Studies in World History Volume 2 (Student) [Student ed.] 0890517851, 9780890517857

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A complete year of junior high history that examines the world through the clash of cultures, Europe and the Renaissance, the Reformation, revolutions, and more!

This course has been developed in the following manner to make it easier for independent study:

Throughout this student text are the following components:

Chapters: This course has 34 chapters that represent 34 weeks of study.

Discussion questions: Questions based generally on Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Lessons: Each chapter has five lessons, taking approximately 20 to 30 minutes each. There will be a short reading followed by discussion questions. Some questions require a specific answer from the text, while others are more open-ended, leading students to think “outside the box.”

Concepts: Terms, concepts, and theories to be learned that are bolded for emphasis. Most are listed on the first page of the chapter and in the glossary.

Weekly exams: The Teacher Guide available for this course includes two optional exams for each chapter, along with answers to the exams and discussion questions.

Historical debate: An examination of historical theories surrounding a period or topic.

First thoughts: Background on the historical period.

History makers: A person(s) who clearly changed the course of history.

RELIGION / Christian Education / Children & Youth HISTORY / Modern / General $29.99 U.S.

ISBN-13: 978-0-89051-785-7

STOBAUGH

Also available in this chronologically-based, junior high series: Studies in World History Volume 1, covering the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, India, China, Japan, Greece, Christian history, to the age of discovery, and Studies in World History Volume 3, focusing on modernism, the world at war, American education, Evangelicalism, modern social problems, & more.

Studies in World History

With this volume in hand, the student will see history come to life no matter what their pace or ability. This is a comprehensive examination of history, geography, religion, economics, and government systems. This educational program equips students to learn from a starting point of God’s creation of the world and move forward with a solid biblically-based worldview.

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First printing: March 2014 Copyright © 2014 by James Stobaugh. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations in articles and reviews. For information write: Master Books®, P.O. Box 726, Green Forest, AR 72638 Master Books® is a division of the New Leaf Publishing Group, Inc.

ISBN: 978-0-89051-785-7 Library of Congress Number: 2014931472 Cover by Diana Bogardus Unless otherwise noted, all images are from thinkstock.com, Library of Congress and Wikimedia Commons. All images used under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license (CC-BY-SA-3.0) are noted: license details available at creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/. Unless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations are from the New King James Version of the Bible. Please consider requesting that a copy of this volume be purchased by your local library system. Printed in the United States of America Please visit our website for other great titles: www.masterbooks.net For information regarding author interviews, please contact the publicity department at (870) 438-5288

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Table of Contents

Studies in World History 2: New World to the Modern Age Chapter 1: Medieval Europe: Technology Triumphs.........................................9 A century before Columbus sailed, Europeans were probing the coast of Africa and eventually reached the East Indies’ going east to China long before Columbus departed, sure that he could do the same thing going west.

Chapter 2: The Americas: On the Eve of Invasion...........................................17 The same impulse that would drive humans to build a computer and go to the moon would first take mankind from Western Europe to the New World. What made this possible, partly, besides pathos, was the superior technology that Western Europe brought to the table.

Chapter 3: European Exploration: Technology Married to Idealism.............25 The times were good in Europe in the early 1490s. There was prosperity everywhere, and the people were optimistic. They were more than ready to initiate, contribute to, and join in the Age of Exploration.

Navajo medicine man (PD-US).

Chapter 4: Clash of Cultures: Native Americans and Europeans...................35 As the world expanded, it created conflicts; a foreign people group, unrehearsed, invaded and, in this case, conquered another people. This tragic drama was to be played out from Jamestown to Anchorage for the next 400 years.

Chapter 5: Meanwhile in Europe: Crisis of Celebration.................................43 Europe had emerged from the Middle Ages full of vigor, full of budding prosperity, but disorientated. It was not the first, and would not be the last, civilization that was as disoriented by victory as others were by defeat. This was in fact a crisis of celebration.

Chapter 6: The Renaissance: The Problem of Progress...................................49 Europeans would continue the dance of death until one or the other philosophies would win and one would lose. Changes were coming, and they would sweep through Europe like a fire.

Chapter 7: Art: The Refinement of the Artificial.............................................57 The definition of beauty was on a slippery slope that began here. It was one thing for beauty to be a sensual Madonna painted in a garden, but beauty became distorted. As early as 1600, the world of art was headed to a world of woes.

Chapter 8: The Reformation: Grace Burst Forth.............................................65 There was never a war, never a revolution, that surpassed this ubiquitous of cultural revolutions begun by a gentle monk nailing 95 theses on a door in Wittenberg, Germany, in the 16th century.

Chapter 9: Philosophy: The Nature of Government........................................73 Government was to be the way God ordained mankind to sustain and to limit other men. It was not to be a trivial or easy thing to maintain in the years to come. Justice, especially, was an elusive goal.

Chapter 10: Religion and Science: The Scientific Revolution.........................79 Friesland, Netherlands (PD).

Like Victor Frankenstein in Mary Shelley’s novel, the world was to produce “monsters” that both blessed and cursed their disciples. Science was a more popular faith expression than religion, Roman Catholic or Protestant, could provide.

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Table of Contents (cont) Chapter 11: Chattel Slavery: The Long Ordeal................................................87 How tragic, how ironic, that the most profitable institution in the New World was not agriculture or industry or even mining gold. It was slavery.

Chapter 12: Slavery in the New World: A Peculiar Institution.......................93 What makes the story of slavery truly more horrible is that slavery began, not in the ports of West Africa, but in sub-Saharan African villages and North African Islamic trading posts. Slavery in the New World, then, was enabled by slavery in the Old World, in Africa itself.

Chapter 13: Revolution: The Rise of Liberty...................................................99 Revolution as a concept did not occur until the 18th century. There were uprisings, riots, but no rebellions. Revolution, then, was something very new. It would become the preferred choice of social radicals from now on.

Chapter 14: Revivalism: God Sightings.........................................................107 Boy with a slave maid, Brazil, 1860 (PD).

In Europe new converts were born into the faith. In America they went to revivals too. A new pattern emerged in the 18th century that would transform Christianity: revivalism. It would remain the pattern at least until the 21st century.

Chapter 15: The Word: History of the English Bible.....................................115 The King James Bible was spurned by all evangelicals until the 19th century yet, without a doubt, it became the most popular Bible in history.

Chapter 16: Sociology: Prospering in a Hostile Culture...............................125 No civilization in the western hemisphere was founded with higher, fonder hopes than the Puritan civilization. It was a noble experiment. Notwithstanding jeremiads and soothsayers it has persevered in our government, in our culture, in our religion.

Chapter 17: Primary Sources: Eighteenth Century.......................................135 History is always about people — their dreams, fears, successes, joys, and failures. It was in the 18th century and would be forever.

Chapter 18: Founding Fathers: The Power of the Myth.................................145 Nations, civilizations have one or two, but usually no more, heroes and heroines who are revered as the progenitors of a nation. America, though, is a wealthy people with many more founding heroes who would be vilified, and by others, practically worshipped.

Chapter 19: Eighteenth-Century Life: The Family........................................153 The American family underwent a radical change in the 19th century. How ironical and tragic that universal marital love would not last into the 20th century. By the beginning of the 20th century, over half of American marriages would end in divorce.

Chapter 20: Great Battles: The Eighteenth Century......................................161 How strange it was that humans determined the fate of their nations by warfare. Total war emerged in the 18th century, and it would stay with us. More and more battles would become wars, and wars would be battles. And millions would die.

Chapter 21: Eighteenth-Century Science: Uneasiness in Zion.....................169 Science ended the 18th century with an uneasy truce with itself. It made claims for itself it could not keep, would not keep, did not really want to keep. The further science discovered knowledge, the more knowledge pointed to God. Still, in the 18th century science would lose its way. But not yet. Not until Charles Darwin.

Chapter 22: Reflections of an Age: Eighteenth-Century Voices....................175 Napoleon on his Imperial throne, 1806 (PD-Art).

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To find what really happens in history, one has to look in dining rooms, not in boardrooms, churches, or war rooms. This was to be the pattern from now until forever.

Table of Contents (cont) Chapter 23: The Government: Articles of Confederation.............................187 How extraordinary that the United States of America was birthed in failure. Extraordinary. Perhaps, in light of what we face in the future, this can give us hope.

Chapter 24: Dissenting Voices: A Vocal Minority.........................................193 Only England was as comfortable with dissenting voices as America. Perhaps that was the genius that assured the robustness of this Anglo-American civilization. It would draw us into the 21st century.

Chapter 25: History Makers: Women of Faith...............................................201 Christianity entered the 18th century divided among denominations for the first time in history, but in all places, with all confessions, it continued to transform history, not with its orthodoxy, but with its felicity and love.

Chapter 26: Religion: Eighteenth-Century Musings.....................................209 The voices of the West inevitably found power in rhetoric. The preservation of that rhetoric, the retention of its metaphors, was and will determine the health of those societies.

A Sea Fight with Barbary Corsairs by Lorenzo a Castro, after 1681 (PD-Art).

Chapter 27: Nineteenth-Century Europe: Revolution..................................217 If the 21st century seems to belong to Asia, the 19th century belonged to Europe. Never again would a region of the world so dominate world culture and politics.

Chapter 28: Nineteenth-Century Europe: A Peace That Failed....................225 For two centuries, the failures of the Congress of Vienna and the emerging power of nationalism would determine the politics and sociologies of Europe.

Chapter 29: 19th-Century American Life: Falling in Love...........................231 Families changed radically in the 19th century. That would be, of course, only the beginning of change. Today, as surely as families were changing in Cincinnati, Ohio, they are changing even more today.

Chapter 30: With Malice Toward None: The Power of Rhetoric...................237 Today, the public relations expert, the speech writer create the rhetoric of the nation. This was not the rhetoric of the 19th century. It was birthed in valor, in sincerity, in intrepidness. The story of how we lost this gift is the story of what happens to our nation in the last two centuries.

Chapter 31: Asian Immigration: The Myth of the Melting Pot.....................247 From the beginning, America was never a melting pot. At least in the first generation, immigrants formed their own separate communities in the larger community called “America.” The way we have treated our immigrants and how we deal with them in the future tells volumes about how we see ourselves.

Chapter 32: Nation Building: Social Policy Dissonance...............................259 Whether it is Baghdad or Berlin, nationalism remains a controversial international impulse. It builds nations and tears down worlds. Can one nation deposit its values and beliefs, however laudable, on another nation? Should this nation do this? These questions have not been answered satisfactorily.

Chapter 33: Urbanization: Sociological Advances........................................267 Between 1880 and 1900, cities in the United States grew at a dramatic rate. Noise, slums, air pollution, and sanitation issues became commonplace. The infrastructure of the 19th century city could not sustain this rapid urban growth.

Chapter 34: 1900: A New Century.................................................................275 A Southern African American woman; a Pennsylvania coal miner; a New York collar starcher; and a Midwest college professor’s wife. Glimpse these journals of four courageous Americans, and be inspired by their voices.

1907 Buick (LOC).

Bibliography ..................................................................................................285 Concept Words to Know................................................................................290 5

Preface Most social critics argue persuasively that this generation is one of the most hopeless in history. Interestingly enough, this hopelessness has made us rather sentimental. We have become very sentimental about the past, a phenomenon evident even in our most mystical creations. For instance, although Han Solo is a liar, a criminal, and a fornicator, he is still a do-gooder spreading George Lucas’ version of truth and justice across the land. But God is totally absent. The Star Wars phenomenon is so appealing because it is about the past, not about the future. Luke Skywalker is more like John Wayne (circa 1930–1960) than he is like someone of his own age (1970–2010). Society can find itself rudderless. We Christians know, however, that God is in absolute control of history. Thus, we really need to be tirelessly hopeful. But we must also make sure we are not sappy! We can easily do so by speaking the truth found in the Word of God in places of deception.

Publicity photo of John Wayne in The Green Berets, 1972 (PD).

One of the greatest problems in this current generation is confusion about individual responsibility. Freud told his generation that feelings of guilt were a sign not of vice, but of virtue; that our problems stemmed from our mothers, not from our sin. Perhaps our problem began with Goethe, whose Faust escapes the consequences of his sin by sincerity and good humor. It is time again to truly study history! Our country is in crisis. It really is. I love my country and believe it is a good country. I often think of and celebrate its goodness. But it certainly is bewildered! This is one of your most important challenges, young people and teachers: to create a new generation of leaders, or to be a new generation of leaders who will shepherd our nation throughout the dangerous two or three decades of this new century. You must not be merely speakers of the Word; you must also be doers of the Word. It is becoming increasingly difficult to communicate with an unsaved world, a world with which we have so little in common. For instance, many of your peers openly boast about promiscuity. Being married to one woman all my life, and having all my experience in that area centered on this one person, I find it difficult to empathize with the struggles of promiscuous young people. Elie Wiesel lost his faith in the fires of Auschwitz. Ahab lost his faith in an insane quest against the white whale. Where did contemporary America lose its faith and therefore its hope? Today, in our country, we have lost a lot of our abiding, ubiquitous truths. Very few believe that there are absolute values, for instance, which is at the heart of the American experience. Very few respect authority. And so forth. How did our world lose the loving God we Christians know is in control? All of us are trying to understand why and how this happened, and perhaps that is the first task for apologetics. Young people and coaches, help our nation find this loving God! The John 3:16 God we all know! This book hopefully will call you to go back to the mundane places to which God has called you. Remember this: wherever the Body of Christ dwells is the Holy Land. Make your special place the Kingdom of God.

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I do not despair as I write this book, as I think about you who will use it. I thank God for the storm I see brewing in this land. Oh, no, it is more than a wind. It is a storm! I thank my Father for the storm that Jesus Christ our Lord brings, even to the awful secular places to which He has called us. I thank Him for Angelique, Debbie, and Vincent. I thank him for Mary and Stephen. I thank God for you all! Our consumer culture is organized against history. There is a depreciation of memory and a ridicule of hope, which means everything must be held in the now, either an urgent now or an eternal now. Either way, a community rooted in energizing memories and summoned by radical hopes is a curiosity and a threat in such a culture. You must be that threat. Our argument that one should rely on a faithful, historical, omnipotent God is a threatening message to this generation. Our world does not understand, much less believe in, our history. God is not to be trusted because He cannot be quantified. He is not to be controlled. This God makes self-proclaimed kings of the earth uncomfortable. Therefore, this God of ours has been making kings like Herod, Ahab, and Nero uncomfortable for ages. I remember a simple, powerful Gospel song that all of us in our 1966 Arkansas United Methodist Church sang. This was the song of the redeemed. But we scarcely knew it. “Jesus loves the little children . . . all the children of the world.” Since I was still too young to doubt the veracity of my parents and teachers, I actually believed that song. When I started living that song later, it changed my world. And when enough people lived that message, we changed our world. We dared to believe God. And when we did, His history became our history. Our cause became holy, our witness worthy of the Gospel. A price was to be paid, for we defied the world’s order. But our song brought hope, life, and salvation. So it was worth it. Our song is the song of Psalm 8:1: “Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth! You have set your glory/above the heavens.” But if this song is simple, and oft repeated, it is still quickly forgotten. God is a loving God, so loving in fact that He sent His only begotten Son to die for us. It is in this Son, in the vortex of this simple message, that we find wholeness, life, and health. It is our past. It is our memory. This godly heritage equips us to go boldly into the next century and change our world! As we journey, let us bring wholeness as we endeavor to live a life worthy of the Gospel. And let us be as bold and unequivocal as we can be that Christ alone is the source of our life. If we do, “Then will the eyes of the blind be opened and the ears of the deaf unstopped” (Isa. 35:5).

Jesus blessing the children.

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Using Your Student Textbook How this course has been developed 1. Chapters: This course has 34 chapters (representing 34 weeks of study). 2. Lessons: Each chapter has five lessons, taking approximately 20 to 30 minutes each. There will be a short reading followed by discussion questions. Some questions require a specific answer from the text, while others are more open ended, leading students to think “outside the box.” 3. Weekly exams: The Teacher Guide includes two optional exams for the chapter. 4. Student responsibility: Responsibility to complete this course is on the student. Students are to complete the readings every day, handing their responses in to a parent or teacher for evaluation. This course was designed for students to practice independent learning. 5. Grading: Students turn in assignments to a parent or teacher weekly.

Throughout this book are the following components: 1. First thoughts: Background on the historical period. 2. Discussion questions: Questions based generally on Bloom’s Taxonomy. 3. Concepts: Terms, concepts, and theories to be learned that are bolded for emphasis. Most are listed on the first page of the chapter. 4. History makers: A person(s) who clearly changed the course of history. 5. Historical debate: An examination of historical theories surrounding a period or topic.

What the student will need: 1. Notepad: For writing assignments. 2. Pen/pencil: For answers and essays. 3. The Teacher Guide for weekly exams and/or to record daily assignments.

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Chapter 1

Medieval Europe: Technology Triumphs First Thoughts Astrolabe quadrant, c. 1388, from the British Museum (CCA-SA-3.0).

A century before Columbus sailed, Europeans were probing the coast of Africa and eventually reached the East Indies going east to China long before Columbus departed, sure that he could do the same thing going west. Europe was suited to lead the world into the modern age. It alone possessed the navigational expertise, the compass, the astrolabe, and mapmaking skills needed to launch the great nautical explorations which resulted in the colonization of the Western Hemisphere and the development of the world economy. There were other attempts at exploration. A century before Columbus, for instance, the Chinese had sent out a very successful, and much more elaborate, exploratory voyage into the Indian Ocean. But it was to be the Europeans who initiated the modern era with their age of exploration.

Chapter Learning Objectives Medieval Europeans had come through the so-called Dark Ages with only a bump or two, and were ready, literally, to explore the world! We will look at how they did this. We will examine how technology, more and more, would determine the course of history. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. State why medieval Europeans were ready to explore the world 2. Predict what obstacles these energetic Europeans would face 3. Infer what the habits and clothing of the Viking Greenlanders tell us about them 4. Recall someone who was critical to an important endeavor but no one knew it

Concepts L’Anse aux Meadows Prince Henry the Navigator

5. Judge if it was wrong for a nation, a church, and an explorer, who did not know better, who only acted like normal 15th-century Christian people, to make great monetary profits inflicting great injustice and pain on people groups (slaves and Native Americans) 6. List what technological improvements helped Europeans explore their world 7. Ask relatives how technology — like the computer — changed their lives

Caravel Bartholomew Dias Mariner’s compass Lead line Astrolabe 9

Lesson 1 End of the Middle Ages Western Europe, at the end of the Middle Ages, was prospering. By any standards, Western Europe was at a new apex of growth. In England, William the Conqueror and his Norman successors were in firm control. The Tudors were soon to take over. It took the French kings three centuries to accomplish what William the Conqueror had done in one generation, but by the end of the Middle Ages they had just about accomplished it. The German kingdoms were somewhere between the Holy Roman Empire and the great nation they would become, but for the present, they were not major players on the European stage. Nation making in Spain was unique, since it acquired the religious fervor of a crusade. The Moors were gone and the Spanish were anxious to explore new vistas. Economically, Europe was in great shape. Apparently, the Plague was behind them. Society was transformed by new opportunities: food surpluses and increased populations, revitalized trade, new towns, more affordable (but still very expensive) exotic spices from the Orient, and, thanks to the Wall Street tycoons of the 16th century — the Venetians — a robust European economy based on hard species emerged. The Church during this time had developed the first unified system of law and administration in the medieval age. Every European felt good about that. Panel from the Bayeux Tapestry depicting Bishop Odo of Bayeux, Duke William (William the Conqueror), and Count Robert of Mortain (PDUS).

Venetian and Islamic traders controlled trade. European countries wanted to avoid these middlemen. They took a pretty hefty cut of all transactions. Other Europeans wanted to bypass them to get to the silk, spices, and other luxury items in Asia. Fabulous fortunes could be made if trade could be opened to China. At the same time, the Crusades had whetted everyone’s appetite to share the Gospel in strange, new mission fields. The Crusades had unleashed something else: the need for glory and adventure. Europe was full of middle sons of the gentry who had no opportunity whatsoever to own big estates, and they were hungry for something else. Likewise, yeoman farmers wanted larger farms than the pitifully small farms they had in Europe. In short, the New World promised a new, hopeful future for all. Finally, there were advances in ship construction (bigger, faster, and sturdier), and there were new navigation aids. Now, there was a new compass (in the 1300s they used a magnetized needle floating on a straw in a bucket of water). The astrolabe was used to determine latitude; longitude was less accurate. In the 15th century, maps were still crude and inaccurate, but no one thought the world was flat. In summary, times were good in Europe around 1492. Prosperity was everywhere. People were optimistic. And they had reason to be. They were ready, more than ready, to initiate, contribute to, and join in the Age of Exploration. Exploration, then, began in an air of prosperity and great expectation!

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Discussion Question Why were medieval Europeans ready to explore the world?

Lesson 2 Viking Settlements in North America One has to wonder, why did such a fierce, independent people, who could have, indeed already had, most of Europe at their feet, choose to travel thousands of miles across the ocean to North America? Yet, without a doubt, they did just that. The Vikings unquestionably settled at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada. Several Norse Viking pieces and clear Icelandic-style house foundations gave proof positive that the Vikings had indeed landed, and briefly settled, in North America 500 years before Columbus. More recent archaeological work has revealed over 300 years of sporadic contact between the Greenlandic Norse and various Inuit and other Native American peoples, concentrated primarily in the Canadian Arctic. When Erik the Red settled in a land to the west of Iceland, he named it Greenland, a sort of public relations ploy to get unwary settlers to come to the green land. In his defense, however, the climate was warmer 1,000 years ago. The people stayed in permanent settlements in Greenland for 500 years.

Recreation of Norse longhouse at L’Anse aux Meadows, Canada (CCA-SA-3.0).

Here the Vikings tried to maintain their hunting and livestock-raising lifestyle, though as the temperature became colder in the 13th century, hunting became more of a necessity to augment food stock. Despite these hardships, the Norse Greenlanders clung to many traditions of Christian Europe. There were over 20 churches serving a peak population of around 3,000. The church controlled trade, and bishops held most of the power. Around A.D. 1450, the Norse society that had existed on the edge of the European and the American world for almost 500 years mysteriously came to an end. No one knows how or why.

Inside Norse longhouse recreation in Canada (CCASA-3.0).

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Discussion Question The Greenland Vikings were fervent churchgoers and built a fairly tidy European community. In fact, a woolen hood excavated from a churchyard in Greenland dating to the late 14th century showed that the Norsemen were even concerned about fashion! On the edge of nowhere, so-called rough Viking Greenlanders were keeping up with European fashion in the midst of a cooling climate and decreasing trade contacts! Why?

Lesson 3 Portuguese: Influence of One Man on History Under Prince Henry’s direction, a new and lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which would allow sea captains to sail farther and faster.

Portugal is an unlikely place to find the earliest evidence of European exploration. In the shadow of Spain to the west and Italy to the east, no one expected Portugal to create the largest European colonial empire of the 15th century. But Portugal had Prince Henry. Prince Henry the Navigator never actually sailed on any of the voyages of discovery he sponsored. Instead, Prince Henry established a school for the study of the navigation, mapmaking, and shipbuilding. This equipped sea captains to better guide their ships and to come up with new ship designs. His goal was to find nothing less than a sea route to the rich spice trade of the Indies. The ships that sailed the Mediterranean, however, were big bulky things, first cousins to the Roman galleys, too slow and heavy to make these voyages. The development of the caravel had the same effect on Europe that the automobile had on 20th-century America. Suddenly, the world was at the feet of Europe. Nonetheless, technology notwithstanding, Prince Henry had a great deal of trouble persuading his captains to sail beyond the west coast of Africa. According to legend, the sun was so close to the earth that a person’s skin would burn black, the sea would boil, ships would catch on fire, and monsters would hide, waiting to smash the ships and eat the sailors. And no one had one drop of sunscreen! It took 14 voyages over a period of 12 years until a ship finally reached the equator.

Portrait assumed to be of Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator (Infante D. Henrique), inserted as the frontispiece in a 15th C. edition of the book Crónicas dos Feitos de Guiné (PD-US).

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During the two-year period from 1444 to 1446, after everyone saw that the monsters had either disappeared or were too shy to show themselves, Prince Henry sent between 30 and 40 of his ships on missions. The last voyage sponsored by Prince Henry sailed over 1,500 miles down the African coast. Therefore, Portugal was half a century ahead of all European countries in exploration. Portuguese King John II took over after Prince Henry died. King John II was not satisfied with the revenues he was receiving from trading voyages and he was determined to establish a Christian empire in West Africa. Along the way, he also hoped to barter for a few African slaves who already were the most valuable cargo in Europe.

King John II had two very promising sea captains: Bartholomew Dias and Christopher Columbus. Dias (1457–1500) continued the work of previous Portuguese explorers to gather advanced reconnaissance about the African coast, but to him goes the credit for circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope. For the next Portuguese explorer, Vasco de Gama, it was a hop, skip, and a jump to the East Indies and cheap tea, cinnamon, and silks that made sea captains and kings fabulously wealthy. Regardless, there must be a better way to get those things . . . or at least Columbus thought. King John II was somewhat disappointed in Columbus, and he cut him loose.

Discussion Question While Prince Henry the Navigator never took a voyage and never received any accolades for his efforts, he was critical to the beginning of the Age of Exploration. Can you think of someone who has been critical to the success of a new endeavor but no one knew about his contribution?

Statue of Bartolomeu Dias at the High Commission of South Africa in London (CCA-SA-3.0).

Statue of Henry the Navigator in Portugal (CCA-3.0). King Afonso V of Portugal. The author of the sketch is uncertain, but a woodcut based on this sketch is found in the printed version of Georg von Ehingen’s memoirs, the Itinerarium, published in 1600 (PDUS).

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Lesson 4 Economic: Private Investments Christopher Columbus’ voyages of discovery were part of a much broader pattern of European commercial and financial expansion during the 15th century. In the span of less than four decades, European countries revolutionized sea travel.

Christopher Columbus and Queen Isabella of Castile in Madrid (Spain) (CCA-SA-2.5).

In Madeira, the Azores, the Canary Islands, and other islands, the Portuguese introduced sugar cane. With financial support from German and Italian bankers and merchants, Portugal was able to exploit these discoveries and create a system of long-distance trade and commerce based on sugar and slavery. As early as 1420, the Portuguese began to settle in islands off the West African coast. Beginning in 1443, Portugal also established a string of trading posts along the West African coast, which soon became major sources of slave labor for the Spanish Peninsula and especially for the Atlantic island sugar plantations. Investors demanded profits, and Portugal complied. Christopher Columbus was very familiar with this network of Atlantic trade. Therefore, he understood the slave trade. He knew how to use it to benefit himself and his investors. He was also aware of the need to have sound, solvent investors. He was not simply a bold, courageous explorer; he was also a shrewd businessman. Forty-one years old at the time he made his first voyage of discovery, entrepreneur Columbus, a very pious, dedicated Christian, was obsessed with the idea of finding a new route to the Far East. This would make him obscenely wealthy and would enable him to pay for the liberation of the Holy Land from Islamic rule. Columbus was personally familiar with the two Caribbean businesses that would bring more wealth than all the gold the Spanish Main could muster: slavery and sugar production. Before October 12, 1492, ended, Columbus had already astutely discerned the business opportunities this new land offered his king, his church, and himself.

John Vanderlyn (1775–1852) had studied with Gilbert Stuart and was the first American painter to be trained in Paris, where he worked on this canvas for ten years with the help of assistants. Christopher Columbus is shown landing in the West Indies, on an island that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador, on October 12, 1492. He raises the royal banner, claiming the land for his Spanish patrons, and stands bareheaded, with his hat at his feet, in honor of the sacredness of the event (PD).

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Unfortunately, there were some mitigating factors at play. Like all of his contemporaries, there was not an ounce of appreciation of cultural diversity in Christopher Columbus. Within days of his arrival in the New World, Columbus regarded the Native American population as a potential labor source. Initially, Columbus and his business partners were disappointed with his labor force. But that was only a momentary setback. Within a generation, the Spanish learned to import their own labor supply, and economic prosperity flowed back into Europe.

Discussion Question Is it wrong for a nation, a Church, and an explorer who did not know better, who only acted like normal 15th-century Christian people, to make great monetary profits from inflicting great injustice and pain on people groups (slaves and Native Americans)? Inspiration of Christopher Columbus by Jose Maria Obregon, 1856 (Mexico) (CCASA-3.0).

Lesson 5 Advances in Technology: The Caravel and Navigation Tools The caravel of the 15th and 16th centuries was a sight to behold! A magnificent technological feat, Europeans had never seen anything quite like it. It was a ship with a distinctive shape and admirable qualities. A gently sloping bow and single stern castle were prominent features of this vessel, and it carried a mainmast and a mizzenmast that were generally lateen-rigged. Although the caravel had already been in use for hundreds of years, it had developed into an incredibly fast, easily maneuverable vessel by this time. Ship captains could venture miles away from shore and return without any problem whatsoever. This extraordinary vessel gained fame with the Portuguese and Spanish voyages of discovery. Columbus’ ships Niña and Pinta were caravels. The exact origin of the caravel is a matter of some debate. That the caravel was a fishing vessel in the 13th century is evident from Portuguese records from that period. The Portuguese no doubt borrowed the design from Arab ships plying the Indian Ocean.1 Portuguese caravel, Paris (CCA-SA-3.0). 1. http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/01George/caravela/htmls/Caravel%20History.htm.

