditions for the development of plankton and fish, the island was favorable for fishing in the Middle Adriatic. Falkusha was presented at the World Exhibition EXPO-98 in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1998.

Fažana – The city is situated in the southwest of the Istrian Peninsula, 10 km north of Pula, Croatia. On the one side, the city is surrounded by the Adriatic Sea, on the other – by the famous olive plantations. Near the city, there are many picturesque gardens planted with grapes and Mediterranean trees. From the sea side, Fažana is protected from the waves and wind the Brionian Islands where the boat goes. Initially, Fažana was a fishing village. Now it is an elite tourist center. Back

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Fažana Channel (Fažana Strait, Fažanski Kanal)

Falkusha. (Source: https:// www.sugamantours.com/ falkusa-traditionaldalmatian-fishing-boatfrom-16th-century/)

in the beginning of the first millennium AD the Romans built villas for recreation in Fažana. Due to clean beaches, clear sea, mild Mediterranean climate, and lush vegetation, Fažana became a very popular resort in Croatia.

fishing in the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries on the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and the Black Seas. Its length is up to 20 m and deadweight is up to 150 t. It was used by pirates, fishermen, and customs.

Fažana Channel (Fažana Strait, Fažanski Kanal)

Fier County (Qarku i Fierit)

Fažana Channel (Fažana Strait, Fažanski Kanal) – separates the Brionian Islands Archipelago from the western coast of the Istrian Peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The width of the channel is 3 km. The depth on the shipping part is from 10 to 40 m. The eastern coast of the strait is rocky; however, several bays go into it, in one of which the harbor of Fažana is situated. From the west side, Fažana Channel is limited by the eastern shores of Veli Brijun and Mali Brijun islands. The shores are high, steep, and heavily indented. There is a small Brijun harbor.

Fier County (Qarku i Fierit) – is a county located in southwestern Albania. It borders on the regions of Tirana in the north, Elbasan in the northeast, Berat in the east, Gjirokastër in the southeast, Vlorë in the south, and from the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. The area is 1890 km2. The population is 312,450 people (2016). The administrative center is Fier City.

Felucca (Feluga Boat)

Fisherman’s Museum (Ribarski Muzej) – is situated in the main fishing port of Komiža on Vis Island, south coast of Dalmatia, Croatia. The museum is located in the sixteenth-century

Felucca (Feluga Boat) – an all-purpose sailing and rowing vessel for coastal navigation and

Fisherman’s Museum (Ribarski Muzej)

Fishery Station (Ribarstvene Stanice)

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The city of Fažana, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C5%BEana#/media/File:Port-fa%C5%BEanaistria-croatia.jpg)

fortress. A large collection of fishing nets and sea knots is presented, a reconstruction of the traditional triangular sail boat – falkuša, popular in these parts until the beginning of the twentieth century.

products, which contained 1900 t. At the same time, Slovenian fishermen caught 2500 t of fish (55% aquaculture). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the volume of fish catch amounted to 9600 t. In Montenegro, in 2006, 911 t of fish were caught and only 11 t were obtained from aquaculture.

Fishery in the Adriatic Sea Fishery Station (Ribarstvene Stanice) Fishery in the Adriatic Sea – Fishery plays a significant role for every country in the Adriatic basin. The largest catch was in Italy – 465,637 t (2007). In 2007, Croatia caught 53,000 t of fish and 14,200 t of marine aquaculture. In Croatia, approximately 20,000 people are engaged in fishery. Catches consist mainly of sardines (approximately 45%), anchovies (31%), tuna (approximately 3%), and other pelagic fish (approximately 5%). Croatian marine aquaculture is represented mainly by tuna (47%) and mollusks and oysters (28%). In 2007, Albanian fishermen caught 7500 t of fish, including aquaculture

Fishery Station (Ribarstvene Stanice) – created in 1946 in Dubrovnik as a scientific unit of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in Split, Croatia. Research activities are mainly related to the ecology of the Adriatic Sea pelagic zone: plankton biocenoses and their composition, distribution, and biomass associated with hydrographic, chemical, and biological parameters. Fishery station does the research of mariculture. In 2005 it was included in the Institute for Marine and Coastal Research of the University of Dubrovnik.

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Felucca. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felucca#/ media/File:Felucca_R02.jpg)

Fishes of the Adriatic Sea Fishes of the Adriatic Sea – There are 431 species of fish in the Adriatic Sea. Among them, (approximately 80) are the most famous and interesting for fisheries, most of which are used in the national cuisines of the Adriatic countries. A list of them is presented below, the values of annual catches are presented in brackets (2010): blue shark, thresher shark, spiny dogfish (approximately 10 t); kitefin shark, common smoothhound (approximately 10 t); small-spotted catshark (approximately 80 t); angular roughshark, common eagle ray (approximately 10 t); devil fish or giant devil ray, brown ray (Raja miraletus) (approximately 10 t); thornback ray (approximately 200 t); common stingray (approximately 20 t); marbled electric ray, rabbit fish, common pandora, Boops boops (bogue) (approximately 500 t); common dentex (approximately 50–60 t); pink dentex, saddled seabream (approximately 200 t); Sea bream

Fishes of the Adriatic Sea

(sargus), white seabream (approximately 15 t); sargue (two banded bream) (approximately 15 t); Sharp-snout seabream (approximately 15 t); gilthead bream (approximately 400 t); dreamfish (salema, salema porgy, cow bream or goldline) (approximately 200 t); red porgy (approximately 5 t); striped seabream (approximately 5 t); sargue (two banded bream) (approximately 15 t); Sharpsnout seabream (approximately 15 t); gilt-head bream (approximately 400 t); dreamfish (salema, salema porgy, cow bream or goldline) (approximately 200 t); red porgy (approximately 5 t); striped seabream (approximately 5 t); black seabream (approximately 40 t); red mullet (approximately 2000 t); European hake, Poor Cod (approximately 30 t); European bass (approximately 450 t); painted comber (approximately 20 t); grouper (approximately 130 t); tub gurnard, piper gurnard, flathead grey mullet (approximately 200 t); meagre (croaker, jewfish, shade-fish, sowa, kir, corvina, salmonbass or stone bass), brown meagre (corb) (approximately 20 t); John Dory (St Pierre or Peter’s Fish) (approximately 3 t); European eel (approximately 50–70 t); European conger (approximately 150 t); moray (approximately 5–6 t); black scorpionfish (approximately 100 t); Blackbellied angler (approximately 600 t); Atlantic stargazer (approximately 8 t); greater weever (approximately 3 t); red-mouthed goby (approximately 2 t); butterfly blenny, silver scabbardfish (also frostfish, beltfish), spotted flounder (approximately 5 t); turbot, Adriatic sole, longspine snipefish (bellowfish, common bellowsfish, snipe-fish, snipefish, spine trumpet fish, or trumpetfish), Cleaningfish, pipefish, shortsnouted seahorse, European pilchard, round sardinella, twait shad (approximately 5 t); Mediterranean sand smelt (approximately 120 t); European anchovy (approximately 13,000 t); Spicara smaris (approximately 600 t); Atlantic bluefin tuna, Atlantic bonito (approximately 100 t); Atlantic mackerel (approximately 150 t); chub mackerel (Pacific mackerel, or Pacific chub mackerel) (approximately 4000 t); swordfish, Atlantic horse mackerel (400 t); derbio (long finned pompano, palometa), pompano, greater amberjack (approximately 30 t); pilot fish, bluefish, common dolphinfish (mahi-

Fiume Question, Adriatic Question, 1919–1920 (Fiume Conflict 1919–1920)

mahi), Dorado (Gilt-head bream), Stromateus, Blue butterfish, garfish (approximately 130 t); triggerfish, European barracuda (Mediterranean barracuda) (approximately 2 t).

Fiume Fiume – (1) the old name of the Gulf of Rijeka in the north of the Adriatic Sea, Croatia; (2) a city in Croatia (see Rijeka).

“Fiume Incident” (“Fiume Act”) “Fiume Incident” (“Fiume Act”) – In the summer of 1910, the Montenegrin Prince Nicholas Njegoš decided to proclaim Montenegro as a Kingdom on the occasion of his half-century reign. Then the sovereign-emperor of Russia, Nicholas II, granted the title of Field Marshal-General of the Russian Imperial Army to the Montenegrin King. The Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich was entrusted to deliver and handle the Field Marshal’s baton to the King. The road to Montenegro lay through Vienna to the Austrian-Hungarian Port of Fiume (now Rijeka) situated on the Adriatic Sea, and then by a special detachment of Russian warships to the Montenegrin Port of Antivari (now Bar). The detachment of the Russian ships that performed the training voyage was called the “Midshipman” and consisted of the battleship “Tsesarevich,” the battleship “Slava,” and the cruisers “Rurik” and “Bogatyr.” The detachment was under the command of Rear-Admiral Nikolai Stepanovich Mankovskiy. At that time, the detachment was in Algeria. The battleship “Slava” went to repair in Toulon, France, en route, while the rest of the ships arrived at the port of Fiume. At the time of arrival, the Russian ships, according to the maritime tradition, were to exchange salutation with the Fiume fortress, and the fortress – to salute the Russian St. Andrew’s flag. The guns of the “Tsesarevich” gave 21 blank shots – the salute of nations. However, the fortress did not answer, and instead of a salute, the Austrian squadron began to enter the bay – the

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“Erzherzog Ferdinand,” “Friedrich,” “Karl,” and “Habsburg,” led by Maritime Minister Prince Montecuccoli. The Austrian ministerial flag demanded a first bow, and therefore the “Tsesarevich” gave shots. However, there was no answer. N. Mankovskiy could not forgive this. On his boat, he approached the “Ferdinand,” but was stopped on the staircases, because the Admiral could not accept him. Returning to the ship, N. Mankovskiy gave the command not to let the Austrians onto the gangway, which was done because 10 min later, Montecuccoli arrived at the “Tsesarevich.” During the day, the Russian Fleet was insulted twice: first by the fortress, then by the squadron – two unresponsive salutes. Prince Montecuccoli answered that only the fortress would salute, because squadron early in the morning goes to sea. However, N. Mankovskiy was adamant, and he decided not to let out a squadron, but to receive a salute. This message was delivered to the Prince. The Russian detachment took up a position at the mouth of the Fiume Bay. It was brought to Montecuccoli that the very first movement of any of his ships was considered to be opening fire. Exactly at 8 am, when the flags were hoisted on ships, a salute was heard from the fortress and the ships of the Austrian squadron. Field Marshal baton was delivered to the destination.

Fiume Question, Adriatic Question, 1919–1920 (Fiume Conflict 1919–1920) Fiume Question, Adriatic Question, 1919–1920 (Fiume Conflict 1919–1920) – the conflict around the city of Rijeka (Fiume) between Italy, on the one hand, and the State of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (SSCS), on the other. With the collapse of Austria-Hungary, separate national states began to appear on its territory. The territories inhabited by southern Slavs were no exception. There was the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. At the same time, the victorious countries of the First World War wanted to redraw the territory of the former empire at their discretion. Therefore, Italy, having received South Tyrol

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from Austria, has put forward its claims to the Istrian Peninsula and the local port cities. According to the agreement with the disintegrating Austria-Hungary, the troops of the victorious countries could move freely in its former territories, which were used by Italy, which sent its troops to the Balkan Peninsula for the purpose of occupation. The Slovenes and Croats, who fell into the Italian zone of occupation, were disaffected. The government of the newly formed SSCS was also disaffected by this and considered the advance of Italian forces along the Adriatic coast a threat to their own security. Moreover, in the north of the Adriatic Sea the ships of the former Naval Forces of Austria-Hungary were based, which the SSCS sought to receive. To do this, its government asked Serbia, France, and the UK for help. The last two had their plans for the future of Rijeka. Dušan Simović arrived in the SSCS from Serbia, who began to form detachments of the Yugoslavian Army. These detachments were redeployed to the north of the country, where they organized the defense of the cities of Slovenia and Croatia. The fights were fought both against the Italian troops and against the former Austrian armed formations, which, under the leadership of the Entente, helped the Italian troops to occupy the SSCS. Meanwhile, Anglo-American troops entered Rijeka, who were to control the city and secure it. As a result, the conflict gradually came to nothing, hostilities were stopped. Fiume Question moved into the diplomatic phase. As a result of the negotiations in Paris, the border was established between the SSCS and Italy. As a result, Rijeka passed under the control of Italy; however, the USA, Great Britain, and France insisted on the creation of the Free City of Fiume. The idea was not brought to life, as in 1919 Italian armed forces led by Gabriele d’Annunzio (“legionaries”) entered the city. They forced out the Americans and the British of Fiume, and on September 12, 1919, the city was captured by them. On its territory, on September 8, 1920, Gabriele proclaimed the Republic of Fiume. The republic was hostile to its neighbors – Italy and the SSCS. After the naval blockade and shelling of the city from the sea,

Flaminian Way (Via Flaminia)

D’Annunzio surrendered the city to the Italian Army on December 30, 1920. The Free State of Fiume was proclaimed on its territory.

Flaminian Way (Via Flaminia) Flaminian Way (Via Flaminia) – one of the oldest paved roads in ancient Rome between Rome and Ariminum (port on the Adriatic Sea coast, modern Rimini). It was constructed by Gaius Flaminius during his censorship (220 BC) in order to ensure the rule of Rome over the conquered tribes of Pitzen in Cisalpine Gaul shortly before, as well as in the interests of colonization and the developing Roman trade.

Flathead Grey Mullet (Mugil cephalus) Flathead Grey Mullet (Mugil cephalus) – sea schooling mobile fish of Mugilidae family. The body is fusiform, robust, and the sides are flattened. The head is large and broad. The length is up to 75 cm, and its weight is up to 6 kg; however, typically, it is caught weighing 0.3 kg. It reaches sexual maturity at the age of 6–8 years with a length of 30–40 cm. Spawning is portional and occurs in May–September far from the coast. Fertility is 2–7 million eggs. The roi is pelagic. During spawning the fish keeps in small flocks. It feeds on fouling, detritus, worms, and small clams. In winter, it feeds in the open sea, and in spring and summer in the coastal zone. The catches in the Adriatic Sea reach 200 t. The meat is delicious, easily separated from the bones.

Flower Coast Flower Coast – is the name of the Adriatic Sea coast stretching from the town of Vlorё to the town of Saranda in Albania.

“Friendship-Adria” Oil Pipeline

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Flathead grey mullet. (Source: https://it. wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugil_ cephalus#/media/File: Mugil_cephalus_Minorca. jpg)

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Franz Joseph Island (Ishulli I Franc Jozefit) Franz Joseph Island (Ishulli I Franc Jozefit) – an island, which is situated at 3.2 km from the mainland west of the mouth of the Buna River, Adriatic Sea, Albania. The area is about 4.5 ha. An altitude is 1.2 m above sea level. It is included in the National Park Velipojë. At the end of the nineteenth century, as a result of the coast erosion, the island often changed its shape and size. The name of the island comes from the Austrian vessel “Franz Joseph” which sunk here.

“Friendship-Adria” Oil Pipeline “Friendship-Adria” Oil Pipeline – The project is a branch from the southern route of the “Friendship” pipeline to the Croatian port of Omišalj on the Adriatic Sea. It is one of the projects for the transportation of Russian and transit oil from Novorossiysk and other Black Sea ports to the Mediterranean Sea, bypassing

the Turkish straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles. Romania actively supports the implementation of the project for the construction of the oil pipeline Constant‚a (Romania)–Pančevo (Serbia)–Omišalj (Croatia), which is to supply oil to the factories of these cities. In 2002, the Agency for Trade and Development (USA) issued a grant to conduct a feasibility study for the construction of an oil pipeline. It was assumed that the pipeline with a capacity of 60 million tons and costing about $2 billion from Constant‚a will reach Trieste, where it can be connected to the Transalpine Pipeline, which supplies Austria and Germany with oil. Previously, the Agency considered the possibility of laying another route – through the territory of Hungary and Slovenia. In 2005, the construction of the pipeline was supported by the International Finance Corporation. In support of the implementation of the pipeline along such a route, there was such a factor as the presence of an oil pipeline from the Danube City of Pančevo to the Omišalj oil terminal on Krk Island, Croatia, which was built in the 1970s (the so-called Yugoslav oil pipeline). The Project is frozen.

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Friuli Venezia Giulia (Friuli-Venezia-Giulia)

Friuli Venezia Giulia (Friuli-VeneziaGiulia) Friuli Venezia Giulia (Friuli-Venezia-Giulia) – the region, which is situated in the northeastern part of Italy. The name of the region comes from the Forum Iulii, as in ancient times called the city Cividale del Friuli, founded by Julius Caesar. The area of the region is 7924 km2. Population is approximately 1.2 million people (2019). In the north, the region borders with Austria, in the east with Slovenia, in the west with the Veneto Region, and from the south it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. About 42.5% of the territory is occupied by mountainous areas in the north of the region. Approximately 19.3% are hills and approximately 38.2% lowlands in the center of the region, as well as coastal plains. Mountain areas of the region belong to the system of the Eastern Alps. The longest river in the region is the Tagliamento. In the lower reaches, it serves as the boundary between the Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto. Friuli’s climate is humid and moderate, slightly different from region to region. A specificity of the area is seasonal Sirocco, bringing heavy rain and thunderstorms on the coast. It consists of mountainous Friulia and Venezia Giulia, which is more flat. The coast of the Adriatic Sea within the area stretches from Lignano Sabbiadoro to Trieste. There are ski resorts and nature reserves. There is a variety of coastal landscapes, which is not typical for the

Friuli Venezia Giulia Area, Italy. (Source: https://it. wikipedia.org/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia)

Italian Adriatic. To the south of the plains, the wide lagoons of Marano, Grado, and the mouth of the Isonzo River (which are natural reserves) are situated. It was annexed to Italy in 1918 after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and even at the present time maintains a special autonomous status among other regions of Italy. The region includes four provinces – Trieste, Gorizia, Pordenone, and Udine.

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Gabicce-Mare – Gabicce Monte (Gabiche-More, Gabiche-Monte) Gabicce-Mare – Gabicce Monte (Gabiche-More, Gabiche-Monte) – a popular seaside resort, located on the Adriatic coast of Italy and is part of the Province of Pesaro and Urbino. It belongs to the Marche Region and is adjacent to another famous Adriatic resort, Cattolica, which is already considered an Emilia-Romagna Region. The city is divided by the river Tavollo, which plays the role of a water boundary between the regions. According to its geographical structure, Gabicce Mare-Gabicce Monte is divided into two resorts, which are closely related to each other. Gabicce Mare is a more modern part of this tourist center, which is a city situated near a hill, with its own port and developed infrastructure. Gabicce Monte is located a couple of kilometers away, at an altitude of about 145 m above sea level and has a long history, with several interesting architectural objects. Much of the resort is located on the territory of the San Bartolo National Natural Park, immersed in the greenery of lush gardens and trees. Excellent conditions for a beach holiday and a well-established entertainment industry, combined with an abundance of excursion routes, make the stay on these picturesque shores extremely distinctive and eventful. The territory of cities occupies a small area, whereas if the population of Gabicce Mare is

about 5700 people (2017), then Gabicce Monte will be not more than 300. Many centuries ago, on the site of the modern Gabicce Monte, there was a tiny fishing village, the inhabitants of which were engaged in fishing and agriculture. Approximately in tenth century, after the village became the property of a noble feudal lord, it was named after him and began to grow gradually. The lack of a port somewhat hampered the development of the city. However, in nineteenth century Gabicce was increasingly considered as a resort. Investments in Gabicce and the number of hotels were increasing. Also, infrastructure was developed. By the middle of the first half of the twentieth century, more than 2000 people lived here. Then this number increased by three times, and the cities formed a joint resort of international importance. The coastline of the resort is known for its cleanest beach with fine sand and clear water. At one time, the beach Gabicce received international recognition, the Blue Flag, for its cleanliness and high ecology. As the main historical sightseeing of two cities stands Valbruna Square, with the church of San Ermete, in Gabicce-Monte. Some historical relics are stored in it, including unique canvases of famous painters that have important cultural and religious significance. The church is surrounded by several old houses, symbolizing the link between past and present.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Galleass (Galeazza – Large Galley)

Gabicce Mare. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabicce_Mare#/media/File:Gabicce_Mare..jpg)

Galleass (Galeazza – Large Galley) Galleass (Galeazza – Large Galley) – sailing and rowing vessel of a large galley type. For the first time in history, it was used by the Venetian Fleet in the fourteenth century. Then they entered the Fleets of many European countries in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries. The Venetian Galleas of the 1500s had a length of up to 50 m, a width of up to 8 m, and a side height of 3.2 m. The crew of this vessel consisted of a captain, 2 sailing masters, 4 officers, a boatswain with an assistant, a priest, 62 sailors and steerers, 268 rowers, 254 soldiers, and bombardiers – about 600 people in total. For the first time, the Venetians used Galleas in 1571 in the naval battle of Lepanto against the Turkish Fleet. At the end of the sixteenth century Galleas had a length of up to 80 m, a width of up to 16 m, 3 masts with 3 gaff-sails, on each side 1 row of oars (up to 10 rowers), in the stern 2 large steering oars, 2 decks (the lower one for rowers, and the upper one for soldiers and guns). Up to 70 cannons of various calibers were in service on the vessel.

Galleys were built with an elongated boarding “beak”; a topside was created on its nose in the form of a tower, where a catapult was installed. Sometimes the same tower was created aft. A wooden parapet protecting the rowers was placed along the side. The Galley was equipped with cannons: bombard, which appeared in the 1370s, with culverins, falconets, etc. Experienced sailors were recruited in Venice, Dalmatia, and Greece. There were no slave-rowers on Venetian Galleys, the rowers were free-born, both Venetians and Dalmatians. Galley team consisted of convicts, slaves, and volunteers. Gaff-sails were used as an auxiliary propulsor for Galley, which were set on 1–2 masts.

Gallerion Museum Gallerion Museum – is situated in Novigrad, Croatia. Dedicated to the maritime history of the city, it houses an exhibition of ships models, and also the naval uniform of the Hapsburg era.

Gargano

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Venetian Galleass. (Source: https://fr.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Gal%C3%A9asse#/ media/Fichier:Morel-FatioMPB2.jpg)

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Garbin

Garfish (Belone belone)

Garbin – short-term southwest stormy wind. In summer, it usually lasts from 1 to 2 h, and instantly reaches a strength of 8 to 11 points. The wind almost always brings with it storms and thunderstorms. It is formed when a high pressure area is formed in the south of the Mediterranean, and at the same time a low pressure center moving to the east appears in central Europe or in the north of Italy. Garbin arises when the cold front of low pressure collides with the warm high pressure area of the Adriatic. The occurrence of Garbin is usually preceded by a drop in pressure and a fuff of weak or moderate east wind. From the hazy horizon line, a wall of clouds appears with a clearly defined lower boundary. This wall moves at a speed of 15–20 knots; turning into a strong gale with sharp gusts and heavy rain. Garbin usually creates big waves in the Adriatic Sea.

Garfish (Belone belone) – schooling, pelagic fish of the Belone genus, Belonidae family. The body is elongated, ribbon-like, very flattened from the sides. The back is dark, bluish-green. The belly and sides are silvery, and the jaw is dark, rather black. Spawning is portional and occurs at depths of up to 20 m. Fry keep in the coastal zone, and by the end of the first year they roll back to depth. Adult fish feed on small fish and invertebrates. The catches in the Adriatic Sea reach 130 t, and the largest ones are at the Italian coast.

Gargano Gargano – (1) A peninsula in the extreme southeast of the Apennine Peninsula, which at 70 km goes into the Adriatic Sea, which is situated in the Apulia Region, Italy. From the north-west side it

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Gargano National Park (Parco Nazionale del Gargano)

Garfish. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garfish#/media/File:Belone_belone1.jpg)

is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Manfredonia of the Adriatic Sea. In the main part of the peninsula there is a limestonedolomite massif with a height of 500–900 m; the highest point is Mount Calvo (1056 m). At the foot and at the bottom of the slopes grow maquis, vineyards, orchards, olive groves; above them, there are forests, mainly of deciduous and evergreen oaks. The shores are low with terraces. Most of the peninsula is occupied by the Gargano National Park. (2) Cape of the peninsula of the same name. On the map of Italy looks like the “spur of the Italian boot.” Its area is 2015 km2. The cape is high and composed of limestone.

Gargano National Park (Parco Nazionale del Gargano) Gargano National Park (Parco Nazionale del Gargano) – organized in 1991, occupies almost the entire territory of the Italian peninsula with the same name, located on the “spur” of the Apennine Peninsula, Italy. The total area is approximately 1210 km2. Besides the peninsula, the park also includes part of the Tremiti Island. The border of the mainland and the Gargano Peninsula passes through the Lake Lezina and the valley of the river Candelara. The territory of the national park is related to the region of Apulia, which is known for its numerous

mountains with an abundance of karst caves and hollows, green valleys, and azure shores. Many centuries earlier, the Gargano Peninsula was completely covered with forest formations, but today they have been decreased to 15% of the total area of the cape. This is the sad result of the coming of poachers to this land, as well as numerous felling of trees for several decades. The largest accumulation of forest-forming species today is observed in the Umbra Forest (Foresta Umbra). The average age of many trees of this forest exceeds 500 years. Many animals are found in the forest, including roe, deer, wild boars, wild cats, foxes, weasels, martens, and squirrels. There are also found amphibians and reptiles. The pride of the park is 56 species of orchids found in local forests. There are a lot of representatives of the so-called trans-Adriatic flora and fauna within the park. They appeared on the peninsula even in those times when it was integrated with the Balkan Peninsula. Hydrophilous vegetation is presented, which affected the decision to create a protected area here. Hydrophilous plants are mostly concentrated around the Lezin, Sant’Egidio, and Varano lagoons, the Frattarolo marshes, Sfinale and Daunia Risi, on the coast between Vieste and Peschici, and at the mouth of the Fortore River. Among the birds in the park there are numerous owls, falcons, sarich, kestrel, sparrow, peregrine falcon, marsh harrier, osprey and lesser spotted eagle, eagle owl, thrush, heron, coot, partridge, starlings, sandpiper, dotterel, snipe, etc. There

General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM FAO)

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Gargano Peninsula, Italy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargano#/media/File:Gargano_da_ISS.jpg)

are five species of woodpeckers in the park: green, red, large, small, medium white-backed. In total, the avifauna of the park contains 237 bird species, 170 of which have their nests here. There is a story about the following event: in the fourteenth century, Emperor Frederick II was so fascinated by the beauty and abundance of living organisms of these places that he even wrote the famous illustrated treatise “De arte venandi cum avibus” (“The Art of Hunting Birds Breeding”).

General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM FAO) General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM FAO) – The agreement on the commission was approved by the FAO Conference in 1949, in accordance with the provisions of Article XIV of the FAO Constitution, and commenced in

1952 (amended in 1963, 1976, and 1997). The latest amendments were related to the change of the previous name – “General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean.” The Commission has 24 members: 22 countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea region, 1 non-Mediterranean country, and the EU – Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Spain, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Montenegro, Monaco, Romania, Morocco, Slovenia, Italy, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, and Japan. The purpose of the Commission is the development, protection, rational management of living marine organisms, their best use and sustainable development of aquaculture. The main functions of the Commission: coordination of government efforts to effectively manage fisheries at the regional level, in accordance with the FAO Code, the acceptance of binding recommendations for the conservation of fisheries and management in its conventional area, strengthening fisheries management in the region, cooperation with other regional fisheries

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Geographic Subareas of the Adriatic Sea

organizations. The Commission holds annual regular sessions. It implements policies and activities through the Secretariat, located at FAO headquarters in Rome, Italy. During the intersessional period, it works through the Scientific Advisory Committee, the Aquaculture Committee, and the Conciliation Committee.

Geographic Subareas of the Adriatic Sea Geographic Subareas of the Adriatic Sea – The Mediterranean is divided into 30 subregions known as GSA (geographic sub-areas), such areas represent a compromise among legislative, geographic, and economic aspects. The term “sub” is related to the fact that the Mediterranean Sea is one of the 60 largest marine ecosystems on Earth. In the General Fishery Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) GSAs are established by the Resolution of the GFCM from February 31, 2007, in coordination with the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC). The size and characteristics of 30 subareas differ greatly from each other. The geographical division of the fishing regions in the Mediterranean is still in the process of development and is subject to periodic review by the SAC. Of the 30 subareas, the Adriatic Sea is divided into the North Adriatic Sea subarea (Northern Adriatic Sea) – number 17, and the Southern Adriatic Sea – number 18.

Giovanni Luppis. (Source: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Giovanni_Biagio_Luppis#/media/Fichier:Giovanni_ Luppis_(1813%E2%80%931,875).jpg)

“Giovanni Pascoli” “Giovanni Pascoli” – The Italian two-masted lugger, named after the Italian poet and classic philologist, was a typical small coastal merchant vessel known as trabaccoli, which was used in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea and the Venetian lagoon in the seventeenth century. It could be one- and twomasted. It was built in 1936. The length is 20.5 m, the width is 6.3 m, and the height is 2.1 m. The displacement is 61 t. The last trabaccoli were used in the 1950s. The vessel is located in the Maritime Museum in Cesenatico, 8 km north-west of Rimini.

Giovanni (Ivan) Biagio Luppis von Rammer (1813–1875) Giovanni (Ivan) Biagio Luppis von Rammer (1813–1875) – naval officer from Rijeka, Croatia. Croatian engineering pioneer, inventor of a torpedo made for the first time at the Whitehead plant in Rijeka in 1866. Created by him, together with his colleague, British, Robert Whitehead, torpedoes are exhibited in the Croatian Maritime Museum in Split.

Giulianova Giulianova – city, Abruzzo Region, Italy. Located north of Pescara on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, between the mouths of the rivers Salinello and Tordino. Population is 23,800 people (2019). It is included into the so-called Palm Riviera of the Adriatic. Guilianova is famous not only for its

Gondola

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G Giulianova. (Source: https://www.italyfamilyhotels.it/en/destinations/abruzzo-sea/giulianova)

broad beaches. Among the sightseeings should be noted the fifteenth-century San Flaviano Cathedral with the sculpture of Madonna and Child, the church of Santa Maria dello Splendore, and the brick church of Santa Maria a Mare, founded in the eleventh century and interesting for eighteenth stone plates depicting mysterious figures. Also the Palazzo Ducale and the watchtower Torre del Salinello of the sixteenth century deserve attention. The city is famous not only for its beaches, but also as an ancient city of craftsmen with a rich history. The city was founded in the times of ancient Rome. In 290 BC on the shores of the river Bathinus (today Tordino), the Roman colony of Castrun Novum was created, later named Castel San Flaviano. Over the centuries, the city more than once became the scene of battles. It was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt again. In 1470, Duke Giulio Antonio Acquaviva erected a new city (Giulio Nova) in a safer place on a hilly upland, above the sea coast. On the waterfront – Lido – there are numerous hotels and campgrounds, bars, restaurants, and sports complexes suited to every fancy.

Gondola Gondola – a small rowing boat for communication of galleys with the shore in the Middle Ages.

From the eleventh century, in Venice, a singleweight flat-bottomed boat with raised stems for navigation through the canals. The paddle of the Venetian gondola is located in the stern, closer to the starboard. Boardsides of gondola have different curvature, and therefore the resistance of the right side to movement is greater than that of the left. To ensure the safety of navigation within the city in Venice, a law went through that is still in force: the length of a gondola should not exceed 10 m 80 cm and the width should be 1 m 42 cm. Currently, gondola is one of the symbols of Venice. Venetians have been using gondola in the city since 1094. Italians find it difficult to explain the name gondola. However, they believe that it originated from the Greek-Roman word “contus” – a flat-bottomed boat, driven by a pole. Another meaning of this word is “spear.” Gondola is driven by a pole, which, according to tradition, is made of beech wood and has a length of more than 4 m and a weight of 4 kg. The pole is working in the “forcola” (“fork’) walnut row lock with two long and narrow grooves, which allow the vessel to change its speed by moving the paddle from one groove to another. A small “ferro” (“piece of iron”) is mounted on the nose in the form of a Doge’s cap for balancing the stern. By the end of the eleventh century there were 10,000 gondolas. Currently, there are only several hundred left. The art of gondola sailing is passed from father to son.

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Grado

The Venetian Gondola. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondola#/media/File:Gondole.JPG)

The gondolier, as a rule, wears a sailor’s striped vest with blue or red stripes and a straw hat. Venetians themselves hire gondola only for weddings and funerals because of their high prices.

Grado Grado – resort city, located on the shores of the Adriatic Sea on a narrow peninsula between Venice and Trieste, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia region, Italy. It is surrounded on all sides by lagoons and smaller islands. Its population is approximately 8050 people (2019). The city is connected with the mainland by a drawbridge, through which regional local roads pass (on Aquilea and Monfalcone). On the northern coast of the Gulf of Trieste, there is a small harbor, organized in the eponymous desiccated lagoon. Being mainly a fishing center, it is a popular tourist attraction, commonly known as the “Sunny Island.” Marano Lagunare is located near the resort. It is the

lagoon, which is famous for its cleanliness. In Roman times, the city was known as Aquae Gradatae was the first port for ships sailing up the river Natisse to Aquileia. In 1815–1918 the city belonged to Austria, and then after the First World War, it was returned to Italy. In the eastern part of the Grado Lagoon, the Valais Cavanata nature sanctuary (327 ha) is located. The city attracts tourists with a large water park in a complex with indoor and outdoor pools, a wellness center, as well as sports activities such as tennis, windsurfing, and golf. Boat trips in the lagoon of Grado are very popular and include visits to many islands.

Grand Canal, Canale Grande Grand Canal, Canale Grande – (1) The ship canal, built in 1754–1756 in Trieste, Italy. The channel was intended for loading and unloading merchant ships in the very center of the city. Today it serves

Great Beach, Velika Plaža

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Grado. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grado,_Friuli-Venezia_Giulia#/media/File:Grado_kanal.JPG)

as a harbor for pleasure boats and motorboats. Two bridges cross the canal: The Red (built in 1756) and The Green (built in 1858). Previously, they were drawbridges, now they are permanent bridges. On the Red Bridge stands a monument to the famous writer James Joyce. The Green bridge was built at the junction of the channel with the Adriatic Sea. (2) A canal in Venice, Italy; it is serpentine, in the shape of an inverted letter S. The entrance to the channel from the open sea is located near the central square of the city, San Marco. The entrance to the channel from the land is at the railway station. The canal cuts the main Island of Venice, the Rialto, into two almost equal parts. Four bridges cross the canal, the most famous of which is the Rialto Bridge. The canal is an arm (the ancient course of the Brenta River) between the Islands of Rivo and Alto, which are considered to be a single territory. The length of the canal is 4 km, width is from 30 to 70 m with an average

width of 50 m, and the depth is 6 m. Ancient palaces of the Venetian nobility, as well as a number of churches are located along the canal.

Great Beach, Velika Plaža Great Beach, Velika Plaža – one of the largest sandy beaches of the in the Adriatic Sea in Montenegro and in Europe. It is located 5 km south of Ulcinj, stretches almost on 13 km to the border with Albania, more than 50 m wide, is part of the Ulcinj Riviera. The sand is blackish-grayishyellow, the bottom is shallow all over the beach, and the beach is surrounded by classic Mediterranean vegetation. In 2008, a Dutch design company won a competition to turn this area into an environmentally friendly tourist complex. Here you can see an interesting way of fishing, which locals call “kalemeri”: long, flexible willow rods

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Great Silk Road

Grand Canal, Venice. (Photo by Giorgio Galeotti, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canal_(Venice)#/media/ File:Canal_Grande_-_Venice,_Italy_-_April_18,_2014_04.jpg)

are fixed on the banks, supporting broad nets that rise up when a school of fish floats above them. The beach is chosen by kitesurfing fans.

Great Silk Road Great Silk Road – The common name of the trade caravan routes from China to Western Asia through Central Asia (up to the sixteenth century), which mainly transported silk. The name of this road was given by the German geographer, cartographer, and traveler Ferdinand von Richthofen in his classic work “China” (1877). Great Silk Road began to take shape in the second century BC. The beginning of trade is considered to be the journey of the envoy of the Chinese emperor U-Di. Great Silk Road is less as a road more as a system of caravan trails planning between separate kingdoms and trading posts in oasises. The Mongols were the first to pass all the way in the thirteenth century. The Great Silk Road was used for trade of porcelain, furs, slaves (especially women), spices, incense, medicines, ivory, metal products, thoroughbred horses, precious stones, but the most important commodity was silk. Religions migrated through countries, where Great Silk Road passed. Beginning from in India, numerous Buddhist centers (during the excavations in Termez, in Dalverzin Tepe, the complex of temples was explored, which were dedicated to Buddha) reached the cities of China, Japan, and

South-Eastern Asia. Islam wedged in between India and China, and earlier, it was Zoroastrianism. In addition, an intensive cultural exchange, including music, writing, and ceremonies, took place there. Great Silk Road was also used to conquer nations. It was used by Alexander the Great; in the thirteenth century by Genghis Khan; at the end of the fourteenth century and the beginning of the fifteenth century by Tamerlane. The path went through the Roman border town of Hierapolus near the Euphrates, crossed Mesopotamia, went to the Tigris River, then to Ecbatana and Media, skirted the Caspian Sea from the southern side, passed the ancient capital of Parthia, Hecatompilus, Antioch of Margiana, Bactria, and Komed Mountains (perhaps this is Alay. Cis-Alai ridges) reached the basin of the Tarim River. From there, it led to the capital of seres (the Romans called “serums” silk producers and sellers, that is, “silk” people, because silk was called “sericum”). This is the classical antique description of Great Silk Road. The twenty-third book of the Roman History by Ammianus Marcellinus, the author who lived in the fourth century, points directly to the “great trade route through which relations with the seres” are conducted. In the times of the Roman Emperor Aurelian (rule 270–275) a pound of silk was worth a pound of gold, and in 301, in the edict of Emperor Diocletian on prices, the value of a pound of pure gold in bars was estimated at 50,000. Denarii, and a pound of raw silk, dyed in purple – 150,000. The high level of silk prices persisted several centuries

Greater Weever (Trachinus Draco)

later also in the successor of Ancient Rome – Byzantium. The Silk Road began in the ports of Assyria, where caravans of merchant ships came from Italy, Spain, and other Mediterranean countries, and went to the east through the cities of Tire, Damascus, Anatolia, Baghdad, Hamadan, Rey, Nishapur, and then followed through Parthia to Merv. From here, the road branched into the southern and northern roads, which was explained by the extremely high interest of many countries for this route to pass through them. The southern way went to Balkh, Termez, Yarkand, Hotam, and then after several thousand kilometers go to Ansi and connect there with the northern route. The northern route from Merv took directions to Karshi, Bukhara, Samarkand, then went to Tashkent, then to Ishin, Urumqi, Turfsan, Hami, Ansi, where, connecting the Southern route, the Silk Road followed Lanzhou, Xian, and went to the coast of the Sea of Japan. It should be noted that there were other silk routes. In ancient times, for Byzantium when the Persians and Arabs severely limited its silk imports through the Middle East, the routes of the North Caucasus became the Silk Road. The Italians in the thirteenth century used their own Silk Road: it started in Tan (at Azov), went to Dzhutarkhan (Astrakhan), then to Urgench, Otrar, Armalek (near Gulja), and to Beijing. In addition to the land silk roads, there were sea routes. They began in China, went through the Indian Ocean to the Persian Gulf and through the Red Sea to the Sinai Peninsula. Then the goods went overland to the shores of the Mediterranean, from where they were delivered by the Ionian and the Adriatic Seas to Venice, and on the Tyrrhenian Sea to Genoa. As the navigation developed, the dusk of Great Silky Road began. Historical and cultural space of Great Silk Road (as a single network of connecting links) by the end of the Middle Ages began to disintegrate. Great Silk Road, as a through array of international communication in Eurasia, has disappeared. In the eighteenth century and at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were projects to restore these paths between the East and the West, which, in particular, came from Peter I and Alexander I.

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In 1987, at the initiative of ten countries, including the Soviet Union, the XXIV Session of the General Assembly of UNESCO adopted a resolution on the organization and conducting in 1989–1997 of a large-scale project “Integrated use of the Silk Road: ways of dialogue.” In 1993, the research center “Silk Roadology” (English: “Roadology” – “way-science”) was established in Nara Prefecture in Japan. In the 1990s, the idea of Great Silk Road restoration as a transport route appeared. Recent archaeological discoveries reveal that the trade in the open spaces of Eurasia began many centuries earlier than it was supposed. The latest finding is the strands of silk found in the hair of an Egyptian mummy; they are dated from about 1000 BC, long before the start of regular trade on the Silk Road.

Greater Pipefish (Syngnathus acus) Greater Pipefish (Syngnathus acus) – fish, belongs to the Syngnathidae family. It has an elongated segmented body, reaching a length of approximately 35 cm.

Greater Weever (Trachinus Draco) Greater Weever (Trachinus Draco) – a species of carnivorous ray-finned fish of the weever fish family (Trachinidae). There are five types of Greater weevers, which are found off the coast of Europe, the northern and western coasts of Africa, as well as off the coast of Chile. It is elongated with angular big head, bottom fish. The length of the fish’s body is 40 cm and it weighs about 300 g. It reaches sexual maturity at the age of three. They live mainly in bays and coves with a flat sandy or oozy bottom. Usually it is buried in soft ground, trapping prey in ambush – small fish and crustaceans, high-set eyes remain above the bottom surface. The lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw, and the mouth with small conical teeth is directed obliquely upwards. Eyes are located on the upper side of the head. These

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Greater Yellowtail (Seriola dumerili)

Great Silk Roads. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road#/media/File:Silk_route.jpg)

fish have two dorsal fins: the first one is short, it has 5–7 spines, and the second dorsal and anal fits are long, and they have 21–24 rays each. The ventral fins are located on the throat. The scales are very small, cycloid, located in oblique rows. They feed on small fish, worms, and crustaceans. The first dorsal fin of a greater weever has an intense black color that differs sharply from the pale yellow and brown tones of the rest of the body parts and the surrounding sand. Greater weever is the most dangerous poisonous fish in Europe. The long sharp spikes of the operculum and the first dorsal fin are covered with skin, only their tips stand out. There are deep grooves on the spikes. In these furrows and at the base of the spikes there are poisonous glands. There is no duct for poison. Probably, when a thorn prickles the flesh, the glandular cells are broken, the poison is released and is introduced along the grooves into the wound, like a syringe needle. The poison of greater weevers is very strong. When you are injected with a poisonous spike, a painful, sharp, burning, or stabbing pain bursts out, which lasts

for several hours or even a whole day, if there will be no treatment. The affected limb is inflamed and severely turgescing. Other symptoms include loss of consciousness, heart palpitations, slow heart rate, fever, headaches, delirium, severe vomiting, seizures, and rough breathing. In severe cases, the victim may die. Morphine does not usually give relief. About 3 t of this fish are caught per year in the Adriatic Sea.

Greater Yellowtail (Seriola dumerili) Greater Yellowtail (Seriola dumerili) – body slender, tall, and thin with a torpedo-shaped form; the profile of the head forms a wavy line, the caudal fin with a deep excision. The anal fin is shorter than the second dorsal fin, and in both the first rays are longer than the others. In the first dorsal fin 5–7 prickly rays, which are connected by a membrane. Pectoral fin is short. The back and upper part of the body are dark blue with a purple tint,

Gubash Anton, Gubashevich Antun (Grubaš Anton)

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Greater Weever. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_weever#/media/File:Trachinus_draco1.jpg)

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Greater yellowtail. (Photo by Roberto Pillon, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Greater_amberjack#/ media/File:Seriola_ dumerili_Minorca.jpg)

the sides of the body are yellow, and the belly is pale yellow. It reaches a length of 190 cm and a mass of 50–60 kg. It dwells near the surface of the water, at a depth of 20–70 m, in small flocks, often in fast currents near rocks and islands. Greater yellowtail is a powerful swimmer, making significant migrations every year. The largest species usually lead solitary lives, and the youngsters often keep in small flocks under the dome or near the jellyfish. Greater yellowtail is widespread in the tropical and warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean; in the waters of Northern Europe, this species is extremely rare. About 30 t are caught annually in the Adriatic Sea. Meat has an average

value. It is frequently found in the southern part of the Adriatic Sea.

Gubash Anton, Gubashevich Antun (Grubaš Anton) Gubash Anton, Gubashevich Antun (Grubaš Anton) – captain from Perast, Montenegro. He lived in the second half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century. He studied the Adriatic Sea for navigation purposes. He is the famous creator of the first sea map of the Adriatic

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Gulf of Trieste (Golfo di Trieste)

Gulf of Trieste. (Source: https://maps-for-free.com/ #close)

Sea, which was designed for coastal navigation, as well as hydrographic maps. He summarized his knowledge in the work “Nuovo Costiere del Mare Adriatico” (Venice, 1833).

Gulf of Trieste (Golfo di Trieste) Gulf of Trieste (Golfo di Trieste) – a broad bay in the extreme north of the Adriatic Sea, part of the

Gulf of Venice. It extends to the coast for 40 km. The width at the entrance is 35 km. The depths in the bay do not exceed 25 m. In the eastern part of the bay there is the port of Trieste. The shores of the bay, except the north, are high; the slopes of the coastal mountains and hills descend steeply to the water and in many places end in precipices. The northern shore of the bay is low, cut by rivers and canals. The most significant bays are Piran, Koper, Panzano, and Muggia.

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Herceg Novi Herceg Novi – (Ital. Castelnuovo) is a large tourist center located at the foot of the Mount Orjen (1893 m), on the shores of the Herceg Novi Bay of Boka Kotorska Bay in the Adriatic Sea. This is the westernmost point on the coast of the Bay. It is separated from neighboring Croatia by the Prevlaka Peninsula. Population is 30,900 people (2011). Because of the hilly terrain in Herceg Novi there are many steep paths and stairs, which is why it is often called the “city of a thousand steps.” The city was founded in 1382 by the Bosnian King Tvrtko I Kotromanic as a fortification, called Sveti Stefan fortress. In a course of Herceg Novi history, the city passed from hand to hand at various times: it was ruled by Bosnian princes (1382–1483), Turks (1483–1687), Spaniards (1538–1539), Venetians (1688–1797), Russians (1806–1807), French (1807–1813), Austrians (1814–1918), and Yugoslavs. The Faculty of applied physiotherapy of the University of Montenegro, the city archive (the oldest document is dated 1685), the historical museum, and the city library are situated here. There are several fortresses in Herceg Novi – Spanjola fortress, Citadel, sea fortress Forte Mare. Spanjola fortress, construction of which began in the fifteenth century, took its modern look in the sixteenth century. It is located on top of the Bayer Hill (170 m) on the Adriatic Highway. The Citadel, a creation of the Venetians, is

situated near the sea. In 1979, it was almost completely destroyed by an earthquake; its walls fell into the sea. Interesting is the Sat Kula Tower, or the Clock Tower (1667), a symbol of Herceg Novi, decorated with a bas-relief of Black Virgin and a modern clock donated by the city of Zemun. The Kanli-Kula Tower, or the Bloody Tower, built by the Turks during Ottoman rule, is currently one of the most attractive summer sites on the Adriatic. Fortifications and towers, preserved to the present days, indicate that Herceg Novi was a defensive point, like the most of coastal trading centers. Sometimes Herceg Novi is called the “city of mimosas,” as well as the “Botanical Garden of Montenegro,” According to legend, the sailors brought various exotic plants from their wanderings, which later took root on this land. It is believed that Herceg Novi is the botanical garden of Montenegro, at the same time it is a city of steps, because numerous stairs lead to houses built on the mountain slopes. The major part of the city’s income is the tourism. There are many cafes, pizzerias, and bars. Along the entire coast of the Adriatic Sea from Herceg Novi to the village of Igalo stretches the pedestrian Boulevard Pet Danica with a length of 7 km. Drinking water in the city is imported from Croatia. The Citadel was built by the Venetians; in the fifteenth century it was rebuilt by the Turks; and its remains are in the sea. It was destroyed in 1979 as a result of earthquakes. The sea fortress (Forte Mare) (tower) was built in 1382 under King Tvrtko I, it was

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Herceg Novi Bay, Hercegnovski Zaliv

Herceg Novi. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herceg_Novi#/media/File:Herceg_Novi_from_sea_1.jpg)

reconstructed in 1833, and now it works in the evenings as a cinema. There are also Catholic Cathedral of St. Jerome, built in 1856, and embankment (with cafes, restaurants, shops). The Clock Tower (Sahat-Kula, Sat Kula), built by the Italians, was then converted into a Turkish mosque. It is decorated with a unique bass-relief of the burnt tree “Black Virgin.” There is Karache Fountain in the center of the city on Belavista Square. It has been here since the days of Turkish rule. The fountain is working, and water is flowing. There is also the cathedral which is the Orthodox church of the Archangel Michael. Here you also can see the former prison Kanli-Kula (Bloody Tower). It is famous for the fact that no one escaped from it. It is a popular place for playing weddings. There is also Museum of Navigation under the open sky (anchors, fluffs, etc.). There is the Orthodox monastery Savina in

Herceg Novi, which is located in orchards. Many Russian sailors who died during the Napoleonic wars (1806–1807), as well as generals and officers of the Russian Army who were extruded to Yugoslavia after 1917, were buried in the Russian cemetery restored in 2007 next to the monastery. Writers, actors, artists, and intellectuals stayed at Herceg Novi – they were the ones who gave the city a unique charm that never ceases to fascinate until now.

Herceg Novi Bay, Hercegnovski Zaliv Herceg Novi Bay, Hercegnovski Zaliv – is situated in the northern part of the Bay of Kotor, on the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. In the eastern part, it connects with the Kumbor Strait, or the gorge,

History of Investigation of the Adriatic Sea

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and with Tivat Bay. The north-western part of Herceg Novi Bay is called Topal Bay; Rose Bay goes into the shore in the southeastern part of Herceg Novi Bay, and in the northeastern part Meline Bay. The southwestern and southeastern shores formed by rather steep slopes of a mountain ridge with a height of 450 m. The slopes are overgrown with shrubs, and at the water’s edge they are crumbling down as cliffs. At the back of the bay there is the city of Herceg Novi. The Bay is named after the name of the city.

Herceg Novi Riviera, Hercegnovski Rivjera Herceg Novi Riviera, Hercegnovski Rivjera – resorts and beaches located on the coast from the Montenegrin border with Croatia to the Verige Strait in the Boka Kotorska Bay. It includes 14 beaches: Njivice, Sutorina, Blatna Plage, Igalo, Topla, Herceg Novi, Savina, Melina, Zelenika, Kumbor, Djenovići, Baošići, Bijela, and Kamenari. Length is approximately 25 km.

High-Body Pickarel (Spicara smaris) High-Body Pickarel (Spicara smaris) – belongs to the Centrocanthidae family. This is a pelagic schooling bottom fish, with an elongated body, slightly flattened from the sides. The color is grayish with a yellow tinge on the sides, with blue longitudinal stripes of the living fish (which quickly disappear after being caught) and a dark spot in the middle. There are blue specks on the membrane between the rays of the dorsal and anal fins. The length usually does not exceed 20 cm, and it lives up to 4–7 years. During the lifetime of the high-body pickarel a change of sex occurs – up to 2–4 years of juvenile fish age, the germ gland function as ovaries, and at an older age as the testes. Therefore, the maximum length of males is 19.4 cm with a mass of 82 g, and females 15.7 cm and 45 g, respectively. When changing sex, the color also changes – from grayish females

High-body pickerel. (Source: https://sevaquarium.ru/ spicara-smaris/)

H to bright males, who get mating outfit during spawning. Hermaphroditism is noted (the germ gland function both as ovaries and testes). The fertility varies from 6 to 63,000 eggs. It feeds on bottom invertebrates (mollusks, polychaetes, and crustaceans), algae, and partly small fish and their caviar. Meat of high-body pickarel is very delicious, used fresh and dried. It is recently used for the production of canned food in oil and tomato. The fish is an object of sport fishing. In the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea catches reach approximately 600 t.

History of Investigation of the Adriatic Sea History of Investigation of the Adriatic Sea – The Adriatic Sea has always been a significant shipping route for the development of coastal countries, and up to the nineteenth century, it was mainly studied by hydrographers. In the sixteenth century Friedrich Grisogono from Zadar, Markantum Dominis-Gospneetich, born in Rab, and Nikola Sydrojevic-Sagri from Dubrovnik all studied the tidal phenomena. In the seventeenth century the largest physicist and astronomer of his time, Ruger Boskovic from Dubrovnik was also engaged in these investigations. In the eighteenth century German professor J. Lorenz from Rijeka studied the Gulf of Venice. The first important

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contribution to the development of hydrographic activity in the Adriatic Sea on the instructions of Napoleon was made by the French hydrographer and cartographer Ch.F. Beautemps-Beaupré with the help of engineer Dussius on the ship “Titian” with the help of the survey of the eastern Adriatic ports, bays, and straits in 1806–1809. At the same time, a hand-written atlas “Hydrographic study of the ports of the Kingdom of Italy” (“Reconnaissance hydrographique des ports du Royaume d’Italie”) was compiled. This atlas is also called the “Beautemps-Beaupré;s atlas of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea.” The atlas was discovered in London in 1978 (65 pages, written in calligraphic handwriting in Paris in 1807). Following the French, Austria in 1822 compiled the first sea map of Istria and Dalmatia on the Adriatic Sea. In 1830, the first locies on the Adriatic (Portolano del Mare Adriatico) were compiled. In the middle of the nineteenth century systematic study of the Adriatic Sea was conducted by M. Katurić, Kuzmić, J. Kolombatović, A. Stošić, and S. Rusin. Coastal hydrometeorological stations were founded: in 1857 in Hvar, in 1860 in Trieste, in 1872 in Venice, and in 1891 in Rovinj. The growing interest in oceanographic research led to the creation of the Austrian Adriatic Commission (Adria Kommission) in 1865 in Vienna. In the period 1866–1872, a large number of vessels were used to measure the depths along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea. After the foundation of naval schools in Rijeka and Pula, the expeditions were launched in the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Sea. The Austrian maritime authorities organized expeditions to the Adriatic Sea and parts of the Ionian Sea on the ships “Nautilus” (1874), “Deli” (1875, 1876, 1877), and “Hertha” (1880). They were headed by professors of the Rijeka Maritime Academy J. Wolf and J. Lukes. On the basis of the data obtained on the distribution of temperature and salinity, current maps were created. Small research expeditions on the ships “Zvonimir” and “Margita” were organized by the Croatian University and the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1893 and 1894. In 1909, the Italian Royal Committee for Oceanography was organized, which carried out changes on five

History of Investigation of the Adriatic Sea

transverse profiles in the Adriatic Sea using the S107 torpedo boat, the “Montebello” cruiser (1909) and the “Ciclope” vessel (1910). These two organizations in 1910 created the International Commission for Adriatic Research (Permanente Internationale Kommission fur Erforschung der Adria). In the period 1911–1914 the Commission launched a number of large and important expeditions: 12 expeditions on the ship “Naiad” (“Najade”) and 10 expeditions on “Cyclop” (“Ciclope”). Bottle drifts were also organized. As a result of the analysis of the data obtained, a new map of currents was created. In the years 1908–1909, the Danish ship “Thor” (“Tor”) conducted a study in the Mediterranean, including the southern part of the Adriatic. On the basis of the collected data, the South Adriatic Basin was identified as an area of winter convective mixing and a deep-water formation. The vessel “Rudolf Virchov” which belonged to the Zoological Station in Rovinj sailed in the northern Adriatic in the period from 1907 to 1911. The Zoological Station in Trieste (organized in 1904) conducted sailing on the ships “Argo” and “Adria” (1910). In 1904 the Hungarian Fishing and Biological Station, created in Rijeka, conducted the necessary expeditions on the ships “Elore” and “Najade.” A number of institutes organized four seasonal expeditions between 1913 and 1914 on the vessel “Vila Velebita.” After the end of the First World War, Austria lost its advantages in the Adriatic studies, but fortunately, the pre-collected data were published and stored. The Institute in Rovinj, formed in 1891, as a Zoological Station of the Berlin Aquarium, after 1931, began to function as the GermanItalian Institute of Marine Biology. The Institute organized expeditions to the North Adriatic on the ships “Auro,” “Adria,” and “Clupea” and began publishing the journals “Thalassia” and “Note.” In Trieste, the Meteorological Station (founded in 1841), the Zoological Station (founded in 1875), and the Tidal Station (tidal gauge) (founded in 1851) continued their work. The Department of Geophysics in Zagreb established a tidal gauge in Bakar in 1929, and also began measuring seiches in the Gulf of Bakar in 1936. In Tivat on the eastern coast in 1927 the

History of Investigation of the Adriatic Sea

Hydrographic Institute was founded, and later it was transferred to Split. In 1930, the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries was founded in Split, which began systematic research on the Yugoslav coast of the Adriatic Sea. Hydrographic and plankton data were collected on permanent stations near Split on its small vessel “BIOS.” The Institute published the journal “Acta Adriatica” and “Note.” In 1939, it was organized in Fano, Italy, the Observatory of Marine Biology. In 1961, the Institute of Marine Biology was founded in Kotor, Montenegro (SFRY). After the end of the Second World War (1945), the interest to the Adriatic Sea on both its banks grew, and the number of institutes and research stations gradually increased. This made it possible to improve approaches to interdisciplinary, oceanographic research, to ensure the growth of expeditions in subsequent decades, covering both the coastal and various marine areas of the Adriatic. The first expeditions were organized by the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in 1947–1948 on the vessel “Hvar,” as well as on the research vessels “BIOS” and “Predvodnik.” The first Italian expedition took place on the minesweeper M-306 in 1951. Offshore studies were conducted during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–1958 with the help of the ships “Miner” (formerly “Najade”), “Spasilac,” “Staffetta.” Since 1948, using the vessels “BIOS” and “Predvodnik” the Institute in Split continued hydrographic and other observations. Data was continuously collected from eight permanent stations along the Split-Gargono line and also from additional stations located above the Middle and South Adriatic basins. We should also mention the expedition on the “Baldo Kosić” from the Laboratory of Dubrovnik and “Vila Velebita” from the Institute in Rovinj. The Hydrographic Institute in Split also participated in a series of oceanographic studies. The “Miner” (1957) and “Spasilac” (1957–1958) expeditions were especially important. They were conducted within the framework of the IGY, and later in 1974–1976 the expedition on “Andrija Mohorovićić” was conducted. Italy either alone or with other countries launched a series of successful expeditions. Coastal and external waters

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have been intensively studied by scientific groups on the vessels “Mango” and “Vercelli.” In 1959–1960, the Italian Oceanographic Institute conducted a comprehensive study of the Adriatic and parts of the Ionian Sea, using the ships of the Navy “Farfalla,” “Scimitarra,” and “Gezella.” Especially significant were the expeditions conducted on “Bannock” vessel, which shed light on the dynamics of the Northern Adriatic. The Adriatic was also studied by numerous foreign expeditions, often in the framework of the studies in the Mediterranean: in the late 1950s, the Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR conducted research on “Akademik Kovalevsky,” “Akademik Vavilov,” and “Kristall” research vessels. In 1969 in the Adriatic Sea a Soviet oceanographic expedition was working on the USSR Academy of Sciences R/V “Akademik S. Vavilov” with a group of scientists from Moscow State University and various institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The American expedition was conducted on “Atlantis” research vessel in 1962, and the Soviet one on “Professor Bogorov,” “Professor Petrovsky,” and “Professor Vodyanitsky” research vessels. Oceanographic research in the last two decades of the twentieth century has been characterized by efforts focused on specific processes rather than on fundamental descriptive oceanographic research. These studies came from the understanding of the Adriatic Sea as a biogeochemical system, subject to strong anthropogenic impact in conditions of exploitation of living resources and pollution. Much of the interdisciplinary research has been associated with special phenomena associated with the Adriatic ecosystem, such as plant life and red tides, such as the biogeochemical characteristics of coastal frontal zones, basin budget assessment, nutrition, and washing mechanisms. These investigations were conducted in the framework of national projects (Italy, Yugoslavia, or Croatia), bilateral research programs, or EU aquanography projects. In the 1980s, two large international projects had an important component in the Adriatic Sea. This is the ALPEX experiment (1982) to study cyclonic activity over the Mediterranean Sea and

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the specificity of Bora wind. Its oceanographic component (MEDALPEX) in the Adriatic was aimed at understanding the circulation of Bora in the Northern Adriatic through a mesoscale experiment. The second major project is the international POEM program (Physical Oceanography of the Eastern Mediterranean) (1984), the tasks of which were to understand the general circulation of the Eastern Adriatic using instrumental and modular forces. The Adriatic component is associated with the oceanography of the South Adriatic Basin as a deep-water source of the Eastern Mediterranean. At the same time, a number of national projects (such as Italian: Oceanografia e Fondi Marini (1976–1982) and Promozione della Gualita dell Ambiente (1976–1982)) were associated with anthropogenic impact and environmental problems. On the Yugoslav side, coastal pollution problems were intensively investigated in a number of small coastal bays and straits (Kaštela and Rijeka gulfs, Zadar Strait, etc.). Important model and experimental studies were conducted on the bilateral Italian-Yugoslav project ASCOP (1979–1991), especially in the studies of the circulation in the North Adriatic and the water masses. At the end of the twentieth century, a large number of EU-funded oceanographic research programs were implemented. These series of projects had specific aims, for example, MERMAIDS I and II (Mediterranean Eddy Resolving Modeling and Interdisciplinary Studies) in 1990–1993. In 1990–1996, ELNA (Eutrophic Limits of the Northern Adriatic); 1993–1994, OTRANTO (Otranto); and 1993–1995 MATER (Mass Transfer and Ecosystem Response) and EUROMARGE projects were conducted. The MATER project had an important Adriatic component associated with the deepwater forming and the vertical flow of carbon. Due to the occurrence of strong eutrophication in the late 1980s, two Italian national research programs were carried out: PRISMA 1 (Progetto di Ricerca Scientifice nel Mare Adriatico) in 1995–1997 and PRISMA 2 in 1997–1999. The first is the assessment of alongshore waters, dissolved particles, and flows in various sub-basins of the Adriatic Sea, and the second is the dynamics of the Italian coastal

History of Investigation of the Adriatic Sea

front and the Western Adriatic Current and their impact on living organisms. The present research is continued through a series of national and international projects and programs, among them: the Adriatic Dolphin Project (ADP), Mapping and recycling of marine litter and Ghost nets on the sea-floor (marGnet), Adriatic +, LIFE Euroturtles, NETCET, PHARE, SPARKS, Bottlenose Dolphin Volunteer Research Project, A coastal and river basin prediction system for the Adriatic Sea (ADRICOSM), The BAnquette of Posidonia: integrating knowledge and promoting an ecologic management model for responsible management (BARGAIN), Assimilation of national water quality data in coastal areas for a marine directives oriented downstream product (CADEAU), Climate cHallenges on coAstal and traNsitional chanGing arEas: WEaving a CrossAdriatic Response (CHANGE WE CARE), EuroSea, EUSeaMAP 2, Sustainable management of waste and wastewater in ports (GRRinPORT), Harmonization and Networking for contaminant assessment in the Ionian and Adriatic Seas (HarmoNIA), Port Impact on Protected Marine Areas: Cooperative Cross-Border Actions (IMPACT), Marine knowledge sharing platform (MARINA), MEDSEALITTER, ML-REPAIR, NANOBOND, PLASTIC BUSTERS, PLASTIC BUSTERS MPAs, Posidonia meadows as carbon sinks of the Mediterranean (SeaForest), SEdiment, Dredging and PORT RIsk assessment (SEDRIPORT), SOUNDSCAPES in the North Adriatic Sea and their impact on marine biological resources (SOUNDSCAPES), Towards a Joint European Research Infrastructure Network for Coastal Observatories (JERICO), ActionMED, Adriatic Ionian Maritime Spatial Planning (ADRIPLAN), Innovative exploitation of Adriatic Reefs in order to strengthen blue economy (ADRIREEF), Managed use of treated urban, wastewater, for the quality of the Adriatic Sea (AdSWiM), Italian contribution to global ocean monitoring (ARGO-ITALY), Ballast water management system for Adriatic Sea protection (BALMAS), Ecological Observing System in the Adriatic Sea: oceanographic observations for biodiversity (ECOSS), Fisheries in the Adriatic Region – A Shared Ecosystem Approach

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(FAIRSEA), Piloting of eco-innovative fishery supply-chains to market added-value Adriatic fish products (PRIZEFISH), Strengthening common reaction capacity to fight sea pollution of oil, toxic, and hazardous substances in Adriatic Sea (HAZARD), TRECORALA, and many others.

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eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. The first war occurred in 1097. It was followed by 11 wars, during which the Hungarians managed to establish their dominance over the cities of the Dalmatian coast. In the fourteenth century, the Venetian Republic tried to return them; however, they suffered a defeat again. Under the treaty of 1433, Hungary lost all Dalmatian cities and islands.

History of Marine Animal Populations (HMAP Adriatic) History of Marine Animal Populations (HMAP Adriatic) – project implemented as part of the global research initiative “History of marine animal populations.” About 100 researchers have joined forces to develop an interdisciplinary research program using historical and natural archives. The purpose of the initiative is to increase knowledge and understanding of how the diversity, distribution, and abundance of marine life in the oceans change over time. The project was launched in 2005 and is divided into two work packages (WP): WP-1 – The marine population of the Adriatic in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (ICRAM and the University of Venice); WP-2 – Marine Adriatic population in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period (till the nineteenth century) (University of Haifa, Israel, and the Association of Historical Cultural Heritage). The purpose of the project is the reconstruction of the dynamics of marine animal populations in the Venetian Lagoon and the northern part of the Adriatic Sea from the twelfth century to the twenty-first century based on historical and scientific sources in order to identify, describe, and compare the various driving forces that cause impact on them. The project focuses on the role of fisheries exploitation along with eutrophication, environmental fluctuations, and climate change.

Hungarian-Veneta Wars, Ninth to Fifteenth Century Hungarian-Veneta Wars, Ninth to Fifteenth Century – wars for supremacy on the Dalmatian

Hvar Hvar – a city and port on the island of Hvar, Croatia. It has a population of 4251 (2011), making it the largest settlement on the island of Hvar. It is situated on a bay in the south coast of the island, opposite from the other nearby towns of Stari Grad and Jelsa. The city of Hvar has a long and distinguished history as center for trade and culture in the Adriatic. As a part of the Venetian Empire during the thirteenth to eighteenth centuries, it was an important naval base with a strong fortress above, encircling town walls and protected port. The 700-year-old walls still survive, as well as many of the noble houses and public buildings from fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. Hvar is the site of one of the oldest surviving theaters in Europe, opened in 1612. By the nineteenth century, the port of Hvar was no longer a military base. As one of the earliest “tourist boards” in Europe, it was founded in 1868 with the purpose of providing “good care for visitors.” Today, the city has a variety of hotels, galleries, museums, and exhibitions, including the Arsenal, Loggia, the Croatian Institute, and the Hvar Heritage Museum with its art and archaeological collections. The port of Hvar, set in a picturesque natural bay, with the Pakleni Otoci Island chain protecting it to the south, is a safe haven for boats year round. The city is a popular port of call for yachts sailing around the Adriatic, especially in the summer months. There are regular catamaran ferry services from the port between Hvar and Split, Brač, Korčula, Lastovo, and Vis.

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Hvar Channel (Hvar Strait, Hvar Kanal)

Hvar, Croatia. (Source: https://www.visit-hvar.com/tours/hvar-island-tour-and-olive-oil-tasting/HV-TR-377)

Hvar Channel (Hvar Strait, Hvar Kanal) Hvar Channel (Hvar Strait, Hvar Kanal) – located between the islands of Hvar and Brač, South Dalmatia, Croatia. The shores of the strait are steep and mountainous, the southern coast is lower and more indented than the northern one. Depths in most of the strait are 50–80 m.

Hvar Island (Hvar Otok) Hvar Island (Hvar Otok) – The island is situated to the south of Brač Island off the coast of Central Dalmatia in the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. It stretches from east to west and is the longest island in the Adriatic Sea – 68 km, and the sunniest in the Adriatic – 349 sunny days a year. It is often called the “Croatian Madeira.” Area of the island is

approximately 300 km2. The population of the island is 11,100 people (2001). There are two small cities of Hvar and Stari Grad on the Island. The island is covered with pine forests. There are numerous springs. The principal occupations of the local population are tourism services, fishing, and farming. Grapes, olives, figs, and essential oil plants – lavender and rosemary – are grown there. Lavender is a symbol of the island; its dried flowers are a typical Croatian souvenir. Amazing Agave fiber laces and rosemary oil are also produced on Hvar. In ancient times it was the Greek colony of Pharos. The oldest bas-relief in Europe depicting a ship was discovered here and the oldest public theater in Europe was built in 1612, as well as the Renaissance Cathedral. The monastery holds a little-known map of the Caspian Sea, compiled around 1500 (published in 1944). The city of Hvar is famous for its numerous monuments of the Renaissance. Stari Grad is the oldest city in Croatia (384 BC).

Hydrocarbons of the Adriatic Sea

“Hydra” Operation “Hydra” Operation – operation during the Second World War (in 1942) of the British Directorate of special operations to establish contacts with partisans of I.B. Tito in the region of Podgorica. To do this, the British submarine “Thorn” was sent to the area of the village of Petrovac-naMoru on the Yugoslav coast of the Adriatic Sea. Here, in Perazica Do (between Sveti Stefan and Petrovac), Major T. Atherton landed from the submarine, having previously spent 10 years in Yugoslavia as a journalist, Corporal O’Donovan with the portable radio set and the officer of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force. There was also a large sum of money with them (2000 gold sovereigns and 1 million Italian Lire). Atherton met with Tito. However, he was later considered as a Chetnik spy. After Atherton and O’Donovan left the partisans, they disappeared along with the money. Later, however, Atherton’s boots and binoculars were seen with a traitor partisantraitor, although they found neither bodies nor money.

Hydroarcheological Memorial “Bigovitsa” Hydroarcheological Memorial “Bigovitsa” – is situated near the port of Bar – a small natural bay of the Adriatic Sea Bigovica, Montenegro. It is well protected from the winds, therefore, from the third century BC until the sixteenth century it served as a winter quay. The remains of ships of the fourth century, fragments of amphorae, and other artifacts belonging to the late Middle Ages were found here.

Hydrocarbons of the Adriatic Sea Hydrocarbons of the Adriatic Sea – Natural gas is produced in a framework of several projects, including a joint venture between ENI, Italy, and

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INA (Industrija nafte), Croatia, which manages two production platforms – one in the Croatian Adriatic Sea produces gas from six wells, and the other was commissioned in Italian waters in 2010. Gas fields in the Adriatic Sea were opened in the 1970s; however, their commercial development began in 1996. About 100 offshore platforms are located in the region of EmiliaRomagna, Italy, along with 17 platforms in the North Adriatic. ENI estimated its reserves in the Adriatic Sea in 40 trillion m3 of natural gas, meaning that they can reach 100 trillion m3. INA estimates its reserves at 50% lower. Oil in the North Adriatic was discovered at a depth of approximately 540 m; however, this discovery has not obtained further development due to the large depth of the field and the quality of oil. Oil and gas reserves are part of the oil and gas basin of the Po River, the provinces of Northern Italy, and the northern part of the Mediterranean Sea. In the 2000s the exploration work focused on the discovery of gas and oil fields in the Middle and South Adriatic basins, as a result of which oil and gas fields were discovered southeast of the cities of Bari, Brindisi-Rovesti, and Giove, Italy. The investigations revealed reserves of 3 million barrels of oil and 2 trillion m3 of gas. In January 2012, INA began a search for oil in the Dubrovnik region, Croatia, thereby resuming the search for hydrocarbons along the eastern Adriatic coast after research conducted in the late 1980s around Brač Island, Croatia, which were terminated due to the collapse of Yugoslavia and the war in Croatia. Montenegro also hopes to discover oil near its shores. At the end of 2010, it invited foreign companies from many countries to a tender for the development of their shelf. However, the situation here is complicated by the fact that the promising Montenegrin deposits are not located in a single basin but “capillary,” which makes extraction difficult. As of January 2012, 200 exploration wells were drilled on the Croatian coast and only 30 in the North Adriatic basin. At the beginning of 2014, a large oil field was discovered on the Adriatic shelf of Croatia with reserves of approximately 3 billion barrels. Its production will require 20 platforms.