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Replicas of the Pinta, Santa Maria, and Niña, lying in the North River, New York. These caravels crossed from Spain to be present at the World’s Fair at Chicago (PD-US).

Of course, even the sturdiest and fastest ships needed to be steered to a desired location. Ingenious technicians designed just what the doctor ordered.

One of the earliest man-made navigation tools was the mariner’s compass, an early form of the magnetic compass (c.13th century).

Initially used only when the weather obscured the sun or the North Star, the first compasses were very crude. The navigator would rub an iron needle against a lodestone, stick it in a piece of straw, and float it in a bowl of water. The needle would point in a northerly direction. Early mariners found the compass inconsistent — most likely because they did not understand that it pointed to the magnetic north pole, not the true north (this is called variation). At the time, they could not explain these variations and could not put much trust in the readings when navigating an unknown area. Thus, they preferred not to use it. Much more valuable, at the time, was the invention of the lead line (c. 13th century), which was a tool for measuring the depth of water and the nature of the bottom. This line was weighted with lead and had graduated markings to determine sea depth. The lead was coated with wax to bring up samples from the bottom. The development of better navigational tools was first motivated by commerce and trade, then by the riches of discovery. The Phoenicians and Greeks were the first of the Mediterranean navigators to sail from land to land and to sail at night. Often they navigated by bonfires set on mountaintops (the earliest known system of aids to navigation). Furthermore, the astrolabe, which had been around for centuries, was refined to even more accurately determine the longitude and latitude of a ship’s location. At this time, mariners came to realize that maps would be helpful and began keeping detailed records of their voyages that land-based mapmakers used to create the first nautical charts. The charts, created on sheepskin or goatskin, were rare and very expensive, and were often kept secret so that competing mariners would not have access to the knowledge. What they lacked in accuracy they made up for in beauty. Lands and ports on the chart were highly decorated with colorful depictions of buildings and flags.2

Discussion Questions What technological improvements helped Europeans explore their world?

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2. http://boatsafe.com/kids/navigation.htm.

Chapter 2

The Americas: On the Eve of Invasion First Thoughts Navajo medicine man (PD-US).

Most of the history we acquire comes not from history textbooks or classroom lectures but from images that we receive from movies, television, childhood stories, and folklore. For instance, to this author, Davy Crockett is John Wayne. When I read about Davy Crockett dying in the Alamo I see John Wayne defiantly taunting Santa Anna. Likewise, Pocahontas will forever be running along the Virginia shore with a raccoon and bird singing about the wind! Disney and Hollywood are perhaps the penultimate historians of this age! They produce what most of us think is real. Together, these images exert a powerful influence upon the way we think about the past. Some of these images are true; others are false. But much of what we think we know about the past consists of unexamined mythic images. No aspect of our past has been more thoroughly shaped by Hollywood than the history of Native Americans. Quite unconsciously, Americans have picked up a complex set of epic images. For example, many assume that pre-Columbian North America was a sparsely populated virgin land; in fact, the area north of Mexico alone had 7 to 12 million inhabitants, both continents together over 40 million — more than Europe. Also, when many Americans think of early Indians, they conceive of hunters on horseback. In actuality, horses had been extinct in the New World for 4,000 years before Europeans arrived. In this chapter we will examine the real, historical Americas on the eve of the invasion.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 2 explores the Americas at the time that Europeans arrived at its shores in 1492. We will see that the native people, like all people groups, were diverse, competing, and, in some cases, at war with one another. We will look more closely at native people kinship rules, government, and morality. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: Explain why the diversity among Native peoples proved to be their greatest weakness

Concepts Homogeneous population Eastern woodlands

1. Discuss differences and similarities between Native America societies and European societies 2. Analyze how kinship rules benefited Native American people 3. Discuss how Native American government structures paralleled European models 4. Give some contemporary examples of ethnocentricity

Warrior chiefs 17

Lesson 1 On the Mountains of the Prairie On the Mountains of the Prairie, On the great Red Pipestone Quarry, Gitche Manito, the mighty, He the Master of Life, descending, On the red crags of the quarry Stood erect, and called the nations, Called the tribes of men together. (“The Song of Hiawatha,” Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)

When Columbus arrived at the Caribbean in 1492, the New World was far from an empty wilderness. In fact, the Americas had more inhabitants than Europe. They were also not a single, homogeneous population. The people north of Mexico lived in more than 350 distinct groups, spoke more than 250 different languages, and had their own political structure, kinship systems, and economies. In fact, the differences between these Native American tribes were greater than their similarities. These distinctions would have fateful consequences for the future, permitting the European colonizers to play one group against another. In short, by 1492, there existed deeply rooted historical conflicts and vulnerabilities among the Native American groups that European colonizers would exploit. In the southwest, many conflicts arose over control of the arid region’s scarce resources. Isolated villages were vulnerable to attacks from marauding bands of Apaches and Arapahos. All native peoples were vulnerable to technologically advanced Spanish invaders. This was not true everywhere. In the fertile, river basin southeast — where the Creeks, the Choctaws, the Cherokees, the Seminoles, and other peoples lived — extensive European colonization was delayed until the 17th century because the area offered natural barriers.

The Iroquois League, which combined a central authority with tribal autonomy, provided a model for the federal system of government later adopted by the United States.

Stretching from the Atlantic coast west to the Great Lakes and southward from Maine to North Carolina lay the eastern woodlands. The native people groups from this area first confronted the English and French. The eastern woodland’s major groups were the Algonquians, the Iroquois, and the Muskogeans. The Algonquians lived in small bands of about 300 members, combining hunting, fishing, and gathering with some agriculture. A semi-nomadic people, who might move several times a year, the Algonquians

The North American Indian (PD-US).

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Co-ee-há-jo, a Seminole Chief (PD).

Seminole woman (PD-US).

would plant crops, and then break into small bands to hunt caribou and deer, and return to their fields at harvest time. These people lived in wigwams, dome-shaped structures containing one or more families. A wigwam, made of bent saplings covered with birch bark, typically housed a husband and wife and their children, as well as their married sons and their sons’ wives and children. This housing was vastly superior to the fragile, thatched, mud-enforced European houses that were built in the New World. One Native American group, the Iroquois, had formed a confederation that would have rivaled any European alliance. These tribes had agreed to live under an oral constitution that was as elaborate as any European constitution.

War Chief Black Eagle, Nez Perce (LOC).

Discussion Question Why did the diversity among native peoples prove to be their greatest weakness?

Lesson 2 Sociology: Types of Native American Societies While the differences in Native American cultures were profound and significant, all Native Americans shared certain social tendencies. Regardless of the many differences and variations that existed, there were uniformities of organization, subsistence, technology, and belief that made them more alike than any one of them was to civilizations of the Old World. While Native Americans had fierce rivalries, socially, they were very similar. Certainly the differences among native peoples were not as pronounced as those among European countries. As was the case with all ancient people groups, most of the differences between native peoples were related to food gathering. Some people groups were farmers exclusively; others were strictly nomadic food gatherers. The vast majority were both. Unlike other ancient people groups, the Native Americans never developed a commercial industry or class. There was a priestly class, but it was

Choctaw Village near the Chefuncte; the women appear to be making dye to color the strips of cane beside them (PD).

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never large, and while it had more of a social impact than the most ambitious European religious clergy group, it was not a significant economic player in Native American society. Hunters and gatherers, living much as the early European migrants to the Americas, continued to occupy large portions of the continents, dividing into small bands and moving seasonally to take advantage of the resources. The majority of early European settlers lived like the Native American peoples — they built temporary dwellings and moved as the land grew infertile or other opportunities presented themselves. Native Americans, like contemporary northern snowbirds, lived in one place in the summer and another place in the winter. These peoples were sometimes organized in larger tribes and might recognize a chief, but generally their societies were organized around family groups or clans, and there was little hierarchy or specialization of skills. Practically speaking, the head of the house was the head of the tribe. With few exceptions, the Native Americans accumulated very few worldly resources. Eventually, the only native people who survived were the ones who made the transition from nomadic food gatherer to sedentary farmer. The Cherokee, for instance, were able to do this. But the same was true for European settlers. The ones who were able to find employment around growing cities lived better and longer than marginal frontier families who struggled against hunger, disease, and the elements. And that is the way it always seems to be. It is among peoples who make a full transition to sedentary agriculture that the most sustaining societies emerge. It was here that surplus production was often evident. Agricultural surpluses are the most important ingredient for successful, vital civilizations. The fact is, in 1492, there were much larger, more thriving population centers among Native Americans than in Europe.1

Discussion Question There were great differences between Native American societies and European societies. But there were also great similarities. What were some of these similarities? John Gadsby Chapman depicts Pocahontas, wearing white, being baptized Rebecca by Anglican minister Alexander Whiteaker in Jamestown, Virginia; this event is believed to have taken place in 1613 or 1614. She kneels, surrounded by family members and colonists. The baptism took place before her marriage to Englishman John Rolfe, who stands behind her. Their union is said to be the first recorded marriage between a European and a Native American. The scene symbolizes the belief of Americans at the time that Native Americans should accept Christianity and other European ways (PD-US).

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1 http://history-world.org/united_states_of_america.htm.

Lesson 3 Anthropology: Kinship In European culture, as in Native American culture, there were informal rules governing family relationships. The son-in-law, for instance, was expected to show deference and respect to his father- and mother-in-law, and the son was expected to obey his parents. In Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, for instance, Robinson Crusoe shipwrecks partly because he defied his father’s wishes and sailed on a merchant ship. Native American kinship systems were very complicated, with unwritten regulations, or traditions, governing marriages, relations with in-laws, and residence after marriage. In patrilineal societies, like the Cheyenne, land use rights and membership in the political system originated with the father. In matrilineal societies, like the Pueblo of the southwest, membership in the group was determined by the mother’s family identity. Several generations of Native American families would live in the same house. Among the western Pueblo, perhaps 40 to 50 family members — cousins, uncles, and siblings — would all live in the same rambling adobe dwelling. Among the Iroquois, the basic social unit was the longhouse, a large rectangular structure that contained about ten families. The same sort of practice was occurring among gentry in Europe. A wealthy landowner might buy adjacent property, or even divide his own, to accommodate extended family members.

“The Trial of Red Jacket” by John M. Stanley, 1869. Red Jacket was a Seneca chief who was charged with witchcraft by fellow tribesmen. His oratory provide a successful defense, and he emerged from the trial as a leader who preserved Seneca lands. (PD-US).

This worked out very well in Native American families. As in America in the early 21st century, many young people benefited from living in the same house as their parents. Here young people, both contemporary and ancient native peoples, learned critical parenting skills in the years after babies were born. There is evidence that the fatality rate among Native American children, ages 1–5, was much lower than among other cultures. For instance, in South Asia even today, in rural areas the fatality rate among children ages 1–5 is 50 percent. Native people had no written laws, but that did not mean there were no laws or punishments. The community enforced punishments for legal infractions by practicing shunning. Customs handed down from generation to generation became laws. These laws were not based on the Ten Commandments, or the Magna Carta, but they reflected a sort of Golden Rule.

Discussion Question How did kinship patterns benefit Native American people? 21

Lesson 4 Government: The Native American Chief While the warrior chief appeared to be a hereditary position, chiefs were in fact chosen for their bravery, acumen, and élan, not because their father was chief.

Nomadic food gatherers who also lived in seasonal agricultural villages preferred the warrior chief over all other tertiary leaders. The office of chief, too, was exclusively a male position. Chiefs had no formal legislative councils but relied heavily on advice from peer group friends who were in the same clan, or who had experienced the same, earlier military campaigns. The chief ’s spouse also had great influence through her husband. From the Amazon to the St. Lawrence, populations — sometimes in the tens of thousands — were governed by powerful chieftains who ruled from positions of great authority. Existing cities, for instance those in South America, had especially powerful chiefs. In fact, the more sedentary and large a city grew, the more powerful its chief was. Chiefs could rule over a large territory, including smaller towns or villages that paid tribute to the ruler. The predominant town often had a ceremonial function, with large temples and a priest class. A social hierarchy with a class of wealthy nobles was also a characteristic of many of the chiefdoms. In terms of social organization, warfare, and ritual there was much that differentiated the Mayan city-states from some of the Mississippian mound cities. Native people were prejudiced against other groups. The Incas looked down on the peoples of the Amazonian rain forest and referred to them as barbarians. The sophisticated, arcane Aztecs referred to the nomads who lived to the north in Texas and New Mexico as uncivilized. Thus, the student should not think of Native Americans as being monolithic groups. Evidently, there were significant cultural differences and similarities between people groups. Moreover, to some extent the pattern of tension between the nomad and the “civilized” Old World existed in the Americas, too. The highly developed Aztecs hated the wild nomadic Apache tribes from the north as much as the Europeans hated the nomadic Mongol tribes from the Asian steppes.1

Discussion Question In what ways did Native American government structures parallel European models? Apache wickiup also called a wetu or wigwam 1903 (PD-US).

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1 http://history-world.org/united_states_of_america.htm.

Lesson 5 Ethnocentricity Ethnocentrism is making value judgments about another culture from the perspective of one’s own culture. Inevitably, the other guys look inferior. The Native Americans did it. Europeans did it. Every culture does it. Civilized societies — whatever those are — are most likely to show such blatant chauvinism. Because civilizations are by definition well-organized and usually sedentary agricultural societies, nomadic people tend to get the short end of the stick. Unfortunately, civilized sedentary agricultural societies write more history than the nomadic folks, so you can imagine what that does to the corpus of historical records that have emerged over the years. We know more about such individuals as Montezuma and the Aztecs, for instance, than about Powhatan and his Lenna Lenape Tribe. In fact, if it weren’t for the Disney folks and other saga writers, we probably wouldn’t know anything about Powhatan, who, in his own right, might have been a food gatherer/seasonal village dweller, but was nonetheless a pretty big fish in central Virginia. The big civilizations, then, get to judge the veracity of morality and value decisions. There is a real danger that a more advanced or populated society will think it has a monopoly on higher values and controlled behavior. Certainly the Europeans who came to the New World thought that way. However, if one thinks about it, civilization brings losses as well as gains. As the Middle East became more civilized, social class and wealth increased. That is not always a good thing. Civilizations typically have firmer class or caste divisions and greater separations between the ruler and the ruled than “simpler” societies. That sort of tension tore the Mongol civilization apart. This civilization could easily run around the Asian steppes conquering folks, and could even defend against the most populated nation on the face of the earth. But once they did that, they still could not get along with one another. Civilizations also create greater inequality between men and women than non-civilized societies do. Many early civilizations, including those of the Middle East, expended great effort to organize the inferiority of women on a more structured basis than ever before. Thus, a tendency of civilization is evident: civilizations need to dominate someone, often members of their own class, in order to maintain hegemony on everyone else. Civilizations often create boogie men — as the Nazis did against Jewish people in World War II — to unite a majority. Civilizations are willing to sacrifice the few to unite the greater number. Furthermore, people in non-civilized societies may have an interesting, important culture. They are not barbarians or uncouth wild men. The societies who were very eager to repress anger and aggression in human dealings, such as several of the Eskimo

“The Coronation of Powhatan,” by the American artist John Cadsby Chapman (PD-US).

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groups, were not part of a civilization until recently. In contrast, many civilized societies produce a great deal of aggressive behavior and build warlike qualities into their list of virtues. Civilized societies, for instance, are notoriously insensitive to weaker elements — old people for instance — whereas uncivilized, nomadic people often display respect and veneration for their weaker members. Without a huge investment to the state, or to the larger entity, the small, disorganized group is able to sustain the individual better. Civilizations do not even clearly promote greater human happiness. So, regardless of what Europeans thought, civilizing the Native Americans did not necessarily make them happier.

Discussion Question Give some contemporary examples of ethnocentricity.

A family photo of an Eskimo mother, father, and son, photographed in Noatak, Alaska, 1929 (PD-US).

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Chapter 3

European Exploration: Technology Married to Idealism First Thoughts Painting of explorer John Cabot, 1762 (PD-US).

Jules Verne, in his fascinating Exploration of the World (1882), wrote, “In the first two centuries of the Christian era, the study of geography received a great stimulus from the advance of other branches of science, but travelers, or rather explorers of new countries were very few in number. . . . The first traveler of the Christian era, whose name has been handed down to us, was Pausanias, a Greek writer, living in Rome in the second century, and whose account of his travels bears the date A.D. 175. Pausanias did for ancient Greece what Joanne, the industrious and clever Frenchman, did for the other countries of Europe, in compiling the ‘Traveler’s Guide.’ His account, a most reliable one on all points, and most exact even in details, was one upon which travelers of the second century might safely depend in their journeys through the different parts of Greece.”1 This was to change. By the 1500s, exploration of the world, new and old, was at a fever pitch. Why? And to what effect?

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 3 looks more closely at the art of cartography, and we will see that maps did not become more accurate because people had more firsthand knowledge of the world. Next, we will travel again with John Cabot et al., on their futile searches to find a mythical short channel to the Orient. We will analyze a secondary source and decide how to determine its veracity. Finally, we will explore why the Age of Exploration (no pun intended) ended. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Accept the generalization that progress in all things is not inevitable 2. Understand why the myth of the Northwest Passage was so enduring 3. Analyze a secondary source and judge its veracity 4. Explain when and why the Age of Exploration ended

Concepts Cartography Northwest Passage Age of Exploration 1. Jules Verne, Charles Francis Horne, editor, Works of Jules Verne (New York: V. Parke and Co., 1911), p. 15–16.

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Lesson 1 Cartography and Mapmaking Cartography is the art and science of making maps.

A map is a graphic representation or scale model of spatial concepts. It is a means for conveying geographic information. Maps are a universal medium for communication, easily understood and appreciated by most people, regardless of language or culture. Old maps provide much information about what was known in times past, as well as the philosophical and cultural basis of the map, which was often much different from modern cartography. Maps are one means by which scientists distribute their ideas and pass them on to future generations.2 Old maps, for instance, include pictures and scenes to depict the historical importance of a location. The oldest known maps are preserved on Babylonian clay tablets from about 2000 B.C., so that cartography was considered an old science even in ancient Greece. The concept of a spherical earth, for instance, was well known among Greek philosophers by the time of Aristotle (350 B.C.) and has been accepted by all geographers since. No educated person believed the world was flat in 1492.3 Early maps were political statements. They offered political commentary on the people who lived at a place. During the Medieval period, European maps were dominated by religious views. Jerusalem was depicted at the center, and east was oriented toward the top of the map. Islamic lands were disproportionately small and hardly represented at all. The first whole-world maps began to appear in the early 16th century, following voyages by Columbus and others to the New World. At first, the world was depicted far too small, something that got Columbus into trouble. Only when Magellan circumvented the globe did people understand that the world was much larger than supposed.

Greenland

Arctic Ocean

Russia

Bering Sea

Alaska Northern Canada Hudson Bay

Popular Northwest Passage routes based on a NASA image (PD-USGov).

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2. D.F. Merriam, “Kansas 19th century geologic maps,” Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions 99 (1996), p. 95–114, http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/map/h_map/h_map.htm. 3. http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/map/h_map/h_map.htm.

The development of trade during the Renaissance was accompanied by the appearance of the practical sailing charts. These were first used in southern Europe during the 13th century. They showed coastlines fairly accurately and were covered with lines and compass roses giving the main directions. Improvements in practical astronomy and the development of trigonometry brought better surveying methods as well as the mathematical tools for creating new map projections. Printing and engraving, which also originated during the Renaissance, made maps cheaper and more abundant. Although far superior in material quality to earlier maps, the maps of the Renaissance were in many ways much inferior. Imaginary continents and islands were drawn to fill in extensive blank areas. The unexplored interiors of known land areas were covered with fanciful detail. Borders were decorated with pretentious artwork. The latitudes of Renaissance maps were generally accurate, but the distorted shapes of some coastlines show that longitudes were not.4

Map of North America, c 1685, by Hugo Allard (PD-US).

Discussion Question Progress in all things is not inevitable. For instance, in mapmaking, Renaissance maps were inferior to earlier medieval maps. Why?

Lesson 2 The Search for the Northwest Passage “A lot of geographical ideas,” one historian explains, “are born out of desire: If you want something to be organized in a certain way, it will be — in your head. If you have a strong geographical imperative, you can say, ‘I don’t want to be confused by geographical facts.’ ” “The desire in this case belonged to European powers and businesses that were eager for a way to get their goods cheaply and quickly to the East, and return just as quickly and cheaply with Asian supplies. (Europeans) knew it was a rich area from the reports of Marco Polo and other travelers. . . . With the increase in agricultural production and population in the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, Europe was looking for a source of raw materials, like lumber, and new markets.”5

4. http://history-world.org/mapstory.htm. 5. James Breig, “Searching the Arctic for What Wasn’t There,” Colonial Williamsburg Journal (Winter 2008).

Replica ship Susan Constant in port at Jamestown Settlement, a living history museum (CCASA-3.0).

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Sir Francis Drake knighted by Queen Elizabeth. One of four bronze relief plaques on the base of the Drake statue in Tavistock, Devon (PD).

The sources included China, Japan, and Indonesia. The lure of the passage was that it offered a means “of getting the riches of the Orient for the markets of Western Europe” and vice versa, according to historian James Ronda. The western route seemed to guarantee “wealth and imperial power. Those are strong motives and enormously influential forces.”6 For at least four centuries, finding the Northwest Passage was a dream like finding the Holy Grail, the fountain of youth, and Eldorado. Uncovering a route from Europe to the Far East by sailing west inspired all of Western Europe. It was an enduring dream and was not to be abandoned until well into the 20th century. In the late 15th century, the search motivated such navigators as Christopher Columbus and John Cabot. Cabot was attempting to find a simple way to the East when he ran into a 3,000-mile-wide obstacle: North America. The 16th and 17th centuries saw efforts by Martin Frobisher, Francis Drake, John Davis, Henry Hudson, William Baffin, and others who probed the eastern and western edges of the New World to find a waterway that connected the oceans.7 In the 17th century, England established Jamestown in part to be a launching pad to empower further exploration for finding the Northwest Passage. Investors in the Virginia Company were banking on the eventual discovery of the Northwest Passage. Few thought it did not exist. Many of the Northwest Passage explorers would focus on the northern regions of North America in the belief that a polar passageway existed. Belief in the existence of the Northwest Passage was so common that cartographers put it on their maps and named it the Strait of Anian. The phrase “Northwest Passage” first appeared in print in the reports of Richard Hakluyt, a geographer who published Voyages in Search of the NorthWest Passage in 1587. He sought to prove that there was a passage through America “to go to Cathay and the East Indies.” Cathay was another name for China. Citing Plato and Aristotle in support of his argument, Hakluyt said that learned men of the past “would never have so constantly affirmed” such a passage “if they had not had great good cause and many probable reasons to have led them thereunto.”8

An English galleon, Golden Hinde, one of Sir Francis Drake’s ships (CCA-SA-3.0).

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Incidentally, there really is a Northwest Passage — it is covered in thick ice. In the 21st century, nature 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid.

may be opening the way. As the New York Times reported in October 2007, “The Arctic ice cap shrank so much this summer that waves briefly lapped along two long-imagined Arctic shipping routes, the Northwest Passage over Canada and the Northern Sea Route over Russia.”9

Discussion Question Why was the myth of the Northwest Passage so enduring?

Lesson 3 Secondary Source (A fairly inaccurate summary of the Age of Exploration) Discovers and Explorers, by Edward R. Shaw10 Four hundred years ago most of the people who lived in Europe thought that the earth was flat. They knew only the land that was near them. They knew the continent of Europe, a small part of Asia, and a strip along the northern shore of Africa. They thought that this known land was surrounded by a vast body of water that was like a broad river. Sailors were afraid to venture far upon this water, for they feared they would fall over the edge of the earth. Other seafaring men believed that if they should sail too far out upon this water their vessels would be lost in a fog, or they would suddenly begin to slide downhill, and would never be able to return. Wind gods and storm gods, too, were supposed to dwell upon this mysterious sea. Men believed that these wind and storm gods would be very angry with anyone who dared enter their domain and that in their wrath they would hurl the ships over the edge of the earth, or keep them wandering round and round in a circle, in the mist and fog.

It is no wonder that the name “Sea of Darkness” was given to the great body of water which we now know to be the Atlantic Ocean, nor is it surprising that the sailors feared to venture far out upon it.

These sailors had no dread at all of a sea called the Mediterranean, upon which they made voyages without fear of danger. This sea was named the Mediterranean because it was supposed to be in the middle of the land that was then known. On this body of water the sailors were very bold, fighting, robbing, and plundering strangers and foes without any thought of fear. They sailed through this sea eastward to Constantinople, their ships being loaded with metals, woods, and pitch. These they traded for silks, cashmeres, dyewoods, spices, perfumes, precious stones, ivory, and pearls. All of these things were brought by caravan 9. http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/winter08/passage.cfm. 10. Edward R. Shaw, Discovers and Explorers (New York: American Book Co., 1900).

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from the far Eastern countries, such as India, China, and Japan, to the cities on the east coast of the Mediterranean. This caravan journey was very long and tiresome. Worse than this, the Turks, through whose country the caravans passed, began to see how valuable this trade was, and they sent bands of robbers to prevent the caravans from reaching the coast. As time went on, these land journeys grew more difficult and more dangerous, until the traders saw that the day would soon come when they would be entirely cut off from traffic with India and the rich Eastern countries. The Turks would secure all their profitable business. So the men of that time tried to think of some other way of reaching the East. Among those who wished to find a short route to India was Prince Henry of Portugal, the bold navigator and studious man mentioned earlier. He was desirous of securing the rich Indian trade for his own country. So he established a school for navigators at Lisbon, and gathered around him many men who wanted to study about the sea. Here they made maps and charts, and talked with one another about the strange lands which they thought might be found far out in that mysterious body of water which they so dreaded and feared. It is probable that they had heard some accounts of the voyages of other navigators on this wonderful sea, and the beliefs about land beyond. There was Eric the Red, a bold navigator of Iceland, who had sailed west to Greenland, and planted there a colony that grew and thrived. There was also Eric’s son Leif, a venturesome young Viking who had made a voyage south from Greenland, and reached a strange country with wooded shores and fragrant vines. This country he called Vinland because of the abundance of wild grapes. When he returned to Greenland, he took a load of timber back with him.

Leif Ericson discovers North America, a painting by Christian Krohg, 1893 (PD-US).

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Some of the people of Greenland had tried to make a settlement along this shore which Leif discovered, but it is thought that the Indians drove them away. It may now be said of this settlement that no trace of it has ever been found, although the report that the Norsemen paid many visits to the shore of North America is undoubtedly true. Another bold sea rover of Portugal sailed four hundred miles from land, where he picked up a strangely carved paddle and several pieces of wood of a sort not to be found in Europe. St. Brandon, an Irish priest, was driven in a storm far, far to the west, and landed upon the shore of a strange country, inhabited by a race of people different from any he had ever seen. All this time the bold Portuguese sailors were venturing farther and farther down the coast of Africa. They hoped to be able to sail around that continent and up the other side to India. But they dared not go beyond the equator, because they did not know the stars in the Southern Hemisphere and therefore had no guide. They also believed that beyond the equator there was a frightful region of intense heat, where the sun scorched the earth and where the waters boiled.

Map of the north Atlantic, Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, Iceland and Greenland, which includes some fantasy islands in the Atlantic, c 1570 (PDUS).

Many marvelous stories were told about the islands which the sailors said they saw in the distance. Scarcely a vessel returned from a voyage without some new story of signs of land seen by the crew. The people who lived on the Canary Islands said that an island with high mountains on it could be seen to the west on clear days, but no one ever found it. Some thought these islands existed only in the imagination of the sailors. Others thought they were floating islands, as they were seen in many different places. Everyone was anxious to find them, for they were said to be rich in gold and spices. You can easily understand how excited many people were in regard to new lands and how they wished to find out whether the earth was round or not. There was but one way to find out, and that was to try to sail around it. For a long time no one was brave enough to venture to do so. To start out and sail away from land on this unknown water was to the people of that day as dangerous and foolhardy a journey as to try to cross the ocean in a balloon is to us at the present time.

Discussion Question Edward R. Shaw, the distinguished scholar and Dean of the School of Pedagogy, New York University, writes a fairly inaccurate summary of the Age of Exploration. The question arises, how could he say things like, “Four hundred years ago most of the people who lived in Europe thought that the earth was flat”? Other scholars at the time knew this to be inaccurate. Discuss some of the inaccuracies of this essay and why you think Dr. Shaw stated them.

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Lesson 4 The Limits of Secondary Sources The most reliable historians are ones who examine the sources for themselves, and who at the same time take advantage of the suggestions, criticisms, and explanations which have been made by other scholars who have also studied the original documents.

Adapted from James Harvey Robinson, “The Historical point of View”11 It is clear that all our information in regard to past events and conditions must be derived from evidence of some kind. This evidence is called the source. Sometimes there are a number of good and reliable sources for an event, for example, for the decapitation of King Charles I of England in 1649, or for the march of Napoleon into Russia. Sometimes there is but a single, unreliable source, as, for instance, in the case of the burial of King Alaric in a riverbed. For a great many important matters about which we should like to know, there are, unfortunately, no written sources at all, and we can only guess how things were. For example, we do not know what the Germans were doing before Julius Caesar came into contact with them and took the trouble to give a brief account of them. We can learn but little about the bishops of Rome (or popes) before the time of the Emperor Constantine, for few references to them have come down to us. However, few of those who read and study history ever come into contact with the primary, or first­hand sources; they get their information secondhand. It is much more convenient to read what the modern historian Edward Gibbon has to say of Constantine than to refer to Eusebius, Eutropius, and other ancient writers from whom he gained knowledge. Moreover, Gibbon carefully studied and compared all the primary sources, and it may be urged that he has given a truer, fuller, and more attractive account of the period than can be found in any one of them. His Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is certainly a work of the highest rank; but, nevertheless, it is only a report of others’ reports. It is therefore not a primary but a secondary source. Most of the historical knowledge current among us is not, however, derived from even a secondary source such as Gibbon and similar authoritative writers. Rather, it comes from the reading of textbooks, encyclopedia stories, dramas, and magazine articles. Popular manuals and articles are commonly written by those who know little or nothing of the primary sources; they are consequently at least third-hand, even when based upon the best secondary accounts. As a matter of fact, they are usually patched together from older manuals and articles, and may be four, five, or six times removed from the original source of knowledge. It is well known that the more often a report passes from mouth to mouth, the less trustworthy and accurate it tends to become. Unimportant details which appeal to the imagination will be magnified, while fundamental considerations are easily forgotten, if they happen to be prosaic and commonplace. Historians (like other people) are sometimes fond of good stories and may be led astray by some false rumor which, once started into circulation, gets further and further from the truth with each repetition.

Alaric entering Athens, illustration c. 1920s (PD-US).

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11. James Harvey Robinson, “The Historical point of View,” in Readings in European History, Vol I (Boston, MA: Ginn, 1904), p. 1–13.

For example, when writing about 1600, a distinguished historian of the Church, Cardinal Baronius, made the statement — on very insufficient evidence — that, as the year 1000 approached, the people of Europe generally believed that the world was about to come to an end. Robertson, a very popular Scotch historian of the 18th century, repeated the statement and went on to describe the terrible panic that seized upon sinful men as the awful year drew on. Succeeding writers, including some very distinguished ones, accepted and even elaborated on Robertson’s account. About 30 years ago, however, a French scholar pointed out that there was really no adequate basis for this strange tale. To the chroniclers of the time, the year 1000 was clearly no more portentous than 997 or 1003. This story of the panic, which passed as historical fact for some 300 years, offers an excellent illustration of the danger of relying upon secondary sources.

Charlemagne (742–814) receiving the submission of Widukind at Paderborn in 785, by Ary Scheffer (1795–1858) (PD-US).

One of the first questions then to ask upon taking up an historical work is, “Where did the writer obtain the information? Has the writer simply copied his statements from the more easily accessible works in a familiar language, however unreliable and out of date they may be? Or, dissatisfied with such uncertain sources, has the writer become familiar with the most recent researches of the distinguished scholars in the field, in whatever language they may have been written? Or, still better, has the historian made a personal study of the original evidence which has come down to us of the events and conditions which are under discussion?” For example, a little book or essay on Charlemagne might be written after reading Hodgkin’s Charles the Great, West’s Alcuin, and one or two other easily accessible books on the subject. On the other hand, the writer might turn to the great French and German treatises on Charlemagne’s reign and become acquainted with all the articles which have appeared on the subject in historical journals or in the transactions of learned societies. Every conscientious historian would wish, however, to go still further and directly see the evidence and draw personal conclusions. Good historians would turn to the sources themselves and carefully read the Annals of the Monastery of Lorsch, The Life of Charlemagne by his secretary, Einhard, and the so-called Annals of Einhard. Such a research would also scrutinize all the numerous laws passed in Charlemagne’s reign and consult all the writers of the time who refer to the emperor or to public events. In this way mastery would be gained of all that the past has handed down to us upon this subject and all that is to be known about the matter.

Discussion Question How does a historian know if a secondary source is valuable?

Equestrian statue of Charlemagne, by Agostino Cornacchini (1725) in St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican (CCASA-3.0).

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Lesson 5 Contributions to Geography The Age of Exploration ended in the early 17th century after technological advancements and increased knowledge of the world allowed Europeans to travel easily across the globe by sea. To a large degree, expeditions of exploration were stimulated, even made necessary, by limited cartography and primitive mapmaking. Once nations knew where everything was and who lived there, exploration was over. Of course, in a sense, the Age of Exploration has never ended. There are still expeditions into the Amazon basin and Antarctica. But for our purposes, the Age of Exploration, except for the search for the Northwest Passage, ended with the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804. It more or less ended when people stopped exploring and started settling down. Though the Age of Exploration officially ended in the 17th century, it is important to note, however, that exploration did not cease entirely at this time. For instance, eastern Australia was not discovered until 1770, and the Arctic and Antarctic areas were not heavily explored until the 19th century. Much of Africa was also unexplored until the 19th and even early 20th centuries. Even though much of the travel during the Age of Exploration was done in an effort to find new trade routes, including the Northwest Passage, it did have a significant impact on geography. By traveling to different regions around the globe, explorers were able to learn more about areas like Africa and the Americas. In learning more about such places, explorers were able to bring knowledge of a larger world back to Europe.

Map of Europe as a queen, printed by Sebastian Munster in Basel in 1570 (PD).

In addition to just learning about the presence of the lands themselves, these explorations often brought various new species and new cultures of people to light. The Age of Exploration was a veritable bonanza for European cartographers. They suddenly had massive amounts of information about heretofore unexplored territories. A plethora of new maps emerged in the 16th century. Most are fairly inaccurate, if artfully conceived. They nonetheless served as stepping-stones for later geographic knowledge. These maps allowed people to see and to study various areas around the world where they would never go.

Discussion Question When and why did the Age of Exploration end?

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Chapter 4

Clash of Cultures: Native Americans and Europeans First Thoughts General William Henry Harrison at Waynes Victory (LOC).

Suspicion and hostility, stemming from cultural differences as well as mutual feelings of distrust and superiority, permeated relations between Native Americans and Europeans. Intertribal conflict among the Native Americans, and expansionist desires on the part of Europeans, exacerbated these tensions. The resulting white-Indian conflicts often turned ugly and ultimately resulted in the near destruction of the Native American peoples.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by discussing the stereotypes that energized Europeans toward Native Americans. Next, we will look specifically at the accommodation of New France to Native Americans. We will then evaluate the English relationships with Native Americans. Finally, we will evaluate the effect of European wars on Native Americans. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss Native American stereotypes that emerged among Europeans 2. Analyze why the French were successful in their accommodation strategies 3. Evaluate English and Native American relationships 4. Study the effect of European wars on Native Americans 5. Understand why Lewis is a growing archetype character in European/Native American Relations

Concepts Stereotype Accommodation Nation building 35

Lesson 1 First Encounters From the beginning, Native Americans were viewed with both suspicion and curiosity. They were misunderstood and certainly unappreciated. They were considered foreigners in their own land. In 1646, a Christian convert asked the Massachusetts missionary John Eliot: “Why do you call us Indians?” Because Columbus mistakenly believed he had arrived in the East Indies. Even though Europeans realized that Columbus had not reached the East Indies, the name Indian continued to be used. There were even greater differences between the Europeans and the Native Americans. Europeans were shocked by the contrasts between the cultures, particularly in family roles. Europeans loved to stereotype the Native Americans. Many Europeans regarded the Native Americans as immoral and free of all of civilization’s restraints. In their eyes, the Native Americans were wild men and women and certainly inferior to Europeans.

The Treaty of Penn with the Indians, from 1771 until 1772 (PD-Art).

Surprisingly, there was also a contradictory stereotype. According to this stereotype, the Native Americans embodied innocence and freedom, lacking private property, yet possessing health and eternal youth. Arthur Barlowe, who visited Roanoke Island, off the coast of North Carolina, in 1584, described the Native Americans as nature’s nobility: “We found the people most gentle, loving and faithful, void of all guile and treason, and such as live after the manner of the golden age.”1 Another favorite stereotype was the wise Native American who assisted whites in their plans to civilize the wilderness. But if some Europeans regarded Native Americans with fascination, most looked at them with fear. The “bloodthirsty savage” who stood in the way of progress and civilization was the stereotype of choice. The most significant view, by far, was the notion that Europeans could not live side by side with Native Americans. William Penn tested this theory, with some initial success, but even in Pennsylvania, Europeans and Native Americans eventually became enemies. Sadly, in the 18th century many, if not most, Europeans had become opposed to the Native American population.

Discussion Question What were some Native American stereotypes accepted by many Europeans? 36

1. http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/bdorsey1/41docs/04-bar.html.

Lesson 2 Accommodation For various reasons, it was not long before there were numerous wars between Native Americans and Europeans. Generally speaking, relations were friendliest where the number of colonists was fewest, relationships were based on trade, and the Native Americans viewed the Europeans as potential allies. Where European numbers were greatest and their primary objective was farming, relations were rancorous. By the early 18th century, however, it was already clear that friendly relations would be the exception, not the rule. New Spain, unlike the English or the French, viewed Native Americans as a usable labor force — to be put to work, with mixed results. The French and the Native Americans they encountered reached a different kind of accommodation. France’s New World Empire was based largely on trade. In 1504, French fishermen sailed into the Gulf of St. Lawrence looking for cod. Gradually, the French realized that they could increase their profits by trading with the Native Americans for furs. In exchange, French traders supplied Native Americans with clothing, weapons, and other trade goods. In fact, by 1700, a thousand ships a year were engaged in the fur trade along the St. Lawrence River and the interior, where the French constructed forts, missions, and trading posts. It was a hugely profitable business for the French. As a result, the number of settlers in New France remained small, totaling just 3,000 in 1663. Virtually all these settlers were men — mostly traders or Jesuit priests — and many took Native American wives or concubines, helping to promote relations of mutual dependency. The French and Native American cultures were quickly being assimilated.

Discussion Question Why was French accommodation so successful?

Trading furs with the Indians was a great economic endeavor for the French, 1777 (LOC).

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Lesson 3 Nation Building Some Europeans tried their hand at nation building — notably William Penn, who tried his best to ease Native Americans into European benign civilizations by showing fairness and justice. While it worked for a while, in the long run, it failed miserably. A historian explains, “Popular mythology recounts many instances of cooperation between English colonists and Native Americans. Grade schoolers learn about Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, an Native American chief in Virginia, who is said to have rescued Captain John Smith when her father was about to kill him. They encounter Squanto, a member of the Patuxet tribe of eastern Massachusetts, who taught the Pilgrims how to grow corn. They also hear about William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania, who maintained friendly relations with the Native Americans. But there was another side to this story, missing from popular mythology: settlers poisoning Native Americans at peace parleys, offering them clothing infected with smallpox, and burning their villages and cornfields.”2 Walt Disney Productions would have viewers believe that most English settlers dreamed of discovering gold or silver, but the primary goal of the English was to acquire land. Unlike the French and Spanish, the English created self-sustaining settler colonies populated with immigrants. And this meant owning land and displacing the indigenous inhabitants. In English eyes, the Native Americans really did not own land. They may have had some vague rights due to prior occupancy, but they didn’t act like they owned it, and therefore they really did not own it. Generally speaking, the Native Americans were easily displaced. But in the southeast (Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida), the Native American population was better prepared than elsewhere to resist English encroachments. When the Europeans arrived, an estimated one million Native Americans lived in the region, and even though disease and warfare would soon reduce the indigenous population to just 75,000, these people groups initially resisted successfully. These people lived in villages that were often quite sizable with populations of a thousand or more, protected by sturdy wooden fences, and in some cases formidable earthworks. When the English entered their land, tribal chiefs in the southeast were better able than elsewhere to mobilize their people against the outside threat. The first permanent English settlement, Jamestown, was built in 1607 along Virginia’s James River. Approximately 30,000 Algonquian Native Americans lived in the Chesapeake region, divided into 40 tribes. Thirty tribes belonged to a confederacy led by Powhatan. Relations between the colonists and the Native Americans rapidly deteriorated. Food was the initial source of conflict. More interested in finding precious metals than in farming, Jamestown’s residents got part of their food from the Native Americans, which they exchanged for English goods. When the English began to simply seize Native American food stocks, Powhatan cut off supplies, forcing the colonists for a time to subsist on frogs, snakes, and even decaying corpses. Captain John Smith in London.

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2. “Native American Voices,” http://vi.uh.edu/history/nav2.html.

Relations worsened after the colonists began to clear the land and plant tobacco. Since tobacco production rapidly exhausted the soil of nutrients, and it was so valuable, the English began to acquire new lands along the James River. In 1622, the growing hostility erupted into violence. Powhatan’s successor, his brother Opechancanough, attempted to wipe out the English in a surprise attack. Ultimately, after initial success, the uprising was unsuccessful. Even in Pennsylvania, whose Quaker founder William Penn envisioned a “peaceable kingdom” where people of diverse backgrounds and religious beliefs could live together harmoniously, Native Americans were displaced from their lands. Before leaving England, Penn wrote to the Delaware, the dominant tribe in the region, expressing his hope that “we may always live together as neighbors and friends.” True to his word, Penn met with the Delaware and told them that he would not take land from them unless sanctioned by tribal chieftains. Committed to treating Native Americans fairly in negotiating land rights, Penn purchased Delaware lands before reselling them to settlers, and prohibited the sale of alcohol. Penn’s policies were so unusual that they encouraged the Miamis, the Shawnees, and other peoples to move to Pennsylvania. However, after his death, Penn’s own sons and agents reversed his policies, and Pennsylvania’s colonists pushed the Delaware and other peoples off their land without compensation.

Pocahontas saving the life of Capt. John Smith, 1870 (LOC).

Discussion Question Why were the English unable to live peacefully with Native Americans?

Lesson 4 Native Americans and European Contests for Empire To many Europeans, the Native American conflicts were sideshows. The main problem was other European powers, as five world wars were fought in the 18th century. Inevitably, Native Americans were drawn into these world wars. This was in microcosm a cold war that continued for over a thousand years. The major contestants, England and France, fought their wars in the provinces and colonies and avoided, as much as possible, direct confrontations. This was unavoidable four times in the late 17th and 18th centuries.

England, France, the Netherlands, and Spain all competed over trade with the Native Americans. In the long run, the English won and everyone else lost. But Native Americans suffered the most.

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Competition over furs, skins, and other trading goods had many destructive effects on Native Americans. It made Native Americans increasingly dependent on European manufactured goods and firearms. The trade also killed animals that provided a major part of the hunting and gathering economy. Traders spread disease; alcohol debilitated whole tribes. Above all, competition over trade encouraged intertribal warfare and thus undermined the Native Americans’ ability to resist. In what is now New York, for example, the Dutch and English pitted their allies, the Iroquois, against the Huron, who served as buffers between French traders and other tribes. In 17th-century wars, the Hurons were driven westward and ultimately, within a generation, the Iroquois had to join them. Four times between 1689 and 1763, France, England, and their Native American allies waged wars over control of North America. The last and most important conflict, the French and Native American War (1754–1763), began partly because the English and French fought a war over control of the Ohio River Valley, land that historically was Indian land. The English and their Native American allies won this war, but ultimately the French and all Native Americans lost, even those who were allies of the English. To restore western peace, the English issued the Proclamation of 1763, which closed the transMississippi West to white settlement. It never worked, but the prohibition on English settlement in the West was a major cause of the American Revolution. In the 1770s, the Shawnee staged raids into what is now Kentucky and West Virginia in response to an influx of white traders and farmers into the area south of the Ohio River. Whites accused the Native Americans of transforming Kentucky into a “dark and bloody ground,” and struck back. In Lord Dunmore’s War (1774), 3,000 British soldiers defeated 1,000 Native Americans, forcing the Native Americans to abandon their land south of the Ohio River.

Defeat of General Braddock, in the French and Indian War, in Virginia in 1755. Indians armed with rifles in a forest; in background British soldiers, 1855 (LOC).

During the American Revolution itself, both the British and American patriots sought to keep Native Americans neutral. After the Revolution, the eastern Native Americans still represented a formidable barrier to white expansion. In 1790, there were approximately 150,000 Native Americans east of the Mississippi River — a population greater than the number of European colonists in 1700. The end of the revolution unleashed a mad rush of pioneers to Kentucky and Tennessee, rivaled by the opening of Oklahoma in the next century. Between 1784 and 1790, clashes with the Shawnees left more than 1,500 whites dead or captured. President George Washington also wanted to open the country north of the Ohio River. The British, eager to maintain the lucrative fur trade, had refused to relinquish their military posts from this area and provided aid to the Shawnees. During the

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1790s, George Washington dispatched three armies to clear the Ohio country of Native Americans. Twice, a confederacy of eight tribes led by Little Turtle, chief of the Miamis, defeated American forces. In the first campaign, the United States suffered 200 casualties, and in the second, Native Americans killed 900 soldiers. But in 1794, a third army defeated the Native Americans. A 3,000-man force under Anthony Wayne destroyed Native American villages in northwestern Ohio and then overwhelmed 1,000 Native Americans at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Under the Treaty of Greenville (1795), Native Americans ceded much of the present state of Ohio. This was a bitter pill to swallow for Native Americans. In one epic battle they lost everything that they and their forefathers had defended for two generations. Now the entire Midwest and beyond was fair game for further European encroachment.

Discussion Question Why were European wars so devastating to North American Native Americans?

Battle of the Thames, 1813. American forces fighting Tecumseh’s Indian confederation. In the center Col. R. M. Johnson shoots Tecumseh, who has raised his tomahawk. A legend at the bottom describes the men pictured and their role in the battle, 1833 (LOC).

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Lesson 5 Lewis Wetzel: A Case Study Lewis Wetzel was born in Pennsylvania, 1763, the fourth of seven children. The family moved southward to modern West Virginia, where they built a farm. One day when Lewis and his brothers, Jacob and George, assisted his father in the fields, Lewis and his brothers were kidnapped by Native Americans. Lewis later escaped. Lewis matured into an adult with a wild hatred of Native Americans. In 1781, the Americans launched a punitive campaign against the Delawares because of their alliance with the British. The attack was disastrous. The Delawares surrendered, but frontiersmen killed 15 of them anyway. The Delawares retaliated by burning one captive per day for nine days. Later, the chief of the Delawares was invited to a military camp to discuss a treaty. When the Delaware Chief left his canoe, an American man, the choleric and hateful Lewis Wetzel, murdered him. No charges were forthcoming against Wetzel. Later, taunting the Native Americans who put a bounty on his scalp, he grew his hair to great length. Wetzel killed an Iroquois chief coming to similar peace negotiations. Again, succumbing to popular demand, the authorities dared not put Wetzel on trial.

Lewis Wetzel loads on the run (PD).

Despite this, peace was made the following year and a disappointed Wetzel and other Indian haters moved down south to the Spanish colonies. Wetzel died there from yellow fever. Wetzel was no unique example of the frontiersmen. He was a serial killer of Native Americans. He conducted, as it were, a one-man war against the native peoples. His hatred was fanatical. He never settled anywhere, but stayed where he could be sheltered from Indian attack during the night. Wetzel rarely accompanied other people. It is said he got along well with dogs and children, but not so much with people. The only time Wetzel sought company was when he attended shooting competitions — which he won — or when he infrequently played the fiddle in taverns. What made him so popular was his doubtless courage and gruesome acts against Indians. He was a hero for the settlers along the Ohio River. Young men wanted to become Lewis Wetzel. This is instructive. Increasingly, the Lewis Wetzels, both in the European community and in the Native American community, affected the nature of European and Native American relations that emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries. There was quite simply, no middle ground among these people groups. Everything was radicalized.

Discussion Question What can we learn by studying the life of Lewis Wetzel?

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Chapter 5

Meanwhile in Europe: Crisis of Celebration First Thoughts Peter I of Russia stops marauding soldiers after taking Narva in 1704, 1859 (PD-Art).

Premodern Europe, that period of history between the end of the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, was an era of promise. The world was becoming smaller as swift caravels took adventurers to new shores. New nations were appearing in the old. Sweden walked on stage for the first time, and Russia turned her head forever to Europe. As Europeans clashed with Native Americans abroad, they clashed with other Europeans at home.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 5 will examine the rise of premodern Europe. We will look at modern Russia emerging under Peter the Great. We will look even farther north to Sweden and see the first Swedish nation emerge. Next we will look more closely at the economy of premodern Europe and end by looking at the genesis of international, total war. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand why feudalism lasted so long in Russia 2. Reflect on dangers that are engendered by nationalist revolts. 3. Discuss premodern prosperity 4. Analyze what caused premodern cities to grow

Concepts Precedence Duma Nationalist revolts Premodern Era Technological innovation Capital accumulation Linkage Total war 43

Lesson 1 Russia in the 17th Century When Ivan the Terrible died in the middle of the 16th century, Russian society was in a terrible bind. Ivan, who justly deserved the name “terrible,” was at least a “known” quantity. His death created a vacuum of power. A previous ruling family, the Boyars, who could trace their lineage to the Kevan Surs, asserted their Boyar leadership. They introduced a class status based on precedence, which decreed that nobility could only accept military commands or state offices according to their rank, not according to their ability. The Boyars also demanded that the czar rule in cooperation with the Duma, or legislature. The Romanovs, who were coming to power, accepted these demands. The czars, however, as their empire grew, were forced to create a massive civil service that essentially was autonomously controlled by local, powerful governors appointed by the czar. Thus, the local governor controlled the police, garbage collection, and mail delivery — all aspects of Russian life. This surrogate form of feudalism delayed the complete destruction of Russian feudalism until well into the 20th century. In the 17th century, there emerged some 50 government departments, each concerned with some aspect of the central government. More reforms took place. With constant losses against Poland and Sweden, Russians realized that they were militarily inferior. This brought many military reforms, but Russia never lost its penchant for using its massive armies, not its military genius, to win battles. The Eastern Orthodox Church, always a vital part of Russian life, grew stronger. Despite all of this, Russia was still considered by many in Western Europe to be a backward and primitive Western European country, but Western European nonetheless. One man changed this view, however, and within a few years Peter the Great propelled his country onto the European stage, establishing Russia as one of the great powers. Russian Tsar Peter the Great by Godfrey Kneller, 1698 (PDArt).

Young Peter, heir to the Russian throne, detested the machination and intrigue in the royal household. He developed a deep hatred for the old ways in Russia, of the barbarous medieval way of life as well as the city of Moscow itself. Having to live there would have impacted his life significantly, so he built a new city: St. Petersburg. During this time, Peter’s curiosity for the West was still growing strong. He visited the foreign suburbs of Moscow, dining and mingling with the westerners, making friends with Western Europeans. Peter the Great also built the Russian navy.

Discussion Question Why was the end of feudalism delayed so long in Russia? 44

Lesson 2 The Swedish Empire: Nationalist Revolt Not many would have foreseen the emergence of the Swedes as a powerful European nation before the year 1600. On the edge of northern Europe, with its backside in the North Pole and lacking the many national requisites necessary for aggrandizement, Sweden was never really considered a serious European power. Historically, the Swedes were dominated by Denmark. The decisive Danish triumph over Sweden in the Kalmar War (1611–1613) implied that all of the Scandinavians might be reunited under the Danish monarch. However, that was not to be. In a sense, Sweden, like the African kingdoms, enjoyed benign neglect. No one took it seriously. It was a joke and was not even placed on most European maps. The Swedish empire would be born out of a bloodbath and die in one as well. But not yet. Danish King Christian II was crowned king of Sweden, and he was one of the cruelest rulers in Europe — and he was competing with Ivan the Terrible. Christian quickly became known as Christian the Tyrant. Now a young patriot, Gustav, emerged. He was distantly related to an earlier Swedish monarch. That was enough to encourage people to rally behind him. But he had much more to offer. He was a young man in his early twenties at the time, and had been an eager volunteer in the army of the rebellion. By 1520, he had a small army under his control. Over the next two years he wore down the Danish army and had consolidated his position as the leader of the remainder of the resistance. Gustav compared himself to Moses, emancipating his countrymen from bondage. He was a charismatic and adroit leader and revolutionary. This was one of the first successful, popular nationalist revolts in history. The remaining Swedish patriots threw their support to his cause and elected him king of Sweden. Gustav did not have the benefit of modern social media, but he nonetheless was able to engender massive support from the populace in record time.

Christian II imprisoned in the tower at Sønderborg castle, 1871 (PD-Art).

By 1523, he had enough strength to take Stockholm, which he did shortly accomplish. He commenced a dynasty that would last until 1654. King Gustav would still have much work ahead of him in bringing peace and prosperity to Sweden, but the process had begun.

Discussion Question Nationalist, grassroots revolts are great, but what dangers do they engender (e.g., Napoleon)? 45

Lesson 3 Economics: Commercialized Surpluses Usually, economic growth is related to technological innovation. That was not the case in 16th-century Europe. Technological innovation was too sparse to sustain even such a sluggish rate of growth.

Today, the whole world seems dependent on growth, but some historians have argued that in the long run there was no such thing as growth in the European economy between the end of the Middle Ages (1500) and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (1775). This was called the premodern era. Not that there was no prosperity. There was. But economic growth was sluggish and unremarkable. That did not mean that workers were inefficient. European output per worker grew by 0.1 to 0.2 percent during the period between 1000 and 1800, with peaks around 0.6 percent in the most advanced areas such as 16th-century Holland. That is not much by modern standards, but that’s still anywhere between a 120 and 400 percent increase. Where did this growth come from? Another common cause of growth is capital accumulation. In other words, one saves money and later invests it, causing productivity to rise and profits to increase. But once more, this is of little use at a time with virtually no large industrial plants. There were no industries to invest in! Most of the industries — weaving for instance — occurred in homes and were called cottage industries. Europe was powered, and would be powered for two centuries, by a farm economy. Using bigger fields or working longer may have improved productivity up to a point, but soon it would have met a ceiling. A human being cannot work more than 12 hours in the fields. Accumulating capital in agriculture is very difficult. Where is it placed? Seed? Machinery? Labor? So what caused growth in this tumultuous era? Wealth emerged in labor. The European laborer was dexterous, diligent, and productive. And his productivity was increasing. For example, an investor could hire 56 men to travel to Virginia or Maryland and grow tobacco and, given the nature of European labor, there was a very good chance that the laborers would grow a bumper crop of tobacco and the investors would make a huge profit. Of course these workers, indentured servants, were only obligated to work for the “company” for a few years, but there was a seemingly endless supply of labor and new cultivatable land. Division of labor always existed in agrarian economies, following gender lines. Women would stay around the house to raise the children, cook, weave, or take care of the garden while men would work in the fields. This division often led to self-contained farms where almost everything that was consumed was produced on the spot. But even the smallest European farm was producing a surplus that was ending up in urban marketplaces and generating a growing amount of income. This was called the commercialization of one’s surplus. Thus, the humble farmer’s market was, in 1600, probably the richest part of town.

Discussion Question In what way was European prosperity from 1500–1600 unlike any other previous economic boom? 46

Lesson 4 Sociology: Urbanization Inevitably, agrarian prosperity engenders urban growth. A great example of this is Italy. During the late medieval period, an important number of cities were developed on the peninsula: Amalfi, Venice, Rome, Genoa, Naples, Florence, and Milan. The markets and fairs created these major urban centers that provided a convenient site and protection for the merchants. With this capital, Italian merchants invested in the East Indian spice market and made fabulous fortunes. The prosperity, though, was based on the commercial surpluses of farmers. Urbanization attracted artisans and fueled a second wave of specialization and division of labor. Craftsmen were attracted by one another as they could share the costs of production, provide mutual protection by creating guilds, and could complement each other. For example, while building a cathedral for the church, the carpenter could work together with the mason.

Queen Berthe instructing girls to spin flax on spindles using distaffs, Albert Anker, 1888 (PDArt).