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Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia (Hrvatski Hidrografski Institut, HHI)

Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia (Hrvatski Hidrografski Institut, HHI) Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia (Hrvatski Hidrografski Institut, HHI) – a specialized institute contributing to hydrographic activity in the Republic of Croatia, whose main purpose is to ensure the safety of navigation in the Adriatic Sea. It is located in Split. In accordance with the Decree of 1998 on hydrographic activities, the institute’s tasks include hydrographic and geodetic surveying, marine geodesy, geological and oceanographic research, ensuring hydrographic and navigational safety at sea, compiling, producing, and publishing official maps and publications on a maritime theme. The Institute is responsible for the safety of shipping in the Adriatic Sea in accordance with the recommendations of the International Hydrographic Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities, etc. The first important contribution to the development of hydrographic activity on the Adriatic was made by a French hydrographer and cartographer Charles-Francois Beautemps-Beaupré (1766–1854) by his survey of eastern Adriatic ports, gulfs, and channels, which he conducted in 1806–1809. In 1860, the survey and

investigations in the Eastern Adriatic were proceeded by Hydrographic Office of AustriaHungary Navy in Trieste. As a result, sailing chart for various scales (general, coastal, and harbor maps), marine publications (pilot charts, list of lighthouses, descriptions of coasts), and scientific articles on astronomy, meteorology, oceanography, gravimetry, and geomagnetism were compiled. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1922, hydrographic activity was continued by the Hydrographic Institute of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in several centers – Tivat (in 1927), Dubrovnik, Split, during the Second World War – in Hvar, Vis, Monopoli, and in the end of 1944 in Split. This year is considered as the beginning of the scientific development of hydrographic research, organized in the following departments: marine, hydrographic, geodesic, oceanographic, aero-photogrammetric, cartographic, meteorological, and department of publications. In collaboration with the hydrographic institutes of all coastal countries and members of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) since 1922, the Institute has achieved significant results and worldwide recognition. During the Croatian War of Independence, all data, tools, and equipment were saved. At present, the HHI has become a modern institution conducting research in accordance with the new technological trends recommended by the IHO.

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Igalo Igalo – a small town located on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, in the west of the Herceg Novi Bay (Toplo Bay), Montenegro. It is the famous center of SPA medicine. The modern suburb of Herceg Novi to the west of it, built up with new houses and hotels, near the border with Croatia. The seafloor in Igalo area is covered with sand and healing mud, which is used to treat rheumatic diseases. There is a therapeutic and health mud center-resort “Institute of Igalo,” “Igalsko Blato” also known as the Simo Milosevic Medical Center of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation (one of the most popular clinics in Europe), opened in 1949 and the “Igalske Slatine” mineral spring. The center is famous for its unique anti-stress programs and methods of restoring the functions of the musculoskeletal system. There is the former cottage of Marshal I.B. Tito.

Illiria Illiria – the Roman name of the land, located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula, on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea between Italian Istria and Greek Epirus, which now includes Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Albania. This term was revived by Napoleon in 1805, which created the Illirian provinces. Some Western

writers prefer to use the term “Illiria” to describe the South Slavic lands until the end of the nineteenth century.

Illirian Provinces Illirian Provinces – French protectorate, formed after the war of 1806–1808. It stretched from Villach in southern Austria to the Bay of Kotor (Montenegro) and Southern Dalmatia (Dubrovnik). At the head of the province, Napoleon put Marshal Marmont. He began building roads, developing educational programs and promoting Slavic languages. However, after the defeat of Napoleon in the war of 1812 in Russia, the provinces were given to Austria again in 1813. One of the goals that Napoleon set himself when creating Illirian Provinces was to accelerate the growth of national identity of Croatians, Slovenians, and Serbs. He hoped that this policy will be able to protect them from the influence of other great powers that can act as their patrons, namely, Austria and Russia.

Illyrian Republic Illyrian Republic – artificial unification of the Adriatic and West Slavic lands. Its capital was in Ljubljana.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Illyrian Stellate Sturgeon (Acipenser stellates illyricus Brusina, 1902)

The medical center in Igalo, Montenegro. (Source: http://www.royalmedgroup.com/resorts/igalo/)

Illyrian Stellate Sturgeon (Acipenser stellates illyricus Brusina, 1902) Illyrian Stellate Sturgeon (Acipenser stellates illyricus Brusina, 1902) – as the Soviet geographer L. Berg wrote, “some species sometimes enter Maritsa and further into the Adriatic Sea, where they are caught near Zara” (now Zadar, Dalmatia, Croatia). It is considered the younger synonym of Acipenser stellates or Danube stellate sturgeon.

Institute for Marine and Coastal Research (IMCR) (Institut za More i Priobalje) Institute for Marine and Coastal Research (IMCR) (Institut za More i Priobalje) – one of the institutions of the University of Dubrovnik, Croatia. It was founded on the basis of the Fisheries Center organized in 1946 and the Biological Institute of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Art,

formed in 1949. In November 2005, the University of Dubrovnik formed the IMCR, which began its activities on January 1, 2006. The institute’s activities are based on the research of the natural specificities of the Adriatic Sea and its coasts, especially in studies on the structure and processes of ecosystems, the use and interpretation of scientific information for more insightful development, and further cooperation of scientists with similar institutions and research groups both in the country and abroad. In addition, the institute, in accordance with economic opportunities, develops such areas as monitoring of marine life and land resources, monitoring the quality of sea water, experimental cultivation of plant and animal species in order to acquire fundamental knowledge, and study various stages of natural processes, aquarium content of fish, and botanical garden work on the Lokrum Island. The institute had a research vessel “Baldo Kostić,” which was destroyed during the Serb raids on Dubrovnik. Today it was replaced by the vessel “Baldo Kostić II.” Laboratories are equipped with modern

Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics

instruments and equipment. The institute trains biology students from the University of Zagreb. Both national and international cooperation is carried out. The Institute owns an aquarium with 31 aquarium tanks, a collection of over 4000 exhibits related to natural history. Here are especially valuable species of eucalyptus, acacia, and pine trees from China, North and South America, Asia, and Australia. The botanical garden owes its creation to the Benedictines, who in the eleventh century began planting here. Today, there are about 500 species of trees and shrubs, as well as about 200 succulents growing in greenhouses. In the 1980s Australian experts rated the collection of eucalyptus trees in the garden (about 70 species) as the richest outside the Australian continent.

Institute of Marine Biology (Institut za Biologiju mora) Institute of Marine Biology (Institut za Biologiju mora) – was founded in 1961 by the Decree of the People’s Republic of Montenegro. It has been bearing its actual name since 1997. In 2004, the institute was incorporated into the University of Montenegro. This is the only institute in Montenegro conducting research, monitoring, and protection of the Adriatic Sea. Research approaches are ecological in nature with a special focus on the South Adriatic and the Boka-Kotorska Bay as a natural phenomenon. The Institute consists of five laboratories: chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology; general biology and sea protection; neurophysiology and ecophysiology; ichthyology and marine fish; and research and development of maricultures. In addition to national projects, the institute carries out many international projects in the commonwealth, primarily with the Italian institutions, as well as the institutions of Croatia, Albania, and Slovenia with the support of FAO and UNESCO. The institute is included in educational programs. Students from Croatia and Montenegro within 5–15 days in laboratories and at the sea learn the basics of marine biology. Since 1995, the institute publishes the scientific journal Studia Marina. The institute is located in the suburb of

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Kotor – Dobrota, in the former marine residence of Petrović-Njegoš. The Institute has a small R/V “Nemirna-II”.

Institute of Marine Sciences (Instituto di Scienze Marine) Institute of Marine Sciences (Instituto di Scienze Marine) – was founded in Venice in 2001 by order of the National Council for Scientific Research of Italy in the framework of the Department of Earth Science and the Environment. Engaged in research in the polar, oceanic, and Mediterranean regions, focusing on the following issues: the evolution of the oceans and their continental environments with the study of underwater volcanoes, faults, and landslides and their potential impact on the coast; the effects of climate change on ocean circulation, biogeochemical cycles, and marine productivity; studying the biology of fish species, marine ecology, the interaction between the environment and fisheries, improving the practice of aquaculture and mariculture. In addition, the institute is engaged in developments in the field of marine technology.

Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics (Instituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale, OGS) Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics (Instituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale, OGS) – State Research Institute, located in Sgonico near Trieste, Italy. Its creation dates back to the mid-eighteenth century, when Her Highness Maria Theresia von Habsburg asked the Jesuit fathers to establish and lead the School of Astronomy and Navigation (Scuola di Astronomia e di Navigazione) for the navigation development, in 1719 after Trieste became a free port under Emperor Charles VI Habsburg. After this, the institute has repeatedly – in 1817, 1841, 1903, 1921, 1941, 1958, and 1989 – changed its

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Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Institut za Oceanografiju i Ribarstvo)

Institute of Marine Biology in the city of Kotor, Montenegro. (Source: http://www.aquariumboka.ucg.ac.me/en/extendeddeadline-for-adribiopro2019/)

name and research issues. The institute received its name in 1999. The objectives of the institute are to support, develop, and coordinate cooperation with national and international organizations in the field of research and Earth studies and its resources. Especially in the field of geophysics and the environment, seismology, hydrodynamics and geodynamics, and assessment of mineral resources and energy sources on land and in the ocean. The research in marine sciences with particular attention to the interaction of the seas, atmosphere, and lithosphere are also conducted there.

Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Institut za Oceanografiju i Ribarstvo) Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Institut za Oceanografiju i Ribarstvo) – one of the oldest

and largest scientific institutions on the Adriatic coast and in the Mediterranean. It was created on the initiative of the Croatian Academy of Sciences in 1930 as the Biological Oceanographic Institute, in Split, Croatia. The institute consists of eight research laboratories: marine physics, marine chemistry, marine biology, ichthyology and fisheries, mariculture, and others. Scientific activities are interdisciplinary. The main efforts of basic research are aimed at increasing knowledge about various types of the flora and fauna of the Adriatic Sea, Their interrelations with various abiotic and biotic factors that affect the structure and functions of ecosystems. Studies of the open sea and coastal waters indicate possible changes caused by climatic and anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystem. Long-term studies of physical, chemical, geological, biological, and fishbreeding parameters conducted in the last 50 years have contributed to detecting changes in the hydrographic properties and dynamics of the Adriatic Sea, migration and introduction of

Institute Ruđer Boškovic´

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Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, the City of Split, Croatia. (Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Marjan,_ Split)

some species, like invasion of algae and species from various tropical areas. There is a small library. Since 1932 the journal Acta Adriatica has been published. The studies of the institute were conducted on the R/V “Bios I” (27.7 m), “Navicula” (10 m) in coastal waters and on “Hvar” (25 m), “Predvodnik” (19 m), and “Bios II” (37 m) in open waters. Since 1981, the institute has conducted three-month courses (from September to November) in fisheries for participants from developing countries. Since its inception, the institute has collaborated with the Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM). The vicechairman of this organization is elected from the institute. The Institute develops bilateral cooperation with the USA, Poland, Italy, and Greece. The staff of the Institute is more than 100 people, most of whom are researchers.

Institute Ruđer Boškovic´ Institute Ruđer Bošković – It was founded in 1950 as an institute for research in the field of atomic physics. It was named in honor of the famous Croatian physicist and mathematician of the eighteenth century Josip Ruđer Bošković (1711–1787). It is the largest interdisciplinary research center in Croatia. The investigations in the field of experimental and theoretical physics, physical and chemical materials, organic and physical chemistry, biochemistry, molecular biology and medicine, computer science and electronics, and oceanography (including marine and environmental studies and geoscience) are conducted in the institute. The staff of the Institute is approximately 800 people, of which about

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500 people are researchers. Financing is provided by the Ministry of Science, Education and Sports of Croatia. It is situated in Zagreb.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) – an approach to economic development of coastal zones management without harming the environment. The European Commission considers ICZM as a permanent management process the overall goal of which is to introduce coastal preservation as well as maintaining their biodiversity into sustainable development practices. On the one hand the ICZM is an economic and legal instrument for harmonizing the many conflicting interests of coastal users of natural resources and, on the other hand, it is a dynamic process of developing and executing coordinated strategies for the use of natural, social, cultural and institutional resources. The successful implementation of the ICZM should be supported by systematic information and scientific support, advanced engineering technology, and socioeconomic and legal mechanisms. The main instruments of the ICZM are: spatial planning of coastal and marine areas, intersectoral and interregional coordination, public involvement, state monitoring and assessment of changes, a comprehensive analysis of sustainable development indicators, and financial and legal mechanisms for the implementation of ICZM.

International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea, The Mediterranean Science Commission (Commission Internationale pоur I’Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Me´diterrane´e) (CIESM) International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea, The

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Mediterranean Science Commission (Commission Internationale pоur I’Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée) (CIESM) – In 1908, at the IX International Congress of Geographers, a special committee was established headed by Prince Albert I of Monaco to study the Mediterranean Sea. At its first meeting in 1910, the committee became known as the International Commission for the Scientific Study of the Mediterranean (CIESM). Regular meetings of this Commission began only after the General Assembly of 1919 in Madrid, at which its main goals and objectives were formulated. The CIESM was established with the aim of cooperating Mediterranean countries to coordinate and plan research and timely exchange scientific information in the field of oceanology, study and control of pollution, and study the problems of human penetration into the depths of the sea. CIESM is an intergovernmental consultative organization composed of representatives of contracting states. Twenty-three countries are members of the CIESM for 2020. The President and the Secretary General are elected for 4 years. Its main bodies are the Plenary Congress Assembly, the Bureau, and the Secretariat. The commission has its own statute and budget. The CIESM Board meets once a year. Chaired by H.S.H. Prince Albert II of Monaco, who was elected in 2013 for another 6-year mandate as CIESM President, it comprises the national representatives of the 23 Member States of the Commission. Practical activities are carried out in scientific committees: marine geosciences, ocean physics and climate, marine biogeochemistry, marine microbiology and biotechnology, living resources and marine ecosystems, and coastal ecosystems. Approximately 2000 scientists from more than 30 countries participate in the work of these committees. They organize seminars and workshops on which they focus on extraordinary scientific issues. From the moment of its foundation until 2020, the Commission held 42 congresses, 5 of which were held in the Adriatic cities: Venice (1926, 2010), Split (1976), Trieste (1992), and Dubrovnik (1998). From 1920 to 1926, the Commission published the Bulletin (“Bulletin de la Commission Internationale pour I’Exploration

Ionian-Adriatic Pipeline, IAP

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The member states of CIESM. (Source: http:// ciesm.org/people/board/ index.htm)

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Scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée”), and then it was replaced by the series “Reports of Congress” (“Rapports du Congrès”), which is published now. The official language of the Commission is French. The Commission is associated in its work with the IAEA, FAO, IOC, UNESCO, ICSU, etc..

Ionian Sea Ionian Sea – also the Ionian Bay, which is a part of the Mediterranean Sea between the southern tips of the Balkan and Apennine peninsulas and the islands of Crete and Sicily. Often the sea is called the Adriatic. It is connected with the Adriatic Sea in the north by the Strait of Otranto. In the west by the Strait of Messina it is connected with the Tyrrhenian Sea. It forms Taranto (off the coast of Italy) and Patras and Corinth (off the coast of Greece) Bays. In the east, near the coast of Greece, the Ionian Islands are situated. Depth is up to 5121 m (the greatest depth of the Mediterranean Sea). Winds are weak; storms happen only in winter. The water

temperature varies from +14 °С in February to +25.5 °С in August, the salinity is higher than 38.0‰, the water color is dark blue. The Ionian Sea is inhabited by mackerel, red tuna, flounder, mullet, electric ray, etc. The most important ports are Patras, Kerkyra (Corfu) in Greece; Taranto, Catania, Syracuse in Italy. Sometimes the entire central hollow of the Mediterranean is called the Ionian Sea. The trade routes of the Greeks and Romans went from Greece to the city of Epidamn (now Durrёs, Albania) through the Ionian Sea and then through the Adriatic Sea to the shores of southern Italy and Sicily. For the Greeks, the designation “Ionian Sea” meant first of all the present Ionian Sea. In antiquity the Ionian Sea was associated with the crossing of Io, and later with the Illyrian Ionius. The Ionian Sea is irrelevant to the Illyrians.

Ionian-Adriatic Pipeline, IAP Ionian-Adriatic Pipeline, IAP – The planned gas pipeline with length of 530 km, in fact, is a branch of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline. It should link the

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Ishe¨m (Lumi, Ishmi River)

The Ionian Sea. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Ionian_Sea)

city of Fier, Albania, and the city of Split, Croatia, through the territories of Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Estimated cost is 610.5 million euros. In 2013, a memorandum was signed between all the participating countries.

Ishe¨m (Lumi, Ishmi River) Ishëm (Lumi, Ishmi River) – river of the Adriatic Sea basin in Albania, originates from the Skanderbeg Mountains, flows into the Adriatic Sea. The river length with its left tributary, the Tiranë, is 74 km. It becomes shallow in summer. Floods occur in autumn and winter. It is unnavigable. The river is quite overloaded with sewage from urban and industrial facilities.

Island of Flowers (Prevlaka Island, Ostrvo Cvijeca, Prevlaka) Island of Flowers (Prevlaka Island, Ostrvo Cvijeca, Prevlaka) – a small island (300 m long) which is situated to the east of the city of Tivat, in the southern part of the Tivat Bay, Montenegro. It is sometimes called the island of Archangel Michael. It is the closest to the mainland in the chain of the islands of St. Mark and Otok. There are the ruins of the Benedictine monastery of the thirteenth century on the island, under which there is the foundation of the church of the Apostle of St. Michael the Archangel (ninth century), who, according to legend, preached here the Zeta Orthodoxy (Zeta Principality – so-called Slavic Montenegro in the Middle Ages). According to legend, many years ago the island was bought by a

Istria Peninsula (Ital. Istria, Serb. Istra)

young widow, Countess Ekaterina Vlastelinović. Later she took the veil and became the founder of the monastery on the Island of Flowers, and after her death she bequeathed to transfer the island to Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, who, in turn, transferred it to the possession of the state. Until 1452, the island was the cathedra of the bishops of the Zeta diocese. In 1452, the Venetians poisoned all the monks and laity, and destroyed the monastery. Sometime later, local residents began to notice that a wonderful fragrance spread on the island and began to call it “The Island of Flowers.” During the existence of Yugoslavia, there was a closed resort for the elite of the People’s Army.

Isonzo (Ital. Isonzo, Sloven. Soča) Isonzo (Ital. Isonzo, Sloven. Soča) – the river of the Adriatic Sea catchment in Slovenia and Italy. The river length is 138 km. The catchment area is 3400 km2. It originates on the western slopes of Mount Triglav (Julian Alps) and flows into the Gulf of Trieste in the Adriatic Sea. In the upper mountainous part it is a fast and turbulent flow. Near the city of Gorizia (Slovensk. Gorica) the river enters the plain. There are severe floods in winter. There is also hydroelectric power station at the settlement. The river is navigable in the lower reaches. Isonzo was the line of fierce fighting between the Italian and Austro-German armies during the First World War (1914–1918). The main military efforts of Italy, which tried to seize the Julian Territory and Istria with Trieste, were directed to region of Isonzo. The first attack by the Italians in May 1915 led to the seizure of the suburban fortification at Plave, after which the war assumed a positional character. During 1915–1916 Italians assaulted Isonzo region eight times, and in 1917 three times, however, in vain or with a small tactical success, while losing approximately 300,000 people. In October 1917, the Austro-Germans launched a major offensive in the area of the village Kaporetto. The Italian front on Isonzo was broken, and the defeated Italian troops retreated to the river Piave, where they remained until October 1918, when the

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Italians resumed active operations, pursuing the retarded demoralized Austrian troops; in November 1918, they went out into the valley of Isonzo and occupied Trieste by the landing force.

Istria Peninsula (Ital. Istria, Serb. Istra) Istria Peninsula (Ital. Istria, Serb. Istra) – (from Lat. Histria) is a triangular peninsula in the northwestern part of Croatia, a northwestern cape of the Balkan Peninsula, wedging into the North Adriatic, located between the Gulf of Trieste and the Kvarner Strait. The name comes from the Illyrian Histri people who inhabited the region before the Roman invasion. The area is 3160 km2. The length of the coast is 445 km. The West Bank of Istria stretches for 242 km, and along with the islands for 327 km. The length of the eastern coast is 203 km, and with the islands it is 212 km. The population is 404,300 people. The administrative capital is Pazin. The shores are dissected by small bays and gulfs. The surface is a plateau, gently rising from south-west to northeast (100–600 m). The highest point is 1396 m (Mount Učka). It is located on the border of the peninsula. Through it passes the eponymous tunnel length of approximately 5 km. The plateau is composed mainly of limestone, it is karsted. The climate is mild, Mediterranean. The average January temperature is +2° . . . + 5 °C, July +21° . . . + 24 °C. Precipitations vary from 700 to 1000 mm per year on the coast to 1500–2000 mm per year in the northeast. There are deposits of lignite and hard coal (Labin, Raša) and bauxite. Vegetation is sparse (sibljak, herbs); cattle breeding is developed; there are cereal fields, orchards, and vineyards. On the coast fishing is developed. Major cities and ports: Trieste (Italy), Pula (Croatia). In 1833, on the south-west of the southern cape of the Istrian Peninsula, Porer Lighthouse was built on the island which bears the same name. The island is a sea cliff 80 m wide, located at a distance of 2.5 km from the coast and the town of Premantura. The lighthouse tower is 35 m high

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and is located in the very center of the lighthouse area. The stone building of the lighthouse has one floor, a terrace in front of the entrance, and consists of two apartments for up to four people each. In the immediate vicinity of the lighthouse there are beautiful bays and islets. Only the part, which was inhabited by the Illyrians, was called Istria. The eastern part of the peninsula, which belonged to the Libourians, was not included into Istria in antiquity. After several battles, also because of the founding of Aquileia in 181 BC, Istria was conquered by Rome. However, already in 129 a new Roman campaign was needed to pacify the recalcitrant Illyrians. Beginning from 42 BC, Istria belonged to Italy. For the subsequent time, a strong romanization of Istria has been marked. The growth of cities, such as Tergest (Trieste at the present) and Pola (Pula at the present), was also marked. The Romans conquered the peninsula in the second century BC. They turned Pula into the most important local city. Slavic tribes occupied the peninsula from the seventh century, and turned Istria into the cradle of “Glagolitic script,” that is, Slavic writing in Croatia and the Balkans, displacing the originally Romanized population on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. In 1040, Istria became part of the Frankish Empire. In the middle of the century, the inner part of Istria belonged to the Patriarch of Aquileia, and the coastal cities existed as independent communities. In the twelfth century Istria became part of the Venetian Republic and remained under its subordination until the eighteenth century. After the fall of the Republic in 1797, the French Army came here (1803–1813). The naval blockade of Istria paralyzed trade relations, and the extraction and sale of salt decreased. Since 1813, Istria was transferred to Austria. In 1918, the Primorska region under the secret London Treaty signed in 1915 was occupied by Italy. When the fascist Mussolini party came to power in 1922, the Slovene language and culture were persecuted, and the population repressed. After the capitulation of fascist Italy on September 8, 1943, German troops entered the territory of Istria. At the end of the Second World War, Zone A (Trieste) was occupied by Allied forces, and in Koper, in Zone B, the

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Yugoslav Liberation Army stood. According to the 1954 London Agreement, most of Istria became part of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia, and zone A was ceded to Italy. In 1991, after Slovenia obtained independence, part of Istria passed to it. Istria is a museum where antiquities are at every turn. There is the smallest city in the world – Hum (placed in the “Guinness Book of Records”).

Italian Navy Italian Navy – independent type of armed forces. They consist of the Fleet, naval aviation, and marines. In peacetime, they are in national subordination and solve the following main tasks: the protection of maritime communications and borders, ensuring a favorable regime in the area of responsibility, making reconnaissance on the activities of ships and vessels of foreign naval forces in cooperation with the allied Fleets. In wartime, it is planned to transfer most of the Italian Navy to the command of the combined NATO Navy in the South European theater of operations. They will be engaged to support the combat operations of naval attack forces to gain dominance in the central region of the Mediterranean (including the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, and the Ionian seas), protect sea lanes, participation in landing operations, search for and destroy enemy submarines on anti-submarine lines, ensure uninterrupted functioning of the logistics system, and the support of the ground forces in coastal areas. The general leadership of the Navy is entrusted to the chief of the general staff of the armed forces, and directly to the chief of the main headquarters of the Navy, who actually performs the functions of the commander. Organizationally, the Navy includes a Fleet, an aviation squadron, the forces of four naval districts and two island naval commanders, the command of military swimmers, and saboteurs “Teseo Tesei.” The Fleet consists of three divisions of surface ships and three brigades (submarines, corvettes, and mine-trawling forces). The Fleet commander (headquarters in Taranto) is part-time commander of the combined NATO

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Istria Peninsula. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istria#/media/File:Istria.png)

Navy in the central region of the Mediterranean. The Adriatic Sea is the part of one of the four naval districts – the Adriatic district (Ancona). The Marine Corps is represented by the San Marco Marine Battalion (four companies) based in Brindisi and part of the 3rd Fleet Division.

Italian Peninsula Italian Peninsula – See “▶ Apennine Peninsula.”

Italy, The Italian Republic (Italia, Repubblica Italiana) Italy, The Italian Republic (Italia, Repubblica Italiana) – is a state in southern Europe, in the center of the Mediterranean. The country is named after the Italiki tribe ethnonym. It borders with France (the length of the border is 488 km) in the north-west, with Switzerland (740 km) and Austria (430 km) in the north and Slovenia

(232 km) in the north-east. It also has internal borders with the Vatican (3.2 km) and San Marino (39 km). It occupies the Apennine Peninsula, Padan Plain, the southern slopes of the Alps, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and a number of small islands. The area of the territory is 301,300 km2. Italy is predominantly mountainous country, where 77% of the territory is occupied by hills. In the north, there are located the southern slopes of the Alps with the highest point of Western Europe, Mont Blanc (4810 m); in the south from the Alps there is Padan Plain; the Apennine Mountains are stretched along the peninsula (the highest point is the mountain Corno Grande, 2914 m). The Apennines are divided into: Ligurian, Toscano-Emilian, Umbro-Marka, Abruzzi, Campanian, Lucani, Calabrian, and Sabini mountains. In the eastern part of the peninsula, there is the Gargano Peninsula, and in the south-east and south-west the Salentin and Calabria peninsulas, respectively. There are active volcanoes – Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli; earthquakes occur quite frequently. Italy is washed by the warm Mediterranean Sea and its component parts: the Ligurian,

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Italy, The Italian Republic (Italia, Repubblica Italiana)

Italy, political map. (Source: https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/italy-political-map.htm)

Italy, The Italian Republic (Italia, Repubblica Italiana)

Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, and the Ionian Seas. From the east, the Apennine Peninsula is washed by the Adriatic Sea with the Gulf of Venice in its northern part. The Strait of Otranto between Apulia and Albania connects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea. Between Apulia and Calabria, the Gulf of Taranto shoots deeply into the land. The very narrow Messina Strait separates Calabria from Sicily, and the Sicilian (or Tunisian) Strait, 135 km wide, divides Sicily from North Africa. To the north of Corsica there is the Ligurian Sea with the Gulf of Genoa. The length of the sea borders exceeds 7450 km. Most of the small islands are divided into archipelagoes, such as the Tuscan Archipelago, which includes the Island of Elba, to which Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled. Only in the north there are large rivers. The largest of them is located in the Alps. The longest river in Italy is Po River which is 682 km long. Other significant rivers are the Adige (410 km), Adda (313 km) in the north of the country, and the Tiber (405 km) in its central part. Italy is rich in lakes, the largest lake is Garda (370 km2), Lago Maggiore (212 km2), Como (146 km2), etc. There is a large variety of minerals in Italy. However, many of these fields are poor, scattered throughout the country, and often occur uncomfortable for development. Thus, in 1982, iron ore mining was completely stopped in the country, including on the Elba Island, where the Etruscans mined it. Lead and zinc ores with an admixture of silver and other metals are more abundant in Italy. These deposits are located on the Sardinia Island and the Eastern Alps. The region of Tuscany is rich in pyrite and mercury ore – cinnabar. Italy takes the second place in terms of cinnabar deposits. Antimony ores are deposited in the limestones of Sardinia. Sulfur deposits, which are known since the times of ancient Rome, are concentrated mainly in the Caltanissetta Region on Sicily Island. Mineral resources of Italy are rich in various building and finish materials (marble, granite, tuff, etc.). However, Italy is poor in the deposits of other types of raw materials. Anthracite, colloidal lignites, and peat and peat-like lignites are found in small amounts. There are small deposits of manganese in Central Italy and

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Liguria. Sicily has reserves of potash and rock salt, asphalt, and bitumen. Energy resources of Italy meet the country’s needs for energy only by 15%. In Sardinia, Tuscany, Umbria, and Calabria there are deposits of brown and low-quality hardcoal. Oil reserves are concentrated on Sicily, Padan Plain, and off the coast of Central Italy in the Adriatic Sea. The natural gas deposits of the Padan Plain and its underwater continuation – the continental shelf of the Adriatic Sea, are very important for the country’s economy. Natural gas is found in the Northern, Central, and Southern Apennines and Sicily. In addition, there are bituminous shale deposits in Sicily, in the region of Abruzzo, as well as in Lazio. Italy is a highly developed industrial-agrarian country. There is a difference between predominantly industrial and highly developed north and agricultural south. Leading industries are engineering, metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical, light and food industries. Italy is one of the largest manufacturers and suppliers to the world market of automobiles, bicycles and mopeds, tractors, washing machines and refrigerators, electronic products, industrial equipment, steel pipes, plastics and chemical fibers, car tires, as well as readymade clothes and leather shoes, pasta, cheese, olive oil, wine, canned fruit, and tomato. There is large-scale production of cement, natural essences and essential oils from flowers and fruits, art glass and earthenware products, jewelry. Extraction of pyrites, ores of mercury, natural gas, potash salt, dolomites, and asbestos is also conducted in Italy. In agriculture, crop production prevails. The main crops are wheat, corn, rice (first place in Europe, more than one million tons per year), and sugar beet. Italy is one of the largest European producers of citrus fruits (over 3.3 million tons per year), tomatoes (over 5.5 million tons), grapes (about ten million tons, over 90% processed into wine), and olives. Floriculture and poultry farming are also developed. Italy is the largest area of international tourism (over 50 million people per year). Tourism in Italy is one of the leading sectors of the economy and accounts for 12% of GDP. The share of Italy

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accounts for 6% of the global tourist market. According to this indicator, the country ranks № 3 in the European Union after France and Spain. The material basis for accommodation of a large number of tourists has long been created in Italy. According to the number of places in hotels, it ranks № 1 in Europe. The Adriatic coast is flat, and the seabed on the Italian Adriatic is covered by the fine white sand. In addition, due to the shallow depth, the water warms up quickly here. The Adriatic coast is a convenient starting point for exploring the main historical sites: near Venice, Parma, Bologna, and other cities. The population of Italy is 60.4 million people (2018). The most populated areas of Italy are the plains of Campania, Lombardy, and Liguria. Italy is characterized by a developed network of railways and highways. More than 90% of passengers and over 80% of goods are transported by cars. External traffic is dominated by sea transport. The merchant Fleet of Italy counts 1500 ships – tenth place in terms of total tonnage in the world. In terms of railways electrification, the country occupies one of the first places in the world. The sea transport plays a very important role both in domestic and in the external transportation of the country. This is due to the position of Italy on the Mediterranean waterway, the large length of the coastline, the presence of islands within the country. About 144 ports are located on the shores of Italy. Oil and other minerals predominate in the port’s cargo turnover. The largest Italian port of Genoa is one of the most important in the whole Mediterranean. The main rival and competitor of Genoa on the Adriatic is Trieste, the second in Italy in terms of cargo turnover and one of the most important oil ports in Europe. Through Trieste, Northeastern Italy communicates with other countries in the Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Significantly increased cargo turnover of the ports of South Italy (Augusta and Taranto), which is explained by the development of the oil refining and petrochemical industries. One of the largest passenger ports of the country is Naples which is the center of connections of the peninsula with Sicily, Sardinia, and other islands. River transport in Italy is poorly developed due to the lack of large rivers. Civil

Italy, The Italian Republic (Italia, Repubblica Italiana)

aviation is quite well developed. Air lines maintain contact with the largest cities of Italy with many cities in Europe, as well as with other continents. Foreign economic relations are vital for the economic development of Italy. Almost 15% of all imports is oil. Italy also imports raw materials for the metallurgical and other industries, machine tools, industrial equipment, timber, paper, and various types of food. The main export items are engineering products, mainly vehicles, various equipment, agricultural and food products, especially fruits, vegetables, canned tomatoes, cheeses, ready-made clothes, shoes, chemicals, and petrochemicals. Trade with France and Germany is particularly active. Pipeline transportation: pipeline length for crude oil is 6503 km, for refined products is 2148 km, for natural gas is 19,400 km. The capital of the state is Rome. The country is divided into 20 regions – Valle d’Aosta, Lombardy, Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-VeneziaGiulia, Piedmont, Liguria, Veneto, Tuscany, Umbria, Emilia-Romagna, Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Lazio, Basilicata, Campa, Calabria, Apulia, Sardinia, and Sicily (five of which – Sicily, Sardinia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Valle d’Aosta, and Friuli-Venezia-Giulia – have a special status), including 14 metropolitan cities and 96 provinces as administrative-territorial units, which, in turn, are divided into communes. Seven areas (Abruzzo, Apulia, Veneto, Marche, Molise, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia, and Emilia-Romagna) overlook the coast of the Adriatic Sea and washed by its waters. In fifth to third centuries BC the territory of Italy was the main part of the Roman State. The specific forms of the Italian medieval state were the city-states with a republican system. In the cities of Northern and Middle Italy in the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, the early capitalist relations were developed. Thus, Venice was governed by the Doges, and in Genoa, Florence, Lucca, and other cities a hereditary aristocratic system was formed (Medici in Florence, etc.). By the end of the Middle Ages, Italy and Germany were the only countries in Western Europe that remained fragmented. In the sixteenth century

Italy, The Italian Republic (Italia, Repubblica Italiana)

Spain dominated in a large part of Italy. After the war for the Spanish legacy in 1701–1714 there was a domination of the Austrian Habsburgs. Since the end of the eighteenth century a movement for national liberation and the elimination of territorial fragmentation (Risorgimento) has begun in Italy. Since the end of the eighteenth century until 1814, Italy was under French occupation. States dependent on Napoleonic France were created on its territory, which were governed by Napoleon’s relatives or henchmen. Congress of Vienna 1814–1815 restored feudal absolutist monarchies in Italy. The struggle for a unified Italy was led by the Carbonari, “Young Italy” and other organizations, and the key figures were Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini. By the end of 1860, the territory of Italy was basically united around the Kingdom of Sardinia (since 1861 the Italian Kingdom), and in 1870 Rome was annexed to the Italian Kingdom. Up to 1861, Italy was fragmented; therefore, numerous Italian states pursued their own foreign policy, focusing on neighboring powerful states. Since 1861, the policy of the united Italy was aimed at the accession of the regions inhabited by Italians, namely, the Papal States, Trentino, Istria, and Dalmatia. Italy also sought to create its own colonial empire. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Italy annexed the Papal States. Then it focused on Germany’s foreign policy, since it wanted to gain a foothold in Tunisia, which France also claimed. However, due to the desire to annex Istria and Trentino, Italy enters into a confrontation with Austria-Hungary at the end of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In 1914, the Declaration on the neutral status of Italy in the outbreak of the First World War was announced. However, Italy is negotiating with the Entente, being in alliance with Germany, bargaining with them. As a result, in 1915 the countries of the Entente promised Italy the desired territories if it agrees to side with the Entente. In April 1915, Italy signed an agreement with the countries of the Entente on participation in the war on their side. In May of the same year Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary and then on Germany. According to the results of the Paris Peace Conference in 1918, Italy obtained Istria,

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Trentino, and a number of islands in the Adriatic Sea. After the First World War, a new rival for Italy appeared. It was the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which in 1929 became Yugoslavia. After the fascists came to power, conflicts with Yugoslavia became relevant until the end of the Second World War. As a result of the war Italy returned Dalmatia and Istria to Yugoslavia, and granted independence to Albania. In August 1917, an antiwar uprising of workers took place in Turin in Italy. In January 1919, the Catholic People’s Party (later the Christian Democratic Party) was founded. In March 1919, the fascist movement arose (the foundation of the first “military alliance”). In August 1919, electoral reform was carried out in the country (the introduction of voting on party lists and a proportional system of representation in the Chamber of Deputies). In 1921 the Communist Party of Italy was formed (CPI, since 1944 – ICP). In November of the same year, the Fascist “military alliances” were transformed into a party. In 1922, after the blackshirts march on Rome and handing their demands to the King, the fascists came to power, establishing a dictatorship led by Benito Mussolini (1922–1943). In 1929, according to the Lateran Treaty, Italy guaranteed the sovereignty of the Vatican. Italy captured Ethiopia (1935–1936) and Albania (1939). Having concluded a military alliance with Nazi Germany and Japan, Italy in 1940 entered the Second World War. In 1940, Italy launched military operations in the Balkans against Greece and Yugoslavia. In 1941, Italy participated in Hitler’s aggression against the USSR; Italy was defeated in East Africa. In 1943, the National Liberation Committee was founded in Rome with the participation of six anti-fascist parties. In September 1943, the Nazi occupation of Northern and Central Italy (“the Republic of Salo”). In June 1944, Rome was liberated; a single partisan party was created. In the same year, full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union are being restored. In December 1944, the Rome Protocols were signed (an agreement between the Anglo-American command and the Resistance forces on cooperation at the final stage of the war and the further fate of the

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partisan formations). In 1945 the fascist regime was overthrown by the actions of the Resistance movement (the highest point was the April Uprising of 1945) and the Anglo-American troops in Italy. In 1946, Italy became a parliamentary republic. In February 1947, in Paris, the Allied Peace Treaty was signed with Italy. According to the treaty, fascist organizations were dismissed in Italy, the occupying forces were withdrawn, the borders were determined, and the deployment of military bases on Italian territory was prohibited. In 1949, the official signing of the North Atlantic Treaty took place in Washington, and Italy was among the signatories. The Constitution of the Italian Republic was adopted in November 1947, and it officially entered into force on January 1, 1948. After the Second World War, the Christian-Democratic Party (CDP) of Italy gained a foothold on a political arena of the country. It formed the governments in 1945–1981 and in 1987–1992. In 1948, elections took place in Italy, which established the political domination of CDP. In March 1949, Italy joined NATO, at the end of 1955 became a member of the UN. In 1960, neo-fascism was activated and the mass anti-fascist movement was raised in 1969 – “Hot Autumn” (the struggle for new conditions of collective labor agreements and the expansion of the rights of workers’ organizations). In 1976–1979, the policy of “national solidarity” took place. In 1978 the abduction and murder by the terrorists of the “Red Brigades” of the CPD Chairman A. Moreau occurred. In 1980, the five-party coalition came to power. In January 1991, the XX Congress of the ICP and the cessation of its existence took place (the forming of the Democratic Party of Left Forces and the Party of the Communist Reconstruction). In 1991–1993 the transition from the proportional electoral system to the majority occurs; Operation Clean Hands and the crisis of traditional government parties occur. A frequent change of government was a specific feature for the post-war history of Italy. By the end of the 1970s, the country gained considerable autonomy from its partners in the NATO bloc and began pursuing its course in the Mediterranean region. Specific manifestations of

Italy-Yugoslavia Treaty (1924)

Italian politics at this time were making of treaties on military and economic cooperation with Malta in 1980, the participation of Italians in international forces in Lebanon in 1982–1984, and operations of removing mines from the Suez Canal in 1984. In 1993 Italy joined the Maastricht Treaty. Starting from the second half of the 1990s, the problem of determining the role of a country in the European Union came to the first place in foreign policy. Italy participated in the Balkan operation of NATO, in the Kosovo operation, and also sent its soldiers to Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2007, the country, together with Greece, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Albania, took part in the nomination of a new subregional project – the Adriatic-Ionian Initiative (AII).

Italy-Yugoslavia Treaty (1924) Italy-Yugoslavia Treaty (1924) – See “▶ Treaty of Rome.”

Ivelic´ Marko (Mark Konstantinovich) “Ivelic´ I” (1740–1825) Ivelić Marko (Mark Konstantinovich) “Ivelić I” (1740–1825) – naval captain, Russian MajorGeneral and senator, representative of the famous Bokesian count family from Risan, Bay of Kotor. In 1770, Ivelić joined the Russian Fleet, commanded part of the Fleet of Count A.G. Orlov, executed a military and diplomatic mission in Montenegro, Serbia and Herceg Novi during the Russian-Turkish and Russian-French wars in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. He died in Perast, Montenegro.

Iž (Iz Island, Iž Otok) Iž (Iz Island, Iž Otok) – a small island in the Zadar Archipelago situated to the west of Ugljan Island, Croatia. The area of the island is 17.6 km2, the

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I The City of Izola, Slovenia. (Photo by Bryan Pocius, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izola#/media/File:Izola_-_panorama. jpg)

coastline is 35 km, and the population is 615 (2011). It is covered with old olive groves and lush Mediterranean vegetation. The population is engaged in agriculture, fishing, and tourism business. There are no cars on the island.

Izola (Ital. “Island”) Izola (Ital. “Island”) – The city is located in the south of the Gulf of Trieste in the Adriatic Sea, Slovenia. It is a resort, and tourism is developed there. The population is 11,600 people (2019). The first mention of Izola refers to 972, when the powerful Venice took Izola under its patronage. It originally existed as a fishing village. The city was founded on the island. A stone bridge connected it to the mainland. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Izola was part of mainland shores. A small strait was covered with material from dismantled fortress walls. In 1253, the city declared independence, putting an end to the eternal disputes over its possession between Venice and Aquileia. However, Izola was again forced to submit to the Venetian doges. Due to the trade in

wine, salt, fish, and olive oil, Izola flourished in the middle of the century. However, two epidemics of plague in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries ravaged the city, and it lost its former significance. The discovery of hot springs in 1820 somewhat revived life of Izola. However, the development of the fish processing industry near the balneological resort limited the development of tourism. There are several monuments of the ancient era and Venetian architecture preserved. First of all, Izola is famous for its wine, which is well known throughout the country. Half of all Slovenian wine is made in the coastal zone (Primorska) and Kras. The main areas of grape cultivation are plantations near Koper, Sežana, and Vipava. Merlot, cabernet, and teran are famous among the red wines, and malvasia is well known among the white wines. There is a very nice picturesque pebble beach, just west of the port. During the ebb-tide you can see in the waves the ruins of a Roman port fortification. There is the largest yacht club in the country located in Izola, which makes it popular among athletes and outdoor enthusiasts. From here the catamaran goes to Venice.

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Jabuka (Jabuka Island, Jabuka otok)

Jadran Sea (Jadransko more)

Jabuka (Jabuka Island, Jabuka otok) – The island is situated west of the entrance to the Korčula Channel, 20 km west-north-west of Svetac Island, Croatia. It is a granite rock with a height of approximately 100 m, conical shape and reddish color, with steep slopes.

Jadran Sea (Jadransko more) – the name of Adriatic Sea in Montenegro and Croatia.

Jadranska magistrala “Jadran” (ship) (Školski brod, “Jadran”) “Jadran” (ship) (Školski brod, “Jadran”) – a three-masted schooner owned by the Navy of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as a training vessel for training Yugoslav sailors. It was built in Hamburg, Germany, in 1931. Home port is Tivat, Montenegro. Today aspirant sailors are training on its board.

Jadranska magistrala – see “▶ Adriatic Highway.”

“Jadrolinija” “Jadrolinija” – Croatia’s leading state-owned passenger shipping company. It carries out the largest number of regular international and local voyages. Regular lines: Rijeka–Trieste, Zadar–Ancona,

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Jaz Beach

Jabuka Island, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabuka_(island)#/media/File:Otok_Jabuka_2008.jpeg)

Split–Trieste, Venice, Pescara, Ancona, Dubrovnik–Bari. The main office is situated in Split. Ships of the company sail along the coast from Rijeka to Dubrovnik with stops in Zadar, Split, Stara Grad (Hvar), and Korčula.

Jaz Beach Jaz Beach – pebble-sandy beach with a length of 1200 m on the Budva Riviera, 2.5 km from the city of Budva, is one of the three largest beaches in

Montenegro. The beach is famous for the fact that here in the beginning of 2007 the legendary band “Rolling Stones” gave concerts (35,000 of spectators), and then the world pop star Madonna. It is also known as “Jazz Beach”.

Jaz Beach

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“Jadran” schooner, Montenegro. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadran_(ship)#/media/File:Jadran_saling_ship. JPEG)

Jaz Beach, Montenegro. (Source: https://waytomonte.com/en/p-1431-beach-jaz-1)

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Kamenari Kamenari – a small village in the Boka-Kotorska Bay in Montenegro, which has long been known to travelers. Here was the border point between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Kamenari had its own Fleet, several hotels, and even a theater. The ancient quarries brought even greater fame to Kamenari, where a rare red-pink stone was mined for several centuries. This stone served as a building material for temples in Kotor, and also for many buildings in Venice and even for some UN buildings in New York. Actually, the city got its name in the honor of the stone quarries – Kamenari. In the narrowest part of the Verige Strait of the Boka-Kotorska Bay (2.2 km) Kamenari is connected with the town of Lepetani by a ferry.

Kamenari-Lepеtane Ferry, KamenariLepеtane Trajekt Kamenari-Lepеtane Ferry, Kamenari-Lepеtane Trajekt – the ferry crossing in Montenegro which connects the two small villages of Kamenari and Lepetane which are situated in the narrowest part of the Verige Strait in BokaKotorska Bay, on the Adriatic highway. Passenger-car ferries built in Izola, Slovenia, run in both directions around the clock, reducing the detour around the bay by 12 km, sailing takes only

5 min. There is a medieval pier for ships on both sides of the strait. Previously, it was the place of the “pre-customs” zone for ships that were waiting for permission to enter Kotor through “verigi” (chains) which were a barrier across the Verige Strait.

Karaburun Peninsula Karaburun Peninsula – (Gadishulli Karaburunit) the largest peninsula in the south-eastern part of Albania, the westernmost point of mainland Albania. It is washed by the waters of the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas (Otranto Strait), which in this place are the part of the Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park. The length of the peninsula is 16 km, its width is 3–4.5 km, and area is 62 km2. The highest point of the peninsula is Mount Koreta (826 m), where a telecommunication antenna is installed. There are no sources of drinking water. Flora is sparse – oaks and pines. The fauna is presented by loggerheads (big-headed turtle) and monk seals – both of these animal species are endangered. It is known that such prominent historical figures as Mark Antony and Manuel II Paleolog visited the peninsula. Since 2008, together with Italy, the peninsula has been implementing a project to build a complex of wind power plants, one of the largest in Europe. Sazani Island lies at about 5 km northwards from Karaburun.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Karavasta

Kamenari-Lepеtane Ferry. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

Karavasta Karavasta – The largest lagoon on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, it is located in the western lowlands of Albania between the mouths of the Shkumbin and Seman Rivers, west of the city of Lushnja. Its area is 43.3 km2, the maximum length is 10.6 km, and its width is 4.3 km, and the maximum depth is 1.5 m. Part of this lagoon is a small lagoon, Godulla. Its area is 8.5 km2 with a length of 5 km, a width of 3.8 km, and a maximum depth of 3.8 m. The lagoon is connected to the Adriatic Sea by three short channels. In this place the exchange of water occurs with an average flux of 15–30 m3/s. The hydrochemical regime of the lagoon is determined by the hydrological and climatic regime of the territory environment and the degree of water exchange with the Adriatic Sea. The maximum salinity in its eastern part exceeds 55‰. The minimum was noted below 20‰ in winter in places

where the weak tides occur. The lagoon is of international importance in terms of biodiversity and it is one of the most important nature reserves in Albania. It is known as the habitat of the population of Dalmatian pelicans (Pelicanus crispus), numbering 60–70 individuals, which is 5% of the total world population of this species.

Kerso Island Kerso Island – island in the Adriatic Sea off the west coast of Croatia (see “▶ Cres Island”).

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes – the official name of the “Southern Slavs” state,

Kolocep Island, Koločep

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Karaburun Peninsula. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Karaburun_Peninsula_ (Albania)#/media/File: June_22_2013_432_HSV_ Albanische_Riviera.jpg)

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which was formed on December 1, 1918, on the Balkan Peninsula after the unification of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs with the Kingdom of Serbia. From 1929 it became known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

Klek Peninsula Klek Peninsula – mountainous peninsula in the Adriatic Sea, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. It is elongated and uninhabited. Thanks to it, the length of the coastline of Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches 25 km.

Kolocep Island, Koločep Kolocep Island, Koločep – one of the islands of the Elaphiti Archipelago, which is situated at north-west from Dubrovnik, Croatia. Its area is 2.6 km2. Population is approximately 150 people. It limits the Kolocep Strait from the southwest. The highest western part is covered by mountains; the highest point is 125 m. The southeastern part of the island is lower and is covered with gentle hills where olive trees grow. On the island there are two small settlements Horne (Gornje)-Chelo, where a small ferry is moored from Dubrovnik,

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and Don (Donje)-Chelo, where a small pier for local traffic vessels is situated. The population is engaged in the cultivation of citrus and pomegranate orchards, viticulture, the production of olive oil, fishing, and tourism.

Kolocep Strait, Kolocep Kanal

slopes of the coastal mountains. The depth at the entrance is 80 m, to the coast smoothly decreases.

Koper (Ital. Capodistria) Kolocep Strait, Kolocep Kanal Kolocep Strait, Kolocep Kanal – a narrow strait with width of 1500 m separates Šipan from the coast of the Adriatic Sea (islands). It also separates Dubrovnik Primorye of the Adriatic Sea from the Elaphiti Archipelago (islands).

Komiža (Komiza) Komiža (Komiza) – (1) a small fishing village on the western shore of the eponymous deep bay under the Mount Hum, on the Island of Vis on the Adriatic Sea., Croatia. It is situated at the top of the bay. The city is the main fishing center of the island. Canned fish is produced here, and the population is also occupied in winemaking. There is a pier built within the area of the village, where small ships moor. Depths along it are 3–5 m. It is known for their fishing boats “falkusha” or “gadget falkusha,” which carried the salt on Palagruža (42 miles) and returned with salted sardine catches. Annually, on the day of St. Nicholas, outdated boats are burned in holy fire to protect all other boats and sailors. The first mention of the city refers to the twelfth century. On the cape separating the two Komiža bays, there is a quadrangular castle (1585). The Benedictine monastery of St. Nicholas and the sixteenth-century fortress, which currently houses the Museum of Fisheries, dominate the bay. It is famous for its wines, olive oil, and a variety of fish and crabs. There is a large arboretum of palm trees in Komiža. Young palm trees, grown in the arboretum, are in great demand in the domestic and foreign markets. (2) The gulf of the Adriatic Sea. It is surrounded by rocky steep banks formed by the

Koper (Ital. Capodistria) – is an old seaside town, the main industrial and port city of Istria Region, Slovenia. It is an important shopping center of the country. The population of the city is 25,600 people (2019). It is located on the southern shore of the Koper Bay, which extends into the southeastern shore of the Gulf of Trieste near the Italian border and the city of Trieste. It was founded on the island, but then merged with the mainland with the help of artificial mounds, becoming a peninsula. In ancient times it was named Aegida, and then Capris. Since fourth century AD after the victory of the Byzantines over the Goths, it has been named Justinapolis, in honor of Emperor Justinian II. In eighth century Slavs settled here, and since the tenth century Venetian Republic has been ruling here. In the thirteenth century it passes into the subordination of the Patriarch of Aquileia and becomes important. It was at this time that masterpieces of architecture – the loggio, the symbol of the city – the Cathedral of St. Nazari – the patron saint of the city, the fortress wall, etc. – were built here. Becoming the capital of Venetian Istria, Koper flourished due to the extraction of salt, which had military significance at that time. Koper is famous for its humanists and artists – Petrus Vergerius, Girolamo Vittorio, and Benedetto Carpaccio. In the seventeenth century the plague struck the city. In nineteenth century after the defeat of Napoleon Koper was forgotten. Having become part of Italy after the First World War, the city was subjected to repression. At the end of the Second World War, the Yugoslav Liberation Army stood in Koper (Zone B), in 1954 the city became part of the SFRY. At this time a massive outflow of the Italian population occurred. At the present, it is the largest and only port in the country, which is competing with neighboring Trieste, taking cargo from around the world. Not far from the port, there is the column of Justinian, as a reminder of the naval

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K Koper City, Slovenia. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capodistria#/media/File:View_of_Koper_from_Zusterna. JPG)

battle of Lepanto in 1571. Venice put out a significant part of its Fleet for this battle. The sightseeing of Koper – Aquapark Žusterna – is the largest water park on the Slovenian Adriatic coast. There are pools with fresh and sea water, a variety of marine attractions. Pools with hydromassage, jacuzzi, Roman-Irish baths are also interesting.

Korčula (Korcula Island, Korčula Otok) Korčula (Korcula Island, Korčula Otok) – (1) (the former Greek colony Korkyra) is one of the largest Dalmatian islands to the west of the Pelješac Peninsula in the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. The area is 276 km2, and the population is 15,500 people. (2011). The topography is hilly, and the greatest height is Klupca Hill (568 m). Its northern coast is low and the southern coast is steep and rugged.

Olives, grapes, and citrus are grown on the island. Fishery is also developed there. According to legend, the island was inhabited in the twelfth century BC. by the Trojan hero Antinor. The first settlers on the island were the Greeks. They gave the island the name “Korchira Melaina,” the Latin version of “Korchira Nigra” – “Black Korčula” – because of the abundance of dense pine and oak forests the island looked dark. It is one of the greenest islands in the Adriatic Sea. Communication with the mainland is maintained by ferry crossings, and in summer by passenger ships. A famous Venetian merchant, Marco Polo traveler is considered to be a native of the island. Interestingly, the oldest of the charters of the Dalmatian cities, the Korčulan charter of 1214 was the first in Europe to ban the slave trade. (2) The city is a small fortified citadel with powerful walls; its fortifications resemble Dubrovnik. It is situated on the northeastern coast of the island on an oval hill near the shore of the narrow Strait of Pelješac, which

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Korčula Strait (Korcula Strait, Korchulan Kanal)

The city of Korčula, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kor%C4%8Dula#/media/File:Korcula_City.jpg)

separates Korčula and the Pelješac Peninsula. It is one of the first Adriatic cities conquered by the Venetians in the tenth century, and under their rule it remained until the eighteenth century (with small breaks). This left a significant imprint on the architecture and culture of the city. In 1298, the sea battle of Korčula took place. Then the Genoese under the command of Admiral Lamb Dorie defeated the numerically superior Venetian Fleet and captured Marco Polo. In 1529 the city suffered a plague epidemic, and in 1571 it was to repel the assault of the Turkish Fleet. Residents of Korčula are good lapidaries. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the tourism began to be developed, and shipyards were built to the east of the city. This required the creation of infrastructure, the arrangement of moorings for yachts and boats, a transit ferry terminal (the main ferry Rijeka-Dubrovnik and local ferries).

Korčula Strait (Korcula Strait, Korchulan Kanal) Korčula Strait (Korcula Strait, Коrchulan Kanal) – It is situated between the large islands of Korčula and Hvar and leads to the entrance to the Gulf of Neretva, Croatia. Its length is approximately 70 km. In front of the western entrance to the Island of Vis is situated. There are several islands in the strait itself. Pakleni Islands are located on the north side of the strait. The largest of them is mountainous Šćedro Island. There is a constant current directed to the west in the strait.

Kornat Island (Kornat, Otok) Kornat Island (Kornat, Otok) – a large island of Zadar Archipelago, Croatia. It stretches from

Kotor

southwest to northwest for 35 km. The island is mountainous. The highest Veli Vrh Mountain has a height of 236 m. It is situated in the northwestern part of the island. Shore is indented. Vegetation is sparse. At a distance of 900 m to 4 km from the south-west coast and nearly 20 km southeast stretches the area that is spangled with islands, cliffs, and banks. Between these islands and the southwestern coast of Kornat Island lies the Kornati Strait. The largest settlement (50 houses) on the island is Vruje. Tourism is developed there.

Kornat Strait, Kornat Kanal Kornat Strait, Kornat Kanal – It is situated between the southwest coast Kornat Island and a group of islands and reefs, located at 4.5 km from the same coast in Croatia. For through navigation, the strait can be used in case of a fair knowledge of the area.

Kornati Archipelago, Kornati Arhipelag Kornati Archipelago, Kornati Arhipelag – a natural sightseeing of Northern Dalmatia. It includes about 147 islands and reefs – bare, desolated, and uninhabited. These isles are included in the Zadar archipelago. They are related to Croatia. Their area is about 220 km2. A group of 125 islands with an area of 234 km2 in 1980 was declared a National Park. A vivid example of the degradation of the natural environment: forests were burned to breed sheep in pastures, which, in turn, were trampled and destroyed by these sheeps. As a result, there were no sheeps left. The largest island is Kornat Island where there two small villages are situated. The islands have many hidden underground streams and caves, as well as covered with corals and sponges of underwater rocks. The most famous of them is the underwater rock Rasip, which descends to a depth of 3 to 65 m and thus creates excellent conditions for diving.

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According to legend, Kornati Archipelago – a labyrinth of sea canals and islands – was formed from a handful of rocks that remained after creation of the World by God. The Lord threw them into the sea glimpsed on them and decided that nothing needs to be fixed. Kornati Archipelago is the country’s most famous marine reserve, the most dense cluster of islands in the entire Mediterranean. “The gods wanted to glorify what they had created, and on the last day they created Kornati from tears, stars and the breath of the sea,” said Bernard Shaw, when describing the archipelago that fascinated him. It is like the necklace of islands thrown into the sea. It is the largest Mediterranean archipelago, a real maze above and below water, with steep white cliffs, inland lakes and lagoons with unusual outlines, rich in flora and fauna both on land and on the sea.

Kotor Kotor – (ancient Roman, Acruvium; Italian, Cattaro) is a city-monument on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, standing on the alluvial deposits of the river Skurda, on the eastern shore of the Bay of Kotor at the top of Boka-Kotorska Bay, Montenegro. The city is surrounded by the mountain Lovćen and the spurs of other mountains, and also a huge, well-preserved fortress wall. It is the capital of the Montenegrin coast. Population 22,600 people (2011). Port attending the cities of Cetinje and Podgorica. It is assumed that the name comes from the old Greek “dekatera” (spring, source, homeland). Kotor is one of the oldest and most mysterious cities on the border of East and West. The founding of the city dates from the middle of the third century BC, when the city was ruled by King Agron and Queen Tevta. One of the many legends about the origin of the city says: the Greek nymph Alkina (“Strong”), who lived in a cave, advised people to found a city on the seashore, but not on a mountain, because “There is neither a pier for the ships nor a horse to drink.” In 535, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian built a fortress here. In 840, Kotor was pillaged by Arab pirates. The

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Kotor

Kornati Archipelago, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kornati#/media/File:Kornati.jpg)

The city of Kotor, Montenegro. (Photo by Chensiyuan, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotor#/media/File:1_ kotor_montenegro_panorama_2016.jpg)

first information about Kotor, as a Slavic settlement, dates back to the ninth century. The city reached its peak in the twelfth century during the reign of the Nemanjić dynasty. As a large market center, the city has achieved special privileges. In a period from 1186 to 1371, Kotor was part of the medieval Raška State (Grand Principality of Serbia) and was an important port. In the period from

1371 to 1384, Kotor was ruled by the Hungarian King Lajos (also known as Louis III). In the period from 1384 to 1391, the city was ruled by the Bosnian king Tvertko I Kotromanić. In the period from 1391 to 1420, Kotor was an independent City-Republic. In the period from 1420 to 1797 Kotor was ruled by the Republic of Venice, while

Krk Island, Krk Otok

maintaining its status and privileges. Rivalry in the field of trade led to frequent conflicts between Kotor and Dubrovnik. In 1539, 1569, and 1657 the Turks unsuccessfully besieged Kotor. After the fall of the Republic of Venice (1797), Kotor was given to Austria. In 1806–1807 in Kotor a Russian squadron under the command of Admiral D.N. Senyavin was quartered. The inhabitants of Kotor and the adjacent areas of Montenegro provided the Russians with all kinds of help and support. Kotor (Cattaro) is one of the main ports of Austria-Hungary. In 1860, Danilo Šćepčević, who inherited the throne in 1851 after the death of Prince-Bishop (vladika) Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, was killed in Kotor. In 1918, an uprising of sailors occurred in Kotor. Since 1918, Kotor has been a part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1941 the city was occupied by the fascist troops of Italy and Germany. After liberation in 1944 it became a part of Yugoslavia. In the period of Yugoslavia, Kotor was a military base, including the naval base of the USSR Navy. Kotor survived the five most severe earthquakes – in 1537, 1563, 1667, 1729, and 1979. The city is divided into two parts – a new one, which is located mainly at the sea, and the old one – a small cozy town. This is a mix of ancient buildings, narrow streets, and small squares, a city of merchants and famous navigators. It is surrounded by a wall in the form of a triangle, which stretches to the top of the mountain, 4.5 km long. The height of the walls in some places reaches 20 m, and the thickness ranges from 2 to 16 m. The city has many architectural masterpieces, including the Catholic Cathedral of St. Tryphon, the patron saint of the city, a monument of Romanesque architecture and one of the city’s symbols, built in 1166. The Cathedral is the residence of the Catholic bishop of Kotor. Drago Palace is the largest in Kotor. It was built in the twelfth century. Not far from it, on the Square of the Navigators, there is the Grgurina Palace, built by an outstanding representative of this honorable kind of navigators and merchants named Marco, now it houses the Maritime Museum. Church of St. Luke (1195), Church of Our Lady of Remedy (fifteenth century), Church of St. Anne (twelfth century), Church of St. Mary (thirteenth century),

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Prince’s Palace (seventeenth century), and Napoleon’s Theater (nineteenth century) are located there. The symbol of the city is the Karampan iron well (seventeenth century). The entrance to the city is protected by the three gates, the main entrance is the Sea Gate of the fourteenth century, over which it is written “we don’t need what doesn’t belong to us, but we are not going to give up our own.” Since 1979, Kotor is included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In the same year, as a result of the earthquake, the city lost many monuments. Kotor was an important political and cultural center of the South Adriatic. There are preserved buildings, where in 1804–1806 the Russian Consulate was located. In 2004, a memorial plaque was installed there in honor of the 200th anniversary of its opening. The main sightseeing of Kotor is the fortress of St. John, built by the Illyrians in the ninth century at an altitude of 260 m. A staircase of approximately 1500 steps leads to the fortress. Modern Kotor lives on tourism. There are many cafes, taverns, restaurants, and nightclubs. Traditionally, there are always a lot of cats, including completely black ones; cats bring good luck, especially black ones. One of the most interesting road in Europe leads from Kotor to the old capital of Montenegro, Cetinia. The road is carved into the rocks. On the rise to 1000 m it has 42 turns, causing both fear and admiration. Kotor is a forge of marine personnel. Since 1959, the Higher Maritime School has been working here, and in 1980 it became the Faculty of Maritime Studies at the University of Montenegro. Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management and Institute of Marine Biology at the University of Montenegro are also located here.

Krk Island, Krk Otok Krk Island, Krk Otok – (1) the second largest (after the island of Cres) and the most developed island in the Adriatic Sea, off the northwestern coast of Croatia. It is included in the Dalmatian islands. The area of the island is 406 km2. Population is 19,400 people (2011). It is composed of

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Krka River

The Island and the City of Krk, Croatia. (Source: https://www.total-croatia-news.com/travel/25647-5-things-to-knowabout-krk-island)

limestones, marls, the highest altitude is 570 m. Forests are cut down to a height of 370 m, evergreen shrub vegetation prevails. Pine and oak forests are preserved in the mountains. Cereal, grapes, olives, and citrus fruits are cultivated. In the mountains, the cattle breeding is developed; on the coast – fishing prevails. The main city is Krk. There are also well-equipped resorts – Omišalj, Malinska, Punat. In the south of the island there is a sandy beach and the fishing village of Baška. Since 1980, the island has been connected by a large bridge to the mainland. In Omišalj, the pipeline from Pančevo (Serbia) goes. There is a large oil terminal, which might be activated if the Constantza (Romania)–Pančevo– Omišalj pipeline project is implemented. (2) The city, the administrative center of the island bearing the same name and the rapidly developing resort. It is the former settlement of Curicum, Croatia. The population of the city is more than 6200 people (2011). It is assumed that Caesar’s military camp was located here and that

near these shores in 49 BC a historic battle took place in which Pompey defeated Caesar. Then Krk was under the rule of the Venetians, who in 1118 transferred the management of the island to the dukes of Krk, known as Frankopan. Krk remained Venetian until 1480, after which it shared the historical fate of other cities in the Adriatic. The city emerged around the old town, enclosed by a fortress wall, which is preserved in some places. A significant part of the population works in Rijeka and other places, remaining in the city and on the island. Krk for a long time was the center of Croatian writing, the cradle of the Croatian language, so here is one of the first written monuments – the famous Baška tablet.

Krka River Krka River – a river of the Adriatic Sea basin, which flows into the north-western part of the

Kvarner Region

Šibenik Bay, Croatia. Its origins are among the mountains, located at a considerable distance from the sea. In the upper reaches of the river, it forms numerous waterfalls. Seven beautiful waterfalls with a total elevation of 242 m are distributed all over the river. In the lower reaches, the river flows through Lake Prokljan and flows into the bay as a rather wide and deepwater channel. In the middle of the lake Visovac Island is situated with the fifteenth-century Franciscan monastery on it. Large vessels can enter the lake through the river to the village of Skradin, where the Skradinski buk waterfall is located, falling from a height of 45 m. The banks of the river between its mouth and the Lake Prokljan are very steep and impregnable in many places. The height of the cliffs reaches 120 m. The banks of the river and its catchment area are part of the Krka National Park (100 km2), which is the most visited natural park of Central Dalmatia. At the mouth of the river is the city of Šibenik.

Kumbor Kumbor – a small village and a harbor located on the northern shore of the Kumbor Strait, Montenegro, in front of the Luštica Peninsula. It was founded and named by the Venetians in 1758, translated from Italian “comborgo” means “suburb.” It housed the naval base of Yugoslavia. A small torpedo-technical complex for testing torpedoes was built around the coast of the village at the time of Austria-Hungary. In the twelfth century there was a Turkish fortress Vrban, defending Herceg Novi. It was destroyed afterwards.

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lowest width of the strait is 830 m – between Cape Đenovići and the southern coast. The northern coast of the strait in the coastal strip is low. Southern coast of the strait, formed by the steep slopes of the mountains, is rocky. On the northern shore of the strait there are the settlements of Kumbor, Sveta Nedelja, and Đenovići, and on the south there are villages of Špilitsa and Pristan. Depths in the strait are 22–48 m.

Kvarner Bay, Kvarnerski Zaljev Kvarner Bay, Kvarnerski Zaljev – It goes into the northeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It is the largest bay of the Adriatic Sea (Istria is on the north side of it, and Dalmatia is on the southern side). Two rows of islands, stretching from the south-south-east to north-north-west, divide this bay into three straits, which lead to its top, known as the Gulf of Rijeka. The westernmost and widest straits are the Kvarner Strait, the middle one is the Kvarneric Strait, and the easternmost and narrowest is the Velebit Strait. The first two straits are available for navigation of any vessels. In the southeast Kvarneric Bay connects with Zadar and Middle Straits. The bay is surrounded by mountains reaching a height of 1653 m. Along the shores of the Kvarneric Bay and the islands located within it there are harbors, and on the banks there are numerous villages. The most famous natural phenomenon of the bay is the Bora, the cold, dry northeast wind of great strength. Sometimes it overturns boats and cars. The coast of the bay is called the Croatian Primorye.

Kvarner Region Kumbor Gorge, Kumbor Strait (Kumborski Tjesnac) Kumbor Gorge, Kumbor Strait (Kumborski Tjesnac) – separates the Herzeg Novi Bay from Tivat Bay in the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. The

Kvarner Region – narrow strip of the coast, passing into the Istria Peninsula in the north of Croatia. Islands in the Gulf of Rijeka and islands on the southern coast, the so-called Kvarner Islands (Cres, Krk, Rab, Lošinj), are also related to this region.

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Kvarner Strait, Kvarner Moreuz

Kvarner Strait, Kvarner Moreuz

Kvarneric Strait, Kvarneričj Moreuz

Kvarner Strait, Kvarner Moreuz – the westernmost of the straits in the north of the Adriatic Sea, leading along the Kvarner Bay to its top, the Gulf of Rijeka, between the southeastern coast of the Istrian Peninsula and the western shores of the islands of Lošinj and Cres, Croatia. It connects the Gulf of Rijeka (Fiume) with the open part of the Adriatic Sea. The length is about 68 km, the width is 5–28 km, and the depth is up to 40–60 m. The least narrow northern part of the strait is known as the Vela Vrata Strait. Bora winds are specific for the Strait, reaching a large wind force in December– January and March, causing considerable heave of the sea. Fishery is developed in the region.

Kvarneric Strait, Kvarneričj Moreuz – The middle of the Adriatic Sea straits leading through the Kvarner Bay connects the Middle Strait with the top of the Kvarner Bay – the Gulf of Rijeka. From the south-west Kvarneric Strait is bounded by the islands of Molat, East, Škarda, Premuda, Ilovik, Lošinj, and Cres, and from the northeast by the islands of Var, Pag, Rab, and Krk. The length of the strait is 110 km. In the southeastern part of the strait lies a group of islands, the largest of which are the islands of Silba, Olib, and Maun. Depths in the strait on average are 70–90 m.

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Laboratory of Marine Biology (Laboratorio di Biologia Marina) Laboratory of Marine Biology (Laboratorio di Biologia Marina) – a research laboratory. It was created in 1962 in Bari, Italy. The main areas of research are the development of fisheries and aquaculture and the protection of the marine environment from pollution and degradation. The laboratory made a great work in the assessment of the fish stocks for the entire South Adriatic fishery.

Laboratory of Marine Biology and Fishery (Laboratorio di Biologia Marina e Pesca) Laboratory of Marine Biology and Fishery (Laboratorio di Biologia Marina e Pesca) – It was created in 1939 in the city of Fano on the Adriatic Sea, Italy, to coordinate and cooperate in a number of national and international research programs on the fishing and fish biology, marine organisms, and ecosystems of the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Seas. It has experimental and technological equipment for the study of marine fisheries and fish biology, marine ecology, marine zoology, and genetics. It has a research vessel “Andrea” and a marine aquarium. The laboratory is an active partner of a number of regional, national, and international research organizations.

Lagoon (Lat. Lacus – A Lake) Lagoon (Lat. Lacus – A Lake) – a shallow water reservoir separated from the sea by a narrow strip of sand reclaimed (interspersed) or coral reefs. Due to their security, lagoons are often unique natural biotopes. They serve as a habitat for water birds, fish, and animals. Environmentally important lagoons are under the protection of international organizations. If a large river flows into lagoon, the water in it will be almost fresh, and its water level may exceed sea level. As for the Adriatic Sea, lagoons are found in Italy and Albania. In Italy, on the Adriatic coast, lagoons are located in two districts. In the northern Adriatic, the area of lagoons is of 120,000 ha with large micro-tidal lagoons (tides over 5 m). These are Venetian, Caorle, Grado and Milano. The most important lagoons in the southern Italy are Lesna and Varano. In Albania, there are nine large lagoons with an area of 252.4 km2 which are situated in the southeast of the state border with Montenegro. These are Viluni (9.9 km2), Merkskhan (2.5 km2), Ceka (7.4 km2), Patok (4.8 km2), Lezhë, Knalla, Karavasta (42 km2), Narta (41.8 km2), and Orikum (1.5 km2).

Lagoon of Narta (Laguna e Narte¨s) Lagoon of Narta (Laguna e Nartës) – The lagoon is situated 14 km north of the City of Vlorë on the

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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coast of the Adriatic Sea, south of the Vjosa River, Vlorë District, Albania. It is a shallow wetland area surrounded by hills on the southern and western shores. In the north, there are saline and agricultural lands. The average depth is 1.3 m. The area is 41.8 km2. The lagoon is connected with the Adriatic Sea by the two artificial channels: the southern length of 200 m and a width of 6–48 m, the northern length of 800 m and a width of 11–60 m. The water temperature is 5–25 °C, salinity – 28‰ and – 75‰ in winter and summer, respectively. In summer, the lagoon area is reduced by 30%. Half of its territory is used for salt extraction. In the southern part of the lagoon there are two islands of about 7 ha. The larger one is Zvernetsi with the same village. The island is completely covered with Mediterranean cypress 10–15 m tall. Wooden pedestrian bridge leads to the tenth-century monastery of Santa Maria.

Lake Šas (Šasko Lake, Šasko Jezero) Lake Šas (Šasko Lake, Šasko Jezero) – a natural water body, located near Ulcinj, between Mount Rumija and the Bojana River, Montenegro. Locals call it Skadar Lake in miniature (Little Lake Scutari). The area of the lake is more than 360 ha, the length reaches 6 km. More than 240 species of birds live here – storks, herons, wild geese, cormorants, and woodcocks. The latter are very popular as an object of hunting. On the shore of the lake, there is the abandoned medieval City of Svac, which since the eighth century has been the episcopal center of the Zeta. Nemanjićs called it one of their first conquests on the Adriatic coast (1216).

Lalzi Bay Lalzi Bay – a bay in the Adriatic Sea, which is situated between the capes of Rodoni in the north and Palla in the south of the central part of Albania. The area is approximately 250 km2. Its coastline is 18 km. Erzen River flows into the bay.

Lake Šas (Šasko Lake, Šasko Jezero)

Lalzit Bay, Gjiri i Lalzit Lalzit Bay, Gjiri i Lalzit – the bay of the Adriatic Sea, which is situated in the center of Albania, not far from its capital, Tirana. It has sandy beaches of white sand. There are pine groves.

Lambros Katsonis (1752–1805) Lambros Katsonis (1752–1805) – In Russia, he is known as Lambro Dmitrievich Kachioni, the national hero of Greece, a fighter for liberation from Turkish domination, commander of the volunteer Greek flotilla (since 1788) in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791, and the Greek corsair who served Russia. For feats accomplished during the Russian–Turkish war, he received the rank of Major, and his fez was decorated with an embroidered silver hand with the inscription: “Under Catherine’s hand.” At the beginning of the war he commanded the Russian caper ship “Prince Grigory PotemkinTavrichesky” on the Black Sea, then, thanks to the support of G.А. Potemkin, sent by the tsarist government to organize privateer operations against the Turks in the Mediterranean. In 1788, he received from G.A. Potemkin long leave and three patents for privateers operating under the Russian flag. By the summer of 1788, his Fleet contained of nine ships with crews of Greeks and Albanians. Kachioni reached Trieste, the only Austrian port on the Adriatic Sea. Here he bought a three-masted ship with a sailing frigate rig, arms it with 28 cannons, and calls it “Minerva Severa” (the name in honor of Catherine II the Great, as the French philosophers called her). The Austrian Emperor Joseph II, being in Trieste, visited the ship of Kachioni, recognizing him as the best. Kachioni began his actions in the Archipelago, where he captured two Turkish vessels and converted them into corsair ships. In 1789 he won a series of victories in sea battles in the Aegean Sea. Catherine II awarded Kachioni and granted him the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel.

Lastovo Island, Lastovo Otok

The Turkish Sultan Abdul-Hamid I tried to lure Kachioni to his side and promised him forgiveness for the spilled “Ottoman blood,” any island in the Aegean Sea into hereditary possession, and 200,000 gold coins. Kachioni refused and made new strikes on the Turkish Fleet. The general battle took place in April 1790: 30 large Turkish ships were operating against 7 ships of Kachioni. He lost 5 ships and 600 sailors and was wounded in the head. The Turks lost a significant part of their ships and more than 3000 sailors. Catherine II awarded Kachioni the Order of St. George the fourth degree and made him a Colonel. Squadron of Kachioni was restored and by the summer of 1791 it numbered 24 ships. After the Treaty of Jassy in 1791, in which Greece was not even mentioned, Kachioni refused to disarm the ships and continued the struggle for the liberation of the motherland on his own. Since the ships of Kachioni attacked not only Turkish but also French ships, a joint action of the Fleets of Turkey and France followed, and the squadron of Kachioni was defeated. Crews of Kachioni’s ships reached the Venetian possessions, where many of them were arrested. Kachioni returned to Russia, was “forgiven” and served as commander of the Balaklava Greek battalion. In 1796, Russian Emperor Pavel I signed a decree according to which Kachioni was ordered to go to the Black Sea rowing fleet in command of Rear Admiral P.V. Pustoshkin in Odessa. However, Kachioni went to the Crimea, bought the area of PanasChir (Greek “Sacred Meadow”) near Yalta and began to build his manor, which he renamed as Livadia. It is there that the World War II Yalta Conference took place on 4–11 February 1945. He became a major industrialist, builds a plant for the production of grape vodka. He was allegedly poisoned by a Turkish agent. George Gordon Byron took Kachioni as the prototype for his poem “Corsair.” In Greece, their hero is highly honored; two submarines were named after him (in 1927 and in the 1980s). The life of this remarkable man was reflected in the story by Russian writer V. Pikul “The First Listeragon of Balaklava”.

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Lambros Kachioni. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Lambros_Katsonis#/media/File:Lambros_Katsonis.JPG)

Langomar Langomar – (ital. langomare – “around the sea, near the sea”) walking path or promenade along the seashore. An example of langomar is the Opatija langomar, a promenade with a total length of 12 km in the City of Opatija, Croatia.

Lastovo Archipelago Lastovo Archipelago – The archipelago is located to the south of Korčula Island, Croatia. It consists of more than 40 islands, islets, and sea cliffs.

Lastovo Island, Lastovo Otok Lastovo Island, Lastovo Otok – The island is part of an archipelago of 45 uninhabited islands and

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cliffs in Southern Dalmatia, in the extreme southwest of Croatia. It is situated at 31 km to the west of the western tip of Mljet Island, to the south of Korčula Island, the most distant from the Adriatic Sea coast. Its length is approximately 10 km, and width is 5.8 km. The area is approximately 50 km2. The coast of the island is predominantly steep, rocky, and cliffed. The topography is hilly, the highest altitude is 420 m. In the middle part of the southern side of the island on Cape Struga, in front of the entrance to Skrivena Luka Bay, in 1839, on the edge of a steep cliff at a height of 70 m above sea level, a lighthouse was built. There are many legends associated with the lighthouse. The most incredible, but still true, is the story of a giant lobster. At the end of the nineteenth century, a lobster weighing 18 kg was caught near the lighthouse. The fisherman who caught him sent lobster to the Emperor Franz Joseph, who thanked the fisherman, sending him a large bag of coffee and sugar. Sailors and fishermen are aware that in the waters between the islands of Lastovo and Mljet there is a sea road, the “path” of lobsters. The lighthouse keepers were three generations of the Kvinta family. They worked during the period of the AustroHungarian Monarchy, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Croatia. Today the lighthouse works in automatic mode. In the period from 1976 to 1989, the island was closed to foreigners for military-strategic reasons. It housed the base of the Yugoslav Army. The island is sparsely populated; there are 800 people (2011). There is one large settlement – the city of Lastovo and the main port, Ubli. There is preserved French fort, towering above the city, which was built in 1810 on place of older fortifications. Now there is a weather station. Since the seventeenth century, Lastovo houses are distinguished by tall cylindrical chimneys called fumari, which look like miniature minarets. Lastovo is connected with Prežba Island by the only bridge in the Archipelago. The islands form two beautiful serpentine bays of Velo Lago and Malo Lago. It is connected with mainland by ferry. In 1947 it was transferred to Yugoslavia under a peace treaty with Italy. Grapes and citrus are grown there. Fishing is also developed. In 2006, Lastovo was declared a National Park.

Lastovo Strait, Lastovo Moreuz

Lastovo Strait, Lastovo Moreuz Lastovo Strait, Lastovo Moreuz – lies between the south coast of Korčula Island, Croatia, which limits it from the north, and a group of islands, stretching along its south side for 55 km from east to west. The strait is like a continuation of the Mljet Strait. Strait is deep.

Lesina Lagoon (Lago di Lesina) Lesina Lagoon (Lago di Lesina) – stretches for 22 km in the north of the Gargano Peninsula along the coast of the Adriatic Sea in Apulia Region, Italy. It is separated from the Adriatic Sea by a narrow sand spit covered with dunes and sparse shrubs. The lagoon area is 51.4 km2, the average depth is 0.8 m, and the water volume is 4.12 km3. The lagoon is connected to the sea by two channels, called “Schiapparo” in the eastern part and “Acquarotta” in the western part. The western part of the lagoon is less salty due to fresh water entering here due to municipal and agricultural discharges. Since 1997, the channel “Schiapparo” was partially blocked by wooden barriers, and “Acquarotta” was completely closed by a sand barrier. These barriers prevented the exchange of water masses in the lagoon, but were dismantled in April 2000. Protective nets (10 mm) were installed to preserve the fish in the lagoon. Numerous small fish accumulated around these nets, indicating a significant migration from the sea. The economic importance of the lagoon is mainly related to fishing and the extensive development of aquaculture, although it also has international significance as a breeding ground for many migratory bird species.

Letica Sveto (1926–2001) Letica Sveto (1926–2001) – Yugoslav and Croatian military commander, Admiral of the Yugoslavia and Croatia Navy. He is the first Admiral of the

Lezhe¨ (Qarku i Lezhe¨s)

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L Lastovo Island. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lastovo#/media/File:LastovoTown.jpg)

Republic of Croatia Navy after the forming of its independence. In 1942 he joined the newly formed Yugoslav Partisans Navy, which participated in the hostilities in the Adriatic. He graduated from the Naval Academy of the SFRY; for 20 years he served on various ships of the SFRY Naval forces. He was both the commander of the Fleet and the commander of the naval operational zone. Before his retirement he served in Generalštab (General Staff) of Yugoslav People’s Army, rising to the rank of Vice Admiral. In 1991, due to the efforts of Letica, the Navy of Croatia was formed. In 1991, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Croatian Navy. The first battles in the rank of Admiral Letica were fought in November 1991. The battles were for the Dalmatian Straits: coastal battery, which he commanded, defeated the Yugoslav Fleet and allowed to remove the blockade from the coast of Croatia. During this Letica was confirmed rank of Admiral. In 1996, Letica retired in the rank of Admiral of the Fleet.

Sveto Letica. (Source: http://dogodilose.com/2015/04/04/ roden-admiral-sveto-letica-4-travnja/)

Lezhe¨ (Qarku i Lezhe¨s) Lezhë (Qarku i Lezhës) – a region in the northeast of Albania. It borders on the regions of Shkodër in the north, Kukës in the northeast, Dibër in the

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Liburnia, Liburnia Riviera

Lido di Venezia, Venice, Italy. (Photo by Luca Aless, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lido_di_Venezia#/media/File: Lido_di_Venezia_01.jpg)

southeast, and Durrës in the south. From the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. The administrative center is Lezhë. The area is 1600 km2. The population is 134,000 people (2011).

Liburnia, Liburnia Riviera Liburnia, Liburnia Riviera – see “▶ Opatija Riviera.”

Lido, Lido di Venezia Lido, Lido di Venezia – a marine International Climate Resort, a suburb of Venice, Italy. It is situated on a narrow (from 300 to 1000 m wide) sand spit of 11 km long separating the Venetian Lagoon from the Adriatic Sea. The temperature of sea water (May–October) is 20–23 °С. The Venice Film Festival takes place every year in September here. The island is divided into three parts. The population of the village on the island is 15,100

people (2019). At the southern tip, there is the Fort San Nicolo and a golf club. At least half of the island from the side of the Adriatic Sea consists of sandy beaches, most of which belong to different hotels. These include the famous “Grand Hotel des Bains,” the Casino, and the “Grand Hotel Excelsior,” described by Thomas Mann in his novel Death in Venice. These beaches are private, but on the north and south sides of the island there are two large public beaches. The beaches and harbors of Lido Islands take part in the Blue Flag certification program, meeting stringent requirements regarding quality standards, including environmental protection, clean water, safety, and tourism services.

Lighthouse Tourism Lighthouse Tourism – a new type of exclusive tourism on the Adriatic Sea in Croatia. On the Adriatic Archipelago of Croatia, consisting of

Lim Bay (Fjord) (Limska Draga Fjord)

more than 1200 islands and sea cliffs, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, during the period of Austria-Hungary, 48 lighthouses and small houses were built in which lighthouse keepers and their families lived. With the introduction of automatic adjustment of the light of beacons in the 1990s, duty posts were removed from them. Many of the lighthouses began to collapse. Currently, some lighthouses are renovated and reconstructed, and 11 of them are residential premises adapted for tourists. Among such lighthouses are the lighthouses of St. Peter (Makarska), the lighthouse Porer (southwest of the southern cape of the Istrian Peninsula), and the lighthouse of St. Ivan (in the open sea near Rovinj). The entrance to the lighthouse is decorated with two shells from the Austrian battleship “SMS Viribus Unitis.” The lighthouse is made up of stone slabs from Karst and History and is surmounted by a dome with a light chamber operating at a distance of 30 nm. At the top of the dome is the seventh copper statue of the Winged Victoria by Giovanni Meier. The lighthouse is an interesting landmark in Trieste. It offers a panoramic view with a breathtaking view of the Gulf of Trieste. It is especially interesting to watch from here for the famous historical regatta Barcolana.

“Lights of the Ionian and Adriatic Seas and Sicily Island” “Lights of the Ionian and Adriatic Seas and Sicily Island” – a maritime handbook, published in 2008 by the GUNiO of the Russian Ministry of Defense. It contains information about visual and sound-signal navigation equipment on the eastern and western shores and coastal waters of the Ionian Sea from Cape Tenaron to Cape Kefali and from Cape Santa Maria di Leuca to Cape Paci (Messina Strait), on the Ionian Islands, Sicily, Lipari Islands, and the island of Ustica, as well as on the shores and coastal waters of the Adriatic Sea. To the northwest of the line connecting Cape Mullet and Cape Santa Maria di Leuca. The description includes information about lighthouses, floating lighthouses, air lighthouses,

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illuminated signs, lights, floating lights, superbuoys-beacons (except the lights on a swinging base), and sound signal devices. Information about the luminous and non-luminous buoys, and landmarks, as well as about the lights on the drilling and oil rigs, mooring berths, and platforms are not included in the description.

Lignano Sabbiadoro Lignano Sabbiadoro – The city is situated on a small peninsula between Trieste and Venice (it is 50 km away), between a broad delta of Tagliamento River, warm waters of the Adriatic Sea, and in the south by large drying Marano Lagoon, Friuli Venezia Giulia Region, Italy. The population of the city is 6800 people (2019). The first inhabitants came here in 1931 after nearby swamps were drained. There is a small harbor, a harbor complex for small vessels, designed for more than 5000 places, which is the largest in Italy and one of the largest in Europe. It is one of the main resorts in Northern Italy and the Adriatic coast. It was founded in the 1930s. The city has an 8 km area equipped with sandy beaches. In 1972 a sea terrace was built (Terrazza a Mare), where shops, bars, boutiques, solariums, etc. are located. The streets are filled with shops and supermarkets. There are Italian stone pine forests and green lawns. There are the tourist beach places near the city, such as Lignano – Riviera (Lignano Riviera), Lignano – Pineta (Lignano Pineta), and Lignano – Sabbnadoro (Lignano Sabbiadoro). There are the best children’s camps in Italy, including the Adriatica children’s health center, famous for its magnificent sandy beaches and an aquapark.

Lim Bay (Fjord) (Limska Draga Fjord) Lim Bay (Fjord) (Limska Draga Fjord) – situated in the west of the Istria Peninsula, north–northwest of Rovinj Island, Croatia. It goes into the shore at 7 km; the total length including a valley is 35 km and a width is 1.5 km. Depths vary from

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Lobsters

Lignano Sabbiadoro. (Photo by Giuseppe Milo, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignano_Sabbiadoro#/media/File: Sunset_At_Terrazza_A_Mare_Lignano_Sabbiadoro_Italy_Travel_(216685107).jpeg)

20 to 30 m and only at the very top decrease to 5–10 m. The gulf is a topographic phenomenon, formed as a result of the washing up of the earth in the lower part of Lim Bay. Gradually narrowing, in the remotest part of the mainland, the bay turns into a dry solutional cave, which goes east–west to Kanfanar, and then sharply turns to the north, and ends at about 5 km from Pazin. This unique karst valley was probably created by the waters of the River Pazinčica, which now flows underground. The shores of the Lim Bay are tall, steep, overgrown with shrubs and conifers. In ancient times, the border (Limes) separated the region of Poreč from Pula. At the mouth of the bay is located nudist resort “Koversada,” known since the early 1960s. Cultivation of mollusks is widely developed.

Lobsters Lobsters – They belong to the family of sea decapod crustaceans. Their main habitat is rocky continental shelves. There are several types of lobsters, which vary considerably in appearance

as well as in their taste characteristics. The average weight of European lobsters reaches 10 kg, and the length is slightly less than 1 m. According to their appearance, lobsters resemble ordinary crayfish in many ways. However, there is a significant difference between them, namely, chelate limbs of impressive size. Lobsters have a strong shell and ten legs, two of which have grown into chelae. Lobsters may be characterized by a variety of colors – from grayish-green to greenish-blue. There are red “antennas” on its body, and also a tail, in the form reminding a fan. Initially, lobster meat has a white color, but in the process of cooking it changes to red – due to this it is called the “sea cardinal.” Very gentle taste and pleasant aroma is specific for lobster meat. The most delicious meat is found in the tail section of lobster. In its huge claws there is also meat, but it has a stiffer consistency. Green liver of lobster contained under the shell of the head, as well as its red caviar, is also of significant value. Lobster meat is considered as one of the healthiest protein foods. It is low in calories, cholesterol, and fat than lean beef or chicken, but at the same time, it is rich in amino acids, potassium, magnesium, and

Lokrum Island, Lokrum Otok

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L Lim Bay. (Photo by Aconcagua, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lim_(Croatia)#/media/File:Limski_Istria_1.jpg)

vitamins B12, B6, B3, B2, and provitamin A. It is also a good source of calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, and sodium.

Lokrum Island, Lokrum Otok Lokrum Island, Lokrum Otok – The island is situated in the southeastern part of the Adriatic Sea at 700 m from Dubrovnik, South Dalmatia, Croatia. The area of the island is 0.7 km2. The average annual temperature is 16 °С, precipitation is 1300 mm, and 2584 h of sunshine per year. The island is almost completely covered with forest. In 1976, the island was declared a natural forest reserve. There are many peacocks on the island. The first written mention of the island dates back to 1023, when the Benedictine abbey and monastery were founded. The name of the island, to some extent, is obliged to these monks, who

began the tradition of cultivating exotic plants here, the fruits of which nobody liked, so the island began to be called Lokrum from the word “acrumen,” which translates as “sour fruit.” According to legends, in 1192, the English King Richard the Lionheart suffered a shipwreck and was beached ashore. According to some data, he tried to escape from arrest; on the other, he was returning from a crusade “traveling to holy places.” The Benedictine monks left the island in 1798, and according to legend, they cursed it. In 1806, the French Emperor Napoleon built a fort Royal on Lokrum at an altitude of 91 m, which has been well preserved to the present days. In 1859, the island was bought by Maximilian Ferdinand of Hapsburg, Austrian Archduke, who was the “short-term” Emperor of Mexico. He built a summer residence and a beautiful botanical garden here. After his death in 1867, the Habsburgs sold the island to a local rich man, and then again bought it back on behalf of the son of Emperor

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London Peace Treaty (1913)

Lobster. (Photo by Bart Braun, Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Lobster#/media/File: KreeftbijDenOsse.jpg)

Lokrum Island. (Photo by Diego Delso, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokrum#/media/File:Isla_de_Lokrum,_ Croacia,_2014-04-14,_DD_01.JPG)

Franz Joseph. On the island, there are the Botanical Garden of the Institute of Marine and Coastal Research in Dubrovnik, a small lake – the Dead Sea, which is connected to the open sea, and Fort Royal.

London Peace Treaty (1913) London Peace Treaty (1913) – signed on May 30, 1913, by the Ottoman Empire on the one

hand, and Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro (the Balkan League) on the other. According to the Agreement, from the date of its execution the Balkan Union and the Ottoman Empire conclude “peace forever.” The Ottoman Empire ceded almost all its European possessions under the control of the Balkan League (except for Albania, the status of which was specified later, and Istanbul and its environs). The great powers were to begin negotiations on the status of Albania and ensure its security. The Ottoman Empire abandoned Crete in favor of the Balkan League.

Lošinj Island, Lošinj Otok

The great powers were to begin custody of the Turks living on the islands of the Aegean Sea and its coasts (except for Crete and the vicinity of Mount Athos). Although the Ottoman Empire ceded most of its possessions in Europe to the Balkan League, there was one nuance left. The member countries of the League themselves should divide the conquered territories, without foreign mediation. It was problematic, since the Greeks wanted to unite all the coasts of the Aegean Sea into a single Greece, the Bulgarian government wanted to create a Great Bulgaria, the Serbs wanted to obtain the access to the Adriatic Sea and the greatest expansion of the borders of their country, and the Montenegrins wanted the accession of the north of Albania to the Kingdom of Montenegro. Thus, a dispute arose between the allies regarding the ownership of Macedonia, Thrace, and the north of Albania. None of the founding states of the Balkan League was fully satisfied with the London Treaty and the result of the war. Serbia did not obtain access to the Adriatic because of the forming of a new state of Albania, Montenegro did not occupy Shkodër, and Greece did not annex Thrace. Bulgaria was unpleased with the Serbian claims to Macedonia, and already a few months after the signing of peace with Turkey, the Second Balkan War began, the results of which became one of the reasons for the First World War.

London Treaty (1915) London Treaty (1915) – a secret agreement between England, Russia, and France, on the one hand, and Italy, on the other. It was made on April 26, 1915, and determined the conditions for the entry of Italy into the First World War. Italy, which was allied with Germany and AustriaHungary, declined to fulfill its allied obligations at the beginning of the First World War, and declared neutrality. Then after getting the permission of England, France, and Russia, according to the terms of the London Treaty, to the satisfaction of an extensive annexationist program, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente.

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A number of articles of the treaty defined the compensation that Italy was supposed to receive for its participation in the war. By the London Treaty, Italy was promised Trieste, Istria to the Gulf of Kvarnero, islands in this bay, etc. (Art. 4), and Dalmatia (Art. 5). The London Treaty, in essence, was designed to divide Albania between Italy, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro, and Italy, besides the direct annexation of the Valon Port and the surrounding territory (Art. 6), secured a protectorate over the entire central part of Albania (Art. 7). Using the changed balance of power after the First World War, England and France refused to fulfill many points of London Treaty.

Lopud Island, Lopud Otok Lopud Island, Lopud Otok – The island is part of the Elaphiti Islands, located 7 km northwest of Dubrovnik between Koločep Island and Šipan Island, Croatia. Population is 270 people (2001). It is characterized by lush Mediterranean and subtropical vegetation, amazing parks, and beaches. This is one of the best tourist islands; tourism in Lopud dates back to the 1920s. The island, as well as the other Elaphiti Islands (“Deep Islands”), from the fourteenth century became part of the Republic of Dubrovnik. In the past, Lopud was the island of captains. It gave the largest number of navigators to Republic. A large part of the Dubrovnik merchant Fleet was based here, and the ruins of the palaces of the former ship owners only remind of this. There is no traffic on the island; therefore, the air is very clean.

Lošinj Island, Lošinj Otok Lošinj Island, Lošinj Otok – The island that is located south of Cres Island appears to be its continuation, since it is separated from it by an artificial channel (width 11 m), through which a drawbridge is thrown. Just like Cres, the island stretches along Kvarner Gulf. It belongs to Croatia. Lošinj is the 11th largest Adriatic island by

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Lošinj Marine Education Centre (LMEC)

Lopud Island. (Photo by August Dominus, Source: https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lopud#/media/Datoteka:LOPUD.JPG)

area, 33 km long, with the width varying from 4.75 km in the north and middle of the island to 250 m near the town of Mali Lošinj. The total coastline of the island is 112.7 km. The island is covered with dense forest vegetation. After the fall of the Venetian Republic, marine fishing and trade were developed on the island. There was a large fleet and several shipyards. Later, a tourism began to be developed here. The main city is Mali Lošinj.

Lošinj Marine Education Centre (LMEC) Lošinj Marine Education Centre (LMEC) – It is situated in the harbor of Veli Lošinj on Lošinj in Kvarner Gulf, Croatia. Here the “Blue World” Institute studies the biology of large Adriatic vertebrates (monk seal, sea turtle (Caretta caretta), fin whale. There is an exhibition dedicated to the

fauna of the Adriatic Sea. Particular attention is paid to a group of 120 common bottlenose dolphins, often swimming around the shores of Lošinj and Cres Islands. Here is a special project for the study of Adriatic dolphins “Adriatic Dolphin Project.”

Lučtica Peninsula, Lučtica Poluotok Lučtica Peninsula, Lučtica Poluotok – It is situated opposite to the town of Herceg Novi, at the entrance to the Hercegnovsky Bay, Montenegro. From the south it limits the Boka-Kotorska Bay. Here begins Budva Riviera. An area of the peninsula is 40 km2. The peninsula is mountainous and covers the bay from the winds. There is a small settlement of Porto Rosa. The port was built by the Greeks, destroyed by the Saracens in 897. There is a small beach of Dobra Luka and the diving club. On the peninsula there are

Lučtica Peninsula, Lučtica Poluotok

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L Lošinj Island. (Photo by K. Korlevic, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%C5%A1inj#/media/File:Mali_Losinj_ 01.jpg)

Lučtica Peninsula, Montenegro. (Source: https://waytomonte.com/en/p-923-lustica)

several good pebble beaches, among them Žanjice and Mirišta. Near the peninsula Mamula Island with a fortress built by the Austrians in the nineteenth century is situated. The large

naval base of Yugoslavia was located on the Peninsula. Tunnels cut through the rocky coast for the base of diesel submarines can be seen here.

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Magistrala

Makarska Riviera

Magistrala – highway, motorway passing along the Adriatic coast.

Makarska Riviera – a part of the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic Sea, located to the south of the town of Omiš in the north and stretching along the Biokovo Mountain range (natural park) for about 60 km to the town of Gradec in the south, Croatia. There are numerous resort villages of Brela, Baška Voda, Promajna, Tučepi, and others with long pebble beaches, quiet picturesque bays, dense coniferous forests, and mountain villages.

Makarska Makarska – the city, which is situated on the northeast coast of the broad Makarska Bay at the foot of the Biokovo Mountain massif (Sv. Jura peak, 1764 m), protected by St. Peter’s Peninsula and Cape Osejava, South Dalmatia, Croatia. Osejava and St. Peter Peninsulas covered with pine forests are situated on the both sides of the city. The population of the city is 13,800 people (2011). Since the 1960s, Makarska has focused on the tourism industry. There is one of the most beautiful beaches on the Adriatic Sea, which stretches for 2 km along the entire coast. Vessels of the local lines regularly touch at its port. Makarska is an economic, cultural, and tourist center of the Makarska Riviera. The old part of the city is built in the Mediterranean style of the Venetian and Hapsburg period, the new one in a modern style. Precisely next to the entrance to the gulf of the city and one of the most beautiful beaches of the Adriatic Sea, there is the stone St. Peter Lighthouse, built in 1884.

Mali Kvarner Mali Kvarner – a part of the Adriatic Sea, which lies between the two main chains of the Dalmatian Islands: Krk, Rab, Pag in the east. Cres, Lošinj, and others are in western Croatia. The length is about 105 km, the width is about 27 km, the prevailing depths are from 20 to 35 m, and the maximum depth is 95 m. Fishery is developed there.

Mamula Island, Ostrvo Mamula Mamula Island, Ostrvo Mamula – The island is situated at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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The city of Makarska, Croatia. (Photo by Hedwig Storch, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makarska#/media/File: Makarska_IMG_8289.jpg)

between the mainland and the Luštica Peninsula, at 6.3 km from Herceg Novi a small rocky “guardian-island.” It used to be called Rondoni, and the name “Mamula” is received only in the nineteenth century, after the Austrian Governor-General of Dalmatia Lazar Mamula. In the middle part of the island during the time of Austria-Hungary, a fort was located in the old Turkish fortress, which was used as a prison, as well as during the Second World War. Sometimes this prison is called “Montenegrin Alkatras,” and recently – “Montenegrin Fort Boyard.” The fortress is round, 100 m in diameter, and the wall thickness is up to 5 m. The fortress has a headquarters tower, a bakery room, a sauna, a rainwater reservoir for several thousand liters, spiral staircases, loopholes, and much more. Now there is a lighthouse. The fort

is well preserved. There is the picturesque Blue Grotto or the Blue Cave “Plava Spilja” nearby, where those who wish are delivered by motor boats and boats.

Manfredonia Manfredonia – a city and port in southern Italy, at the very foot of Cape Gargano in the Province of Apulia, Italy. Population is approximately 56,900 people (2017). On the shore of the Adriatic Sea the port is adjacent to the harbor of Manfredonia. There is production of olive oil, and wine and fishing are developed. The harbor is protected from all winds by two moles: the west and east. At the base of

Manfredonia Bay, Golfo di Manfredonia

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Mamula Island, Montenegro. (Source: https://www.total-montenegro-news.com/travel/624-mamula-island-montenegros-fortress-citadel-in-the-bay-of-boka)

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The city of Manfredonia, Italy. (Photo by Salvatore Triventi, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfredonia#/media/ File:Manfredonia_e_il_suo_castello_Svevo_Angioino.jpg)

the latter there is a lighthouse. Manfredonia was founded by King Manfred, the illegitimate son of Frederick III, especially for Siponto settlers. In 1256, he began the construction of a powerful fortress. In 1620, Manfredonia was destroyed as a result of the Turkish invasion.

Manfredonia Bay, Golfo di Manfredonia Manfredonia Bay, Golfo di Manfredonia – It is situated near the southeastern coast of the Adriatic

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Sea in Italy, to the south of the vast Gargano Peninsula, covered by the mountains of the same name, with the highest Monte-Calvo Mountain with an altitude 1055 m. The south-western shore of the bay is low and mostly swampy; a vast plain extends to the northwest from it. Depths at the entrance are 12–16 m. Ofanto River flows into the bay. At the top of the bay there is the harbor (depths of 4–7.5 m) and the port of Manfredonia.

Maquis Maquis – thickets of evergreen stiff-leaved and thornbushes, short trees, and tall grasses in arid subtropical regions. The most common on the slopes of mountains and hills in the Mediterranean climate, especially in the continental Balkan regions and in other regions of the world with a similar climate, local terms are used to designate them – scrab (Australia), chaparral (North America), in South Africa finbosch (Cape Region). Maquis is extremely flammable. A clear confirmation of this was the fires in Montenegro (2011). However, fire for Maquis is a natural source of vegetation rejuvenation and enrichment of the soil with minerals necessary for the germination of new seeds. Different types of maquis are the most typical in the modern Mediterranean countries, where they replaced the forests, cut down by man in antiquity times, although there are also indigenous massifs. Maquis are the most specific for the lower zone of the mountains up to a height of 800 m, where they form dense, thorny, and impassable thickets. Maquis thickets are presented by the two levels. The first level is the maquis itself, which consists of short growing trees, growing at a height from 0 to 400 m above the sea level. Further, shrubs and grasses constitute the garigi strip. Maquis includes a large number of species. However, thorny bushes predominate (average height is 2–4 m), and trees of 8–10 m height are less common. There are the following species: pistachio, arbute, juniper, olive, rockroses, myrtle, etc. Grass cover is dominated by annual grasses. Many of them have an

Maquis

increased concentration of ethereal oils, and therefore have a strong odor.

Marano Lagoon (Laguna di Marano) Marano Lagoon (Laguna di Marano) – is located in the region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, Italy. It extends from the mouth of the Tagliamento River and the mouth of Porto Buso, which divides the Grado Lagoon. Consists of those pools: Lignano (51 km2), St. Andrea (22 km2), and Buso (20 km2). It is the northernmost resort in the Mediterranean. The Marano and Grado lagoons presented as a multitude of small islands and sand banks scattered along the coast for 30 km. Between the islands, covered with low-growing shrubs, stretches a network of canals with a total area of more than 16 ha. The total length of the beaches is 130 km, and 23 yacht ports provide space and maintenance for 15,000 ships. Marano is an ancient fortified settlement that gave the name to the lagoon, a traditional fishing village: stone buildings of the sixteenth century surround the harbor and a luxurious fish market.

Marche Marche – a central region of Italy. In the north, the region is bordered by the Emilia-Romagna Region and the Republic of San Marino, in the north-west by the Tuscany Region, in the west by Umbria, in the south by Lazio and Abruzzo, and in the east it is bordered by the Adriatic Sea. The area is 9366 km2. It includes five provinces: Ancona, Macerata, Ascoli Piceno, Fermo, Province of Pesaro, and Urbino. Its capital is Ancona. The population is 1.54 million people (2013). Many cities of Marche were founded during the time of the Roman Republic. In about tenth century, the central region of the Adriatic coast was called Marche (the main part of the territory was occupied by marches – associations around the free cities of Fermo, Ancona, and Camerino). In the fourteenth century an attempt was made to unite

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Maquis. (Photo by Pietro Columba, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macchia_mediterranea#/media/File:I_colori_ di_Pantalica.jpg)

Marano Lagoon. (Image courtesy by G. LagunareG, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marano_Lagoon#/media/File: Gradolagoon.jpg)

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Marche

Marche. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Marche)

feudal possessions and vacant lands. Thanks to the efforts of Cardinal Albornoz, the region became part of the Papal State. During the reign of Napoleon, by decision of the Congress of Vienna, Marche was again annexed to the Papal State. In 1860, a battle was fought near Ancona in Castelfidardo, which put an end to Papal rule, which allowed Marche to join the United Kingdom of Italy. Thus, a new administrative unit of the country appeared – Marche Area with the capital Ancona. Most of the Marche is occupied by the Apennines, which become lower in the direction toward the Adriatic Sea. The flat coastline of the Adriatic with a length of 173 km and wide sandy beaches are the main attraction of the region. Only

in one place the beaches separate the slopes of Monte Conero. Over the past 30 years, the regional economy has been transformed radically. Many small craft workshops in rural areas were turned into firms or trading enterprises, some of which became wellknown brands all over the world (Indesit, Todis, Guzzini, Tenco). A number of provinces specialize in certain types of industries – shoes and leather goods (Macerata and Fermo), furniture (Pesaro), home appliances and textiles (Ancona); and developed petrochemical, paper industry, shipbuilding. Agriculture is developed in the region – grain production, vegetable growing, viticulture, and animal products. One of the most important industries remains the fishing

Marco Polo (1254–1324)

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Marche countryside. (Photo by Alessandro Vecchi, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marche#/media/File:Cingoli_ BalconeDelleMarche.jpg)

industry, which is most represented in the cities of Ancona, Civitanova, San Benedetto del Tronto, and Fano.

Marco Polo (1254–1324) Marco Polo (1254–1324) – the greatest European (Venetian) traveler and merchant before the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, “Herodotus of the Middle Ages.” It is believed that Marco Polo was born precisely on Korčula, Croatia, although many believe that he is from Venice. Venetians often used the services of captains from their Adriatic colonies. It is reliably known that Marco Polo was captured by the Genoese in the Battle of Korčulain 1298. Korčula’s claim to the status of the motherland for Marco Polo can still be confirmed by the fact that there lived a family with De Polo name. Contemporaries called him “Million” – “a man with millions.” This was due to the wealth that Marco Polo brought, with the name of his book and with the name of the palace Corte del Million, bought by the family of Marco Polo from the Millioni family. In 1271, the 17-year-old Marco Polo together with his father and uncle traveled as merchants and messengers of the Pope to Central Asia and China, where they arrived in 1275 and where Marco Polo lived about 17 years. During this time, being at the service of the Mongol Khan Kubilai, the grandson of Genghis Khan, he visited various parts of China and the regions bordering it. Venetian G.-B. Ramusio in the sixteenth century wrote that Marco Polo was similar to Mongolian by clothing, language, and habits.

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Marco Polo. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Marco_Polo#/media/File:Marco_Polo_Mosaic_from_ Palazzo_Tursi.jpg)

Marco Polo was the first European to export silkworm caterpillars from China. He is the first who described China and many other countries of Central and Western Asia, their cities, inhabitants, customs, and habits. He returned to Venice in 1295, where he got involved in the war with Genoa. From September 1298 to July 1299 Marco Polo was in the Genoese prison, where he was imprisoned after a sea battle between the Genoese and the Venetians, together with the writer Rustichello of Pisa. There Marco Polo dictated him his memories of travel and

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Marghera

Marghera. (Photo by Marc Ryckaert, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marghera#/media/File:Marghera_R01.jpg)

adventures in Asia – “The Book of the Diversity of the World” (“Book of Wonders,” “Million”). His notes collected in the Book of Marco Polo were soon translated into a number of European languages, and played a large role in the study of Asia and the history of the Great Geographical Discoveries. In Russian translation it is “The Book of Marco Polo,” Moscow, 1956. After returning to Venice from the captivity Marco Polo plunged into merchant activities. Marco Polo died in Venice. In the town of Korčula, on Depolo Street, in the house where, according to legend, Marco Polo was born, there is a small museum. In the name of Marco Polo, International Airport in Venice, Italy, was named.

Marghera Marghera – is a continental, suburb, industrial zone of Venice, located on the mainland, Italy.

Industrial development of Marghera began in 1925. The seaport is one of the largest in Italy in terms of cargo turnover, and railway junction. The population of the city is 28,600 people (2009). Shipbuilding is developed there. As well as the production of aluminum, steel, rolled products, precision and optical instruments, steam boilers, and railway equipment. There are also located enterprises of chemical, oil refining, and food industry.

Margherita di Savoia Margherita di Savoia – a city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, the Province of Apulia, southern Italy. The former name – Saline di Barletta – was changed in 1879 in memory of the love story of Queen Margherita of Savoy, associated with this city. Population of the city is 12,200 people (2012).

Mariculture

Mariculture Mariculture – a commercial cultivation of marine or brackish-water organisms on natural or artificial feed in fenced off gulfs or special cages. The main volumes of mariculture are algae, clams, and shrimps. Fish farming in mariculture has a subordinate meaning. Sometimes it is called sea farming. A mariculture specialization was developed in Europe, which consisted mainly of two groups of mollusks – oysters and mussels. The most common marine species grown in the Adriatic Sea, as well as in the Mediterranean, are euryhaline species: European sea bream (Dicentrarchus labrax) and golden-headed sea bream (Sparus auratus). To start their production, different sized juveniles are used, usually with an average weight of 2–4 g (age 120–160 days). Total production of mariculture in the Adriatic Sea is about 11,500 t (2800 t of sea bass, 2200 t of sea bream, 4200 t of tuna, and about 2100 t of mollusks and flat oysters) (2010). From mid-1990, Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) breeding began. Recently, “new species” have appeared for cage culture: sharp-nosed sea bream (Diplodus puntazzo) and croaker (Argyrosomus regius), as well as common dentex (Dentex dentex), sea bream (Pagrus pagrus), two-banded sea bream (Diplodus vulgaris), and others. Their further implementation depends on the reaction of the market, which so far has become accustomed to traditional bred species. In Italy the practice of cage aquaculture in sea waters, brackish water lagoons, and freshwater cage farms is widely spread. Sea cage farms are situated in the southern regions, particularly in Apulia. However, the number of protected sites along the coastline is limited, which prevents the expansion of cage farms. In addition, tourism (the main source of income) is often a competitor in the use of marine and coastal resources. About 60% of marine cage farms are currently located in semi-offshore or offshore zones, which entail higher production costs and the need to solve various technological issues regarding cage models and their positioning and installation –

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REFA Tension Legs (tension supports), Sado Shelf, Farmocean steel cages and a number of submersible cages and floating fish-breeding platforms. Recently, there were several farms for fattening Atlantic bluefin tuna. In Italy, there are two main seed fields (Valle Ca ‘Zuliani in Veneto and Panittica Pugliese in Puglia), producing about 65% of the young for the national industry. About 25–30 million are exported to Croatia, France, and Spain. In 1998, a cage economy for the production of sea bass/sea bream was established in Ljuta, Montenegro, Kotor Bay. Currently, the production of marine fish is approximately 20 t/year. In addition, several small mussel production cages operate in the Bay of Kotor (total production is about 40 t/year). In Albania, cage culture is practiced exclusively along the coast of the Ionian Sea. The production of mollusks is growing annually in the Adriatic Sea. More than 160 fish farms were licensed in Albania in 2009, covering an area of approximately 2317 km2; more than 50 fish farms are located in the coastal zone and lagoons. Fish farms grew along Saranda and Vlorë. The most common are high density polyethylene (HDPE) cages, sometimes homemade cages are used – wooden frames with floats and nets. Cages are open systems with a constant exchange of water. The risk of environmental pollution is a major concern associated with this industry, and other concerns are changes in natural currents (cages location), chemical pollution, organic matter release, visual change of picturesque places, and flight of farmed fish. In addition, conflicts are often reported with other users of coastal areas, mainly with the tourism sector. Recently, the issue on the transfer of farms from coastal to semi-offshore zones has been considered, using more complex and innovative devices and cage technologies. In Slovenia, cage culture is practiced in the Piran Bay. In 2004, 40 cages operated here, in which European sea bass and golden-headed sea bream were cultivated. Total production was approximately 110 t/year. Aquaculture of marine fish in Croatia is fully carried out in floating cages. The presence of many protected areas along the coastline has

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Mariculture in the Bay of Kotor. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

stimulated the development of cage production since 1980. In 1996, work on fattening Atlantic bluefin tuna began and now more than 10 farms are operating in the areas of Zadar, Šibenik, and Split.

Marina Marina – harbor and base, equipped parking pier for pleasure and sports boats (yachts and boats) in Croatia, Montenegro, and other countries. On large Marinas there are all the necessary conditions for the maintenance of yachts, as well as shops and restaurants. Yacht charter system is developed. If necessary, you can get training and instruction. In Croatia, there is the Association of Independent Marines, where you can get information about the conditions of yachts and boats charter.

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) – is the main instrument of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Its essence lies in inventorying and planning the use of marine areas, spatial analysis of potential conflicts between man and nature, between different users of natural resources, analyzing the needs of current and future use of marine areas, developing environmentally friendly scenarios for using marine areas, and developing plans for long-term comprehensive and sustainable economic use of marine areas. Maritime planning is based on the following principles: intersectoral coordination and cooperation of all the parties concerned, coordination of development strategies and environmental management of marine areas developed at the national, regional, and local levels, creation of a comprehensive information base,

Maritime Museum (Maritima Museum)

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Marina Porto Montenegro. (Source: https://waytomonte.com/p-935-porto-montenegro)

extensive use of geographic information systems (GIS), including information on economic and socioeconomic activities, the state of the environment, the creation of instructions for the maritime users on the sustainable use of marine resources, interaction and cooperation of citizens and organizations within and outside the region, as well as an effective system of cross-border consultations.

“Marita” “Marita” – a cryptonym for the plan for the capture of Yugoslavia and Greece by the troops of the Axis countries during the Second World War.

Maritime Historical Museum (Pomorski i Povijesni Muzej Hrvatskog Primorja) Maritime Historical Museum (Pomorski i Povijesni Muzej Hrvatskog Primorja) – The museum was founded in 1876 in the Governor’s Palace at the end of the nineteenth century, Rijeka, Croatia. There are collected models of ships, including tankers, released at the local shipyard “3 Maj”; marine studies, portraits of captains of Rijeka, archaeological finds and documents, as well as weapons from different years. The residence of the Italian dictator G. D’Annunzio in 1919–1921 is located here, in this palace.

Maritime Museum (Maritima “Maritime Encyclopedia” (“Pomorske Museum) Enciklopedije”) “Maritime Encyclopedia” (“Pomorske Enciklopedije”) – The first edition of the encyclopedia in eight volumes, published in 1954–1964 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia, and the second one was published in 1972–1989.

Maritime Museum (Maritima Museum) – is situated in Budva, Montenegro. It is located in the large fortress of the Citadel in the old part of the city on the third floor of the nineteenth-century Grgurina Palace. The museum is small, with models of ships, including the famous ships of

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the seventeenth eighteenth centuries. It also has “Mayflower” and “Bounty portraits of legendary captains and navigator charts. It is here that the legendary code of the “Brotherhood of Navigators of Boka Kotorska Bay” is kept. At the entrance to the museum, ancient cannons were installed that protected Kotor from pirates in the nineteenth century. This is a holy place for everyone who is in any way connected with navigation in Montenegro.

Maritime Museum (Museo del Mare) Maritime Museum (Museo del Mare) – is situated in Cesenatico, which is located at 8 km north-west of Rimini, Italy. The Italian two-masted lugger and a coastal trabaccoli vessel “Giovanni Pascoli” are presented.

Maritime Museum (Pomorski Muzej) Maritime Museum (Pomorski Muzej) – is situated in Portorož, Slovenia. It includes a permanent exhibition of floating marine facilities.

Maritime Museum (Museo del Mare)

Dubrovnik, to one of the four forts of St. John of the city. Its exposition is dedicated to the history of shipbuilding and navigation of Dubrovnik. The museum is located on two floors. The collection includes over 4000 items, navigation instruments and maps, flags, models of ships, ship cannons, and portraits of famous captains. The permanent exhibition includes three thematic parts: navigation from ancient times to the fall of the Republic of Dubrovnik in 1808; the seafaring of Dubrovnik in the nineteenth century; and Dubrovnik navigation in the twentieth century. Since 1998, the museum has become a member of the Association of Mediterranean Museums. The museum library has approximately 10,000 books. The museum publishes archival documents relating to maritime history and participates in underwater research projects in the waters around Dubrovnik, including sunken ships from various periods. The museum collaborates with the interdisciplinary project “The Legacy of Wooden Shipbuilding in Croatia.” In addition, the museum conducts a part in the “Raphael Program,” initiated by the Maritime Museum in Piraeus, Greece, on the theme “Atlas of traditional crafts of the Eastern Mediterranean (XVII and XIX centuries).” Not far from the museum there is an aquarium, where in several halls the inhabitants of the Adriatic Sea are collected.

Maritime Museum (Pomorski Muzej) Maritime Museum (Pomorski Muzej) – is situated in the town of Orebić on the Pelješac Peninsula, Croatia. The museum is small: several amphoras, sea relics associated with the Orebić Fleet. The exhibits testify to the former glory of the captains, when the sailboats of Orebić plowed many seas.

Maritime Museum (Pomorski Muzej) Maritime Museum (Pomorski Muzej) – was founded in 1949 in Zagreb at the initiative of the Yugoslav (today the Croatian) Academy of Sciences and Arts. In 1952, it was transferred to

Maritime Museum of Montenegro (Pomorski Muzej) Maritime Museum of Montenegro (Pomorski Muzej) – located in the old part of Kotor, in the Baroque Palace of Gergurin, Montenegro. It is located next to the iron well of Karampano (seventeenth century), the only source of water in the city in the old times. At the entrance to the museum there are two guns of the eighteenth century. The museum exposition tells about the “Brotherhood of the Navigators of BokaKotorska Bay,” founded in the ninth century and existing up to the present. Here is its Statute. In the thirteenth century, more than 400 ships sailed the seas of the world from the Bay of Kotor, and

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another 300 plied nearby waters. A magnificent collection of paintings dedicated to the great sea battles, and portraits of famous mariners, maps, weapons, ship’s journals, ship furniture and costumes, as well as the necessary items of marine life.

Maritime Studies Faculty (Fakultet za pomorstvo) Maritime Studies Faculty (Fakultet za pomorstvo) – independent unit of the University of Montenegro. It is situated in Kotor on the shores of Kotor Bay. The heir to the maritime school of is M. Martinović. Faculty prepares personnel for work on ships and on land. Particular attention is paid to shipbuilding, one of the most promising sectors of the economy, which will allow Montenegro to return a leading place among maritime countries. The faculty represents the widest range of knowledge in the field of maritime sciences, management, mechanics, and navigation. In the organizational structure of the faculty there is a modern center for training navigators, a computer center, and a maritime library. Diplomas and certificates issued by the faculty are recognized worldwide.

Martinovic´ Marko (1663–1716) Martinović Markо (1663–1716) – Montenegrin famous captain, shipbuilder, mathematician, hydrographer, and a poet. In his younger years he studied arithmetic, geometry, oceanography, and shipping. He studied the maritime theory in Perast, and practiced on the board of his ship, sailing across the Adriatic and the Ionian seas. Participated in the liberation of Herceg Novi in 1687 and wrote under the pseudonym Comte de Combourg. As a captain and an excellent teacher, he organized courses in maritime and shipbuilding in Perast and was invited to Venice for his knowledge. At the request of Russian Tsar Peter I, the Senate entrusted to him the training of 17 young students from the famous Russian

Martinović Markо teaches Russian nobles marine affairs. (Source: https://sr.wikipedia.org/sr-el/%D0%9C%D0% B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B0% D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0% B2%D0%B8%D1%9B#/media/%D0%94%D0%B0% D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0% B0:Marko_Martinovi%C4%87_u%C4%8Di_pitomce_ Petra_Velikog.jpg)

surnames Kurakin, Sheremetev, Buturlin, Golitsyn, and Repnin, with whom he sailed on the training ship Kotoranin under the command of Ivan Lazarević to Dubrovnik and Bari in autumn 1697. Another training voyage was completed in 1698 in Herceg Novi, and then in Perast, where Martinović spent the whole summer teaching Russian sailors at his “Nautika” school, which he opened in 1698. That was how the core of the Baltic Fleet of Russia was later formed. The house-school of Martinović “Nautica” (now a residential house) is located in the west of Perast. The training continued in the Mediterranean and ended in the Italian City of Civitavecchia. In Venice, students received certificates, and Martinović received thanks from the Senate and a life pension. Martinović wrote works on the construction of ships, dedicating it to his students and the Russian Prince Dmitry Golitsyn, which are stored in St. Petersburg. In Perast, on the embankment of Martinović, Russian flags are kept in the museum of the city, donated by Peter the Great to M. Zmaević after the Russian victory over the Swedes in 1714 at Gangut. Here hangs a picture of an unknown artist, depicting Martinović with Russian nobles, cadets of his school. In the picture you can read the names of some of the 17 pupils of

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Mat (Mati) River

Martinović buried on the island of the dead in the Benedictine Monastery of St. George in the Bay of Kotor. In 1973, his bust was installed in Perast.

Mat (Mati) River Mat (Mati) River – river in Albania in the Adriatic Sea basin. It originates in the mountains of Golobärdä, and flows into the Drin Bay of the Adriatic Sea. The length is 104 km, and the basin area is 2500 km2. A hydroelectric generating station was built at the point of the river’s exit from the mountains to the coastal plain. It takes a large tributary to the right – Fan River. Mediterranean monk seal. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Mediterranean_monk_seal#/media/File: Monachus_monachus.jpg)

Mediterranean Alpine Experiment (MEDALPEX) Mediterranean Alpine Experiment (MEDALPEX) – initiated in the early 1980s. Participants in the experiment were Spain, Italy, USSR, Yugoslavia, France, Turkey, and Belgium. As part of the experiment, hydrological, hydrochemical, meteorological, and biological studies were carried out in order to obtain quantitative values of the interactions between the sea and the atmosphere in the central part of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in the Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, and Adriatic Seas. In particular, the investigations were carried out on the research vessels of the Odessa State Oceanographic Institute, Naval Chief Directorate for Navigation and Oceanography, Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas of the USSR.

Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monk Seal, Monachus monachus) Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monk Seal, Monachus monachus) – Like all pinnipeds (Pinnipedia), it is found in water and on land, near the seashore. The length of the seal reaches 3.5 m. Weight is up to

250 kg. Develops speed from 15 to 25 km/h. It can dive to a depth of 300–350 m, and being beneath the waves for 25–30 min. The color of the dorsal part of the body is gray-brown, and the ventricular part is whitish. Mediterranean monk seal prefers uninhabited rocky coasts, with numerous caves, where animals breed. The female, after 10–11 months of pregnancy, probably gives birth to one puppy at the beginning of spring, which feeds on milk for 3–4 months, then begins an independent life. Mediterranean monk seal lives for 30–40 years. It feeds mainly on fish, preferring individuals of larger species. Mediterranean monk seal disappeared in most previously known habitats. It is so rare in the Adriatic Sea that there is a serious danger of its complete disappearance. It is listed in the international “Red Book”.

Mediterranean Moray (Muraena helena) Mediterranean Moray (Muraena helena) – large serpentine fish of Muraenidae family. The closest relative of other serpentine fish – eels. All of the moray species are characterized by large sizes: the smallest ones reach a length of 60 cm and weigh

Mediterranean Sand Smelt (Atherina hepsetus)

8–10 kg, while the world’s largest giant moray (Thyrsoidea macrura) reaches a length of 3.75 m and weighs up to 40 kg! Moray’s body is disproportionately long, slightly flattened on its sides, but not completely flat. The back of the body looks thinner, while the middle and front of the body are slightly thickened. Due to that moray resembles a giant leech. The pectoral fins of these fish are totally absent; however, the dorsal fin stretches along the entire length of the body. Few people manage to see moray in all its glory. In the most cases its body is hidden in the crevices of the rocks, and only the head sticks out. The snout of moray is elongated with an angry expression of its eyes, the mouth is almost always open, and large, sharp teeth can be seen in it. This was the reason to accuse morays of serpentine cunning and aggression. In fact, the expression of the eyes of moray is not so much vicious as frozen, because these are ambush fishes, who spend a lot of time waiting for prey. Moray often sits with an open mouth, because they breathe through it, since in tight shelters the flow of water to the gills is difficult. Moray has no tongue; however, it has two pairs of nostrils. Like all fish, they use their nostrils not for breathing, but only for smelling. The color of these fish is variegated, most often with a finely topped pattern (less often striped, monophonic), while colors are usually nondescript – brown, black, and whitish-gray. These fish are mostly found at shallow depths of up to 5 m; some species can creep over land at low tide. These specificities make morays very similar to their relatives, eels. Morays keep most of their lives in shelters: crevices of underwater rocks, internal cavities of large sponges. These fish are active mainly at dusk, therefore they have a bad sight, but they compensate for this deficiency with an excellent sense of smell. Morays live alone and adhere to permanent areas. In rare cases, when several convenient crevices are found nearby, morays may live side by side with each other, but this is a random neighborhood. Moray’s bites are not only very painful but also extremely poorly healed (up to several months), and fatal causalities are also known. Moray is a predator. It feeds on fish, crabs, sea urchins, octopuses, and cuttlefish. It lurks its prey in ambush. When approaching the

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victim at a sufficient distance, moray, with a flashlight hurl, throws the front of the body forward and grabs the victim. Moray larvae are called leptocephalus. They have a rounded head and a rounded tail fin, their body is completely transparent, and the length at birth barely reaches 7–10 mm. It is extremely difficult to see such a larva in water, and leptocells also swim freely and are carried by currents over fairly long distances. Thus, sedentary morays spread. The drift period lasts for 6–10 months, during which time the leptocephalus grows and begins to lead a sedentary lifestyle. Morays reach sexual maturity at 4–6 years. The lifespan of these fish is not exactly established, but it is great. It is reliably known that most species can live for more than 10 years. There are complex relationships between man and morays. On the one hand, people always feared these predators and avoided close contact with them in their natural environment. On the other hand, morays meat has been famous for its excellent taste since ancient times. Famous gourmets, the ancient Romans, valued Mediterranean Moray meat on a par with the meat of its freshwater and smaller relative – eel. Morays are served at feasts as a delicacy and in large quantities. Therefore, despite the fear, people from ancient times caught morays, and the Romans even learned to breed them in cages. Now the experience of breeding morays in captivity is lost. Catches in the Adriatic Sea do not exceed 5–6 t. It tolerates imprisonment well and often lives in aquariums.

Mediterranean Sand Smelt (Atherina hepsetus) Mediterranean Sand Smelt (Atherina hepsetus) – marine schooling pelagic fish of the Sand smelts family (Аtherinidae). The body is fusiform, cylindrical, flattened on the sides. The head is small. Mouth and eyes are big. The teeth are small. The tail is branched. Color is dark green with black small spots. The sides and belly are silvery white. Along the sides from the head to the tail a silver

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Mediterranean Moray. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Mediterranean_moray#/media/File:Muraena_helena. 2_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae_edit.JPG)

stripe stretches. Length up to 20 cm. Spawning is portional, and occurs in the spring in the coastal zone. It is widely spread throughout the Adriatic Sea. It usually occurs at depths from 5 to 20 m. Life expectancy of 3–4 years. The mass of catches in the Adriatic Sea is about 120 t. Meat is delicious.

Mediterranean Science Commission (Commission Internationale pоur I’Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Me´diterrane´e – CIESM) Mediterranean Science Commission (Commission Internationale pоur I’Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée – CIESM) – see “▶ International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea.”

Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea – a sea in the Atlantic Ocean. It is a Mediterranean Sea, which means that it is located between Europe, Africa, and Asia. In the west it connects with the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, in the northeast through the Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmara, then

Mediterranean Science Commission

Mediterranean sand smelt. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Mediterranean_sand_smelt#/media/File: Atherina_hepsetus_Stefano_Guerrieri_1.jpg)

through the Bosporus with the Black Sea, in the south-east through the Suez Canal with the Red Sea and then the Indian Ocean. The area of the Mediterranean Sea is 2.5 million km2, water volume is 3.84 million km3, average depth is 1498 m, and maximum depth is 5121 m. Seas of the Mediterranean Sea basin wash the shores of 21 states of three continents – Europe, Asia, and Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, Libya, Lebanon, Israel, Italy, Spain, France, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Monaco, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The name (Greek, MεsóγειoB Θάlαssα; Lat. Mare Mediterranea – the sea among the lands) was first introduced by the ancient writer Gaius Julius Solinus, who based on the beliefs of his times, as ancient European and North African civilizations were developed in the basin of this sea, which was the only traffic connection between them. The following seas are parts of the Mediterranean: the Alboran Sea, the Balearic Sea, the Ligurian Sea, the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the Aegean Sea. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes the Marmara, Black, and Azov Seas. The shores of the Mediterranean Sea at the mountainous coasts, predominantly abrasive, leveled. However, at the low ones, they are lagoon-liman and deltoid; for the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea typical shores of the Dalmatian type. The most significant gulfs are: Valencia, Lyon, Genoa, Taranto, Sidra (Syrtis Major),

Mediterranean Sea

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The map of the Mediterranean Sea. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea#/media/File: Mediterranee_02_EN.jpg)

M Gabes (Syrtis Minor). The largest islands are Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, and Cyprus. The large rivers, such as Ebro, Rhone, Tiber, Po, Nile, and others, empty into the Mediterranean Sea. Hydrological regime of the Mediterranean Sea was formed under the impact of large evaporation and general climatic conditions. The predominance of freshwater expenditure above the inflow leads to a decrease in the sea level, which is the cause of the constant inflow of surface, less saline waters from the Atlantic Ocean and the Black Sea. In the deep layers of the straits, there is an outflow of high-saline water caused by the difference in the water density at the level of the thresholds of the straits. The main water exchange takes place through the Strait of Gibraltar (the upper course brings 42,320 km3 per year of Atlantic water, and the lower reaches 40,800 km3 of the Mediterranean); through the Dardanelles, 350 and 180 km3 of water per a year flow in and out, respectively. Circulation of waters in the Mediterranean Sea has mainly wind-driven nature. It is represented

by the main, almost zonal current carrying waters of predominantly Atlantic origin along Africa, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the shores of Lebanon, a system of cyclonic gyres in isolated seas and basins. The water column to a depth of 750–1000 m is covered by unidirectional water transfer along the depth, except the Levantine intermediate backflow, which transfers the Levantine waters from the eastern Mediterranean to the Strait of Gibraltar. The rates of steady currents in the open sea are 15–30 cm/s, in some straits 55–110 cm/s. The average temperature of water on the surface in February decreases from north to south from 8–12 °C to 17 °C in the eastern and central parts and from 11 °C to 15 °C in the west. In August, the average water temperature varies from 19 °C to 25 °C, and in the extreme east it rises to 27–30 °C. Large evaporation leads to a strong increase in salinity. Its values increase from west to east from 36 to 39.5‰. The density of water on the surface varies from 1.023– 1.027 g/cm3 in summer to 1.027–1.029 g/cm3 in winter. During the period of winter cooling,

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intensive convective mixing develops in areas with a higher density, which leads to the forming of highly salinized and warm intermediate waters in the Eastern Basin and deep waters in the north of the Western Basin, in the Adriatic and the Aegean Seas. According to the bottom temperature and salinity, the Mediterranean Sea is one of the warmest and saltiest seas of the World Ocean (12.6–13.4 °C and 38.4–38.7‰, respectively). The relative transparency of the water reaches 50–60 m, and the color is intensely blue. The tides are mostly semi-diurnal, their magnitude is less than 1 m; however, at certain points, in combination with wind surges, the level fluctuations can reach 4 m (Gulf of Genoa, off the northern coast of the Island of Corsica, etc.). In the narrow straits there are strong tidal currents (Strait of Messina). The maximum heave of the sea is noted in winter (the height of the waves reaches 6–8 m). The vegetation and animals of the Mediterranean Sea is characterized by a relatively poor quantitative development of phyto- and zooplankton, which entails a relatively small number of larger animals that feed on them, including fish. The amount of phytoplankton in the surface horizons is only 8–10 mg/m3, and it is by 10–20 times less at a depth of 1000–2000 m. Algae are very diverse, and peridinean and diatoms predominate. The fauna of the Mediterranean Sea is characterized by a large species diversity; however, the number of individual species representatives is small. There are crayfish, one species of seals (Mediterranean monk seal), and sea turtles. There are 550 species of fish: mackerel, herring, anchovy, mullet, grenadier, tuna, bonito, horse mackerel, etc. There are about 70 species of endemic fish, including skates, species of anchovies, gobies, blennies, wrasse, and garfish. Among the edible mollusks, there are oysters, Mediterranean Black Sea mussel, and date mussels are of the greatest importance. Invertebrates are presented by octopus, squid, sepia, crabs, and lobster are common; there are numerous types of jellyfish and siphonophores, and in some areas, especially in the Aegean Sea, sponges and red coral dwell.

Mediterranean Sea

The shores of the Mediterranean Sea have long been densely populated, and have a high level of economic development (especially the nations, situated on its northern coast). The agriculture of the Mediterranean countries is specified by the production of citrus fruits (about one third of the world harvest), cotton, and oil-bearing crops. In the system of international trade and economic relations the Mediterranean Sea occupies a special position. Being at the junction of three parts of the world (Europe, Asia, and Africa), the Mediterranean Sea is an important transportation route, through which maritime connections between Europe and Asia, Africa, North and South America, as well as Australia and Oceania pass. Important trade routes connecting Russia and Ukraine with Western countries pass through the Mediterranean Sea. Transport value of the Mediterranean Sea area for Western Europe, it is continuously increasing due to the increasing dependence of these countries on the import of raw materials. The Mediterranean Sea is an important “oil” route between Western Europe and the Middle East. The share of southern ports (the main of which are Marseille, Trieste, and Genoa) in the supply of oil to Western Europe is constantly growing. The transportation of various types of raw materials, metal ores and bauxite, and agricultural products along the Suez Canal, through which the connections of Western Europe with Asia and Australia pass, are also great. The largest ports are Marseille with avant-ports in France; Genoa, Augusta, Trieste in Italy; Sidra, MarsaBrega in Libya. Numerous industrial enterprises are created on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and on the islands. Oil and gas production on the shelf of the Mediterranean Sea (northern part of the Adriatic Sea, coast of Greece, etc.) has begun. Compared with other basins of the Atlantic Ocean, fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea are of secondary importance. The development of industry on the coast and the growth of cities, seaports, and recreational areas lead to intensive pollution of the coastal strip. The resorts of the Cote d’Azur (Riviera) in France and Italy, the resorts of the Levant coast, the Balearic Islands and coast in Spain, and the resorts in the Adriatic and Aegean seas are very famous.

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Mediterranean Seas

Milano Marittima

Mediterranean Seas – seas, extremely extending into the land and connecting to the ocean through one or more straits. They are divided into intracontinental and inter-continental, depending on whether they are surrounded by the land of one continent (the Baltic Sea) or located between two continents (the Mediterranean and the Red Sea). Compared to other seas, they are characterized by the greatest isolation and, therefore, the greatest specificity of the hydrological regime, which is greatly affected by the surrounding land.

Milano Marittima – respectable picturesque resort on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy. It was created in 1911 by rich industrialists of Lombardy. In 1912 the first hotels appeared on the first line from the sea. The author of the resort project was an architect and artist Giuseppe Palanti. There are gardens and parks everywhere. Here is the Butterfly House – an amazing greenhouse museum, which contains 1000 butterflies from tropical countries, and two water parks – Acquasport with water slides and Atlantica with a pool with artificial waves and an attraction.

Mediterranеаn Basin Mediterranеаn Basin – Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean, and the Mediterranean Sea itself. The Marmara, Black and Azov Seas, separated from the Mediterranean Sea and from each other by the straits, enter the basin of the Mediterranean Sea. The internal seas, which are separated from each other by islands, are also included into the Mediterranean Sea basin. Sometimes these seas are divided into even smaller parts: the Alboranian Sea – the narrow part of the Northern Sea near the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Balearic and Sardinian Seas – the area between the coast of Spain and Sardinia Island. The Ligurian Sea is the northern part of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Cretan Sea is part of the Aegean Sea at the Crete Island, and the Levantine Sea is the part of the Mediterranean Sea between Turkey and Africa.

Mezokanali Strait Mezokanali Strait – separates Sazani Island from the mainland peninsula Reza-Karaburuni in southern Albania.

Middle Dalmatia Middle Dalmatia – see “▶ Dalmatia.”

Mistrale Mistrale – the wind that blows mostly from the northwest, between June and mid-September. It usually starts blowing at about 10 am and reaches a strength of 3 to 5 points on the Beaufort scale by the middle of the day. By sunset the wind subsides. Mistrale is considered a harbinger of good weather – it brings clear blue sky (without clouds) and warm, pleasant water for swimming. The absence of Mistrale may indicate an imminent change in the weather. In recent years, it was observed that Mistrale began to blow less frequently.

Mljet Island, Mljet Otok Mljet Island, Mljet Otok – the westernmost island of Croatia in the Adriatic Sea at the coast of Southern Dalmatia. It is narrow, 48 km long, and about 3 km wide. Located parallel to the Pelješac Peninsula. Area is approximately 100 km2. The surface is hilly (altitude is more than 500 m), more than 70% is covered with forests – the most wooded island of the Croatian Adriatic. On the island there are two salt lakes – small (29 m) and large (46 m), connected by a narrow channel, and Large Lake is connected by a channel with the sea. They form the Mljet National Park founded in 1960, together with

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Mljet Strait, Mljet Kanal

Mljet Island. (Source: https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mljet#/media/Datoteka:Zalaz_Soline.jpg)

the surrounding area in the northeastern part of the island with ancient dense pine forests and stone caves. Its area is 54 km2. There are about a dozen small villages with amazingly beautiful beaches, as well as places for underwater fishing. Two legends are associated with the island. According to one of them, Odysseus spent some time here with the nymph Calypso. According to the second legend, Mljet is Melita Island, where St. Paul stopped on his way to Italy and was bitten by a viper, but survived. This is indirectly confirmed by the fact that mongooses were brought here from India to fight snakes. English Prince Charles twice visited the island and was fascinated by its beauty. Mljet is one of the most famous and beautiful islands on the Adriatic Sea.

Molfetta Molfetta – port city in Apulia, the Province of Bari, Italy, 25 km north of Bari, on the shore of the Adriatic Sea. The population is 59,400 people (2018). Among the predominant buildings of the postwar period there are scattered medieval monuments, reminiscent of the time when Molfetta was one of the main centers of the Sicilian Kingdom. The most significant among them is the Cathedral of San Corrado. The environs of the city are replete with ancient watchtowers. After the siege by the French in 1529, Molfetta fell into decay. However, it began to develop again with the revival of shipping in the Adriatic Sea in the nineteenth century.

Mljet Strait, Mljet Kanal Molise Mljet Strait, Mljet Kanal – separates Mljet Island from the Pelješac Peninsula. The depth in its middle part is from 50 to 90 m.

Molise – administrative region in southern Italy on the shores of the Adriatic Sea. Formed in 1963 after

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The city of Molfetta, Italy. (Photo by Michele Zaccaria, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molfetta#/media/File: Porto_di_Molfetta.jpg)

the division of the region of Abruzzo and Molise. The area is 4438 km2. Population is approximately 308,500 people (2017). It consists of two provinces – Campobasso and Isernia. In the north it borders with the region of Abruzzo, in the west with Lazio, in the south with Campania, and in the south-east with Apulia. The coastline is 35 km. It is the most mountainous territory in the depth of the region on the border with Lazio and Abruzzo. The largest mountain ranges are the Kampo, Capraro, and Meta (mountain) mountains. The mountainousness of the terrain decreases in the direction of the Adriatic coast. Streams of water formed valleys in the mountains, through which rivers flow. Rivers of Molise are the mountain streams. The most significant are: Biferno, Trigno, Fortore, and Volturno. The main rocks are sedimentary limestone, which leads to landslides and mudflows. There are few woodlands. In the fall heavy rains occur, and winters are usually severe. Molise is one of the coldest regions of southern Italy. The coastal climate is warm and depends on the sea breeze. The coastal

areas are not very different from other Adriatic beach areas. The basis of the regional economy is agriculture and animal husbandry. The industry is poorly developed, being present mainly in the valley of the Biferno River and in the city of Termoli, where there is a large car factory “Fiat.” The industry is dominated by the construction industry with small firms spread throughout the region. Food production: pasta, meat, dairy products, oil, and wine. After the earthquake in 2002, the Italian government is concerned about the seismic resistance of buildings. Tourism is developed, but there are few popular tourist sites.

Monfalcone Monfalcone – a port on the northern coast of the Gulf of Trieste in the top of the bay Panzano, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia Region, Italy. The population is 28,100 people (2009). The shores of the

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Monopoli

Molise. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Molise)

bay are low and boggy. The port consists of the harbors of Rosega (depth 8–9 m) and Panzano (depth 5–17 m), as well as the Valentins Canal (length 1110 m, depth 2.5–3 m) leading to the city of the same name. A fenced canal with a length of 2.5 km and a width of approximately 100 m and depth approximately 9 m, dug through a mud flat. Harbors are equipped with moorings. There are floating docks and shipyard Triestino, which has slipways and floating docks.

Monopoli Monopoli – a city in southeastern Italy, in the Province of Bari, the Region of Apulia. It is a

port on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, railway station on the line Bari-Brindisi. Population is 49,250 people (2014). It is involved in building materials industry. There is also developed small shipbuilding and fishing.

Montenegrin Navy, Mornarica Vojske Crne Gore Montenegrin Navy, Mornarica Vojske Crne Gore – one of the types of armed forces of the country. They were formed after the collapse of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Naval base is situated in the City of Bar. The structure

Montenegro (Republic of Montenegro, Republica Crna Gora, International Name Is Montenegro)

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Monopoli. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoli#/media/File:Vedutamonopoli2.jpg)

consists of Naval Forces headquarters, a communications platoon, and a logistic support platoon. They also consist of a detachment of patrol ships, a rescue squad, a sea observation squad, a special naval squadron, and the training ship “Jadran.” The composition of the Fleet: missile frigates (of “Kotor” type) – 2; Auxiliary vessels: Barkas – 2, Tug – 2, floating crane, motor boat – 2, training ship “Jadran”; yachts: representative yacht, yacht of the government of Montenegro, motor sailing yacht – 2.