The concentration of skilled and specialized workers in towns is revealed by the fact that in 13th-century Colchester, England, 65 percent of the population had a surname linked to their occupation (e.g., Draper, Smith), while this proportion was only 35 percent in the neighboring countryside. Eventually, innovations came. These were spontaneous, common-sense innovations and inventions, like the ones we see on television — e.g., the contraption that boils eggs out of the shells; the device that peels apples. The innovations came in response to expressed needs of artisans and cottage industries that emerged around the surplus food market. Farmers, pockets full of coins, would buy from the seamstress in the next block and the jeweler down the road. Ultimately, then, cities developed commercial centers that inevitably grew up around the farmer’s market. Sooner or later, premodern economies reached their limit, weakened, and collapsed. The increased agricultural productivity would allow the population to grow, but at one point a production setback would create a food shortage and weaken people’s bodies so that many of them would die due to malnutrition. This would lead markets to retract. Traders and artisans lost confidence in their food providers. This confidence might quickly cause a once-prosperous farmer to stay home on Saturday. When he did this, he did not sell his surpluses, therefore did not buy the artisan products. In economic terms, the linkage between two industries was broken, and both suffered. Nonetheless, the premodern economy did very well and, thanks to overseas expansion, became quite multinational and promised a firm base full of available capital for the Industrial Revolution that was just around the corner.

Discussion Question What causes premodern cities to grow, and why did their prosperity remain tied to agrarian industries?

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Lesson 5 International Warfare An international war is fought between two or more states. At the simplest level it is a conflict between two nations.

In the last chapter we saw the impact of a series of world wars and international wars on the New World. Now let us examine their impact on the Old World. The French and Indian War, really an Anglo-French war, is an example of an international war. Inevitably, international wars involve coalitions of allied nations fighting each other. Wars of imperialism were fought to establish colonies; they inevitably became world wars. The Serbian-Austrian Balkan conflict in 1914, for example, quickly escalated to a world war. Sometimes, international wars include evenly matched opponents. Sometimes, the combatants are mismatched. The European nations that founded colonies during the 17th century had much greater firepower than the native peoples whom they conquered. Wars of intervention are also international. Two 21st-century examples are the war in Iraq and the war in Afghanistan.

Descent of the French attack on Newfoundland near St. John’s during the French and Indian War, 1762 (PD).

In the 20th century, the term total war was applied to international conflicts of great severity. The notion of total war was enunciated by German General Clausewitz early in the 19th century. By it, he meant a war in which all of the enemy’s territory, citizens, and property are attacked. These wars were rare in the 17th century. In fact, the only one that came close was the French and Indian War (or the Seven Years’ War). Total war also implies the complete mobilization of a society, its citizens, and its industries to provide the military means to wage war. Again, very few wars require total mobilization. No war was fought like that until the 19th century.

Discussion Question Why are international wars rarely total wars?

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Chapter 6

The Renaissance: The Problem of Progress First Thoughts A “puller” removes a printed sheet from the press. The “beater” to his right is inking it. In the background, compositors are setting type, 1568 (PD-Art).

The Italian Renaissance placed mankind center stage once again. Or so it goes. This view of the Renaissance makes two broad assumptions: culture was dead in the Middle Ages, and it was killed by the Church. Yet nothing could be more untrue. In many ways, the Renaissance, which successfully defined itself as a secular revival, nonetheless owed a debt of gratitude to the Church. This was, in modern times, the first revival that saw itself as separate from God. It was not the last one. The term “Renaissance” literally means “rebirth” and was the period in European civilization immediately following the Middle Ages, conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in classical learning and values. The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents; the substitution of the Copernican (sun-centered) for the Ptolemaic (earth-centered) system of astronomy; the decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce; and the invention or application of such potentially powerful innovations as paper and gunpowder. To the scholars and thinkers of the day, however, it was primarily a time of the revival of classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 6 will examine the genesis of the Italian Renaissance. In some ways the Renaissance, or the interpretation of it, grew out of a grievance mentality that secular Europe had with the Church, or their version of the Church. We will see that the Italian city-states were the ideal setting for the Renaissance to flourish. Finally, we will look at the Northern Renaissance, whose most notable leader was Erasmus, the first real modern writer. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Evaluate the author’s criticisms of popular interpretations of the Renaissance 2. Understand a grievance mentality 3. Reflect on why the Renaissance began in Italy

Concepts

4. Discuss what new contemporary invention has changed the course of history 5. Analyze how social reform often piggybacks on religious and cultural reform movements

Humanists Grievance mentality Johannes Gutenberg 49

Lesson 1 The World Awoke as From Sleep Modern historians have accepted the term “Renaissance” as a convenient label for the exciting age of intellectual and artistic revival, which continued through the 16th century.

When I take a nap in the afternoon, which I almost always do, it is not so much a cessation of productive activity as participation in another, equally beneficial, activity. The arts undoubtedly took a hit during the Middle Ages. Who had time for such frivolities! With the pope urging everyone to deal with those nasty Saracens pitching their tents in the Garden of Gethsemane, there was no time for art. But, as we have seen, that did not mean that the Middle Ages neglected the artistic expression altogether. Tons of beautiful, ornate cathedrals were built. Fantastic tapestries were sown. And so forth. As folks have a tendency to do — I bet you think your parents’ notions of art is archaic — the young 15th-century, hiphop generation thought that the culture and art of their parents and grandparents was weak, if not absent altogether. In Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries, young thinkers and artists began to view the thousand years that had elapsed since the fall of Rome as the “Dark Ages” — a time of stagnation and ignorance. Of course, this was in contrast to their own age, which appeared to them wise and beautiful. They exuberantly, and many thought “rudely,” proclaimed that they were participating in a unique intellectual and aesthetic revolution sparked by the “rebirth” (renaissance) of the values and forms of classical antiquity. As always, this was a pretty egocentric, myopic view. Church historians had maintained the predominance of Plutarch, and others, in scholarship since the Church was founded 1,500 years earlier. But, alas, this trendy generation felt the need to call their age the one and only, the special age, “the Renaissance.” Since the Renaissance had deep roots in the Middle Ages, which also made rich contributions to civilization, in what ways can the Renaissance be said to signify a “rebirth”?

Leonardo da Vinci’s The Annunciation, 1472–75 (PD).

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Of course, there are some old grouches, like myself, who have a few problems with the Renaissance. For one thing, I miss the Christcentered art and philosophy that was replaced by art and philosophy replete with humanism and self-centeredness. But what do I know? But I digress! The fact is, the Renaissance was a fairly important period of history and needs to be examined closely. For one thing, some would say that 21st-century folks are experiencing something like a Renaissance with our new art, literature, and education revitalization. Don’t we wish! So, enough. Let’s just accept the assumption that there was a great “awakening” in the middle of the 15th century that transformed society forever. How was it, then, that at a certain period, about 14 centuries after Christ, humanity awoke, as it were, from slumber and began to live? That is a question which we can but imperfectly answer. A glance at the history of the preceding centuries shows that, after the dissolution of the Roman Empire, there was no possibility of any intellectual revival. The barbarous races, which had deluged Europe, had to absorb their barbarism; the fragments of Roman civilization had either to be destroyed or assimilated. Charlemagne did the latter, and some would say, saved civilization. But it was not Germany or France who started the Renaissance. We will talk more about this in the next lesson. Why Italy? The Church, which was the traditional whipping boy of the Renaissance man, had a vital presence in Italy, and, ironically, more than anything else, made the Renaissance possible. The philosopher Thomas Hobbes laconically stated that the Church was nothing more than the ghost of the dead Roman Empire.

Rusticated stone walls and the kneeling windows of the Renaissance Palazzo Medici Riccardi, Florence, Italy (CCA3.0).

Italy had wealth. The city-states were floating in profits from the Crusades and the spice trade of previous centuries. Italy had a language. All these conspired to make Italy the leader in the nascent Renaissance.

Discussion Question What problem does the author have with popular interpretations of the Renaissance?

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Lesson 2 The Italian Renaissance Yes, the Renaissance began in Italy. It wasn’t like the Italians created anything new. No, they simply rediscovered something that had been around forever: Greek and Roman classical literature. Parenthetically, when I despair at the mess our post-Christian, post-modern world is becoming, it gives me comfort to know that a bunch of clever folks — like da Vinci and his pals — initiated a huge, iconoclastic cultural revolution by resurrecting something that was ancient. Dare I hope that your generation will do something like that and bring the Holy Bible back into our culture? Who knows what effect that might have on this tired old culture? When the Renaissance began, the civilizations of Greece and Rome had long been exerting a partial influence, not only upon Italy, but on other parts of medieval Europe as well. But their influence was indirect. It was the same way our parents affect our habits — for instance, I part my hair on the left, even though I know it is out of style, because my father and grandfather both parted their hair on the left. I am not sure why I do it, but I do it. In Italy especially, when nasty Germanic barbarians departed, the people began to feel a returning consciousness of their ancient culture, and a desire to reproduce it. To Italians, the Latin language was easy, and their country abounded in documents and monumental records which symbolized past greatness. The Renaissance, quite literally, was in their back yards, in their churches, and in their city squares.

In 1570, Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) published I quattro libri dell’architettura (“The Four Books of Architecture”) in Venice. This book was widely printed and responsible to a great degree for spreading the ideas of the Renaissance through Europe. All these books were intended to be read and studied not only by architects, but also by patrons (PD).

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One little caveat. The Italian revivalists conveniently ignored, or de-emphasized the Roman Catholic Church, which, after all, was a pretty important part of the late Roman Empire, especially in the artistic area. This Classical Revival, as it is called, was the product of a more worldly focus of interest — a focus on human beings and on this life as an end in itself rather than a temporary halting place on the way to eternity. Of course, that is an entirely wrong interpretation of the Roman Catholic Church. As we saw in Volume I, the Roman Catholic Church was anything but uninvolved in the daily lives of Europeans. It was practically, benignly involved in every aspect of life. It certainly was not preaching a “pie in the sky by and by” theology. But that is what Renaissance men proclaimed. So the Church took a significant hit in the Renaissance. Again, though, it was in the Church where Italian Renaissance progenitors found their treasures. Renaissance scholars searched the monasteries for old Latin manuscripts that had been unappreciated and largely ignored by medieval scholars — but not by churchmen like Thomas Aquinas. Furthermore, they translated hitherto unknown works from Greek into Latin, the common language of scholarly discourse — Latin, again, that had been preserved and refined by the Roman Catholic Church.

Nonetheless, the humanists found a new significance in classical literature, and artists in Italy were stimulated and inspired by their study and imitation of classical sculpture and architecture. But the Renaissance was far more than the reclamation of a bunch of old, dusty manuscripts. The humanists of the Renaissance were — except for a lack of interest in science — the harbingers of the modern world, enthusiastically engaged in widening the horizon of human interests. Again, the humanists, who constantly engaged in a delusional duel with the Church, convinced the world that the Church was anti-science when in fact it never was, isn’t now, and never will be anti-science. Just because the Church is a little uncomfortable with some quasi-scientific theories like spontaneous combustion and evolution doesn’t mean the Church is anti-science!

The humanists, as the Renaissance scholars were called, greatly added to the quantity of classical literature that had been entering the mainstream of Western thought since the Middle Ages. Or not. Any obscure monk at that time would tell you that these writings were available for everyone and, in fact, religious people were reading them.

But the premodern media pronounced that Renaissance culture exhibited a new, robust belief in the worth of the individual and the desire to think and act as a free agent. The word on the street was that this was a new thing, and generations of Westerners have agreed.

Discussion Question The Renaissance humanists defined the new movement initially as one that was different from the old-fashioned church. Thus they exhibited what is called a grievance mentality. What is the danger of defining a movement out of a grievance mentality?

Lesson 3 Italian City-States As we have seen in chapter 5, during the premodern era a new society emerged in Western Europe. Commerce and a money economy revived, and towns arose and became self-governing communities in the midst of despotic regimes. While Italy had been one of the leaders in these 12th- and 13th-century developments, during the next two centuries it moved significantly ahead of the rest of Europe. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the city-states of northern and central Italy experienced a tremendous growth of population and expanded to become small territorial states. City services improved and the civil service increased. In effect, feudalism had died out in Italy two centuries before it died in the rest of Europe. Unlike other European nobility, who enjoyed their rural agrarian lives, the Italian nobles moved to the cities and joined with the rich merchants to form a patrician ruling class. For the first time, the wealthiest people in the country lived in cities. 53

Most wealth was gained from commerce, particularly the import-export trade in luxury goods from the Orient. So much wealth was accumulated by these merchant-capitalists that they turned to money lending and banking. From the 13th to the 15th centuries, Italians monopolized European banking. These economic and political successes made the Italian upper-class groups selfconfident and passionately attached to their city-states. Literature and art reflected their self-confidence. Poets described them riding “self-assuredly through the streets”; every major sculptor and painter produced their portraits, sometimes tucked away in corners of religious paintings; and architects affirmed their importance by constructing their imposing palaces. The palazzo of the Medici, for example, still stands in Florence. Furthermore, the humanists provided them with an ideology, a sycophant ideology that confirmed their suspicions that they really were hot stuff! The humanists’ focus on individuals and society, and their insistent theme of “the dignity of man,” were entirely in keeping with the outlook, manners, and accomplishments of the dominant urban groups. These groups patronized the new, more secular art and the new secular values, both largely alien to the church-dominated culture of the Middle Ages. Nobody was talking about advancing the Kingdom of God.

Discussion Question Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?

Lesson 4 The Importance of Printing Very important in the success of the Renaissance, and later in the success of the Reformation, was the invention of the printing press. Perhaps no invention has so changed the course of history. The essential elements — paper and block printing — had been known in China since the 8th century. During the 12th century the Spanish Moors introduced papermaking to Europe; in the 13th century Europeans were in close contact with China, and block printing became known in the West. The next crucial step was taken in the 1440s at Mainz, Germany, where Johannes Gutenberg and other printers invented movable type by cutting up old printing blocks to form individual letters. Gutenberg used movable type to print papal documents and the first printed version of the Bible (1454). Johannes Gutenberg, 16th century (PD).

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Gutenberg standing near a printing press holds a scroll that reads “and there was light”; pedestal is decorated with four reliefs, 1839 (CCASA3.0).

Soon, books were being printed all over Europe. In 1465, two Germans brought printing to Italy, and within four years the works of most classical authors (including Cicero, Plutarch, Virgil, Pliny, and Caesar) had been printed. In all of Europe during the remainder of the 15th century perhaps 40,000 titles were published. Books were now affordable and in the hands of almost all Western Europeans. More importantly, pamphlets and controversial tracts soon were widely circulated. This revolution had as much impact in a short time as the Internet later caused.

Discussion Question What new contemporary invention has changed the course of history?

Lesson 5 Erasmus and Northern Humanism The Renaissance was not merely in Italy. The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in northern Europe, or more broadly, in Europe outside of Italy. Before 1450, Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century the ideas spread around Europe. This influenced the German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Netherlands Renaissance, and other national and localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths. To be cultured was the rage! Wealthy monarchs would frequently retain Italian artists to create lavish works in their own nations. French King Francis I bought Italian art and

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commissioned Italian artists to build grand buildings at great expense. Italian artistic influence was particularly prevalent in commercial centers along coastal Europe. These cities had increased wealth and opportunity to see Italian art, and therefore bought a lot of it. The English gentry would often go on holiday to Italy to buy artistic works. Universities and the printed book helped spread the spirit of the age through France, the Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire, and then to Scandinavia, and finally Britain by the late 16th century. Writers and humanists such as Rabelais and Erasmus also joined and contributed to the Renaissance. During the English Renaissance, William Shakespeare composed priceless literary works. The Renaissance was brought to Poland directly from Italy by artists from Florence and the Low Countries, starting the Polish Renaissance. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation, and the long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church had lasting effects, such as the division of the Netherlands. Desiderius Erasmus, 1526 (PD).

The intellectual life of the first half of the 16th century was dominated by the Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536). Perhaps the most famous and influential work by Erasmus was The Praise of Folly, a satire written in 1511 at the house of the English humanist Sir Thomas More (who wrote Utopia). Folly, the term used in the Middle Ages as a synonym for human nature, is described by Erasmus as the source not only of much harmless enjoyment in life but also of many things that are wrong with mankind and need correcting. One historian explains, “The Praise of Folly points up a significant difference between the northern humanists and their Italian predecessors. Most Italian humanists — the civic humanists — spoke to and for the upper-class elements in their city-states. They urged political leaders to become more statesmanlike, businessmen to become more generous with their wealth, and all to become more moral. They did not dissent or speak out in opposition. In urging the elite groups to assume their responsibilities, they were actually trying to defend, not condemn, them. Italian humanism centered on the liberality or parsimony of princes, on the moral worth of riches, and on the question of how to define true nobility. The northern humanists, on the other hand, like Erasmus in The Praise of Folly, spoke out against a broad range of political, social, economic, and religious evils. They faced reality and became ardent reformers of society’s ills.”1

Discussion Question The Northern Renaissance shows how social reforms can piggyback on cultural reform or aesthetic revivals. In other words, the Renaissance, in the northern countries, tied itself with social reformers. Why does this naturally happen?

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1. T. Walter Wallbank, Alastair M. Taylor, Nels M. Bailkey, George F. Jewsbury, Clyde J. Lewis, Civilization Past and Present, “Man Is the Measure” (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), http://history-world.org/northern_renaissance.htm.

Chapter 7

Art: The Refinement of the Artificial First Thoughts The Adoration of the Shepherds, Gerard van Honthorst, between 1625 and 1650 (PD-Art).

The study of art and history are intricately linked. Every era, especially the Renaissance, can be better understood through an examination of the art created by the culture that lived during the period. For the first time, in the Renaissance, artists made a lot of money. The Renaissance invited artists to occupy a different place in society, for art was becoming more than just a craft. Renaissance society was dominated by guilds, which represented the important trades in the city. All were connected to a patron saint and each looked out for their fellow members, ensuring that all had a job and a decent income. Art thus became, in a sense, a business.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 7 explores art and its impact on history. In particular, we will look at the history of art and its impact on the Renaissance in particular. First, though, we will look at Greek art. Along the way we will look at baroque paintings. Finally, we will assess the impact of the Renaissance on history. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand how the concept of art changed during the Renaissance 2. Realize what made Greek art different from other art in the ancient world 3. Analyze why baroque was so different from other Renaissance paintings 4. Give at least three changes that the Renaissance brought to Western society

Concepts Beaux-art Aesthetic Parthenon Baroque Chiaroscuro 57

Lesson 1 Art Is Everywhere The concept of beauxarts, a term that was coined in France during the 18th century, is expressed in English as fine arts.

Sculpture and swing sets, novels and rockets, music and candy bars — they all have one thing in common. They are created by people. They are artificial in contrast to everything that is natural — plants, animals, minerals. They were imagined and created outside the perimeters of nature. Today we would distinguish art from technology. This distinction, however, is a modern one that dates from an 18th-century point of view. Before that time, during the Renaissance for instance, the word “art” referred to any useful skill. Metalworking, masonry, and cooking were all once classified as arts. They were equated with what are today called the fine arts — painting, music, architecture, literature, and dance. In that broader sense, art has been defined as a skill in making or doing, based on true and adequate reasoning. This is an important distinction between ancient man and modern man. Everything was an art that man made. Whether it was digging a ditch or painting a portrait, it was art and demanded mankind’s best. Things changed when people tied beauty to art. Now, literally, beauty is the most subjective of human emotions. What is beautiful to me — a sunset — might be ugly to you. That sunset might represent the end of one more day without a deceased loved one. The arts of the beautiful were separated from the arts of the useful because of the belief that the fine arts had a special quality: they served to give pleasure to an audience. The type of pleasure was called aesthetic, and it referred to the satisfaction given to the individual or group solely from perceiving, seeing, or hearing a work of art. To the Greeks, aesthetics were everything. In fact, in their sculpture they would never create anything but a buff, perfect human form. Anything else was a horrible thought. Now not all Greeks, perhaps very few actually, looked like the sculpture figures they created. But that was not important. That was what they saw as beautiful, and it wasn’t worth the effort to look at anything else. To create a fat or old sculptured figure was more than bad taste, it was immoral. That is the reason Paul, in 1 Corinthians 15, is trying to explain the Resurrection to the Greeks. They were horrified at the thought that Christians were looking forward to the Resurrection. The last thing the Greeks wanted to see again was their wrinkled bodies and the imperfect bodies of their neighbors. Aesthetics had two emphases: first, it was a study of the theory of beauty; second, it was a theory of art. These two emphases, when drawn together in one science, served to distinguish the fine arts from the other activities of humankind.

Woman wearing the chiton, probably after a Hellenistic model of a Muse playing the lyre, 1874 (PD).

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The recognition of these arts as something distinctive and designed for pleasure really began during the Renaissance. For the first time, artists of great skill gained individual reputations and their works were eagerly sought, and for no other reason than to pleasure the partaker.

After a 1,000-year period (from about A.D. 400 to 1400) during which the Church dominated European culture, the arts were taken up by wealthy aristocrats and newly rich merchants and bankers. They competed with one another in the possession of beautiful things — homes, gardens, collections of paintings and sculpture, fine books, and theatrical performances. Along the way, art took a decidedly secular turn that would have ominous results in the future.1

Discussion Question How did the concept of art change during the Renaissance?

Lesson 2 Pre-Renaissance Art The first and greatest period of classical art began in Greece about the middle of the fifth century B.C. By that time, Greek sculptors had learned to represent the human form naturally and easily, in action or at rest. They were chiefly interested in portraying gods, however, since mankind was never perfect. What they were trying to portray was ideal beauty rather than any particular person. Today we have statues of George Washington or Abraham Lincoln. The Greeks would never think of doing that. Their best sculptures achieved almost godlike perfection in their calm, ordered beauty. It was about a type of person, not a specific person.

The art of the ancient Greeks and Romans is called classical art. The name came to mean anything that was ancient and enduring. Classical art owes its lasting influence to its simplicity, its humanity, and its sheer beauty.

Greeks used beautiful marble. They were not satisfied with its cold whiteness, however, and painted both their statues and their buildings.

Parthenon in Athens, Greece. 1. Adapted from Walter Horatio Pater, The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry, and http://history-world.org/arthist. htm.

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The early Greek statues were stiff and uniform, but in about the sixth century B.C., the sculptors began to study the human body and work out its proportions. Art was tied to the political climate. When things were going well, statues were large and numerous. When things weren’t going well, Greek artists mainly made vases. The Persian victories (490–479 B.C.) brought a plethora of new statues. After driving out the invaders, the Greeks suddenly, in the fifth century, reached their full stature. They thought they were pretty special. The Parthenon was built; Oedipus Rex was written. The Greeks were in their glory.

Discussion Question What made Greek art different from other art in the ancient world?

Lesson 3 Michelangelo, da Vinci, and Raphael Michelangelo (1475–1564) was arguably one of the most inspired creators in the history of art and, with Leonardo da Vinci, the most potent force in the Italian High Renaissance. As a sculptor, architect, painter, and poet, he exerted a tremendous influence on his contemporaries and on subsequent Western art in general. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), a Florentine artist, was one of the great masters of the High Renaissance, celebrated as a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist. His profound love of knowledge and research was the keynote of both his artistic and scientific endeavors. His innovations in the field of painting influenced the course of Italian art for more than a century after his death, and his scientific studies — particularly in the field of anatomy — anticipated many of the developments of modern science. Raphael was also one of the greatest of the Renaissance painters. He studied the work of such established painters of the time as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. He learned their methods of representing the play of light and shade, anatomy, and dramatic action. Perhaps never in the history of mankind, and perhaps never again, would so much priceless art be painted by so many gifted artists.

Discussion Question Michelangelo’s Pieta, 1498-1499 (PD-Art).

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Who is your favorite artist of these three and why?

Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci 1495–1498 (PD-Art).

Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci 1503–1506 (PDArt).

Sistine Madonna by Raphael, 1513–14 (PD-Art).

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Lesson 4 Baroque Era After 1600, European culture generated a new artistic style, known as the baroque. As far as Renaissance art goes, it is my personal favorite.

Taken literally, the term baroque means “irregular” and is applied generally to the dynamic and undisciplined artistic creativity of the 17th century. The baroque style was the abstract art, the modern art of the 17th century. In their own way, baroque artists were the Picassos of their age. At first, the baroque style grew out of the Roman Catholic counterreformation. Later, as the style spread north, it became popular at royal courts, where it symbolized the emerging power of the new monarchies. The baroque style oozed power, massiveness, or dramatic intensity. It was embellished with pageantry, color, and theatrical adventure. My favorite baroque artist is Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669). While reflecting the common characteristics of his school, he produced works so ordinary and human that they not only expressed Dutch cultural values, they also transcended them. As one critic explains, “His canvasses show tremendous sensitivity, depicting almost every human emotion except pure joy.” Rembrandt was the master of chiaroscuro. This was an artistic strategy that emphasized falling light on subjects.2

Discussion Question Why was baroque so different from other Renaissance paintings? Jacob Blessing Ephraim and Manasseh by Rembrandt, 1656 (PD-Art).

The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt, 16611662 (PD-Art). 2. “The Baroque Era in the Arts,” edited by R.A. Guisepi, http://history-world.org/baroque_era.htm.

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Lesson 5 Secondary Source “The Renaissance,” by Philip Van Ness Myers3 The Renaissance brought in New Conceptions of Life and the World. The Renaissance effected in the Christian West an intellectual and moral revolution so profound and so far-reaching in its consequences that it may well be likened to that produced in the ancient world by the incoming of Christianity. The New Learning was indeed a New Gospel. Like Christianity, the Renaissance revealed to men another world, another state of existence; for such was the real significance, to the men of the revival, of the discovery of the civilization of classical antiquity. Through this discovery they learned that this earthly life is worth living for its own sake; that this life and its pleasures need not be condemned and sacrificed in order to make sure of eternal life in another world; and that man may think and investigate and satisfy his thirst to know without endangering the welfare of his soul. . . . These discoveries made by the men of the Renaissance gave a vast impulse to the progress of the human race. They inspired humanity with a new spirit, a spirit destined in time to make things new in all realms — in the realms of religion, of politics, of literature, of art, of science, of invention, and of industry. Some of these changes and revolutions we shall briefly indicate in the remaining sections of this chapter. To follow them out more in detail in all the territories of human activity and achievement will be our aim in later chapters, where we propose to trace the course of the historical development through the centuries of the Modern Age — the great age opened by the Renaissance. It restored the Broken Unity of History. When Christianity entered the ancient GrecoRoman world. . . . The Church, soon triumphant over paganism, rejected the bequest of antiquity. Some of the elements of that heritage were, it is true, appropriated by the men of the medieval time and came to enrich the new Christian culture; but, as a whole, it was cast aside as pagan, and neglected. Thus was the unity of the historical development broken. Now, through the liberal tendencies and generous enthusiasms of the Renaissance there was effected a reconciliation between Christianity and classical civilization. There took place a fusion of their qualities and elements. The broken unity of history was restored. The cleft between the ancient and the modern world was closed. The severed branch was reunited to the old trunk. The importance for universal history of this restoration, of this recovery by the Modern Age of the long neglected culture of antiquity, can hardly be overestimated; for that culture had in its keeping not only the best the human race had thought and felt in the period of the highest reach of its powers, but also the precious scientific stores accumulated by all the ancient peoples. What the recovery and appropriation of all this meant for the world is suggested by ex-President Woolsey in these words: “The old civilization contained treasures of permanent value which the world could not spare, which the world will never be able or willing to spare. These were taken up into the stream of life, 3. Philip Van Ness Myers, Mediaeval and Modern History (Boston, MA: Ginn and Company, 1905), p. 251–274, http:// www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Renn.html.

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and proved true aids to the progress of a culture which is gathering in one the beauty and truth of all the ages.” It reformed Education. The humanistic revival revolutionized education. During the Middle Ages the Latin language had degenerated, for the most part, into a barbarous jargon, while the Greek had been forgotten and the Aristotelian philosophy perverted. As to Plato, he was practically unknown to the medieval thinkers. Now humanism restored to the world the pure classical Latin, rediscovered the Greek language, and recovered for civilization the once-rejected heritage of the ancient classics, including the Platonic philosophy, which was to be a quickening and uplifting force in modern thought. The schools and universities did not escape the influences of this humanistic revival. Chairs in both the Greek and Latin languages and literatures were now established, not only in the new universities which arose under the inspiration of the New Learning, but also in the old ones. The scholastic method of instruction, of which we spoke in a preceding chapter, was gradually superseded by this so-called classical system of education, which dominated the schools and universities of the world down to the incoming of the scientific studies of the present day. It aided the Development of the Vernacular Literatures. The classical revival gave to the world the treasures of two great literatures. And in giving to the scholars of Europe the masterpieces of the ancient authors, it gave to them, besides much fresh material, the most faultless models of literary taste and judgment that the world has ever produced. The influence of these in correcting the extravagances of the medieval imagination and creating correct literary ideals can be distinctly traced in the native literatures of Italy, France, Spain, and England. It is sometimes maintained indeed that the attention given to the ancient classics, and the preferred use by so many authors during the later medieval and the earlier modern period of Latin as a literary language, retarded the normal development of the vernacular literatures of the European peoples. . . . It called into Existence the Sciences of Archaeology and Historical Criticism. Many sciences were in germ in the Renaissance. Regarding the science of archaeology, which possesses such a special interest for the historical student, it may be truly said that it had its birth in the classical revival. We have already noticed the new feeling for the remains of antiquity that stirred in the souls of the men of the Renaissance. . . . It gave an Impulse to Religious Reform. The humanistic movement, as we have already noticed, when it crossed the Alps assumed among the northern peoples a new character. It was the Hebrew past rather than the Greco-Roman past which stirred the interest of the scholars of the North. The Bible, which the printing presses were now multiplying in the original Hebrew and Greek as well as in the vernacular languages, became the subject of enthusiastic study and of fresh interpretation. Consequently, what was in the South a restoration of classical literature and art became in the more serious and less sensuous North a revival of primitive Christianity, of the ethical and religious elements of the Hebrew-Christian past. The humanist became the reformer. Reuchlin, Erasmus, and the other humanists of the North were the true precursors of the great religious revolution of the sixteenth century.