Montenegro (Republic of Montenegro, Republica Crna Gora, International Name Is Montenegro) Montenegro (Republic of Montenegro, Republica Crna Gora, International Name Is Montenegro) – a state in southeastern Europe, on the Adriatic coast in the southwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is one of the six republics of the former Yugoslavia. The name comes from the toponym

Black Mountain. The name “Crna Gora” was first mentioned in 1296. The ancient name Zeta (was completely supplanted by the modern name in the fifteenth century). It is washed by the Adriatic Sea, which is here called the Jadransko Sea (Jadransko more). Until June 2006, it was part of the Confederate State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Population of the country is approximately 631,200 people (2020), over 45% of Montenegrins, 29% Serbs, 9% Bosniaks, 5% Albanians, etc.. The territory of the country is 13,812 km2. The length of the state’s land borders is 614 km: in the west it borders the Republic of Croatia – 14 km; 225 km in the northwest it borders the Bosnia and Herzegovina; in the northeast it borders Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Kosovo – 203 km; in the southeast with the Republic of Albania – 172 km. The continental coastline of Montenegro has a length of 294 km, of which 2/3 (200 km) are the open sea, and 1/3 forms the Boka Kotorska Bay. Area of inland waters of Montenegro reaches approximately 360 km2, territorial waters (12 nautical miles) approximately 2000 km2, and the

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Montenegro (Republic of Montenegro, Republica Crna Gora, International Name Is Montenegro)

Montenegro. (Source: https://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/montenegro/montenegro-physical-map.jpg)

epicontinental belt 3900 km2. Total sea area is approximately 6400 km2. Montenegro has in its composition 14 sea islands, and the total length of the coastline of which is 15.6 km. In the northwest of the country there is a large Boka Kotorska Bay. The length of more than 120 beaches is, according to various estimates, approximately 75–173 km. For the 7 months, the temperature of sea water varies from 12 °C to 26 ° C, and the transparency of sea water in places exceeds 35 m. The part of the Adriatic Sea between Montenegro and Southern Italy is the widest (200 km) and the deepest (1330 m). The territory of the country can be conveniently divided into three parts: the coast of the Adriatic

Sea, the relatively flat central part of the country (Zeta Valley), on which the two largest cities are situated: Podgorica and Nikšić, and mountain systems of the north of the country. The longest rivers of Montenegro are: Tara (144 km), Lim (123 km), Chehotin River (100 km), Morača (99 km), Zeta (65 km), and Bojana (30 km). About 52.2% of the Montenegrin rivers belong to the Black Sea basin, the remaining 47.8% to the Adriatic Sea. Three Montenegrin rivers (Morača, Zeta, and Piva with Komarnica) throughout their entire length flow through the territory of Montenegro. The Bojana River was previously the only navigable river of Montenegro; at the moment it is not navigable. The most of the Montenegrin rivers are mountainous

Montenegro (Republic of Montenegro, Republica Crna Gora, International Name Is Montenegro)

and form deep canyons. The Tara River Canyon, with a depth of about 1300 m, is the deepest in Europe and the second deepest in the world. Rivers of Montenegro have an energy potential of 115 kW per 1 km2 of territory, which is a very high indicator. However, for various reasons (including environmental), hydropower in the country is not developed. The largest lake in Montenegro and the entire Balkan Peninsula is Lake Skadar. The total area of its water surface is 369.7 km2. Two-thirds of the lake (by area) are located on the territory of Montenegro, one-third on the territory of Albania. The second largest lake of Montenegro is Lake Šas (5.5 km2), located near Ulcinj. Also, there are 29 small mountain lakes of glacial origin (the so-called mountain eyes) on the territory of Montenegro, the total area of which is 389 km2. More than 41% of the country’s area is woodland and forest lands, 39.58% – pastures. The vegetation of Montenegro is diverse: a total of 2833 plant species are recorded in the country, of which 212 are endemic to the Balkan Peninsula, and 22 are endemic to Montenegro. According to the Constitution of Montenegro, the republic is an “Ecological State,” 8.1% of the territory are under various environmental protection regimes (including four national reserves: Durmitor, Mount Lovćen, Biogradska Gora, Skadar Lake). In northern Montenegro, the climate is temperate continental, and on the Adriatic coast it is Mediterranean. In the coastal region, summers are usually long, hot (+23 °C–25 °C) and rather dry, winters are short and cool (+3 °C–7 °C). In mountainous regions, moderately warm summers (+19 °C–25 °C) and relatively cold winters (from +5 °C to 10 °C); precipitations are mainly presented in the form of snow. Precipitation varies from 500 to 1500 mm per year, mainly in the form of rain, in the mountains near the sea coast in some places more than 3000 mm falls. In the northern regions of Montenegro, snow lays up to 5 months a year. There are 240 sunny days a year in Montenegro. Number of hours of sunshine per year: in Igalo 2386, in Ulcinj 2700. Bathing season is from April to the end of November. Flora and fauna on the coast are Mediterranean, and inland – alpine. Pomegranates, oranges,

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mandarins, and even palm trees grow on the Adriatic coast, vineyards are located near Skadar Lake. In the mountains grow corn, wheat, and fruit trees (apples, peaches, pears, apricots, plums). The mountains are partially occupied by forest (20%) and shrubs. In the mountains there are many birds of prey, bears, wolves, wild goats, deer, etc. The most important minerals are bauxite, iron ore, and coal. Traditionally, the basis of the Montenegro economy was ferrous metallurgy (the center is Niksic), aluminum production (Podgorica), electrical industry (Cetinje), rubber, chemical and bearing industries (Kotor), textile industry (Bielo Pole), shipbuilding and ship repair (Biela, Bar), light and food industries, in particular, brewing (Niksic, Bar), woodworking (Rožaje, Berane, Plevlya, Nikšić), and salt mining. The topography of the country does not allow to develop agriculture. Only 8% of the territory is suitable for agriculture. The main crops are cereals (barley, oats, rye, wheat, corn), potatoes, tobacco, red pepper, eggplant, grapes, citrus fruits, olives, and figs. The plum is favored, which is used for rakia making – local vodka. However, the grape “vine” is mostly preferred. In cattle breeding, sheep breeding prevails. Winemaking and beekeeping are traditionally widely spread. The country has extensively developed road transport, bus service, there is the only electrified railway Bar-Podgorica-Belgrade, which was built in the most difficult mountain conditions for 23 years and includes 230 tunnels and 250 bridges. There is also a side railway line Podgorica-Nikšić only for freight trains. Two small international airports are in the capital Podgorica and in Tivat. Tourists may reach Montenegro via the airport of Dubrovnik in Croatia, located 50 km from Montenegro. Ferries and boats run between resort towns and ports. There are daily ferries from Bar to the Italian cities of Bari and Ancona. In the time of Yugoslavia, Montenegro was the most poorly developed, subsidized Republic of the Federation. To a large extent, the country’s economy was shaken by the wars of the early 1990s, in which Montenegro acted on the side of Serbia, and the subsequent isolation of “small” Yugoslavia. Despite this, by the beginning of the

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Montenegro (Republic of Montenegro, Republica Crna Gora, International Name Is Montenegro)

2000s, Montenegro was able to find itself in the international arena, becoming an attractive object of tourism, both summer (Montenegro is a country of pebble beaches) and winter; since then, the country has experienced significant economic growth annually. International resorts in Herceg Novi, Budva, Bečići, and Petrovac are very popular, as well as historical and natural attractions – the city of Kotor on the shore of the Bay of Kotor, the former capital of Cetinje, Skadar Lake (the area around it is proclaimed a National Park), Mount Lovćen, an alpine monastery Ostrog, canyon of the Tara River, Mount Durmitor with glacial lakes, caves and viewing platforms – National Park, Žabljak ski resort (1465 m above sea level, the highest mountain town in the Balkans). The beaches are also attractions of the country: the largest of them is the Velika Plaža in the area of Ulcinj. State policy is aimed at the comprehensive development of the tourism sector, and it has been given priority over industry and agriculture. The first Ecological Constitution in the world was officially adopted in Montenegro (when crossing the Montenegro border by car, an environmental fee is charged). On October 20, 2007, the Constitution of Montenegro was adopted. In accordance with the first article of the Constitution, Montenegro is a free, democratic, ecological state of social justice based on the principles of the rule of law. Montenegro is a parliamentary republic. The power is divided into legislative, executive, and judicial. The President is not formally included in the system of separation of powers. The President is elected for a five-year term by universal direct secret ballot. Legislative power is exercised by a unicameral parliament – Skupština. Skupština of Montenegro consists of 81 mandates; elections are held according to a proportional system in a direct secret ballot: 76 deputies are elected and 5 Albanian representatives are nominated from the Albanian minority. The term of office of the Assembly is 4 years. Executive power is vested on the Government (Vlada). The composition of the government is approved by the Assembly at the proposal of the President. The judicial system is two-level. The Supreme Court of Montenegro ensures the unity of law enforcement practice throughout the

republic. In addition to a two-tier judicial system, there is also a Constitutional Court. Since 2009, Montenegro is an Associate Member of the European Union, and since 2017, it is a member of NATO. The territory of Montenegro is divided into 21 communities (regions). Communities are named after their central cities. The largest cities are Podgorica, Nikšić (the second largest city in the country), Pljevlja, Bielo-Pole, Herceg Novi, Berane, Cetinje, and Budva. The current capital is Podgorica (formerly Titograd) – 236,850 inhabitants (2018). The historical capital of Cetinje is where the Royal residence was located. Religion – Orthodox Christianity (75% of the population). Great relics – Hand of John the Baptist, Fragment of the True Cross, Relics of St. Peter of Cetinje (Cetinje Monastery), Relics of St. Basil of Ostrog (Ostrog Monastery). During the period of the Roman Empire, Montenegro was part of the Roman province of Illyria. In the sixth century, the Slavs came to the lands of Montenegro and mixed with local tribes. In 1042, the Slavic state of Duklja was proclaimed (after the victory over the Byzantines). In 1077, Pope Gregory VII recognized the state of Duklja and bestowed the title “Rex Dioclea” (King of Duklja) to its first ruler, Prince Mikhailo of the Vojislavljević dynasty. Then the state is called Zeta. In 1185, Zeta was annexed to Serbia. In 1326, the restoration of Zeta independence occurred. After the defeat of neighboring Serbia in the battle of Kosovo on June 15, 1389, the danger of a Turkish occupation arose. For some time, they managed to protect themselves from this thanks to the protectorate of the Republic of Venice. In 1496, Montenegro accepted the protectorate of the Ottoman Empire, but was never entirely under its rule (the Turks controlled only the southeastern territories of the former Zeta). Montenegro arose as an independent state in the eighteenth century. The first of the countries of the Balkan Peninsula freed from the oppression of the Ottoman Empire. In the years 1516–1852, there was a theocratic state of Montenegro, ruled by the vladikas (princes with the church title of bishop). The capital of the state was in its church center – the city of Cetinje. In 1711, Montenegro established political ties with Russia. In 1715,

“Montenegro Lines”

Danilo Petrović-Njegoš came to Russia and met with Peter I, Emperor of Russia. The principality constantly received financial assistance from Russia, and military personnel were trained in St. Petersburg. In 1852, Montenegro became a secular state-principality (Vladika Danilo II of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty proclaimed himself a prince). Russian Emperor Alexander III called him “the only true and sincere friend of Russia.” On March 3, 1878, under the Treaty of San Stefano, Montenegro increased its territory at the expense of the former Turkish possessions. On July 13, 1878, according to the Treaty of Berlin, Montenegro was recognized as the 27th sovereign state of the world; and partially approved its new territorial possessions. Montenegro took part in the First and Second Balkan Wars in 1912–1913 and conquered part of today’s Kosovo. During the First World War it was occupied by Austro-Hungarian troops (since 1916); and since 1918 by the Serbian forces. At the end of 1918, after the abdication of the throne of Nicholas I, Parliament of Montenegro voted to join the country as a province called Zeta Banate (Zeta Banovina) into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (under the control of the Serbian Royal dynasty). In the years 1919–1924 a rebellion against Serbian rule broke out. From June 12, 1941, to 1943, after the German-Italian occupation of Yugoslavia, Montenegro was formally the Kingdom of “Independent Power of Montenegro” under the protectorate of Italy, in fact, the King was never appointed, and Sekula Drljević was the head of the collaborationist administration. In the years 1943–1944, Montenegro was under German occupation; 1944–1945 under the control of the Yugoslav partisans led by I.B. Tito. From January 1946 to April 1992, the Socialist Republic of Montenegro was part of the SFRY. On March 1, 1992, in a referendum, the inhabitants of Montenegro voted so that the Republic would remain part of Yugoslavia. About 95.96% of voters voted for joining the renewed Yugoslavia (66% of the SFRY citizens living in Montenegro voted in total), while the Albanians, Bosnians, and Croats who lived in the Republic declared a boycott. Since the collapse of Yugoslavia from April

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1992 to June 2006, it has been part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which on February 4, 2003, became the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. On May 21, 2006, a referendum on the state status of the Republic was held in Montenegro, in which 55.5% of voters voted for full independence from Belgrade (by that time Montenegro already had a separate currency from Serbia and a customs border with it). On June 3, 2006, the Assembly (Parliament) of Montenegro declared independence of the Republic. On June 15, 2006, Montenegro’s independence was recognized by Serbia, and at the end of June, Montenegro was admitted to the UN. The culture of Montenegro is a huge “melting pot” filled at different times with various peoples. West and East, Orthodoxy and Islam, Romanesque and Gothic, Baroque and abstractionism formed the external and internal appearance of the culture of Montenegro. The first evidence of the manifestation of human genius on the territory of Montenegro can be considered settlements with cultural fancies specific for the Bronze Age found in the Red Wall (Crvena stjena) caves, Bioče (Morača River canyon), Malishina Cave (Mališina stijena), and the Medena stijena (canyon of the Ćehotina River). The development of society, the emergence of trade relations, contributed to the establishment of a new cultural environment, and the main arena for the expression of which was the City of Kotor. Its majestic and graceful churches and fortress, public houses, and buildings that have survived to this day are now listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Of considerable interest are Islamic mosques, for example, Hussein Pasha Bolyanich in Plevla and numerous monastery complexes: Morača, Piva Monastery, high-mountain monastery Ostrog, which absorbed the Byzantine canons of painting and painting.

“Montenegro Lines” “Montenegro Lines” – the shipping company of Montenegro, which carries out ferry traffic on lines from Montenegro to Italy: Bar-Bari-Bar

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and Bar-Ancona-Bar. The Fleet of the line consists of two ferries: “Sveti Stefan” and “Sveti Stefan-II.”

Motoscafo

production from various eras, beginning with Ancient Rome, are collected. The island sightseeings are the early Byzantine basilica of Santi Maria et Donata (twelfth century) and the Church of St. Peter the Martyr (fifteenth century) with paintings by Tintoretto, Bellini, and Veronese.

Motoscafo Motoscafo – small motor boats in the Venetian Lagoon, plying from Venice to distant islands such as Murano and Burano.

Muggia (Muggia Bay) Muggia (Muggia Bay) – extensive and deep-sea bay, the southern water area of the Port of Trieste, Italy. It is also a small town of the same name. There are small harbors, separate moorings, shipyards, and also the southern one of the three large harbors of the port – the harbor of Porto-FrancoSant’Andrea. There are sandy beaches.

Murano Murano – the island and town in Italy, located in the Gulf of Venice in the north of Venice. It is part of the commune of Venice. The population is 4300 people. (2017). In ancient times, the island was called Amurianum. On the five islands, which compose it, the population of Alton and other ancient centers of the continent found refuge, endangered by the Huns and trying to find safer lands. By X–XI centuries Murano becomes one of the important centers of the lagoon, thanks to its production of artistic glassware, which has been increasing since the end of the thirteenth century. In the fifteenth century Murano glassblowers won fame all over the world. Until now, the island is famous for its glassblowing art. Production of optical glasses, beads, mirrors, crystal, and jewelry is developed there. There are two interesting canals in Murano – the Angels Channel and the Glassblowers Channel. The Museum of Glass is also situated here, where the products of Murano

Murter Island, Murter Otok Murter Island, Murter Otok – the largest island in the Šibenik Archipelago, Northern Dalmatia, Croatia. It is situated to the east of the Kornati National Reserve, which separates the bay, known as the Murter Sea. It is spanned with the mainland by a drawbridge, which lies across a narrow 20-m strait. The area of the island is 18.7 km2. The population of the island is 5200 people. The highest point of the island is the peak of Raduč (125 m above sea level). The population is concentrated in large areas of the island: Murter, Betina, Tisno, and Jezer. The town of Murter is surrounded by three hills, it is hidden in a pine forest and olive groves. There is a sandy beach, which, thanks to the shallow bottom is ideal for children. Harbor of Murter offer seafarers approximately 200 berths. The shipyard operates in Betina, where small vessels are made. Every summer the Adriatic Maritime Academy conducts sailing school classes. The courses last 7 days and include practical exercises at sea in the first half of the day, and in the second half English language learning. At 300 m from the western coast of the island lies a small island of Prisnjak. In 1886, a lighthouse was built on it, so that the captains of the ships could more easily navigate when entering at night from the south and west into the Murter Gulf and Sea.

Mussels (Mytilus) Mussels (Mytilus) – Mollusks, family of marine bivalve mollusks. The shell of mussels is wedgeoval, smooth. Length is up to 20 cm. Coloring is yellowish-green. With the help of byssus mussels attach to a solid substrate, as well as to other

Mussels (Mytilus)

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The town of Murano, Venice, Italy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murano#/media/File:Murano_-_veduta_2.jpg)

Murter Island, Northern Dalmatia, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murter#/media/File:Murter_ murter061995.jpg)

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mussels, forming their intergrowths. In the mantle cavity of mussels, water is circulated, which is necessary for respiration and the entry of food particles. Large mussels can leak out through the mantle cavity up to 70 l per day. Mussles purify water from suspended particles, which are then deposited on the ground. Sometimes mussles are called “oysters for the poor.” Mussles meat is nutrient rich, and eaten in boiled and canned form. Some types of mussles are bred artificially. It is widely distributed in temperate and subtropical waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Edible mussles sometimes form solid settlements – mussel banks. It is a component of fouling of underwater parts of port facilities and vessels.

Mussels (Mytilus)

Mussels. (Photo by Mark A. Wilson, Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussel#/media/File:CornishMussels. JPG)

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Nejgoš Danilo Petrovič (1826–1860) Nejgoš Danilo Petrovič (1826–1860) – Prince of Montenegro (1851–1860). With the support of Russia, he achieved the transformation of Montenegro into a secular state and proclaimed himself Prince. Cooperation with Russia made Nejgoš very popular among the Montenegrin people. He led a persistent struggle to strengthen the princely power. In 1855, he published “Code,” in which he fixed the norms of democracy: equality before the law, protection of private property, etc. He pursued a pronounced antiTurkish foreign policy, supporting the liberation movement of all Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1857–1858 in order to assist the insurgent Herzegovins, Nejgoš began a war against Turkey, which ended with the defeat of the Turkish Army and the transition to Montenegro of some of the territories conquered from the Turks. In 1860, Nejgoš was killed by the Montenegrin Kadić, who allegedly acted on the basis of personal revenge. Most likely, the organizer of this murder was Austria, which sought to subjugate Montenegro.

Nejgoš Dynasty (Negoshi) Nejgoš Dynasty (Negoshi) – the legendary dynasty of princes-bishops (vladyki), who ruled in Montenegro in 1700–1918. The dynasty got its name from the ancient Montenegrin tribe Njegoš, which was divided into several brotherhoods. The

founder of the dynasty was the Petrović Brotherhood. The reign of the Lord of Petrovićes lasted from 1697 to 1852. The first rulers, lords or metropolitans, united in one person the highest spiritual and secular power. Many members of the dynasty maintained contact with Russia. The founder of the dynasty was Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš. Under his reign, the Montenegrins won a historic victory over the Turks at Tsarev Laz (1712), and the country became especially close to Russia. In 1715, Danilo I was received by Peter the Great in St. Petersburg. The reign of Peter I Petrović-Njegoš (1781–1830) was marked by successful wars with Turkey, as a result of which in 1796 Turkey recognized the independence of Montenegro. In 1798, the Russian Emperor Pavel I granted the Order of Alexander Nevsky to Peter I Njegoš. Peter II Njegoš ruled Montenegro from 1830 to 1851. He was the most famous representative of the dynasty: ruler, metropolitan, poet, philosopher, and enlightener, recognized as the spiritual symbol of Montenegro. After his premature death at the age of 38, Danilo II Njegoš, who ruled in 1851–1860, in 1852, with the support of Russia, achieved the transformation of Montenegro into a secular state and proclaimed himself a Prince. In 1860, the reign of Nicholas I Njegoš began – the last of the rulers, who in 1910 proclaimed himself a King of Montenegro. He reorganized the Montenegrin Army, established the State Council, adopted the new Constitution of Montenegro “Устав за княжевину Црну Гору,” “cut a window” to the Adriatic Sea, thus

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Neretva Bay, Neretva Uvala

their native house has been preserved, remarkable for its extraordinary simplicity.

Neretva Bay, Neretva Uvala

Nejgoš Danilo Petrovič. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Danilo_I,_Prince_of_Montenegro#/media/File:Danilo_ Petrovi%C4%87_Njego%C5%A1.jpg)

fulfilled the long-standing dream of the Serbs. Over 50 years of rule, he almost doubled the territory of Montenegro. Under his rule, Montenegro was finally recognized as an independent state (Berlin Congress, 1878). Became related with several royal houses: bestowed his daughter Anastasia (Stan) in marriage with Russian Grand Prince Nikolai Nikolayevich, Militsa – with Pyotr Nikolayevich, Helena – with Italian King VictorEmmanuel, Zorka – with Serbian King Peter, Anna – with Duke of Battenberg. Emperor Alexander III in 1889, at a reception in St. Petersburg, addressed Prince Nikolay: “I drink to the health of Prince of Montenegro, the only sincere and loyal friend of Russia.” In 1910 he was granted the rank of Field Marshal of the Russian Empire. Njegoš’s dynasty was excluded from rule in 1918, due to the inclusion of Montenegro into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (since 1929 – Yugoslavia). Halfway from Kotor in Cetinje (Montenegro), there is the birthplace village of the Montenegrin Princes-Bishops Njegoš. Here,

Neretva Bay, Neretva Uvala – It enters the mainland almost at 70 km to the east of the Pelješac Peninsula, Croatia. In the west, it connects with the Korčula Strait. The northern part of the bay connects with the Hvar Strait. The narrow top of the bay is known as the Bay of Mali Ston. The shores of the gulf are poorly indented; the shores of the Mali Ston Bay are the most indented. The high banks are overgrown with forest and descend steeply to the sea. The only lowland area is the wide valley of the Neretva River, located on the northeast shore of the bay. The bay extends to the southwest coast rather significantly, and Ploče Bay extends into the northeastern shores, which houses the youngest city on the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea, Ploče (founded in 1937). In Ploče there is also a large harbor.

Neretva River Neretva River – the longest river on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea basin, which flows into the sea. It originates in the Dinar Highland, flows through Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Croatia. The length of the river is 218 km. The catchment area is 5580 km2. On most of its course, it is a typical mountain river, navigable from its mouth to the City of Metković (22 km). Nearby the town of Jablanica hydro-power plant is situated. Neretvas Valley is the main agricultural area. The City of Mostar stands on Neretva River. Neretva River Delta is separated into 12 branches. It includes eight lakes and numerous canals. The Delta used to be the edge of the marshes. Currently, thanks to land reclamation works, it is one of the most fertile lands in the country. Despite intensive agricultural development, extensive reed beds are preserved here, in which there are many species of birds: bittern, corncrakes, harriers, etc.

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Neretva River in Metković, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neretva#/media/File:Neretva_metkovic2.jpg)

NETCET (Network for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Sea Turtles in the Adriatic Sea) NETCET (Network for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Sea Turtles in the Adriatic Sea) – a project implemented with the financial support of the Adriatic Transboundary Cooperation Program of the EU 2007–2013. The project covers 13 participants from almost all countries of the Adriatic (Albania, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, and Slovenia) working together on a number of issues. The objectives of the project are to increase the knowledge and to reveal the status of cetaceans and sea turtles, increasing the ways of protection, increasing the awareness about the importance of the conservation of cetaceans and sea turtles, and the establishment of collaboration for planning effective longterm conservation strategies. Based on current situation analysis, NETCET participants identified the future need for the cetaceans and sea turtles preservation and developed a strategy for the protection of cetaceans and sea turtles in the Adriatic Sea for a ten-year period 2006–2016.

Neum Neum – the only small resort town of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which has access to the Adriatic Sea. It is situated on the Adriatic coast and interrupts the possession of Croatia for 25 km along the coastline along the coastal highway Magistrala. The length of the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina is 9 km. This corridor was transferred to the Republic in 1945 to provide access to the sea. It is situated between Dubrovnik and Makarska. The population of the town is 4960 people (2013). There are pebbly beaches with a length of 25 km. There are no big waves here, because the coast is protected by mountains. The history of the city began in ancient times, then the Roman era began, and in the Middle Ages, these lands became the scene of struggle, first between the Venetians and the Ottomans, and later these lands belonged to Austro-Hungarians and the French. During the Second World War, Neum was captured by fascist Croatia. At the end of the war, it was given to Bosnia, first as a village in the Federal Republic

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Njivice

Neum. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neum#/media/File:AdriaticWar.jpg)

of Yugoslavia, and then as part of an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Njivice Njivice – is a village, which is situated almost on the shores of the Bay of Kotor, on the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro, on the border with Croatia. The life of the village is associated with a holiday resort.

investments in maritime, road, rail, and IT infrastructures, strengthening shipping communications (with particular attention to railways), representation of the interests of the Northern Adriatic in national and European institutions, and assistance in relation to the international business community.

Northern Dalmatia Northern Dalmatia – see “▶ Dalmatia.”

Northern Adriatic Port Association (NAPA) Northern Adriatic Port Association (NAPA) – established in 2010, as an organization – the European way. The members of the association are the ports of Ravenna, Venice, and Trieste (Italy), Koper (Slovenia), Rijeka (Croatia). The association aims to approve coordinated planning of

Norway Lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) Norway Lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) – species of lobsters from the order of decapod crustaceans. The main specificities of the Norway lobster are two oblong claws. Females reach sizes up to 20 cm; males reach up to 24 cm in length. Most

Novigrad, Istria (Croat. Novigrad Istarski, Ital. Citta`nova d’Istria)

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residents. At the end of the nineteenth century Novi Vinodolski was a luxury resort. Today it is an ordinary tourist place with random port facilities and concrete bathing platforms.

Novigrad, Istria (Croat. Novigrad Istarski, Ital. Citta`nova d’Istria)

Norway lobster. (Photo by Hans Hillewaert, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephrops_norvegicus#/ media/File:Nephrops_norvegicus.jpg)

of those caught today only occasionally exceed 15 cm. It dwells on the soft areas of the seabed, at a depth of 40–250 m, where it digs its own caves and passages. It leaves its refuge only at night to search for food. Every second year from March to November, females lay up to 4000 eggs, which are fertilized by the male only after they are stuck on the tail of the female. The female carries these eggs with her for up to 9 months. It is considered a delicacy, while its thin claws, unlike other types of lobster, do not contain meat suitable for eating. Norway lobsters are often offered under various names. In France, it is called “Langoustine,” which brings it closer to much more expensive langoustes. In Germany and Austria, Norway lobsters are also often served as a “langouste tail”.

Novi Vinodolski Novi Vinodolski – is a resort town, which is situated to the southeast of Rijeka, Croatia, and stretching along the seaside road Magistrala for 2 km. It is of great historical importance – in 1288 the so-called the Vinodol Codex (Vinodolski zakon) was signed which is the oldest of the preserved ones, written on Croatian language. It established the power of Frankopan family over the terrain and secured the rights of local

Novigrad, Istria (Croat. Novigrad Istarski, Ital. Cittànova d’Istria) – a small resort town on the western coast of the Istrian Peninsula on the Adriatic Sea, between the cities of Umag and Poreč, to the south of the state border of Croatia with Slovenia, occupying the shores of the Tarska cove from the north, the mouth of the Mirna River, Croatia. The population is over 4350 people (2011), mainly Croats (66%) and Italians (10%), as well as Serbs, Albanians, Slovenes, etc. The city was inhabited in ancient times, as evidenced by numerous historical monuments and objects found during archaeological research. In Roman times, on this place stood the settlement of Emona, in the Byzantine period (seventh century) – Neapolis. Later, in the annals of the ninth century AD, it is mentioned as Civitas Nova (Croatian Civitas Nova), in the chronicles of the twelfth century AD – as Emona, Emonia, and Aemonia. Since fifth and sixth centuries and until 1831, the territories have been a part of a single bishopric, stretching north to the Dragonja River and east to the Mirna River. Novigrad is situated on a small peninsula and possessing fertile lands and was often located at the crossroads of historical events, which was reflected in architectural monuments. Novigrad survived the Byzantine period of its history in the sixth to seventh centuries. In the eighth to ninth centuries, the city was part of Franconia; in the tenth to twelfth centuries, it was part of Germany. The reign of the Venetian Republic Novigrad survived in 1270–1797. During the Venetian rule, Novigrad was an important port used for shipping timber. However, in the seventeenth century, it was destroyed by the Turks. In 1805–1813 it was ruled by Napoleon, from 1814

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Novigrad of Zadar

Novigrad, Istria. (Photo by Petar Milošević, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novigrad,_Istria_County#/media/File: Novigrad_(Istria).jpg)

to 1918 – the city was part of Austria-Hungary, and from 1918 to 1943, it was ruled by the Italian administration. In the past, Novigrad was known as a fishing village. Currently, the most important spheres of Novigrad’s economy remain fishing, the textile industry, and agriculture. The population is occupied mainly in the vineyards and the collection of olives. In the northeastern part of the town there is a small port and a marina for yachts, built in 1983. Among the sightseeings of the city there is the Gallerion Museum, the parish church of St. Pelagius and St. Maxim – the temple built at the time of the creation of the Novigrad Diocese (fifth to sixth centuries), until 1831 it was the Cathedral. During its existence, it was restored in 1408, 1580, 1746, and 1775. The bell tower, located directly by the church, was built in 1883. At the top of the pyramid, crowning the building, there is a bronze-covered wooden statue of the patron saint of the city, St. Pelagius, created in 1913. The city walls, reminiscent of the walls of the Moscow Kremlin in their architecture, were built in the middle of twelfth century and recovered at different times. The Church of St. Agath is an example of Romanesque religious architecture. The building is interesting for its architecture,

since its three naves are under an all-embracing gable roof. Symbols of the early Middle Ages regional religious architecture are noticeable in the building; the interior of the temple is complemented by two statues of the late Baroque and painting depicting St. Agath.

Novigrad of Zadar Novigrad of Zadar – settlement in Northern Dalmatia, Croatia. Population is 2370 people (2011). Since there is a city in Istria with the same name, in Croatia it is often called Novigrad of Zadar or Novigrad of Dalmatia. Novigrad is situated at 35 km northeast of Zadar, on the southern shore of the Novigrad Sea, a large sea bay connected with the Adriatic Sea by a narrow strait, Novsko Ždrilo. The village itself is situated on the shore of the bay. On a hill above the village, there are the ruins of a medieval fortress of the thirteenth century. In 1386, Queen Mary (Queen of Hungary) and her mother Elizabeth of Bosnia were imprisoned in this castle, a year later Elizabeth was killed here. Novigrad historically was a city of fishermen; the fishing traditions in the city are preserved. In 1992–1993 the shores of the

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Novigrad of Zadar. (Photo by Luka Paic, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novigrad,_Zadar_County#/media/File: Novigrad_dalmatinski_7lp.jpg)

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The Novigrad Sea, Croatia. (Source: http://www.dalmatia.net/locations/novigrad-sea-region)

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Novigrad Sea were the scene of fierce battles between the Croatian Army and the troops of the Republic of Serb Krajina. In 1992, Novigrad was captured by Serbs, whose goal was the destruction of a strategically important bridge over the Novsko Ždrilo. In 1993, during the operation, Maslenica Novigrad was occupied by the Croatian Army. The rich history of the city is represented by numerous churches with a genuine atmosphere of past days, which bypassed industrialization and intensive settlement. In the nearby village of Prigrad there is an early Christian church of St. Martin dated by fifth century and the remains of the old church of St. Mihovil of ninth century. In addition to the two well-equipped public pebble beaches, the Novigrad coast has a large number of small, isolated pebble bays.

Novigrad Sea (Novigradsko more)

Novigrad Sea (Novigradsko more) Novigrad Sea (Novigradsko more) – is a vast and deep sea bay, connecting with the Adriatic Sea by a narrow Novsko Ždrilo, Dalmatia, Croatia. It is surrounded by low mountains and hills. The northeastern coast is steep and rocky; the rest of the coast is more gentle. In the northeast bank flows Zrmanja River, flowing through a narrow canyon – Zrmanja gorge (one of the most remarkable karst formations in Croatia). In the southeastern part of the sea, there is the entrance to the Karinsko Zdrilo (a strait), which leads to the Karinsko Sea. On the southern side of the Novigrad Sea, there is situated Novigrad harbor with depths of up to 40 m. It is one of the centers mollusks breeding.

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Ofanto River

Opatija

Ofanto River – the largest river of the Adriatic Sea basin in southern Italy, and the main river in Apulia. The length of the river is 145 km, and the basin area is 2760 km2. It originates in the Southern Apennines near ancient Venusia and empties into the Adriatic Sea. In spring and late autumn, there are heavy floods on the river. It is navigable in a small area in the lower reaches. In ancient times, it was navigable in the area below the city of Canusium (modern Canos de Puglia).

Opatija – a city situated in the east of the Istrian Peninsula, 19 km west of the city of Rijeka, in the Kvarner Bay, Croatia. The population is more than 11,700 people (2011). The emergence of Opatija is associated with the Benedictine Monastery (1449). This is the oldest resort and health center of the Mediterranean (since 1884). Before the First World War, Opatija was the fashionable resort of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1894, Emperor Franz Joseph met here with German Kaiser Wilhelm II. Here rested the Russian Emperors, the Romanian and Swedish Kings, as well as J. Puccini, F. Legar, A.P. Chekhov, J. Joyce, Isadora Duncan, and others. A special attraction of the resort is the “Opatja Lungomare” – a broad shady walking path along the coast of the Adriatic Sea with a total length of 12 km. In 1954, the Institute of Thalassotherapy was opened here, which created for the Opatija the glory of a rehabilitation center.

Omiš Omiš – port city, located south of Split on the southern coast of Dalmatia, at the end of the Cetina Gorge, washed by the Cetina River, Croatia. The population is 14,900 people (2011). For centuries, Omiš remained the impregnable fortress of pirates, who in the Middle Ages for many years threatened the Venetian Fleet. There are pebble and sand beaches. The historic center of the city is a narrow street with remains of fortress walls and two dilapidated Venetian fortifications – Mirabela and Vortitsa. In Omiš there is a famous festival of male throat singing klape, traditional for Dalmatia. Songs performed by bands speak of love, sea, and fishing.

Opatija (Liburnia) Riviera (Opatija Riviera, Opatijska Rivijera) Opatija (Liburnia) Riviera (Opatija Riviera, Opatijska Rivijera) – is situated to the west of Rijeka, Croatia. It is a chain of seaside resorts

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Opatija (Liburnia) Riviera (Opatija Riviera, Opatijska Rivijera)

Ofanto River. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofanto#/media/File:PONTE_OFANTO.png).

The city of Omiš, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omi%C5%A1#/media/File:Omis_01.jpg)

Orebic´

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Opatija. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opatija#/media/File:Opatija-rijeka-croatia.jpg)

O stretched for 20 km along the western side of Kvarner Bay. The Učka Ridge (1395 m) protects the area from strong winds. The center of the Riviera is Opatija, which as a resort that gained popularity at the end of the nineteenth century. Russian writer A.P. Chekhov described the resort life on the Opatija Riviera in the story “Ariadne.”

Opatija lungomare (Opatijski langomar) Opatija lungomare (Opatijski langomar) – beautiful promenade (walking path) along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, 12 km long. It stretches from the harbor of Volosko through Opatija Park and the city beach to Lovran. There you may enjoy the smell of the sea, the odor of flowering plants, magnificent views.

Orebic´ Orebić – a small town in the south of the Pelješac Peninsula, Croatia. The population of the city is 4100 people (2001). It is situated at the foot of the Mount of Saint Elijah (980 m). The city was named in honor of the family of Captain Orebić, who in 658 built a fortress here, later destroyed by the Turks and pirates. For nearly five hundred years it was part of the Republic of Ragusa (Croatian: Dubrovačka Republika). Then it experienced a short period of rapid flourishing in the years of the Adriatic trade. Then the city merchants founded the maritime society and built their own shipyards to create an independent merchant Fleet. Orebić is the cradle of the glorious captains and sailors. However, it all ended in 1887. Currently, Orebić is a tourist town with long pebble beaches. The embankment of the city and the “street of the

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Ortona

Opatija lungomare. (Source: https://www.itinari.com/ru/location/lungomare-opatija)

captains” are interesting, along which many generations of sea Croatian captains built comfortable country villas. There is also the Maritime Museum. Near the city there is Our Lady of Angels Church (nineteenth century), built on donations from navigators of Orebić and their vow to Holy Mother and the Franciscan Monastery, built in the fifteenth century, which became the storage place of the miraculous icon of “Our Lady of Angels,” which the Franciscans brought from Kotor Bay. The icon protects sailors from shipwrecks. Sailing past the monastery, the captains of the Orebić ships turn on a siren. In the Monastery Museum there are stored spiritual canvases, written by the order of the ship crews, who escaped from shipwreck or pirates, bringing sacrifices to Holy Mother. Ship models are also exhibited. There is also a ferry cruising to Korčula Island from Orebić.

Ortona Ortona – a city situated on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, Apulia Region, Italy. Population is

22,800 people (2019). The origins of Ortona are uncertain. Strabo wrote about Ortona: “This is a city on the cliffs inhabited by pirates whose houses are made of shipwrecks; in all other respects, they are, as they say, bestial people.” In 2005 a Bronze Age settlement and a Roman city were discovered here. Some sections of paved roads and city walls are remnants of the old city. Ortona was part of the Roman Empire for several centuries before it was annexed to the Kingdom of the Lombards. In 803, Ortona was incorporated into the County of Chieti. In the first half of the fifteenth century Ortona’s walls were built, and in the same period, Ortona fought the nearby City of Lanciano. This struggle ended in 1427. In 1447, ships from Venice destroyed the Port of Ortona. In 1582, the city was acquired by the Duchess Margarita of Parma, the daughter of the emperor Charles V. In 1584, Margarita decided to build a large house (known as Palazzo Farnese), which was not completed due to her death. After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860, Ortona became one of the first resorts on the Adriatic Sea. During the Second World War in 1943, the

Otranto

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Orebić. (Photo by Quahadi Añtó, Source: https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orebi%C4%87#/media/Datoteka:Panorama_ Orebi%C4%87_1127.jpg)

Royal family of the Savoy dynasty left the Nazi-occupied Italy from the Port of Ortona. The city was part of the Gustav defense line, created by Germans (it reached Cassino on the opposite side of Italy). The strategic importance of Ortona in the German defense led to fierce battles in the area of the city between German and Canadian troops. In Ortona there are several good beaches and a local history museum dedicated to the Battle of Ortona.

Otok Gospa od Milosrda Otok Gospa od Milosrda – tiny islet located in the Gulf of Tivat, to the west of Island of Flowers, Montenegro. Its diameter is only 200 m. The monastic complex occupies half of the island. The main shrine is a wooden statue of the Virgin, considered thaumaturgic.

Otranto Otranto – (1) a bay in the south of the peninsula, which extends into its eastern shore, Italy. The shores of the bay are rocky and relatively low. The depth in the outer part of the bay varies from 5 to 10 m. Otranto is located on the southwestern shore of the bay. (2) The strait between the Apennine and Balkan Peninsulas, between the coasts of Italy and Albania, connects the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Western shore belongs to Italy, and the eastern one to Albania. Width at the narrowest point is 72 km and the depth is approximately 740 m (maximum depth is 850 m). Named for the city of Otranto in Italy. During the First World War, the strait was of strategic importance. The Allied naval forces – Italy, France, and the United Kingdom – blocked the strait (Otranto barrage), preventing the Austro-Hungarian Fleet from entering

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“Otranto Barrage”

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Ortona. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortona#/media/File:Ortona_2000_by-RaBoe-01.jpg)

the Mediterranean Sea, where the naval theater of military operations was located. (3) The threshold situated on the border of the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas, the depth of the threshold is about 800 m. To the north of the threshold there is the South Adriatic, which is an almost circular depression with a depth of 1230 m. South Adriatic is one of the areas of deep waters forming in the Eastern Mediterranean. (4) Port city on the back side of the “heel” of Italy, the region of Apulia. Among the Italian cities, it is the closest to the coast of Albania, from which it is separated by the Strait of Otranto. The population is 5500 people (2008). It originated as one of the cities of Great Greece called Hydros (ancient Greek ΎδroB). The Romans renamed it Hidruntum (Latin Hydruntum) and used as the most important crossing after Brundisium to the Balkans. In the eleventh century, the locals spoke Greek and observed the Orthodox rite. In 1068 it became part of the Kingdom of Sicily. In 1480, the Turks attempted to capture Otranto, and the Pope, in order to dislodge from the hands of the “infidels” the bridgehead in Italy, proclaimed a crusade, which was successful. In

1537 the city was sacked by the Turkish pirate, nicknamed Red Beard. After the attacks of the Turks, Otranto lost its port value. In 1804, Napoleon placed his garrison in the medieval castle of Otranto, and the title of Duke of Otranto was granted to the head of the French police, Joseph Fouche. His descendants called themselves the dukes of Otranto in the twentieth century. (5) A cape (Capo d’Otranto), located in the extreme east of the Apennine Peninsula, Italy, which extends into the Adriatic Sea almost at 5 km. Cape is blank, tall, and rocky. Under the steep bank on the cape, there is a lighthouse.

“Otranto Barrage” “Otranto Barrage” – the Franco-Italian net defense in the Strait of Otranto, between Fano (Italy) and Corfu (Greece) during the First World War in 1918, which included minefields and a patrol of light naval forces. The main author of the project is Captain 3rd Rank de Quillacq. Barrage installation lasted for 5 months. The length of

Our Lady of the Rocks (Ostrvo Gospa od Škrpjela)

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Otranto Strait. (https:// www.waldvogel.com/19982013/static/data/_0051/ 0051data/al.html)

O the barrier is 66 km; it was divided into links, approximately 300 m each. The nets were 50 m high; their upper edge was immersed in water for 10 m. They were equipped with the mines of the de Quillacq system and were supported by buoys. Anchors and concrete blocks kept the system in such a way that even in the central part of the channel, where the depths reached almost 900 m, the barrage showed great stability at great heave of the sea.

Our Lady of the Rocks (Ostrvo Gospa od Škrpjela) Our Lady of the Rocks (Ostrvo Gospa od Škrpjela) – the only small artificially created (man-made) island, located in front of the embankment of the City of Perast, 250 m away,

in the Gulf of Risan, in the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. The area of the island is 3030 m2. The island has been created from the middle of the fifteenth century (July 22, 1452), when the inhabitants of Perast began to drift a small underwater reef “Skrpel” with stones. This custom was preserved to present day. In 1633, in order to expand the island, the inhabitants of Perast donated (flooded) 100 ships with stones. The island was built specifically for the construction of the Madonna’s church, the navigators’ sanctuary inaccessible for the enemy. According to the legend, the Perast fishermen, the Morteshichi brothers, who crashed near the island, found an icon of Holy Virgin Theotokos with Christ on the sea cliff, and, according to tradition, decided to build a church on the island. The Baroque Madonna Church, an architectural masterpiece of 10 m high, was built in 1630 on the site of an ancient fifteenth-century chapel. The

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Ovchinnikov Ivan Mikhaylovich (1931–2000)

Our Lady’s Island Škrpjela and Barocco Church of Our Lady, Montenegro (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

dome of the church was erected in 1725. The church even had loopholes to repel the attacks of the Turks. Its walls are decorated with 68 works of the artist Trip Kokol. The exposition is divided into two parts by silver amuletes (incense) with vows of sailors and images of sailing vessels of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries during a storm. This is gratitude for the salvation and healing of sailors. There are 2000 of such amuletes in the church. Here is also a marble tomb, from which the icon of “Madonna Shkrpela” looks at the visitors. In the building next door to the church, “The Watchtower” houses a museum collection of Greek and Latin inscriptions, tools, and paintings of the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries brought by sailors from distant wanderings. The widow of Russian Admiral M. Zmaevich gave baptismal cross with gems, which belonged to her husband. In memory of the beginning of the creation of Gospa od Škrpjela, every year on June 22, the traditional festival “Fashinada” is held (“Privoz” is a ritual procession of boats loaded with building stone).

On this day in the morning several dozens of sailing yachts from Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Italy, and Russia start from Perast. They come out of the bay, make a circle around Mamula Island, and return to Perast. The finish line runs between the islands.

Ovchinnikov Ivan Mikhaylovich (1931–2000) Ovchinnikov Ivan Mikhaylovich (1931–2000) – Doctor of Geography (1978), Professor, Director of the Southern Division of P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1965–1970) in Gelendzhik. In 1954 he graduated from the Admiral S.O. Makarov Leningrad Higher Naval School majoring in “Oceanology”; from 1954 to 1956 – taught meteorology and oceanography at the Klaipeda Naval College. Since 1956, Ovchinnikov has been working at

Oysters (Ostreidae)

the Institute of Oceanology as the second assistant captain in the expeditionary work of the RV “Vityaz.” In 1957–1960, he participated in the team of scientists of the Institute of Oceanology, worked in the Pacific and Indian Oceans under the programs of the IGY-IUGG and IIOE, studied Equatorial currents, and became a qualified researcher and oceanologist. In the winter of 1960, with his direct participation, the Equatorial countercurrent in the Indian Ocean was discovered. From 1960, Ovchinnikov worked at the Black Sea Experimental Research Station in the city of Gelendzhik (since 1967 – the Southern Branch of the SIO AS USSR). From 1965 to 1970, he supervised this department of the Institute. From 1973, he headed the Hydrophysical Laboratory, which in 1981 was transformed into the Hydrophysical Department, the largest in the Division. In 1960–1970 Ovchinnikov’s main research interests were related to the study of the formation of the hydrological structure and circulation of the waters of the Mediterranean. Under his supervision, a number of major scientific expeditions in various parts of the Mediterranean basin were launched. Analysis of the data obtained in these expeditions, a synthesis of materials by other researchers, allowed him to create a holistic view of the mechanisms of the hydrological structure forming in the Mediterranean Sea and, in particular, clarify the dominant role of deep convection in updating the intermediate and deep waters of the basin. In 1977, Ovchinnikov took part in the oceanographic expedition to the Adriatic Sea. On the basis of the results of these long-term studies, Ovchinnikov passed his PhD (1966) and doctoral (1978) defenses, and, together with other participants of this work, in 1976, published the fundamental monograph Hydrology of the Mediterranean Sea in Russian edition. This book has been translated into English, has received wide international recognition, and is still a great scientific reference book on the Mediterranean basin and, in particular, on the Adriatic Sea. In the early 1980s Ovchinnikov actively involved in the study of the dynamic processes of the Black Sea, which largely determine the functioning of the entire Black Sea ecosystem. Ovchinnikov was a member of the Bureau of the Basin Section of the “Southern Seas,” supervised

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the hydrophysical unit of the State Project “The Black Sea” (since 1961), and was an active participant in the large International Program CoMSBlack (since 1992). Ovchinnikov was the author of more than 200 scientific works in which the most important hydrophysical problems of the Black and Mediterranean Seas are solved. Many ideas put forth by him are being developed at the present time.

Oysters (Ostreidae) Oysters (Ostreidae) – an Ostreoidea family of marine bivalved mollusks. They have a very specific asymmetric shelve of irregular shape. One of the most popular among the commercial groups of marine invertebrates – thick-walled and inequivalve. It consists of a larger convex (mostly left) section, which become attached to various underwater objects, and a smaller, flatter and thinner, free section, forming a kind of cover. The apex of the sections is straight, on the right usually larger than on the left; the scarfwise is without spikes, the retinaculum connecting the

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Ivan Mikhaylovich Ovchinnikov. (Source: https://ocean. ru/index.php/istoriya-v-litsakh/item/899-ovchinnikovivan-mikhajlovich-1931-2000)

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two sections, is located at the scarfwise on the inside. An immantle is attached to both shell sections (separating the shell). On the inner surface of the shell surface, there are visible imprints, that is, the points of attachment of one adductor muscle, with the help of this muscle both sections close together; however, this process has not yet been clarified by scientists. The gills of the oysters consist of two thin plates on each side of the body, covered (as well as the mantle) with ciliary hairs supporting a continuous flow of water around the body of the animal. Thanks to the action of all these ciliary hairs, the animal constantly receives fresh water rich in oxygen, as well as various food particles suspended in sea water, both dead and living, consisting of unicellulars (infusoria, algae), rotifers, and small larvae of various marine animals (coelenterate, worms, mollusks, etc.). The size is different; giant oysters can reach a length of 38 cm; however, European species usually have a shell length of 8–12 cm. The oysters are diclinous; under favorable conditions, one female can produce up to 500 million eggs per season. Spermatozoa flow with the waterflow into the mantle cavity of the female, and fertilized eggs develop in the back of the mantle cavity. After a few days, moving larvae enter the water; they swim for several days and then settle, having a well-developed leg. With the help of the leg, the young crawl, choosing a place for the final cementation, after which the leg begins to decrease and, no later than after 72 days, is reduced completely. They live both singly and in colonies, usually on solid grounds – stones, rocks, or mixed sandystony grounds at depths varying from 1 to 50–70 m. It is customary to distinguish coastal settlements and oyster banks. Like many coastal animals, these mollusks are able to tolerate some desalination; the minimum salinity at which they can exist is 12‰. Salinity level affects the growth rate of oysters and their taste qualities: oysters collected at salinity from 20 to 30‰ are considered the best, where there is a small and constant desalination by river water. In conditions of the salinity about 33–35‰, oysters grow well; however, their meat becomes hard. This specificity was well known to the ancient Romans, who kept oysters collected in the sea in small

Oysters (Ostreidae)

Oysters. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

desalinated reservoirs. On the settlements and banks, oysters sometimes live very densely, then their shells often stand vertically, with the abdominal edge upwards; sometimes they grow together in several pieces. During severe low tides, the shell colonies are sometimes exposed, so many species have the ability to survive long drains. Oysters are usually consumed live and raw, served on ice, and relished with lemon juice. Mollusks can also be fried, baked, boiled, and cooked in small amounts of water. Oysters have high nutritional value. The presence of fine taste of oysters is due to the specific chemical composition, which also has a tonic effect on the nervous system. Oyster meat contains fat, protein, glycogen carbohydrate, nicotinic acid, and vitamins of group B. Among other things, oysters contain the following minerals copper, iron, calcium, zinc, phosphorus, and iodine. To provide the body with a daily dose of copper and iron, it is enough to eat six oysters. Oyster meat is saturated with a complex of fatty acids, especially useful for humans, among which is Omega-3. As a result of research conducted by American scientists, in oysters were found ceramides – fats that can fight breast cancer. Ceramides block and inhibit the growth of cancer cells. American and Italian scientists have found that raw oysters, mussels, and some other types of shellfish contain unique amino acids that affect the active production of sex hormones. Zinc contained in oysters is necessary for the synthesis of testosterone in the female and male body.

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Pad, Padus Pad, Padus – (Ligurian. “bodincus” or “bodenkas” – “bottomless”) the ancient name of the river Po, Italy.

Padan Plain (Po Valley) Padan Plain (Po Valley) – a plain in northern Italy, one of the largest in southern Europe. It is situated between the Apennines, the Alps, and the Adriatic Sea on the site of a vast tectonic depression that arose in the tertiary and quaternary periods. The depression was occupied by the Adriatic Sea bay, which was constantly filled with river sediments. Surface of the Padan Plain are almost flat; the height in most of it does not exceed 100 m and reaches 200–500 m only in the suburbs in the north, west, and south. The plain is divided into four parts: the higher Piedmont in the west, the Lombard in the center, the Venetian in the east and south. From the west to the east, the plain intersects the Po River, numerous tributaries of which flow down from the adjacent slopes of the Alps and the Apennines. Due to the flat topography and the elevation of the rivers over the adjacent parts, Padan Plain is affected by severe flooding. There is a dense network of diversion irrigation and navigable canals on the Padan Plain. The climate is transitional between Mediterranean and temperate; it also has the specificities of continentality.

The average July temperature is +23–25 °C, January is approximately 0 °C, and the precipitation amount is 600–1000 mm per year with a maximum in summer. Oak-chestnut forests are almost entirely cut down, most of the territory is cultivated; there are grain crops and vineyards. Padan Plain is an important agricultural and industrial region of Italy. Major cities, Milan, Turin, Venice, and Bologna, are situated on it.

Pag Island, Pag Otok Pag Island, Pag Otok – (Greek “page” – “natural source”) the island which is situated in the Adriatic Sea, the southernmost of the Kvarner Islands, off the coast of Croatia; separated from the mainland by the narrow Podgorski Kanal. The island belongs to Croatia. The length is 60 km. The area is 287 km2. The population of the island is 9060 people (2011). In the southeast, it is connected to the mainland by the 340-m Pag Bridge. It is covered with bare stony hills up to 200 m high. Local forests were destroyed during the Venetian period, when the commercial republic’s dockyards needed wood. Cattle breeding is developed, especially sheep breeding (the island is famous for its delicious sheep cheese), and fishing. The largest salt production facility in Croatia is located here. Up to 20,000 t of salt is mined per year. Subtropical crops (grapes, citrus fruits, etc.) are cultivated in the valleys. The

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Pag Strait (Paž Strait, Paž Kanal)

Padan Plain. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_Valley#/media/File:Po_bacino_idrografico.png)

administrative center is the city of Pag. The beaches of the island are situated in long bays, therefore the water warms up faster and there are no waves.

Pag Strait (Paž Strait, Paž Kanal) Pag Strait (Paž Strait, Paž Kanal) – lies between the northwestern part of Pag Island and the southwest coast of Rab Island, Croatia. It is most convenient for navigation between the straits Kvarnerič and Velebit. On the approaches to the Pag Strait from the west lie the islands Dolphin, Laganj Veli and Laganj Mali.

Palagruža (Croatian Palagruža, It. Pelagosa, from Greek “Pelagos” the Sea) Palagruža (Croatian Palagruža, It. Pelagosa, from Greek “Pelagos” the Sea) – (1) a small

archipelago located almost in the center of the Adriatic Sea on the border of Italy and Croatia, and is an important landmark when sailing. It is the southernmost point of Croatia that consists of Velika Palagruža and Islands of Mala Palagruža, Kamik Tramuntane, and Kamik od Oštra, as well as several small rocks. In 5 km to the east–southeast of Palagruža, there are the rocks of Galijula and Pupak. The island is composed of dolomite rocks and is the ridge of the protruding mountain. It has rocky shores, and the total area of the Archipelago is 0.4 km2. Precipitations – 270 mm/year. The nature sanctuary has several endemic types of vegetation. The largest representative of the terrestrial fauna is the black lizard. There are also snakes on the island, including poisonous ones. The islands are covered with Mediterranean vegetation. The sea around the islands is considered the richest fish area on the entire Adriatic, including the breeding ground of sardines. (2) The largest in the group of Palagruža islands is Velika Palagruža. Its length is 1400 m, width is 30 m, and altitude is 90 m. The south

Palagruža (Croatian Palagruža, It. Pelagosa, from Greek “Pelagos” the Sea)

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Pag Island. (Photo by Timur V. Voronkov, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag_(island)#/media/File:Vestas6Pag.jpg)

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The Palagruža Island, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palagru%C5%BEa#/media/File:Palagru%C5% BEa.jpg)

coast is desolated and steep. The Žalo Bay enters into it – a good shelter for fishing vessels. The northern coast is rather flat, and here is the bay of Stara Vlaka. On the southern coast in the northwestern part of the island, there is a Palagruža Lighthouse, which is 90 m high, built in 1875 during the period of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, where two lightkeepers live permanently during the year. It is the largest lighthouse on the

Adriatic Sea. Its base is constructed of local solid stone, and the rest is of a lighter stone from the Brač Island. It has a weather station. In the past, Palagruža was known for significant fish stocks, which made it the most desirable part of the Adriatic fishery. According to legend, the ashes of Diomedes, King of Argos, and one of the main actors of the Trojan War, rest on Palagruža. The island is not inhabited.

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Palermo Bay Palermo Bay – the bay, which extends to the coast on 18.5 km north–northwest of Cape Kefali, Albania. The bay is the largest between the Corfu Strait and the Vlorё Bay. It is characterized by the large and steep banks. The bay is surrounded by mountains with an altitude up to 500 m. The depth at the entrance to the bay reaches 105 m.

Palm Riviera Palm Riviera – resort area of the middle part of the eastern Italian coast of the Adriatic Sea from Mare Gabicce to San Benedetto del Tronto.

Palermo Bay

separated by a narrow strait of Ždrelac and is part of the Zadar Archipelago, Croatia. Its area is about 63 km2. The population of the island is 2000 people. It is separated from the mainland by the strait - the Pašman Channel, 2–3 km wide, and more than 20 km long. The direction of sea currents in the channel changes every 6 h, which makes the water of the channel very clean and clear. Pašman is a continuation of the Ugljan Island, which is connected to the road and pedestrian bridge. There are forests, pine groves, and vineyards. There are fishing villages. Tourism is developed there. The main center of the island is the village of Tkon. To the south of it there are sandy beaches and small coves. The island is connected by regular ferry services with the mainland cities of Zadar and Biograd.

Peace of Pressburg (1805) Pašman Island (Pašman Otok) Pašman Island (Pašman Otok) – an island situated at the south of the Ugljan Island from which is

Peace of Pressburg (1805) – a peace treaty concluded in Pressburg (Bratislava) between Napoleonic France and Austria on December

Pašman Island. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasman_(isola)#/media/File:BarotulViewFromNearByMoun tainSummer2010.JPG)

Perast

26, 1805, after the French victory at Austerlitz. Under the Pressburg Peace Treaty, Austria recognized the French conquests in Italy (the capture of Piedmont, Parma, Genoa, etc.); agreed to the passing of the Venetian Region, Istria (except Trieste) and Dalmatia to the Italian Kingdom dependent on France; recognized Napoleon I as the Italian King; and ceded a number of territories to the allies of France – the Electors of Bavaria (Passau, Tyrol) and Württemberg (Hohenberg, Wellenberg, etc.), elevated to Kingship.

“Pearle of Adriatic” “Pearle of Adriatic” – is a name for cities of Dubrovnik and Venice.

Pelješac (Pelješac Peninsula, Pelješac Poluotok) Pelješac (Pelješac Peninsula, Pelješac Poluotok) – the peninsula, the second in the Adriatic Sea. It is situated along the northeastern Dalmatian coast of Croatia, north of Dubrovnik. It is the largest peninsula of Dalmatia and the second in Croatia, after the Istria Peninsula. The area is 355 km2. It extends for 90 km in the Adriatic Sea as a narrow mountainous strip of land. Its width varies from 3 to 7 km. It is stretched parallel to the coast of the mainland from the southeast to northwest. The surface is mountainous, the prevailing heights are 200–400 m, and the greatest is 961 m. The lower parts of the slopes are covered with maquis, vineyards, and orchards, above – evergreen and deciduous forests. The population is engaged in fishing and agriculture. It is a widely known wine region. Among several settlements, the towns Ston and Orebić are distinguished. On the eastern part of the peninsula lies Mljet Island separated from it by a wide and deep-water Mljet Channel. Through the narrow 2-km Strait of Pelješac to the southwest of it, the Korčula Island is situated.

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Perast Perast – a city and a small port in the BokaKotorska Bay, on the border of two bays – Risano and Kotor, at the foot of the hill of St. Ilija (873 m), directly opposite to the Verige Strait, Montenegro. Thanks to the Verige Strait the city held a strategic position. The population is 350 people (2003). There are 300 houses, 19 palaces, 17 Catholic churches, and 2 Orthodox churches. In Spila Cave above Perast, traces of Neolithic culture from around 3500 BC were found. Perast was known since 1326. Its name, Perastrum, was received from the name of a local tribe of Illyrians – pirusti. It was a village with a shipyard and a small number of fishing and merchant ships. In 1420, the city was captured by the Venetians and was ruled by the Venetian Republic until its collapse in 1797. In 1584, it separated from Kotor and became an independent free city. It is believed that pirates lived here for a long time. The city has never been conquered by the Turks. The inhabitants of the city became famous for their bravery in the battle of Lepanto in 1571. In 1654, the inhabitants fought off an attack of 6000 Turks from Herzegovina (in honor of this victory, the “Shooting the Kokot (rooster)” ceremony takes place every year). Then they successfully fought the Turks for Herceg Novi and Risan in 1684–1687. The city was completely formed in the Venetian tradition: the Venetians had privileges in the city, and they were entrusted with the honorary function of guarding the flag on the Admiral’s ship. In the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries the city had 1600 inhabitants, 4 shipyards, and its own Fleet had from 50 to 150 ships and competed with Kotor. In Perast, in 1637, the first nautical school in the Slavic lands began its work, from which hundreds of outstanding people, not only Bokesians, were graduated. It was here that in 1698 the fosterlings of Peter I studied sea craft from the famous captain, shipbuilder, mathematician, teacher, and resident of Perast, Marko Martinović. Many navigators from Perast became Admirals of the Russian Baltic Fleet. In 1918, Perast became a part of the State of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, and then it was

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Perast

Pelješac Peninsula, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelje%C5%A1ac#/media/File:Brdo_sv.Ilija,_Peli% C5%A1ac-planinski_lanac03139.JPG)

included into the Italian Province of Kattaro (since 1941). In 1944, it gained independence and became an integral part of Yugoslavia. Since 2006, Perast has become part of Montenegro. Perast is the birthplace of many famous navigators, shipowners, and ordinary sailors, the city of Bokesian maritime glory. The sightseeing of Perast is the Gospa od Rozarija church with the highest bell tower 55 m high. It stands on the quay of Perast, built in 1691 in honor of the victory of the Venetian fleet over the Turks at Lepanto. There are three bells on the belfry, the main of which was donated by the Zmajevič family. The bell tower is a symbol of Perast. In front of the church, busts of famous Perast natives are installed, among which is architect Andrija Zmajević, Archbishop of Bar, brother of the famous Russian Admiral Matej Zmajević. The city is a treasury of masterpieces of Bokesian culture, and historical and cultural heritage. In front of Perast, there is the artificial island

of Our Lady of the Rocks (as they say the only one on the Adriatic) (Madonna Škrpjela) and the natural Island of St. George. In the palace of Vicko Bujović, the most beautiful of the architectural masterpieces of Perast built in 1694, the museum of Perast is situated. The Palace of Zmajević family, or Bishop’s Palace, built in 1664 and fed nicely to the rocky landscape, is of great interest. Here is how Perast was described in 1698 by Russian statesman and diplomat, Count Petr A. Tolstoy in his “Diary”: “We sailed to a place called Perast, and there are many Serbs in it who are of Greek Faith. And those Serbs live adjacent to Turkish cities and villages. Those Serbs are military people, similar in everything with the Don Cossacks, they speak Slovenian. They have wealth, houses have stone buildings. To the Moscow people, they are friendly and respectful. Nearby the described places live free people, which are called Montenegrins. Those people of the Christian faith, speaking Slovenian and there

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Perast. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

is a considerable number of them. They serve no one, sometimes fighting the Turks, and also with the Veneti (Venice).” It is believed that this is the first mention of the Montenegrins in Russian printed books.

Pesaro Pesaro – the city, the administrative center of the Province of Pesaro-e-Urbino in the Marche Region, Italy. Population is 95,100 people (2019). Port is situated on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, with a railway station. There is a sulfur refinement factory, and there are manufacturers of sulfuric acid and superphosphate. There are also small factories: metallurgical, building materials, and motorcycle production. Manufacturing of hunting equipment is developed there. There is an 8 km sand zone, with a well-developed infrastructure for recreation in peace and tranquility.

Pescara Pescara – city and port, the administrative center of the province of Pescara, Abruzzo Region, Italy. It is situated on the Pescara River at its confluence with the Adriatic Sea. The population of the city is 118,900 people (2019). In ancient times, only the small Port of Aternum existed on the place of the future city, and the river, at those times, had the same name. In the Middle Ages, the river was renamed to Peskaria, and the coastal area became known as Peskaria. In 1140, the lands were conquered by the Normans, and in 1290 by the Emperor Otto IV. In 1409, the King of Naples, Vladislav, built the first citadel for the defense of the port of Pescara. This seaside outpost helped in 1566 to repel the assault of a hundred Turkish battleships. Pescara plays an important role in the economy and politics of the region. In 1863, the great Italian poet Gabriele d’Annunzio was born here. Pescara

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Petrovac, Petrovac on Sea (Petrovac, Petrovac na Moru)

Pesaro. (Photo by Alessandro Vecchi, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesaro#/media/File:Pesaro_panorama.jpg)

was formed in 1927 as a result of the unification of Castellamare small towns, which were situated on the left bank of the Pescara River, and Pescara itself on the right bank. The region of Pescara is a major transport and industrial center for the production of furniture, textiles, footwear, and light industry products. The following factories are situated there: agricultural engineering, transport equipment, and foundry. Production of cement, chemicals, and furniture is done; the factories of food (pasta) and textile (wool yarn, linen) are also located there. It is a significant fishing center. There is a museum of fishing. Pescara was an important port of Italy on the Adriatic Sea. Over the years, it has been awarded by the Blue Flag for the quality of the services offered. At present, it is still a thriving market for fisheries and aquaculture.

Petrovac, Petrovac on Sea (Petrovac, Petrovac na Moru) Petrovac, Petrovac on Sea (Petrovac, Petrovac na Moru) – a small town at the southeast from the City of Budva, the last on the Budva Riviera, Montenegro. It is situated on the shore of the

wide bay of the Adriatic Sea, rising high into the mountain as an amphitheater. The population is 1400 people (2011). There is a promenade around the Petrovac, a seaside boulevard along which restored old buildings are located. There are numerous shops, boutiques, restaurants, and cafes. In the past it was one of the ancient coastal bastions with the port. In the third century, it was a Roman settlement, which was called Lastva (first mentioned in the “Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja”), then Kastel Lastva (until 1919). It was founded in the late seventeenth to early nineteenth century, on the place of the Lastva settlement. On a steep cliff in the northern corner of the bay on the edge of the city, there is a small fragment of an ancient Venetian fortress Castello (sixteenth century): there is an amazingly beautiful museum of Roman mosaic where you can see masterpieces of works dating from the third century BC. After the Second World War, an obelisk was installed here with the names of the perished citizens. Next to it the marina is situated. By the name of this fortress, Petrovac used the name Kastel Lastva by the name of this fortress, and in the years when Montenegro was part of Yugoslavia, it was called Petrovac-naMoru – since there is another “overland” Petrovac in Serbia.

Piave River

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Pescara. (Photo by Luca Aless, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pescara#/media/File:Pescara_-_Spiaggia_vista_dal_ ponte_del_mare.JPG)

There are two sandy-pebble beaches in the bay, which are separated by a rock: Petrovac beach with red sand (600 m) and Lučice Beach (220 m). They are surrounded by olive groves and dense pine forests. On the opposite side of the bay, at the distance of 1 km from the coast, there are two small rocky islands – Big Katič and Small Katič (Holy Resurrection – Sveta Nedelja). On top of Sveta Nedelja Island stands the Church of Sveta Nedelja restored after the earthquake. According to legend, it was built by a Greek navigator who escaped a shipwreck here. On the Katič Island only a few pines grow. In the region of Petrovac at a depth of 70 m lies the Austro-Hungarian cruiser “Zenta,” torpedoed by the French Mediterranean squadron during the First World War, and the King Nikola yacht. There is a marine sanctuary. Starting in the late 1990s, Russians began to invest in the development of tourism in the city. Among the tourists, besides Russians, the French and the British are present.

Pianosa Island, Pianosa Otok Pianosa Island, Pianosa Otok – The island is situated 44 km west–southwest of Palagruža Island in the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. The island is rocky, and the altitude is about 3 m. The northern coast of the island is steep; the southern one is bordered by a sandbank with a width of about 100 m.

Piave River Piave River – the river in the north of Italy, with the length of 220 km and catchment area of 4100 km2. It originates in the mountains of Peralba (the system of the Carnic Alps) and empties into the Gulf of Venice in the Adriatic Sea. For about two-thirds of its length, the river flows in the mountains, where its water energy is used by hydroelectric power plants. Navigable in the lower reaches (35 km).

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Petrovac. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

Piave River, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piave_(river)#/media/File:Piave014.jpg)

Piave River

Piracy in the Adriatic Sea

“Pilot Chart of the Adriatic Sea” (Peljar po Jadranu) “Pilot Chart of the Adriatic Sea” (Peljar po Jadranu) – the Yugoslav pilot chart, published in 1952, as volume 1 “The Eastern Shore” (Istočna obala). Monthly supplements were published for this pilot chart.

“Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean Sea. Part VI. The Adriatic Sea” “Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean Sea. Part VI. The Adriatic Sea” – Soviet pilot chart, published in 1950 (with addition No. 1 in 1955), then corrected in 1960 in Leningrad by Directorate of the Chief of the Hydrographic Service of the USSR Navy. It was compiled on the basis of the Soviet descriptions “Lights of the Mediterranean Sea” (Part II, 1956), “Radio-technical means of navigation equipment of the Azov, Black and Mediterranean Seas” (1959), Yugoslav, Italian, German, and English pilot charts. New Pilot Chart of the Adriatic Sea was published in St. Petersburg in 1989.

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This pine grove was founded in 1920 by the wealthy aristocrat Luigi Filani. Pineto is known as one of the “seven sisters” – the seven Adriatic beach resorts of the Teramo Province. Pineto’s beaches have been awarded with the Blue Flag by the Environmental Education Foundation for the quality of sea water for many years. There is the tower of Cerrano, a medieval blockhouse, built to protect the coast from the invasion of pirates. To the north of Pineto, there is the resort town of Roseto Abruzzi.

Piper Gurnard (Tub Gurnard, Trigla lyra)

“Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean Sea” (Portolano del Mediterraneo) – Italian pilot chart, volume 1, published in 1957.

Piper Gurnard (Tub Gurnard, Trigla lyra) – sea fish of Triglidae family. It is thermophilic species. Its color varies. The back is usually reddishbrown, often with rare spots. The sides are reddish-yellow, and the belly is white or slightly pinkish. Head is high. Snout transformed into two plates pointed in the front, as if two-pronged. The massive spike is situated directly above the pectoral fin, and the other spines on the head are also well developed. The scales on the body are thin with a rough, jagged edge. On the lateral line it is smooth, on the back there is a row of sharp spines. The body from head to tail gradually narrows. Length is up to 60 cm, weight is up to 2.5 kg. Usually the length of the fish is 30 cm. It usually keeps on clayey soils and lives at depths of 10–500 m. Spawning in the summer, very extended. Its roe is pelagic. Economic value is low. The meat is not bad. It is sold fresh. The amount of catches in the Adriatic Sea is unknown.

Pineto

Piracy in the Adriatic Sea

Pineto – a small town situated on the west coast of the Adriatic Sea in the region of Abruzzo, Italy. The population of the city is 14,900 people. (2019). Pineto is a unique coastal city with a crystal clear sea and landscapes of pine groves. The name of the city comes from these groves, which stretch along the sea for more than 4 km.

Piracy in the Adriatic Sea – It has been so from olden times: where there is a sea, there are pirates. Piracy has long been considered an ordinary occupation, and therefore pirates, along with merchants, were the rulers of the sea. The nature of the Adriatic has created the best conditions for the piracy prosperity – an abundance of islands, a

“Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean Sea” (Portolano del Mediterraneo)

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Piper gurnard. (Photo by Massimiliano Marcelli, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigla_lyra#/media/File:Tri gla_lyra.jpg)

rugged coastline with a mass of convenient bays and gulfs for shelter, attack, and basing. The development of trade caused the emergence of piracy. The word “pirate” (in ancient Greek, “Peyrates”) means “to try to capture” or “to try your luck.” In the Serbian language along with this word, the word “hussar” is used. Pirate colonies of coastal fraternity existed on the Adriatic from olden times since the times of the Phoenicians, Etruscans, Greeks, and Illyrians. In ancient times, the center of piracy was Illyria, which was the north of the Adriatic Sea. The islands of Ithaca, Kerkyra, and others served as bases of pirates. Their high-speed triremes locked the exit from the Adriatic. Strabo wrote: “The entire Illyrian coast is exceptionally rich in harbors, both on the mainland and on the islands. Long before, it was disregarded . . . because of the wildness of the inhabitants and their penchant for piracy.” Illyrian ruler, King Agron, in 228 BC created a powerful state stretching along the Adriatic coast from Epirus (Epirus Kingdom was washed by the waters of the Ionian Sea) to Istria, with its center in Skodra (now Scutari), which gave the name Skadar Lake and the Albanian city – Shkodër. It was the first pirate state in Europe with its own hierarchy and law. Its army threatened commercial traffic through the narrow Otranto Strait, separating Epirus from Italy. As E.Ch. Semple wrote in 1916, “The Adriatic represented a convenient

Piracy in the Adriatic Sea

arena for pirate operations. During the whole period of ancient and medieval times, rich trade, crossing this broad sea channel to the ports near the mouth of the Po and back, was to pass through a line of Illyrian and Dalmatian pirates whose shelters flanked the sea for four hundred miles. These pirates also robbed ships sailing through the pool from Italy and devastated the western shores of Greece from Epirus to Messenia.” Illyrian pirates used lembuses during the reign of Illyria (after the death of Agron in 230 BC in a battle with the Greeks), the Queen regent Teuta (third century BC). Lembuses are small high-speed galleys that are equipped by an imitation of a battering ram in their frontal part, which was used during the breaking into the lines of the enemy ships. The Greek historian Polybius wrote that the Teuta allowed pirates to rob all counter vessels. Pirates attacked the villages of the Italian coast the Adriatic Sea and killed Italian merchants. The Illyrian pirates even got involved in the RomanMacedonian wars; however, at the Battle of Pydna almost their entire Fleet was destroyed and captured. Sensing the weakness of their southern neighbors, the pirates of Dalmatia appeared on the sea arena, turning the entire Neretva and Cetina interfluvial areas into a bloody desert. They forced the Romans to send punitive expeditions against them four times – in 156, 155, 135, and 119 years BC, which forced the pirates to retreat into the barren mountain valleys. Dalmatia is an area stretching along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea from Fiume (Rijeka) to Kotor (was part of Illyria until 180 BC), was the anchorage of ancient pirates’ Fleet, and the famous pirate center on the Adriatic Sea in the period from 600 BC and to 9 AD, and then in the Middle Ages from 800 to 1699. Etruscan pirates were the sovereign masters of the Northern Adriatic. The Greeks founded Adria (perhaps the name of the Adriatic Sea is connected with this) to protect against Etruscan pirates in 325–324 years BC. Until the nineteenth century, the Ulcinj Region preserved its pirate traditions. The modern Montenegrin town of Ulcinj is a former pirate city. Since the fourteenth century, pirates from Malta, Tunisia, and Algeria began to populate Ulcinj. In, about, 1580, a Turkish navigator and pirate Eulg-

Piran Bay (Sloven. Piranski Zaliv, cr. Piranski Zaljev)

Ali (Ulič-Alija) resettled 40 of his “coastal fraternity” comrades in Ulcinj. They plundered the entire Adriatic coast from Corfu Island to the Neretva River, and attacked Venetian, Ragusan, Kotorian, and Turkish ships. According to legend, among the famous pirates of Ulcinj was Liko Cena, who once sank a ship of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. For this act, the Turkish Sultan ordered to catch him and execute. However, at that time a dangerous Greek navigator and pirate Lambro appeared at sea. The Turkish Sultan decided to use Liko Cena against him and, in the case of Lambro capture, promised to release Cena. Liko Cena captured Lambro, and the Sultan kept his promise and granted Liko the forgiveness and title of Captain. There is another legend associated with the innumerable treasures of Ulcinj pirates, however, not found so far. The famous Venetian carnival owes its appearance to the holiday in honor of the liberation of the Venetian girls from the captivity of Croatian pirates. This happened in 998. Pirate traditions were worshiped in the Bay of Kotor, the secret place of pirate flotillas.

Piran Piran – (from Greek “Pyr” – “fire”) is a picturesque resort town located in the southwest on a small narrow peninsula extending into the Bay of Piran in the Adriatic Sea, Slovenia. One of the three largest towns in Slovenian Istria. It is called the pearl of the Slovenian Riviera on the Adriatic Sea. The population of the city is 3900 people (2017). The city combines two cultures: Italian (built by Venetians) and Slovenian. It looks like a large open-air museum with medieval architecture – churches, towers, and fortress walls and a rich cultural heritage. Gothic temples, narrow streets, and compact houses give it a special charm. Due to the convenient location, since the old years Piran has always been the citadel of navigation. Piran is one of the main attractions of Slovenia for tourists. Piran Peninsula was included in the Roman Empire in 177–178 BC. The city has long been under the

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authority of the Venetian Doges. Piran is a crossroad for two civilizations. Italian and Slovenian languages are absolutely equal here. In ancient times, in this place, on the very cape of the peninsula, lights were lit that served as lighthouses to the ships heading for the Greek colony of Aegida, present-day Koper. Until the end of the first millennium, Piran was passed from hand to hand. In 923, a trade agreement was signed with Venice, which pledged to protect it from external enemies. For Venice, the surrounding salt marshes, especially in the area of Sečovlje, served as a source of salt mining. Salt, highly valued in those days, brought prosperity to the city. Until 1894 the city center has been a part of the seaport. There are built magnificent monasteries, palaces, private houses in the Venetian style, etc. The main attraction is the bell tower, built in 1608, exactly the same as the famous belfry tower on St. Mark’s Square in Venice. Piran is the birthplace of the composer and violinist Giuseppe Tartini. There is his ancestral home, which opened a museum of the composer. Since 1892, the main square of the city bears his name, and in 1896 the inhabitants of Piran erected a monument in his honor. The Venetian Palace Benečanka stands on Tartini Square, an example of Venetian-Gothic architecture on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Among the sightseeings of the city, there is a small aquarium and the Sergej Mašera Maritime Museum. There is an international airport, and there are marines nearby the city. Currently, the EuroMediterranean University (EMUNI), founded in 2008 as one of the cultural projects of the Barcelona Union for the Mediterranean process, is located in Piran. There are no industrial facilities in the city, and large vessels do not enter here.

Piran Bay (Sloven. Piranski Zaliv, cr. Piranski Zaljev) Piran Bay (Sloven. Piranski Zaliv, cr. Zaljev) – a bay, which is situated in the part of the Adriatic Sea, and extends southeast coast of the Gulf of Trieste

Piranski northern into the between

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Ploče

The city of Piran, Slovenia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piran#/media/File:Piran2.jpg)

Cape Savudrija and Cape Madonna, which is 5 km away; the top of the bay is called Dragonja Bay. The bay is named after the City of Piran. Its shores belong to Slovenia and Croatia. The bay area is 19 km2. Since the 1990s it is often called the bay Savudrija in Croatia. The shores of the bay, except the eastern coast of the Dragonja Bay, from which the small rivers Dragonja and Lera flow into the top of the bay, are hilly and covered with forests. On the Slovenian coast, there are the cities of Piran, Portorož, and Lucija. On the southern Croatian coast in the 1980s, the tourist campuses of Crveni Vrh and Kanegra were built. The main river that flows into the bay is Dragonja River, the mouth of which serves as a boundary. Along the mouth of the river lie the Sečovlje saltpans, with an area of 650 ha. For a long time, this area has been a theatre of a border dispute between Slovenia and Croatia. The desire of Croatia is to draw a border in the middle of the water area of the bay, and, therefore, to obtain an opportunity to enter into international waters. A referendum was held in Slovenia in June 2010, which resulted in agreement on the creation of an Arbitration Commission to resolve this problem.

Ploče Ploče – city and industrial port in the bay bearing the same name, extending into the northeastern coast of the Gulf of Neretva, Croatia. The most important trading harbor of Croatia. It is available for large vessels with a draft of up to 9 m. The port is well protected from winds of any

direction. It includes a dredged channel. It has railway connections with the cities of Sarajevo and Dubrovnik. The port handles over five million tons of cargo annually and approximately 150,000 passengers. For some time in the 1980s, it was called Kardeljevo, in honor of Edward Kardel, the Slovenian ideologist and associate of I.B. Tito. The population of the city is 10,100 people (2011).

Po River Po River – (in ancient times Lat. Eridanus Padus) the largest and most navigable river on the Adriatic Sea basin, in Italy. The length is 652 km. The catchment area is 75,000 km2 (70,000 km2 in Italy). According to this indicator, Po is the largest river in Italy. The river basin is sometimes called Padania. It originates in the Cottian Alps, on the slopes of the Monte Viso Mountain massif, at an altitude of 2020 m, and empties into the Adriatic Sea, forming a large marshy delta. The river has a well-developed network of tributaries. The left tributaries (Dora-Riparia, Dora-Baltea, Sesia, Agogna, Ticino, Adda, Oglio, Mincio) originate on the slopes of the Alps, in an area with a lot of precipitation, it is copious. The right tributaries (Tanaro, Trebbia, Taro, Nure, Secchia, Panaro, etc.) flow down from the Maritime Alps and the Northern Apennines; they are shorter and are characterized by a low water content. In the upper reaches (about 35 km), the Po River has the character of a mountain river, the rest of its route passes through the fertile, densely

Po River

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The city of Ploče, Croatia. (Photo by Quahadi Añtó, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plo%C4%8De#/media/File: Luka_Plo%C4%8De_00166.JPG)

populated Po Valley with a population of more than 16 million people (one third of the population of Italy). The riverbed on the plain is sinuous, unsustainable. The river forms a significant number of branches, and a channel within the plain. There are many irrigation and navigation channels. The river carries a large amount of sediment into the sea (up to 300 million m3 per year); the growth of the delta is quite intensive – up to 100–120 ha per year. The left tributaries are characterized by the Alpine regime; they are abundant in spring and summer. The Po River tributaries, flowing down from the Apennines, are deep in spring and autumn. This causes the presence of two floods on the river: spring–summer with a maximum in May–June and autumn with the hardest flood in October–November. The low water season occurs during winter and

summertime. Downstream water consumption varies from 380 to 9000 m3/s, average annual consumption is approximately 1500 m3/s (46 km3/year). In the valley of the Po River, the large floods frequently occurr. The ecological significance of the Po River is very great; the waters of the river irrigate the breadbasket of nation – Po Valley. In the basin of the Po River, on its mountain tributaries, there are many hydroelectric power plants that produce most of the country’s electricity. Regular navigation on the Po River is carried out from the mouth for about 540 km. The main tributaries of the Po River in their lower reaches are also navigable. Through the system of canals and tributaries Po River is connected with the largest lakes of the northern part of Italy. On the banks of the Po River there are large industrial cities: Turin, Piacenza, Cremona, Ferrara.

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Po River Delta

Po River, Italy. (Source: https://www.premierrivercruises.com/geo-maps/italy/po-river)

Po River Delta Po River Delta – the delta of the largest river in Italy, starts from the mouth of the Po di Volano River, which flows into the Adriatic Sea, at 16 km from the harbor of Porto Garibaldi, and extends on 30 km to the north to the Caleria pass. Sometimes it is called the “wild paradise of the Adriatic.” Delta is approximately 18 km into the sea from the general coastline and ends at Cape Maestra. The vast delta, which occupies a flat lowland territory of alluvial origin, is formed by five largest sleeves and a large number of small arms. The most significant arms of the Po River are Po della Pila, Po di Goro, Po di Gnocca, Po della Tolle, and Po di Maestra rivers. There are a large number of islands in the delta. Overgrowth of sediments, carried out by numerous arms of the river, significantly changes the configuration of the delta coastline over time. Each year, the coastline moves to the east by an average of

40 m. In 1988, the Po Delta Park was created in the delta consisting of four sections on the right bank of the Po River.

“Po River Delta” Park “Po River Delta” Park – is situated on the right bank of the Po River in the Italian Region of Emilia-Romagna: north of Po di Goro. It includes the entire historical delta of the river and the mouths of the Apennine rivers: Reno, Lamone, Fiumi Uniti, Bevano, etc., as well as boggy places along the Adriatic coast and the outskirts of cities like Sacca di Goro, Comacchio, Ravenna, etc. The park has many man-made landmarks – Pomposa Abbey, the Church of Sant’Apollinario in Classe, the monumental water locks “chiavice,” the historical centers of the cities of Mesola, Comacchio, Ravenna, and Cervia. The park area is over 52,000 ha. These lands are considered incredibly

Polacca (Polacre)

rich in their biological diversity, despite the fact that it is one of the most densely populated and economically developed protected areas of Italy. There are vast forests, pine groves, and floodplain forest alternate with fresh water bodies and salines. Such a diversity of ecosystems provides the species richness of the park: 1000–1100 species of plants, 280 species of birds (this is one of the most important ornithological territories of Italy), and 374 species of animals. The northeastern part of the park – Volano-Mesola-Goro – is located on the border with the Veneto region and lies below sea level. Here you can see the real dunes, as well as mounds, protecting the land from flooding. The lagoons of the Valley di Comacchio are also interesting. Since the end of the nineteenth century, land-reclamation works have been regularly carried out here. The lagoons are formed by constant tides, when the sea floods an area of 13,000 ha. Fishing and fish farming

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prevail here (eel breeding is especially popular). The park area is 53,600 ha. In 1999, the park was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as “Ferrara, Renaissance City, and its Po River Delta.”

Polacca (Polacre) Polacca (Polacre) – a special Mediterranean type of three-masted ships was a combination of the traditional ships of Northern Europe and the Mediterranean ones. Polacre were used mainly as merchant ships, but, if necessary, were converted into warships. Their sailing equipment varied quite widely; there were also “Latin” straight sails. Length of the ship was 35 m, width was 6 m, and draft was 2.7 m. Crew contained 20–30 people.

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Polacca. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polacca#/media/File:Polacre_San_Nicolo-Antoine_Roux-p17.jpg)

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Polica Polica – a part of Dalmatia, a historic area on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, between the cities of Split and Omiš (Almissa), Croatia. Area is approximately 250 km2. At the beginning of the twentieth century, about 12,000 people lived in the territory of Polica. The first reliable information about Polica refers to the second half of the eleventh century, when it was part of the Croatian state. Since the beginning of the twelfth century, until the middle of the fifteenth century, it has been alternately depended on Hungary and Venice. Beginning from 1444 to 1797 (except the short periods of Turkish domination), Polica, while maintaining internal autonomy, was subordinated to Venice. From 1797, it was ruled by Austria. Before the establishment of Austrian domination, there was a kind of federal state with an elected prince at the head. In 1805–1813, Polica was occupied by Napoleon’s troops. After that, Polica was under an Austrian rule again. In 1918 it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Poreč Poreč – (lat. Parentium) (1) a small town situated in the west of the Istrian Peninsula, in a 64 km long lagoon with a heavily indented coastline, Croatia. The population of the island is 7600 people (2001). Poreč is one of the most important cultural and historical centers of Istria, famous primarily for the unique monuments of the ancient and early Christian period. The complex of the Euphrasian Basilica, built in the VII century, is included in the UNESCO list of World Cultural Heritage. This is Poreč’s brand identity. There is also situated the Aquarium, where in 24 aquariums of various sizes fish, crabs, octopuses, and other inhabitants of the Adriatic Sea are represented. Poreč was inhabited in the prehistoric era. During the Roman period the city was turned into a fortified military settlement. In the second half of the first century BC, it received the status of a colony, referred to in the Chronicles as Colonia Julia

Polica

Parentium. In the third century in Poreč there was a so-called early church – Domus ecclesiae. At the beginning of the IV Poreč became the official residence of the Bishop. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Poreč was part of the Byzantine Empire (sixth to eighth centuries). In 1267 the city fell under the control of the Republic of Venice. Gradually, the city fell into decay, and by the middle of the seventeenth century, there were about 100 people left. The revival of the city began during the reign of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. As a resort Poreč has been known since 1886. From 1918 to 1943, Poreč was part of Italy. After its surrender, the city was occupied by German troops. In 1944, Poreč suffered from the Allied bombing. After the end of the Second World War, the city has been developed as a tourist center. (2) The port, situated on the southern coast of the Istrian Peninsula, extending on 3 km into the sea, Croatia. The port waters are bounded on the southwest by the Sveti Nikola Island and the moles extending from its northern and eastern extremities. Depths in the port vary from 5 to 9 m, which makes it available only for small vessels.

Poreština Poreština – an area of the western coast of the Istrian Peninsula, from the Tarska Cove in the north to Lim Bay in the south, Croatia.

“Porto Montenegro” “Porto Montenegro” – a project launched in 2006 by a Canadian gold industry entrepreneur Peter Munk with co-investors on the creation of a large harbor for 600 berthing places with infrastructure for large yachts (length from 12 to 130 m) near Tivat, Montenegro, on a place of an abandoned military shipyard with its natural deepwater harbor. On the shores of the Boka-Kotorska Bay, it was planned to build a small town with all the necessary facilities for recreation and accommodation for yacht owners and yacht sports enthusiasts, including the “Four Seasons Hotel,” the Maritime Museum, an 18-hole

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Poreč. (Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87#/media/%D0%A4% D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Porec_riva.jpg)

golf course, an art gallery, and a conference Centre. The first phase of the project was completed in 2009, the second – in 2011. At the end of the project, Tivat will become the official sea gate of Montenegro. It was chosen not by chance, since it is located in the center of the Adriatic Sea, between Corfu and Venice, and occupies almost a kilometer of the southwestern coast of Boka-Kotorska Bay, which is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. In addition, only a few nautical miles separate it from Croatia.

Porto Romano Porto Romano – settlement in the southeast of the Palla Cape, a former ancient port of the Roman period with archaeological monuments of the Roman and Byzantine eras.

Portorož Portorož – (“Port of flowers,” “Port of roses”) a city situated on the coast of the Adriatic Sea in a small bay of Piran to the south of the Gulf of Trieste, Slovenia. To the south of the port, on the cape in Lucija, there is a sculpture park (with more than 100 sculptures) Form Viva. Population is approximately 3000 inhabitants. It has a popular resort, Slovenian health resort. It is often compared to the legendary French Riviera. Beautiful seaside Obala road, along which there are hotels, shops, and boutiques. It has Maritime Museum and Salt Mining Museum; magnificent artificial sandy beach, the only one on the coast; and one of the most beautiful and modern harbors of the Adriatic Sea. Portorož is famous for its casinos, the first of which was opened in 1913. The airport is 6 km away in Sechovlya. Portorož has a health spa resort. Eucalyptus groves, fango, thermal

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Poveglia Island

“Porto Montenegro” (Source: https://waytomonte.com/p-935-porto-montenegro)

springs are located here. Its thermae are recommended for the treatment of inflammatory rheumatic processes, inflammations of the ear, throat, nose, neurosis, etc. Today it is a fashionable tourist city, a fashionable seaside resort. The name “Portorož” hides an ancient story about the port, roses, the sea, salt mines, and a warm and pleasant Mediterranean climate even in winter. Its history is rooted in the ancient thirteenth century.

Poveglia Island Poveglia Island – one of the most famous islands of the Venice Lagoon. The area is of 0.075 km2. The island was first mentioned in chronicles in 421. At that time, the inhabitants of Padua and Este came here, fleeing from the invasion of barbarians. In 1379, Venice was attacked by the Genoese Fleet. After that, the population was forced to leave the island. Since then, the island has remained uninhabited. In 1527, the Doge offered the island to the Camaldolese monks; however, they refused it. In 1645, an octahedral fort was built on the island by the Venetian government to protect the entrance to the Lagoon, which has been preserved to the present day. In 1793, a quarantine isolator was created on the island for sailors coming to Venice,

which existed until 1814. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the island was again used as a quarantine for some time. In 1922, a psychiatric hospital was opened on the island, which existed until 1968. After the closure of the hospital, the island was used for a while to grow crops; however, it was soon completely abandoned. According to one of the legends, the island was used as a place of reference for plague patients, and therefore, up to 160,000 people were buried here. The souls of many of the dead allegedly turned into ghosts, which now haunt the island. The island’s grim reputation is exacerbated by tales of horrific experiments that patients in a psychiatric clinic allegedly suffered. In this regard, researchers of paranormal phenomena call the island one of the most terrible places on Earth. In 2014, the Italian Government announced its plans to hold an auction for the lease of the island for 99 years. It is assumed that the hospital building will be turned into a hotel.

Prčanj Prčanj – the village and the pier on the southwestern shore of the Bay of Kotor, directly opposite Kotor, Montenegro. The ruins of the former

Prevlaka Peninsula (Prevlakа Poluotok)

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Portorož. (Source: https://www.pinterest.ru/pin/846606429932121359/)

settlement, the remains of the oldest structures and the church of St. Thomas (ninth century) and St. Ivan (1221) are preserved here. There are many palaces of medieval noble families. The basis of economic progress in Prčanj was navigation, which reached the highest level of development in the eighteenth century. The inhabitants of the city, thanks to the presence of high-speed vessels, gained the trust of the Venetians and transported mail to Venice and back for them, thereby establishing a postal communication between the shores of the Adriatic. In 1812, an English poet Lord Byron visited Prčanj. It was here that his love for the daughter of the future Austrian General Marco Florio, Margarete, arose, the first lines of the famous poem “Childe Harold” are devoted to her. A great monument of Prčanj is the largest and most beautiful parish church of Boca is the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary church, which has been built for 120 years (the building began in 1789). The church is not only a sacral object, but also one of the largest galleries

in this region. It contains works of local and foreign painters and sculptors, who created masterpieces of icon painting and modern art. In Prčanj, the first Montenegrin round-the-world seafarer, the famous captain Ivo Visin was born, lived, and died.

Prevlaka Peninsula (Prevlakа Poluotok) Prevlaka Peninsula (Prevlakа Poluotok) – (“Prevlaka” – Isthmus) is a peninsula which is situated on the southwestern side at the entrance to BokaKotorska Bay. The peninsula is rocky, narrow, and relatively flat. Its height is 58–63 m; the banks are steep and rocky. Peninsula is a border disputed territory between Montenegro and Croatia. Over the years, the UN Observation Line (UNMOP), the smallest UN peacekeeping contingent that did not suffer losses, has been located here. The

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arguability of the peninsula was due to the fact that from a technical point of view the peninsula belongs to Croatia; however, Montenegro, in order to ensure the security of the Boka-Kotorska Bay, demanded it for itself. In 2009, an agreement was reached, according to which Prevlaka remained Croatian, and the Montenegrins control its water area. In the period of Yugoslavia there was a small naval base here.

Prežba Island (Prežba Otok) Prežba Island (Prežba Otok) – The island is situated in the northwest side of Lastovo Island in Southern Dalmatia, Croatia. With Lastovo Island it is connected by a bridge. The area of the island is 2.81 km2, and its coastline is 14.2 km due to numerous bays. The highest point is 136 m. There is a lighthouse on the south side of the island. A bunker for submarines has been preserved on the island. It is Uninhabited.

Primorska Primorska – one of the eight administrative districts of Slovenia. It includes a number of areas, including part of the Adriatic coast – Istria. This land has a rich and difficult past. In the thirteenth century Istria became part of the Republic of Venice and remained in its submission for five centuries. After the fall of the Republic in 1797, the French Army came here (1806–1813). Liberal reforms carried out by Napoleon, also had the reverse side. Maritime blockade paralyzed trade relations. Salt extraction and trading have decreased. The total recruitment in the Army forced many Slovenes to flee to Austria. Since 1813, the era of the rule of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty began, which lasted for almost a century. In 1918, the district of Primorska, under the secret London Treaty signed 3 years earlier, was occupied by Italy. When Mussolini came to power, the Slovenes were repressed. After the capitulation of fascist Italy on September 8, 1943, German troops entered the territory of Istria. At the end of the Second World War, Zone A (Trieste) was

Prežba Island (Prežba Otok)

occupied by Allied forces, and in Koper, in Zone B, the Yugoslav Liberation Army stood. The 1954 London Agreement finally approved the alignment of forces. Most of Istria became part of the Yugoslav Socialist Republic (now the territory of Croatia), and Zone A (Trieste) was ceded to Italy. Slovenes living in Trieste were a national minority. After the proclamation of independence of Slovenia, the question of the return of Italian citizens’ property, alienated after the end of the Second World War, became acute. Now this problem is fixed by diplomatic means. On the territory of Primorska there are such sightseeings as Piran, with its unique Venetian spirit, the amazing caves of Škocjan and Vilenica, stud farms of Lipica, where they grow white horses of magnificent breed, the Mediterranean Idrija, and the pearl of temple art – the Church of the Holy Trinity in Hrastovlje.

Projects on Saving Venice Projects on Saving Venice – After a catastrophic flood in Venice in 1966, a number of projects were proposed. To protect against surge waves, hydrotechnical structures of various types were proposed: a circular dam around Venice, inside the lagoon; dams across the lagoon separating the Lido and Malamocco basins; breakwaters between the lagoon and the sea; dams with locks in the straits. An artificial cleaning system of the Venetian canals is a necessary addition and hydraulic engineering structure, limiting tidal currents. The solution of another type is the rise of Venice above the water. The essence of this method is to drill a large number of wells in the city and inject solutions containing solid materials (cement, clay, sand) through them into the ground. Injected into the well under pressure, the solution at a certain depth breaks the ground, spreads over the formed artificial fracture, and lifts the overlying stratum of soil as well as the structures on its surface. Thus, in the depth of the soil, you can create one or more artificial layers of the required thickness; the ground surface will be raised to the same height. Experimental work was carried out near Venice on Poveglia Island. The cement and aluminum production waste was injected into

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10 bore-holes. The surface area of 850 m2 was elevated by 11 cm. It is believed that it would be enough at the stage of the priority work to elevate a part of the Venice territory by 25 cm. The method requires jewelry accuracy so that in the process of lifting the soil there were no damages on the structures that do not tolerate uneven movements. During the whole time, certain measures are taken in Venice: the drilling of wells for water, oil, and gas near Venice is prohibited; a law was passed on the mandatory review and approval by a special committee of any projects scheduled for implementation in the city and in the lagoon area. Restoration works are conducted. On April 10, 1973, the Italian Parliament passed a special law for Venice (No. 171), providing for: the construction of regulated dams in three straits; construction of sewage system and treatment facilities; construction of aqueducts – water pipes from the mainland – and cessation of groundwater pumping from artesian wells; restoration of public buildings and facilities; modernization of the housing stock with the creation of modern facilities in old houses while maintaining the external architectural appearance; measures to eliminate and prevent water and industrial atmosphere pollution. The project “MOSE” (in Italian MOdulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico, an experimental electromechanical module) was included in the Master Plan for the Saving Venice, adopted in Italy in 1987. Construction began simultaneously in 2003 at all three lagoon inlets, and by 2013, more than 85% of the project had been completed. After multiple delays, cost overruns, and scandals resulted in the Project missing its 2018 completion deadline, it is now expected to be fully completed in 2022. Along with that, the Venice Department of Water Management is carrying out work to strengthen the shores of the lagoon, raise the sidewalks and docks, so that during weak floods, water does not get to them. At the same time opponents of the “MOSE” Project continue to develop alternative plans to save Venice. For example, geologists from the University of Padua have proposed pumping large quantities of seawater into the city’s land with the help of pipes. In their opinion, this will lead to the fact that the sand that lies beneath the city will spread out and lifts

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Venice by 30 cm in 10 years. However, many scientists oppose this idea, expressing fears that such an operation would damage, if not destroy, the fragile foundation of the city.

Provers Strait, Provers Kanal Provers Strait, Provers Kanal – lies between the northwest coast of Kornat Island and the southeast coast of Dugi-Otok Island, Croatia. The southern part of the strait is broad and deep. At the entrance to the strait lie the islands of Sestrica Vela and Sestrica Mala. In the southern part of the strait there are the islands of Aba Vela and Aba Mala. The northern part of the strait is divided into two passages by the island of Katina: the southeast is known as the Passage of the Provers Vela with a depth of 2.5–3.0 m, and the northwest – Provers Mala, which is shallow. Directly from the Provers strait to the southeastern coast of the island of Dugi-Otok, there is a large bay of Telašćica.

Pržno Pržno – a typical old fishing village on the Budva Riviera, where you can walk along the old streets and sit in a fish restaurant on the waterfront. The village stands on one of the picturesque capes that protect the bay with beautiful beaches and Miločer Park a few kilometers from the island of St. Stephen. Currently, the village has become a famous tourist resort: the Pržno beach, 350 m long, is located between Pržno and Miločer Cape. The coast, where the beach is located, is famous for its olive groves. Nearby there are food and beverage outlets and “Maestral” hotel – a favorite vacation spot of Italian tourists. From here you can get to Budva by tourist train or by taxi.

Pula Pula – the largest resort city and port on the Adriatic Sea in the west of Croatia, in the south of the Istrian Peninsula. It is an economic and

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Pula

“MOSE” installations in Venice. (Source: https://www.pinterest.ru/pin/697706167254352988/)

cultural center of Istria. The population of the city is 57,500 people (2011). It has a railroad station and the only international airport on the peninsula. Shipbuilding, cement, tobacco, leather, footwear and woodworking enterprises; important cargo port, naval base are located here. Pula’s harbor is considered one of the best and safest natural harbors in the world. In the Aquarium of the city, in the five halls of the old Austro-Hungarian fortress, the flora and fauna of the Northern Adriatic are represented. According to legend, the foundation of Pula is associated with the myth of the inhabitants of Colchis, pursuing the Argonauts, who stole the Golden Fleece. The city was founded in the second half of the first millennium BC by the Illyrian tribes. In 178 BC it was conquered by Rome and was called Pola. The city was developed and built from the old settlement on the central city hill, which expanded toward the Pula Bay and was the center of social life and entertainment of the Roman emperors and their wives. In the sixth

century, in Istria, in particular in Pula, lived Slavs. In the middle of the twelfth century, Pula, which before was under the rule of Byzantium, was captured by Venice. In 1797, due to the liquidation of the Republic of Venice, Pula passed to Austria, from which it was taken by Napoleon I in 1805. In 1809–1813 it was a part of the Illyrian provinces. The decision of the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815 recognized Pula as possession of Austria. Since 1850, Pula has been the major base of the Austrian, then the Austro-Hungarian Fleet. As well as the whole Julian March (Julijska Krajna) after the end of the First World War, 1914–1918, it was captured by Italy. After the end of the Second World War (1939–1945), under a peace treaty with Italy in 1947, Pula was reunited with Yugoslavia. The most famous sightseeing and the symbol of Pula is the well-preserved Roman amphitheater of the first and second centuries AD which is simply called the arena, built by Caesar’s nephew.

Pustoshkin Pavel Vasilievich (1749–1829)

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Pula. (Photo by Orlovic, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pula#/media/File:Pula_Aerial_View.jpg)

In Roman times, it was located next to the main road Via Flavia, which ran to Aquilia. It was one of the six largest buildings of the Roman Empire. It was optimized for 23,000 people. The stone shell of the amphitheater, dissected by two floors of arcades with 72 arches on each of them, has been preserved to this day. Today there are concerts, festivals, theater performances, etc. This local “Colosseum” is the third largest in the world. The famous Irish writer James Joyce (who lived and taught English to AustroHungarian naval officers in Pula in 1904–1905) called the city – “God forsaken place, naval Siberia”.

Pustoshkin Pavel Vasilievich (1749–1829) Pustoshkin Pavel Vasilievich (1749–1829) – Russian Vice Admiral (1799). He graduated from the Naval Sea Cadet Corps. In 1768 he was sent to the Black Sea Fleet. From 1771 to 1780 he served in the Sea of Azov. In 1772–1774, commanding the

“Hotin” ship in the Black Sea, he was engaged in describing the banks of the Dnieper and Southern Bug rivers. In 1777 he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander. Commanding the “Pochtalion” frigate and transport postal vessels, he was sent from Kerch to Taman, from where he transported the Crimean Khan Shagin-Girey to Yenikale, and then sailed to the Black Sea. In 1780 he was transferred to the Baltic Fleet. In 1782 he was again transferred to the Black Sea Fleet, and he commanded the frigate “Pochtalion” at the port of Taganrog. As a Flag Captain, he sailed from Taganrog to Sevastopol, after which he made hydrographic survey and description of the Dniester estuary. He was Head of the Gnilov shipyard (1784–1787), and was appointed to command the port of Taganrog. In 1789 he was promoted to Captain of brigadier rank. In 1790, commanding a squadron, he moved from Taganrog to Sevastopol, where, taking command of the ship “Knyaz Vladimir,” he sailed to the mouth of the Danube and off the coast of Rumelia. In 1791 he participated in the battle of Kaliakria. In the autumn of 1791, he stepped into the command of the Danube Flotilla and the Black Sea Rowing

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Flotilla. In 1794, he commanded the second squadron in the Sevastopol raid. In 1795, he was appointed commander of the Nikolaev Port and a member of the Black Sea Admiralty Board. From 1797, he was a commander of the rowing Fleet on the Black Sea, from 1798 – Dniester squadron. In 1799, Pustoshkin was promoted to Vice Admiral and by decision of Admiral F.F. Ushakov was placed in command of the

Pustoshkin Pavel Vasilievich (1749–1829)

Russian-Turkish squadron. In May 1789 a squadron appeared under Ancona, where it destroyed and expelled Italian and French corsairs from the Adriatic Sea who robbed vessels of any nationality. After clearing the sea, Pustoshkin began to prepare for the capture of Ancona; however, at the insistence of the English Admiral G. Nelson, he was recalled by F.F. Ushakov.

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Rab Rab – (1) The island is situated in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea, near the Dalmatian coast, the smallest in the western part of the Kvarner Bay, to the south from Krk Island and to the east from Cres Island, belongs to Croatia. It is mainly composed of limestones, and its eastern part is rocky and barren. The island is small, and the area of the island is 86 km2. Population is approximately 9300 people (2011). The western side is covered with lush vegetation. The coast is indented by deep bays. It is one of the sunniest places in Europe. In the northwestern part of the island is the Lopar Peninsula, where one of the best sandy beaches of Croatia is situated. The island is connected to the mainland by car ferry and the Podvelebitski Canal. (2) The city, the center of the island of the same name, the late medieval settlement, Croatia. Originally it was the base for the Roman and then Byzantine Fleets. Then it became a prosperous independent city; however, since 1409 it has become a part of the Venetian possessions. It is famous for its high bell towers. Since the end of the nineteenth century, it has been a resort. The population is engaged in the cultivation of subtropical crops and fishing. The city became even more popular after the visit of the English King Edward VIII (elder brother of King George VI) in summer of 1936 and his future wife, the American Wallis Worffold-Simpson. Because of love, the King abdicated the throne, having remained on it

for less than a year. Edward died in 1972, and his wife died in 1986. In 2005, the film “Wallis and Edward” was made in Great Britain about this twentieth-century love story that shook Britain and the whole world. In 2010–2011, the famous English singer Madonna, as a director, made a feature film about this story in her script. The presentation of the film took place at the 61st Berlin Film Festival in February 2011. Here, on the Frkanj Peninsula to the west of the city, one of the best nudist resorts is located. It is said that the beginning of the tradition of bathing naked was put by King Edward VII.

Ragusa (Raguza) Ragusa (Raguza) – the Latin name of the city of Dubrovnik, Croatia.

Ragusa Statutes (Raguza Statuts) Ragusa Statutes (Raguza Statuts) – legal monument of the feudal acts of the ancient city-state of Ragusa (on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea), which has been creating for the several centuries. Since the tenth century, Ragusa has been inhabited mainly by Slavs. At the end of the thirteenth century, it was united with the Slavic City of Dubrovnik (modern Croatia). Ragusa

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Ragusa Statutes (Raguza Statuts)

Rab Island as seen from Velebit Mountains, Croatia. (Photo by Julian Nyča, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rab#/ media/File:Rab_Island_from_Velebit.jpg)

The City of Rab, Croatia. (Photo by Herbert Ortner, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rab#/media/File:Rab1.jpg)

Red Mullet (Mullus barbatus)

Statutes were also named as “Liber Statutorum Civitatis Ragusii Compositus Anno MCCLXXII” (“The Book of Statutes of the State of Ragusa, composed in 1272” (also later divided into two books) and were also an incorporation (systematization of laws without changing their content) Ragusa customs and laws, conducted in 1272 at the initiative of Venice. This book, which reflected the historical development of Ragusa feudal law, existed as part of Venetian law until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Ragusa Statutes secured the monopoly of Venice in trade between the West and the East and fully protected the interests of the ruling patriciate in the field of maritime transport operations, handicrafts, agriculture, and trade. Ragusa Statutes contain provisions on the management of the city, on court and legal proceedings, family and paternal authority, on the division and inheritance of property, etc., as well as criminal laws against smuggling, piracy, and poisoning. The development of the Ragusa Statutes was affected by the maritime Venetian Statutes and the Rhodes Maritime Law. According to Ragusa Statutes participation of sailors in the division of profits from navigation was allowed. Ragusa Statutes were published in the sixteenth century by Frano Gundulić (Francisco Gondola), a member of the Major Council of Ragusa.

Ramsar Convention Ramsar Convention – see “▶ Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat.”

Ravenna Ravenna – a city in eastern Italy, the administrative center of the Province of Ravenna in the Region of Emilia-Romagna. It has been sung in the poems of the great Dante. It is situated near the coast of the Adriatic Sea, and the shipping channel connects the city with it (avanport – Porto-

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Corsini). Population of the city is 158,800 people (2014). There is a railroad station. The food industry (milling, winemaking, sugar refining, canneries) and the production of chemical fertilizers, building materials (cement, glass), ceramic products, musical instruments, and textile enterprises are developed here. There is an amusement park, Mirabilandia, here. Founded by Etruscans and Umbras, the city in Cis-Alpine Gallia is protected by the marshes of the delta of the Padus (Po) River. In the third century BC Ravenna was conquered by the Romans. Ravenna served as a port and a site for the Roman Adriatic Fleet, connected by a channel with the Padus River. In 404 AD Ravenna became the residence of the Western Roman Emperors, then of Odoacer, in 493 – the capital of the Ostrogoths Empire – and from 582, the residence of the Byzantine exarchs. Great masterpieces of early Christian Byzantine architecture from the fifth to sixth centuries are preserved in Ravenna. Outside the city, there is the tomb of Theoderic (about 530); and in Ravenna itself, there is the tomb-mausoleum of Dante.

Red Mullet (Mullus barbatus) Red Mullet (Mullus barbatus) – a species of fish from the family of mullets (Mullidae). It is the marine schooling fish. The body is elongated and compressed from the sides; it is up to 30 cm long, usually 10–20 cm. The dorsal and anal fins are short, and the tail fins are fork-shaped. The head is large with a sharply drooping, almost vertical snout and high-set eyes. The small mouth, placed in the lower part of the head, is supplied with small teeth-bristles, and two long antennae hang from the chin. The body is unevenly colored red, and the belly is silvery, with light yellow fins. It dwells near the sea shores, usually at shallow depths – 15–30 m, although it also comes in at a depth of 100–300 m. Mullets tend to school near the bottom and never rise into the water column. They prefer soft, silty, or sandy soil. However, they are also found on the coquina and rocky bottom. Their long antennae help Mullus barbatus to find food: the fish slowly moves at the very

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The Port of Ravenna, Italy. (Photo by Marek Slusarczyk, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna#/media/File: Seaport_in_Ravenna,_Italy.jpg)

bottom and carefully “senses” its surface with antennae in search for small bottom animals. It feeds on invertebrates. The fish reach puberty on the second or third year of life. Spawning occurs from May to August at depths from 10 to 55 m near a silty or sandy bottom. Each female spawns several servings of caviar, and the total fecundity for the season varies from 3600 to 88,000 eggs. The tasseled and fertilized caviar rises in the upper layers of water, and after 2.5–3.5 days, depending on the temperature, the larvae leave it. The young feed on small animals dwelling in the water column and are masked from predators by a silvery, bluish-green color. Approximately 1.5–2 months after hatching, the fry approach the shores and, having reached a length of 4–6 cm, sink to the bottom and acquire the appearance and coloring typical for adult fish. Adults approach the shores in spring and stay here until winter; sometimes they come across in the mouths of rivers. In winter, fish migrate to great depths. Life expectancy is 10–12 years; in the first summer of their life they can reach lengths from 4 to 12 cm, depending on the spawning time.

The fish was highly valued in Ancient Rome and the Mediterranean countries. The slave approached a noble Dame, with his hands holding a transparent vessel on his shoulders. In that vessel a fish was floating in the water. The patrician struck the vessel with wooden tongs and then lifted it high above her head – everyone present could admire the moment of agony of the fish – in articulo mortis, at which its color changed. Initially silver-pink acquired a red tint, and then became covered with bright, carmine-colored spots. When the fish weakened, and its life left their bodies, the color dimmed, acquiring the same tone as before the deadly blow. The end of the ritual was predictable – the cook roasted it, and the guests ate the fish which was killed by them. Cooked by any way, it was delicious – they say that it is impossible to spoil it with any cooking. In the Mediterranean cuisine there are a lot of mullet dishes: its carcass is dried, roasted in a pan with spices, a fish soup made of it, baked on the grill and in the oven. Fats are mainly represented by polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are extremely useful for the nervous and cardiovascular systems.

Riccione

Red mullet. (Photo by Roberto Pillon, Source: https://it. wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullus_barbatus#/media/File:Mullus_ barbatus_Antiparos_1.JPG)

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Red Porgy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagrus_ pagrus#/media/File:Pagrus_pagrus_20-10-06.jpg)

discharge is 1160 m3/s, and the minimum 0.5 m3/s. It is used for irrigation.

Red Porgy (Pagrus pagrus) Red Porgy (Pagrus pagrus) – benthic fish of the sea breams family and Sparidae. The body is oval, and the sides are depressed and high. It lives on rocky solid bottom, often at submarine ridges, at depths from 10 to 160 m. Its length is up to 80 cm, its weight is up to 8 kg; usually the length of a caught fish is approximately 35 cm. Color is pinkish-purple. It reaches sexual maturity with a length of 24 cm. It has a great commercial value. The meat has an exceptional taste. In the Eastern Adriatic, about 5 t of the fish are caught daily.

Reno River Reno River – a river in Italy. Its length is 210 km, and the basin area is 4630 km2. It originates in the Toscano – Emilian Apennines – and empties into the Adriatic Sea. Previously flowed into the Po River, however, then was allotted eastward along the ancient riverbed of Po di Primaro. Up to the latitude of Bologna, the river flows in the mountains, further along the Po Valley, where its riverbed is deep. In this area the river is navigable. In the spring and late autumn, floods occur, and in the summer, low water period occurs. The maximum water

Republic of Ragusa Republic of Ragusa – see “▶ Dubrovnik Republic.”

Riccione Riccione – a city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, in the Region of Emilia-Romagna, Italy. Population of the city is approximately 36,300 people (2019). Archaeological findings in the area of Riccione date to second century BC. At the time of the Roman Republic, it was known as the Vicus Popilius. In 1260, the settlement was acquired by the Agolanti family, connected to the Lords of Rimini. In the seventeenth century, a number of watchtowers were built on the coast, guarding the city from the attacks of pirates. Tourist glory of Riccione, due to the building of houses for rich people from Bologna, refers to the end of the nineteenth century. In 1934, a villa for Benito Mussolini was built here. After the Second World War, the city became the resting place for many famous people – Brazilian footballer Pele, Italian cinematographers Ugo Tognazzi and Vittorio de Sica, sister of Italian film actress Sophia Loren – Maria

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The city of Riccione, Italy. (Source: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccione#/media/Archivo:Riccione_seafront_north_ side.jpg)

Scicolone, artist and jazz pianist Romano Mussolini, etc. In 1930, Riccione obtained the status of the main city of summer tourism on the Adriatic Riviera in Romagna. Together with Rimini, it is one of the most famous resorts in Northern Italy. The long 15 km beach attracts tourists. Riccione is connected with the nearby city of Rimini by a trolleybus line. Between Riccione and Rimini one of the largest open water parks in Italy and in Europe, “Aquafan,” is situated. One of the five huge warm pools is called “Ocean in Miniature” and boasts real ocean waves. Magnificent thermal center works in Riccione. There is a dolphinarium with exhibitions about the inhabitants of the world’s oceans.

Rijeka Rijeka – (the former Fiume) a large port in Croatia, an industrial city, a transit hub, and a main

ferry terminal in the whole of the Adriatic Sea. The moorings of the commercial port are the main export-import starting point of neighboring Hungary. It has a well-known carnival center, where European sports and cultural and economic events are usually organized. It is situated at the confluence of the river Rječina in the Rijeka Bay on the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. The population is 128,600 people (2011). Oil refining, woodworking, paper, chemical enterprises, tobacco factory, and food industry (liquor and oilseed processing industry, milling, brewing) are developed here. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Whitehead set up production of mobile water mines (torpedoes), which from here went to all the Fleets, including the Russian Fleet. There was an ancient settlement of Tharsatica on the place of modern Rijeka, which the Romans converted into the city of Fiume (Italian, “River”). In about 600, the outskirts of the city were settled by Croatian tribes. In 802, during the war of

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The city of Rijeka, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijeka#/media/File:RijekaUckapano.jpg)

Charlemagne with the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus I, the city was destroyed. Soon it was again restored by the Croats and received the current name. The port began to develop only in the thirteenth century. In 1466 the city was captured by the Austrian Habsburgs, who, except the Venetian (1508–1512) and French (1809–1813) periods of domination, owned it until 1918. The city was controlled in 1779–1809, 1822–1849, and 1868–1918 by Hungarian, and in 1849–1868 by Croatian authorities of the Habsburg Empire. In the nineteenth century, Austria-Hungary sought access to the Adriatic Sea, which was achieved in 1845 with the construction of the railway Budapest – Rijeka. Under the AustroHungarian rule, Rijeka flourished as an industrial city populated mainly by Italians (Croats lived mainly on the outskirts). However, in September 1891, after the collapse of the Hapsburg Empire, the struggle between Italy and Yugoslavia for Rijeka began. In September 1919, Rijeka was occupied by Italian nationalists under the leadership of soldier-poet Gabriele d’Annunzio, who established a pro-fascist regime and proclaimed the “Italian Regency of Carnaro” or the Republic of Fiume, which existed until December 30, 1920. According to the Italian-Yugoslav Treaty of Rapallo, 1920 Rijeka (Fiume) was recognized as a “free city.” In 1924, Mussolini annexed Rijeka to Italy again. According to the Rome Treaty of

1924 and a special Agreement, Rijeka and the port were ceded to Italy, and the suburb of Rijeka, Sumac, with the harbor of Barros remained Yugoslavian. After the Second World War, Rijeka was again returned to Yugoslavia. Most of the Italian population left the city. At that time Rijeka’s economy flourished due to the development of shipbuilding. After Croatia gained its independence, this industry declined and small businesses began to be developed instead.

Rijeka (Fiume) Bay (Rijec´ki Zaljev) Rijeka (Fiume) Bay (Rijećki Zaljev) – is situated in the north of the Adriatic Sea off the coast of Croatia, the top of the Kvarner Bay between the Istria Peninsula and the islands of Krk and Cres. It is connected to the open part of the Adriatic Sea by the Karnar (Kvarner) Strait. From the west it is bounded by an area of the eastern coast of the Istrian Peninsula. The southeastern shore of the bay is formed by the northwestern shore of Krk Island, and the northeast is a section of the continental coast from the Tikhi Strait to the small Preluka Bay. The length is 28 km, the width is 22 km, and the prevailing depths are 40–50 m. The shores of the bay are high and steep, and mountainous. The tides are irregular diurnal, and their magnitude is 0.7 m. It differs from other

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areas of the Adriatic by increased humidity. South and southwest winds bring heavy precipitation. Islands are often folded in thick fog. On the northeast coast of the bay there are large ports of Rijeka and Sušak.

Rimini Rimini – the city and the port on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, the historical center of the Region of Emilia-Romagna, Italy. The population of the city is 151,000 people (2019). It has a popular seaside resort. During the Second World War, it served as a fortress of the so-called Gothic line – the defensive line of the German fascist troops. Founded by the Romans in 268 BC at the mouth of the River Ariminus, from which it got its name. It is believed that the famous Rubicon flows here. In 49 BC, after the death of his daughter, Julia, married to Pompey, a clash between Caesar and his son-in-law became inevitable. At the insistence of Gnaeus Pompey, the Senate ordered Caesar to resign as Governor of Gallia and disband the troops. Caesar had 5000 devoted warriors, and he managed to seize the initiative in the struggle for power. He sent a small detachment to capture Ariminum (Rimini), which blocked his way from Gallia to Italy. At a dawn, Caesar captured Ariminum and spoke at its forum calling to move on Rome. During the reign of Octavian Augustus, Rimini became the crossroad for two major roads – Via Flaminia (between Rome and the Adriatic Sea) and Via Emilia, at the solemn laying of which the emperor was present in Ariminium. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the city lost its value. From the end of the thirteenth to fifteenth century, the noble Malatesta family, who belonged to the Guelph party and played a prominent role in the political life of Italy, ruled in Rimini. The castle and the Cathedral of Malatesta are the traces of Malatesta dynasty dominion in the city. On the central square of Rimini, Piazza Tre Martiri, Julius Caesar once spoke his legendary speech. Only a few column porticoes and a statue of Caesar remind about the ancient Roman forum today. Since the times of Emperor

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Augustus, the city has remained one of the most important ports on the Adriatic coast of the country. Within its beach area (40 km) there are resorts of Bellaria, Igea-Marina, 15 km of the equipped beach of Rimini, Riccione, Milano-Marittima, and Cattolica. It is forbidden to use motorized floating equipment closer than at a distance of 500 m from the coast within the area of Rimini. Rimini is connected with many cities by the railway network along the Adriatic Sea. There is an airport named after F. Fellini – an outstanding film director of Italy, who was born and buried in Rimini. In 2004, the F. Fellini Museum was opened in the city. On the Rimini Riviera, three dolphinariums are opened: in Cattolica, Riccione, and Rimini. In the neighboring resort of Riccione, there is one of the largest open water parks in Europe, Aquafan. A small “Rubicone” sign was installed at the exit from Rimini (Rubicon). To the north of Rimini in Viserba, there is the park “Italy in miniature,” which is an area of 85,000 m2, made in the form of the outlines of the Italian “boot” on the map. There are more than 270 Italian and European architectural masterpieces, as well as reduced copies of natural sightseeings. Models are made in scale from 1:25 to 1:50, surrounded by roads, ports, railways, and airports. Visitors can take a boat ride along the small Grand Canal in miniature Venice and admire the wonderful palaces that are only five times smaller than the original, drive along the monorail over the whole territory of the park and even look into the Land of Pinocchio. Not far from Rimini there are two thematic parks: “Mirabilandia” and “Fiabilandia.” Mirabilandia is an amusement park. There is a huge entertainment complex – 40 attractions: a circus, a 3D cinema, stunt shows, ballet on ice, a foam disco for children, diving tower for water jumping, etc. Fiabilandia is the Italian analogue of Disneyland.

Risan Risan – the oldest settlement in the northernmost part of Boka-Kotorska Bay, Risan Bay, at the foot

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The city of Rimini, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini#/media/File:Rimini_banner.jpg)

of Mount Orjen, Montenegro. It is situated in the middle between the cities of Kotor and Herceg Novi. The population is 2100 people (2003). Mentioned as Rhizon in the fourth century BC – the fortified Illyrian fortress city, which became the capital of Queen Teuta, which was named after the Illyrian tribe – the rhizonti. For some time, the whole of Bay of Kotor has been bearing their name. The city obtained its modern name in 229 AD. Until seventh century, it was the main city of the bay. After the fall of Illyria, Risan retains its autonomy. After the forming of the Roman Province of Dalmatia, Risan receives the status of a municipality. In the early Christian period, Risan becomes the seat of the Bishop. The Slavic period of Risan was marked by the entry into the little-known Serbian Principality of Travunija, and then into the structure of Duklja Zeta. In 865, it was pillaged by the Saracens, and in 976 it was conquered by the Bulgarian (Macedonian) Tsar Samuil. In the tenth to sixteenth centuries, the city changed its owners – Slavic feudal lords, kings, and republicans from Dubrovnik. In 1451 it was passed into the possession of the Ragusa Republic (the Latin name of Dubrovnik). In 1466 the Republic of Venice offered to exchange Risan and Herceg Novi for the Brač in the Adriatic Sea and the palace in Split, but this did not happen. In 1539, the Turks occupied it and, along with Herceg Novi, they held it until 168. In the seventeenth century, Risan has become a regional trading center. Risan’s inhabitants repeatedly participated in the uprisings against the Austro-Hungarian and Turkish invaders. In 1918, Risan became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. It is believed that this is the only place in the Boka-Kotorska Bay, whose inhabitants have never been associated with navigation. According to legend, the Illyrian Queen Teuta

cursed this place when the city was attacked by Roman ships. Exclaiming “Never again there will be no port,” she rushed from the cliff into the sea. The main sightseeing of Risan is the Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, built in 1601. There is a richest collection of icons of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, as well as monuments of the ancient period – Roman floor mosaic, remaining from the villa of the second century.

Risan Bay (Risan Zaliv) Risan Bay (Risan Zaliv) – one of the bays of the Boko-Katorska Bay, which is situated in its northeastern part to the northwest of the Verige Strait. The eastern shore of the bay is formed by the steep slopes of Mount Kason. The southern and northwestern shores also rise steeply to a considerable altitude. At the entrance of the bay, there are the Islands of St. Georgie and Our Lady of the Rocks. The depths in the middle part of the bay are 30–40 m, and at the top of the bay, the depth is 13–20 m. On the east bank of the Risan Bay, the city of Perast is situated.

Rodi Garganico Rodi Garganico – a city situated on the northern high shores of the Gargano Peninsula on the Adriatic Sea, Province of Apulia, Italy. It stands between two long sandy beaches a few kilometers from the Lake (Lagoon) Varano. It is surrounded by vast vegetation, mainly citrus, olives, figs, and Italian stone pines. An important center for the production of citrus fruits, such as oranges

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Romagna Coast

The city of Risan, Montenegro. (Photo by Diego Delso, Source: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risan#/media/Archivo: Risan,_Bah%C3%ADa_de_Kotor,_Montenegro,_2014-04-19,_DD_05.JPG)

“Arancia del Gargano” and lemons “Femminello,” which has been known since medieval times. The eastern beach is situated to the northwest of the port, stretching for 4 km and reaching the beach of San Menaio. In 2009, during the dredging operations of the construction of the marina, hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of sand were placed on the beach to increase its width. The construction of the marina strengthened the position of the city in Mediterranean tourism. Western Beach extends to the west of the city, including the beach of Santa Barbara Bay. Its length is 4950 m; it forms the western part of an elongated ridge of sand dunes, slightly inclined to the sea. The beach is interrupted at the mouth of the River Romandato. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Rodi Garganico was destroyed by the Goths in 485, restored in 553 after the Greco-Gothic war, and in 950 was assigned to the Saracens. In 1240 it was captured by the Venetians; in 1446 by Alfonso V from Aragon. During the Second World War, the city was

developed due to the construction of a railway. After the war, the city became the main exporter of citrus fruits.

Romagna Coast Romagna Coast – coastline of the Adriatic Sea, stretching from the city of Ravenna to the north to Volan beach, Italy.

Round Sardinella (Sardinella aurita) Round Sardinella (Sardinella aurita) – sea actinopterygian fish of the herring family (Clupeidae). The length of the body varies from 25 to 30 cm, less often up to 33 cm. The body structure is similar to the European sardine, differing from it in a more elongated and thick body. The tail is strongly thymic. The back is bluish-green,

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The city of Rodi Garganico, Italy. (Photo by Giuseppe Phoenix, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodi_Garganico#/ media/File:Rodi_Garganico.JPG)

and the sides are silvery. The yellow stripe on the sides may appear brown. The abdominal fin has eight separate rays, which distinguish this species from other members of the genus. The fish live in large schools at a depth of 10 to 80 m, sometimes close to the water surface or at a depth of up to 350 m. They mostly feed on zooplankton and phytoplankton, especially juveniles. Reproduction and laying eggs occur throughout the year. Juveniles often keep close to places of birth, and only with the onset of puberty begins to swim into deep, cold waters over long distances. Adult fish prefer water with a temperature of more than 24 °C. An important cropping object.

Rovinj Rovinj – (It. Rovigno) is a city situated on the west coast of the Istrian Peninsula, Croatia. It combines a medieval Venetian Port and a modern

resort. Rovinj is the most “Italian” city on the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea. The population of the city is 14,300 people (2011). In the past, the territory of the city center was an island. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the strait separating it from the mainland was filled up and the city began to develop on the coast. Rovinj produces most of the Croatian cigarettes in a tobacco factory founded in 1872. The architecture of Rovinj with its narrow streets and houses, with walls lowering into the sea, earned it the name “Northern Pearl of Croatia,” the most romantic city on the Istrian Peninsula. It was not for nothing that Jules Verne chose Rovinj as the place of action for his novels (in particular, “Matia Bazar”). Rovinj reminds both Rome and Venice. The most famous sightseeings of the city are the Franciscan Monastery, the St. Euphemia’s Basilica, the Church of the Holy Trinity, and the City Hall. There is also Batana Eco-museum dedicated to a flat-bottomed fishing boat, a symbol of the city, and a favorite vessel of urban fishermen, as

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Rovinj

Round sardinella. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Round_sardinella#/ media/File:Sardinella_ aurita.jpg)

The City of Rovinj. (Photo by Jeroen Komen, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovinj#/media/File:Town_of_ Rovinj,_Croatia_(20063724820).jpg)

well as one of the oldest in Europe marine aquarium, which contains the animals and algae of the Adriatic. In the tourist season, Rovinj is connected with Venice and Trieste by catamarans. In 2003, the Entertainment Center “Monvi” was opened here, becoming one of the busiest

places on the entire Croatian coast. The first settlements on the place of Rovinj have originated in the Bronze Age, and the first mention of Rovinj is in the seventh century. Due to its advantageous location, throughout its history Rovinj was ruled by different nations and civilizations: Byzantium,

Rubicon (Rubiсone) River

the Venetian Republic, Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy. In front of the town on the island of a small archipelago, which represents a bare rock, in 1853, the St. Ivan Lighthouse with a height of 23 m was built.

Rubicon (Rubiсone) River Rubicon (Rubiсone) River – a river that flowed from the slopes of the Apennines and emptied into the Adriatic Sea in north of Ariminum (now Rimini), along which is the border between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy). Rubicon

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gained fame due to the fact that Caesar passed through it at the beginning of 49 BC with the words “the die has been cast,” thus began a grand war against Pompey. “Unless I cross this river, my friends, this will be the beginning of disasters for me, and if I do, it will be the beginning of disasters for all people,” said Julius Caesar and added, “Let the die be cast!” After that he vigorously crossed Rubicon. The precise identification of the river with any of the modern rivers is hampered by the fact that since the time of antiquity the rivers in the area have changed the direction of the flow. In 1932, the Fiumicino River officially received the name “Rubicon.”

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Saddled Seabream (Black Tail, Oblada melanura) Saddled Seabream (Black Tail, Oblada melanura) – the fish of the Sparidae family. It has an oval body flattened from the sides with a slightly convex head profile. Serrated scales, are also on the head. Operculum is without thorn. Small mouth opening, obliquely directed upward, with thin lips; the jaws are only slightly extended, of equal size. Teeth; on each jaw there is an extreme row at the front with incisors, on the sides with sharp, tapered teeth, followed by four rows of small chewing teeth. Long, undivided dorsal fin with 11 thorn-rays and 13–14 soft rays; anal fin with 3 spiny and 13–14 soft rays. Pectoral fins with one ray-thorn and five soft rays. Color: silver gray with indistinct dark longitudinal stripes. A noticeable large black spot with a broad, white edge on the caudal stem. Maximal length is 30 cm. Weight is up to 0.6 kg. It is widely spread mainly on the rocky coastal areas with rich algal growths, at a depth of 7–70 m; however, more often they occur at 30 m; also above the sandy bottom and in the sea meadows. More often it is met in abundant, sometimes small schools of fish; unlike the most other species of sea breams, they hold for the most part, in areas of open water. It feeds on bottom fouling and small animals dwelling there. Spawning time occurs in late spring. The meat is delicious.

About 600 t are caught in the Mediterranean Sea, and about 200 t per year are caught near the shores of the Adriatic Sea.

Saint Tryphon, Sveti Trifon (St. Trifon, Sveti Trifun) Saint Tryphon, Sveti Trifon (St. Trifon, Sveti Trifun) – patron and protector of “The Brotherhood of Boka Kotorska Seamen.” According to legend, mariners brought his body from Constantinople and took refuge from the storm and wind in the Bay of Kotor. The storm lasted for several days, and the inhabitants of the city decided that the Saint did not want to leave this city and that it was necessary to bury him here. Holy Relic of Saint Tryphon was transported to the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon built in 1166. Now they are in the tomb inside the Cathedral. The Cathedral itself is the pearl of Kotor.

Salento Peninsula Salento Peninsula – a peninsula in the extreme southeast of the province of Apulia, Italy. From the east it is washed by the Adriatic Sea, from the west by the waters of the Gulf of Taranto. The surface is a hilly plain. The climate is

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Saddled Seabream. (Photo by Alberto Romeo, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Saddled_seabream#/ media/File:Capo_Gallo_ Oblada_melanura.jpg)

Mediterranean (precipitation in the central part is 500–600 mm per year). Thickets of evergreen shrubs (maquis, etc.). Major cities and ports are Taranto and Brindisi.

most important archaeological museums and reserves.

San Benedetto del Tronto Salonae Salonae – (now Solin) is the port of Dalmatia and its main city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, located 5 km from Split, Croatia. It was the second most important after Aquileia. The indigenous population is the Thracian tribe of Manioi. From fourth century BC – Greek colony. In 78–77 BC the Romans captured and fortified. Growth began in the first century AD. The control center of the Province of Illyria during the late Roman Empire. During the reign of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius the city was enclosed with a wall. From the second to third centuries AD, it was the residence of the Bishop. In 535, Salonae was destroyed by the Goths, and in 614 by the Slavs and Avars, and after that it was abandoned. The population of the city was concentrated inside the palace of Diocletian in Split. It lived through maritime trade, as well as crafts, which were engaged, mostly slaves, and freedmen. At present, Salonae is one of the

San Benedetto del Tronto – port city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Marche Region, Italy. The population of the city is 47,350 people (2017). Active fishing port and one of the main seaside resorts on the central Adriatic coast. It is situated at the mouth of the Albula torrent, its territory extends from the Tesino River in the north to the Tronto River in the south. The main feature is a long 7 km long beach of fine white sand, gradually descending to the sea. The shallow depths of the sea are attractive for children and the elderly. Since 1995, the beach has been annually awarded the blue flag “Riviera delle Palme.” During the Second World War in 1943–1944, the city was subjected to aviation and naval strikes. In the years 1960–1990 Fishing has become the cornerstone of the local economy. The city has become one of the largest fishing ports in Italy. It is famous for its fish market. The city has a museum of shipping, fisheries, archaeological excavations, paleontology, etc.

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Salonae. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salona#/media/File:Roman_ruins_at_Salona,_Croatia.jpg)

Important natural sites located nearby are the national parks of the Gran Sosso and Monti dela Laga, Monti Sibillini, and the reserve Sentina).

San Domino Island (San Domino izolo) San Domino Island (San Domino izolo) – the largest and highest of the islands of the Tremiti Archipelago in the Adriatic Sea, Italy. Its height reaches 115 m. The shores of the island are rocky and steep, and in various places there are small bays which extend into them. There are numerous coves in the shores – Violets Cove, Sea Ox Cove, Moray Cove, and sea caves; some of them can be entered by boat. The southern slopes of the island are covered with forest, and the upper plateau with vineyards. There are beautiful sandy beaches. On the southwestern tip there is a lighthouse.

San Giorgio Maggiore (San Giorgio Maggiоre izolo) San Giorgio Maggiore (San Giorgio Maggiоre izolo) – a small island which is situated in the Venetian Lagoon in the Adriatic Sea, on the southern shore of the Canal San Marco, opposite the pier of San Marco, which separates it from Rialto – the main island of Venice, Italy. The area of the island is 0.01 km2. Approximately half of the island is occupied by the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, where the masterpieces of prominent Italian artists Tintoretto and Carpaccio are kept, and the monastery adjacent to it.

San Lazzaro degli Armeni Island (San Lazzaro degli Armeni izolo) San Lazzaro degli Armeni Island (San Lazzaro degli Armeni izolo) – an island, which is situated

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San Menaio (San Menaio Garganico)

San Benedetto del Tronto. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Benedetto_del_Tronto#/media/File:San_Benedetto_pano rama.png)

in the Venetian Lagoon, one of the world centers of Armenian culture. The island is home to one of the most important Armenian communities of Mekhitarists of Italy and the rest of the world. In 810, the Venetian Senate handed the island over to the abbot of a Benedictine Monastery. Later, the island was used as a hospital for pilgrims. At the end of the twelfth century, when leprosy was distributed, it was turned into a leper colony. The island was named after San Lazzaro (St. Lazarus defender of patients for leprosy). Since the sixteenth century it was a pauper asylum. It was then abandoned. In 1717 the island was presented to the Armenian Abbot Mekhitar. The following are the sightseeings on the island: the church of the fourteenth century in honor of St. Benedict and a monastery of a rare beauty for the Benedictine brothers. There is a library and museum on the island. On the island, there is also a collection of more than 170,000 volumes of rare books, 4500 Armenian manuscripts, gallery of paintings by the artist Aivazovsky, and a gift from the artist to the community of Mekhitarists. Lord Byron lived on the island where he studied Armenian culture. If you visit the museum, you will see the ancient Egyptian mummy (1000 years BC). From all the samples that are in other European countries, this one is well-preserved.

San Menaio (San Menaio Garganico) San Menaio (San Menaio Garganico) – a small resort town in the southeast Italy, the region of Apulia. The population of the town is

approximately 200 people (2008). It is famous for its long sandy beaches and forests of Aleppo pine, which are among the oldest and largest in Italy. The territory of the city, 3 km long and 900 m wide, is spread along the coast of the Adriatic Sea from the historic center, built around the river and the medieval towers. The flora in the town region is presented exclusively by orange trees growing among the olives. Along the coast there are four sandy beaches of golden color, characterized by a beautiful sandy bottom, all of them facing north–northwest. The major beach extends from west to east for more than 2.5 km, reaches a width of 60 m, and is well equipped. Tourism is the main source of income for the city and its citizens; it has been developed in particular since 2009 with the opening of the Marina di Rodi Garganico Port not far from it. The city is famous for the export trade of citrus fruits (“Blonde Orange of Gargano” oranges) and “Limone Femminello del Gargano” lemons, which are exported to America and the EU.

San Michele Island (San Michele izolo) San Michele Island (San Michele izolo) – The island is situated in the Venice Lagoon, in the Adriatic Sea, Italy, to the north of Rialto. It is often called the Isle of the Dead. The area is 0.16 km2. In the nineteenth century, Venice city authorities banned the burial of the dead in the historic center, and since then the cemetery has

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San Michele Island, Venice, Italy. (Photo by Mario Vercellotti, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isola_di_San_ Michele#/media/File:Isolasanmichele.jpg)

moved to the island. Among the famous people, buried in the cemetery, there are famous Russians: composer I. Stravinsky, choreographer S. Dyagilev, and poet, Nobel Prize winner I. Brodskiy. There was a monastery on the island, from which only the Renaissance Church of San Michele in Isola (Chiesa di San Michele in Isola) remained.

San Servolo Island (San Servolo izolo) San Servolo Island (San Servolo izolo) – the island which is situated in the Venetian Lagoon to the southeast of San Giorgio Maggiore Island, Italy. The area of the island is 0.05 km2. Benedictine monks lived on this island at least in the eighth century, and for almost five hundred years. They were joined later by nuns, escaping from the convent of Saints Leone and Basso on

the Island of Malamocco, which had been destroyed by a seaquake. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the nuns departed, but they were soon replaced by a few dozen other nuns, who were fleeing the Turkish invasion of Crete. However, by the beginning of the eighteenth century, only a few were left, and soon thereafter the Senate of the Republic of Venice designated San Servolo as the site of a new military hospital, needed due to the continuing war against the Turks. Later, the hospital was used to care for the mentally ill. In 1978, the hospital was closed. In 1979, the Venice Government established on the island the “Istituto per le Ricerche e gli Studi sull’Emarginazione Sociale e Culturale” (Institute for the Study of Social and Cultural Marginalization) to preserve the documents associated with the history of the psychiatric hospital. Also, the European Center for Applied Arts was established there. The rich flora of San Servolo was used to produce medicine for the armed forces.

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San–Nicola Island (San–Nicola izolo) San–Nicola Island (San–Nicola izolo) – The island is situated at 400 m away from San Domino Island, the second largest in the Tremiti Archipelago, in the Adriatic Sea, Italy. The top of the island is flat, and the coast is rocky and steep. At the southwestern tip, there is a small harbor. The island is almost bare. It is considered the unofficial capital of the archipelago. The only town on the island has the same name as the island. At the beginning of the eleventh century, Benedictine monks founded here St. Mary’s Abbey, the main monument of the island. King of Naples and Sicily Ferdinand IV Bourbon used the island as a prison. Mussolini also used it in the same way, sending his political opponents and members of the mafia here. Today you can see a wooden Byzantine crucifix in the abbey, which the sea brought to the coast of the island in 747, as well as the Black Virgin, brought here in the Middle Ages from Constantinople. The southwestern part of the island is surrounded by a large fortress.

Santa Margherita Santa Margherita – Italian resort and port, the ideal point for yachting. It is one of the largest harbors in Italy, accommodating up to 800 boats and offering a full range of services for ships and their crews. The local beach is a classic golden sand. Villas and hotels on the beach are surrounded by lush pines. There are tennis courts and equipment rental centers for surfing, diving, and paragliding on the beach.

Santa Maria di Leuca Cape Santa Maria di Leuca Cape – a cape, the southeastern tip of the Apennine Peninsula and western entrance cape of the Adriatic Sea, Italy. Cape is rocky, and it rises at 140 m above the water level. A lighthouse with the same name is established

San–Nicola Island (San–Nicola izolo)

here. It serves as one of the points of the southern boundary of the Adriatic Sea.

“Save Venice” “Save Venice” – The message that in December 2, 1966, less than a month after the catastrophic flooding in Venice, Rene Mayo, Director-General of UNESCO, addressed the world: “On behalf of UNESCO I address with a solemn call to the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind for the sake of the saving and reclamation of cultural treasures of Florence and Venice which have suffered from a disaster: • I appeal to 120 Member States of UNESCO, and above all to their governments, to generously provide money, materials and other necessary assistance to carry out the enormous restoration work. • I call upon museums, libraries, archives and scientific institutions of all countries to send their specialists, to put their laboratories and workshops at the disposal of the corresponding Italian institutions, whose premises and collections have suffered from the disaster. • I call upon writers, artists, musicians, critics, historians - their name is legion - who were inspired by the Florentine and Venetian treasures in their work to donate part of what they got — they, like no other, know that they can never fully repay a duty, for this is a spiritual duty, and to help us with their talent to attract public attention, to touch human hearts. • I call on millions and tens of millions of people, even if they visited those amazing cities only once and returned spiritually enriched for the rest of their lives, to send at least one dollar to UNESCO. • And finally, I urge those who have never seen Florence and Venice, and most of whom probably will not have such happiness, also make their own modest contribution: money, work, a piece of their own heart. For it is impossible to recognize oneself as a man and remain indifferent to the fate of the greatest treasures of world culture.”