Discussion Question According to Myers, what three changes did the Renaissance bring to Western society? 64

Chapter 8

The Reformation: Grace Burst Forth First Thoughts A landscape with travelers ambushed outside a small town, during the Thirty Years’ War (PD-Art).

Most people think the Protestant Reformation started a stampede out of the Roman Catholic Church. That was certainly not true. Among those who left, many returned within a few years. In fact, after the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church mounted a fairly successful rebuttal to Protestantism and perhaps one-half of the Protestants who left the Roman Catholic Church returned. One particularly successful campaign led by St. Francis De Sales persuaded 72,000 Protestants to return to the Roman Catholic fold. Nonetheless, perhaps no cultural or social revolution was as profound and influential as the Protestant Reformation.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 8 discusses one of the most important eras in world history: the Protestant Reformation. We will look at the theological issues. We will examine some of the political and social causes. Finally, we will analyze the counterreformation arguments of the Roman Catholic Church. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand the causes of the Protestant Reformation 2. Delineate some of the theological issues that Luther emphasized 3. Use the Thirty Years’ War to understand present religious conflict 4. Analyze how the Roman Catholic Church reacted to the Protestant Reformation 5. Evaluate the arguments from the Roman Catholic Church against the Protestant Reformation

Concepts Scientific Revolution Martin Luther Pope Leo X John Calvin John Knox Council of Trent Anabaptists 65

Lesson 1 The Causes The year 1543 can be said to mark the origin of the Scientific Revolution ― this was the year Copernicus proved that the sun was the center of the universe.

Humanists and artists of the Renaissance would help characterize the age as one of individualism and self-creativity. It saw the growth of royal power, called absolutism, and the appearance of centralized monarchies. Massive quantities of gold and silver from the New World flooded Europe. In the meantime, urbanization continued unabated, as did the growth of universities. Finally, the printing press, created by Gutenberg in 1451, created a revolution. But, by far, the greatest event of the century was the Protestant Reformation. It was the Reformation that forced people to make a choice — to be Roman Catholic or to be Protestant. Europeans had never had this choice before. There was only one Church. This was an important choice that might determine one’s vocation, spouse, or even life. The Reformation began with a German Monk, Martin Luther. In general, though, justified or not, dissatisfaction with the Church could be found at all levels of European society. Many Christians were finding the Church’s growing emphasis on rituals and liturgy, and its abandonment of perceived spirituality, unhelpful in their quest for personal salvation. The sacraments had become forms of ritualized behavior that no longer were relevant to the people of Europe. Suddenly the Church was not the place of safety and sustenance it once had been. Many historians vilify the Roman Catholic Church. Surely there were significant problems in the Roman Catholic Church at this time. However, the real issue, in my opinion, was the changes that were occurring among people themselves. Urbanization, science, and opportunities in the New World all conspired to cause Europeans to want something different. The Church was a casualty, in a way, of that desire to embrace new freedoms. In that sense, the Reformation was as much a cultural revolution as a religious revolution. The truth is, the common people sought a more personal, spiritual, and immediate kind of religion — something that would touch their hearts more directly than the Roman Catholic Church. The premodern Renaissance world promised more than the extant structures, especially the Church, could meet.1

Discussion Question What caused the Protestant Reformation?

The Martin Luther window at St. Matthew’s Lutheran Church in Charleston, SC (CCASA3.0).

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1. “Lectures on Early Modern European History,” http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture3c.html.

Lesson 2 Grace Martin Luther, a German Monk, became the leader of the Reformation in Europe. Luther had been causing troubles for years. He protested that some of the clergy were selling indulgences (temporal pardons of sins) without making clear that people must really repent for these sins. In 1517, the angry Luther wrote a list of 95 theses against indulgences and nailed them to the door of the church in Wittenberg. Luther believed in the Bible as the sole source of Christian truth. He denied that priests had any power that laymen did not have. He called this “the priesthood of believers.” He had other radical notions. He rejected the celibacy of the clergy. Of the seven sacraments, Luther kept only two — baptism and the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist). When Pope Leo X condemned Luther’s teachings in a bull, or papal decree, Luther subsequently burned the document as well as a copy of the Church’s canon law. Charles V, the Holy Roman emperor, ordered him to recant in 1521. Luther declared he would not do so until he was “convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures.” The political situation in Europe also helped to extend the religious revolt because many local rulers wanted their independence from the emperor Charles V. The Holy Roman Empire was falling apart. The Reformation spread. Reformers in other lands were also zealous. Erasmus, who made quite a splash in the Renaissance, rejected the study of the early Church through his printed editions of the Greek New Testament and writings of the Church fathers. Likewise, Zwingli of Switzerland held views similar to Luther’s. John Calvin made Geneva the world center of the Presbyterian and Reformed churches. The world was turned upside-down — again!

Portrait of Pope Leo X and his cousins, cardinals Giulio de’ Medici and Luigi de’ Rossi, between 1518 and 1519 (PD).

Discussion Question What were some of the theological issues that Martin Luther emphasized?

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Lesson 3 A Revolution Means War The Thirty Years’ War consisted of a series of declared and undeclared wars which raged through the years 1618– 1648 throughout central Europe.

The fury and suffering of war added to the turmoil of the Reformation through the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648. Time and again, Charles V fought to uphold the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic Church against France and Germany. Although he defeated the Protestants, he could not turn back the movement of the Reformation. Nothing could. The Thirty Years’ War was one of the great conflicts of early modern European history, violent and destructive. During the Thirty Years’ War, the opponents were, on the one hand, the House of Austria: the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III together with their Spanish cousin Philip IV, and various international opponents of the House of Austria. On the other hand, the Danish, Dutch, and above all, France and Sweden. It was a mess! In addition to its international dimensions, the Thirty Years’ War was a Holy Roman Empire civil war. The principalities which made up Germany took up arms for or against the Habsburgs at different times during the war’s 30 years. The series of conflicts, military and political, which made up the Thirty Years’ War are highly complex. In 1648, the war finally ended, more or less in a draw. But Charles V was at last forced to grant to the ruler of each German state the right to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism (Protestantism). The state’s religion was still imposed by the ruler, but the treaty brought a temporary religious peace to Germany. Now, the Lutheran faith spread chiefly in northern Germany and in Scandinavia. The Swiss were influenced early by Zwingli, but like the French and Dutch, they drew their Protestantism from a movement led by John Calvin a generation later. From this movement grew the zealous work of John Knox, who brought Presbyterianism to Scotland.

Batalla de Rocroi (1643) by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau (CCA-SA3.0).

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The English Reformation began in 1533 when Henry VIII broke with the pope, who had refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The introduction of Protestant doctrine in the Church of England, however, did not take place until 1549, during the reign of Edward VI. But the Reformation spread all over Europe.2

Discussion Question The Thirty Years’ War was the first war caused by religious conflict. It was not the last one. What are two or three contemporary examples of religious conflict?

Lesson 4 The Roman Catholic Counterreformation At first, Roman Catholic leadership underestimated the extent of the Reformation; the leadership considered it just another schism. The leadership learned soon enough that it was wrong. They convened a group of scholars and clergy to a council meeting, the Council of Trent, to launch a vigorous counterattack. From 1545 to 1563 the Council of Trent both corrected church abuses and affirmed orthodoxy. The most vigorous reaction was spearheaded by the Society of Jesus, commonly called the Jesuits.

The Jesuit order was started in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman and soldier who became a priest.

In truth, the Council of Trent was successful. The ardor of some potential dissenters was cooled, and by the close of the 16th century the Roman Catholic Church had regained half of the lands it had lost to Protestantism. We must remember, whatever its secular causes may have been, the Protestant Reformation arose from within Roman Catholicism. Some Protestant churches appeared to be clones of the Roman Catholic Church — for instance, the Church of England. Other Protestant expressions, like the Anabaptists, were radically different. Each young church essentially had to decide how far it would move away from the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church became the lodestone that either attracted or repelled the early emerging Protestant Churches. The truth is, trying to stop the Protestant Reformation was like trying to hold water in one’s hand. It could not be done. The Reformation unleashed pent-up forces 2. http://www.pipeline.com/~cwa/TYWHome.htm.

Council of Trent, 1588(PD-Art).

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that had been stewing below the surface for centuries. These forces — of individuality, of privatism — had been released and could not be recalled now. Ironically, it was not long before the Protestants themselves were persecuting one another — for instance, the Presbyterians and Lutherans persecuted the Anabaptists as much as Roman Catholicism was persecuting all Protestants.

Martin Luther appears at the Diet of Rome, an official assembly of the Holy Roman Empire. The Edict of Worms, addressing Luther and the Protestant Reformation, called for his capture and punishment. Powerful friends hid Luther, and eventually public support in Germany meant it was not enforced in that country. Luther’s followers in other countries were punished, some even killed. (PD-Art).

In a way, the Reformation was good for the Roman Catholic Church. The Church that emerged in the 17th century was much stronger and effective than the one that had entered the 16th century. The challenge of the Protestant Reformation also became the occasion for a resurgent Roman Catholicism to clarify and to reaffirm Roman Catholic principles. Counter to the Protestant elevation of the Scripture to the position of sole authority, the Roman Catholic Church emphasized that Scripture and Church tradition were inseparable and always had been. They did not deny the authority of Scripture but felt it was perilous to ignore 1,500 years of Church tradition. While change was inevitable and necessary, why reinvent the wheel? Thus, the Church found it profitable to build on tradition — to not reject it outright.

Discussion Question How did the Roman Catholic Church react to the Protestant Reformation?

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Lesson 5 Counterreformation Primary Source “The Authority of the Church,” Saint Francis de Sales (1567–1622) Ah! Whoever says that Our Lord has placed us in the bark of his Church, at the mercy of the winds and of the tide, instead of giving us a skillful pilot perfectly at home, by nautical art, with chart and compass, such a one says that he wishes our destruction. Let him have placed therein the most excellent compass and the most correct chart in the world, what use are these if no one knows how to gain from them some infallible rule for directing the ship? Of what use is the best of rudders if there is no steersman to move it as the ship’s course requires? But if everyone is allowed to turn it in the direction he thinks good, who sees not that we are lost? It is not the Scripture which requires a foreign light or rule, as Protestant critics think we believe; it is our glosses, our conclusions, understandings, interpretations, conjectures, additions, and other such workings of man’s brain, which, being unable to be quiet, is ever busied about new inventions. Certainly we do not want a judge to decide between us and God, as he seems to infer in his Letter. It is between a man such as Calvin, Luther . . . for we do not ask whether God understands the Scripture better than we do, but whether Calvin understands it better than S. Augustine or S. Cyprian. S. Hilary says excellently, “Heresy is in the understanding, not in the Scripture, and the fault is in the meaning, not in the words.” And S. Augustine: “Heresies arise simply from this, that good Scriptures are ill-understood, and what is ill-understood in them is also rashly and presumptuously given forth.” It is a true Michol’s game; it is to cover a statue, made expressly with the clothes of David (1 Kings xix.) He who looks at it thinks he has seen David, but he is deceived, David is not there. Heresy covers up, in the bed of its brain, the statue of its own opinion in the clothes of Holy Scripture. He who sees this doctrine thinks he has seen the Holy Word of God, but he is mistaken; it is not there. The words are there, but not the meaning. “The Scriptures,” says S. Jerome, “consist not in the reading but in the understanding:” that is, faith is not in the knowing the words but the sense. And it is here that I think I have thoroughly proved that we have need of another rule for our faith, besides the rule of Holy Scripture. “If the world last long,” said Luther once by good hap, “it will be again necessary, on account of the different interpretations of Scripture which now exist, that to preserve the unity of the faith we should receive the Councils and decrees and fly to them for refuge.” He acknowledges that formerly they were received, and that afterwards they will have to be.

Francis de Sales, medal 1867 (PD).

I have dwelt on this at length, but when it is well understood, we have no small means of determining a most holy deliberation. I say as much of Traditions; for if each one will bring forward Traditions and we have no judge on earth to make in the last resort the difference between those which are to be received and those which are not, where, I pray you, shall we be? We have clear examples. Calvin finds that the Apocalypse is to be received, Luther denies it; the same with the Epistle of S. James. Who shall reform these opinions of the reformers? Either the one or the other is ill formed, who shall put it right? Here is a second necessity which we have of another rule besides the Word of God. 71

There is, however, a very great difference between the first rules and this one. For the first rule, which is the Word of God, is a rule infallible in itself, and most sufficient to regulate all the understandings in the world. The second is not properly a rule of itself, but only in so far as it applies the first and proposes to us the right doctrine contained in the Holy Word. In the same way the laws are said to be a rule in civil causes. The judge is not so of himself, since his judging is conditioned by the ruling of the law; yet he is, and may well be called, a rule, because the application of the laws being subject to variety, when he has once made it we must conform to it. The Holy Word then is the first law of our faith; there remains the application of this rule, which being able to receive as many forms as there are brains in the world, in spite of all the analogies of the faith, there is need further of a second rule to regulate this application. There must be doctrine and there must be someone to propose it. The doctrine is in the Holy Word, but who shall propose it? The way in which one deduces an article of faith is this: the Word of God is infallible; the Word of God declares that Baptism is necessary for salvation; therefore Baptism is necessary for salvation. The 1st Proposition cannot be gainsaid; we are at variance with Calvin about the 2nd; who shall reconcile us? Who shall resolve our doubt? If he who has authority to propose can err in his proposition all has to be done over again. There must therefore be some infallible authority in whose propounding we are obliged to acquiesce. The Word of God cannot err, He who proposes it cannot err; thus shall all be perfectly assured.3

Discussion Question Protestants argued that Scripture alone must be the thing to which other Scripture is compared. Roman Catholicism argued that Scripture, while it was inspired by the Holy Spirit, should be interpreted in light of earlier tradition. Summarize De Sales’ argument against the Protestant understanding of the authority of Scripture. Which is more persuasive?

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3. Saint Francis de Sales, “The Authority of the Church,” chapter I, http://www.freerepublic.com/ focus/f-religion/2528088/posts.

Chapter 9

Philosophy: The Nature of Government First Thoughts Ratification of the Peace of Münster between Spain and the Dutch Republic in the town hall of Münster (PDArt).

The era after the Reformation and the Renaissance saw a fundamental shift in many things, including European values. Although many Europeans — both Protestant and Catholic — were still quite committed to their faith, and were willing to die for it, they also were concerned about their governments and nations. I will not be cynical and say that issues like profit and commerce weighed as heavily on the European heart as religion, but these issues were a growing concern. Some looked first to God, and then to a more autocratic order. Others looked first to God, and then to a more democratic order. But all looked to their governments to provide for basic needs and, if not to satisfy their spiritual needs, to not hinder them. With the memory of war and social upheaval still fresh, they were inclined toward a belief in order, which shaped their other values.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 9 covers how governments emerge. We will examine constitutional governments, and then absolutism governments. We will look at the philosophy and morality that surrounds these views. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Explain the origin of governments 2. Describe why constitutional governments emerged 3. Analyze what allure absolutism brought to most Europeans 4. Know why Hobbian philosophy was anti-Christian 5. Analyze what moral absolutism is

Concepts Constitutional governments Peace of Westphalia Moral absolutism 73

Lesson 1 Essay “Nature and Forms of Government,” Woodrow Wilson The essential characteristic of all government, whatever its form, is authority. There must in every instance be, on the one hand, governors, and, on the other, those who are governed. And the authority of governors, directly or indirectly, rests in all cases ultimately on force. Government, in its last analysis, is organized force. Not necessarily or invariably organized armed force, but the will of a few men, of many men, or of a community prepared by organization to realize its own purposes with reference to the common affairs of the community. Organized, that is, to rule, to dominate. The machinery of government necessary to such an organization consists of instrumentalities fitted to enforce in the conduct of the common affairs of a community the will of the sovereign men: the sovereign minority, or the sovereign majority. . . .

President of the United States Thomas Woodrow Wilson, 1912 (LOC).

This is not, however, to be interpreted too literally or too narrowly. The force behind authority must not be looked for as if it were always to be seen or were always being exercised. That there is authority lodged with ruler or magistrate is in every case evident enough; but that that authority rests upon force is not always a fact upon the surface, and is therefore in one sense not always practically significant. In the case of any particular government, the force upon which the authority of its officers rests may never once for generations together take the shape of armed force. Happily there are in our own day many governments, and those among the most prominent, which seldom coerce their subjects, seeming in their tranquil, noiseless operations to run of themselves. They in a sense operate without the exercise of force. But there is force behind them nonetheless because it never shows itself. The better governments of our day — those which rest, not upon the armed strength of governors, but upon the free consent of the governed — are founded upon constitutions and laws whose source and sanction are the habit of communities. The force which they embody is not the force of a dominant dynasty or of a prevalent minority, but the force of an agreeing majority. And the overwhelming nature of this force is evident in the fact that the minority very seldom challenge its exercise. It is latent just because it is understood to be omnipotent. There is force behind the authority of the elected magistrate, no less than behind that of the usurping despot, a much greater force behind the President of the United States than behind the Czar of Russia. The difference lies in the display of coercive power. Physical force is the prop of both, though in the one it is the last, while in the other it is the first, resort.1

Discussion Question To Woodrow Wilson, what are the main characteristics of government?

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1. http://history-world.org/govnat.htm.

Lesson 2 Constitutional Governments A notable development during this time was the emergence of constitutional governments in the Netherlands and England. In some ways the monarch is more or less a figurehead. For England and the Netherlands in the 17th century, the real power lay in the legislative branch. This is a slight exaggeration — such a polarity did not exist at this time. But these nations were clearly headed in that way. The Thirty Years’ War accelerated this process. Holland prospered from developing trade and colonies, progress made possible by the weakening of Spain. Because other states were tied down in continental wars, England was free to experiment with its political structure, thus became more democratic. It made the people happy and it wasn’t too hard on kings either. In both countries, rapidly developing commerce and rising middle classes encouraged a direct transition from feudalism to constitutional government, without a prolonged intermediate stage of absolute monarchy.

Constitutional governments are governments that follow a rule of law, yet, at the same time, have a recognized monarch.

The emerging constitutional democracy was facilitated by a prosperity that more or less benefited all classes (rich and poor, urban and rural). Concentration of power in any one office or individual was limited by interaction of classes. Their differences were accented by their separate interests and by their indirect exercise of power outside of government and often outside of the law itself. A lot of informal alliances and propitious compromises occurred in pubs and boarding houses in both countries. Both Holland and England experienced prosperity at the end of the 16th century. The Netherlands defeated Spain in a war; England defeated the Spanish Armada. It was not lost on the rest of Europe that constitutional monarchies, not autocratic regimes, were prospering. Likewise, it was Protestant, not Roman Catholic countries, which were prospering.

Discussion Question Why were constitutional governments emerging?

Friesland, Netherlands (PD).

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Lesson 3 Absolutism Louis XIV became king at the age of four in 1643 upon the death of his father Louis XIII. Louis then inherited the most powerful country in Europe and expanded on this power throughout his life.

Some Europeans preferred the predictability and order of tyranny to the tentativeness of democracy. They were not willing to take a chance on the Promised Land, just as many of the Israelites in the desert began longing for Egypt again. Absolute monarchy was not exactly new in Europe. It wasn’t new anywhere. It was the government of choice of most civilizations we have studied. It was called absolutism. Absolutism was a government that made all the choices for everyone. Since the late medieval period, rulers had been slowly centralizing their authority at the expense of feudal nobles and the Church. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, however, the Reformation retarded progress somewhat. After the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War, absolutism rapidly gained popularity because it promised to restore order and security. A notable absolute monarch — or, to use a more apt term, a despot — Louis XIV (1643–1715) of France is remembered best as a strong-willed monarch who reportedly once exclaimed to his court, “L’état, c’est moi” (I am the state). Louis XIV was a quintessential absolute monarch. He was ruthless, flamboyant, intelligent, and completely self-absorbed. The reader might suppose or even hope that an absolute despot would be unpopular. In fact, he was wildly popular. Both when he became king, and throughout his life, he was immensely popular. Louis XIV was known as the “Sun King” because of the splendor of his court at Versailles. One would hope that Louis XIV would have been cynical and insincere, but in fact he believed himself to be an absolute ruler. He was sure that his authority was inherited and derived from God. He was not accountable to anyone but his own conscience.

Louis XIV of France, 1701 (PD-Art).

The absolutist king, Louis, developed a large, well-trained army that wore uniforms. He was the first monarch to do such a thing. He built a monument to his ego: the Versailles Palace. Louis was a devout Catholic but saw himself as the head of the Catholic Church in France. This was an oxymoron of sorts since the pope — not a king, even a megalomaniac king — was in control of the Church. In fact, he went further than even the pope; he went after Protestants with a ruthlessness that was far beyond the most unforgiving counterreformation the Roman Catholic Church had ever manifested. In particular, the Huguenots — French Protestants — were forced to convert to Catholicism or go to jail. Ultimately, Louis XIV experienced a meltdown of sorts, by fighting and essentially losing several European Wars.2

Discussion Question What allure did absolutism bring to most Europeans? 76

2. http://faculty.ucc.edu/egh-damerow/louis_xiv.htm.

Lesson 4 Thomas Hobbes, Philosopher Often in history the powerful sought to harness culture to their ends. They understood that the representation of power — their public image — was a form of power itself. Accordingly, they built palaces, clothed soldiers, and unfurled banners. They supported artists and intellectuals who produced works that announced the legitimacy of their rule, reinforced their authority, and justified their despotic ways. At times, they stifled creative impulses incompatible with their ambitions. The relationship between power — or government — and culture in history was an uneasy one, defined as much by what Germans call real politick as by cooperation and patronage.

To Thomas Hobbes, power ― raw unadulterated human power ― was the currency of the land; thus, in his view everything else was only a metaphor of what was real.

The poster boy of absolutism was Thomas Hobbes. His philosophy was perhaps the most radical philosophy of the 17th century. Hobbes rejected the unseen world of religion. He believed in the mortality of the soul but more or less forgot that as time went on. I imagine it became a pretty high priority when he met his God! Men in a state of nature — that is a state without civil government — were in a war of all against all in which life was hardly worth living. The way out of this desperate state was to make a social contract and establish the state to keep peace and order. The state then, not the individual, was the most important consideration in political power.

Discussion Question Why is Hobbian philosophy so anti-Christian?

Thomas Hobbes, 17th century (PD-Art).

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Lesson 5 Moral Absolutism Moral absolutism was the first moral standard that emerged outside of the boundaries of Judeo-Christian morality, and it would not be the last.

Political absolutism wandered eventually into moral absolutism. Moral absolutism is an ethical view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong, regardless of other contexts such as their consequences or the intentions behind them. They are right because they can be done, because the doer is powerful enough to do them, and wrong only if they are beyond the doer’s capability. Thus, false imprisonment, even murder, is not only permissible, it is ethically acceptable. This viewpoint was a disturbing development that would have far-reaching effects on Western society. Although moral absolutism was practiced by Christian monarchs, even pious ones, it presaged nefarious developments in the years ahead. Contrary to moral absolutism, there is a concern as to whether any given action is morally permissible or impermissible — a fact of the matter that does not depend solely on social custom or individual acceptance. Many religions have morally absolutist positions as well, regarding their system of morality as deriving from divine commands. Therefore, they regard such a moral system as absolute, perfect, and unchangeable. Christianity states categorically that fornication is sin. Period. Despotic rulers, though, some even couching their cruelty and bad choices in religious language, practiced moral absolutism in the context of their own selfish ends.

Discussion Question What are some societal problems that could rise with moral absolutism?

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Chapter 10

Religion and Science: The Scientific Revolution First Thoughts Engraving showing some of Otto von Guericke’s air pressure experiments, 1657 (PD).

By 1700, science had surpassed the Reformation in affecting Western culture. No longer would they consider the universe as stage equipment, created by God expressly for the cosmic battle of good and bad. People now knew that the sun was the center of the universe. There was both exhilaration and consternation. Matter and motion, the fundamental realities of this strange new universe, everywhere acted impersonally, without discernible divine purpose. With all this new knowledge, was God inviting mankind to take care of his own fate? Since Odysseus wandered home from Troy, Western Europeans had asked this question. They thought they had their answer!

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 10 examines the scientific revolution. We will look at how religion and science interacted and look at the uses of science. Finally, we will weigh the limits of science in the larger context of human life. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Explain how religion and science interacted 1450–1600 2. Know the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning 3. Offer a satisfactory explanation of Joshua 10 that does not violate the truth of Scripture 4. Know why technological advances inevitably show up in weapon technology 5. Know when technology should be rejected

Concepts Epistemology Copernicus Imperialism 79

Lesson 1 Science and Religion Most believed during this time that human reason, or epistemology, having finally reached its true potential, would bring about the downfall of all sorts of social problems.

As I said before, absolutism was never an unpopular government, at least not initially. Louis XIV was popular. Adolf Hitler was wildly popular in Germany in the 1930s. After the English Commonwealth, which was England’s experiment with a republican government (of sorts), the English enthusiastically asked Charles II to return as king. Granted, England never experienced the despotism of a Spain or Russia, but this shows the reader how appealing absolutism was/is. One of the reasons that absolutism was tolerated, even embraced, is that there was a pervasive sense of optimism in Europe. Things were going so well. One cause for this optimism was that there was a science revolution of sorts going on. There was a sense that Europe was marching forward — taking care of business. Europeans saw civilization advancing toward a future of diminished ignorance and increased intelligence where social problems would disappear because of human reason. This was not the first time a civilization believed this, but during the Renaissance, Europeans were sure that they could solve all the existing, major societal problems in their lifetimes. Historian Carl Degler argues, “Such ideas arose partially from social experience. European wealth was expanding rapidly, in comparison with all other societies. In fashionable European salons, philosophers and artists rubbed elbows with bored nobles and sons of enterprising bankers, who indulged in clever criticism of the Old Regime as a form of recreation.”1 It was not so much the desire for knowledge that motivated premodern Europe. It was the passion for order and stability. Their religion and their governments seemed to be in turmoil. Science at least promised a blessed respite. In the late 17th century, Europeans yearned for order, which scientists were finding throughout the universe. Copernicus’ view of the universe made sense. It felt right. New discoveries in astronomy, physics, chemistry, and even biology strongly suggested that nature, from the smallest particle to the most distant stars, was an interlocking mechanism of harmoniously working parts. Not that most, if any, gave up their faith in God. On the contrary, what a God they served if He had so deliberately and completely created a universe like this! No, science invited people to draw closer to God. It stimulated and confirmed the faith of people. This was not the invective science that emerged in the 19th century, specifically, that science related to evolution. No, this was the science that talked about the stars and blood circulation and other amazing things. Here, apparently, was the simple answer to an everlasting search for certainty and the immediate origin of optimistic hopes for humanity.

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1. Carl L. Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1932), p. 49, 129.

Discussion Question Religion and science had conflicts from 1450 to1600. But, by and large, these two were able to cooperatively coexist. Why?

Lesson 2 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning It is perhaps not coincidental that scientific progress first emerged in astronomy. Men had looked to the stars since time immemorial. The wise men followed a star to the Magi. Also, astronomy was suited very well to two new scientific approaches: deductive and inductive logic. The deductive approach started with commonsense observations and moved toward complex conclusions that might be applied to universal, practical problems. For instance, Sir Isaac Newton observed that all substances fall to the earth. Something must be causing this: gravity. European astronomers were uniquely dependent on both kinds of reasoning. The inductive approach started with objective facts, that is, knowledge of the material world. A scientist might plant 45 beans in the sun and 45 in a dark room. The ones in the sunlight grow and the ones in the darkness do not. Based on those empirical facts the scientist might conclude that beans need sunlight to grow. The French scholar-mathematician Rene Descartes (1596–1650) initiated a new and critical mode of deductive reasoning. In his famous Discourse on Method (1627), Descartes concluded that he could be certain of nothing except the facts that he was thinking and that he must therefore exist. From the basic proposition, “I think, therefore I am,” Descartes proceeded in logical steps to deduce the existence of God and the reality of both the spiritual and material worlds. The problem was — and Descartes did not know this — he opened Pandora’s Box. He started the discussion about God with a discussion about man. That was a bad idea and would lead to a plethora of false philosophies in the future.

The Great Comet of 1577, which Kepler witnessed as a child, attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe (PD).

The other great contributor to the theory of scientific methodology in this era was the Englishman named Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626). Bacon extolled human reason, as applied to human sensory experiences. He advocated an inductive approach, using systematically recorded facts derived from experiments. These facts, he believed, would 81

Using both inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning, early astronomers before 1600 prepared the way for a scientific revolution.

lead toward tentative hypotheses, which could then be tested by fresh experiments under new conditions. This was the opposite of Descartes’ view. The inductive approach became even more practical with the remarkable improvement of scientific instruments. Both the telescope and the microscope came into use at the opening of the 17th century. Other important inventions included the thermometer (1597), the barometer (1644), the air pump (1650), and the pendulum clock (1657). With such devices, scientists were better able to study the physical universe.

Discussion Question What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?

Lesson 3 The Day the Sun Stood Still In 1543, a scientist named Copernicus died, and his famous but controversial book appeared. In the book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, Copernicus posited a theory directly opposed to the traditional Ptolemaic explanation for passing days and the apparent movement of heavenly bodies. The old theory had assumed that the sun, the planets, and the stars all circled the earth. Copernicus placed the sun as the center, around which the planets moved. This cosmology placed a motionless sun not at the center of the universe, but close to the center, and also involved giving several distinct motions to the earth. The problem that Copernicus faced was that he assumed all motion was circular, not elliptical as it is in reality. Copernicus, who knew exactly how much controversy his theory would create, chose to have it published after his death. It would not be fully confirmed until almost 1700, when Newton’s theory of universal gravitation was presented. A geometrical and military compass designed by Galileo Galilei. It is thought to have been made by Marc’Antonio Mazzoleni circa 1604 (CCASA3.0).

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was ultimately able to prove that the planet did not move in a circular orbit but in an ellipse. He also discovered that the paces of the planets accelerated when they approached the sun. From this he concluded that the sun might emit a power that directed the planets in their courses. The Church now felt its authority and reputation challenged by the new ideas. After all, the Bible stated categorically that God stopped the sun (Joshua 10). Or so it seemed. Later there would be trouble for a persistent rebel, Galileo, about this point. But even

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Galileo, in time, was forced to recant his theories, although one had the distinct impression that his fingers were crossed behind his back! It now seemed inevitable that the sonorous truce between Church and science was to collapse.

Discussion Question What would be a satisfactory explanation of Joshua 10, where the sun stood still, that does not violate the truth of Scripture?

Sketches by Leonardo da Vince denoting ideas that were ahead of their time, including bicycles, parachutes, and gliders. (PD).

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Lesson 4 Imperialist Science Imperialism is the extension of authority or control, whether direct or indirect, of one nation over another.

By the middle of the 16th century, imperialism, although no such word existed until the 19th century, was in full swing. Scientific progress was not merely in astronomy and physics. Scientists then, as now, plied their trade very well in the art of war, and in nation building. Advances in technology in particular gave European nations a significant edge over other nations and cultures. Scientific and economic superiority harnessed to efficient state structures provided the strength for the European expansion and domination. Europeans improved the cannon, the rifle, and almost every other instrument of war in existence — Europeans, and Western people in general, have always been good at making war! These advances in weaponry assured European hegemony in the 16th century. Europeans were not the first people group to do this. The Chinese lorded their technological advances over other people groups. Likewise, the Greeks and the Ghanaians were able to maintain successful kingdoms through advanced technology rather than through hordes of troops. Perhaps more interesting to 21st-century readers was the vigorous and successful defense of these ruthless, self-serving tactics. Europeans unapologetically defended the act of dominating other cultures as an attempt to spread civilization, to bring Christianity to the “heathen,” and to introduce progress to the “less fortunate.” The rifle, the cannon, and the huge dreadnought made the spread of civilization possible, or so Western leadership argued. Some inventive thinkers distorted scientific discoveries and theories to devise self-serving arguments for the supposed inevitability and eternal nature of their dominance.

Discussion Question Why do technological advances inevitably show up in weapon technology?

The Tsar Cannon at the Kremlin, Moscow. This Russian cannon was commissioned in 1586 (CCA-SA3.0).

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Lesson 5 Science Gone too Far “Crossing the Creepy Line,” James P. Stobaugh2 Google CEO Eric Schmidt made the now infamous remark about Google’s practice of getting very close to the “creepy line” but not going over. With the decision to release an update to Google Goggles that will allow the cell phone owner to identify human faces Google has arguably crossed “the creepy line.” What this would effectively permit you to do is identify people on the street or in a public place by simply pointing your phone camera at them. The need to control one’s privacy is basic. We like to remain unknown in a crowd, or at least we deserve the privilege to reveal ourselves to whomever we please. If we commit a crime, perhaps, that right is abrogated. We may be, even should be, identified and apprehended. But the notion than an innocent bystander be identified by perfect strangers, gratuitously, randomly, is disturbing. Human beings are created in the image of God and do not deserve to be mishandled by Mr. Schmidt and other Google executives. Only God deserves to peer into our soul, or metaphorically, focus his cell phone on us and identify us. Joseph Conrad, in Lord Jim warns, “There is something haunting in the light of the moon; it has all the dispassionateness of a disembodied soul, and something of its inconceivable mystery.”3 Zip! With the focus of an iPhone, the mystery disappears. Many people “are rightfully scared of it,” one journalist said. (You think?) “In particular, women say, ‘Oh my God. Imagine this guy takes a picture of me, and then he knows my address just because somewhere on the Web there is an association of my address with my photo.’ That’s a scary thought. So I think there is merit in finding a good route that makes the power of this technology available in a good way.”4 In a good way. Use this technology in a good way. Interesting. We dare not STOP using it — we have to find a laudable reason to use it. I am sure Eichmann appreciated that irony when he thought that since the technology was there to murder six million Jews, he might as well do it. Surely, if the technology is there, we have to use it.

Wheel lock of the west European type, around 1630 (PD).

2. James P. Stobaugh, ACT & College Preparation Course for the Christian Student, “Crossing the Creepy Line” (Green Forest, AR: New Leaf Publishers, 2012), p. 44–45. 3. http://quotationsbook.com/quote/27240. 4. Hartmut Neven, quoted on CNN, http://edition.cnn.com/2011/TECH/mobile/03/31/google.face/index.html; http:// www.businessinsider.com/if-google-crossed-the-creepy-line-how-should-it-repair-the-damage-to-its-image-2013-8.

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I like Google’s response — a typical post-modern response “I think we are taking a sort of cautious route with this. It’s a sensitive area, and it’s kind of a subjective call on how you would do it.”5 Another signature mark of the times: “Each person decides for himself if he uses a certain thing.” No, not this time. I don’t want perverts to identify and visit my grandchildren whenever they like! I don’t care if the technology is there or not. Get rid of it. Not only do we want never to use it, we need to erase our footsteps and remove our ability to do the thing altogether. There is no possible good in a perfect stranger being able to identify another human being, thus invading his privacy, without his knowledge or consent. Can we deal with that? Giving up bad technology? I doubt it. It is coming, folks. Apparently Google got over its concerns and has decided to roll out facial recognition in a mobile context. Science and technology have their own logic and momentum. Because something is possible there’s an impulse to see it realized or implemented in the world. Perhaps there’s such identification at Google with “innovation” that it was “culturally” impossible for Google not to roll this out. Creepy, I tell you, creepy. I can and do turn off the television. I show discipline in what Internet sites I visit. I try to put boundaries on myself and help others to do the same. But this is different. This is another person, perhaps a stranger, focusing his cell phone camera on me and revealing my private affairs. This stranger presumes to know me intimately without my consent. It is a form of abuse. Don’t get me wrong, there are those whose cameras are welcome to focus on me. In particular, there is one power, one power who does know me — always has, always will. Knows my next thought, predestined my next actions. Someone who is in absolute control of everything — Almighty God. But He alone deserves this sort of power. He loves me, cares for me, and died on the Cross at Calvary for me.6

Discussion Question When should technology be rejected?

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5. Ibid. 6. James P. Stobaugh, ACT & College Preparation Course for the Christian Student, “Crossing the Creepy Line” (Green Forest, AR: New Leaf Publishers, 2012), p. 44–45.

Chapter 11

Chattel Slavery: The Long Ordeal First Thoughts Roman collared slaves, 200 AD (CCA-SA2.0).

The institution of slavery existed in all ancient societies. In A.D. 100 there were probably between two and three million slaves in the Roman Empire, making up 35 to 40 percent of the population. England’s Domesday Book of 1086 indicated that 10 percent of the population was enslaved. Among some Native American tribes, nearly a quarter of the population consisted of slaves. In 1644, just before the Dutch ceded Manhattan to the British, 40 percent of the population consisted of enslaved Africans. All of these lamentable examples pale in comparison to the New World slave story that emerged after 1500. In scope, the world had never seen such a thing.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 11 explores the genesis and expansion of chattel slavery in Africa in preparation for European slavery. We will look closely at circumstances that made slavery a business. Finally, we are going to grieve at the horror of the Middle Passage. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand why there was no antislavery movement in European history 2. Explain how a democratic society like Greece championed slavery 3. Discuss which series of circumstances conspired to make Africa the ideal genesis of New World slavery 4. Evaluate why slavery was such a lucrative business 5. Summarize the ordeal that faced slaves as they waited on the shores of West Africa to be deported to the New World

Concepts Manumission Sub-Saharan Africa Islamic traders Atlantic slave trade 87

Lesson 1 Slavery in the Ancient World It is notable that the modern word for slaves comes from “Slav.” It was only in the 15th century that slavery became linked with people from sub-Saharan Africa.

No institution or population group is older than the institution of slavery. Slavery existed in every civilization. The earliest civilizations — those along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus Valley of India, and China’s Yangtze River Valley — had slavery. The Hammurabi Code (1772 B.C.) even discussed slavery. Only a handful of societies made slavery the dominant labor force. The first true slave society in history emerged in ancient Greece between the 6th and 4th centuries B.C. How ironic that a democracy would build its economy on slave labor! It is not an accident that our modern ideas of freedom and democracy emerged in a slave society as well. Years later, in the southern part of the Americas, the economy was also built on slave labor. There was no abolition of slavery among these early civilizations, no manumission. In fact, most early societies lacked a word for freedom.

Gniezno Cathedral Door with detail of Saint Adalbertus liberating Slavic slaves from merchants, 1175 (PD).

Slavery never disappeared from medieval Europe. While slavery declined in northwestern Europe, it persisted in southern Italy, Russia, France, and Spain. Most of these slaves were Slavic, coming from areas in Eastern Europe or near the Black Sea. When Europeans began to colonize the New World at the end of the 15th century, they were well aware of the institution of slavery, and felt it was quite natural to implement it in this new area. There is not one antislavery pamphlet or book written before the 18th century! Evidently, there was no serious opposition to slavery. As early as 1300, slavery was transforming the world economy. It was then, and remained, one of the most profitable institutions and businesses in world history. During the 1400s, decades before Columbus’ “discovery” of the New World, Europeans exploited African labor on slave plantations built on sugar-producing islands off the coast of West Africa. It was hard, thankless, debilitating work.

Discussion Question Why was there no antislavery movement in European history?

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Lesson 2 Slavery in Africa Why was Africa so vulnerable to the slave trade? Because of West and Central Africa’s political fragmentation. Many of the region’s larger political units, such as Ghana and Mali, had declined. The absence of strong, stable political units made it more difficult for Africa to resist the slave trade. Besides, and this is the most important consideration, slavery was so very profitable. Historian Steven Mintz argues, “In retrospect, it seems clear that the Atlantic slave trade depended upon a highly complex set of variables. Trade winds and ocean currents needed to make it easy to sail from the western African coast to Brazil and the Caribbean. Africa needed to have a high birth rate. It is an unsettling historical irony that crops from the New World — such as cassava, squash, and peanuts — stimulated population growth in Africa. Rapid population growth, in turn, made the slave trade possible.”1 As in most of the world, slavery, or involuntary human servitude, was practiced across Africa from the Great Flood to the 20th century. African practices of slavery were altered to some extent beginning in the 7th century by two non-African groups of slave traders: Arab Muslims and Europeans. From the 7th to the 20th century, Arab Muslims raided and traded for black African slaves in West, Central, and East Africa, sending thousands of slaves each year to North Africa and parts of Asia. From the 15th to the 19th century, Europeans bought millions of slaves in West, Central, and East Africa and sent them to Europe; the Caribbean; and North, Central, and South America. It is not an exaggeration to say that slavery was the engine that drove most of the economies for thousands of years.

Capture of slaves, central Africa, 1861 (PD).

In Africa, as in many places around the world, early slavery likely resulted from warring groups taking captives. Women constituted the majority of early African slaves. In addition to agricultural work, female slaves carried out other economic functions, such as trading and cotton spinning and dyeing. Male slaves typically farmed and herded animals. The next result is that, when Europeans arrived, African society contained a substantial surplus of slaves to be traded.

Discussion Question What series of circumstances conspired to make Africa the idea genesis of New World slavery?

1. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=444.

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Lesson 3 The Slave Trade The Islamic traders transformed slavery into a thriving, continental business.

The main stimulus of slave trade was Islam. The spread of Islam from Arabia into Africa after the religion’s founding in the 7th century A.D. affected the practice of slavery and slave trading in West, Central, and East Africa. Arabs were good at slave trade. They knew how to run the business end of slavery. Islamic traders had practiced slave raiding and trading in Arabia for centuries prior to the founding of Islam, and slavery became a component of Islamic traditions. The trans-Saharan slave trade grew significantly from the 10th to the 15th century as vast African empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai incorporated them into their diverse economy.

Slavery in various forms existed in Africa long before the horrors of the Middle Passage and Transatlantic slave routes. Warring tribes within Africa would often enslave and trade their captives. The Islamic and then Atlantic slave trade only improved an already existing system. Some slaves in Africa did have limited rights or rights specifically protected by Sharia (Islamic) law (Almay).

The slave trades contributed to the development of powerful African states on the southern fringes of the Sahara and in the East African interior. The economies of these states were dependent on slave trading. When European explorers and traders arrived in West Africa beginning in the 15th century, they found and began using slave-trade networks already established by the Islamic traders. While trans-Saharan and East African slave trading continued until the early 20th century, they were overshadowed by the Atlantic slave trade after the 15th century. The Atlantic slave trade dwarfed the trans-Saharan and East African trades in terms of volume of exports, impact on African practices of slavery, and lasting effect on Africa in general. It was also significantly more valuable.

Discussion Question How did Islam enhance the slave trade?

Lesson 4 The Atlantic Slave Trade The Atlantic slave trade developed after the Portuguese, and then the English, established trading posts on the west coast of Africa in the mid-15th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries, these European colonial powers pursued plantation agriculture in their expanding possessions in the New World (North, Central, and South America; 90

and the Caribbean islands), across the Atlantic Ocean. As European demand grew for products such as sugar, tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton, and as more New World lands became available for European use, the need for plantation labor increased. So, too, did the price of slaves. West and West-Central African states willingly supplied the Europeans with African slaves for export across the Atlantic. Africans tended to live longer on the tropical plantations of the New World than did European laborers (who eventually won their freedom) and Native Americans (who were undependable). Also, enslaved men and women from Africa were relatively inexpensive and could be owned by almost any colonist. Therefore, African slaves became the primary source of New World plantation labor. Slaves were affordable and available. The Africans who facilitated and benefited from the Atlantic slave trade were political and commercial elites, far more erudite and sophisticated than their European customers. The Africans were shrewd and skillful businessmen. One should not suppose that African traders were naïve, stupid entrepreneurs as European buyers characterized them. They had been doing business in the slave trade for centuries. African sellers captured slaves and brought them to markets on the coast. At these markets European and American buyers paid for the slaves with commodities — including cloth, iron, firearms, liquor, and decorative items — that were very valuable to the sellers. The sellers, who had already established networks and trading paths, made considerable fortunes in this business.

Recently bought slaves in Brazil on their way to the farms of the landowners who bought them, c. 1830 (PD).

The truth is, slavery enriched everyone. The slave trader sold the slave to the European customer for the equivalent of four or five dollars. The European owner would sell the same slave to a West Indian farmer for 250 dollars. The West Indian farmer would grow sugar cane with virtually no labor costs and make more profit. One slave could generate a veritable fortune in the commercial cycle. As the demand for slaves grew, so did the practice of systematic slave raiding, which increased in scope and efficiency with the introduction of firearms to Africa in the 17th century. By the 18th century, most African slaves were acquired through slave raids, which penetrated farther and farther inland. Africans captured in raids were marched down well-worn paths, sometimes for several hundred miles, to markets on the coast. Business was booming. From the mid-15th to the late-19th century, European and American slave traders purchased approximately 12 million slaves from West and West- Central Africa.

Discussion Question Why was slavery such a lucrative business for all? 91

Lesson 5 The Middle Passage For weeks, months, sometimes as long as a year, they waited in the dungeons of the slave factories scattered along Africa’s western coast. Of the roughly 20 million that were taken from their homes and sold into slavery, half didn’t complete the journey to the African coast, most of them dying along the way. Between 10 and 16 million Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic between 1500 and 1900. But this figure grossly understates the actual number of Africans enslaved, killed, or displaced as a result of the slave trade. At least 2 million Africans — 10 to 15 percent — died during the infamous “Middle Passage” across the Atlantic. Another 15 to 30 percent died during the march to, or confinement along, the coast. Altogether, for every 100 slaves who reached the New World, 40 died in Africa or during the Middle Passage. Yet, as mentioned previously, slavery was so profitable that there was no problem losing 20, 30, or even 50 percent of the product in the transportation phase.

Sugar to New England

Rum, tobacco, and cotton to Africa

Slaves to America “The Middle Passage”

Map of the Middle Passage.

On shipboard, slaves were chained together and crammed into spaces sometimes less than five feet high. Conditions within the slave ships were unspeakably awful. Inside the hold, slaves, with men and women sometimes together, but usually apart, endured a nightmare. Quite literally, for up to two months slaves lay in their filth, feces, and vomit. During the voyage, the enslaved Africans were usually fed only once or twice a day and brought on deck for limited times. Several informal studies showed that such a practice would preserve the usefulness of expensive property.

The African slave boarding the ship had no idea what lay ahead. Africans who had made the Middle Passage to the plantations of the New World did not return to their homeland to tell what happened to those people who suddenly disappeared. More than a few thought the Europeans were cannibals. Olaudah Equiano, an African captured as a boy recalled, “When I looked round the ship too and saw a large furnace of copper boiling . . . I fell motionless on the deck and fainted. . . . I asked if we were not to be eaten by those white men with horrible looks, red faces and long hair?”2 Many Africans preferred to die when faced with the nightmarish conditions of the voyage and the unknown future that lay beyond. But from the captain’s point of view, his human cargo was extremely valuable and had to be kept alive and, if possible, uninjured. Slaves who tried to starve themselves were tortured. If torture didn’t work, they were force fed. Thus, by the time the slaves arrived in the New World they were bewildered and broken-hearted.3

Discussion Question Summarize the ordeal that slaves faced as they waited on the shores of West Africa to be deported to the New World.

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2. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/Vassa.asp. 3. Olaudah Equiano, The Life of Olaudah Equiano the African, www.gutenberg.org, quoted in James P. Stobaugh, African American History (Hollsopple, PA: For Such a Time as This, 2014), p. 234.

Chapter 12

Slavery in the New World: A Peculiar Institution First Thoughts Slaves wearing handcuffs and shackles passing the United States capitol, around 1815 (LOC).

The years 1450–1750 brought enormous changes to the Americas. Native Americans, or Indians, as the Europeans came to call them, first encountered European explorers, and before long, saw their world transformed and largely destroyed by European settlers. And European explorers not only ventured to the lands and natural wealth of the Americas, they also traveled to Africa and brought laborers to develop that resource. Thus, they began a fabulously profitable trans-Atlantic slave trade that would bring millions of Africans to the Americas as well. This slave trade would, over time, lead to a new social and economic system: one where race would determine whether he or she might live as a free citizen or be enslaved for life.

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 12 compares slavery in the New World to the Old World, and distinguishes between slavery in North America and Latin America. We will also look at the social/ family life of slaves and be amazed that these entities flourished under such terrific stress. We will see that Africans resisted slavery from the get-go. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand why chattel slavery was so prevalent in the Americas 2. List four new, ominous developments that occurred in New World slavery 3. Describe how slaves maintained their cultural identity 4. Analyze why there were so few large-scale slave uprisings 5. Compare slavery in Latin America with slavery in the United States

Concepts Plantations Indentured servants Maroon colonies Race mixing 93

Lesson 1 Slavery in the New World Initially, English colonists relied on indentured white servants rather than on black slaves. Over half of all white immigrants to the English colonies during the 17th century were convicts or indentured servants. Though unlikely, many think that African slaves started as indentured slaves.

By the beginning of the 17th century, black slaves could be found in every New World area colonized by Europeans, from Newfoundland to the tip of Argentina. While the concentrations of slave labor were greatest in England’s southern colonies — Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, the Caribbean, and Latin America, where slaves were laboring in massive, highly profitable businesses called plantations, slaves were also put to work in northern seaports and domestic households. In 1690, one out of every nine families in Boston owned a slave. Europeans tried to use Native Americans at first; they were cheaper and readily available. It turned out, though, that African slaves, in the long run, were a better investment. Europeans imported African slaves partly for demographic reasons. As a result of epidemic diseases, which reduced the native population by 50 to 90 percent, the labor supply was insufficient to meet demand. Africans were experienced in intensive agriculture and raising livestock, and knew how to raise crops like rice that Europeans were unfamiliar with. As late as 1640, there were probably only 150 slaves in Virginia (the colony with the highest slave population), and in 1650, 300. But by 1680, the number had risen to 3,000 and by 1704, to 10,000. Between 1700 and 1775, more than 350,000 African slaves entered the American colonies. Slavery, as an economic institution, was growing.

Discussion Question Why was chattel slavery so prevalent in the Americas? Boy with a slave maid, Brazil, 1860 (PD).

Lesson 2 Comparing Old World and New World Slavery In some ways, New World slavery clearly was not unique. Slavery everywhere permitted cruelty and abuse. That was not new. Slavery invited economic exploitation and was profitable. In ancient India, Saxon England, and ancient China, a master might mistreat or even kill a slave with impunity. That was also the case in the New World. Yet in four fundamental respects New World slavery differed from slavery in classical antiquity and in Africa, eastern and central Asia, or the Middle East. A historian states: 94

Slavery in the classical and the early medieval worlds was not based on racial distinctions. Racial slavery originated during the Middle Ages, when Christians and Islamic slave traders increasingly began to recruit slaves from East, North Central, and West Africa. As late as the 15th century, slavery did not automatically mean black slavery. Many slaves came from the Crimea, the Balkans, and the steppes of western Asia. But after 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the capital of eastern Christendom, Christian slave traders drew increasingly upon captive black Islamic peoples, known as Moors, and upon slaves purchased on the West African coast or transported across the Sahara Desert. The ancient world did not necessarily regard slavery as a permanent condition. In many societies, including ancient Greece and Rome, manumission of slaves was common, and former slaves carried little stigma from their previous status. Slaves did not necessarily hold the lowest status in premodern societies. In classical Greece, many educators, scholars, poets, and physicians were in fact slaves. It was only in the New World that slavery provided the labor force for a high-pressure, profit-making capitalist system of plantation agriculture producing cotton, sugar, coffee, and cocoa for distant markets. Most slaves in Africa, in the Islamic world, and in the New World prior to European colonization worked as farmers or household servants, or served as concubines or eunuchs. They were symbols of prestige, luxury, and power rather than a source of labor.1

Landing Negroes at Jamestown from Dutch man-of-war, 1619, 20 slaves sold to colonists (LOC).

Discussion Question What four new, ominous developments occurred in New World slavery?

Lesson 3 A Culture Under Stress: Slave Culture As slavery as an institution aged and matured, slave life developed a sophisticated system of survival mechanisms. Through their families, religion, stories, and music, African-Americans resisted the debilitating effects of slavery and created a vital culture supportive of human dignity. In fact, slaves exerted a profound influence on all aspects of New World culture, white or black. 1. Peter N. Stearns, ed., World History in Documents (New York: New York University Press, 2008), p. 177.

The New World language is filled with African language. Such words as bogus, bug, phony, yam, tote, gumbo, jamboree, jazz, and funky all have African roots.

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New World cuisine was heavily influenced by African practices. Deep-fat frying, gumbos, and fricassees stem from West and Central Africa. Music was heavily dependent on African traditions. Sea shanties and yodeling, as well as spirituals and the use of falsetto, were heavily influenced by African traditions. The frame construction of houses; the “call and response” pattern in sermons; the stress on the Holy Spirit and an emotional conversion experience — these too appear to be derived at least partly from African customs. Finally, Africans played a critical role in the production of such crops as rice or sweet potatoes that the English had not previously encountered. African slaves were able to keep some part of their heritage alive, including the use of symbols that their owners could not read. Slave quilts constructed in special patterns were openly displayed along routes to freedom; the patterns represented information and directions to help escaping slaves (LOC).

Religious and cultural traditions played a vital role in enabling slaves to survive the misery of life under slavery. A historian explains, “Many slaves drew on African customs when they buried their dead. Conjurors adapted and blended African religious rites that made use of herbs and supernatural powers. Slaves also perpetuated a rich tradition of West and Central African parables, proverbs, verbal games, and legends, retaining in their folklore certain central figures. Cunning tricksters — often represented as tortoises, spiders, or rabbits — outwitted their more powerful enemies. Through folklore, slaves sustained a sense of separate identity and conveyed valuable lessons to their children. Among the most popular folktales were animal trickster stories, like the Brer Rabbit tales, derived from similar African stories, which told of powerless creatures who achieved their will through wit and guile, not power and authority.”

Discussion Question In what ways did the slaves maintain their cultural identity as a way to sustain their sense of human dignity?

Lesson 4 Slave Resistance Slaves resisted their bondage from the get-go. I can see no persuasive evidence for the opposite view. Slavery was horrible and intolerable. Nothing could mitigate this fact. Enslaved African-Americans resisted slavery in a variety of active and passive ways. Breaking tools, faking illness, intentionally slowing down, and committing acts of sabotage — all were forms of resistance. Running away was another form of resistance. Most slaves who ran away ran relatively short distances and were not trying to permanently escape from slavery. They might be visiting a loved one at another plantation, for instance, but their act disrupted plantation life and had an economic impact. 96

In most cases, unspoken negotiations occurred between slaves and their masters. As Dr. Richard McCormick explained in a lecture at Rutgers University (Spring 1978), slaves would temporarily withhold their labor as a form of economic bargaining and negotiation. Slavery thus involved a constant process of negotiation as slaves bargained over the pace of work, the amount of free time they would enjoy, monetary rewards, access to garden plots, and the freedom to practice burials, marriages, and religious ceremonies free from white oversight. Some fugitives did try to escape permanently from slavery, but this was a smaller number than one would think. Nonetheless, in the colonial period in particular, fugitive slaves tried to form runaway communities known as maroon colonies. Located in swamps, mountains, or frontier regions, some of these communities resisted capture for several decades.

Discussion Question

Stampede of slaves from Hampton to Fortress Monroe, carrying their possessions, running along a river bank at night toward a bridge that leads to Fort Monroe. There are some Union soldiers among them. From Harpers Weekly August 1861 (LOC).

Although slaves often outnumbered their owners, there were very few slave uprisings. Why?

Lesson 5 Comparison of Slavery in the Americas Of the 10 to 16 million Africans transported to the New World, over 30 percent were in Brazil and about the same amount were in the United States. Only 6 percent arrived in what is now the United States. Yet by 1860, approximately two-thirds of all New World slaves lived in the American South. Why? Most slaves began in the West Indies or South America where they were acclimated and prepared for the more lucrative North American markets. The slaves were held, sometimes for long lengths of time, until they could fetch high prices up north. For example, slaves were always more expensive in January and February as plantation owners geared up for the spring planting. West Indian slave owners would prepare these slaves for the spring sale and then transport them to the auction blocks of Charleston and Savannah.

African American men and women hoe and plow the earth while others cut piles of sweet potatoes for planting. One man sits in a horse-drawn cart, ca. 1862/63 (LOC).

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In the West Indies, slaves constituted 80 to 90 percent of the population, while in the United States only about a third of the population was slaves.