Sazan Island (Sazani Island)

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Savudrija

Sazan Island (Sazani Island)

Savudrija – (1) coastal settlement in the northwest region of the Istrian Peninsula, Croatia. Occurred on the place of a fishing village and turned into a resort center. The peninsula and a small bay where the settlement is situated have the same name. There are three types of winds here, which make this area popular among windsurfers. Judging by the archaeological findings, the region of Savudrija was populated in the Neolithic period. Interesting for tourists are the ruins of the Roman port. In the vicinity of Savudrija there are several such places, in particular, the Roman fort on the peninsula. Settlement of Savudrija is mentioned in the sources of the second half of the twelfth century. The beaches of Savudrija are mostly stony; however, there are several pebble ones. Vegetables are grown, and wine is produced in this region. (2) The eponymous lighthouse with a height of 36 m is the main sightseeing of Savudrija. Its light is visible at a distance of 32 km. This is the oldest lighthouse on the Adriatic, built in 1818. The construction of the building is connected with the love story of the Austrian Count Metternich, who, despite his position as a married man, fell in love with a local girl, in whose honor the lighthouse was built. The lighthouse is very popular among the tourists.

Sazan Island (Sazani Island) – The island is situated in front of the entrance to the Bay of Vlorё, the Adriatic Sea, Albania. It is included in the county Vlorё. The area is 5.7 km2. The mountainous surface of the island has two conical peaks, separated by a deep valley; the northern of them has an altitude of 330 m, and the southern has 308 m. The valley goes to the east coast of the island and ends at Bay of St. Nicholas (Gjiri i Shënkollit). The slopes of the mountains are mostly covered with shrubs. In the west, the island plunges into the sea by rocky cliffs, and in the east the slopes gently descend to the water’s edge. On the western shore of the island, there is the lighthouse Sazan. In the Middle Ages, Sazan belonged to the Republic of Venice, and after the Napoleonic wars, under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1815, it became a part of the British protectorate (along with the Ionian Islands). In 1864, the island belonged to the Greeks. After the Balkan War in 1913 it belonged to Italy, where it placed its military post. During the Second World War, there was a base of German and Italian submarines. In 1947, according to the Paris Peace Treaty with Italy, the island became Albanian. There is no permanent population, because it still remains a military zone. Before political disagreements in 1960–1961 between the USSR and

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Savudrija. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savudrija#/media/File:Savudrija_01.jpg)

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“Scientific Cooperation to Support Responsible Fisheries in the Adriatic Sea” (AdriaMed)

Albania, Soviet naval forces were deployed on the island, in particular the naval radio unit. There are currently more than 3600 bunkers on the Sazan Island, and the underground infrastructure consists of tunnels, a cinema, a school, and a hospital. During the last joint NATO and Albanian military exercises, the island was used as a target for bombing, which resulted in the destruction of a number of ground structures, including a villa built for Italian leader Benito Mussolini in 1930s. At present, the island, rich in vegetation and once considered one of the most beautiful parts of Albania, is in decline. Local authorities decided to turn the island into a tourist attraction. The island will remain a military base and will be opened to the public.

“Scientific Cooperation to Support Responsible Fisheries in the Adriatic Sea” (AdriaMed) “Scientific Cooperation to Support Responsible Fisheries in the Adriatic Sea” (AdriaMed) – FAO regional project with donor support from the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forestry Policies and Tourism (MiPAAFT) of Italy and since 2007 – the Directorate General of Fisheries and Maritime Transport of the EC. The Project has been started since 1999. It involves five Adriatic states: Slovenia, Croatia, Albania, Italy, and Montenegro. The purpose of the project is to develop general basic knowledge and support regional fisheries management through improved scientific coordination among fisheries institutions. One of the main tasks is to establish a permanent network of cooperation among fisheries institutions. The project aims to implement fishery monitoring systems, develop standardized methodologies used in scientific research, and harmonize data collection processes for use by participating countries. The annual programs of the project are discussed and approved by the Coordination Committee, which consists of representatives of the countries governments included in the project, and a representative of the EC. The Coordination Committee holds

meetings aimed at bringing together regional experts and establishing permanent links between them, sharing the best available scientific knowledge research results, and their methodology, discussion, and prioritization of further research. The Coordinating Council held 19 meetings: Termoli, Italy (2000), Portorož, Slovenia (2000), Tirana, Albania (2001), Split, Croatia (2002), Rome, Italy (2003), Budva, Serbia-Montenegro (2004), Ljubljana, Slovenia (2005), Tirana, Albania (2006), Zagreb, Croatia (2008), Chioggia, Italy (2009), Kotor, Montenegro (2010), Ljubljana, Slovenia (2011), Tirana, Albania (2012), Postira, Croatia (2013), Trieste, Italy (2014), Podgorica, Montenegro (2015), Portorož, Slovenia (2016), Tirana, Albania (2017), Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018).

Sea Bream, Sargus (Sargus annularis) Sea Bream, Sargus (Sargus annularis) – a fish from the Sparidae family. Body is high, compressed from the sides, one long dorsal fin. The teeth are large, arranged in two to three rows. Body color is silvery with dark transverse stripes. Length up to 25 cm. Usually kept in coastal thickets, where it feeds on mollusks and crustaceans. It spawns in the summer. Caviar is freefloating. The larvae hatch at a depth of 10–20 m. It has a little commercial value.

“Sea gul” (“Galeb”) “Sea gul” (“Galeb”) – yacht, built in 1939 at the “Ansaldo” shipyard, Italy. Displacement 5182 t. Its length and width is 117.3  15.6  5.6 m. Two diesel units of 2650 kW each. Speed 17 knots. Personal yacht of the President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito. After the collapse of Yugoslavia, the yacht came into the ownership of the Montenegrin Government and was going to be sent for scrap. However, it was bought and rebuilt by the Greek shipowner John Paul Papanicolaou.

Sea Robins (Trigla lucerna)

Sea Museum (Museo del Mare) Sea Museum (Museo del Mare) – founded in 1904 in Trieste, Italy. It is situated next to the port. Covers the history of navigation and fishing at the Adriatic Sea.

Sea Organ (Morske orgulje) Sea Organ (Morske orgulje) – one of the sightseeings in Zadar, Croatia. It was built in 2005. It is a descending ladder toward the Adriatic Sea. Waves create water movement in underwater pipes and force the air to move through cavities and niches in the steps, resulting in melodious sounds. The organ sounds best in stormy weather.

Sea Robins (Trigla lucerna) Sea Robins (Trigla lucerna) – a sea fish of the Triglidae family. Its head is without scales. The

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thick bone shell is clearly visible through the thin skin. It has two dorsal fins. Body color is brickred, closer to the tail turning into brown. The lower part of the body has a silvery white or light pink color. The fish reaches a length of 30 cm. However, it may reach up to 75 cm. Its weight is up to 6 kg. It dwells at a depth of 20 to 150 m, in rare cases reaching the depth up to 200 m, and the juveniles live at shallower depths – 2–20 m. It has the near-benthic lifestyle and prefers sandy soil. It feeds on slow-moving and immobile animals, finding them with rays of pectoral fins, as well as on fish, shrimps, and crabs. It is a predatory fish, which is classified as exotic. It can not only swim but also fly. It differs from the other fish by the presence of large, wing-like pectoral fins, which serve as “legs” for the sea robins. The specificity of the fish is the following: the large sea robins mouth is located across the flattened head; a huge forehead impresses with its size, a split upper lip hangs over the bottom. On the forehead in deep eye pits there are large mobile eyes, with sharp spikes protruding above them resembling horns. Sea robins can fly from 15 to 20 m, while its speed reaches 40 km/h. They

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The Sea Organ in Zadar, Croatia. (Source: https://www.camping-simuni.hr/en/blog/sea-organ-natural-musicalinstrument-played-by-the-sea/)

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Seman (Semani River)

The population of the city is 44,600 people (2017). A small port at the mouth of the River Misa, which flows through the city in the banks, built of Istra marble. It has a railroad station, agricultural machinery plant, and building materials industry enterprises. Fishing is developed. It has one of the most famous resorts in the area, attracting tourists from all over Europe, especially from Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Senigallia was founded in fourth century BC by the Gaul tribes and became the first Roman colony on the Adriatic coast.

Senj Sea robins. (Photo by Daiju Azuma, Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglidae#/media/File:Helidonichthys_ spinosus.jpg)

can be found everywhere in the Adriatic Sea. The meat is delicious. The catches in the Adriatic Sea are insignificant.

Seman (Semani River) Seman (Semani River) – the river, one of the most important in the river network of Albania. Empties into the Adriatic Sea. It is formed by the confluence of the Osum and Devoll Rivers, originating on the western slopes of the Gramos Ridge. The length of the river is 85 km (from the source of the Devoll River – 281 km), the catchment area is 5649 km2, and the average annual discharge is 95.7 m3/s. The total solid runoff is 12.6 million tons/year. In winter it floods and is not navigable. During the last 100 years, the river has changed its mouth five to six times, always moving south.

Senigallia Senigallia – city in Central Italy (before the beginning of the twentieth century – It. Sinigaglia), located northeast of Ancona, Marche Region.

Senj – seaside town located southeast of Rijeka, Croatia. Its history is related to the pirates-uskoks, who settled here since 1537 and created the basis for the attack on the Adriatic ships. Then came the famous Venetian proverb “May the Lord protect us from the hands of the Senj.” There was the residence of powerful bishops in Senj and an important center for printing holy books in the Croatian language. Today, a reminder of the leaps is the Nehaj Fortress, towering over the city, built in 1558 from materials of all destroyed churches and monasteries situated outside the city wall.

Senyavin Dmitriy Nikolayevich (1763–1831) Senyavin Dmitriy Nikolayevich (1763–1831) – Russian naval commander, Admiral (1826). He graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps in 1780. He served in the Azov flotilla. In 1783 he joined the Black Sea Fleet, from 1790 he was appointed a commander of one of the best ships on the Black Sea Fleet “Navarchia,” entered under the command of F.F. Ushakov. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1791, he took part in the battle at Cape Caliakria (1791). He commanded the battleship “St. Peter” in the Mediterranean campaign of the Russian Fleet during the war against France in 1798–1800. In 1800 he headed the Kherson

Sergej Masera Maritime Museum of Piran (Pomorski muzej Sergej Mašera)

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Senigallia, Nuova Piazza del Duomo-Garibaldi. (Photo by Claudio.Stanco, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Senigallia#/media/File:Senigallia_Piazza_Garibaldi.jpg)

Admiralty and the port, and in 1804, the Revel Port (now Tallinn) on the Baltic Sea. In 1805, he was Commander-in-Chief of the naval and land forces of the Mediterranean. His active actions against the French did not allow the capture of the Ionian Islands and captured a number of fortresses, including Bocche di Cattaro (now Kotor, Montenegro). Senyavin’s talent of naval commander was particularly vivid during the Second Archipelago Expedition of 1807, when the Russian Mediterranean Fleet under his command blockaded the Dardanelles, defeating the Turkish Fleet in the Dardanelles and Athos battles. As a result of this victory, the Russian Fleet was ensured undivided rule in the Aegean Sea. After the Peace of Tilsit, Alexander I issued a decree to leave the Archipelago, transfer the Ionian Islands and other Russian fortresses on the Mediterranean to the French, and lead ships to their ports. On the way back, his squadron was blocked by the British in Lisbon, in 1808, under contract, handed them over the warships for storage, sending the crews to Russia. Aroused the wrath of Alexander I with an arbitrary decision. In the years 1811–1813, he was a chief commander of Revel Port. In 1813 he was retired. In 1825, due to the aggravation of Russian-Turkish relations, Senyavin returned to service and was appointed commander of the squadron of the Baltic Fleet.

The group of islands in the archipelago of the Caroline Islands, capes in the Bristol Bay of the Bering Sea and in the southeast of Sakhalin Island, the peninsula and the cape on Kamchatka are named after Admiral Senyavin. In honor of Senyavin a number of warships of the Russian and Soviet Fleets were named. In Novgorod the Great, on the monument “The 1000th Anniversary of Russia,” among the 129 figures of the most prominent personalities in Russian history (as of 1862) there is a figure of D.N. Senyavin. In 2015 in the city of Borovsk, Kaluga region, Russia, a monument to Admiral Senyavin was established.

Sergej Masera Maritime Museum of Piran (Pomorski muzej Sergej Mašera) Sergej Masera Maritime Museum of Piran (Pomorski muzej Sergej Mašera) – is situated in the port of Piran, Slovenia. Dedicated to Slovenian naval history from the fourteenth century and maritime traditions. It was opened in 1954. The exhibition presents archaeological, maritime, and historical collections. Household items of Slovenian fishermen and samples of boats from different times are exhibited there. There is also an

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Dmitriy Nikolayevich Senyavin. (Source: https://fr. wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Seniavine#/media/Fichier: Senyavin_D_N.jpg)

excellent library – more than 14,000 books. The museum is a member of the International Congress of Maritime Museums and one of the founders of the Association of Mediterranean Maritime Museums. Models of ships are presented. Russian Rear Admiral A.D. Bubnov was honored here. In addition to traditional exhibits, documents about the salt pools of the neighboring district of Sečovlje are stored here.

Sharp-Snout Seabream (Diplodus puntazzo) Sharp-Snout Seabream (Diplodus puntazzo) – common fish of the family porgies, or sea breams (Sparidae). Received its name for being pushed forward and always bare teeth. Oval, laterally oblate torso with an extremely convex head profile in the upper part and a pointed, elongated snout. Large jagged scales are clearly visible compared to other scales of the head. Operculum is without

Sharp-Snout Seabream (Diplodus puntazzo)

spikes, the rim of the preoperculum is smooth. The mouth is small and deep. The jaws are the same in size, only slightly advanced. A row of oval, oblong, anteriorly inclined teeth on each jaw are followed by one row of small grinding teeth; vomer and palatines are without teeth. The fish has long, undivided dorsal fin, with 11 spiky and 13–14 soft rays. Anal fin is about half of the length of the dorsal fin, with 3 spiky rays and 12 soft rays. Pectoral fins with one ray-thorn and five soft rays. Coloring is silver-gray, with 7–11 narrow dark transverse stripes and a large black spot on the tail stalk; fins are without yellow tone; parts of the dorsal and anal fins consisting of connected rays, as well as the posterior edge of the caudal fin with a black border. Length of the fish is 45 cm at maximum. Weight is up to 2.5 kg; usually in catches there are 20–25 cm fishes. It is more frequently occurred in the coastal zone at a depth of 5–20 m among rocks or boulders with a small amount of algae, where it easily obtains its own food (algae, fouling, worms, and shrimps). An important indicator when sharpsnout seabream chooses a habitat is the presence of sea currents. Usually, the fish does not move in a straight line, but along a broken line, flashing with golden sides on turns. Algal thickets of rocky shores, as well as small animals found among them, serve as food for the fish; the incisors are used for biting and tearing off algae, grinding teeth – for grinding crustaceans, shells, and snails that are in the thickets of plants. In early September, sharp-snout seabreams gather in large schools for spawning. The gonads contain both male and female cells. Usually, one of two sets of germinal cells of the most of species is matured, and they behave like normal males or females. The meat of the fish is delicious. The catches of the fish reach 15 t in the Adriatic Sea.

She¨ngjin (She¨ngini) Shëngjin (Shëngini) – the harbor, which is situated in the small bay Shëngjin, extending into the northeastern part of the Gulf of Drin 7.5 km north–northeast of the mouth of the Drin River,

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Sharp-Snout Seabream. (Photo by Guido Picchetti, Source: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplodus_puntazzo#/media/ Archivo:Diplodus_puntazzo_Guido_Picchetti.jpg)

in the northwestern part of Albania. Depths in the harbor are 5.5–6 m. The harbor is available only for small vessels. On the east coast of the harbor there is the City and Port of Shëngjin. The harbor is connected by road with the cities of Shkodër and Tirana.

Shkode¨r County (Qarku i Shkodre¨s) Shkodër County (Qarku i Shkodrës) – a region in the northwest of Albania. It borders with the Kukës County in the east, Lezhë – in the south, in the north – with the Republic of Montenegro, and from the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. The administrative center is Shkodër. The area of the county is 3560 km2. The population is 215,500 people (2016).

Shkodër County, Albania. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Shkod%C3%ABr_County#/media/File: Shkoder_County_in_Albania.svg)

corn, wheat, sunflower, tobacco, and flax are grown here. Horticulture and vegeculture are developed. On Shkodra Lowland, Shkodër (Albania) and the capital of Montenegro Podgorica (formerly Titograd) are situated.

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Shkumbin, Shkembi (Shkumbi, Shkodra Lowland (Shkoder Lowland) Shkumbini River) Shkodra Lowland (Shkoder Lowland) – a lowland in the north of Albania and southwest of Montenegro. It is situated in the intermountain depression in the south, and stretches to the Adriatic Sea. The width is up to 30 km and length about 100 km. A significant part of it is occupied by Lake Skadar (Lake Shkodra). Shkodra Lowland is a densely populated agricultural area. Crops of

Shkumbin, Shkembi (Shkumbi, Shkumbini River) – a river in Albania. Its length reaches 181 km, catchment area 2445 km2, and average annual runoff 61.5 m3/s. Annual water runoff saturated with sediments contains 5.7 million tons. It originates in the mountains southwest of Lake Ohrid, flows into the Adriatic Sea. It flows to the city of Elbasan, which stands on the river, flows

Shqipe¨ria (Alb. Shqipe¨ria)

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through mountainous terrain in a deep valley, below – along the plain, in a wide boggy floodplain and periodically meanders. Nutrition is mixed – snow and rain. Mediterranean regime. High water occurs in autumn and winter. Used for irrigation. The border between the two parts of Albania passes along the river: northern (Gheg) and southern (Tosk). Until 1991, the river was polluted with toxic waste from a metallurgical plant in Elbasan. Currently, their income has been reduced.

Shqipe¨ria (Alb. Shqipe¨ria) Shqipëria (Alb. Shqipëria) – the name of Albania from the self-name of the Albanians is shqiptar.

Shrimps, Caridea Shrimps, Caridea – crustaceans from the order Decapoda. They are widely spread in the seas of the whole world; many species have mastered fresh water. The size of adults of different representatives varies from 2 to 30 cm. Many representatives of this group are industrial fishing objects. The ideal shrimp should be slightly wet, without white spots, with a pleasant color. Shrimps are an excellent dietary product. Due to their high protein content and low fat content, they satisfy hunger well. Shrimp meat is a product very rich in protein. Thus, they contain all the essential amino acids. In large quantities, meat of shrimps contains iodine, which is necessary for the production of thyroid hormones. And also, they have all the fat-soluble vitamins. These are vitamins K, A, E, and D. Shrimp meat contains potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, iron, iodine, cobalt, manganese, copper, molybdenum, fluorine, zinc, and also vitamin E (tocopherol), C (ascorbic acid), B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B9 (folic acid), PP (niacin), provitamin A (retinol), and B-carotene. In shrimp meat the iodine amount is almost one hundred times higher than in beef. Although one of the existing types of aquaculture is called a “shrimp farm,” the crayfish of the Penaeidae family, which are grown there,

Shrimps, Caridea. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Caridea#/media/File:Pandborealisind.jpg)

according to the modern beliefs, do not belong to the Caridea, but to the other group of decapods – Dendrobranchi. Many species of shrimps are characterized by protandrous hermaphroditism. In other words, during their life, they naturally change the sex from male to female.

Šibenik Šibenik – a city and port on the coast of the Adriatic Sea at the sea mouth of the Krka River, which creates a broad bay connected to the open sea by the deep navigable St. Ante Canal, 2.5 km long, north of Split, the major city of Central Dalmatia, Croatia. The population of the city is 34,300 people (2011). Railway connection with the cities of Split and Zagreb. Near Šibenik there are bauxite mines. Before the war of the 1990s, it was a thriving industrial city, economy of which was based on aluminum and electrochemical production, which was closed after the war. Currently, textile, wine-making, and fish-processing enterprises are working. There is sea resort, one of the large-scale resort complexes “Soloris,” which includes several hotels. It is equipped with beaches, villas, marinas, a water park, etc. Ferries leave for some coastal islands – Zlarin, Prvich. For the first time, Šibenik (Sibinigo) was mentioned in a Charter of the Croatian King Petar Krešimir IV in 1066. The city emerged around the twelfth-century Croatian Fortress, and in the

Šibenik Strait (Šibenik kanal)

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The City of Šibenik, Croatia. (Photo by August Dominus, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ibenik#/media/ File:Panorama_%C5%A0ibenika.jpg)

fifteenth century, it came under the rule of the Venetians and became an important starting point in their struggle against the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the eighteenth century, it became part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1797–1918; except the French occupation of 1806–1813), and during the First World War the Italians occupied it. In 1920, the city was included in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It tiers up the hillside, on top of which stands an ancient fortress. The amazingly beautiful Cathedral of the fifteenth century is situated in the city. It is unique, built of large stone slabs and included in 2000 by UNESCO in the List of World Cultural Heritage.

Šibenik Archipelago Šibenik Archipelago – one of two (the other Zadar Archipelago) archipelago areas of Northern

Dalmatia, Croatia. It is located west of the City of Šibenik. This idyllic archipelago is made up of 249 islands, with just six inhabited. The archipelago includes the islands of Murter, Zlarin, Obonjan, and many others.

Šibenik Strait (Šibenik kanal) Šibenik Strait (Šibenik kanal) – It is situated between the mainland shores of the Adriatic Sea from the Oštrica Peninsula to the City of Tribunj, which is located 17.5 km northwest of it, Croatia. From the southwest the strait is bounded by the islands of Zlarin and Prvić, a group of islands situated between Zlarin Island and the Oštrica Peninsula. There are three entrances to the strait from the sea: southeast, middle, and northwest. All three entrances are available for navigation by large vessels; however, the deepest and widest is the middle entrance between the islands of Zlarin

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Silba Island (Silba otok)

Šibenik Archipelago. (http://www.croatiaholidays.com/pages/Sibenik+Archipelago+islands)

and Prvić. The mainland coast of the strait is mostly lowland, the coasts of islands and islets bordering the strait from the southwest are mountainous and rather steep. Numerous bays extend into the shores of the strait.

part of the island, where almost the entire population of the island lives. Tourism is developed. Place for vacationers from the City of Zadar.

Silvi-Marina Silba Island (Silba otok) Silba Island (Silba otok) – The island is situated in the extreme northwest of the Zadar Archipelago of the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. The length of the island is 8 km, the minimum width is 1 km, and the area is 15 km2, with a permanent population of 300 people. Covered with Mediterranean oak. To the south of Silba, there is a bay which is called the Sea of Vir. There are two bays: in the western part of the island, there is a huge dock, in the eastern part there is a port for yachts and a broad beach with a sandy seabed. The only settlement is the village of Silba, which is situated in the narrowest

Silvi-Marina – tiny resort town on the Adriatic coast of Italy, which belongs to the Region of Abuzzo, and it is situated at 20 km from Pescara. In Europe, it is famous for its excellent sandy beaches, comfortable climatic conditions, and excellent opportunities for water sports. Territorially Silvi-Marina is divided into two parts. The first of these, Silvi Alta, is situated on a hill and is a historical district where old buildings, residential areas, and cultural attractions are concentrated. The second, modern part of the city, is situated directly along the coastline and consists of hotels, restaurants, and entertainment venues. The first settlements on these lands arose in

Sirocco

ancient times, long before the Common Era. In the Middle Ages, the city, which was more likely a small settlement or village, was constantly attacked by pirates, which forced local residents, who were fishers and far from military strategies, to mobilize and carry out some kind of repulse against the invaders. Life on the brink of war did not contribute to development, and for many years Silvi-Marina remained inconspicuous locality. Significant changes occurred in the nineteenth century, after the railway was laid here, connecting the city with other districts of the region and regions. In the first half of the twentieth century, the municipal authorities decided to make a popular beach resort here by building new modern hotels and restaurants on the coast. Šipan Island (Šipan otok) – the largest island of the Elaphiti Islands, Croatia. It is situated northwest of the city of Dubrovnik. Area is approximately 16 km2. Population is approximately 500 people (2001). The island is separated from the coast by the Koločepski Channel, with a width of 1500 m. Once the island was inhabited by Illyrian tribes, and the first records about it date back to 1371. Šipan has many small bays with sandy beaches, which attract many tourists.

Siponto Siponto – a small town on the Adriatic Sea coast, 2 km south of the city of Manfredonia, Apulia Region, Italy. At the time of the Roman Empire, it was an important seaport. In the Middle Ages, due to the earthquake, inhabitants were forced to move to Manfredonia.

Sirocco Sirocco – (on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea often called Jugo) strong, warm, and humid wind from the southeast, accompanied in some cases, with clear weather, in others – with cloudy weather. In the first case, the sky during the day is cloudless, but the air is very dusty. At night, low

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layered clouds sometimes appear and abundant dew falls. In the second case, Sirocco is accompanied by prolonged drizzling. Sirocco blows from the south–southwest and is opposite to Mistral, not only in direction, but also in characteristics – it brings cloudy weather, clouds, and a storm. Sometimes, mostly in winter, it will be able to reach a storm force, although between June and September it occurs very rarely, and the gusts are much weaker. The maximum strength of Sirocco may reach 7 points on the Beaufort Scale, blowing usually for 2–3 days in a row. In the period from October to May, Sirocco blows much more often and with greater force (up to 9 points on the Beaufort Scale), and this can lead to a storm, creating waves 3–4 m high, especially along the coast of Italy. Sirocco can take different forms: cyclonic (more often) and anticyclonic. Cyclonic Sirocco is preceded by the forming of acicular or filiform cirrus clouds (in a day or two). Altocumulus appears 6–12 hours before the onset of Sirocco. At the same time, the air temperature usually rises; the air becomes humid, warm, and “heavy”; the pressure gradually decreases; and the clouds become thicker. At first, Sirocco blows weakly and its direction is constantly alternating. After it starts to blow steadily from the south– southeast, its strength gradually increases, and in 2–3 days it reaches its maximum value. Often this is accompanied by a storm. As soon as Sirocco begins to subside, the barometer begins to increase. Sirocco has the ability to change its direction suddenly, before subsiding. This is especially true for the southern Adriatic in the fall – there this wind can change direction to the opposite and suddenly blow from the west. In the northern and central Adriatic, the wind often begins to blow from the northeast quadrant (Bora) after a short pause. This happens most often in spring or summer. This change of direction is usually preceded by flashes of lightning in the absence of rain in the north and in the east. Less common anticyclonic Sirocco usually blows in March or October. In the Central and Southern Adriatic, the sky is covered with cumulus and sometimes layered clouds. When this wind blows, precipitation will fall extremely rarely and mainly in the form of short-term rains

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(or squalls with rain) in the northern Adriatic. Storms are extremely rare. Anticyclonic Sirocco is accompanied by consistently high atmospheric pressure. A specificity for both cyclonic and anticyclonic Sirocco is a stormy, turbulent sea, and tides in the Central and Northern Adriatic. As a result of long southerly winds, sometimes the water level in the ports will increase.

Skadar Lake (Skadarsko jezero) Skadar Lake (Skadarsko jezero) – the largest freshwater lake of the Balkan Peninsula. Two third of the lake belongs to Montenegro, and one third to Albania. It is located in the Zeta-Skadar Valley, which belongs both to the southeast of Montenegro and to the northwest of Albania, and is connected with the Adriatic Sea with a Bojana/Buna – the only river flowing from the lake. The area of the lake varies depending on the amount of precipitation from 370 to 530 km2. Its length is 45 km, maximum width is 26 km, average depth is approximately 8 m, and maximum depth is 60 m. At the bottom there are approximately 30 submerged karst craters, the depth of which can reach several tens of meters. Water enters the lake from the Morača River with two tributaries (62% of the total) and underground sources (30%). The water warms up to +28 °C and freezes in the winter along the shores. The coastline is 207 km, of which 57.5 km belongs to Albania. In 1983, the lake and the coastal area of approximately 400 km2 received the status of the National Park of Montenegro, and in 1995 this territory was included in the Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance. In 2005, the Albanian part of the lake was declared a National Park (together with the Velipoja Wetland), and in 2006 it was included in the Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance. A unique ecosystem with a diverse vegetation of a predominantly wetland type was formed here. Wild chestnut thickets remained only on the southern coast, and on the islands grow willows and wild pomegranate.

Skadar Lake (Skadarsko jezero)

There is a plant Kasoronj (Trupa Longicuria), growing only on the lake. More than 260 species of birds live here, including those arriving for wintering from Western Siberia and North Africa. This is the largest bird community in Europe. The lake is practically the last in Europe habitat for the largest of the pelicans – Dalmatian pelican, reaching a height of human growth, with a wingspan of 3 m. This pelican is a symbol of Skadar Lake. About 50 species of fish live in the lake, mostly freshwater ones, including bleak, carp, and trout. However, there are marine species, which enter from Bojana River, including different species of eels and carp. Foxes, wolves, hares, and wild boars live in the thickets of the coastal zone. The lake is famous for island churches and monasteries. It is also known by medieval fortresses and cities, such as Rijeka Crnojevića, Obod (here in 1494 the first book of the southern Slavs was printed in the printing house), Lesendro fortress, and Grmožur. There are 40 islands on the Skadar Lake; one of them is Grmožur, which is also called the Montenegrin Alcatraz, because King Nicola used it for political prisoners.

Slavonic Venice Slavonic Venice – is the name of Dubrovnik, Croatia.

Slovenia, Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) Slovenia, Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) – (People’s Republic of Slovenia (1946–1963), Socialist Republic of Slovenia (1963–1991)) prealpine state in the south of Central Europe. In the west it borders with Italy, in the north with Austria, in the northeast with Hungary, in the south and southeast with Croatia, and in the southwest in the region of the Gulf of Trieste it has access to the Adriatic Sea. The length of the entire Slovenian coast is 46 km. The name of the country

Slovenia, Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija)

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Skadar Lake. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

comes from the ethnonym of the people – Slovenes. The territory is 20,273 km2. The population is more than 2.1 million people (2019). Slovenia is sometimes called “Switzerland in the Balkans.” Slovenia is situated in the Alpine-Danube region of Central Europe. There are four main geographical regions: in the northwest are the Alps (Julian Alps, Kamnik-Savinja Alps, Karawank chain, and Pohorje massif, occupying 42% of the territory); in the northeast, the Pannonian (Middle Danube) Plain (28%); in the south, the Dinaric Mountains (21%), including the Karst/Kras Karst Plateau, which gave the name to this type of the topography; in the west – the Mediterranean coast (Adriatic Sea, 9%). The highest point is the top of Mount Triglav (2864 m). The climate on most of the northern part of the country is moderately continental, the average temperature in January is 0 to 2 °C and July +19 to +21 °C. Precipitations of 800–1200 mm, in some places in the mountains exceeding 3000 mm/year. There are large rivers: Sava

River (221 km), Drava River – the right tributaries of the Danube. The lakes are mountain-glacial (Bled, Bohinj) and karstic (Cernica, drying up, the largest in the country – 26 km2). About 8000 karst caves are there (Postojna Cave (Postojna Jama), Škocjan Caves, etc.). There are a lot of waterfalls, and the largest one is Čedca waterfall (130 m). Slovenia is often called the green treasury of Europe. More than half of the territory (more than one million hectares) is occupied by beech, oak, and coniferous forests; alpine meadows stretch in the mountains; maquis at the seaside; and steppe vegetation on the Karst Plateau. Lynxes, bears, wolves, blackcocks, wood grouses, as well as wild boars, deer, and does are found here. The following natural resources are of industrial importance: lead-zinc, uranium, and mercury ores, as well as coal, oil, and gas. The main industries are ferrous metallurgy, machine building, automobile manufacturing, and electrical engineering. Shipbuilding, chemical, rubber, woodworking, paper,

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Slovenia, Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija)

Slovenia. (Source: https://www.pinterest.ru/pin/291748882088912671/)

leather and footwear, food, and tobacco industries are also developed. Slovenia has a highly productive agriculture. Its main branches are meat and dairy cattle farming; the production of grain crops (wheat, corn), sugar beets, potatoes, and tobacco; and horticulture and viticulture. An important source of income is international tourism. The main seaside resorts of Slovenia are the cities of Portorož, Izola, Piran, Koper, and Strunjan. In the energy industry of Slovenia, there is one nuclear power plant – the “Krško” NPP. The large oil company “Petrol” is fully state-owned. Railways connect almost all regions of the country. There are two main motorways perpendicular to each other: “Slovenka” from the border with Austria and Hungary to the west to the border with Italy and “Illyrica” – from the border with Austria in the northwest to the border with Croatia in the southeast. Slavic ancestors of modern Slovenes settled in the country in the sixth century AD. In the seventh century, part of the Slavic tribes, having freed themselves, formed the Principality of Carantania, which became part of the state of Samo (by the

name of the Slavic Prince), and were ruled by the Avars, who had formed the Avar Khaganate in the Danube Basin by that time. In 745, the Carantania, in exchange for military assistance, recognized the protectorate of the Franks, while maintaining formal independence until its collapse in 1180. The influence of the Franks promoted the Christianization of the Slovenes. Around 1000, Brižinski Spomeniki, the first written document in the Slovene language, was written. In the fourteenth century, the territory of modern Slovenia came under the reign of the Habsburgs and later became part of Austria-Hungary. Slovenia was divided into three provinces: Kranjska, Goriška, and Štajerska. Moving trade routes and the Thirty Years War in the seventeenth century contributed to the economic decline of Slovenia. However, in the eighteenth century, economic development once again intensified: the production of various goods increased, and the number of agricultural products increased. A national educational movement has unfolded. This period was called the Slovenian Renaissance. In 1809–1813 most of Slovenian territory was part of the Illyrian provinces. In the nineteenth century, especially during

Small-Spotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula)

the revolution of 1848–1849 in Austria and after it, the Slovenian national movement developed in the Austrian Primorye (its center is Krajna). In 1918, Austria–Hungary fell apart. Following the First World War, Italy seized the entire Slovenian Primorye, incorporating it into the Venezia-Giulia Region. The rest of the Slovenian lands entered the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which in 1929 was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1941, after the forces of Axis states invaded Yugoslavia, Italy annexed the territory to Ljubljana, and Germany – the rest of the territory with the City of Maribor. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia fell apart during the Second World War, and Slovenia became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was announced on November 29, 1945, while the original Slovenian lands of Obalno-Kraška and Goriška were taken from Italy. According to the results of the referendum held on June 25, 1991, almost 90% of Slovenes supported the proclamation of independence of Slovenia from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. This was followed by an armed conflict with the Yugoslav Army, which lasted 10 days. On December 23, 1991, the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia was adopted. In 1992, Slovenia became a permanent member of the UN. In 2004, Slovenia joined the EU and NATO. It is included in the Schengen Agreement. The country is divided into 8 districts and 210 communities, 11 of which have the city status. The official language is Slovenian. Hungarian and Italian languages have official status in areas bordering Hungary and Italy. Catholics make up 57.8% of the population, Muslims 2.4%, Orthodox 2.3%, and Protestants 0.8% (2002). The leader of Slovenia is President, elected every 5 years. Executive power is vested in the president and the cabinet council. The latter is appointed by Parliament. Parliament consists of two chambers: the State Assembly and the State Council. In June 2005, the Government of the Republic of Slovenia adopted the Slovenian Development Strategy, which includes exceeding the average level of economic development of the EU, as well as increasing employment in line with the goals of the Lisbon Strategy over the next 10 years;

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improving the quality of life and well-being of each person, as measured by indicators of human development, health, social risks, and social cohesion; ensuring the principle of sustainability as the main criterion of quality in all areas of development, including the goal of sustainable population growth; development of the image of a country in the world through the development of its characteristic pattern, cultural identity, and active participation in international processes.

Slovenian Navy (430 Mornariški divizion Slovenske vojske) Slovenian Navy (430 Mornariški divizion Slovenske vojske) – part of the united armed forces of Slovenia. They were created after the proclamation of independence and the war of 1991. Currently, they consist of one Marine Division and are armed with two patrol boats. One of them, which is Israeli type “Super Yard” (“Ankaran”) acquired in 1996 and the other one is Russian project 10,412 “Triglav” (basing Port Koper) (acquired in 2010).

Small-Spotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) Small-Spotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) – the oviparas fish of the genus Catsharks (Scyliorhinus), the family of catsharks (Scyliorhinidae). The head is broad and flattened. The back and sides of the body are gray or sandy gray in color with small spots appearing on the fins. Standard size up to 70 cm; average length up to 50 cm. Fertilization is internal. Females lay eggs (2–24 units). They are enclosed in hard, corneous capsules with long threads at the ends, with the help of which they are attached to marine plants. The development of the embryo occurs within 8–9 months. Small-spotted catshark feeds on small fish and bottom invertebrates. The meat of the shark is of good taste, it is eaten in Italy and in other Mediterranean countries. In the Adriatic, catches reach 80 t.

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SMS “Tegetthoff”

Small-spotted catshark. (Photo by Hans Hillewaert, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-spotted_catshark#/ media/File:Scyliorhinus_canicula.jpg)

SMS “Tegetthoff” SMS “Tegetthoff” – battleship of the AustroHungarian Empire. Created to counter the Italian battleships on the Adriatic. Named in honor of the nineteenth century Austrian Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, who defeated the Italian Fleet in the battle of Lissa. Built at the shipyard Stsabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste as part of the first and only Austro-Hungarian dreadnought construction program. Laid down on September 24, 1910, launched on March 21, 1912, commissioned July 14, 1913. The length is 152 m, the width is 27.9 m, and the height is 8.7 m. Displacement is 20,000 t. The engines are 12 boilers and 4 steam turbines with a total capacity of 27,000 shaft horsepower. Speed 20.4 knots (38 km/h), steaming range was approximately 8000 km. Crew contained 1087 people. Artillery: 12  305 mm (in triple turrets), 12  150 mm (in one-gun casemates), 18x166 mm, and 4 torpedo tubes. “Tegetthoff” was included in the First Battleship Division of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. On the eve of the outbreak of the First World War, “Tegetthoff” together with the ships “Virbus Unitis” and “Prinz Eugen” supported the transfer to the coast of Turkey of the battlecruiser

SMS “Goeben” and light cruiser SMS “Breslau.” In May 1915, “Tegetthoff” participated in the bombing of the Italian City of Ancona. On June 9, 1918, by the order of the Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian Fleet Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, “Tegetthoff” and “Szent István” reinforced by a torpedo boat destroyer and six torpedo vessels left the Port of Pula. They were to implement a sea blockade of the Strait of Otranto in the Adriatic Sea between Italian Brindisi and Greek Corfu, so that German and Austro-Hungarian submarines and ships could freely pass this strait, as the offensive operation of ground forces in Italy was being prepared to knock out the Entente troops from the peninsula and regain control over the territory. On June 10, two Italian boats spotted Austro-Hungarian ships and conducted a torpedo attack at night from a distance of 800 m. Two torpedoes hit the “Szent István.” Torpedoes fired at the “Tegetthoff” passed by. “Szent István” began to sink, and the attempts of “Tegetthoff” to take it in tow were unsuccessful. “Szent István” overturned and sank. (June 10 is celebrated in Italy as a Navy holiday). This was the last operation of “Tegetthoff,” and she spent the rest of her service at the pier in the Port of Pula. Under the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty, the ship was

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SMS “Tegetthoff”. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS_Tegetthoff_(1912)#/media/File:Tegetthoff.jpg)

transferred to Italy, and escorted into Venice, where it was shown as a military trophy. In 1924 the ship was broken up in La Spezia. The maincaliber guns were put on public display in Brindisi, at the “Mariner” monument. Until 1942, her ship’s bell was stored in the Italian City of La Spezia. In 1973, the bell was officially returned to Austria. One of the anchors is situated in the Museum of Maritime History in Venice. The second anchor adorns the entrance of the Naval Ministry in Rome from the side of the Tiber. The third anchor is at Monumento al Marinaio d’Italia in Brindisi.

Šolta Island (Šolta otok) Šolta Island (Šolta otok) – the westernmost island in the Adriatic Sea, Middle Dalmatia, Croatia. Area of the island is 60 km2, length 14 km, width 3 km, and coastline 73 km. Population is approximately 1500 people. It is separated from Brač Island by a narrow Strait Split Gates

(Splitska vrata). The island is connected by ferry to Split. Large settlements – the cities of Nečujam, Stomorska, and Rogač. An attractive resort place – picturesque bays, beaches, and mild climate. An important port and harbor for boats. Its existence was recorded in the fourth century BC.

Southern Dalmatia Southern Dalmatia – the southernmost part of the Croatian coastal area. It stretches for a narrow strip of 375 km. From the Kvarner Strait to the Boka-Kotorska Bay. On the continental side it borders with Bosnia and Herzegovina, which has access to the Adriatic Sea near Neum, 9 km long.

Spalato Spalato – the old Italian name for the modern Split.

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Spina

Šolta Island. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0olta#/media/File:%C5%A0olta_Maslinica_Hrvatska_ Hafen_2012_a.jpg)

Spina Spina – ancient underwater city and the port on the coast of the Adriatic Sea at the southern arm of the mouth of the Padus River (now Po River), Italy. It is assumed that Spina was founded by the Greeks. Its port was used by the Etruscans from the sixth to fourth centuries BC. The capital of the Etruscan “teachers of the Romans,” who moved to Italy from Lydia in the eighth century BC, the City-Republic, was located at 100 km away from modern Venice. Spina was called the “Queen of the Adriatic.” The remains of Spina were discovered by fishermen when magnificent red-figure vases were caught in their nets. During the excavations of 1920–1950, numerous archaeological material and, above all, vases of the finest art (stored in the City of Ferrara) were discovered. As a result of raising and alternation of the coastal topography, this large port was gradually cut off from the Adriatic Sea and was swallowed up by

the marshy lagoon of the Valli di Comacchio. At present, on the tongue of land that separates the lagoon from the Adriatic Sea lies the resort town of Lido di Spina. Strabo, who lived about two thousand years ago, wrote that Spina became a village, but once it was a famous city and, according to the Greeks, it was the inhabitants of Spina who “conquered the sea.”

Spiny Dogfish (Squalus acanthias) Spiny Dogfish (Squalus acanthias) – viviparous fish of the genus Spiny dogfishes (Squalus), family of dogfish sharks (Squalidae). The body is fusiform. The eyes are large. The teeth are small. It can grow up to 1.2 m, usually 60–90 cm. It dwells at depths of up to 900 m, usually up to 200 m, and it usually prefers to stay in the bottom layers. Fertilization is internal. Embryos develop in the female’s body for 20 months. From 2 to

Split Channel (Split Strait, Splitski kanal)

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Spiny dogfish. (Photo by Doug Costa, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiny_dogfish#/media/File:Squalus_ acanthias_stellwagen.jpg)

20 fry up to 25 cm in size are born. It is widely spread throughout the Adriatic Sea, and it is more common in the middle and northern parts. Catches in the Adriatic Sea reach about 10 t. Meat of these sharks is delicious, and it is used mainly in Italy and in the Western Mediterranean.

Split Split – the city and large seaport on the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic Sea, administrative, cultural, and economic center of Central Dalmatia, the second-largest city of Croatia. Split is the starting point and the intersection of all sea routes of the Adriatic. Split is called “the most temperamental old man among Croatian cities.” The city-museum, the resort city. Population of the city is 178,100 people (2011). It is connected with almost all the islands by ferries. The main branches of the city’s economy are shipbuilding, and transit and sightseeing tourism. It is also a railway junction. Split appeared in the seventh century around the palace of the Emperor Diocletian and was inhabited by Croats. Soon Split became the Archbishop’s residence. In the ninth to twelfth centuries, along with Dubrovnik and Zadar, it became a major trading center for Dalmatia. In 1239, Split having received an urban law became a merchant-aristocratic Republic. For a long time, it was the object of hard struggle between Venice, Byzantium,

Normans, Croatian, and Hungarian–Croatian Kings, etc. In 1420, Split was forced to submit to Venice. In 1797, it was captured by Austria; in 1808–1813, the city belonged to Napoleonic France, and from 1813 again to Austria. From 1918 to 1991 it was part of Yugoslavia. Since 1991 it has become part of Croatia. The oldest part of Split is the palace of Diocletian, built in 293–305. The palace ensemble in Split is the only monument in the world of ancient palace construction, as it is in the best condition comparing to others. It is similar in layout to the Roman military camps; it is divided into symmetrical quarters by large streets decorated with colonnades, and is enclosed in a quadrangle of external walls, covering an area of over 37,000 m2. The complex of palaces includes the thermal baths, the Temple of Jupiter, the Temple of Venus, the Temple of Cybele, the Cathedral with a rich treasury, the Benedictine Monastery, and many other architectural monuments of world importance.

Split Channel (Split Strait, Splitski kanal) Split Channel (Split Strait, Splitski kanal) – It is situated to the west of the port of Split, between the mainland and the islands of Šolta, Drvenik Veli (Big), and Drvenik Mali (Small) lying to the

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St. George Island (Ostrovo Sveti)

The City of Split, Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split,_Croatia#/media/File:Split_Marjan_Top_Pano rama.jpg)

south of it. Between these islands lie the straits of Split Gates (Splitska vrata), Šolta Channel, and Drvenička vrata (Drvenik Channel), leading from the sea to Split Channel. At the continental coast lies the steep Island of Čiovo, which separates the Kaštela and Trogir gulfs, extending into the coast, respectively, to the east and west of this island. To the east of the entrance to the Kaštela Bay, one of the largest ports in Croatia, Split, is situated.

west of Island of Flowers. The largest island of the Kotor Archipelago. It received the name from the camp of the Mletach soldiers from Greece (from the Greek “Stradioti,” which means “Warrior”). The island was known as it belonged to the club “Mediteran” from Paris, which attracted a large number of tourists is currently closed. Often the island is called the Island of St. Mark and the Island of St. Gabriel.

St. George Island (Ostrovo Sveti)

St. Stefan (Sveti Stefan) Island (Ostrvo Sveti Stefan)

St. George Island (Ostrovo Sveti) – The island is located in the Risan Bay, 0.5 km from the embankment of Perast, next to the artificially created island of Our Lady of the Rocks, Montenegro. There is a small cemetery with the same-name church of the twelfth century, surrounded by well-proportioned cypresses, where many sailors are buried, including the famous captain of Montenegro M. Martinović; therefore, the island is often called the Isle of the Dead. In the twelfth century, the Benedictine Abbey was organized; it is one of the oldest buildings of BokaKotorska Bay. Famous Ante Slović and his failed love Katica – Bokesian Romeo and Juliet – rest here. The island is closed for tourist visits.

St. Marko Island (Ostrvo Sveti Marko, Stradioti) St. Marko Island (Ostrvo Sveti Marko, Stradioti) – The island is located in the south of Tivat Bay,

St. Stefan (Sveti Stefan) Island (Ostrvo Sveti Stefan) – a small rocky island-town hotel in the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. It is connected to the shore by a narrow sandy embankment 100 m long, in 9 km southeast of Budva, Montenegro. One of the pearls of the Mediterranean and one of the symbols, the brand identity of Montenegro. According to legend, in 1442 a fortress was erected here with funds raised in a battle with the Turks for twelve families of the powerful Montenegrin clan Paštrovići. According to another version, the Paštrovići clan “took” a rich Turkish caravan and, therefore, Sveti Stefan was built on these funds. During the period of resistance to the Ottoman yoke, Sveti Stefan was a fortified administrative center, a place of lively trade. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Russian monk Yegor Stroganov for 10 years singlehandedly paved a multi-kilometer path from Sveti Stefan through the monastery Praskvitsa to the mountain village Celobrdo.

St. Stefan (Sveti Stefan) Island (Ostrvo Sveti Stefan)

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St. George Island, Boka-Kotorska Bay, Montenegro. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

At the end of the nineteenth century, Sveti Stefan lost its former value, becoming a fishing village. In 1957, all the inhabitants of the island, 20 people, were resettled to the mainland, and a unique elite hotel complex of the Adriatic was created on the island – there were about 80 single, double, and triple houses, a casino, an art gallery, a nightclub, swimming pools, garage, and terraces. There are two luxurious sandy-pebble beaches nearby on both sides of the island-hotel. Their length is 700 m. Many world celebrities stayed here - representatives of cinema, show business, representatives of the Royal courts of Europe – Queen Elizabeth of England, Indira Gandhi, Sophia Loren, and Yuri Gagarin. The Church of St. Stephen, situated on the island, was destroyed by an earthquake and subsequently restored at the expense of UNESCO. For a fee, tourists could see the territory of the complex. Since 2007, Sveti Stefan has been leased for 30 years and closed for reconstruction. After that, along with the summer residence of the

Serbian Royal family Karađorđević – the villa (resort) Miločer (the official resting place of the President of Montenegro) – and the Royal Park with beaches, it will become a part of the international resort-hotel chain of the company with headquarters in Singapore, Aman Resorts (“Aman” in Sanskrit means “peace”). St. Stephen was an archdeacon – the eldest over the seven deacons (“servitors”), who were chosen by the twelve Apostles of Christ in Jerusalem, so that they would be responsible for the “daily distribution of needs.” Then Stephen preached the Word of God. For one of his sermons, he was brought to justice, was lapidated and buried in Jerusalem, and then his relics were transferred to Constantinople. Stephen – the first of Christians – the “first martyr” who suffered for the faith. Every year on the island is a sacred service dedicated to this event. In 1972 Sveti Stefan was awarded the prestigious international tourism award “Golden Apple.” Today it is a town where the exterior of buildings built in the fifteenth to seventeenth

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Stari Grad

Sveti Stefan Island, Montenegro. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

centuries has been fully preserved; however, their interior decoration meets the highest notions of comfort and service.

Stari Grad Stari Grad – a city on the northern coast of Hvar Island, Dalmatia, Croatia. One of the oldest cities in Europe, situated in the northern part of the island, at the depth of a 6-km bay. The ancient part of the city in 2008 was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Initially Stari Grad was called Faros (Greek FAPOS). It received its name from Greek settlers from the island of Paros, who arrived here in 384 BC. During the Roman period, the city was known as Faria; the name Hvar appeared with the arrival of the Slavs. When the administrative

center of the island was moved to the south, to the place, where the modern City of Hvar stands, on the southern coast, the old town began to be called simply “Stari Grad”. One of the main sightseeings of the city is the castle-palace of Tvrdalj, created by the famous naturalist-writer Petar Hektorović in the seventeenth century.

State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs (Држава Словенаца, Хрвата и Срба) State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs (Држава Словенаца, Хрвата и Срба) – a state formation, which arose on October 29, 1918, on the Balkan Peninsula after the collapse of Austria–Hungary. It arose as a result of the unification of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slovenia, the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Krajina

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The city of Stari Grad, Croatia. (Source: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stari_Grad_(Split-Dalmatie)#/media/Fichier:Hvar_ Stari_grad.jpg)

in a single state. Peter I Karageorgievich, King of Serbia, was proclaimed King of the state. The country was named for the three South Slavic peoples (Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs), which constituted the absolute majority of its population. At the same time, the Bosnians were not yet considered as a separate nationality. The main goal of the newly created country was to unite all Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, the inhabitants of the regions of Banat, Bachki, and Baranya created their own self-government with the capital in the city of Novi Sad. These regions of Vojvodina became part of the Kingdom of Serbia on November 25, 1918. During the month of its existence, the state did not achieve international legal recognition. On December 1, 1918, the State of Slovens, Croats, and Serbs united with the Kingdom of Serbia, forming a new state in the Balkans – the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

Ston (Veliki Ston) and Little Ston (Mali Ston) Ston (Veliki Ston) and Little Ston (Mali Ston) – a paired settlement located on the Pelješac Peninsula, Croatia. The city of Ston (Veliki Ston), the center of salt production, was in 1333 annexed by Dubrovnik and turned into the most important fortress on the northern borders of the Ragusa Republic. It is still surrounded by impressive fortress walls of the fourteenth century. A part of wall stretched along the border – as much as 3 km along the broken hillside above the city. Its highest point is an upstanding tower, from the parapet of which a view to the west opens onto shining salt fields resembling a chessboard. Houses in Renaissance style coexist with Gothic buildings. Along the narrow streets there are many plants in pots. The central part of Ston looks somewhat ramshackle. This is due to the fact

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that in 1996 an earthquake occurred here, which damaged almost all the buildings. To the west of Ston on the top of a conical hill, stands the squat Church of St. Michael (Crkva svetog Mihovila) in pre-Romanesque style. The frescoes of the twelfth century are preserved in the church. To the northeast of Ston, Mali Ston is situated, a town that was formed around the farthest bastion of the defense system. The grand line of fortifications is still visible between Ston and Mali Ston on the hills. Now Mali-Ston is a quiet village, surrounded by walls and facing the bay of the same name. There are oyster banks in this bay. Ropes are fixed on wooden poles, on which oysters grow. The collection of mollusks occurs in May and June. The village has long been popular among the fresh seafood fancies. At present, the couples often come here for romantic weekends. This is probably due to the fact that oysters are an aphrodisiac. You can also buy high-quality sea salt from the Adriatic in Croatia. This is the salt of Ston, the sea salt. The Ston salt pools are situated on the Pelješac Peninsula in Southern Dalmatia, near Dubrovnik, near the City of Ston. Since time immemorial, the purest sea salt has been collected here. In the Middle Ages, sea salt was extremely expensive in the world market and was the key to prosperity of Republic of Ragusa. To protect against attacks on the valuable Ston salt on the slopes of the mountain, a wall was built, similar to the Great Wall of China. This wall is now a major tourist attraction in Ston, as it is the longest fortification in Europe, and the second such construction in the world. It is already called the Great Croatian Wall. Ston salt is a natural, environmentally friendly product, a real gift of the Adriatic to man. Ston salt does not require additional processing, it is immediately packaged and it goes for sale. There are 18 crystallization pools in Solani Ston, which are located on 50 ha. Each pool is named after a Catholic saint – for example, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. Franjo, etc. Every year in mid-May, the sea water is poured into the pools, and in August salt collection begins. Every day, the salt is collected from any one pool, and all work is done by hand. From one basin 30 to 100 t of salt is extracted. Works are conducted six days a week, except Sunday. Both salt workers and

seasonal workers and volunteer tourists participate in the salt harvest.

“Stone Light” “Stone Light” – a capital investment project dedicated to the full integration of mankind, history, ecology, and tourism. It is conceived as a beacon of Croatian tourism; the project should approve new criteria in the relationship of man and nature. The purpose of the project is to preserve all the lighthouses of the Croatian Adriatic Sea, and there are 48 of them, and also to find destroyed lighthouses and buildings that were previously part of the maritime security system, which, however, were deleted from the registers over time. For the first part of the project, 11 territories were selected, where you can spend your holidays even today. These are the lighthouses of Savudrija, the Rt Zub near Novigrad, Sveti Ivan in the open sea near Rovinj, Porer near Premantura, Veli Rat on Dugom Island, Prishnjak near Murter, Sveti Petar near Makarska, Sušac, Struga on Lastovo, Palagruža, and Sveti Andrija near Dubrovnik. All apartments in these lighthouses are identical, and energy consumers run on natural butane gas. Lighting and other household appliances (TVs) in the apartments are powered by solar panels and wind turbines.

Stradioti Island (Stradioti Island, Stradioti Ostrvo) Stradioti Island (Stradioti Island, Stradioti Ostrvo) – see “▶ St. Marko Island (Ostrvo Sveti Marko, Stradioti).”

Strait of Pelješac (Pelješ Strait, Pelješ kanal) Strait of Pelješac (Pelješ Strait, Pelješ kanal) – It is situated between the western part of the

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The City of Ston. (Photo by Matěj Baťha, Source: https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD#/ media/%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0:Croatia,_Ston_4.jpg)

Pelješac Peninsula and the eastern part of the northern coast of Korčula Island. It is a continuation of the Mljet Channel and connects the latter with the Korčula Channel. The length of the strait is 18 km, and width varies from 1.5 to 2 km. The shores are mountainous and steep, especially the northern shore. They are significantly indented by numerous bays. On the southern coast Korčula is situated.

Sušac Island (Sušac otok) Sušac Island (Sušac otok) – an island, situated at 43 km from the south side of Hvar Island and 23 km west of Lastovo Island, Croatia. The southeastern part of the island is flat, gradually descending to the sea. At its highest point, a steep cliff, at an altitude of 100 m, stands a lighthouse, built in 1878.

“Studia Marina”

Sušak

“Studia Marina” – scientific journal, which has been published since 1995 by the Institute of Marine Biology in Kotor, Montenegro. It publishes articles of national and foreign scientists on various aspects of marine biology of the Adriatic, the Mediterranean, and other seas.

Sušak – a suburb of the city of Rijeka on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, since 1948, is its outskirts. The boundary between the central part of Rijeka and Sušak serves Rječina River. From 1924 to 1941 to come here from the city center at the same time meant to move from Italy to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Small shipbuilding, manufacture of

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liqueurs, paper, tanning, and textile factories are concentrated in Sušak. On the northeastern coast of the Gulf of Rijeka, there is a seaport.

Sutomore Sutomore – coastal resort town, located 5 km west of Bar, Montenegro. The population of the city is 2000 people (2011). Built in the nineteenth century. Nice sandy beach. Behind Sutomore begins the 4-km Sozina tunnel, opened in 2005 and famous for its huge fans on the highway to the capital Podgorica. Station of the Montenegrin Railway Podgorica-Bar. On the western outskirts of Sutomore on a high cliff there are the ruins of the mighty Haj-Nehaj Fortress. It was founded by the Venetians in the fifteenth century, and then captured by the Ottoman Turks.

Sutomore. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

Sutomore

Svetac Island (Svetac otok) Svetac Island (Svetac otok) – an island, which is situated at 40 km west–northwest region of Biševo Island, Croatia. The greatest height in the middle part of the island is 311 m. The slopes of the mountains are covered with forest. The island is poorly populated. Viticulture is developed.

Sveti Nikola Island (St. Nicholas Island, St. Nikola Island, Ostrvo Sveti Nikola) Sveti Nikola Island (St. Nicholas Island, St. Nikola Island, Ostrvo Sveti Nikola) – The island is situated at about 1.2 km from Budva, in the Budva Bay, Montenegro. It has the shape of an irregular triangle, covered with vegetation. The

Sveti Nikola Island (St. Nicholas Island, St. Nikola Island, Ostrvo Sveti Nikola)

island is uninhabited; the Montenegrins call it “Školj,” and the youth – “Hawaii.” There are three sandy beaches and artificial coves, where boats can enter. Also, there is a summer restaurant. According to legend, the remains of the crusaders

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who died of an epidemic, staying in Budva on the way back from the Holy Land, were buried here. Sometimes in fine weather you can see a barely noticeable strip on the sea, running from St, Nicholas’ Church to the coastal part of the city. This is

Sveti Nikola Island, Montenegro. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

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a sandbank with the depth to half a meter. Locals say that the island was previously connected to the mainland, and the strip is the old Roman road. There is another legend: during a storm, the ship on which Sava of Serbia was supposed to go to Athos could not land. Then St. Sava threw a few stones into the water, and among the raging sea a road was formed, along which he walked to the ship.

Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) – pelagic fish, Xiphiidae family. Strong, fast-swimming fish,

Swordfish (Xiphias gladius)

which is capable to pierce the side of the boat with its sword. The back is dark blue, the sides are bluish-gray, the belly is silvery (juveniles have transverse stripes and teeth, the latter disappear with growth). It can reach 4.5 m and weighs up to 600 kg. A typical predator eats pelamida, mackerel, garfish, etc. Following behind schools of fish, makes long-distance migrations, sometimes descends to a depth of 600 m. In the Mediterranean Sea 14,000 t are caught annually. It is the object of sport fishing. From time to time it is caught as part of sport fishing in the open sea at the Bar and Herceg Novi. The meat is delicious.

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Tagliamento River Tagliamento River – the longest river (172 km) in the areas of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy. It has its source in the glaciers of Mauria Pass, crosses Carnia from west to east, and then turns sharply to the south and rushes toward the Adriatic Sea. The last section serves as the border between the Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia regions.

Talaso Strunjan (Talasso Strunian) Talaso Strunjan (Talasso Strunian) – a climatic resort which is situated along the sea coast of the Adriatic Sea on the territory of a huge Mediterranean park with coniferous and olive trees, where the border with Italy and Croatia lies, in the depths of a secluded bay, far from the busy Portorož (4 km). It is buried in verdure of pine forest, close to the ancient salt fields and saltworks, which are famous far beyond the borders of Slovenia by the fact that salt is mined there by hand even today. In addition to the sea air in the resort of Talaso Strunjan, there is a local aerosol circulating effect that contributes to the effective treatment of respiratory diseases: asthma, bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, and the effects of operations on the lungs and chest. Talaso Strunjan is a bronchopulmonary sanatorium in Slovenia. The beautiful microclimate of the seaside resort Talaso Strunjan is characterized by very slight

fluctuations in temperature; 90 clear days a year and 2300 sunny hours, a small amount of precipitation, sea water, and ancient saltworks that increase aerosols concentration in the air are the main features of this climatic resort. In the Moon Bay in 1512, two watchmen of the Strunjan vineyards beheld the icon of Virgin Mary, where the Church of the Epiphany of Virgin Mary now stands – the main place of pilgrimage in Istria. The cross, towering over the Moon Bay near the church, symbolizes the intersection of the “dragon’s paths” and is one of the bioenergy centers of the Earth.

Taurida (Tavrida Island, Tavrida Otok, Greek. Tauris, Serb. Ščedro) Taurida (Tavrida Island, Tavrida Otok, Greek. Tauris, Serb. Ščedro) – small island in the Adriatic Sea in southern Dalmatia, Croatia. It became famous due to the victory of Caesar’s comrade Publius Vatinius over Pompey’s Fleet under the command of M. Octavius in 47 BC.

Telašc´ica Bay (Telašc´ica Zaliv) Telašćica Bay (Telašćica Zaliv) – the largest bay on the islands of the Adriatic. Its length is approximately 9 km. It extends deep into the southeast

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Termoli

The City of Termoli, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termoli#/media/File:Termoli2019.jpg)

coast of the island of Dugi Otok, in the western part of the Strait of Proversa, Croatia. It borders on the Kornati Archipelago. The mountainous and steep shores of the bay are almost universally bare. Depths at the entrance are 50–60 m, then they gradually decrease and at the top of the bay they are 14–23 m. The bay is one of the largest and most beautiful bays on the Croatian islands. Most of the bay is a natural park protected by the state. For centuries, it was used as a reliable anchorage. There is also a breeding ground for fish.

Termoli Termoli – city, port, coastal fishing center, which is situated on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, Apulia Region, Italy. It is famous for its port, the

largest in the area, and the castle, built presumably in the eleventh century. There is a large “Fiat” factory.

Tethys Tethys – the system of ancient marine basins within the Mediterranean geosynclinal region, which stretched across the extreme northwest of Africa, Western and Southern Europe, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, the Himalayas, Indo-China, and Indonesia during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and early Cenozoic. In the Neogene on the place of Tethys, due to the alpine folding, high ridges of the AlpineHimalayan mountain belt (Atlas, Pyrenees, Alps, Caucasus, Gidukush, and Himalayas), mountain

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structures of Indo-China and Indonesia rose. The Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, the Persian Gulf, and the seas of the Malay Archipelago are remnants of Tethys. The name “Tethys” was suggested at the end of the nineteenth century by Austrian geologist E. Suess in honor of the ancient Greek goddess of the sea Thétis.

Teuta (Tevta) (Third BC) Teuta (Tevta) (Third BC) – Illyrian Queen, Queen of pirates famous because of the stories of Polybius. After death of the unifier of Iliiria, King Agron, in 231 BC, his widow Teuta began to rule the state on behalf of their young son from the city of Rizon in the Gulf of Rizon in the territory of modern Montenegro. She came into conflict with the Greek colonists and won back a number of settlements from them, including Dyrrachium. The captains of her ships brought terror to the whole Adriatic with their pirate forays. In 229 BC, the Roman Senate, worried about the scale of the Adriatic piracy, sent an embassy to Teuta. Ambassadors demanded her to curb the pirates, to which she replied that according to Illyrian ideas, piracy was a legitimate craft, and she did not consider herself entitled to interfere in the private affairs of her subjects. In the same year, the Roman Republic declared war on Teuta. Roman ships crossed the Adriatic for the first time in history, and the Romans landed in the Balkans. Demetrius of Pharos, who was appointed to rule the Island of Corfu, surrendered to the Romans, for which he was awarded an increment of possessions. One by one, the Illyrian cities capitulated, not excluding such a large port as Apollonia. In 227 BC the capital of Teuta itself, which stood on the site of modern Shkodër (Albania), was also besieged. Teuta was forced to make concessions and make peace with Rome on extremely unfavorable conditions. According to this treaty, she retained only a small part of her former possessions and undertook to pay Rome a burdensome tribute every year. Teuta is depicted on an Albanian coin of 100 leks.

Teuta. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teuta#/ media/File:Teuta.jpg)

The Boka-Kotorska Bay Environment (Springer, 2017) The Boka-Kotorska Bay Environment (Springer, 2017) – the book edited by Aleksandar Joksimović, Mirko Djurović, Alexander V. Semenov, Igor S. Zonn, and Andrey G. Kostianoy, published by Springer Publishing House (Germany) in 2017. The birth of the book is related to the International Conference “Integrated Coastal Zone Management of the Adriatic Sea” conducted in Kotor in 2014 at the Institute of Marine Biology (Montenegro), where the decision on its preparation and creation was made. The preparation of the book was attended mainly by employees of the Institute of Marine Biology, as well as employees of S.Yu. Witte Moscow University, P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, and Russian Academy of Science. The publication is based on data collected, systematized, and

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analyzed over the past 50 years in a comprehensive study of the Boka-Kotorska Bay. Particular attention is paid to activities in the coastal zone,

Thornback Ray (Raja clavata)

which affects the flora and fauna of the bay, such as the physical and chemical parameters of water, precipitation, and biota. Over the past decades, this activity has manifested itself in the development of maritime tourism, shipbuilding, yachting, the growth of small boats size, marine culture, and climate change. All the problems arising and affecting the environment of the bay itself and its environment are described in the 23 chapters of the book.

Thornback Ray (Raja clavata) Thornback Ray (Raja clavata) – sea fish of Rajidae family. The body is oblate, of a rhombic form, and its upper side is covered with small thorns and spines. Lower part is naked. The color is monochromic, with small, yellowish-white and black spots. The belly is white. The length to the top of the tail is up to 1.1 m. Weight up to 8 kg. The average weight in catches is 1.5 kg. It is usually found near the bottom, at a depth of 20 to 400 m. It feeds on fish, worms, and crustaceans. The meat of the thornback ray is delicious, often dried. Annual catches do not exceed 200 t. “The Boka-Kotorska Bay Environment” (2017) Thornback ray. (Photo by Peter van der Sluijs, Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Thornback_ray#/media/ File:Thornback_ray_on_a_ white_background.jpg)

Tivat

Tirana County. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Tirana_County#/media/File:Tirana_County_in_Albania. svg)

Tirana County (Qarku i Tirane¨s) Tirana County (Qarku i Tiranës) – an area in central Albania. It borders with the regions of Durrës in the north, Dibër in the northeast, Elbasan in the southeast, and Fier in the south. From the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. It is the administrative center of Tirana. The area is 1652 km2. Population 884,000 people (2018).

Tivat Tivat – the youngest city located in the central part of Boka-Kotorska Bay, Montenegro (east coast of the Tivat Bay). The history of Tivat begins in the

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third century BC, when the first Illyrian settlement appeared here. Its name is associated with the name of the Illyrian Queen Teuta. It was first mentioned in 1326. From 1420 to 1797 Tivat (Italian. Theodo) it was part of Venetian Albania. The population of the city is 14,000 people (2011). This is a tourist center which has a small port. In 1889, a Naval Arsenal was built in these places, and the Austro-Hungarian Fleet was based here, after which Tivat received the status of a city. For a long time, there was a Naval Base of Yugoslavia. Navy Seals’ School and courses for the training of submariners of the Navy also worked here. In 1927 the Hydrographic Institute was organized here, later transferred to Split, Croatia. In 1971, Tivat International Airport was opened 3 km from the city. It supplies the entire resort coast of Montenegro; unofficially it is called the “Adriatic Gate of Montenegro.” Tivat is separated from Kotor by the Mountain-cliff Vrmac (500–700 m high). In 1991, a 1.6 km long tunnel was built through it, which shortened the road to Kotor. Today Tivat mainly consists of block five-story buildings and private houses. Botanical garden was created by sailors who brought exotic plants from all over the world. The “Solila” sanctuary is where the flamingos and the little cormorant live and nest. Tivat authorities are planning to create here a Bird Ornithological Park. Along the banks of Tivat there are anchorings (moorings) for boats and yachts and many beaches with a total area of approximately 31 km2, among which the most famous are: Plavi Horizonti, Kaladrovo, beaches of the hotels “Palma,” “Kameya,” etc. Among the interesting places are the churches of St. Anthony of Padua of the fourteenth century and St. Mary of the seventeenth century. Tivat is part of the National Park Lovcen. In 2012, the construction of a large harbor for yachts and boats “Porto Montenegro” was carried out. On the embankment of Tivat there is a museum of naval heritage “Arsenal.” On the opposite there are two submarines of Yugoslavia, and “Heroj” is the largest of them. In front of Tivat the following islands are situated: Island of Flowers, St. Marko, and Otok Island (Gospa od Milo).

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Tivat Archipelago

The City of Tivat, Montenegro. (Photo by Master Sun Tzu, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tivat#/media/File: Tivat_from_sea_1.jpg)

Tivat Archipelago Tivat Archipelago – They are situated in the Tivat Bay of the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro, and include three islands – Prevlaka (Island of Flowers), Stradioti (St. Marco), and the largest island of the Boka-Kotorska Bay, Otok. This archipelago is sometimes called the Boka-Kotorska Archipelago.

Tivat Bay (Tivatski Zaliv) Tivat Bay (Tivatski Zaliv) – is a middle basin of the Boka-Kotorska Bay in the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. The bay connects with the Gulf of Herceg Novi by a Kumbor Strait, and in the north the Verige Strait connects it with the northeastern part of the Gulf. Otok, Stradioti, and Prevlaka coves extend into the southeastern part of the

bay. On the northeast coast of Tivat Bay, Port of Tivat is equipped. The shores of the bay are high and mountainous. The depth in the bay is 25–45 m. It was the main raid of the Bokesian Fleet.

Tivat Riviera (Tivatska Rivijera) Tivat Riviera (Tivatska Rivijera) – is situated on the shores of the bay of the same name with picturesque coves. It includes 10 beaches (along with the coast and the islands of Prevlaka and St. Mark). Their length is 3.2 km, and the total area is 30 km2. Among the beaches there are Donja Lastva, Seljanovo, Belane, Župa, Kalardovo, St. Mark, Krašići, Oblatno, Blue Horizon, and Plavi Horizonti (one of the best beaches of the Riviera).

Tolstoy Petr Andreyevich (1645–1729)

Tivat Salina Lagoon Tivat Salina Lagoon – It is situated in the wetland part of the coastal strip of Boka-Kotorska Bay in the southern part of Tivat Bay, Montenegro. The lagoon is divided into pools; each of them has an area of 3 ha and a depth of 0.1–0.4 m. It is connected to the Adriatic Sea through canals. The lagoon receives water from two small rivers – Široka and Koložun. It is an important ornithological object of Montenegro. There is situated a special nature reserve. The City of Tivat, the Island of Flowers, and Tivat Airport are situated nearby.