Slavery in Latin America, while tolerated, was not encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church (not the Protestant Church) insisted that slaves had a right to marry, to seek relief from a cruel master, and to purchase their freedom. In reality, though, this never happened much. Neither the Church nor the courts offered much protection to Latin American slaves. Death rates among slaves in the Caribbean were one-third higher than in the southern United States, and suicide appears to have been much more common. Unlike slaves in the southern United States, West Indian slaves produced their own food in addition to fulfilling duties for their masters. The greatest difference between slavery in the United States and in Latin America was demographic. The slave population in Brazil and the West Indies had a lower proportion of female slaves, a much lower birth rate, and a higher proportion of recent arrivals from Africa. In striking contrast, the American slave population had an equal sex ratio, a high birthrate, and a predominantly American-born population. Slavery in the United States was especially distinctive in the ability of the slave population to increase its numbers by natural reproduction. In the Caribbean, Dutch Guiana, and Brazil, the slave death rate was so high and the birth rate so low that slaves could not sustain their population without imports from Africa. The average number of children born to an early 19th-century Southern slave woman was 9.2 — twice as many as in the West Indies. Plantation size differed widely in the West Indies. In the Caribbean, slaves were held on much larger units, with many plantations holding 150 slaves or more. In the American South, in contrast, only one slave owner had as many as 1,000 slaves and just 125 had over 250 slaves. Half of all slaves in the United States worked on units of 20 or fewer slaves; three-quarters had fewer than 50. Probably the greatest difference, however, between Latin American slavery and United States slavery, was toleration of race-mixing. It simply was not tolerated in the United States. In fact, it was illegal in every state.

Slave funeral at plantation, Suriname, South America, 1840–1850 (CCA-SA3.0).

In Spanish and Portuguese America, an intricate system of racial classification emerged. The Spanish and Portuguese (in Brazil) were much more tolerant of racial mixing — an attitude encouraged by a shortage of European women — and recognized a wide range of racial gradations. The American South, in contrast, adopted a two-category system of racial categorization in which any person with a black mother was automatically considered to be black. That persists today. My oldest son is one-eighth African-American, but according to the guidelines of United States census, he is categorized as black or African-American in combination.

Discussion Question Compare slavery in Latin America with slavery in the United States.

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Chapter 13

Revolution: The Rise of Liberty First Thoughts Washington Crossing the Deleware, 1851 (PD-Art).

There are certain subjects that rarely succeed at the Hollywood box office. Americans stopped going to westerns when John Wayne died. That changed with the Clint Eastwood “spaghetti westerns.” Until the mid-1970s, sports movies always flopped. Chariots of Fire turned the tide on that one. In recent years, Star Wars and the Harrison Ford character Indiana Jones has made a big splash. I remember taking my wife to see the first Star Wars on our honeymoon (I know — what a guy!). But one genre has almost always failed. Until the success of the Mel Gibson movie The Patriot in 2000, Hollywood had never made a successful movie about a revolution. Americans don’t like to think about revolutions. They are messy business, but necessary. But are they really necessary? If so, when?

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 13 looks at 17th- and 18th-century revolutions, a relatively new phenomenon in world history. We will look very generally at the reclamation of Rome by the Roman Catholics, the Puritan Revolution, the Jacobite Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discover who Rienzi was and why he made such a great impact on history 2. Explain why, according to Thomas Carlyle, the Puritan Revolution failed 3. Understand who the Jacobites were 4. Analyze the American Revolution

Concepts

5. Analyze why some revolutions go too far and become bloodbaths

Vatican Avignon Papacy Cola di Rienzi Jacobite Uprising of 1745 House of Hanover Popular sovereignty Natural rights 99

Lesson 1 Revolution in Rome The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven popes resided in Avignon, in modern-day France.

Historically, the Roman Catholic Church was headquartered in the Vatican in Rome. However, for a time, in the 14th century, the popes deserted the Vatican and lived at Avignon, France. This lesson is about that event and their return to Rome. The pope left in 1309 for a long residence at Avignon, France, at a time when Rome was virtually without any civil authority; even the barbarians had deserted Rome. Pope Clement V declined to move to Rome, remaining in France, and then moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon; all were French, and all were increasingly under the influence of the French crown. Finally, in 1377, Gregory XI moved his court to Rome, officially ending the Avignon papacy. The move back, to some degree, was precipitated by the strangest of premodern sovereigns. At this time, the real masters of Rome were the princes or barons dwelling in their fortified castles outside of, or in their strong palaces within, the city. They did not much like the pope and he felt very vulnerable. Rome was nearly deserted. Power lay in the nobility in Italy, and one such nobleman, Cola di Rienzi, desperately wanted the pope to return to Rome. Rienzi, while a very pious Christian, was also a genuine eccentric and engendered as much pity as awe. In 1342 he asked Pope Clement VI to return — assuring him that all was well. It was not the right time, though, and Rienzi could not persuade the pope to return.

Rienzi vowing to obtain justice for the death of his young brother, slain in a skirmish between the Colonna and the Orsini factions, 1848-49 (PD).

Rienzi understood that he would have to clean house, so to speak, before the pope would return, and he intended to do that. First, Rienzi removed the city government. Then he appointed himself tribune, a sort of mayor. Now there was order in Rome. Private militia, run by noblemen, was forbidden. The nobles watched the progress of this astonishing revolution with impotent surprise. Rienzi was in firm control of Rome. In the spirit of the moment, Rienzi began to dream of restoring to the Roman Republic its old glory. That seems delusional to us today, but to the pious Christian Rienzi, it seemed quite possible. He invited the pope to return at once to Rome. Rienzi, though, went too far. On August 15, after bathing in the font in which the Emperor Constantine had been baptized, he was crowned with seven crowns representing the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost.

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A very strange turn of events ensued, which was instructive to later historical tyrannies: Rienzi literally went insane. What does a state or nation do when its political head is obviously mentally ill? His reign was over as quickly as it had begun. It would still be a few years before Pope Gregory would return, and that was partly because of machinations and intrigue in France, but the story of the strange, little, pious Christian nobleman in Rome is one of the most interesting stories in premodern Europe.

Avignon, Palais des Papes, France (CCA-SA3.0).

Discussion Question Who was Rienzi and why did he have such a great impact on history?

Lesson 2 Secondary Source “The Failure of the Puritan Revolution,” Sir Thomas Carlyle We have had many civil-wars in England; wars of Red and White Roses, wars of Simon de Montfort; wars enough which are not very memorable. But that war of the Puritans has a significance which belongs to no one of the others. Trusting to your candor, which will suggest on the other side what I have not room to say, I will call it a section once more of that great universal war which alone makes up the true History of the World — the war of Belief against Unbelief! The struggle of men intent on the real essence of things, against men intent on the semblances and forms of things. The Puritans, to many, seem mere savage Iconoclasts, fierce destroyers of Forms; but it were more just to call them haters of untrue Forms. I hope we know how to respect Laud and his King as well as them. Poor Laud seems to me to have been weak and ill-starred, not dishonest; an unfortunate Pedant rather than anything worse. 101

His “Dreams” and superstitions, at which they laugh so, have an affectionate, lovable kind of character. He is like a College-Tutor, whose whole world is forms, College-rules; whose notion is that these are the life and safety of the world. He is placed suddenly, with that unalterable, luckless notion of his, at the head not of a College but of a Nation, to regulate the most complex, deep-reaching interests of men. He thinks they ought to go by the old decent regulations; nay, that their salvation will lie in extending and improving these. Like a weak man, he drives with spasmodic vehemence toward his purpose, cramps himself to it, heeding no voice of prudence, no cry of pity: He will have his College-rules obeyed by his Collegians; that first; and till that, nothing. He is an ill-starred Pedant, as I said. He would have it the world was a College of that kind, and the world was not that. Alas! Was not his doom stern enough? Whatever wrongs he did, were they not all frightfully avenged on him?

Thomas Carlyle, circa 1860s (PD-Art).

It is meritorious to insist on forms; Religion and all else naturally clothes itself in forms. Everywhere the formed world is the only habitable one. The naked formlessness of Puritanism is not the thing I praise in the Puritans; it is the thing I pity — praising only the spirit which had rendered that inevitable! All substances clothe themselves in forms: but there are suitable true forms, and then there are untrue unsuitable. As the briefest definition, one might say, Forms which grow round a substance, if we rightly understand that, will correspond to the real nature and purport of it, will be true, good; forms which are consciously put round a substance, bad. I invite you to reflect on this. It distinguishes true from false in Ceremonial Form, earnest solemnity from empty pageant, in all human things. . . .1 Puritanism found such forms insupportable; trampled on such forms — we have to excuse it for saying, No form at all rather than such! It stood preaching in its bare pulpit, with nothing but the Bible in its hand. Nay, a man preaching from his earnest soul into the earnest souls of men: is not this virtually the essence of all Churches whatsoever? . . . Besides, it will clothe itself with due semblance by and by, if it be real. No fear of that; actually no fear at all. Given the living man, there will be found clothes for him; he will find himself clothes. But the suit-of-clothes pretending that it is both clothes and man! We cannot “fight the French” by three-hundred-thousand red uniforms; there must be men in the inside of them! Semblance, I assert, must actually not divorce itself from Reality. If Semblance do — why, then there must be men found to rebel against Semblance, for it has become a lie! These two Antagonisms at war here, in the case of Laud and the Puritans, are as old nearly as the world. They went to fierce battle over England in that age; and fought-out their confused controversy to a certain length, with many results for all of us.2

Discussion Question Why, according to British historian Thomas Carlyle, did the Puritan Civil War/ Revolution fail?

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1. S. Saenger, English Humanists of the Nineteenth Century: A Selection From . . . (Berlin: Weidmannesche Buchhandlung, 1903), p. 110–111. 2. The Best Known Works of Thomas Carlyle (Wildside Press, 2010), p. 285–286.

Lesson 3 The Jacobite Uprising of 1745 King James VII of Scotland (James II of England) had been removed long ago. The House of Stuart, a Catholic faction no longer in control of the Monarchy, was replaced by the House of Hanover. This house was led by King George II, a German Hanover king who barely knew English. Of course, that was better than his dad, George I, who did not know how to speak English at all! But they were both loyal Protestants which is really what England wanted — a Protestant monarch. James had been trying to invade Scotland and then England, but the English navy was not leaving any gaps. In 1745, most of the English army, including King George II himself, left to fight the French in Belgium during the War of Austrian Succession. This was a propitious time for an uprising. James’s son, Prince Charles Edward Stuart, would have to wave the flag, though, because old King James was far too old.

The Jacobite Uprising of 1745 was a civil war fought in Great Britain. It was not a really big one; that had come earlier. But it was a Civil War, nonetheless. This was the second and final uprising in support of the House of Stuart.

There were many Jacobite (Jacobite comes from the Latin word for James: Jacobus) supporters in Scotland and even some in England. The Scottish Presbyterians liked the notion of being independent from England but were very uncomfortable with the Roman Catholic bent of James. There were several uneventful battles; mostly they were draws. The big affair happened at Culloden. At the famed Battle of Culloden, Hanoverian, English, and even some Scottish forces defeated the Jacobites. This was one of the first military battles in Europe where the victor won strictly by superior weaponry. Of course, Europeans had been doing this in the Americas for a few centuries, but this was the first time a fighting force definitively defeated its opponent because of weaponry, not tactics. This was because of a massive musket and cannon volley on the Jacobites, and new bayonet tactics. The Jacobites had always won because of sheer fierceness and not because of discipline. The Jacobites would charge right near the government forces and then they would be fired upon. Since muskets took so long to load, the Jacobites gave their enemies the bayonet.

The Battle of Culloden (1746) by David Morier, oil on canvas (PD-Art).

This time the royal forces turned the tables. In the dust, a bayonet charge was ordered. This caused panic in the Jacobite ranks and they fled. The English ordered all of the wounded Jacobites killed. This was also the last battle fought on the island of Great Britain.

Discussion Question Who were the Jacobites? 103

Lesson 4 American Revolution: The First Modern Revolution The American Revolution was much more than a war for national independence, such as the Spanish revolt against the Moors during the 1400s or the 80-year struggle of the Dutch against Spanish rule in the late 1500s and 1600s. It was also much more than a revolt against taxes and trade regulations. The American Revolution was the first modern revolution. It enjoyed widespread popular support and marked the first time in history that a people fought for their independence in the name of unalienable rights and civil liberties. The French were to do it again in 15 years, but the Americans were the first. The American Revolution touched off an “age of revolution.” Its example helped inspire revolutions across the entire Western world. During the late 1700s and early 1800s, revolutions and popular uprisings erupted from the Ural Mountains in Russia to the Andes Mountains in South America: in Greece, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Poland, Switzerland, and many other countries. In Haiti, for the first time in history, slaves succeeded in winning their independence by force of arms. These revolutions, more or less, referenced the American Revolution.3 The scene of the surrender of the British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga, on October 17, 1777, was a turning point in the American Revolutionary War that prevented the British from dividing New England from the rest of the colonies. The central figure is the American General Horatio Gates, who refused to take the sword offered by General Burgoyne, and, treating him as a gentleman, invites him into his tent, 1822 (Architect of the Capitol).

What were the principles that the American revolutionaries fought for? One was popular sovereignty, the novel idea that all governments existed for the benefit of the governed. Whenever a government violated the peoples’ fundamental rights, they had the right to change or overthrow it. Another basic principle was equality before the law. This was a direct slap in the face of absolutism. A third fundamental principle was constitutional rights and the rule of law. The American revolutionaries believed in natural rights — the idea that the people had certain fundamental rights that were sacrosanct.

Discussion Question How was the American Revolution far more than a war for independence?

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3. Timothy Hall, World History (New York: Penguin Group, 2008), p. 215.

Lesson 5 The French Revolution: A Good Thing Goes Bad The French had good reason for wanting change. Before 1789, inequality was typical of government. The nobles and clergy were the privileged members of society. There were social and economic inequalities as well as political ones. The peasant suffered under the burden of out-of-date feudal dues. At last the day of reckoning came. The national treasury had been exhausted by the wars of Louis XIV, and by his extravagance and that of his successors. The 250 million dollars that it cost France to aid the Americans in their fight for independence was the last straw. Jacques Turgot and Jacques Necker, ministers of finance, had tried to ward off bankruptcy by cutting court expenses. The reckless court, led by the sprightly, frivolous, extravagant queen, Marie Antoinette, would not cooperate. Turgot and Necker were

The French people overthrew their ancient government in 1789. They took as their slogan the famous phrase Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité ― Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

Storming of the Bastille and arrest of the Governor M. de Launay, July 14, 1789 (PDArt).

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dismissed, and other ministers took their place. Finally, foreign bankers refused to lend more money.

Napoléon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by François Gérard in 1810 (PD-Art).

In 1788, Louis XVI, as a last resort, called a meeting of the Estates-General. The three estates were the nobles, the clergy, and the common people. Their representatives met at Versailles, a suburb of Paris, early in May 1789. A constitution and reforms were demanded at this meeting. But it was too late. The Revolution was underway. However, as laudable as the original intentions were, the whole affair turned into a bloodbath that ultimately made the remedy worse than the disease! Napoleon became emperor and was ten times more powerful than Louis XVI!

Discussion Question Why do reasonable, even necessary, revolts often turn into evil bloodbaths?

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Chapter 14

Revivalism: God Sightings First Thoughts Religious revival meeting at Eastham, Mass., 1852 (LOC).

The Western world, without a doubt, is a religious world. Especially in America, religion has been an indelible part of our history. Paul R. Dienstberger, in his preface to The American Republic: A Nation of Christians, argues, “Our nation still sings ‘God shed His grace on thee.’ We claim to be ‘One nation under God.’ We know that a politician is on his last paragraph, when he invokes, ‘And God bless America.’ If this is true, then historians should be able to justify the viewpoint with the events and individuals in American history. As historian David Maines calls them, we should make ‘God sightings.’ ”1 This chapter is an example of “God sightings.” We will look in wonder and awe at what God has done in history!

Chapter Learning Objectives Chapter 14 looks more closely at revivalism as a form of religious and social change in the Western world. God could have chosen other ways to spread His Word, to stimulate His people, but he chose the Revival. We will look at the Moravians and the Herrnhut community and be reminded again of how important prayer is in history. We will examine the small but powerful Anabaptist movement that was neither Roman Catholic nor Protestant. Finally we will examine the Great Awakening and evaluate its effect on the world at that time. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Analyze the Herrnhut community

Concepts Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf Moravian Church

2. Explain why the Anabaptists were such a threat to other Christians 3. Discuss why the Puritans are such popular targets of abuse 4. Compare two interpretations of the First Great Awakening 5. Evaluate what effect in general the First Great Awakening had on the young American colonies

Herrnhut Anabaptists Manifest Destiny Arminianism First Great Awakening David Brainerd 1. Paul R. Dienstberger, The American Republic: A Nation of Christians (Ashland, OH: P. Dienstberger, 2000?), preface.

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Lesson 1 A 100-Year Prayer Meeting In 1722, a small group of Bohemian Brethren who had been living as an illegal underground remnant in the Catholic Habsburg Empire in eastern Moravia (the so-called “Hidden Seed”) for nearly 100 years, arrived at the estate of Zinzendorf and were allowed to establish a new village called Herrnhut.

Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf und Pottendorf, (May 26, 1700–May 9, 1760), German social reformer and bishop of the Moravian Church — a church that emphasized piety — was a man of piety and integrity, and one of the greatest prayer warriors of all time. Like Martin Luther and William Penn, Zinzendorf was a passionate, committed believer, full of joy and the gifts of the Holy Spirit. He was an eager seeker after truth, but was very sympathetic to all expressions of the Christian faith, including Roman Catholicism. More than 30 settlements were established on the Herrnhut model, which emphasized piety, prayer, and communal living in which simplicity of lifestyle and generosity with wealth were held to be important spiritual attributes. The purpose of these communities was to assist the members residing there in the sanctification of their lives; to provide a meeting place for Christians from different confessional backgrounds; to provide Christian training for their own children and the children of their friends and supporters; and to provide support for the Moravian mission work throughout the world. In 1727, Herrnhut in Saxony commenced a round-the-clock “prayer watch” that continued nonstop for over 100 years. The community sent 300 missionaries to the ends of the earth. During its first five years of existence, the Herrnhut settlement showed few signs of spiritual power. By the beginning of 1727, the community of about 300 people was wracked by dissension and bickering. An unlikely site for revival! Zinzendorf and others, however, covenanted to pray and labor for revival. On May 12, revival came. Christians were aglow with new life and power, dissension vanished, and unbelievers were converted. Hundreds of Moravian missionaries were sent all over the world.

Herrnhut was the residence of the provincial board of the Moravian Church (CCA3.0).

Moravian missionaries brought revival all over the world. They sold themselves into slavery to share Christ. They prayed and fasted. But, by all contemporary accounts, they were some of the happiest people in the world!2

Discussion Question The Herrnhut community often prayed Scripture. Offer a few suggestions.

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2. Christian History, 1982, Moravian Issue, http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/1982/issue1/.

Lesson 2 The Anabaptists Anabaptists are the originators of the “free church.” Today they are called Mennonites. Separation of church and state was an unthinkable and radical notion when it was introduced by the Anabaptists. Their views were universally perceived as causing anarchy.

Anabaptists were the first reformers to practice church discipline.

They were, and still are, a very small group. From the beginning, Anabaptism was an underground movement that lost virtually all its leaders in the first two years. It was partly because of Anabaptism that Protestant churches adopted the confirmation service, and baptismal registers came into being. A 16th-century man who exhibited pietism would be suspected of being an Anabaptist and thus persecuted. Under the Anabaptist influence, the reformer Martin Bucer attempted without success to introduce discipline into the Protestant church in Strassburg. He succeeded in convincing John Calvin, who was able to establish church discipline in Geneva. Without knowing when the Anabaptist Schleitheim Confession was formulated, Calvin read it in 1544 and concluded that “these unfortunate and ungrateful people have learned this teaching and some other correct views from us.”3 Nonetheless, most Protestant countries, and even the American colonies, outlawed Anabaptist churches. Only Pennsylvania would allow them to settle within its borders. Both the Moravians and the Anabaptists had vigorous missionary outreaches. They refused to allow their witness to be connected to a national or regional interest. They were always Christians first, and nationals second. In that vein, the Moravians established successful colonies in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Salem, North Carolina.

Discussion Question

David Zeisberger, a Moravian missionary, speaking to Indians gathered around a fire, c. 1864 (LOC).

Why were the Anabaptists such a threat to other Christians?

3. http://www.ctlibrary.com/ch/1985/issue5/506.html.

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Lesson 3 The Puritans: A Premodern Christian State No group has played a more pivotal role in shaping American values than the New England Puritans. Establishing their “City on a Hill,” the Puritans set the tone of American policy. Some historians argue that Americans have retained the concept of manifest destiny (historical expansionist doctrine) ever since. The 17th-century Puritans established our country’s sense of mission, its work ethic, and its moral sensibility. Today, eight million Americans can trace their ancestry to the 15 to 20 thousand Puritans who migrated to New England between 1629 and 1640. The reader should remember that both the Pilgrims in Plymouth and the Puritans in Boston were Puritans. However, the Pilgrims sought to withdraw from the Church of England. The Puritans in Boston merely sought to purify the Church of England.

A Puritan husband and wife walking through snow on their way to church, he carrying a rifle, she a prayer book or Bible, 1885 (LOC).

Few people, however, have been as frequently subjected to caricature and ridicule. The journalist H.L. Mencken defined Puritanism as “the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, might be happy.”4 G.K. Chesterton, in his Short History of England (1917), was not very flattering in his assessment of Puritanism either. Today, the Puritans have come to symbolize every cultural characteristic that “modern” Americans despise. In their day, the Puritans were often dismissed as rigid religious bigots who were miserable and tried to make everyone around them miserable. Perry Miller, a professor at Harvard who had retired by the time I attended but who was my Vanderbilt University advisor’s friend and mentor, argued that the Puritans were far from stuffy, insensitive saints. They were a vital, active, and sustaining force in our early history. The stereotypical view of them is just wrong. For instance, the Puritans were not sexual prudes. Although they strongly condemned sexual relations outside of marriage, they attached a high value to the marital tie. What in the world is prudish about that? While the Puritans wanted to reform the world to conform to God’s law, they did not set up a church-run state. They wanted to set up an English state run by God. They were Englishmen and proud of it. Perhaps most strikingly, the Puritans in Massachusetts held annual elections and extended the right to vote and hold office to all “freemen.” Although this term was originally restricted to church members, it meant that a much larger proportion of the adult male population could vote in Massachusetts than in England itself (roughly 55 percent, compared to about 33 percent in England).5

Discussion Question Why are the Puritans such popular targets of abuse? Why does America seem to need these targets?

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4. http://www.ctlibrary.com/ch/1985/issue5/506.html. 5. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3578.

Lesson 4 Historical Debate: The Great Awakening Mintz, S. (2007).6 The Great Awakening, the most important event in American religion during the 18th century, inaugurated unprecedented evangelism in America, England, Scotland, and Germany. In England, this wave would culminate in the Methodist revivals led by John Wesley (1703–1791); in Germany, the revivals would give rise to a movement known as Pietism (Moravians). In colonial America, in contrast to England and Germany, the revivals tended to cross class lines and take place in urban as well as rural areas. In New England, in particular, the Great Awakening represented a reaction against the growing formality and dampening of religious fervor in the Congregational churches. Elsewhere in the colonies, the Anglican Church, indeed no single church, was able to satisfy the population’s spiritual and emotional needs. The Great Awakening carried profound consequences for the future. It was the first experience shared by large numbers of people throughout all the American colonies, and therefore contributed to the growth of a common American identity. It also produced a deepened consciousness of sin within the existing social order and aroused a faith that Americans stood within reach of Christ’s Second Coming. Even though the Great Awakening contributed to a splintering of American Protestantism, as supporters of the revivalists, known as New Lights, and their opponents, known as Old Lights, established separate congregations, it also sent a powerful spiritual message: God works directly through the people, rather than through churches or other public institutions.

From Paul R. Dienstberger, “The American Republic: A Nation of Christians”7 Between 1720 and about 1760 a time of spiritual refreshment spread throughout the American colonies. Christians were aware of the religious term “revival,” but these events did not have any one origin or style. It wasn’t until the next century that Joseph Tracy coined a title for this momentous occurrence. In 1841 he published The Great Awakening, which described the revival in New England only. Thus the term “Great Awakening” was born. It was characterized by intense emotional preaching and a call for a response by the hearer. The target was not just the mind, as in the earlier Puritan sermons, but the heart, and especially the sinful heart and the behavior of the unconverted. The excitement cut across denominational lines — the Puritans and Congregationalists in New England, the Dutch Reformed and the Friends in the Middle Colonies, and the Presbyterians and Baptists in the Southern colonies were all changed by the Awakening. The previous generations had been influenced by Calvinism and especially the doctrine of election or predestination. Calvin said that believers, the “elect,” had been chosen for 6. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3591 7. Paul R Dienstberger, The American Republic: A Nation Of Christians, Ch. 2, Section I. http://www.prdienstberger.com/ nation/chap2fga.htm#i.%20the%20early%20stirrings

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salvation before the foundation of the world as Paul had written in Ephesians. This new era of Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield called for a conversion experience, a new birth, born again, and some change in the believer’s lifestyle.

Allegory of the theological dispute between the Arminianists and their opponents in 1721 (PD-Art).

Arminianism appeared in the 17th century as a controversial doctrine in opposition to Calvinism. There was division over the salvation issue. The struggle was over what part was God’s hand and what part was man’s response. Calvin had called it irresistible grace; Jacob Arminius introduced the principle that salvation was for all who would believe. Salvation by faith was nothing new. After all, Paul, Luther, and others had said the same thing. Now an appeal for a dramatic conversion experience was being made by the emotional traveling evangelists, who were called “itinerants.” A second controversy was that the fruits of salvation by this new birth would be seen in the believer’s good works. Some criticized Arminianism by saying that grace was being earned by earnest aspirations, and it was just a Protestant version of the Catholic Church’s accent on salvation by good works. A future term that applies to this epoch is “revivalism.” The evangelist with his song leader making an appeal for an altar call had not appeared in Christianity yet. But the mass outdoor rally with an emotional message by a non-pastor calling for a personal religious experience made the word “conversion” a regular topic of street conversation. The importance of some kind of personal choice during the Great Awakening fueled the excitement. In the past, the established churches only seemed to offer a cold, formal routine of the sermon and the sacraments. Now, people’s hearts were moved to alter their talk and their walk by a “new birth.” The melodrama of the Great Awakening was not localized to the American colonies. In England the ado was called the Evangelical or Wesley revivals in the new Methodist Church, and in Germany they were called Pietists. However, historian Samuel Eliot Morison said of Northampton, Massachusetts, that it was “the womb of all modern revivalism” in the Protestant churches of the English-speaking world.8 If this is true, then Jonathan Edwards was most assuredly the “Great Awakener” and George Whitefield was the first great Protestant evangelist. American preachers had spent a generation admonishing this age of unbelief. The “jeremiads” tied every war and disaster to the spiritual climate of the churches. The 1679 Boston “Reforming Synod” listed the specific indiscretions of the so-called Christians. The calls for renewal continued into the 18th century. The 1727 New England earthquake was seen as another warning. One writer exclaimed, “Religion is on the wane.” An early dawning of the awakening was in the Raritan Valley in New Jersey. Theodore Frelinghuysen, a Calvinist and a Pietist, arrived in 1720 to pastor the Dutch Reformed congregations in the area. He soon began condemning his flock for being “hypocrites,

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8. Ibid., Ch. 2, Section II http://www.prdienstberger.com/nation/chap2fga.htm#II.%20Jonathan%20Edwards.

and dissemblers, and deceivers.” Some responded and some were alienated, but George Whitefield said of him, “He is a worthy soldier of Jesus Christ, and was the beginner of the great work which I trust the Lord is carrying on in these parts.”9 Another initial work was that of Gilbert Tennent, a Presbyterian pastor at New Brunswick, four miles away in New Jersey. In 1726, he began preaching with the same strong fervor as Frelinghuysen. His cry, “Awake, sinners” was followed by they were all “damned.” He did not limit his preaching to the laymen, but he portrayed the ministers as hypocrites, too, in his sermon “The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry.” His text was from the “sheep not having a shepherd” verse in the Book of Matthew. His father, William Tennent, was the Presbyterian minister at Neshaminy, Bucks County, Pennsylvania. He instructed his three younger sons and 15 others in a log cabin in their yard. They were prepared for ministry and learned the evangelical zeal. The school was given the name “Log College.” In 1746, the alumni of the school chartered a proper college known as the College of New Jersey, now called by the more prestigious name Princeton.

George Whitefield, 1857 (PD).

In New England, the daybreak of the revival came to pass under the preaching of Solomon Stoddard. He served the First Church of Northampton his entire ministry for 60 years from 1669 until his death in 1729. He was known as a powerful preacher who wholly insisted on conversion while using the theme of judgment and damnation. He observed that prayer and preaching brought five “harvests” by the Holy Spirit during his ministry. When Pastor Stoddard’s health began to fail in 1727, the Congregational Church gave the call to an associate pastor, his grandson, named Jonathan Edwards. Jonathan Edwards, more than any other preacher, started the First Great Awakening.

Discussion Question Compare these two interpretations of the First Great Awakening. Where do they agree? Where do they disagree?

9. Ibid.

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Lesson 5 A Religious Movement Affects All Society The most successful Native American missions by far were conducted by the Moravians.