“To the Heroes of Naval Battles on the Adriatic Sea” “To the Heroes of Naval Battles on the Adriatic Sea” – a monument in Herceg Novi City, in Montenegro installed in the Old Town. In particular, this is the memory of the sailors of the Russian Fleet, who in 1805–1807 defended the Boka-Kotorska Bay from conquest by Napoleon. The monument is a small memorial plaque on which in three languages – Serbian, Russian, and

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English – the following words are written: “To the heroes of the Naval battles on the Adriatic.” Near the monument there is a large anchor and gun.

Tolstoy Petr Andreyevich (1645–1729) Tolstoy Petr Andreyevich (1645–1729) – the first Count, a Russian Statesman, a supporter of Tsar Peter I, the first Russian Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. The first Tolstoy writer, “the first Russian Westernizer, the smartest head in Russia.” In 1665–1669 together with his father, the Governor in Chernigov, he took part in the siege by the troops of the rebellious Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Bryukhovetsky. Then Tolstoy took part in the Chigirin campaigns. In 1676, upon accession to the throne of Tsar Fedor Alekseevich, he received the rank of Chamberlain. When Princess Sofia Alekseevna came to power, he received the rank of Room Stolnik at the Court of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich and stayed in that rank until 1693 when he was appointed Governor in Veliky Ustyug, where, apparently, he met Peter the Great who had come there.

The monument in Herceg Novi. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

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In 1697, he voluntarily enrolled in a number of volunteers who went abroad to study maritime affairs. He spent a year and a half in Italy, living mainly in Venice, but also visited Malta, Sicily, Naples, Rome, Florence, and Bologna. He made a short trip to the Bay of Kotor, visiting Herceg Novi, Perast, Risan, and Kotor. During his travels, Tolstoy kept the “Diary” – a sample of travel notes of his time, which is an interesting testimony about the perception of Western European culture. During his stay abroad, Tolstoy learned the Italian language, was interested in the natural sciences, and became a confirmed supporter of reforms. In 1701 he was appointed the first Russian Ambassador to Turkey. He continued to have contacts with the “Bokesians” (the inhabitants of BokaKotorska Bay were called this way) and the Montenegrins. In particular, it was he who recommended to Peter the Great the navigator M. Zmajević, a native of Perast. Tolstoy’s stay in Turkey was coincident with a very difficult period in Russian–Turkish relations: Turks could not accept the loss of Azov, and they were increasingly worried about the Russian victory over the Swedes. Tolstoy had to use all his cunning and disingenuity, as well as bribe Turkish officials. It is believed that while he did not forget about his own interests, and when one of the secretaries of the Embassy wanted lay information against him to Russia, Tolstoy poisoned a subordinate (however, this popular legend goes back to the ill-wishers of Tolstoy from French diplomats who painfully perceived the successes of Russia in Turkey). In 1706 he asked to fill his boots, but Peter did not satisfy his request. In 1710, when after the victory of Russia at the Battle of Poltava, a new war with Turkey became inevitable, he was thrown into the Seven Towers, where he remained until 1712. After he was released, he again asked for permission to return, however, the Turks did not release him. At the end of the same year, he again was thrown into a dungeon and was released only in March 1713. In 1714, a Peace Treaty was signed, and Tolstoy was finally able to return to his homeland. When he returned, he was made a member of the Foreign Affairs Council. In this position, he accompanied

Torcello Island (Torcello Izolo)

Peter on his second trip abroad and visited Danzig, Berlin, and Paris, where he took part in various diplomatic negotiations. Being a cunning, treacherous, but very clever person, Tolstoy enjoyed the special trust of the Tsar, who once remarked to him: “Head, oh, head, if you were not so clever, I would have cut you off long ago.” It was Tolstoy, whom the Tsar in 1717 entrusted to bring the Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich back to Russia from Naples, where Tsarevich was hiding. Acting with persuasion and deceit, Tolstoy successfully coped with this mission and delivered Alexei to Russia. Then he took a lively part in the investigation and trial of the Tsarevich and became one of the leaders of the Secret Chancellery established for this. According to the existing legend, Tsarevich Alexei cursed Tolstoy and all his descendants up to the 25th generation (and they all became writers). The merits of Tolstoy before the Tsar were noted in dignity: in 1722 he became a Chevalier of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called, and in 1724, acting as the High Marshal at the coronation of Queen Catherine Alekseevna, he received the title of count. After the death of Peter the Great, Tolstoy actively promoted the accession of Catherine I to the throne and in 1726 became a member of the Supreme Privy Council. However, at the same time, his relationship with Alexander Danilovich Menshikov became strained. As a result, Palace intrigue, he was accused of conspiracy. In May 1727, together with a group of “accomplices” and his son Ivan, he was arrested, tried, and exiled to the Solovki Monastery, where he died.

Torcello Island (Torcello Izolo) Torcello Island (Torcello Izolo) – the island which is situated in the Venetian Lagoon, to the north of Burano Island. Almost no one lives on the island (50 inhabitants), but it is visited by tourists. In the seventh century, the first immigrants from the mainland (hiding from enemy raids) settled here, and their city, which was patronized by

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Trans-Adriatic Gas Pipeline (TAP)

Petr Andreyevich Tolstoy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Pyotr_Andreyevich_Tolstoy#/media/File: Johann_Gottfried_Tannauer_05.jpg)

Byzantium, surpassed Venice in terms of population and importance. From seventh to eleventh centuries, there was concentrated trading activity and eminent Byzantine type temples were built here. However, Torcello began to “sink,” and inhabitants left the island. In the twentieth century, the drainage was built, marshes were drained, and the foundations of buildings were strengthened. There are the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, built in the seventh century and reconstructed in the eleventh century, the Church of Santa Fosca, in the form of a Greek Cross, built in Romanesque style, as well as the Museo Provinciale di Torcello, where Paleo-Venetian, Etruscan, and Roman remains are stored, as well as Venetian jewelry.

Traghetto Traghetto – the name of the ferries providing the crossing of the Grand Canal in Venice.

Trans-Adriatic Gas Pipeline (TAP) – In August 2012, an Agreement was signed between the shareholders of the TAP and the partners in the development of the offshore Shah Deniz Gas Field in Azerbaijan (the Caspian Sea) – SOCAR, BP, and Total. The gas pipeline is one of the segments of the Southern Gas Corridor. The EC approved the construction of a gas pipeline in March 2016. The length of the TAP is 878 km, of which 550 km pass through the northern part of Greece, 215 km – Albania, 105 km through the Adriatic Sea, and 8 km through Italy. The first initial capacity is 10 billion m3 with a possible increase to 20 billion m3 per year. The cost of construction and operation is 4.5 billion Euros. The shareholders of TAP are BP (20%), SOCAR (20%), Snam (20%), Fluxys (19%), Enagas (16%), and Axpo (5%). Gas will be supplied to European countries, especially to the states of Southeastern Europe, bypassing Russia from the Caspian Sea’s gas field – Shah Deniz-2 (Azerbaijan). TAP will be put in operation in 2020.

Trans-Balkan Oil Pipeline Trans-Balkan Oil Pipeline – the oil pipeline planned for construction bypassing the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. It was assumed that the route of the pipeline will run from the Bulgarian City of Burgas on the Black Sea to Greek Alexandroupolis on the Aegean Sea. It was planned that the pipeline will supply Russian oil from the maritime terminal in Novorossiysk (Russia), in Burgas it will be reloaded onto tankers, and then it will be supplied via the pipeline to Alexandroupolis, where it will again be loaded onto tankers. The project length of the pipeline is 285 km, and the carrying capacity is 35 million tons per year with the possibility of expansion up to 50 million tons. The preliminary cost of the project was estimated at $ 1.2 billion. In March 2007, an intergovernmental agreement

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Treaties of Tilsit (1807)

Torcello Island, Venetian Lagoon, Italy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torcello#/media/File:Venezia_-_Torcello_ 01.JPG)

Trans-Adriatic Gas Pipeline. (Source: https://www.2b1stconsulting.com/europe-to-tap-azerbaijan-natural-gas-throughtrans-adriatic-pipeline/)

of Bulgaria, Greece, and Russia on the construction of the pipeline was signed in Athens. In 2011, the Bulgarian Government refused to participate in the project, which automatically made it infeasible, paying the debt to the Russian side, which was formed during the preparation of the construction.

Treaties of Tilsit (1807) Treaties of Tilsit (1807) – the Peace Treaty between Russia and France, signed in Tilsit on June 26 (July 8), 1807. Treaties of Tilsit were concluded as a result of confidential negotiations

Treaty of Rome (1924)

between Alexander I and Napoleon I. According to secret clauses of the Treaty, Russia transferred to France the Bay of Cattaro, recognized French sovereignty over the Ionian Islands, and pledged to withdraw its forces from Wallachia and Moldova. France pledged not to prosecute Montenegrins for the fight against France. Treaties of Tilsit ceased the state of war between France and Russia, which Russia led as a participant in the fourth anti-French coalition formed in 1806 (England, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden).

Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) – the Peace Treaty between France and Austria, signed on October 17, 1797, at the headquarters of the Commander of the so-called Italian Army of France, General Napoleon Bonaparte, near the Italian village of Campo Formio. According to Treaty of Campo Formio Austria ceded Belgium to France and agreed to assist France in securing territories on the left bank of the Rhine. Austria received a part of the Bavarian lands, Salzburg, a large part of the Republic of Venice (liquidated by Treaty of Campo Formio), including parts of Istria and Dalmatia which belonged to it, whereas the Ionian Islands and part of the territory of Albania retired to France from the Venice possessions.

Treaty of Passarowitz or Treaty of Požarevac (1718) (Turkish–Venetian Peace Treaty of 1718) Treaty of Passarowitz or Treaty of Požarevac (1718) (Turkish–Venetian Peace Treaty of 1718) – one of the treaties that ended the war of 1714–1718 between Venice and Austria on the one hand and Turkey on the other. Signed on July 21, 1718, at the Peace Congress, held near the Town of Požarevac (Serbia). The treaty left for Venice a number of small coastal points in Albania and Dalmatia, as well as the islands of Corigo and Corigotto. Under this Treaty, Venice renounced the Morea and the Islands, gained by

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the resolutions of the Karlowitz Congress 1698–1699. In return, Turkey reduced import duties on Venetian goods from 5% to 3%.

Treaty of Rapallo (1920) (Rapal Treaty of 1920) Treaty of Rapallo (1920) (Rapal Treaty of 1920) – the Treaty on the border between Italy and Yugoslavia, signed on November 12, 1920, in the City of Rapallo, Italy. Paris Peace Conference 1919–1920 did not satisfy all the claims of Italy, which required the transfer to it of a number of Slavic territories of the former Austria–Hungary – Dalmatia, Rijeka (Fiume), etc. – for participation in the First World War 1914–1918 on the side of the Entente. The attempts of Italy to capture a number of Adriatic territories led to a severe Italian-Yugoslav conflict. Italy, under pressure of France, Britain, and the United States, which were not interested in its strengthening, was forced to abandon some of its claims and settle its relationships with Yugoslavia. According to Treaty of Rapallo, Italy refused to claim Dalmatia as a whole. However, the border between Italy and Yugoslavia was established in such a way that almost the whole Istria with Trieste and Pula, Abbazia, the coastline for communication with Rijeka, etc. were included in Italy. In addition, the Port of Zara (Zadar) and the Islands of Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo, and Palagruža were transferred to Italy. Rijeka, which was captured by the Italian fascists in 1919, according to Treaty of Rapallo was recognized as an independent state (in 1923, Rijeka was again captured by Italy). As a result of the Treaty of Rapallo, Italy obtained the territory which was inhabited by Slavs up to 70%. Terms of the Treaty of Rapallo were canceled by the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty.

Treaty of Rome (1924) Treaty of Rome (1924) – the Bilateral International Agreement on the partition of the free City of Fiume (Rijeka), signed on January 27, 1924, in

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Rome, Italy, by representatives of the Kingdoms of Yugoslavia and Italy. Under the terms of the Treaty, Italy annexed the territory of the City of Fiume, while the City of Sušak was left to Yugoslavia. The formal annexation of Fiume by Italy took place on March 16, 1924. The border between the countries passed along the river Rječina. Thus, the Treaty of Rome cancelled the Treaty of Rapallo. The Government of the Republic of Fiume did not recognize the Treaty and continued to exist in exile, despite the fact that the International League of Nations recognized the partition as legal on April 7, 1924.

Treaty of Trianon (1920) (Trianon Treaty of 1920) Treaty of Trianon (1920) (Trianon Treaty of 1920) – the Treaty between the victor states of the First World War and defeated Hungary. Under the Treaty, Croatia, Bačka, and the western part of Banat were ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia); Transylvania and the eastern part of Banat – to Romania; Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine to Czechoslovakia; Burgenland Province – to Austria. Hungary lost the rights to the port of Rijeka (Fiume).

Tremiti Islands (Tremiti Isole) Tremiti Islands (Tremiti Isole) – islands which are situated in a separate group, 20 km west–southwest of Pianosa Island and 36 km north of Cape Gargano, Adriatic Sea, Italy. They were once part of this cape, however, separated from it afterward. The group includes the Islands of San Domino, San Nicola, and Capraia, as well as the Islet of Cretaccio. They are all rocky, with relatively small altitude. The shores of the islands, especially on their northern side, are steep. The sea depths around the islands are more than 60 m. The population of the islands is approximately 500 people (2017). Most of the population lives in the southwestern part of San Nicola Island. The main occupation of the population is fishing. On the Islands

Treaty of Trianon (1920) (Trianon Treaty of 1920)

of San Domino and Capraia lighthouses are situated. Since 1989, the islands have been protected, and they are part of the Gargano National Park.

Trieste Trieste – a city, bordering with Slovenia with more than 2000 years of history in the northeast of Italy, on the shores of the Gulf of Trieste on the Adriatic Sea, a large port (the second in terms of cargo turnover), having the status of a free port. It is the capital of Friuli Region. The population is 234,600 people (2018). It has railway junction. Due to the convenient geographical position, a significant part of foreign trade with the countries of Central and Southeast Europe runs to Trieste. Trieste is a large industrial center. The leading position belongs to the steel industry and mechanical engineering (mainly shipbuilding). Trieste is one of the most important oil ports in Europe. The chemical, oil refining, construction engineering, and food industries are also developed. In addition, there are enterprises of the clothing, timber processing, printing industry, and fisheries. There are two lighthouses in the port of Trieste. The old lighthouse, built in 1833 at the entrance to the old port, is a lighthouse-column made of stone with a height of 33.5 m. At its foot there is a bastion that was designed to protect the port and the lighthouse. The fire of the lighthouse was visible from 20 km. Decommissioned in 1960, it is currently used to illuminate the port and its waters. A new lighthouse or Lighthouse of Victory was built in 1923–1927. Trieste is the only city whose main square goes straight to the sea. From the middle of the first century BC, Trieste was a Roman colony Tergeste (Tergestum). Under Roman rule, the city became a significant port, with trade routes running along the Adriatic. Its name comes from the Latin “terg” (literally “market”) and indicates a settlement on St. Justus hill, formed on the remains of a fortified prehistoric village, which became an ancient Roman colony in the first century BC. The ancient Roman commune had a triangular shape, one of the corners of which fell on the hill of St. Justus, and the base coincided with the seashore. From the eleventh

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Tremiti Islands, Italy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isole_Tremiti#/media/File:Tremiti_00.jpg)

The City of Trieste, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trieste#/media/File:Frontemare_di_Trieste.jpg)

century until the middle of the thirteenth century, the population of Trieste led the struggle for selfgovernment with the City Lord, the Bishop. In 1719, the city was granted the status of a free port, which was preserved until 1891, after which its economic growth began, and for many years Trieste was the only Austrian seaport. Since the early 1830s shipping insurance companies and shipyards emerge in the city. In 1867 the port expanded due to the accession of the northern waters of Punto Franco, and by the end of the century – Porto Nuovo. On the North Adriatic, Trieste remained the largest port. In 1914, 12 shipping companies were based there. In 1919, Trieste

was passed to Italy. In 1943, it was occupied by the Germans and included in the “Operational zone of the Adriatic coast.” In 1946, Winston Churchill delivered his famous speech in Fulton (Missouri, USA) and said: “From the Stettin (Shetsin - ed.) in the Baltic to Trieste on the Adriatic on the continent (Europe - ed.) the iron curtain fell. . ..” In 1947, the Free Territory of Trieste was created, which was divided into two parts, one of which was under Anglo-American control and the other under Yugoslav. In 1954, these units became part of Italy and Yugoslavia. In 1962, Trieste became the center of the autonomous region of Italy Friuli-Venezia Giulia.

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Trilateral Commission for the Protection of the Adriatic (Trilateral Adriatic Protection Commission)

Trilateral Commission for the Protection of the Adriatic (Trilateral Adriatic Protection Commission) Trilateral Commission for the Protection of the Adriatic (Trilateral Adriatic Protection Commission) – It originates from the bilateral ItalianYugoslav Commission (1974), which was relaunched in 1992 and included Italy, Croatia, and Slovenia. The purpose of the Commission is to protect the Adriatic Sea and coastal areas from pollution. The commission studies all the problems associated with pollution of the waters and coasts of the Adriatic Sea, prepares propositions and recommendations for the government related to the research needed, and engages in the implementation of activities necessary to eliminate current pollution and prevent new incidents of pollution. The Commission presents an adequate international framework for the cooperation of Adriatic states in the field of environmental protection. Moreover, the work of the Commission has proved to be an efficient model that incorporates various aspects of environmental problems and provides an appropriate response to new challenges. Therefore, the Commission is intended to be a tool leading to a common vision of a long-term spatial maritime planning strategy regarding transboundary/international spatial planning in the (North) Adriatic. Montenegro is currently an initiative member. Other Adriatic countries – Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are not its members – show their interest in its activities.

Trogir Trogir – a city situated in Central Dalmatia, on the island of the same name, lying on the northern shore of the Trogir Channel, Adriatic Sea, and separated from the mainland channel of 20 m wide, Croatia. English writer-playwright Bernard Shaw named it “Venice in Miniature.” The Croats themselves call it “our Little Venice.” Population of the city is approximately 13,200 people (2011). Trogir is connected with the nearest islands by a ferry. The largest

shipyard in Croatia is situated in Trogir. The island itself is connected to the mainland by several bridges. The airport of Split is located 7 km from Trogir. Tourism brings more than half of the city’s revenues. The population is engaged in fishing and yachts and ship building, and in the vicinity of the city the viticulture is also developed. The historic old town is situated on a small island, separated by a narrow channel from the mainland and a broader channel from the large Čiovo Island, which is connected to it by a drawbridge. Trogir (Tragyrion or Tragourion) was founded by the Greeks from the Vis Island in the third century BC. The city was successfully developed; however, during the Roman period, it has been in the shadow of the nearby and prosperous City of Salona (or Salon, which was situated next to Split). In the seventh century, Slavs came to the Dalmatian coast, and soon the city was ruled by Croatian Kings. In the eleventh century, a diocese was established in the city. In 1123, the city was captured and completely destroyed by the Saracens, but was quickly restored, reaching its peak of prosperity in the thirteenth century. In 1420, together with a large part of the Dalmatian coastal cities and Trogir Islands came under the control of Venice. After the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, the city became part of Austria. During the First and Second World Wars, the Italians occupied the city. After the end of World Wars, Trogir became part of Yugoslavia. After the collapse of the latter in 1990, the city became part of independent Croatia. In terms of the number of historical monuments, it surpasses any other city of the coast and it is called the city-museum by right. The old city resembles a ship that has been preparing to sail for several centuries now, with numerous towers and bell towers replacing the masts and sails. There is a unique ensemble of palaces, temples, towers, and old buildings. Romanesque architecture is organically combined with the architecture of the Renaissance and Baroque, left over from the Venetians. The central historical part of Trogir is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. A Greek bas-relief of the sixth century BC was found here depicting the god Caerus.

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The City of Trogir, Croatia. (Photo by Adam Jones, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trogir#/media/File:View_ over_Trogir_-_Croatia.jpg)

Turbot (Psetta maxima) Turbot (Psetta maxima) – a sea fish of the Scophthalmus genus. The body is broad, rounded, oblate, and thick. The eyes are small and located on the left side. It has no scales. On the main side (and sometimes on the blind side) there are sharp small bone tubercles. The lateral line forms a steep arc above the pectoral fin. The main side is gray, yellowish-olive, dark brown with dark spots. Large, up to 1 m length, fish, however, usually reach 70–80 cm. Weight is up to 12 kg. It is usually found in small depths (up to 100 m), sandy and clayey soils. It reaches maturity at the age of 5 years, with a body length of 17–28 cm. Spawning occurs in April–August, at a depth of 10–40 m, not far from the coast. The fecundity is 437,000 to 14 million eggs. Roe is small, 11 mm in diameter. The incubation period is short,

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Turbot. (Photo by Luc Viatour, Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbot#/media/File:Psetta_maxima_ Luc_Viatour.jpg)

7–9 days. The larvae are pelagic. Juveniles feed on bottom invertebrates, and adults feed on gobies, flounders, garfishes, and sand lances. It

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Twait Shad (Alosa fallax)

is found throughout the Adriatic Sea, however, more often in its northern part than in the middle and southern parts. Catches reach 1 t.

Twait Shad (Alosa fallax) Twait Shad (Alosa fallax) – a species of actinopterygians, pelagic fishes, Clupeidae family. Reaches a length of 50–60 cm and a weight of 1 kg. It almost always has a row of dark spots on the sides of its body; there are 30–80 gill rakers on the first arc, they are short and coarse; it has 55–59 vertebrae; head is short and narrow. The most important forms of morphosis are Alosa fallax fallax and the Alosa fallax nilotica. Twait shad is distributed in the Mediterranean, Adriatic, Marmara, and Black Seas. It enters the rivers of Italy (Tiber) in early March. Spawning occurs at 210 km from the mouth of the river at night, in

Twait shad. (Photo by Hans Hillewaert, Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Twait_shad#/media/File:Alosa_fallax. jpg)

shallow places with stony ground at a water temperature of 22–25 °C. They lay 80,000– 200,000eggs, of which larvae appear after 3–8 days. Spawned fish rolls into the sea at the end of June. They feed on small crustaceans. The catches in the Lake Skadar are approximately 8 t, and in the sea they are approximately 5 t. The fish is basically canned.

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Ugljan Island (Ugljan Otok) Ugljan Island (Ugljan Otok) – (Croatian. “ulje” – “oil”) The island is situated to the west of Zadar, Croatia. Long, narrow, stretched from northwest to southeast. Its area is 50.2 km2, length 22 km, and width approximately 4 km. Population is approximately 6050 people (2011). From the mainland it is separated by Zadar Channel, and from Island of Pašman, lying to the southeast, is a narrow Ždrelac Strait. In 1883 it was deepened, and it became available for vessels. In 1973 the island was connected with Island of Pašman by a road bridge. It is connected by a regular ferry with the village Preko, which is situated on the island opposite to Zadar. Most of the island is covered with olive plantations. The olive oil produced here is considered the best in Croatia. Fishing and tourism is developed here. It is popular among divers and yachtsmen. The island was first mentioned in 1325. In some parts of the island, the ruins of Roman era villas are preserved. The existing settlements on the island were founded in the Middle Ages.

Ulcinj Ulcinj – a small and compact city, the southernmost on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. Population of the city is approximately 10,700 people (2011), and 61% of population are Albanians, the

majority of whom are Muslims. This is understandable, because the state border with Albania lies near Ulcinj. History of Ulcinj is a mixture of legends and historical documents. Ulcinj is the ancient seaport. It is believed that it was founded by the Greeks in the fifth century BC, but perhaps the Illyrians lived here. Then it received the name Colchinium – as it is mentioned by Pliny the Elder. In the second century BC, when the Romans captured the city, it became known as “Olcinium” or “Olchinium.” In the fifth century it was destroyed by an earthquake. After the division of the Roman Empire, Ulcinj became part of the Byzantine Province of Prevalis, and its population was converted to Christianity. In 1405, the city was conquered by the Byzantines, who ruled here until 1571, when they were expelled by the Turks. During this period, Ulcinj was considered an important center of trade and navigation, and in the Slovenian state Raška it enjoyed autonomy. After the Berlin Congress in 1878, the border between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire was revised, and Ulcinj became part of the Montenegrin lands. Officially, it entered the Principality on November 30, 1880. At that time, Ulcinj gained a resounding reputation as a pirate nest. Originally, a gang of corsairs consisting of 400 immigrants from North Africa and Malta lived here, but then they were joined by Albanians, Turks, and Serbs. The construction of ships at local shipyards was established. In Ulcinj, the slave trade flourished; for this reason there were many black inhabitants in the city, until 1878 up to a hundred ethnic Africans lived there. There is a legend that in 1571 the

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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famous Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes, author of Don Quixote, was wounded (lost his left hand) in the historic battle of Lepanto. When returning to his homeland in 1575 on the ship “El-Sol” was captured by pirates under the command of the renegade Albanian Memi and imprisoned in the basement of the slave market in Ulcinj (according to other sources, he was in Algeria prison). Cervantes unsuccessfully made shoots several times. In 1580, he was ransomed for 500 gold escudos. The city consists of a new and old city. The old city was drowned in the sea after the earthquake. Now its part with a fortress stands on a cape in the northwest of the city. The thickness of the fortress walls is 20 m. In its upper part is the museum complex “Old Town.” It includes a sixteenthcentury mosque church. In the lower part of the old town there is a hotel. New city and shopping streets stretch up the hill from the sandy Small Beach (Mala plaža). Near the beach, there is the Pasha’s Mosque, built in 1719. There are ruins of the old Sailors’ Mosque at the sea. To the west of the Old City, there is the Cathedral of St. Nicholas’ Church dedicated to Montenegrins who died in the war of 1876–1878. Along with the Small Beach, which is situated almost in the city, to the southeast of it there is the sandy Big Beach (Velika Plaža). The suburb of Ulcinj is occupied by watermelons, in the swathed area of Štoj – salt works and swamps, east of the city are popular hunting grounds where wild ducks, geese, partridges, woodcocks, and quails are found. Angling (sea bass, dentex, mullet, etc.) and the “kalamera” method are also common here. Mollusks are collected; lobsters and crabs, as well as shrimp, are caught. At present, Ulcinj is a city of trade and small trades. The production of salt and fishing gear, the cultivation of watermelons, and the tourist industry are developed. At Cape Mendra, near Ulcinj there is a lighthouse, built in the thirteenth century, which is still working.

Ulcinj Riviera (Ulcinjska Rivijera)

Albania, near the mouth of the Bojana River. This is the southernmost Riviera of Montenegro. The Ulcinj coast stretches for a length of 30 km, of which 24 km is a collection of unique sandy beaches, the longest in Europe. The specificity of the Ulcinj coast is black basalt sand, which has a beneficial therapeutic effect on the musculoskeletal system, due to the high content of mineral salts and iodine. The composition of the Ulcinj Riviera includes beaches Valdanos (north of Ulcinj), Small Beach (Ulcinj border), the longest beach of the Montenegrin coastline of over 13 km long – Velika Plaža (Big Beach), and Ada Bojana (on the island 15 km from Ulcinj, one of the best beaches of Montenegro). The coastline of the Ulcinj Riviera is considered to be the sunniest in Montenegro – 217 sunny days a year, which averages 7.8 h of sunshine per day. Mediterranean climate in Ulcinj Riviera is characterized by mild and short winter (average January temperature +12.5 °C) and long warm summer. Warm water (more than 29 °С) in combination with the bright sun ensures the swimming season from April to November.

Ulcinj Salina Lagoon Ulcinj Salina Lagoon – is situated in the southernmost part of Montenegro, in the region where the largest number of sunshine hours per year is observed in the Adriatic Sea (2567 h). The area of the Lagoon is 1492 ha. This is the former Zogajsko blato, “Zogaj mudflats” (“zog” meaning “bird” in Albanian) or a marshy plain. Hydroregulation of the lagoon began in 1913, when the Port Milena drainage channel was dug. As a result, the lagoon was cut off from the Adriatic Sea. Laguna is part of the most important ornithological areas of the Adriatic.

Ulcinj Riviera (Ulcinjska Rivijera)

Ulcinj Saltworks (Ulcinj Salt Ponds, Ulcinjska Solana)

Ulcinj Riviera (Ulcinjska Rivijera) – stretches from Old Ulcinj Cape to the Montenegrin border with

Ulcinj Saltworks (Ulcinj Salt Ponds, Ulcinjska Solana) – are situated east of the City of Ulcinj,

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The City of Ulcinj, Montenegro. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulcinj#/media/File:Ulcinj,_Montenegro_-_Sept. _2010.jpg)

Montenegro. The salt basin area of 15 km2 is the largest saltworks in the region. Their production capacity is 44 tons of salt per year. At the same time it is the largest ornithological object. In winter, there are approximately 20,000 bird species, and there are pelicans, flamingos, cormorants, several species of herons, as well as rare endangered bird species.

Umag (Ital. Umago) Umag (Ital. Umago) – the westernmost city of Croatia, situated almost in the extreme northwest of the Istrian Peninsula, near the border with Slovenia. It is connected by regular intercity bus service with other major Croatian cities, as well as with Italy and Slovenia. The highway along the Istrian coast from Umag leads toward the cities of Poreč, Rovinj, and Pula. The population of the

city is approximately 13,500 people (2011), multinational: Croats make up 59.6%, Italians – 18.3%, Serbs – 3.8%, Slovenes – 2.2%, Bosnians – 1.7%, and Albanians – 1.3%. Umag County is officially bilingual – Italian has equal rights with Croatian. Umag is known as one of the worldclass tennis centers. The basis of the city’s economy is tourism. The population is engaged in agriculture, mainly in viticulture and olive cultivation, as well as in the food industry, winemaking, fishing, and fish processing. Umag has already been existing during the time of the Roman Empire. The first mention of the city in the chronicles dates back to the seventh century. In the seventh to eighth centuries Umag was ruled by Byzantium, which was then replaced by the Franks, and then the local princes. The growing power of the Venetian Republic led to the gradual integration of Istria into Venice. In 1269, Umag recognized the Reign of the Venetians, who ruled the city for more than

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The Сity of Umag, Croatia. (Photo by Michal Klajban, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umag#/media/File:Pano rama_of_Umag,_Istria,_Croatia.jpg)

500 years. In 1370 the city was badly damaged during the war between Venice and Genoa. After the fall of Venice in 1797, Umag was annexed to Austria. In the period 1805–1813 the city was controlled by Napoleon’s troops, and in 1813 it was given to Austria again. After the First World War, Umag, along with the whole Istrian Peninsula, was passed to Italy, while the rest of Dalmatia became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After the Second World War, Umag became part of the so-called Zone “B” of the free territory of Trieste, which was controlled by Yugoslavia, after which a significant part of the Italian population of the city emigrated to Italy. In 1954, the free territory of Trieste ceased to exist, and Umag became part of Yugoslavia. After the collapse of the latter in 1991, it became part of independent Croatia. There are numerous evidences of the Middle Ages in the city – the fortress walls, Venetian villas, and, above all, the picturesque narrow streets. One of the oldest towers is wellpreserved – the western one, which now houses the city museum. The Church of St. Rock is the main sightseeing of the city. It was built in 1514. The city museum is situated in the historic center of the city. It has a large collection of archaeological findings made during excavations in the city. The Church of St. Pelegrin is a small ancient temple built by the inhabitants of the city, located near Umag on the Rosazzo promontory. During low tide, you can see a promontory 200 m long and 50 m wide, consisting of a pile of stones – these are the remains of the ancient Fort Sipar, the building of which is dated to the fifth century. Sipar existed at this place during the Roman Empire, as evidenced by the foundations of villas and houses, as well as household items, coins, and

ancient mosaics. Sipar was completely plundered and destroyed in 876 by pirates led by Domagoj. Villa Tiola is a real paradise for divers. This luxury villa is richly decorated with mosaics and frescoes preserved on the walls. The remains of a 30-m pier, which has a width of about 6 m, can be seen in the sea near the villa.

Umbria Umbria – a place in Italy between Etruria and the coast of the Adriatic Sea. The coastal strip was also called the Gallic field (ager Gallicus). The inhabitants of Umbria – the Umbri – were one of the branches that migrated in the first millennium BC on the territory of Italy.

Upper Sea Upper Sea – (Lat. Mare Superum) the name of the Adriatic Sea in the eighth to sixth centuries BC.

Ushakov Fyodor Fyodorovich (1745–1817) Ushakov Fyodor Fyodorovich (1745–1817) – Russian Naval Commander, Admiral (1799), one of the founders of the Black Sea Fleet and its Commander since 1790. In 1766 he graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps. He served in the Baltic Fleet and in the Don (Azov) Flotilla (since 1769). In 1769, he was inducted to Lieutenant,

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sailed along the Don on the praam (large flatbottomed artillery sailing and rowing vessel) No. 5. He served in the Russian–Turkish war of 1768–1774. In 1770, he commanded the same praam on the Don River, then on the praam “Defeb” he was at the mouth of the Kutyurma River. In 1771, he was on the frigate “Perviy,” which was transferred from Novokhopyorsk Fortress to the Sea of Azov, then commanded four transport ships with wood when they were escorted by Don River from Pyatiizbyanskaya Stanitsa to Taganrog. In 1772–1773 he commanded the “Kurier” boat in the Azov and Black Seas; in 1774 he commanded the “Modon” ship in the Sea of Azov. In 1775, he was transferred from Taganrog to Kronstadt, and was ranked Lieutenant Commander. In 1783, he served on the Black Sea, oversaw the construction of ships in Kherson Port, and took part in the construction of a Naval Base in Sevastopol. He was introduced into the Captain first rank (1784). In 1785, he transferred the ship to Sevastopol. In 1786, he commanded the ship “Sv. Pavel” at the Sevastopol Port in Crimea. He won major victories over the Turkish Fleet in the Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1791, at the beginning of which he commanded the battleship “Sv. Pavel.” In the battle near the Island of Fidonisi (1788) at the head of the avant-garde squadron defeated the Turkish squadron. In 1789, he was promoted to Rear Admiral. During the period of his command, the Black Sea Fleet won outstanding victories in the Kerch Naval Battle near the Island of Tendra (1790). In 1791, he won a battle at Cape Kaliakria. In 1793 he was inducted into Vice Admiral, and in 1793–1797 he stayed in Nikolaev. In 1797, having a flag on the ship “Sv. Pavel,” he commanded a squadron and sailed between Sevastopol and Odessa. In the years 1798–1800 Ushakov headed the squadron in the Mediterranean Sea in the war against France and planned Adriatic Naval operations. In 1799, he was promoted to Admiral. In 1800, he returned with a squadron to Sevastopol. In 1807, he retired. Ushakov was awarded many Russian and foreign orders. The bay in the southeastern part of the Barents Sea, a cape on the northern coast of the Sea of

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Fyodor Fyodorovich Ushakov. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Ushakov#/media/File: AdmFFUshakoffByBazhanoff-e.jpg)

Okhotsk, was named after Ushakov. The name of Ushakov wore the ships of the Russian Fleet. On March 3, 1944, by the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, one of the highest orders was established – the Order of Ushakov of I and II degrees and the Ushakov Medal. On November 30, 2000, the Commission on the canonization of the Russian Orthodox Church canonized the Naval Commander as the locally honored Saint of the Saransk diocese. On August 4–5, 2001, in the process of canonization, his relics were reburied in the Church of the Nativity of the Sanaksar Monastery of the Nativity of the Mother of God.

Uskoks (Uskoki) Uskoks (Uskoki) – the pirates of the sixteenth century whose base was located on the Port of

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Senj on the Adriatic Sea, southeast of Rijeka, Croatia. As a result of the gradual advancement of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century in Bosnia and Croatia, many local residents were forced to move closer to the Adriatic Sea, and to fight against the Turks, they gathered in paramilitary groups. Initially, these fighters were called Uskoks – a special estate similar to the Russian Cossacks. Then this name was assigned to the detachment from Herzegovina, which defended the fortress of Hum (Central Dalmatia), until its fall in 1537. After that, Uskoks (at that time the detachment was under the control of Austria)

Uskoks (Uskoki)

retreated to the town of Senj and used this city as a base for attacking Adriatic ships. Uskoks robbed both Turkish and Venetian ships. In 1615, Venice provoked a so-called Uskok war with the Austrians, to solve the problem of preserving its shipping. Austria wanted reconciliation with Venice and did not support Uskoks. In accordance with the Peace Treaty signed in Madrid in 1617, the Austrians destroyed the Uskok Fleet. Senj was occupied by the Austrians, and Uskoks had to flee deep into the country. Locals look upon Uskoks as Croatian fighters for freedom.

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Valli di Comacchio, Comacchio Valli di Comacchio, Comacchio – a large lagoon, a lake, a large complex of shallow brackish lagoons. Located north of Ravenna, south of Comacchio, in the immediate vicinity of the Adriatic Sea coast, Emilia-Romagna Region, Northern Italy. Area is approximately 13,000 ha. Depth is up to 7 m. The territory of the lagoon is within the limits of the regional park “The Po River Delta.” This is a specially protected area, included in the list of wetlands of the Ramsar Convention. The lagoon is formed by four main pools: Valle Lido di Magnavacca, Valle Fossa di Porto (Valle Fossa di Porto), Valle Campo, and Valle Fattibello. Approximately 10 km to the north is the Lagoon of Valle di Bertuzzi (Valle di Bertuzzi), which is also part of Valli di Comacchio. In ancient times, the lagoon was a swampy lake-lagoon, which was a system of deep navigable lakes. Laguna was formed in approximately tenth century AD due to soil shrinkage and choking of the coastal zone. During the forming period, the territory was flooded with fresh water due to repeated river floods. Since the sixteenth century it has been gradually filled with seawater, becoming today a system of pools filled with brackish water. Presently, the lagoon is separated from the sea by a narrow sand bar, where a number of shoals are located; there are a lot of shoals in the lagoon itself. Initially, the square

Valli di Comacchio amounted to approximately 73,000 ha; however, later, as a result of various ameliorative projects, it was reduced to 11,000 ha. Despite the fact that the entire surface is practically dissected by drainage channels, it is subsided all the time. The process takes place quite quickly, and the land in the valley of the River Po is subsided on average by several centimeters per a year. Valli di Comacchio remains the largest wetland in Italy. It serves as a habitat for a huge number of birds in Italy, and there are more than 300 species, such as flamingos, stilts, aigrette, heron, and kingfisher. In addition, fish such as eel, mullet, sea bass, spar, and soles live here. Foxes are frequently seen. Fishing is a common activity on the banks of the lagoons. There are structures serving both fishing stations and locations for monitoring illegal fisheries. Also pools for eels called lavorieri are very common here. In addition, there are numerous areas for evaporation of salt.

Vaporetto Vaporetto – passenger motor ships used to transport people between areas in Venice and other nearby islands in Italy. They have fixed stops – an analogue of public automobile transport, since there are no auto roads in the city.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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Valli di Comacchio. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valli_di_Comacchio#/media/File:Valle_Fatibello.JPG)

Vaporetto in Venice. (Photo by Peter K Burian. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaporetto#/media/File:Vaporetti_ Venice_Lagoon.jpg)

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Varano Lagoon (Lago di Varano) Varano Lagoon (Lago di Varano) – The lake stretches for 8 km along the northwestern coast of the Gargano Peninsula, Italy. It is one of the largest lagoons on the west coast of the Adriatic Sea. The area is of 6500 ha with a perimeter of 33 km. It is separated from the Adriatic Sea by 10 km sand bar. The lagoon has a trapezoidal shape; surrounded by three slopes of steep hills; on the northern side, which faces the sea, there is a bar of sand dunes. It is connected to the sea by artificial channels: in the east by Varano, and in the west by Kapoyale. Both of these channels are sand bored. Depths in the lagoon are 2–4 m with a maximum depth in the center of up to 5 m. The water temperature in the lagoon varies from 5 °C to 30 °C, the salinity is relatively sustainable and never drops below 20‰. The hydrological system consists of the lagoon itself, two canals facing the sea, fresh water from a small drainage basin is drained by the St. Antonio and St. Francesco canals, the drainage pumping station Mushiaturo and several sources. The volume of incoming fresh water is about 87,000 m3. The lagoon and its neighboring coastal areas are used for the production of mussels, as well as fish farming. The mountains are towering on the shores of the lagoon, except the northern shore. In some places they are dissected by valleys.

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the city that have survived to the present day – Torre Bassano in Piazza Rossetti, Torre Diomeda in Vico Storto del Passero, Torre Diamante in Piazza Verdi, and Porta Catena. In 1566, most of the city was destroyed by the Ottoman Empire. The city experienced its golden age during the reign of Cesare Michelangelo. Mussolini in 1938 renamed it to Istonio. This was the name of the city until 1944. In the first years after the Second World War, the city developed industrially and socio-culturally. In 1956, devastating landslides occurred here. In recent decades, tourism has been developed in the city, which is facilitated by the presence of beaches. Terms, mosaics, remnants of the amphitheater of the era of the Roman Empire, which were found here and restored, are of great interest. Vasto is the center for the summer programs at Harvard University, where its students learn Italian. Vasto is especially famous for its beautiful churches – here you can admire the Cathedral of San Giuseppe, the Churches of Santa Maria Maggiore, Sant Antonio, San Francesco di Paola, and Santa Maria Dal Carmine. Among them stands out the Temple of Sant Antonio – it is famous for perfectly preserved stucco of the era of luxurious baroque. In addition to the fact that the buildings of churches are beautiful and deserve attention by themselves, you can also find real masterpieces in them. Besides the churches in Vasto, the abovementioned castle and two aristocratic palaces, Palazzo Caldora and Palazzo d’Avalos, deserve attention. The building of the latter houses the city museum at the present.

Vasto Vasto – an antique town on the Adriatic coast, in the south of the Region of Abruzzo, Italy. It is located about 9 km south of Cape Punta della Penna. The population of the city is about 38,750 (2012). According to legend, the city was founded in thirteenth century BC by Greek hero Diomedes. Early archaeological findings are dated about 1300 BC. At the beginning of its history, the city was called Histonium. Since the thirteenth century, the city has been a part of the Kingdom of Naples. In the fifteenth century, a castle and numerous defense towers were built in

Velebit Velebit – a mountain range in the Dinar Highlands in Croatia, on the shore of the Adriatic Sea. Its length is approximately 150 km. Its height is up to 1757 m – Mount Vaganski Vrh. It is mainly composed of limestones; there are karst phenomena. The western steep slopes are treeless; gentle eastern slopes up to a height of 1300 m are covered with broad-leaved forests, higher – by coniferous.

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Velebit Strait

The City of Vasto, Italy. (Photo by Ra Boe, Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasto#/media/File:Vasto_2010-byRaBoe-02.jpg)

Velebit Strait Velebit Strait – The eastern of the three straits leading along the Kvarner Gulf to its upper part – the Rijeka Gulf, is located in Croatia. It is bounded from the northeast by the mainland coast of the Balkan Peninsula, and from the southwest by the southern and northeast banks of the Island Pag, the northeast coast of Rab Island, the islands of Goli Otok, Sveti Grgur, and Prvić, the northeastern coast of Krk Island. The narrowest part of the strait is the Tikhi Strait, which connects Velebit Strait and the Rijeka Gulf. The Velebit Mountain Ridge stretches along the mainland coast of the strait. All the islands bordering the strait from the southwest are mountainous ones; however, their heights are much smaller than the height of the mountain range. Krk Island is the highest among these islands. Southeast of Velebit Strait is connected to the Kvarnerich Strait by

straits, running along the southeast coast of the Pag Island. The middle part of the Velebit Strait connects to the Kvarnerich strait with the wide Pag Strait. The northeastern part of Velebit Strait is connected to the Kvarnerich Strait by three passages between the Islands of Rab, Sveti Grgur, Prvić, and Krk. Southeast of the Velebit Strait the Novigrad Sea lakes are located and the Karan Sea, which are connected to the Velebit Strait narrow straits. Depths of Velebit Strait in the southeastern part is 20–50 m, in the middle part, increasing at Rab Island up to 100 m; further to the north-west, they decrease again and in the Tikhi Strait are 20–50 m. Velebit Strait is an important sea route.

Velika Plaža Velika Plaža – see “▶ Great Beach.”

Venetian Lagoon, Laguna Veneta

Velipoja Velipoja – village in the north of Albania, located in the area of the beach on the Adriatic coast. The beach has the same name. This is the first beach, located after entering Albania from neighboring Montenegro. It is a huge coast, which is about 20 km long, most of which is occupied by wild beaches. Infrastructure is developed at an average level. Nearby, there are restaurants with live music, shops, and various cafes.

Veli-Rat Veli-Rat – one of the most beautiful lighthouses on the Adriatic, located on Dugi Otok Island, Croatia. Its height is 40 m. It was built in 1849 on the northwestern cape of the island, 35 km west of Zadar.

Venetian Arsenal (Veneziani Arsenal) Venetian Arsenal (Veneziani Arsenal) – the islands and bays on the Adriatic coast, which were part of the Venetian Empire. They were invulnerable, at the same time, allowing the Venetians to develop effective trade and rebuild a powerful Fleet. The significant role in this process was played by the famed Venetian Arsenal. Dockyards and boot camps were created according to the Byzantine model. It existed in Venice as early as the eighth century; however, the Arsenal itself was built only in 1104. The word “arsenal” comes from the Arabic “dar al-sin,” that is, “shipyard.” Thus, Venetian Arsenal was a hybrid of the Islamic and Byzantine models. The Venetian Arsenal was designed for mass production of warships. Venetian ships were built from frame to skin, which was fundamentally different from the Greco-Roman shipbuilding tradition, which included the construction of the skin, which was then reinforced frame. The new technology was not only faster but also required

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significantly less wood. During its better years, the Venetian Arsenal collected galleys and cannons from unified units, which in the rest of Europe began to be practiced only after the beginning of the industrial revolution.

Venetian Lagoon, Laguna Veneta Venetian Lagoon, Laguna Veneta – the northern shallow part, the gulf of the Adriatic Sea. The lagoon area is 550 km2. Watten, the salt marshes, occupy 80% of the area, 12% are areas of deep water or canals, and 8% are land (islands). Depth is 10–30 m. Length is 56.5 km, and width is 9.6 km. The average annual water temperature is 14 oС, and salinity is 35‰. The tides are semi-diurnal, and their height is approximately 1 m. At the west coast of the Venetian Lagoon on the islands of the lagoon Venice is located, on the northeast coast of the Gulf of Venice – Trieste. Among the more than 130 islands of the Venetian Archipelago, including coastal reclaimed land and barrier beaches, the largest in size are (in km2): Cass di Colmata, 11.55; Venice, 5.17; Sant Erasmo, 3.26; Murano, 1.17; Chioggia, 0.67; Giudecca, 0.59; Mazzorbo, 0.52; Torcello, 0.44; Sant’Elena, 0.34; La Certosa, 0.24; Burano, 0.21; Tronchetto, 0.18; Sacca-Fizol, 0.18; San Michele, 0.16; Sacca-Cessola, 0.16; Santa Cristina, 0.13. Laguna was formed approximately 6000–7000 years ago, when the sea transgression after the Ice Age flooded the upper part of the Adriatic coast. When the Veneti began to settle on the islands of the lagoon, it was mostly freshwater. The Brenta, Sile, Piave, and other rivers flowed into it, and the banks were bogged. However, the rivers began to threaten safety, and then shipping: their sediments silted up the lagoon, threatening to create bridges to the islands. Starting from the twelfth century and the sixteenth century Venetians successively diverted Brent, Deze, Sila, Zero, Martsenigo, and Piave along the canals to the Adriatic around the lagoon. This saved the lagoon from the bogging – the breeding grounds of malaria, and the lagoon began to “breathe” sea water more fully.

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Venetian Lagoon, Laguna Veneta

Venetian Lagoon. (Photo by Didier Descouens, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_Lagoon#/media/File: Porto_di_Lido-San_Nicol%C3%B2.jpg)

The sand bar separating the lagoon from the sea could not withstand the impact of its waves. Venetians strengthened the coast of the spit. The first protective walls were built in the fourteenth century and were strengthening from time to time. In the eighteenth century instead of the old walls, the “murazzi” were constructed, the walls of which are longer than 5 km made of earthen embankments, stone slabs, and large stone blocks covering them. These constructions are preserved to our days. They were built for 39 years and were completed 15 years before the city was captured by the forces of Napoleon. “The lagoon has three enemies: the sea, the earth and man” – this aphorism was born in Venice five centuries ago. Experience has shown that the lagoon does not tolerate snide use of itself. The fishing nets that blocked it led to silting and waterlogging. The land discharged into the lagoon when laying canals in the city changed the direction of the currents and created “sacks” – stagnant zones that were not cleared by the currents. In the sixteenth century, and perhaps earlier, there were plans to cover the lagoon and grow bread on it. However, the Venetians were navigators, and the interests of the Fleet were more valuable for

them than bread, so the lagoon was cleared and deepened, and they gave space for its water and kept Venice as it was and is a city among the lagoon. It is obvious that the Council of Ten, the legislator of the Republic of Venice, had reason for brutal measures to protect the lagoon, setting the following edict of 1501: “Those, who will dare to damage the dam, lay the tube, to pass off the water or extend the channels, will be deprived of his right hand, left eye and all of his property.” It is not known whether these measures of retaliation were applied (three out of ten council members were inquisitors, and the “Bridge of Sighs” led from the Council Hall directly to the prison), but one of the oldest and highest State bodies of the Republic of Venice, the Master of Water Affairs, led active actions to fight all three enemies of the lagoon. It was endowed with real and significant power for this. This activity was ceased by the Napoleonic administration and has not been resumed since then in previous traditions. The lagoon is separated from the Adriatic Sea by sandy bar with three straits: Porto di Lido, Porto di Malamocco, and Porto di Chioggia. During the tides (average height is 0.7 m), the sea

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waters enter through them into the lagoon, increasing its level, and at low tides they again go to the sea. Daily tidal streams purify the waters of the lagoon and the Venetian canals, allowing the city to dispense with the sewage treatment system. A third of the lagoon is a permanent reservoir with a system of natural and artificial canals with a depth of 1 to 15 m. The dry bottom of the lagoon rises to the dry land, and the tides here create silty and sandy shoals – barrens, which flood more than 40% of the lagoon area. Silty shoals are flooded with water at each tide, sandy ones are waterlogged during the spring tides (at the new moon and full moon) and during “high water.” Part of the shoals is filled and continues to be filled to expand the industrial zone of Marghera. About 20% of the territory of the lagoon is surrounded by dams and turned into fishing ponds. Islands occupy about 5% of the lagoon area. However, catastrophic floods in the city can be associated with tides, when a high, up to 1.2 m, tide is combined with powerful southeastern winds and heaves of the sea. At a speed of Sirocco 60 km/h, the water level in the lagoon can rise by more than 0.9 m, disregarding the height of the waves. For the one and a half thousand-year history of the city in the Venetian Lagoon has undergone major changes: many areas of tidal drainage channels are filled, artificially raised, and mastered industrial zones (Marghera); the straits – first Lido, then Malamocco – were deepened and extended, their mouths were fenced by moles; and artificial shipping canals were laid along the lagoon. All these activities grossly violated the water regime of the lagoon, which is extremely sensitive to external impacts. The lagoon has become more accessible to high tides and wind surges. The negative impact of these phenomena is aggravated by the relative and absolute subsidence of the city, the causes of which are, first of all, the rise in sea level (1.2–1.5 mm/year) and the tectonic downwarping of the coast. In the area of the neighboring lagoon, at the Grado beach, a Romanesque castle of the first or second century is now located 4 m below sea level, and near Legnano a coastal formation – bichroc, dating back to 4000 years, is found in the sea at a depth of 13 m. Thus, the relative sea level rise at the

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northwest coast is 2–3 mm/year. Acceleration of this process in Venice is associated with the compaction of thin lagoon and marine sediments, on which the city is located. And although the city has a strong pile foundation, it noticeably sags due to the compaction of sediments under the weight of urban structures. It is assumed that only this reason results in a lowering of the surface at a rate of 1 mm/year. The sedimentation of the sedimentary strata is also facilitated by the long-term pumping of fresh groundwater from wells on islands and lagoon shores. Comprehensive reasons (especially those of a technogenic nature) led to a gradual acceleration of the settling of the Venice basis: from 1 mm/year in 1908–1925, up to 6 mm/year in 1969. In order to preserve the historical values of Venice, which is only 1.07–1.30 m above average sea level, and to avoid the destructive consequences of floods like the November 1966, UNESCO called on countries and their peoples to collective solution to the “Venetian problem.”

Venetian Lowland Venetian Lowland – the eastern, the lowest and the flattest part of the Padan Plain in northeastern Italy, adjacent to the Adriatic Sea. It is composed of clay and silt deposits, in the foothills – pebbles. It is occupied by meadows, reeds, and marshes. Among the plains, eroded Berici (444 m) and Euganeia (603 m) are eroded, where the remains of oak forests are preserved. It intersects with the Po River and many smaller rivers flowing from the eastern Alps. The Coast of the Adriatic Sea is flat, with boggy deltas and lagoons, one of which is the City of Venice. It is characterized by the dense network of irrigation and drainage channels. Major cities are Padua, Verona, and Venice.

Venetian Republic (Repubblica di Venezia, Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia) Venetian Republic (Repubblica di Venezia, Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia) – from the

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end of seventh century and until 1797 this is the Republic in Europe with the capital in Venice. In the middle of fifth century more than a hundred islands were conquered by Byzantium. On these islands commonwealths occurred which at the end of seventh century or the beginning of the ninth century formed a Republic headed by Doge. The City of Venice arose at the beginning of the ninth century on Rialto Island as the center of Ducat, a military administrative district in Byzantium (the silver coin had the same name, the minting of which began in Venice in 1112, and it was also known as Sequin, or Florin). In the ninth and tenth centuries, Venice became a major intermediary center of trade in Western Europe with the East. Crafts appeared there – metal and woodworking, fur dressing, leather, textiles and glass; shipbuilding has been developed. By the end of the tenth century the Republic annexed the Istrian cities of Kapodistrias, Parenzo, Umago, and Rovinho and aimed to bring the Dalmatian cities under Venetian umbrella. In the ninth and twelfth centuries, Venice became a rich maritime state, thanks to a strong Fleet that achieved hegemony on the Adriatic Sea. During the time of three crusades (the end of the eleventh and twelfth centuries) the Republic rendered military aid to the crusaders and managed to create a chain of strongholds on the east coast of the Mediterranean. As a result of the 4th Crusade (1202–1204), Venice turned into a Mediterranean Empire, which owned part of Constantinople, near harbors on the Sea of Marmara and in the straits, the Islands of Evia, Crete, etc. From the end of the thirteenth century, the Republic of Venice became oligarchic. Representatives of 200–300 noble families formed all the highest bodies: the Grand Council (in charge of all the affairs of the state), the Small Council, or Signoria (the Government of the Republic), the Senate (in charge of colonial affairs and foreign policy issues), and the Council of Forty (the highest judicial body). At the head of the Small Council and the whole Republic stood the life-long elected doge. At the end of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries merchants ousted from power tried to overthrow this system (Bocconio plots in 1299; Tiepolo uprising in 1310; Marino Falieri plots in 1355), however, without success.

Venetian Riviera (Costa Veneziana)

In fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Venice entered its golden age. The long struggle against Genoa ended with the defeat of the Genoese Fleet at Chioggia (1380). Venice pushed Genoa from the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea and concentrated in its hands a large part of Western European trade with the East. It was established in Dalmatia. It also had several settlements in Albania, and owned the Ionian Islands. The possessions on the continent were also expanded (Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia, Ravenna, Cremona, Rimini, etc.). The capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), the movement of trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, as a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, flattened the power of Venice. As a result of the Venetian-Turkish wars of the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries it lost almost all of its possessions in the Balkans and in the Eastern Mediterranean, which undermined the trade and led to a political and economic downswing in the seventeenth eighteenth centuries, although there were short periods of recovery. In 1797, Venice was occupied by the forces of the French Directorate under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte, who abolished Venice as an independent state. Almost the entire territory of the Republic in the same year was transferred to Austria, having lost its independence, and in 1805 it was annexed to Italy. As a result of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815 Venice was under Austrian domination. In March 1848, during the revolution of 1848–1849, Venice was declared a Republic again, which fell under pressure of the Austrian Army. In 1866, after the end of the Franco-Italian-Austrian war, Venice was annexed by the Italian Kingdom.

Venetian Riviera (Costa Veneziana) Venetian Riviera (Costa Veneziana) – It is located to the north of the Adriatic Riviera and includes the famous elegant resorts of North Adriatic in the northeast, between Venice and Trieste (Italy) – Lido di Jesolo, Lignano, Caorle, Bibione, Mestre, Trieste, Sabbiadoro. There are wonderful climatic

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conditions (in summer +28 °С to +30 °С), clean and almost always calm sea, wide and carefully manicured beaches with fine golden sand and a gentle shore, unusually healthy air in magnificent pine parks. The absence in the area of any large industrial enterprises allows you to enjoy an environmentally friendly environment.

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Cyprus, Crete, and other islands, the coast of Morea (Peloponnese), retaining only the Dalmatian coast, several points in Albania and Corfu. The wars with Turkey undermined the trade and political power of Venice.

Veneto Venetian Statutes (Statuti Veneziani) Veneto – administrative area located in the northVenetian Statutes (Statuti Veneziani) – collections of charters of civil, commercial, and maritime law of the Venetian Republic dated by the thirteenth century. They were created during the golden age of Venice, as the largest shopping center in Italy. During the reign of the Doge Jacopo Tiepolo (1229–1249), extensive work was undertaken on the collection and unification of the legal material, accumulated from the eighth and ninth centuries. A collection of civil and commercial laws under the name “Venetian statutes of Jacopo Tiepolo 1242” was published as the first one. During the reign of Tiepolo successor in 1255, the maritime Venetian Statutes were published, combining the maritime legislation of Venice in 1227, 1229–1236. Venetian Statutes served as a model for subsequent statutes collections for the trading cities of the Adriatic in thirteenth to fourteenth centuries.

east of Italy. In the north, it is adjacent to the Trentino-Alto Adige Region and Austria, in the west with Lombardy, in the south with EmiliaRomagna, in the east with the Friuli-VeneziaGiulia Region, and from the south-east it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. The area is of 18,345 km2. Population is approximately 4.9 million people (2012). Venetto is one of the richest regions of Italy and one of the most flattened: plains occupy 56.4% of the area here. There are seven provinces in Venetto: Belluno, Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Venice, Verona, and Vicenza. Veneto can be divided

Venetian-Turkish Wars (1463–1718) Venetian-Turkish Wars (1463–1718) – eight wars between Venice and Turkey in the period of 1423–1718. After the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Venice tried to establish permanent trade relations with them, but was forced to fight, defending its possessions in the eastern Mediterranean. In the eight wars with Turkey (1423–1430, 1463–1479, 1499–1503, 1537–1540, 1570–1573, 1645–1669, 1684–1699, 1714–1718), during which Venice entered into alliances with other European powers, it gradually lost almost all of its possessions -

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Veneto Region, Italy. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Veneto#/media/File:Veneto_in_Italy.svg)

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into four areas: the northern Alpine zone, the hilly zone, the lowland plain, and the coast. Po River Valley covers 57% of Veneto. It is occupied by a plain, stretching from the mountains to the Adriatic Sea, divided by several low hills, which make up 14% of the territory. The main specificity of the region is an abundance of rivers. The lower current of the Po River forms the southern boundary of the Veneto. Other major rivers are the Adige, Bacchillon, Brenta, Piave, Livenza, and Tagliamento. The coast of Veneto stretches for 120 km along the Adriatic Sea and is full of beautiful sandy beaches. The climate is temperate continental, as the proximity of the Adriatic Sea causes the emollient action on it. It varies considerably from one region to another: continental on the plains, softer along the Adriatic coast, around Lake Garda, and in hilly areas. Lowlands are often covered with fog. Precipitation is insignificant in the Valley of the Po River – 750 mm/year, at high altitudes it is more than 750–1000 mm/year and in the mountains up to 3200 mm/year. Coast of the Adriatic Sea is characterized by a Venetian Lagoon, flat plots of land with ponds, swamps, and islands. Delta of the Po River in the south is characterized by sandy bars and dunes, located along the coast. Inland areas are occupied by cultivated land, currently reclaimed canal and dam systems. The delta and lagoon serve as a stopover resting place for migratory birds. Historically, Veneto was a poorly developed agricultural area. The main agricultural products are corn, green peas, vegetables, sugar beets, apples, cherries, tobacco, and forage crops. Veneto is one of the most important areas for the production of wine. Since the 1970s, the region began to develop thanks to the so-called Veneto development model, which was characterized by the strengthening of export-oriented enterprises in traditional economic sectors, which are closely related to social development, which made it possible to take the region to the level of rich regions. Currently it is the most developed industrial area of Italy. The regional industry places special emphasis on the development of small and medium-sized businesses in such sectors as food production, forestry and furniture industry, leather

Venice (Venezia)

and footwear industry, textiles and clothing, gold jewelry, as well as chemical industry, metal equipment, and electronics. For more than a thousand years, Veneto was an independent state, known as the Venetian Republic. The region is rich and very famous for its historical, natural, cultural, artistic, and musical heritage. Tourism contributes a lot to the region’s wealth. Veneto is the area most visited by tourists: approximately 60 million tourists annually come here. A unique city, glorified by poets and famous by great painters stands on its territory – the City of Venice.

Venice (Venezia) Venice (Venezia) – (sometimes “Engaged with the sea” or “Queen of the Adriatic”) is the most unusual pile city of the world, a city on the water, a large commercial and military port at the Adriatic Sea, Italy. “Venice is a dream woven from air, water, land and sky,” wrote the great German Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Russian poet Anna Akhmatova called her “Golden Dovecote near the Water.” Located in the northwestern part of the Venetian Lagoon the Adriatic Sea on the islands in the middle of a shallow vast lagoon, which is separated from the sea by a narrow scythe, divided into parts by three straits, two of them – Porto Lido and Porto Malamocco – are suitable for the passage of large-tonnage vessels. Venice is the island of Rialto, divided by the Canal Grande – the Grand Canal – into two islands. Nearby is another island, Giudecca, which is separated from Rialto by the channel of the same name from the south. These islands, with a total size of approximately 5  3 km, are divided among themselves by 160 channels on numerous islands, through which approximately 400 bridges and along which stretch narrow streets, suitable only for pedestrians. The island is nestled in a picturesque lagoon, closed from the sea by the islands of Lido and Pellestrina. They create a natural barrier to sea waves and winds, and therefore the lagoon is

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The City of Venice, Italy. (Photo by Martin Falbisoner, Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice#/media/File:Pano rama_of_Canal_Grande_and_Ponte_di_Rialto,_Venice_-_September_2017.jpg)

almost always calm. It is located on the 118 islands of the Venetian Lagoon, fortified by thousands of piles driven into the ground. All the buildings of the city were built on piles driven into the weak soil of the islands at a depth of 3 to 10 m. The piles are driven by a thick palisade, platforms of interconnected oak and larch logs are laid on top of them, and stone foundations of structures have already been laid on them. About 1,106,657 oaks, alder and larch piles were driven into the foundation of the church of Santa Maria della Salute (this work took 2 years and 2 months). The stone Bridge of Rialto stands on 12,000 stilts. It is noteworthy that many houses in Venice were built of Vrsar stone – a city on the western coast of the Istrian Peninsula (which is Croatia at the present), and the foundations are made of oaks cut down on Istra. Venice is an important node of sea, railway, and air lines. The population is 260,900 people (2018). The suburbs of Venice on the mainland are of great industrial importance. Since ancient times, Venice has been famous for the production of traditional Venetian glass and mosaic products, as well as lace and embroidery. In the suburb of Marghera, new industries are located on the mainland: aluminum, electrometallurgical, zinc and copper smelting, oil refining, chemical, shipbuilding, glass, textile, food, printing. Tourism and

hotel business are of great importance in the economy of the city. The main type of intraurban transport is water transport, presented by gondolas (for walking), barges and motorboats, river trams, performing the role of public transport. The main artery of the city is the waterway Grand Canal (Canal Grande). St. Mark’s Square (Piazza di San Marco) with the five-domed Cathedral of San Marco (built in the eleventh century) and the Doge’s Palace is the historic center of the city, a place of pilgrimage for tourists. Also, the old and new Procurations, the Library building, the Campanile (Bell Tower), the Clock Tower (fifteenth to sixteenth centuries) are very interesting. On the east of San Giorgio Maggiore and the suburbs of Marghera there are ports there are ports of Venice. Venice is connected with the mainland by a railway bridge (about 4 km, built in 1846, 35,000 piles were driven into the bottom of the lagoon), and in 1932 was built freeway parallel to it. The junction of railways converging to the east is located on the mainland in the suburb of Mestre. There are Medical School, Academy of Fine Arts, and Institute of Marine Sciences in Venice. The port complex consists of the Ports of Lido (avanport), Venetian Arsenal (dock), Trading port and Marghera, interconnected by shipping channels. Port recycles a variety of goods. Venice is included in 10 main large ports of Europe.

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Some islands of the lagoon were inhabited by fishermen already in the Roman era. In 452, when the Huns, led by Attila, invaded the Apennine Peninsula, destroyed the city and the fortress of Aquileia, the survivors were forced to seek refuge on the islands of the lagoon. After the construction of the first settlements on stilts and wooden platforms, the Venetians, thanks to their contacts with the nearest center of the Byzantine possessions, Ravenna, began to master the Eastern Mediterranean. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Venice reached a significant political influence, joining the Byzantine possessions and more and more separating from the mainland cities, which became the Lombard possessions. In the ninth century a small powerful state formed a political center on the islets of Rialto, which is becoming the new core of the city association. When Venice gained independence from the Eastern Empire, it began its century-long history of dominance at sea, as well as extensive trade with the East. Venice was an aristocratic republic led by an elected Doge (Duke). The wealth accumulated by the entrepreneurial skills of the city’s merchants (among them was Marco Polo), allowed to begin the construction of palaces and numerous churches and monasteries. In the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries Venice reached its golden age. In the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries its artists, the great representatives of the Renaissance, completely renewed the Italian traditions of painting. These were Bellini, Carpaccio, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Tiepolo, Guardi, and Canaletto. Creativity of such playwrights as Goldoni and Gozzi, architects Palladio, Longen, Sansovino, and others, is connected with Venice. In 1987, UNESCO included Venice in the List of the Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

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the viability of the city. The severe flooding of November 4, 1966, not only exacerbated this problem but also raised the issues of preserving Venice from physical destruction. The problem of Venice is a complex problem, and each of its aspects represents, in turn, a larger-scale problem. The problem of protecting the city from flooding is due to the increased frequency and magnitude of high surge waves, and the immersion of the city in the waters of the lagoon. Buildings, structures, and art masterpieces are threatened by water that destroys foundations and walls, and the air poisoned by the industry of Marghera, and also, the corrosion of stone and metal. The problem of the viability of the city is the problem of housing and the work for the Venetians.

Verige Strait Verige Strait – (from the word “chain”) the narrowest strait of the Boka-Kotorska Bay. The length of the strait is 2.2 km, the width is 300 m, and the depth is 30–40 m. An all-day ferry runs from the Kamenari quay to Lepetane. The strait connects Tivat Bay with the north-eastern part of the Boka-Kotorska Bay. The banks of the strait, especially in its southern part, are high, steep, and rugged. The straits are rather lumpy due to the strong current. According to legend, this name appeared in 1381, when the strait was blocked by a chain (Verige) between the shores, so that the Venetian Fleet could not enter deep into the Boka-Kotorska Bay, which at that time was under the protectorate of King Lajos I of Hungary. As for those who stretched these chains, there are suggestions that the Illyrian Queen Tevta, the Turkish Sultan, or the angry inhabitants of the City of Perast, which was burned and plundered by pirates in 1624, could have done this.

Venice Problem Venice Problem – The term was officially defined at the international scientific and technical meeting in 1962, held under this name. The problem includes a set of issues of protection, restoration, and ensuring

Via Appia Via Appia – the road laid by the censor Appius Claudius in 312 BC between Rome and Capua

Victory Lighthouse (Faro della Vitoria)

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Verige Strait, Boka-Kotorska Bay, Montenegro. (Photo by Andrey Kostianoy)

with a strategic purpose, later brought to Brindisi, where a marble column was preserved at the place of its end. Along the Via Appia (near Rome) there are a number of monuments of the ancient necropolis of the pagan and early Christian times, which provided a wealth of material for studying the history of ancient Rome culture. Almost all of the internal masonry of the road, consisting of quadrangular stones, tight to each other, has been preserved up to the present days.

Via Salaria (Salt Road) Via Salaria (Salt Road) – (Lat. Via Salaria) The ancient trade route connecting Rome with the Sabine City of Reate. The Sabines brought salt from Rome, which they lacked, on this road. Therefore, the road received its name. August continued Via Salaria to Truent camp (Castrum Truentinum) in Piceno on the coast of the Adriatic Sea.

Victory Lighthouse (Faro della Vitoria) Victory Lighthouse (Faro della Vitoria) – It was built in 1923–1927 in Trieste, Italy, on the Poggio di Gretto hill and is one of the tallest lighthouses in the world, 60 m above sea level on the ruins of the Austrian Fort Kressich, built in 1854. The height of the lighthouse tower is 69 m, and the system of mirrors is located at an altitude of 116 m above sea level. The light beam is visible from a distance of 60 km. At the same time, Victory Lighthouse is a monument to all those who perished at sea during the First World War. In the base of the lighthouse, in memory of this, a memorial plaque is installed with the signature “Shine in memory of those who died at sea.” The tower is crowned with a bronze winged Victory Statue. Approximately in the middle of the frontal part of the lighthouse an 8.5-m statue of a sailor is installed on the facade. At the base of the lighthouse was set an anchor of the destroyer

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Victory Lighthouse in the City of Trieste, Italy. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faro_della_Vittoria_(Trieste)#/ media/File:Vista_Panoramica_con_Faro_della_Vittoria.jpg)

“Audache,” the first of the ships of the Italian Navy, which in 1918 entered the City of Trieste (the year of entry of the city into Italy).

Vienna Congress (1814–1815) Vienna Congress (1814–1815) – an international congress convened at the initiative of Russia, Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia. It was attended by all European countries except Turkey. It ended the wars of coalition of European powers against Napoleon I. The final document of the Congress of Vienna – “The Final Act” was signed by Austria, England, Prussia, Russia, France, and Switzerland on June 9, 1815, a few days before Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo and his abdication. Over the next 5 years, 33 European states joined this treatise, the last of which was Bavaria (May 1820). The act stipulated the restoration of the Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII, depriving

France of its conquests and strengthening its neighbors: Switzerland expanded its lands and received strategically important alpine passes; Italy was fragmented into a number of individual states; the Sardinian Kingdom was restored, to which Savoie and Nice were returned and Genoa was handed over; Austria established its power over Northern Italy and gained predominant influence in the German Union. Russia obtained the lands of the Duchy of Warsaw, except Krakow, which was granted the status of a “free city,” and Eastern Galicia, which was earlier annexed by Austria. Prussia received North Saxony, the left bank of the Rhine, most of Westphalia, Swedish Pomerania, and Rügen Island. Holland and Belgium formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Sweden received the territory of Norway. England secured a part of the former colonies of Holland and France. In addition to the articles of the law, the Final Act included 17 annexes, including the agreement on the division of Poland, the declaration on the cancellation of negro slave-trade, the

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rules of navigation on border and international rivers, the provision on diplomatic agents, the act on the constitution of the German Union, etc. The Vienna Final Act provided the final formulation of the relevant rules to international river commissions. The rules of navigation on international rivers were established, without paying for the implementation of navigation and paying special taxes for goods transportation by ships. Vienna Congress created a new system of international relations in Europe, based on the domination of the four “great powers” (Russia, England, Austria, Prussia). France joined the “great powers” in 1818 after the withdrawal of the allied forces from its territory. At first, after Vienna Congress Russia played a crucial role in this system, which was unmatched in the international arena after the Napoleonic wars. Great Britain and Austria also had a significant influence on European politics. Prussia was just beginning to strengthen, and France was significantly weakened by the terms of the Peace Treaty, according to which its independence was recognized, but only “as far as compatible with the security of the allies and the common moderation in Europe.” In practice, this meant the possibility of intervention in the internal affairs of France by other great powers. Thus, in France up to 1818 allied troops were deployed. In September 26, 1815, after the end of the Congress, Russia, Austria, and Prussia signed in Paris the Act on the formation of the Holy Alliance.

Vienna Peace Treaty (1809) Vienna Peace Treaty (1809) – The Peace Treaty signed on October 14, 1809, in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna (the Schönbrunn Peace) ended the war between France and Austria. According to the conditions of Vienna Peace Treaty, the Austrian Empire, which was defeated in the war with France in 1809, in particular, gave way to France the County of Görz (Goritsa), Istria with Trieste, the County and part of Carinthia and Croatia, of which Napoleon I, along with the Dalmatia acquired in 1805, formed the so-called Illyrian

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Provinces. Subsequently Vienna Peace Treaty was denounced by the decision of the Congress of Vienna 1814–1815.

Vieste Lighthouse (Faro di Vieste) Vieste Lighthouse (Faro di Vieste) – built on the Santa Eufemia cliff, on the opposite of the Vieste City, Apulia, Italy in 1867. It was automated in 1997.

Vir Island Vir Island – The island is located northwest from Zadar, Croatia. It is separated from the mainland coast by a narrow strait, over which the automobile bridge is thrown. To the east, another narrow strait separates the island from Pag Island. To the west lies the Bay – “Vir Sea.” The area is 31.3 km2. The population is 1600 people who are engaged in fishing, agriculture, and tourism.

Vis Island Vis Island – (Ancient Greek “Issa,” formerly Lissa) – The island is located west of the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, in front of the entrance to the Korchula Strait in the Adriatic Sea. Among the inhabited islands of the Adriatic, it is the farthest from the mainland. It can be reached in 2.5 h by ferry, from the City of Split. The area is 90 km2. Population is approximately 3000 people. The island is a hill towering over the sea. The highest altitude is 587 m (Mount Hum). Most of the island is covered with forests and shrubs. The waters washing the island are the part of the Adriatic, which is the richest in fish. Fishing is developed here. In the north of the island, the population breeds grapes, citrus fruits, almonds, and tobacco. In the summer, there is a ferry service from Ancona, Italy. Into the shores of the island numerous bays go into the shores. The West Bank forms

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a fairly large Komiža Bay, and the Viska-Luka Bay can be seen into the northern bay. Advantageous geographical position of the island determined the fate of the island. In the fourth century BC, the Greeks settled on this island, at that time it was called Issa. From 219 BC Vis fell under the authority of the Roman Empire. In the early Middle Ages, Byzantium reigned on the island, and during the years of the independent Croatian Kingdom existence, Vis became part of it. Then it goes to Venice, and from 1805 it was under French reign, then captured by the Russians, then by the British, and from 1815 the island was ceded to Austria. In 1811 and in 1866, during the Austro-Italian wars, naval battles took place near the island, known as Battles of Lissa. During the Second World War, partisans under the command of I.B. Tito were based on the island. At the beginning of 1944, Great Britain, with the aim of helping the partisans of Tito occupied the island. The island was turned into an

Vis Island

extensive military camp, which housed 10,000 partisans and 700 British and American paratroopers. Here an agreement was signed between I.B. Tito and the Head of the Yugoslav Royalist Government in exile I. Shubashich, which in fact recognized the primacy of I.B. Tito in Yugoslavia. In September 1944, I. Tito left the island on a Soviet plane. After the war, the island became a military base. Until 1989, it was closed to foreigners, because it housed a military training camp. The strategic importance of the island is evidenced by the multitude of fortresses and towers that were built during the short reign of the British: George III Fortress, Robertson Fortress, Wellington Fort, etc. At the bottom of the fort there is a concrete tunnel, which used to be the top secret Yugoslav Submarine Fleet base. In recent years, the tourism business has been developing on the island. On the eastern part of the island, in the large bay of St. George, there is the beautiful, ancient City of Vis (formerly Lissa), founded in 397 BC. Its main sightseeing is the

Vis Island (City of Komiža), Croatia. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis_(island)#/media/File:Komiza,_Island_ of_Vis,_Croatia.JPG)

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Franciscan Monastery of the sixteenth century, which was built on the ruins of the Roman and Greek theaters, and two well-preserved churches of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In 1875, Emperor Franz-Joseph I visited Vis. Another city – Komiža, which is located on the west coast of the island in the eponymous bay.

Visin Ivan (Visin Ivon) (1806–1868)

Ivan Visin. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Giovanni_Visin#/media/File:Giovanni_Visin_(Ivo_Visin) _1806-1868.jpg)

Visin Ivan (Visin Ivon) (1806–1868) – famous Bokesian Captain who in the years 1852–1859 committed round-the-world voyage on the 311-t brigantine “Splendido” with a length of 30 m, with 7 guns and a team of 11 people, having passed 112,297 nautical miles. He was the first Slav – a round-the-world navigator, and the sixth after Magellan. He was born and lived in the small village of Prčanj (Montenegro) on the southern shore of the Boka-Kotorska Bay. For his travels,

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Vjosë River, Albania. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao%C3%B6s#/media/File:07Vjosa02.jpg)

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Vjose¨ River

he received a white flag with a black eagle – Austria’s highest maritime award “Merito Navali” from the hands of Emperor Franz-Joseph, which no one subsequently received. Currently, this award is in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Prčanj. The name “Splendido” is the name of the local hotel. In the town of Prčanj, a bust of the Captain was installed in front of the Catholic Church, and a memorial tablet was installed on the house where he was born.

Vjose¨ River Vjosë River – river of the Adriatic Sea Basin, in Northern Greece (where is called “Aoos”) and Southern Albania; one of the most full-flowing rivers of Albania. The river has its source in the mountains of Pind and flows from the south-east to north-west in a deep gorge, flowing through a wide marshy valley. To the north of the City of Vlorё, it flows into the Adriatic Sea, forming a delta of 33 km2. Its length is 249 km, width at the mouth is approximately 750 m, and the catchment area is 6600 km2. The average discharge is 195 m3/s. It carries a large amount of solid flow. In the city of Tepelena, it receives a large left tributary Drinos. It is not navigable.

Vlorё (Vlora) Vlorё (Vlora) – (1) is a region in the south-west of Albania, bordered by the Region of Gjirokastra in the east, the Region of Fier in the north, with Greece in the south, on the Adriatic Sea. The area is 2700 km2. The population is 175,600 people. (2011). Administrative center is the city of Vlorё. (2) A city and a large seaport in the south-west of Albania, on a peninsula in the Vlorё Bay in the Adriatic Sea. The highway is connected with cities of Durrёs and Lushnjë. The population is 130,800 people (2010). In Vlorё there is a power station, a cement plant, a butter factory, a distillery, and a tobacco factory. The salt is mined near the city of

Vlorё Region in Albania. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB_County#/media/File:Vlore_ County_in_Albania.svg)

Vlorё. In 15 km from Vlorё, in the area of Selenice, deposits of natural asphalt are being exploited. With the oil district Kuçovë, the City of Vlorё is connected by an oil pipeline. Oil, bitumen, olive oil, tanning raw materials, and soda are exported. Industrial goods and food are imported in Vlorё. The city is connected with Italy and Greece by ferries. Building activities are expanding along the entire coast in the east region. The City of Vlorё was known in ancient times as Aulon. Vlorё has been mentioned since the second century AD as a port and city on the Adriatic Sea. On November 28, 1912, Albania was proclaimed a state independent of the Ottoman Empire, and a government was formed. For a long time after the Second World War, the city was closed to foreigners because of the Naval Base located near the port. In 1955–1961, next to Vlorё, SovietAlbanian Naval Base was located. Here a Brigade

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The City of Vlorё, Albania. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#/media/File:Vlora,_pohled_na_m% C4%9Bsto_II.jpg)

of 12 Soviet submarines was located. From here it was planned to strike at the British and French troops in October–November 1956. From this base, Soviet military assistance to Syria was planned in the fall of 1957 in case of Turkey invasion. The rupture of relations between the USSR and Albania, provoked by N.S. Khrushchev, led to the evacuation of this most important foreign base of the Soviet Navy. At present, NATO is using a modernized military base in Vlorё. (3) A gulf in the Adriatic Sea, located in the south of Albania, separated from the Strait of Otranto by high Sazani Island and the Karaburun Peninsula. The length is 17.5 km, and the depth is up to 50 m. The tides are irregular, semi-diurnal, and their size is up to 0.4 m. The West bank and the southern part of the eastern shore of the bay are high and mountainous. The northern part of the eastern shore is low and sandy. The City and Port of Vlorё are located here. The shores of the bay are not much indented. Only several bays extend

into its western shore; the top of the bay is known as Ducati Bay.

Vojnovic´ Nikola Vojnović Nikola – Captain 2nd Rank, Count, son of Admiral M.I. Voinovich. In 1775 he entered the Russian service as a cadet. In 1781, with the squadron of Rear Admiral Sukhotin sailed from Kronstadt to Livorno, and since 1783 he has been sailing on the Black Sea as an officer. During the Russian-Turkish war (1787–1792) he commanded a small ship against the Turks in the Gulf of Ochakov. In 1790, he took part in naval operations at Kerch and Tendra. After the war he was commander of the frigate “St. John Chrysostom” (1793–1799) and “Navariya.” In the second anti-French coalition, Voinovich was in the Russian squadron of Admiral F.F. Ushakov. He also took part in the liberation of the Ionian Islands and

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Vukovic´-Podkapelski Janko (1871–1918)

Corfu Island, commanded the detachments of the Russian ships in the Adriatic Sea, took part in the capture of the fortifications of Fano and Sinegami, and also in the three-month blockade of Ancona.

Vukovic´-Podkapelski Janko (1871–1918) Vuković-Podkapelski Janko (1871–1918) – the first Yugoslav Admiral and Fleet Commander (however, he has been in such office only for half a day). In 1889 he joined the sailors and graduated from the Maritime Real Academy in Rijeka. As a cadet, he sailed around the world aboard the “Fažana” ship, and on the corvette “Donan” – he sailed to America. At the age of 28, he became a destroyer commander and Captain of I rank. During the First World War in 1915, he was the Commander of a battleship and the Commander of a destroyer battalion. In the attack on the Italian coast, he sunk 1 destroyer. He died in October 1918 during an attack of Italian naval saboteurs R. Rossetti and R. Paolucci on a guided torpedo at the Austrian-Hungary Admiral battleship SMS “Viribus Unitis” at a Naval Base in Pula.

Janko Vuković-Podkapelski. (Source: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Janko_Vukovi%C4%87#/media/File:Vukovicpod.jpg)

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Water tornado (waterspout) Water tornado (waterspout) – constitute dangerous turbulence on the surface of the water. They emerge from the thick clouds and look like tunnels connecting the cloud and the sea. At first, when the tornado is just in its infancy, a cylindrical bulge appears on the underside of the cloud. Soon this cylinder turns into a tunnel, reaches the surface of the sea, and foams the water around it. Water tornadoes occur spontaneously in the Adriatic Sea, mainly in the period from mid-August to late October. However, some cases of their occurrence in recent years were noticed in mid-July. They are mainly concentrated along the western coast of Istria and around distant islands on the territory of Kvarnerič. On the contrary, they almost never appear at south of Split. The duration of a tornado rotation usually varies from 30 s to 15 min.

“Wedding with Adriatic” “Wedding with Adriatic” – a tradition (1311–1798), according to which every year, on the Ascension Day, the Doge of Venice went out on his luxuriously decorated galley “Bucentaur” in the sea and with the words: “We wed thee, sea, as a sign of true and everlasting domination!” –

threw a wedding ring into the water. This ceremony was supposed to symbolize the inviolability of Venice’s dominion over the seas.

White Seabream (White bream, Diplodus sargus sargus) White Seabream (White bream, Diplodus sargus sargus) – a fish of the Sparidae family. Oval, flattened body from the sides with a slightly convex profile of the head. Each jaw has eight oval and oblong teeth bent forward, followed by two rows of chewing teeth. Vomer and palatines have no teeth. Long undivided dorsal fin with 11–12 spiny rays and 14–15 soft rays. Small scales, 58–67 scales in the lateral line. The back is dark gray with a brown tint, and the sides are gray with a silvery sheen. There are nine transverse alternating bright and dark stripes that pass through the body, and there is a black saddle-like spot on the tail stalk. Abdominal fins light gray, gradually turning black. The caudal fin has a dark yellow color and is very concave. Length of the fish is up to 50 cm, weight is up to 3 kg. Usually in catches it is up to 30 cm, weighing 300–500 g. It is widely spread throughout the Adriatic Sea. It is found in coastal areas, at a depth of 50 m on rocky areas of the seabed, cut by deep crevices. Adult white seabreams are predators that feed on small fish.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

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“Wooden Shipbuilding Heritage in Croatia”

Water tornado. (Source: http://amazingphoto1.blogspot.com/2013/03/awesome-view-of-waterspout-in-adriatic.html)

“Wooden Shipbuilding Heritage in Croatia”

White Seabream. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Sargo#/media/File:Diplodus_sargus_01.jpg)

Small individuals under the age of 2 years feed on bottom dwellers: worms and mollusks. At the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea the catches reach 15 t/year. The meat is delicious.

“Wooden Shipbuilding Heritage in Croatia” – the interdisciplinary project implemented by the Maritime Museum in Dubrovnik and the program “Maritime Excellence” (“Ars Halieutica”). The goal of the project is to expand the presented research results of the Marine Cultural Heritage through the study of material (boats, shipbuilding, fishing, and other crafts) and intangible spiritual cultures of shipbuilders, fishermen, sailors, participants, and witnesses of the maritime past. In 2001, a composite book entitled The Legacy of Wooden Shipbuilding in Croatia was published in Zagreb, Croatia, which summarized the work from the late 1990s.

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Yugoslavia Yugoslavia – former state in southeastern Europe in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula with access to the coast of the Adriatic Sea. After the end of the national liberation war of 1941–1945, the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed (since 1963 – the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,

SFRY). In 1991–1992, due to the aggravation of ethnic contradictions, the SFRY fell apart. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia broke free of SFRY. In 1992, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, proclaiming it the successor of the SFRY. In 2003, it was transformed into Serbia and Montenegro, which in 2006 became completely sovereign.

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Yugoslavia

Map of former Yugoslavia. (Source: https://sites.google.com/site/history231postwareurope/home/dissent-and-nationalroads-to-communism/the-fall-of-communism-in-yugoslavia)

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Zadar Zadar – is the city and seaport in the northern part of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, Croatia. It is the administrative, historical, and cultural center of Northern Dalmatia. Population is 75,100 people (2011). It is the ancient capital of Dalmatia. Zadar is located on a fairly large peninsula. It is a seaside resort and a tourist center. This is also a center of liqueurs production, especially the cherry liqueur “Maraschino,” which has been popular in the Imperial Courts of Austria–Hungary, Russia, and Great Britain. Archaeological Museum, Zadar Folk Museum, archaeological monuments of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and the oldest University in Croatia (since 1396) are situated. Zadar is surrounded by the region of viticulture and olive production. Zadar Port is one of the largest and the most important ferry ports in Croatia. Its waters include the Bay and raid of Zadar. The main port facilities are located on the coast of the peninsula, which borders the inner part of Zadar Bay from the southwest, as well as on the northeast coast of this bay. In 1899, in the city offshore the last lighthouse of Austria–Hungary “Rivansky Sisters” was built. The city was founded by the Romans in the first century BC and named Iader. As a settlement, it was known from the fourth century. In the

Middle Ages, Zadar was a large Slavic trading city – a port and a shopping center on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, the center of Dalmatia. After a long struggle for Zadar with Hungary, the city was captured by Venice (1409), and in 1797, along with Venice, it was captured by Napoleon. In 1813, it was annexed to Austria. Zadar for a long time was ruled by the Venetians, who called him “Zara.” For centuries, its inhabitants spoke Italian. In 1921, against the will of the Slavic population of Zadar, the Government of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes under the Rappel Treaty of 1920 put Zadar in the hands of Italy, and then the city was declared a free port under the sovereignty of the latter. The Anglo-American bombings in 1943–1944 caused enormous damage to the city. Under the terms of Peace Treaty with Italy, in 1947, Zadar was passed to Yugoslavia. During the power of I.B. Tito Zadar was turned into a Naval Base in the Mediterranean Basin. In 1991, during the NATO bombing and shelling by the Serbs, the city was damaged. Zadar is the main center between Split and Rijeka. From here ships go to the islands of the Zadar Archipelago: Ugljan and Pašman which are located directly opposite Zadar and separated from it by the narrow Zadar Strait, Dugi Otok, etc. Zadar is the main center of sailing in the country. Tuna fishing is widespread here, part of which is exported to Japan.

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Zadar Archipelago (Zadarski arhipelag)

The City of Zadar, Croatia. (Source: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zara#/media/File:Zadar_Kathedrale_St._Anastasia_04. jpg)

Zadar Archipelago (Zadarski arhipelag) Zadar Archipelago (Zadarski arhipelag) – island archipelago located on the Croatian eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea in Northern Dalmatia. It includes the islands of Silba, Ugljan, Molat, Ist, Olib, Pašman, Iž, Dugi-Otok, Pag, and others. The islands are small and not yet very much affected by tourism. In the northern part of the Archipelago there are many semi-abandoned islands with beautiful bays and lush vegetation. The islands are connected to the mainland by ferries and catamarans.

connecting the Šibenik Strait with the Kvarner Gulf. The mainland coast is shallow. Only in some places there are low mountains. There are numerous villages and a large city and Port of Zadar. The depths in the strait vary from 50 m to 20–27 m to the southeast entrance. The gulfs extend into both sides of the strait, the largest of which are Sukošan and Zadar bays.

Zelenika Zelenika – a small village located near the village of Kumbor in Montenegro. It is a former port for sea ships. Here in 1902, the first hotel in Montenegro, Plaja Zelenika, was built.

Zadar Strait (Zadarski kanal) Zadar Strait (Zadarski kanal) – lies between the northeast coast of Ugljan Island and an area of the Croatian mainland coast. The strait is the northern part of the inland waterway in the Adriatic Sea,

Žirje Island (Žirje otok) Žirje Island (Žirje otok) – is the largest of the islands which are situated on the approaches to

Zmajevic´ Matija (Matvey Christophorovich) (1681–1735)

the Šibenik Strait, Croatia. The island is mountainous. Two ridges of mountains are stretched along the banks. The highest peak on the island is the Kapić Mountain, 131 m high, located on the northeast coast. Between the ridges of mountains lies a narrow valley where the ruins of numerous ancient buildings are situated. The valley is fertile and covered with vineyards and olive groves. In the northwestern part of the valley, Žirje Village is situated. The shores of the island are significantly indented by numerous bays. The population of the island is engaged in growing grapes and olives, as well as the extraction of corals and sponges.

Zlarin Island (Zlarin otok) Zlarin Island (Zlarin otok) – the island which is situated in southwest of Šibenik, Croatia. It has been famous since the fifteenth century as a place where the corals and sponges have been collected.

Zmajevic´ Matija (Matvey Christophorovich) (1681–1735) Zmajević Matija (Matvey Christophorovich) (1681–1735) – Russian Admiral, Bokesian navigator, Chief Commander of the Galley Fleet (1725–1727). He was born in Perast on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro. His closest relatives held high positions in the Church hierarchy. However, Zmajević himself twisted his fortune with the Fleet once for all. He received his first experience on the Venetian Courts of his father, the famous sailor Krill Zmajević. In 1709, a young sailor killed Captain of Perast Visko Bujovich in a duel and was forced to leave his hometown and family. Finding himself in Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1710, Zmajević turned to the Russian Ambassador in the Ottoman Empire, P.A. Tolstoy and was accepted to the Russian service in the rank of Captain. However, the Russian–Turkish war broke out, and the Ambassador, and along with him Zmajević, were imprisoned in the Yenikule prison in Istanbul in November 1710. Only in 1712 Tolstoy, who was released from

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Matija Zmajević. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Matija_Zmajevi%C4%87#/media/File:Zmajevic.jpg)

prison after peace between Russia and Turkey, was able to send Zmajević with a letter of recommendation to Peter I. Tsar personally tested his knowledge and sent him to the Baltic Sea, and assigned him to the detachment of the Galley Fleet as a Captain I rank. By this time, Peter I decided to conquer Finland, in order to force the Swedes to end the war. In 1713, Zmajević was in the Galley Fleet in Finland, sailed in skerries, commanding separate detachments of galleys, and was soon promoted to Captain-Commander. During the Northern War in 1714, he was in charge of the naval ranks of the Galley Fleet, which was in the Finnish skerries under the chief command of Russian Admiral Count Apraksin. He took part in the Battle of Gangut in the Baltic (1714). In a fierce battle, the Captain-Commander Zmajević commanded the vanguard of the rowing flotilla of 11 ships and forced the Swedes to surrender. Zmajević became one of the three officers who received the Gold Medal. In August 1714, Zmajević was sent to Petersburg because of his illness. In 1715–1716 Zmajević commanded the Galley Fleet of 41 galleys and 2 brigantines, on which he transported ground troops to Denmark. Zmajević went with a landing party to Revel (now Tallinn, Estonia), then to Riga, and, finally, to Libau (now Liepāja, Latvia), where he settled for the winter. The following year, in the spring he moved to Copenhagen, and from there in the fall to Rostock, where he wintered. At the request of Zmajević, Peter I appealed to the Republic of Venice and asked to forgive Zmajević for

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Zoological Station of the Berlin Aquarium (Zoologische Station des Berliner Aquariums)

escaping and return movable and landed properties to him. Zmajević was forgiven. This allowed the sailor to return to his homeland, where his wife and other relatives remained. Perhaps for this reason, in October 1716, Zmajević asked Tsar to resign for health reasons, but did not receive permission. In 1717, with the same detachment he commanded earlier, he left Rostock and at the end of August arrived in Revel. The following year, he went to Gangut, and from there with the sovereign Peter I went to Abo, and then to Aland skerries. In late September, he returned to St. Petersburg. In 1719, Zmajević was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Galley Fleet. He was in the Galley Fleet under the command of Count Apraksin in the Aland skerries, and from there with a detachment of galleys he went to reconnaissance of the Vaxholm Fortress (Stockholm Archipelago). It was a preparation for the landing at the Swedish capital. In 1721, Zmajević was appointed a member of the Admiralty Board. In September of the same year, he was appointed head of the construction of the galley harbor in St. Petersburg. He was inducted to the rank of Vice Admiral. In 1722 he commanded the Galley Fleet. In 1723, Zmajević was appointed to Voronezh to build there prams and galleys. After inspecting the area, he found it more convenient to build vessels in Tavrov, where 15 prams and 15 galleys were laid. Upon completion of the construction of ships in 1724, he was summoned to St. Petersburg. Here, in 1725, he joined the command of the Galley Fleet and, by the rank of member of the Admiralty Board, began to attend its meetings. Vice-Admiral joined the command of the Galley Fleet, while remaining a member of the board. In 1725, Empress Catherine I awarded Zmajević with the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky. In 1727, Zmajević was promoted to Admirals, however, for a short time. At the beginning of 1728, due to a denunciation of subordinates, he was put on trial for using government money, materials, and 70 government people for his own buildings and for keeping money earned by people. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, but by the highest decree he was pardoned by Peter II and demoted to the Vice-Admiral with the appointment as Commander of the Port of Astrakhan. But instead of

the Port of Astrakhan in September of the same year, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief to Tavrov (a town near Voronezh). In 1729, Zmajević arrived in Tavrov and joined the command of the Admiralty. In 1729, Emperor Peter II sent Zmajević to Voronezh shipyards with a decree to preserve and maintain vessels built in 1723 and 1724 in Voronezh Shipyards. In 1734, he received an order to arm the entire Rowing Fleet, to build several more galleys and boats. The college sent 2000 sailors, officers, and materials to the south. Zmajević fulfilled the decree with success. In many ways, the readiness of the Don Flotilla for the Russian–Turkish war of 1735–1739 was the fruit of his labors. In 1735, Zmajević died in Tavrov. According to the spiritual testament, he was buried in Moscow. Information about his grave is not preserved. Of the three admiral flags of Russian Fleet sent to his homeland, in the museum of Perast only one remains, donated by Peter I to Zmajević in recognition of his bravery, naval art, and contribution to the defeat of the Swedes, with the Cross of St. Andrew, and also the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky.

Zoological Station of the Berlin Aquarium (Zoologische Station des Berliner Aquariums) Zoological Station of the Berlin Aquarium (Zoologische Station des Berliner Aquariums) – It was organized in 1891 in the City of Rovigno, not far from Trieste, on the shore of the Adriatic Sea. Since the twentieth century this territory was passed from hand to hand, and the station was part of both Italian and Yugoslav maritime institutions. Currently it is a Center for Marine Research, of Ruđer Bošković Institute, Croatia.

Župa Bay Župa Bay – It extends into the coast on the territory of Croatia, between Cape Sustjepan and Cape

Župa Bay

Pelegrin, which is located at 4 km northwest of Cape Sustjepan, to the northwest from the state border with Montenegro. The shores of the bay are high, steep, and craggy. On the northwestern shore of the bay there are hills; to the northeastern and southeastern coast, the coastal mountains are

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towering, and their slopes at the peaks are craggy and bare. At the foot of the mountains there are small villages. The shores of the bay are significantly indented by bays. At the entrance to the bay the Island Supetar and the cliff Supetarka lie. Depths in the bay are 20–40 m.

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The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea

625

437 435

The beginning of fourth century The middle of third century 229 219

214 201

83 49

49–48 42

Before Christ The Greeks from Corinth and Corfu Island founded the city of Epidamnos (currently the City of Durrës in Albania). Etruscan and Illyrian piracy thrives in the north of the Adriatic Sea. The Athenian squadron sailed along the Epirus and Illyrian shores. This led to a clash with Corinth. The squadron from the Island of Kerkyra (Corfu) arrived at Epidamnos, which dropped away from the metropolis and entered into an alliance with Corinth. Forty ships were blocked at Epidamnos, which surrendered after the defeat of the Corinthian Fleet. The ruler of Syracuse Dionysius, fighting the Etruscans, subducted their Islands of Issa (Dyssa, Vis), The ruler of Syracuse Dionysius, fighting the Etruscans, subducted their islands of Issa (Dyssa, Vis), Ancona and Andria which were located on the Adriatic Sea. Rome builds a strong Fleet in the Adriatic Sea and fights with Illyrian pirates. The Illyrian Fleet besieged Dirrachius (from the same Epidamnos), which caused the intervention of Rome. The ruler of Illyria, Demetrius, attacked from the sea and from land the Romans Dallum City, and took it. In response, the Romans stormed the capital of Demetrius – the Island of Faros (now Hvar, in Croatia). Roman Admiral Valerius Levinius landed on the coast of Illyria, to make Philip, King of Macedonia, to disperse his forces when a war broke out between him and Rome. The Roman Fleet approaches the shores of Illyria, in anticipation of a new war with Macedonia. With the outbreak of the 2nd Macedonian War, a Roman Army landed in Illyria under the command of Galba. Sulla landed in Brundisium with an Army and marched on Rome to crush the supporters of Marius. Pompey, defeated in Italy, evacuated to the East. Caesar’s commander Publius Cornelius Dolabella tried to intercept Pompey at sea; however, he was defeated by the naval commanders Marc Octavius and Lucius Scribonius Libo in a battle near the Island of Curicta (Krk, Croatia). Dolabela lost 40 ships and retreated, the Caesarian garrison capitulated on the island. Julius Caesar crossed the Adriatic Sea and landed with his Army at Dyrrachium to confront Pompey. The Army of Augustus and Antony set off their Brundisium and landed at Epidamnos to defeat Brutus and Cassius. (continued)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 385 I. S. Zonn et al., The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50032-0

386

474

552

803–810 837 864 871 900

1040 1062 1068–1071 1081 1083–1084 1096

1107 1147 1154 1155 1171 1171–1177 1173 1177 1185

1202 1202–1204 1217 1228 1264 1281 1298

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea Anno Domini Fifth century The ruler of Dalmatia, Julius Nepos, went to Rome with the Fleet and Byzantine troops and became one of the last Emperors. Sixth century During the conquest of Italy by Byzantium, Ancona held a battle between the Byzantine squadron and 47 Gothic ships. The Byzantines won. Ninth century The war between Charlemagne and Byzantium for supremacy on the Adriatic. The Byzantine Fleet dominated the sea. Muslim Fleet raid on the Adriatic. Its ships reach Venice. The Muslim Fleet attacked Grado, a city by the Isonzo River, west of Trieste. The Byzantine expedition reconquers the Port City of Bari from the Muslims. Tenth century Hungarians besiege Venice from land and sea; however, the Venetian Fleet defeats the enemy. Eleventh century Istria became part of the Frankish Empire. Don Domenico Contarines sent a flotilla to Dalmatia and captured the City of Zadar. The Normans besieged the Byzantine Fortress of Bari from the sea and land and took it. Established in southern Italy, the Normans landed and besieged the Byzantine Fortress of Dyrrachium. Although the Venetian Fleet defeated the Norman, aliens won on land. Naval war between Venice and the Normans on the Adriatic. During the First Crusade, the Northern French crusaders from Italy are transported to Dyrrachium. Crusaders from southern Italy also crossed the Adriatic Sea, however, to the south. Twelfth century Returning from the crusade, Bohemund of Antioch attacked the Byzantine Dyrrachium, but, being cut off from Italy by the Byzantine Fleet, surrendered. At the beginning of the Second Crusade, a Fleet of Sicilian Normans robbed Byzantine possessions on the Adriatic. Byzantine commander Michael Palaiologos landed in southern Italy. The Byzantines captured Norman Bari and captured all of Apulia and Calabria. The Norman Fleet off the coast of Apulia (south of the Adriatic Sea) was defeated by the Byzantine Fleet. Venetian forces landed and captured the Byzantine fortress of Ragusa (Dubrovnik). The Veneto-Byzantine War for dominance on the Adriatic. The Venetians besiege Ancona. The naval battle at Cape Savudrija, Istria, where the Venetians (30 ships) defeated Frederick Barbarossa (75 ships). Sicilian Normans invade Byzantium. The Normans occupied Dyrrachium and moved deep into Greece; however, their Army and Navy were defeated. Thirteenth century A crusader Fleet assaults the city of Zara (Zadar, Croatia), which was a rival to Venice. Subsequently, the Crusaders captured Durazzo. The Fourth crusade, which made Venice the mistress of the Adriatic. The Crusader Fleet of the Fifth Crusade heading south along the Balkan coast of the Adriatic. Emperor Frederick II sets off for the Sixth Crusade from Brindisi. The Genoese Fleet defeated the Venetian at the Sazan Island (Albania). The Army of Naples landed on the Adriatic coast and moved deep into the Byzantine possessions in Albania, where it was defeated. In the battle at the Island of Kurzola (Korčula), Croatia, the Genoese Fleet defeated the Venetian, and thus, won the war of the two naval republics. (continued)

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea

1378

1379

1380

1463–1479

1480 1481 1538 1539 1571

1645–1669 1637 1649 1667 1673 1687 1697

1698

1701

1702–1706

1709 1710 1715 1717

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Naval battle at the Island of Korčula. The Genoese under the command of Admiral Lamba Doria defeated the Venetian Fleet and captured Marco Polo. Fourteenth century During another Veneto-Genoese war, the Fleet of Venice destroys the Port of Šibenik (Croatia) and attacks the Port of Traù (Trogir, Croatia), where it was defeated by the Genoese Fleet. In the battle of Pola (Pula, Croatia), the Genoese defeated the Venetian Fleet on May 7. In July–August, the Fleet of Genoa approached Venice and attacked the Islands of Lido and Brondolo (Venice, Italy). In December, the Genoese began a blockade of the City of Chioggia (Italy). Genoa relieved Chioggia on June 24, 1380, having been defeated in the war with Venice and withdrawing its ships from the Adriatic. Fifteenth century During the war of Venice against the Ottoman Empire, the Turks attack the Venetian enclaves on the coast of Albania, which are supplied with the sea. The inability of the Turks to prevent the transfer of reinforcements to coastal fortresses leads to a series of defeats for Turkish troops. But in the end, Venice leaves the coast of Albania. Turks under the command of Ahmed Gedik Pasha landed in southern Italy and captured the City of Otranto The Turks evacuated their base from Otranto under pressure of the Army of European states. Sixteenth century During another Veneto-Turkish war, the Venetian Fleet captures the Port of Castelnuovo, which was in Turkish possessions (Herceg Novi, Montenegro). The Turkish Fleet arrived at Castelnuovo (Herceg Novi, Montenegro) and, during the siege in July–August, reconquered the city from Venice. Naval Battle of Lepanto, Mediterranean Sea. The victory of the Spanish-Venetian Fleet over the Turkish. Seventeenth century War of Venice against the Turks. A maritime school began to work in Perast, from which dozens of outstanding captains graduated. The Venetians committed an unsuccessful attempt to reconquer the City of Bar from the Turks. The devastating earthquake in the Dubrovnik area. More than 5,000 people died. In the area of Kornat Island sank the treasures of the pirate Captain, the Dalmatian Ramadan. The Venetian Fleet, with the support of the Montenegrins, captures the Turkish Fortress of Castelnuovo (Herceg Novi, Montenegro), which becomes the possession of Venice. Peter I turned to the Senate of Venice with a request to accept and teach marine affairs to a group of young boyars and princes in the maritime school of Perast (then Boca was subordinate to Venice). As designated by Peter I, the Ambassador in the Turkish capital, P.A. Tolstoy, visited Perast (now Montenegro), where he visited the Zmajević house (Admiral Matvei Zmajević). Eighteenth century In alliance with England, Holland, and Prussia, the Austrian King Leopold I fought for the Spanish inheritance (1701–1713) against the Spanish King Philip V and the French King Louis XIV, as his ally. Maritime operations embraced the Adriatic Sea, where Spain owned Southern Italy, which had a strong merchant Fleet. During the War for the Spanish Succession, the French squadron of Claude de Forbin operated on the Adriatic Sea, interfering with the supply of Austrian troops. The French devastated Trieste. In the Venice area, the Adriatic Sea was covered with “fast ice.” P.A. Tolstoy accepted Matija Zmajević from Perast as Captain on the Russian service. The Habsburgs liquidated Venice’s monopoly on shipping on the Adriatic Sea. The Austrian King Charles VI of Habsburg announced a patent for free navigation and trade in the Adriatic Sea, which ultimately deprived Venice of superiority. (continued)

388 1719 1727

1746

1754 1772

1775 1778 1781–1782

1788 1797 1799

1805 1806

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea Free ports have been created in Trieste and Rijeka (Fiume). Austria establishes power over all of Istria. Matija Zmajević, who was at the service on the Russian Baltic Fleet, got the rank of Admiral. Shipowner from Perast, Petar Smekja, for the first time on his ship “Leon Coronato,” the “Crowned Lion” established Venice’s maritime trade links with Denmark, Prussia, and Russia, and appeared on the Baltic Sea as the first navigator from the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea. The Venetian canals were frozen during the harsh winter. During the Russo-Turkish war, the Turks formed a squadron in the Port of Dulcigno (Ulcinj, Montenegro) and landed troops on it, but the squadron was defeated by the Russian Fleet in the Ionian Sea. The Russian squadron entered the Port of Dubrovnik (Croatia). By the decision of the Berlin Congress, Bar and Ulcinj were given to Montenegro. The future All-Russian Emperor Pavel I made an incognito journey through European countries visiting ports, admiralties, and shipyards in Trieste, Venice, Livorno, Brest, and Saardam. Corsair Lambros Katsonis came to Trieste with nine corsair ships and nine captured Turkish ships. Napoleon defeated the Republic of Venice and transferred Dalmatia to the Austrians. Russian Fleet operations on the Adriatic during the war between the Emperor Paul and France (1799). Russian Emperor Pavel I ordered F.F. Ushakov to assist the Italian Monarch, King Ferdinand. A detachment of 11 ships, including 10 Russians and 1 of Naples, under the command of Captain second rank A.A. Sorokin blocked the Adriatic coast of Italy from Otranto to Manfredonia. The landing force from this detachment under the command of CaptainLieutenant G.G. Baillie captured the City of Foggio. A squad of eight vessels (Russian – 5, Turkish – 3) under the command of Vice-Admiral P.V. Pustoshkin had a fire-fight with a Fortress in Ancona, Italy, and a French detachment in the harbor. The detachment blocked Ancona, and the landing forces sent from the ship capture Fano and Senigallia Fortresses. The blockade of Ancona from July to October was continued by a detachment of 17 ships under the command of Captain second rank, Count N. Voinovich. Nineteenth century In accordance with the Treaty of Pressburg, Austria ceded Dalmatia to the French. Under the walls of the Bocca di Cattaro, the Russians (Captain Baillie) and the Montenegrin (P. Petrović-Njegoš) detachments tied in. Russian landing forces entered Kotor and raised the Russian flag of St. Andrew. Napoleon’s Army captured Herceg Novi. Napoleon Bonaparte’s troops captured South Dalmatia and entered Dubrovnik. Battle between the brig “Alexander” under the command of Lieutenant I.S. Skalovsky and five French ships, two of which were sunk at the Island of Brazza (Brač). A Peace Treaty was signed with France, in Paris, according to which the Cattaro Region was to be transferred to the French. Russian squad of four vessels under the command of Captain 1st Rank G.G. Baillie captured the Fortress on Curzola Island. Russian squad of three vessels under the command of Captain 1st Rank G.G. Baillie at Bocco di Cattaro captured the 16-gun xebec of the French corsair. Russian squad of 11 vessels under the command of Vice-Admiral D.N. Senyavin blocked and gunned Ragusa (Dubrovnik) from 5 to 23 June. With the help of landing forces, Vice-Admiral D.N. Senyavin, at the assistance of the ship and four armed rowing vessels, captured the fortress on Curzola Island. (continued)

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea 1806–1809 1806–1807

1807 1807–1814 1808 1809

1810 1811

1812 1813 1813–1814

1815 1818 1822 1830 1844 1845 1848–1849 1856 1859 1860

1866

389

At the direction of Napoleon, the French hydrographer and cartographer Ch.-F. BeautempsBeaupré surveyed the eastern ports of the Adriatic, bays, and straits. Adriatic expedition of the Russian Fleet. During the war against Napoleon, the Russian squadron entered the Adriatic Sea and occupied a number of cities along the Balkan coast of the Adriatic. After the French troops entered Dalmatia, Russian landing forces drove the enemy out of several islands. With the beginning of the war between Russia and Turkey in 1807, the Russian Fleet left the Adriatic. The Russian corvette “Flora” took the ground off the coast of Albania and was shattered by the waves. Adriatic campaign of the British Fleet against the French. The British sought to implode the French dominance on the Adriatic. The crew of the frigate “Venus,” after it was sold by the Russian Envoy Tatishchev to the Government of Naples, went on two Austrian ships to Trieste. Napoleon united Dalmatia, Istria, and Slovenia into the Illyrian provinces. After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, almost the entire territory of modern Croatia became part of the Habsburg Empire. During the Anglo-Russian naval war, an English squadron (3 battleships, 4 frigates, 1 brig) attacked a Russian detachment (5 battleships, 1 frigate, 2 corvettes) in Trieste on May 17, but withdrew when met with a rebuff. The British captured the Island of Lissa (Vis, Croatia) and used it as a base for operations in the Adriatic. British troops occupied Vis Island, Croatia. The French tried to expel the British from the Adriatic. On March 13, a French detachment approached the Island of Lissa (Vis, Croatia), however, was defeated by British ships. In the area of Piran, Slovenia, a small battle took place between the French ship “Rivoli” and the English “AMS Victorious.” The fortress of George the Third was built on the Vis Island for the defense of the entrance to the Port of Vis. Montenegrin troops besieged the French Fortress of Cattaro (Kotor, Montenegro) with the support of the British Fleet and captured it on January 3, 1814. Soon the French were expelled from the Adriatic. According to the results of the Congress of Vienna Dubrovnik was passed to the Austrians. In the coastal village of Savudria in the northwest of the Istrian Peninsula, Croatia, a lighthouse was built, which is the oldest lighthouse on the Adriatic. Austria compiled the first navigator chart of the Adriatic Sea for the regions of Istria and Dalmatia. The first pilot chart of the Adriatic (Portolano del Mare Adriatico) was compiled. The most fashionable resort of the North Adriatic in Opatija was formed; since then it has become a traditional resting place of the Austro-Hungarian nobility. The Budapest-Rijeka railway was built, providing connection between these regions. The Austrian Fleet acts during the uprising in Venice. Start of a large shipyard building in Pula for arrangement and repair of the Austrian Fleet. The French Fleet enters the Adriatic Sea during the war with Austria. The attack of Venice did not take place due to the strength of the Austrian artillery batteries. The hydrographic office of the Austro-Hungarian Navy in Trieste conducted surveys and studies in the eastern Adriatic. The Italian Army, with the support of the Fleet, captured Ancona, which belonged to the Pope. Austro-Italian war. The Italian Fleet tried to recapture the island of Lissa (Vis, Croatia) from the Austrians, but on July 20 it was defeated by the Austrian Fleet under the command of Admiral Tegetthoff. A Peace Treaty with Italy was signed in Vienna. Austria lost the Republic of Venice. Pula received the status of the main base of the Austrian Imperial Navy, which served as an incentive for economic growth and the revival of the city. The State Hydrographic Institute is organized in Pula. (continued)

390 1866–1872 1869

1870 1875

1888–1915

1892 1893 1910

1913

1914

1915

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea The Austrian hydrographic expedition aimed for studies of the depths of the Adriatic Sea on the ship “Pelagosa” determined the depth of the sea at 1645 m. The Austro-Hungarian steam frigate “Radetzky” exploded during a training voyage in the Adriatic. There were 345 people dead. The “Manifesto to the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula” of the Russian Empress Catherine the Great was published. Major General Yu.V. Dolgorukov landed on the Adriatic coast of Montenegro, escorted by 26 convoy men with the aim to arrest Stepan Maly, who was recognized by the Assembly in Cetinje not only as Russian Tsar Peter III but also as “Sovereign of Montenegro.” However, Dolgorukov, realizing that there would be no order in Montenegro without S. Maly, released him, taking the oath of allegiance to Russia from him and confirming his authority. Nikola Primorac from Dubrovnik with a friend and a dog crossed the Atlantic Ocean in both directions on a boat “City of Ragusa” 6 m long. Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph I visited the Vis Island. The lighthouse Palagruža was built on Palagruža Island, which is situated in the very center of the Adriatic Sea between the Italian and Croatian coasts. Russian ethnographer-Slavologist P.A. Rovinskiy published the capital work “Montenegro in Its Past and Present: Geography – History – Ethnography – Archeology – The Current Situation” in three volumes. The Bokesian Joint-Stock Company of Shipping has opened the Kotor-Herceg-NoviKotor line. Austrian industrialist Paul Kupelweiser bought the Brijuni Archipelago in the Adriatic Sea. Twentieth century Due to the 50th anniversary of the Reign of Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš, the Russian Emperor Nicholas II granted him the title of Field Marshal of the Russian Empire. The Field Marshal’s baton was delivered by a Russian detachment of warships from Fiume to Antivari. An international squadron (Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy) entered the Adriatic Sea, which established a blockade of Montenegro in response to the siege of the Turkish Fortress of Shkodër (Albania). The Greek Fleet operated at the coast of Southern Albania, acting against Turkish forces. The first research submarine “Loligo” was built in Germany for one of the oldest marine stations in Europe – the Berlin Aquarium Zoological Station, located near Trieste, the Adriatic Sea. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Anglo-French Fleet blocked the Otranto Strait and blocked the Austro-Hungarian Fleet in the Adriatic. The Austro-Hungarian submarine “XII” met the French battleship “Jean Bar” in the Otranto Strait and torpedoed it. The torpedo hit the forebody of the ship, but the damage was repaired in a dock in Malta. In the Adriatic Port of Brindisi, Italy, the flagship “Bendetto Brin” exploded on the outer roadstead. As a result, 454 members of the crew, including the commander of the I training squadron, Rear-Admiral Rubin de Cervin died. The explosion was organized by secret agents of Austria. The Austro-Hungarian submarine “V” torpedoed the French armored cruiser “Leon Ganbetta” in the Otranto Strait. As a result, 650 people died with Admiral Senès. During the escort of a caravan of ships along the Adriatic coast, a torpedo from submarine “IV” hit the English light cruiser “Dublin.” Despite the damage, “Dublin” managed to reach the port. The Austro-Hungarian coastal submarine “UB-15” in Venice torpedoed the Italian submarine “Medusa,” as well as the Italian armored cruiser “Amalfi,” which sank with 72 crew members. The Austro-Hungarian submarine “IV” torpedoed the Italian armored cruiser “Giuseppe Garibaldi.” As a result, 50 men were killed. The Austrian cruiser “Zenta” sank in the Petrovac na Moru area after being fired by the French battleships “Jacques Beard” and “Courbet.” (continued)

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920

1923 1924 1928

1930–1932 1931 1932 1933

391

Italy enters the war on the side of the Entente. German submarines broke through the blockade in the Otranto Strait and sank about 100 ships, losing only one submarine. The Serbian Army retreated to Albania and was evacuated to the Island of Corfu. Entente Fleet losses during evacuation – 4 transport ships, 1 hospital ship, 2 other vessels, 8 minesweepers. The Italian battleship “Regina Margherita” exploded and sank, at the entrance to the Otranto Strait. As a result, 675 men of the 945 men of the crew were killed. Underwater and mine war on the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Sea. Austro-Hungarian and German submarines sank 300 merchant ships and 20 warships, including 4 battleships, losing 4 boats. The Italian torpedo boats MAS-9 and MAS-13 under the command of Rizzo and Ferrarini entered the harbor of Trieste and sunk the Austrian coastguard battleship “Wien.” Admiral Miklós Horthy raided the Austro-Hungarian Fleet in the area of Vlorë (Albania) on May 14–17 and sank 14 merchant ships of the Entente, repelling the attacks of the ItaloBritish squadron. Submarines of the Central Powers sank 651 Entente ships, another 100 sank mines, and 2 battleships were sunk. And all this at the cost of four submarines. Herceg Novi became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which became the first Yugoslavia. In the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas 37 German and 17 Austro-Hungarian submarines from Pula and Boka-Kotorska were sunk. The first ship of the Italian Navy destroyer “Audace” entered the port of Trieste. Its anchor is installed at the lighthouse of Victory in Trieste. During the attack of the Austro-Hungarian Fleet under the command of Admiral M. Horthy on the Otranto Barrage, the battleship “Szent István” was sunk. As a result, 94 people died. Revolt of the sailors of the Austro-Hungarian Fleet in Kattaro (Kotor). Two torpedo boats of Italy sank the Austrian ship Slavonia After the collapse of the defense of the Central Powers, the forces of Entente landed in Trieste. A squad of 297 volunteers led by the poet, novelist, pilot Gabriele D’Annunzio captured Rijeka. A Geophysical Institute was founded in Trieste. G. D'Annunzio proclaimed Rijeka the Kingdom of Kvarner (Reggenza del Carnaro). Italian warship “Andrea Doria” shelled Rijeka. Maritime Agent of Russia in London N.A. Volkov asked B.P. Aprelev, the acting naval agent in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in Belgrade, would the Yugoslav government agree to accept the storage of two Russian cruisers “Varyag” and “Askold” before the restoration of national power in Russia. Yugoslavia refused because its political ambitions. A naval school was opened in Dubrovnik, where Russian emigrant sailors were invited to teach. In Rome, representatives of the Kingdoms of Yugoslavia and Italy signed an Agreement on the division of the free City of Fiume (Rijeka). The Kotor Club of Former Naval Officers of the Imperial Russian Fleet was founded in Kotor. An Italian expedition to study the biological productivity of the northern part of the Adriatic Sea took place. In Zagreb published a book by Krunoslav Babić “Life of the Jadran Sea.” A marine biological station of the medical faculty of the University of Brno, Czechoslovakia, was organized and operated at Rab. The Higher Naval School for the training of command personnel has been created in Yugoslavia. The Maritime School in Kotor became known as the “Maritime-Merchant Academy.” The Fleet of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia includes the sailing ship “Jadran” as a training vessel for training Yugoslav sailors. (continued)

392 1934 1934–1936

1935 1936

1939 1940

1941

1942 1943

1944

1945

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea The King of Yugoslavia Alexander I Karađorđević departed from the Boka Kotor Bay to France on the destroyer “Dubrovnik.” The Rovinj Institute, Yugoslavia, organized four expeditions to the northern and middle parts of the Adriatic Sea to study the fauna of the seabed on the “San Marco” research vessel. Bečići beach on the south coast of the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro, received the Grand Prix award in Paris as the most beautiful beach in Europe. English King Edward VIII with his future wife Wallis Simpson traveled on a Royal yacht around the Adriatic Sea, visiting Šibenik, Split, Dubrovnik, Rab. In Dubrovnik, three volumes of the book “Naval Warfare from the Beginning to the Second World War” (Pomorski ratovi, Od prvih početaka do Drugog svjetskog rata. Dubrovnik, 1941) by Russian Rear-Admiral A.D. Bubnov were published in Croatian. Italian troops invaded and occupied Albania. In Fano, Italy, a Marine Biological Station (Laboratorio di biologia marina) was founded. “Naval War on the Adriatic” by A. Tomazi was published in Moscow. The Italian Fleet begins military operations against Greece, opening the Balkan Theater of the Second World War. The Greek Navy operated in the Otranto Strait. Unsuccessful attempt of British diplomatic mission personnel in Yugoslavia to evacuate by the Bay of Kotor on a British “Regent” submarine. Italy, Hungary, and Germany invaded Yugoslavia. The weak Navy of Yugoslavia managed to conduct some operations against Italian enclaves on the Balkan coast, however, could not seriously influence the course of the campaign. Italian landings occupied the Yugoslav islands along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Senior Lieutenants Milan Spasić and Sergej Mašera, so as not to surrender the destroyer “Zagreb” to the Nazis, exploded it, dying with it in the Bay of Kotor. Both of them were awarded the title “People’s Hero of Yugoslavia.” The first partisan naval base was created in Podgora on the coast south of Makarska. The Italian super liner, “Conte di Savoia” of “Italian Line,” was set on fire and sunk at anchor near Venice during an air attacks of Anglo-American aviation. Yugoslav partisans form a small Fleet for operations in Dalmatia against Italy and Germany. The first naval detachment consisting of 150 people was formed, having the motor ship “Partizan” (RS-1) and the SMS (sail-motor ship) “Pioneer.” Italian aviation sank the motor ship “Partizan.” The headquarters of the Naval forces of the National Liberation Army is located on Hvar Island, Croatia. After the capitulation of Italy in the fall of 1943, German landing forces occupied a number of islands along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. The “Italian Line” superliner “Rex,” which in 1933 took the Blue Riband from the “Europa” liner, was sunk in the port of Trieste by aviation of Allies. Vis Island became the major base of the Navy of Yugoslavia. German torpedo-boat sank the partisan hospital ship “Marine-2.” As a result, more than 65 people were killed. After the return on the Pag Island the English destroyer “Aldenham” exploded on a mine and sunk with 113 people of the crew. The wreck of the German torpedo boat S57. Sank after an attack by a detachment of British destroyers off the northern coast of the Pelješac Peninsula. Later, one of the main sightseeings was discovered – anti-aircraft guns, never used, but preserved in working condition. Yugoslav partisans holding the island of Vis (Croatia) received reinforcements in the form of 1,000 British soldiers. Based on Vis Island, the British carried out small Fleet operations on German communications in the Adriatic Sea. On Daksa Island, which is part of the Elaphiti Islands, more than 200 politicians were killed – opponents of the communist regime in Yugoslavia. In Bari, Italy, an American ship exploded with aircraft bombs on board. As a result, 360 people were killed. (continued)

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea

1946 1947

1948

1948–1949 1950–1980 1950 1952 1954

1956

1957

1957–1958 1958

1959

393

In the spring of 1945, the German Fleet on the Adriatic carried out the evacuation of German troops from Yugoslavia to Italy. W. Churchill, in his famous speech at Fulton, said that the “Iron Curtain” fell over Europe from the Baltic to the Adriatic. An agreement was reached on the creation of the free territory of Trieste, which was divided into two parts: zone A, which was under Anglo-American control and including the city of Trieste, and zone B, which came under the control of Yugoslavia. The works of renowned ichthyologist Professor Tonko Šoljan published the “Fish of the Adriatic” and the “Fish of the Fauna and Flora of the Jadran Sea” (“Ribe Jadrana,” “Ribe, Fauna, Flora Jadrana”). The first fish and biological expedition in the Adriatic Sea was organized on the “Hvar” research vessel. Pula became one of the most important strategic seaports of Yugoslavia. Development of industry and shipbuilding. The Soviet “Pilot chart of the Mediterranean Sea. Part IV. Adriatic Sea” was published. The “Pilot chart of the Adriatic Sea” was published in Yugoslavia. The official visit of a detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (the cruiser “Admiral Nakhimov” and two destroyers) under the command of Admiral S.G. Gorshkov in the Albanian Port of Durrёs – the first post-war tour of Soviet ships in the Mediterranean countries. A book “Expedition of Admiral D.N. Senyavin in the Mediterranean Sea (1805–1807)” by Soviet historian Academician E.V. Tarle was published in Moscow. The Governments of Yugoslavia and Italy concluded a preliminary agreement on the inclusion of the zones of the Free Territory of Trieste: zones A as part of Italy, zones B as part of Yugoslavia. Visit of a detachment of ships consisting of the cruiser “Mikhail Kutuzov” and the destroyers “Bezukoriznenniy” and “Bessmenniy,” led by Admiral V.A. Kasatonov to the port of Split (Yugoslavia) and Durrёs (Albania). The cruiser “Kuybyshev,” on board of which was USSR Minister of Defense Marshal G.K. Zhukov, and destroyers “Byvalyi” and “Blestyaschiy” visited the ports of Yugoslavia. This was a planned step by N.S. Khrushchev. G.K. Zhukov at this time was removed from all posts. Visit of a Soviet ships detachment (“Cruiser Zhdanov” and the destroyer “Svobodny”) led by Vice-Admiral V.F. Kotov to Split (Yugoslavia) and Latakia (Syria). The “Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean Sea, vol. 1 – Adriatic Sea” was published in Italy. During the International Geophysical Year, expeditions were conducted on the “Miner” and “Spasilae” vessels in the middle and southern parts of the Adriatic Sea. By agreement between USSR and Albania, four Project 613 submarines and the “Nemchinov” submarine tender moved from the Soviet Baltic Fleet to the Albanian Bay of Vlorё, where a submarine base was created in Pasha Liman Bay. The works on water level studies, temperature, chemical composition, etc., the forming and circulation of water masses, the wind and wave regime of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas on a network of hydrometeorological stations were started in Albania. Oceanographic expedition on the Soviet oceanographic vessel “Academik A. Kovalevsky” in the Adriatic Sea. The Soviet submariners, on the S-242 submarine (Captain Yu.A. Emelyanov) which were situated in Albania, were the first to make a seven-day underwater expedition in the Adriatic Sea. The Maritime High School began work in Kotor. General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev, during a visit to Albania, visited with the Albanian leader E. Hoxha visited the Soviet sailors in Vlorё. Made a boat trip to the Port of Sarandë. Admiral V.A. Kasatonov, Commander of the Black Sea Fleet, arrived in Albania on the destroyer “Blagorodniy” and visited the ship base for Soviet submarines in the Pasha-Liman Bay of the Vlorё Bay. (continued)

394 1960

1961

1962 1963 1964

1965

1966

1967 1968

1969

1972–1989 1972 1973

1975

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea Oceanographic expedition on the Soviet oceanographic vessel “Akademik A. Kovalevskiy” in the Adriatic Sea. The Port in Durrёs was expanded, and military facilities were built in the Vlorё Bay, Albania. The Soviet Union handed over four submarines, five torpedo boats, four large submarine hunters, two sea minesweepers, six raid minesweepers, depot ship, a demagnetization vessel, retriever, a diving boat, tug, and a floating drydock to Albania. The Institute of Marine Biology was created in Kotor. Due to the deterioration of relations between the USSR and Albania, the base of Soviet submarines in Vlorё was liquidated. A new international passenger line “Odessa-Varna-Piraeus-Bari-Dubrovnik-Venice” was opened. Two Soviet oceanographic expeditions on R/V “Akademik Vavilov” and “Akademik Kovalevsky” took place. The Albanian oceanographic expedition “Saranda-1963” took place. A visit of a detachment of Soviet ships (cruiser “Mikhail Kutuzov,” destroyers “Komsomolets Ukrainy” and “Soobrazitelny”) led by Admiral S.E. Chursin in Split and Dubrovnik (Yugoslavia). The Albanian oceanographic expedition “Patos-1964” took place. Soviet “Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean Sea. Part II. The Ionian Sea and the Island of Sicily” was published. Yugoslavia expanded its territorial waters from 6 to 10 nautical miles. Three-masted barque “Belem” made of steel, a monument ship (transferred to France in 1979), was anchored in Venice. An unprecedented catastrophic flood (November 4) in Venice, causing great damage to the city and its items of cultural value (the damage amounted to 40 billion Liras). The rise of water was 196 cm above the average level of the Adriatic Sea. Due to the catastrophic flood in Venice, Italy turned to UNESCO. UNESCO DirectorGeneral Rene Mayo appealed to the world to save Venice. The last local shipping line “Herceg Novi – Kotor” was abolished in Boka-Kotorska Bay. Visit of a detachment of Soviet ships (missile cruiser “Grozniy,” destroyer “Soobrazitelniy,” depot ship “Dmitriy Galkin,” and three submarines) led by Admiral S.E. Chursin in Kotor, Yugoslavia. The agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia determined the delimitation of the borders of their shelf zones in the Adriatic Sea. The agreed border extends over 654 km and consists of 43 points connected by straight lines or semicircular segments. Maritime High School in Kotor became known as the Marko Martinović Maritime High School. Joint expedition of the USSR AS R/Vs (“Academician S. Vavilov” and others) in the Aegean, Ionian, Adriatic, and Red Seas under the program of the International Geophysical Year. The “Marine Encyclopedia” (“Pomorska Enciklopedija”) is published in Zagreb, Yugoslavia. The President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito awarded the Bokel Sea Fleet with the Order of Brotherhood and Unity with a Golden Wreath. President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito is awarded by the title of Honorary Member of the Bokesian Sea Fleet. A visit of a detachment of Soviet ships (destroyers “Nikolaev,” “Skoriy,” and “Smetliviy”) under the command of Admiral V.S. Sysoyev in Split, Yugoslavia. The R/V “Akademik S. Vavilov,” making a 19th expedition to the Mediterranean Sea to study bedrock and sedimentary strata, visited Dubrovnik. An additional agreement was signed between Italy and Yugoslavia (in addition to the agreement of 1968) on the division of the Gulf of Trieste, known as the Osimo Agreement. (continued)

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea 1976

1977

1979

1980

1981 1984

1988

1989 1991–1992 1991

1992

1993 1995

1996

1999

395

The 25th Congress Assembly of the International Commission for the Scientific Study of the Mediterranean Sea was held in Split (Yugoslavia). The work of I.M. Ovchinnikov et al. “The Hydrology of the Mediterranean Sea” was published. The sixth expedition of the R/V “Akademik Petrovskiy” to the Adriatic Sea took place as part of an interdepartmental Mediterranean expedition, during which new data were obtained on the currents, density, and salinity of the water in the sea and in the Otranto Strait. Italy and Yugoslavia formed a joint commission to fight pollution of the Adriatic Sea. Subsequently, instead of Yugoslavia, the commission included Slovenia, Croatia, and Montenegro. A great tragedy caused by an earthquake, the epicenter of which was under the Adriatic Sea in the cities of Bar and Ulcinj. The earthquake claimed the lives of 136 people, and huge damage was caused to the entire economic complex. 22 December – High water in Venice – 166 cm. Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslav President, died. The Maritime High School in Kotor has become the Faculty of Maritime Studies of the Titograd (now Podgorica) University. The Faculty for Navigation (seafaring) was opened in Kotor. The book of Predrag Kovačević “The History of Bokesian Navigation” (Predrag Kovačević “Istorija bokeljskog pomorstva”) was published in Kotor, Yugoslavia. A book by J. Basioli, “Fishing in the Adriatic” (“Ribarstvo na Jadranu”) was published in Zagreb, Yugoslavia. The 48th expedition of the R/V “Akademik Kurchatov” to the Central Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea, during which she visited Venice, conducted a study of the synoptic variability of hydrophysical fields and the interaction of the ocean and atmosphere, etc. The book “Fauna and Flora of Jadran” (“Fauna i Flora Jadrana”) was published in Split. From November to May, shelling of Dubrovnik, Croatia, by the Serbs, which caused great damage to the historical city center. An attempt of Serbs to cut off Northern Croatia from Dalmatia by attacking the Ports of Zadar and Šibenik; however, none of them was captured. The Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) and Montenegrin forces launched a siege of Dubrovnik. Croatia is recognized as independent by all EU countries. The Croatian counteroffensive pierced the siege of Dubrovnik. Albania and Italy defined their maritime borders along the Adriatic Sea on the principle of equidistance. Negotiations between Croatia and Slovenia on the definition of maritime boundaries in the Gulf of Piran have begun. In Croatia, the “Tethys” Research Institute has arranged a “Management Plan for the Protection of the Cres-Losinj Islands in the Adriatic Sea.” The 3-masted barque “Giorgio Cini,” built in 1896, is at the anchorage in Venice. The monograph by N. Rakaj “The Ichtyofauna in Shqipëria” (Iktiofauna e Shqiperise) was published in Albania. By the decision of the Albanian Government on the Adriatic coast, the Divjakë-Karavasta National Park was organized. The work of Dr. Ivan Jardas, “Adriatic ichthyofauna” (“Jadranska ihtiofauna”), which provides a complete list of the Adriatic ichthyofauna consisting of 407 species and subspecies, has been published. During the NATO attack on Yugoslavia, reconnaissance vessels of the Russian Black Sea Fleet were in the Adriatic Sea from April to June. The border on the Adriatic Sea between Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina has been determined, although there are still questions on the Klek Peninsula and two islands. (continued)

396

2000

2001

2002 2003

2004

2006

2007

2008

2009

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea The Naval forces of NATO in the Adriatic Sea are shelling Yugoslavia with cruise missiles during the Kosovo War. As a result of the battle in the Adriatic Sea, the Patrol boat “Beograd” (Yugoslavia) and the American destroyer “Ross” were sunk. A joint Italo-Albanian oceanographic expedition “Italica 1 - 2000” took place in the southern part of the Adriatic Sea and the northern part of the Ionian Sea. Twenty-first century The book “Physical Oceanography of the Adriatic Sea. Past, Present and Future” edited by B. Cushman-Roisin, M. Gacic, P.-M. Poulain, and A. Artegiani was published by Springer Publishing House (Germany). A hanging bridge named after Franjo Tudjman, thrown over the mouth of a 4-kilometer sea bay, known as Rijeka Dubrovačka, in Dubrovnik, Croatia. The incoming Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi introduced the MOSE project (MOdulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico) – an experimental model of protective structures – pneumatic shutters to prevent flooding of Venice. The large landing craft carrier of the Russian Black Sea Navy “Azov” paid a friendly visit to Kotor, which took part in the celebrations marking the 200th anniversary of the opening of the first Russian Consulate in Montenegro, as well as the 60th anniversary of the liberation of Serbia and Montenegro from Nazi invaders in 1944. A commemorative tablet was made on the building, where in 1804–1806 the Russian Consulate was located, in honor of the 200th anniversary of its opening, in Kotor, Montenegro. Kluwer Academic Publishers (London) published a book “Biodiversity of Balkans,” summarizing the achievements of ichthyologists of Slovenia and Croatia. German cruise liner “Mona Lisa” with a length of 200 meters with 1000 passengers on board during a heavy fog, ran upon the sands near St. Mark’s Square in Venice. The ship got stuck in the silt and mud of a narrow channel. Slovenia entered NATO and the European Union. The Government of Montenegro adopted the important document “Montenegro’s Fisheries Development Strategy and Capacity Building for Implementation of EU Common Fisheries Policy.” The Adriatic Euroregion was created in Pula, consisting of 23 territorial entities of the Adriatic countries. By the decision of the Albanian Government on the Adriatic coast, the National Wetland Park “Lake Shkodër (Skadar) – Buna-Velipojë River” was created. The book of the Director of the Institute of Marine Biology A. Joksimović “The most wellknown fish species of the Montenegro coast” was published in Montenegro. The archaeological expedition of the United States and Albania (the commercial American marine institution RPM Nautical Foundation and the Institute of Marine Archeology) of the entire Albanian coast of the Adriatic Sea began with a purpose to search for historical treasures (it lasted for 5 years). A book by A.B. Shirokorad “Russia on the Mediterranean Sea” was published in Moscow. A fire broke out on the Turkish freighter “Und Adriyatik” which proceeded from Istanbul to Trieste off the coast of Croatia. The crew and passengers were rescued by a Greek vessel. The Croatian Parliament has ratified the Agreement with Slovenia on the maritime border in the Adriatic. A new regasification plant has come into commission on the Adriatic coast of northern Italy, – a plant for receiving tankers with liquefied gas, through which this raw material will be supplied to the country’s energy system. The RPM National Foundation of Malta, Regional Diving Center for Underwater Demining and Divers Training (RCUD) in Bijela, the Kotor Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage and the Ministry of Culture of Montenegro conducted a joint underwater expedition on the “Hercules” research vessel in the Bay of Kotor to study and map the bottom. (continued)

The Chronology of Major Historical Events Occurred on the Adriatic Sea

2010

2012

2013

2014

2015 2017

2018

2019 2020

397

Due to the 200th anniversary of service in the eastern Adriatic ports, the Croatian Hydrographic Institute has published a special issue, “Eastern Adriatic in the Works of Beautemps-Beaupré.” A Turkish merchant ship ran foul of a passenger ferry. As a result, three people were killed and five gone missing. Albania and Croatia joined NATO. The first marine protected area has been created in Albania – Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park. The northern Adriatic seaports of Trieste, Venice, Ravenna, Koper, and Rijeka founded the North Adriatic Ports Association. An earthquake occurred in the region of Ravenna and on the Adriatic coast with a magnitude up to 5 points. A guide in the series “With Dmitry Krylov” “Croatia and Montenegro” by D. Krylov and V. Shanin was published by “Eksmo” Publishing House in Moscow. The University of Tirana, Albania, published a book by A. Miho, L. Kasht, and S. Beqiraj “Between Land and Sea.” The American F-16 fighter sank in the Adriatic Sea off the coast of Northern Italy. From the base in Aviano, where the 31st US Air Force fighter wing is based. The body of the pilot Graenther was found in 6.5 km from Pescara. An international maritime expedition (oceanologists from Montenegro, Croatia, Italy, Monaco, Albania), as part of the pan-European “Co Co Net” program, on the Italian ship “Urania” found corals in the southern Adriatic (they were first mapped on Montenegro map). A temple in honor of the Russian St. Alexander Nevsky was consecrated on Sveti Stefan Islet, Montenegro. The temple was dedicated to the Prince by Queen Maria Karađorđević in memory of her husband Alexander, who loved Russia very much, and in gratitude to the Russian refugees who did a lot for the country. The Turkish tanker “Edirne” sank at the Albanian coast of the Adriatic Sea, in 3 miles away from Durrёs, after an explosion in cargo tanks. As a result, three people died. After the collision of the two vessels, a ship flying the flag of Turkey sank at 1 mile from the Port of Ravenna. As a result, 11 people from it are listed as missing. Fire on the Italian ferry “Norman Atlantic” sailing from Patras, Greece to Ancona, Italy. As a result, 10 people died. A rare occurrence, the meteorological tsunami, occurred at the coast of Croatia. It lasted for approximately 3 hours. In the cities of Rijeka Dubrovačka and Stari Grad, the wave height was 2 m. The book “The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia” (First Edition) by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov, A. Joksimović, and M.I. Kumantsov was published in Russian edition in Moscow. A vessel with a cargo of oil of 12 thousand tons sank near the Albanian coast of the Adriatic Sea near the City of Shejin. On 5 June Montenegro became a member of NATO. The book “The Boka Kotorska Bay Environment” edited by A. Joksimović, M. Djurović, A.V. Semenov, I.S. Zonn, and A.G. Kostianoy was published by Springer Publishing House (Germany). The book “The Adriatic Sea Encyclopedia” (Second Edition) by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov, A. Joksimović, and M. Djurović was published in Russian by S.Yu Witte Moscow University. 29 October – High water in Venice – 156 cm. The book “The Skadar/Shkodra Lake Environment” edited by V. Pesic, G. Karaman, and A.G. Kostianoy was published by Springer Publishing House (Germany). 12 November – High water in Venice – 187 cm (second in the rank after 1966 – 194 cm). 26 November – 6.4 magnitude earthquake, 10 km from Shijak, Durrës, Albania. The book “The Rivers of Montenegro” edited by V. Pešić, M. Paunović, and A.G. Kostianoy was published by Springer Publishing House (Germany).

References

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19. Kaplin PA, Leontiev OK, Lukyanova SA, Nikiforov LG. The shores. Moscow: Mysl’; 1991. (in Russian). 20. Karlič Braslav. The Best Adriatic Anchorages. A guide for sailors. More Books, 2010. 21. Krylov D., Shanin V. Croatia and Montenegro. Moscow, Eksmo, 2012 (in Russian). 22. Miho A., Kasht L., Beqiraj С. Between the land and the sea. Ecoguide to discover the transitional waters of Albania. University of Tirana, 2013. 23. Montenegro, Budva. 2011, 96 p. (in Russian). 24. Moskvin AG, Burygin SM, Nepomnyashchiy NN. Italy. The land of the sea and the sun. Moscow: Veche; 2011. (in Russian). 25. Our Lady of the Rocks. Perast. Zagreb; 2007. (in Russian). 26. Požeg V. Vekovi srpskog pomorstva i rečnog brodarstva. Beograd; 2008. 27. Ragunstein A.G. Pirates under the banner of Islam. Moscow, Veche, 2012 ((in Russian).) 28. Razumov G.A., Khasin M.F. Sinking cities. Moscow, Nauka, 1978 (in Russian). 29. Russian and Soviet sailors in the Mediterranean. Moscow: Voenizdat; 1976. (in Russian). 30. Russian Journal “The Adriatic”. Digest, 2007–2009. Montenegro: Budva. (in Russian). 31. Shirokorad AB. Russia on the Mediterranean Sea. Moscow; 2008. (in Russian). 32. Sidorchenko VF. Sea piracy. St.-Petersburg; 2004. (in Russian). 33. Snisarenko AB. Lords of the ancient seas. Moscow, Mysl’, 1986 (in Russian). 34. Taras A.Ye. Battles and campaigns of the Russian sailing Navy. Minsk, 2007 (in Russian). 35. Tarle YeV. Russian Fleet in the Mediterranean. Moscow; 2009. (in Russian). 36. The Encyclopedia of Ships. UK; 2001. 37. The Pilot Chart of the Mediterranean. Part VI. Adriatic Sea. Leningrad; 1960. (in Russian). 38. Cataudella S, Spagnolo M. The State of Italian marine fisheries and aquaculture. Ministero delle Politiche Agricole, Alimentari e Forestali; 2011.

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400 39. Tomazi A. Naval war on the Adriatic. Moscow; 1940 (part of the multi-volume work “The French Navy in the World War 1914–1918”). (in Russian). 40. Vocabulary of Antiquity. Progress. Moscow; 1989. (in Russian). 41. Zonn I.S., Kostianoy A.G., Semenov A.V., Joksimović A., Kumantsov M.I. The Adriatic Sea. Encyclopedia. Moscow, 2014 (in Russian).

Web-Resources http://www.awaytravel.ru/ https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ http://gruzdoff.ru/wiki/ http://rybalka.ru/

References http://rybalka.ru/riba/zubar-obyknovennyi http://www.ice-nut.ru/italy/ http://www.adriariva.com/ru/useful/info/majaki.htm http://ru.warriors.wikia.com/wiki/ http://www.imonte.com/