In general, the Great Awakening increased public literacy. Americans more than ever saw the need to read their Bibles. The purchase of the Geneva Bible (the most popular Bible in colonial America) skyrocketed. There was an immediate need for Christian colleges and seminaries to be started. The most distinct educational change from the Great Awakening was the influence of the “log colleges.” No less than 62 American colleges can be traced to the log college pattern. These schools in particular made their entrance requirement a salvation experience in Jesus Christ. One’s stated purpose for graduation was to propagate the gospel. Whether students were training to be civic leaders, lawyers, teachers, or ministers, these schools had a curriculum priority of full knowledge of the Bible. The trend continued at King’s College (later Columbia), which was founded in 1754 by a former missionary of the gospel to America, Dr. Samuel Johnson. The Baptist Church founded Rhode Island (Brown) in 1764. Dartmouth was founded for missionaries to Native Americans. In 1766, Queen’s College (Rutgers) was located in New Jersey. Every Ivy League college was founded primarily to train clergymen, except Pennsylvania. Nevertheless, their trustees, including Benjamin Franklin, wanted the school open to “any preacher of any religious persuasion,” which was consistent with the pluralistic tolerance of Pennsylvania. A second impact of the Great Awakening was the heightened social consciousness toward Native Americans and slaves. David Brainerd, engaged to Jonathan Edwards’ daughter, became the most famous missionary to Native Americans. Eleazar Wheelock established Dartmouth to train missionaries specifically to reach Native Americans.

David Brainerd, 1891 (PD).

In 1700 there were virtually no English hymns in any Protestant church. America did not produce any great songwriters during the Great Awakening, but they certainly benefited from those countries that did, like England. John Wesley, Charles Wesley, and John Newton of “Amazing Grace” fame were all converted during the revival and began the “Golden Age of Hymns.” The great Isaac Watts wrote his hymns during this century. Altogether, these songwriters wrote thousands of hymns for worship. While the Great Awakening introduced English hymns to America, by the second half of the 18th century they were a common part of the Sunday worship service. The only influential American religious music of the century came from the Negro Spirituals that the black slaves sang. The first hymnal of their songs was published in 1794. Evidently, evangelism of the African-Americans was more widespread than historians are able to evaluate through statistical verification.10

Discussion Question In general, what effect did the First Great Awakening have on the young American colonies?

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10. Paul R. Dienstberger, The American Republic: A Nation of Christians http://www.prdienstberger.com/nation/ Chap2fga.htm#VI.%20The%20Impact%20on%20Society.

Chapter 15

The Word: History of the English Bible First Thoughts The Westminster Confession of Faith states, “Although the light of nature, and the works of creation and providence do so far manifest the goodness, wisdom, and power of God, as to leave men inexcusable; yet they are not sufficient to give that knowledge of God, and of his will, which is necessary unto salvation. Therefore it pleased the Lord, at sundry times, and in divers manner, to reveal Himself, and to declare His will unto His Church; and afterwards, for the better preserving and propagating of the truth, and for the more sure establishment and comfort of the Church against the corruption of the flesh, and the malice of Satan and of the world, to commit the same wholly unto writing: which makes the Holy Scripture to be most necessary; those former ways of God’s revealing His will unto His people being now ceased.”1 The Bible is the most important book ever written. It is the inerrant, inspired Word of God. Yet, it is also a book, a book whose origin and history will be examined in this chapter.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by looking at the creation of the first Bible. We will observe why the Church Fathers chose particular books of the Bible to include in the canon. Next, we will look at why the medieval Roman Catholic Church was opposed to Bible translations. Finally, we will reflect upon how important Bible translations have been to the history of Protestantism. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand why and who wrote the Bible 2. Analyze the history canon 3. Evaluate why the Roman Catholic Church resisted translation of the Bible from Latin to common languages 4. Discuss why it is ironic that the King James Bible is the most preferred Bible in the Protestant United States

Concepts

5. Consider how the history of Protestantism tied to the Bible

Septuagint Latin Vulgate Bible Geneva Bible King James Bible 1. Ibid., Ch. 2, Section VII.

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Lesson 1 Background Athanasius was a Christian theologian, bishop of Alexandria, Church Father, and a noted Egyptian leader of the 4th century.

The Bible is a collection of selected writings composed and edited by members of the Hebrew-Jewish and Greek community and inspired by the Holy Spirit between the 12th century B.C. and the beginning of the Christian Church. It includes prophecies, wisdom, literature, epistles, and history. It is also the most extraordinary and important book ever written. The Old Testament, or Old Covenant, reflects the belief of the early Christian Church that the new covenant mentioned in Jeremiah 31:31–34 was fulfilled in Jesus Christ. It was written in Hebrew originally, although I love the Septuagint (Old Testament written in Greek). The New Testament describes the New Covenant (2 Cor. 3:6–18; Heb. 9:1–4) and was originally written in Greek. The Bible is the inspired, inerrant Word of God. However, no one has found an original version of the Bible. We have no authentic, autographed copies. That is no problem since we rely on the Holy Spirit to inspire the Word and the reader. Now, while I may be sure that my personal favorite version is inspired more than your version, it is only that, after all — a version. As long as our favorite version (e.g., RSV, KJV, NKJV, NIV) is based on solid manuscript sources, or at least the best that can be found, we are in good shape.

Irenaeus was Bishop of a city in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire (now Lyons, France). He was an early Church Father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology.

The truth is, over the years, more complete and more reliable manuscripts of the Bible have been found than those used in early Bibles. As these have been discovered, new, more accurate versions have been written. So don’t say something like my mom (may she rest in peace) said when I used the NIV in a marriage service: “Jimmy, why don’t you use the Bible that Paul used (meaning the KJV)?” Now, remember, the Bible is literature. The Bible reflects historical situations, human events, humankind’s reactions to these happenings, and the belief that God was also involved in these events. The literary history of the Bible began when Moses wrote the Pentateuch, or the first five books in the Old Testament. Other inspired authors wrote books later. David wrote many psalms. His son Solomon wrote Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon. Jeremiah wrote the Book of Jeremiah and Lamentations. The author of the Book of Esther is unknown. And so forth. Each author had his own style. John was a pretty good writer and was full of himself. But not as good a writer as the choleric Paul who Luke candidly takes to task in the Book of Acts. John no doubt thought that Peter was a knucklehead and loved emphasizing the cock-crowing story, as did Luke. Poor Peter. Peter was the first patriarch of the early church, but his Greek was not as eloquent as other New Testament writers. He was, after all, a fisherman by trade. John loved to remind everyone that he was Jesus’ favorite. And so forth. But it was all in good fun. In truth, I strongly believe that the Holy Spirit inspired all the authors in the Bible to write what they wrote. As powerful literature, it has stories, aphorisms, prophecies, and so forth. It helps to know how to pick out the protagonist, the theme, the setting, and other literary components. Differing theological emphases are apparent, but the theological unity of the Bible is incredible and God-inspired. As one theologian observed, “Over and over again it is made clear that the writers believed that traditions of what God had done for his people

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in the past symbolized what he could be counted upon to do in the future. Thus, a people in captivity to the Babylonians could see that as God once delivered others from the Egyptians, he would do the same for those presently enslaved. The literature had, therefore, a dynamic rather than a static quality; being more than a record of the past, it constituted a narrative of the activity of God on behalf of his people.”2

Discussion Question Despite the fact that Christian believers had no extant copies of the Old and New Testaments, and despite the fact that the Bible was written in languages not commonly used today, Christian believers are still confident that the Bible is accurate in historicity and in theology. Why?

Lesson 2 Formation of the Canon In the 3rd century, there was a plethora of sacred writings, many of which seemed to be written by legitimate sources including the Apostles (i.e., original 12 disciples). They were legitimate candidates to be part of the Holy Scriptures. But which ones belonged in the Bible? Which works were inspiring, but not inspired? Which works were heretical? At the end of the 4th century, all these questions were asked and answered. There was a necessary selection process to determine what the authoritative Word of God was, and what did not constitute the authoritative Word of God. This selection process was the means of choosing a canon, or list of authoritative books. The number of books constituting the canon of Old Testament Scripture varied among different religious groups. The Jewish Bible contained 24 books; the Protestant Bible, 39 books; the Eastern Orthodox Bible, 43 books; and the Roman Catholic Bible, 46 books.

The additional books in the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Bibles include writings not accepted as canonical by Jews and Protestants, who place them in a collection known as “The Apocrypha.”

Choosing a canon did not happen overnight. There was a gradual and independent selection of the canon by Church Fathers. In the year 367, an influential bishop named Athanasius published a list of books to be read in the churches under his care, which providentially included those books that are in the contemporary Bible (except he omitted Esther from the Old Testament). There were other canon lists. We are able to prove this by examining the surviving works of Irenaeus (born 130), who lived when no one felt it was necessary to list the approved books. He quotes as Scripture all of the books — and only the books — that appear in the list published on another continent and 60 years later by Origen — an early Christian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Christian Church. 2. Gerald LaRue, Old Testament Life and Literature. http://ntslibrary.com/PDF%20Books/AA%20Old%20 Testament%20Life%20and%20Literature.pdf.

Origen, church father, between 1516 and 1590 (PD).

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The elders of each congregation had approved certain writings and rejected others as they became available. As it turned out, most churches (which were then primarily house fellowships) were in agreement by the year 170, having approved the same books independently as led by the Holy Spirit. The canon grew by many independent decisions of elders who were responsible for their congregations alone. Church leaders always viewed apostolic writings as authoritative. Including the works of Paul, also perceived as authoritative, the majority of the New Testament was easily and readily accepted. The fact is, a canon was thought unnecessary until some heresies emerged. Disagreements arose along with the rise of heresies. Some church leaders became wary and even began to doubt some of the writings they had formerly received as copies from other churches. Writings which came under question were Hebrews, James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and the Revelation of John. Nevertheless, the majority of churches received and used those books without questioning them, and this was itself a miracle. By the middle of the 4th century, the majority of Christians accepted the present Bible as the authoritative canon.

Discussion Question St. Athanasius (1883-84), by Carl Rohl-Smith, Copenhagen, Denmark (PD).

What is the canon and how did it miraculously emerge?

Lesson 3 English Bible History The Vulgate is a late4th-century Latin version of the Bible, and largely the result of the work of Jerome, who was commissioned by Pope Damascus I in 382 to make a revision of the old Latin translations.

The first handwritten English language Bible manuscripts were produced in 1380 by John Wycliffe. John Wycliffe produced dozens of English language manuscript copies of the Scriptures. They were translated out of the Latin Vulgate, which was the only source text available to Wycliffe. The pope was so infuriated by his teachings and by his translation of the Bible into English, that 44 years after Wycliffe had died, he ordered his bones to be dug up, crushed, and scattered in the river! Orthodox Roman Catholicism felt it was inappropriate for lay people to read the Scriptures. In their view, that was the sacred and worthy calling of the clergy. One of Wycliffe’s friends, John Hus, an Eastern Europe Christian martyr, actively promoted Wycliffe’s ideas: that people should be permitted to read the Bible in their own language, and they should oppose the tyranny of the Roman church that threatened anyone possessing a non-Latin Bible with execution. Hus was burned at the stake in 1415, with Wycliffe’s manuscript Bibles used as kindling for the fire. The last words of John Hus were that “in 100 years, God will raise up a man whose calls for reform cannot be suppressed.”3 Almost exactly 100 years later, in 1517, Martin Luther nailed

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3. Great Site: English Bible History http://www.greatsite.com/timeline-english-bible-history/john-hus.html.

his famous 95 theses (a list of 95 issues Luther had with the Roman Catholic church) into the church door at Wittenberg. Martin Luther translated and published the Bible into everyday German, which at the time was anathema. Of course, that was the least of Martin Luther’s worries. He was irritating people right and left! Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press in the 1450s in Germany, and the first book to ever be printed was a Latin language Bible. The invention of the printing press meant that Bibles could finally be effectively produced in large quantities in a short period of time. This was essential to the success of the Reformation. William Tyndale was the first man to print the New Testament in the English language. Tyndale was a true scholar and genius. Tyndale Bibles were burned as soon as they could be confiscated, but thanks to the printing press, copies appeared all over Europe. Myles Coverdale and John “Thomas Matthew” Rogers carried the English Bible project forward and even accelerated it. Coverdale finished translating the Old Testament, and in 1535 he printed the first complete Bible in the English language, making use of Luther’s German text and the Latin Bible as sources. Thus, the first complete English Bible was printed on October 4, 1535, and is known as the Coverdale Bible.

Go to now (most dear reader) and sit thee down at the Lord’s feet and read his words, and, as Moses teacheth the Jews, take them into thine heart, and let thy talking and communication be of them when thou sittest in thine house, or goest by the way, when thou lyest down, and when thou riseth up. And above all things fashion thy life and conversation according to the doctrine of the Holy Ghost therein. ― Coverdale’s Preface 4

When Queen Mary reigned in England, the reformers were forced to flee. In Geneva, Switzerland, theologians John Calvin and John Knox produced a Bible that would educate their families while they continued in exile. It was called the Geneva Bible. The Geneva Bible was the first Bible to add numbered verses to the chapters, so that referencing specific passages would be easier. Every chapter was also accompanied by extensive marginal notes and references so complete that the Geneva Bible is also considered the first English “Study Bible.” Even William Shakespeare quoted from the Geneva translation of the Bible. The Geneva Bible became English-speaking Christians’ Bible of choice for over 100 years. Between 1560 and 1644, at least 144 editions of this Bible were published. Examination of the 1611 King James Bible shows clearly that its translators were influenced much more by the Geneva Bible than by any other source. With the end of Queen Mary’s bloody reign, the reformers could safely return to England. The Anglican Church, now under Queen Elizabeth I, encouraged the printing and distribution of Geneva Bibles in England. In 1582, the Roman Catholic Church surrendered their fight for “Latin only” and decided that if the Bible was to be available in English, they would at least have an official Roman Catholic English translation. Thus, the first Roman Catholic Bible appeared at this time.

The Gutenberg Bible, 1455 (PD).

Discussion Question Why did the Roman Catholic Church resist translation of the Bible from Latin to common languages (e.g., English)?

4 www.bible-researcher.com/coverdale.html.

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Lesson 4 The King James Bible John Eliot was a Puritan missionary to Native Americans. His efforts earned him the designation “the Indian apostle.

With the death of Queen Elizabeth I, James VI of Scotland became King James I of England. The Protestant clergy approached the new king in 1604 and announced their desire for a new translation to replace the Bishop’s Bible first printed in 1568. They knew that the Geneva version had won the hearts of the people because of its excellent scholarship, accuracy, and exhaustive commentary. However, they did not want the controversial marginal notes (proclaiming the pope as an anti-Christ, etc.). Essentially, the leaders of the church desired a Bible for the people, with scriptural references only for word clarification or cross-reference. This “translation to end all translations” was the result of the combined effort of about 50 scholars. It really was an amazing thing. These scholars referenced The Tyndale New Testament, The Coverdale Bible, and The Geneva Bible. From 1605 to 1606 the scholars engaged in private research. From 1607 to 1609 the work was assembled. In 1610 the work went to press, and in 1611 the first of the huge (16” tall) pulpit Bibles, The 1611 King James Bible, came off the printing press. A typographical discrepancy in Ruth 3:15 rendered a pronoun “he” instead of “she” in that verse in some printings. This caused some of the 1611 First Editions to be known by collectors as “He” Bibles, and others as “She” Bibles. Starting just one year after the huge 1611 pulpit-size King James, smaller Bibles were printed and chained to every church pulpit in England. Printing then began on the earliest normal-size printings of the King James Bible. These were produced so individuals could have their own personal copy of the Bible. For the first time in history, every Englishman could own, and many did own, their own Bible.

The Geneva Bible (PD).

It should be noted that when the Puritans and the Pilgrims set up their godly nation in the New World, they took with them their Geneva Bibles and rejected the King James Bible. Therefore America was founded upon the Geneva Bible, not the King James Bible. Initially the King James Bible was perceived as a pro–Church of England version, and the Puritan and Pilgrim reformers would have nothing to do with it. Nonetheless, the king of England subsidized the printing of King James Bibles, and theology aside, it was much cheaper than the Geneva Bible. Idealism aside, Americans know a bargain, and they quickly gravitated to the King James Bible. But please don’t think that the Puritans used it. The Founding Fathers (e.g., George Washington) probably did use it, but only because it was available. Aside from the Puritans, however, folks in colonial days didn’t really care. To them, a Bible was a Bible. The first Bible printed in America was in the native Algonquin Indian language by John Eliot in 1663. The first English language Bible to be printed in America by Robert Aitken in 1782 was a King James Version. Robert Aitken’s 1782 Bible was also the only Bible ever authorized by the United States Congress. He was commended by President

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George Washington for providing Americans with Bibles during the embargo of imported English goods due to the Revolutionary War.

Discussion Question Why is it ironic that the King James Bible is the most preferred Bible in the Protestant United States?

Lesson 5 Essay: Secondary Source Opinion The American Republic, A Nation of Christians, Paul R. Dienstberger When an author starts a text, one expected perspective is that he will be neutral and just present the facts. The writer should be a third person. The classroom teacher or college professor is challenged with the same position, since he or she might influence the formative minds of his students. I submit to you upfront and from the beginning that this is a near impossible tenet to be impartial, unbiased, and totally objective. I appreciated Vern Bullough’s statements, when he said, “Everything seems to be relative to the point of view of the observer. Presuppositions do play an important role . . . it is impossible to have a ‘view from nowhere.’ ” Anyone worth their salt has zeal, a passion, and a persuasion that makes them interesting. Can you imagine Dan Rather or Sam Donaldson being accused of bland neutrality? Oprah, Rosie, Phil Donahue, Rush Limbaugh, Jerry Falwell, and the like all have followers who faithfully watch their shows just because of this appeal. The listener expects some degree of persuasion. Any public forum, whether it be the news, or the entertainment field, or a public speaker, ends with an opinion. It is a part of the responsibility to stand in front of any assemblage and perform. As one prepares, studies, practices, develops that public presence, he or she reaches a conviction and even a confidence that they have something worthwhile to say. I find that the better educated people, such as teachers-professors, media-communicators, and the professional types, are usually well read and well informed; and they have a point of view. Even the audience is going to grant approval based on the emotion displayed by the presenter or the resulting impact on the listeners. You usually hear: wasn’t that a good sermon, or did you like that movie, or what did you think of the program? Right now 121

you are already starting to form your conclusions on whether or not this book has your interest, and if you are going to continue further into these opinions. As a college graduate and a classroom teacher for 36 years no one ever told me that I was being indoctrinated or inculcated by those teachers or the books, but I sure disliked the ones who would not give their opinions. I mistrusted their subtle intents and their hidden dockets; and I wondered, “What do they really mean?” Today we find a strong emphasis on “the agenda.” There almost needs to be a warning or a disclaimer on every PBS documentary, radio-TV show, movie, book, etc. that it’s slanted toward their favorite opinion. USA Today has daily columns in every section which specialize in reviewing the news from their point of view, but no one calls it prejudice or even hints at partiality. Al Neuharth encourages a “forum” of opinions. If the presentation involves a historical event, then it probably has some revisionist perspective. Someone claims to have new evidence or an updated version, but certainly it must have the hype packaging so others will watch it or read it. No one ever claims to have a distorted view of history that it is twisted to justify their narrow position. This brings me to the main perspective that motivates this book. There is a school of thought that believes God is being driven from the public school classroom, and Christianity is being deliberately purged from our textbooks, and those academic atheists are corrupting our morals by omitting religion from our values. At this point from what you have read you would not expect me to give an opinion of bland, lukewarm neutrality. The textbook never was a source of much God stuff. Historically it has been a collection of people, places, dates, and events. The three G’s of Gold, Gospel, and Glory never put much Gospel in the textbook. Manifest destiny emphasized land expansion not the God-given right to the land. It is almost never written that the president was a devout Christian. The main source of biblical material came from the teacher and the students, who interjected their personal information. The most memorable statement that I remember from my high school teachers was made by Mr. Simkims, a science teacher. When he started to teach evolution and to show the movie Hemo the Magnificent, he gave this disclaimer, “Before you run to your preacher and say that I’m against the Bible and I’m teaching evolution, let me say that evolution is only a theory.” Can you imagine that kind of warning from today’s science teachers? It’s only a theory! Let’s face the facts. Today evolution is taught as the only logical explanation for the beginning of mankind. God is a God of history. When one reads the Bible and the massive details in the stories and the lives of the people and nations, particularly Israel, the response is almost, why is it so verbose? One verse sticks out to me. In Acts 17:26 Paul writes that God has determined the times and the places where people will live and move. We have God-given boundaries. In my teaching career I taught the flow of history from two different perspectives. The first method was the sequence of historical events that had cause and effect so the past bumped the future along. I ended up almost emphasizing the old posthole method of stop-action or a time-frame position around the person or the events during that date in history. 122

The direction of history was like a ripple effect. I could choose any individual, event, date, idea, movement, etc. and then tie it to the next era. It was an endless glorification of the past that only led to the present. History really had no ultimate goal that I was leading toward except the present. My second method was a panoramic position or a view of history from a beginning to an end. It wasn’t until I became a born again Christian that this view dominated my philosophy of history. The question of how the world began certainly influences a teacher’s vista through the flow of history. The evolutionists tell us that life began with slime in a sunlit pool of water. The creationists say that God spoke everything into existence in six days. Either starting point leads to a pre-supposition that sways the historian’s overview throughout all of history. Regardless of what chronological trail the historian pursues, I want to ask, what is the final goal of all this? Is mankind to exist continuously? Are we making progress and improving or not? Will the world just continue until it wears out or is used up? Or will some violent men end up destroying the world with a nuclear war? My perspective of history can be best explained by this example. President John F. Kennedy was visiting with Billy Graham. Kennedy, a keen history student and the author of Why England Slept and Profiles in Courage, asked Graham, “Where do you see history leading?” The world famous evangelist answered, “History will climax with the personal return of Jesus Christ.” The President acknowledged that this outlook gave a perspective to history. I, too, cherish Rev. Graham’s position, but it also defines the boundaries and the framework for a comprehensive historical philosophy. Our nation still sings “God shed His grace on thee.” We claim to be “One nation under God.” We know that a politician is on his last paragraph, when he invokes, “And God bless America.” If this is true, then historians should be able to justify the viewpoint with the events and individuals in American history. As David Maines calls them, we should make “God sightings.” I appreciate the Hebrew writers in the Old Testament because they interpreted the past events and their present condition in terms of God’s covenant with them, and their obedience or disobedience to Him. As a student of history, who believes that there is a God in control of world events, then I must search to evaluate the times by asking, “What is God trying to say to us through these events?” With this providential intervention viewpoint I agree in part with Shakespeare that “some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon ’em.” I do not believe that great men or women make the times and the seasons. Events provide opportunity for great people to come to the forefront. Again people are restrained by the Acts 17 verse. . . . In writing this historical survey I intend this book to be a supplement to American history textbooks. I also anticipate that the reader is either an experienced US history teacher or he or she is informed and knowledgeable on the topic. I will not cover some of the details of US history. Hopefully, this is mostly additional information. I am challenged by the OT writer Isaiah (43:9): “Let all nations gather together and let the peoples assemble. Who among them can declare this, and show us the former 123

things? Let them bring their witnesses to justify them, and let them hear and say, ‘It is true.’ ” My thesis is that the US does have a great Christian heritage, and numerous Christian individuals have contributed to that heritage. We are a Republic with Christians who have made an impact. Also, the Creator of this universe has blessed and providentially worked in this nation for His purpose. Many voices are crying out that US history today fails to tell the truth about these facts. The Christian past is either untold, omitted, forgotten, de-emphasized, or even distorted, but it is certainly neglected in many textbooks and only given tokenism. We need a summons like from the Jewish writers and events as in the Passover and Joshua’s stones upon entering the Promised land. . . . Remember! When your children ask . . . Remember! The history that we are expected to remember is NOT about the great Christian legacy or about the Christians, who have been a force for good, but it’s a rewritten and revised version by today’s courts, textbooks, and curriculum writers.

Ahasuerus and Haman at the Banquet of Esther, 17th century (PD-Art).

Regardless, I need to remind myself and the reader of the great story of Esther and the Jewish Feast of Purim. Amazing providential events took place throughout the story to Mordecai, Esther, Haman, and even King Ahasuerus, who couldn’t sleep. God was never once mentioned in the book. Nevertheless, He was always at work in those events. The same is true today whether we write it or not in our books or newspapers. He always works through the lives of believers and non-believers to accomplish His purpose. I originally selected the ten chapter format because there appeared to be cycles like the book of Judges. First a period of spiritual fervor and blessing, then a falling away, then a revival of spiritual activity, then religious regression, and the cycles continued to repeat the pattern. But the Philistines and the Midianites never took over the USA, so I chose to survey the five spiritual revival eras and the five search settings between them. Nevertheless, I have researched to “remember” that America does have a Christian tradition and, but more than that — it has been a nation with Christians, who did make a difference in the development of this Republic.5

Discussion Question Why does the author reject “lukewarm neutrality” on the issue of religion in history?

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5. Paul. R. Dienstberger, The American Republic, A Nation of Christians (2000), prelude; http://www.prdienstberger.com/ nation/atbofcon.htm.

Chapter 16

Sociology: Prospering in a Hostile Culture First Thoughts By 1643, New England was thriving. The experiment was working. New England was feeling the need to join with neighboring colonies that did not share its penchant for Puritanism. This need was acutely felt in King Philip’s War where there was more life lost per percentage of the population than in any other war fought in American history. The Puritans were loyal Englishmen, and when their rights were threatened they wrote the 1661 Declaration of Rights that was clearly a prototype for the later Declaration of Independence. But who were these Pilgrims? Elson offers his view, and the reader is invited to respond.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by looking at the New England Confederation. Next, we will discuss King Philip’s War and reflect upon the tragedy of Native American relations. We will observe Edmund Andros bring his own brand of tyranny to the colonies. Finally, we will read an essay by a historian and reflect on the different views of Puritanism. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss the genesis of the New England Confederation 2. Evaluate the origin and result of King Philip’s War 3. Study the impact of Governor Andros on New England 4. Analyze theories surrounding Puritanism

Concepts Covenant Hartford Convention Wampanoags Massachusetts Declaration of Rights of 1661 Sir Edmund Andros 125

Lesson 1 John Winthrop The Puritan Experiment: Year 10 A central element in Puritan social and theological life was the notion of the covenant. A covenant states that one party will do this thing if another party will do that thing.

By 1640, the Puritan experiment was obviously working, but it was under stress. The errand in the wilderness, the prophecy of Governor Winthrop, apparently was true. One of the most remarkable events in world history had occurred first in 1620 and then in 1630: a population group had journeyed thousands of miles to start a new nation with the expressed purpose of glorifying God. It had happened once before when the Israeli nation conquered the Promised Land, but it was unique in premodern Europe. In a covenant there are usually some blessings and curses mentioned to punish offenses and to reward loyalty. This was not an entirely new concept in government. Certainly feudalism included a notion of agreement and covenant. But the Puritans went way beyond anyone else. All social relationships were structured in terms of a covenant or contract that rested on consent and mutual responsibilities. In perhaps the most important essay ever written by an American, John Winthrop, aboard the Arabella, proclaimed before he had landed in Boston that the Puritan had made a covenant with God to establish a truly Christian community in which the wealthy were to show charity and avoid exploiting their neighbors, while the poor were to work diligently. If they abided by this covenant, God would make them an example to the world — a “city upon a hill.” But if they broke the covenant, the entire community would feel God’s wrath.

In honor of the birthday of Governor John Winthrop, born June 12, 1587 (created between 1860 and 1880) (LOC).

In his stress on the importance of a stable community and reciprocal obligations between rich and poor, Winthrop was implicitly criticizing disruptive social and economic changes that were rapidly transforming English society. As a result of the enclosure of traditional common lands, which were increasingly used to raise sheep, many rural laborers were thrown off the land, producing a vast floating population. Up to half of all village residents left their community each decade. In his call for tightly knit communities and families, Winthrop was striving to re-create a social ideal that was breaking down in England itself. He was, quite literally, trying to create a New Israel.

Discussion Question What makes the Puritan experiment so unique in premodern history?

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Lesson 2 The New England Confederation (1643–1684) In 1643, a union was proposed among the Puritan New England colonies. At this point there were several colonies in New England. This union, the prototype of our present national union, had its origin in the same town that gave to the world its first written constitution, and the same town that, nearly two centuries later, became the seat of the famous Hartford Convention. The articles of confederation were drawn up at Boston in May 1643. Four colonies entered into the compact — Massachusetts (including New Hampshire), Hartford, New Haven, and Plymouth, with no invitation to join the union being extended to Rhode Island (because no one wanted Baptists in the confederation).

The Hartford Convention was an event spanning from December 15, 1814, to January 4, 1815, in the United States during the War of 1812 in which New England’s opposition to the war reached the point where secession from the United States was discussed.

The New England Confederation was a loose confederation, with each colony retaining its home government as before. The main object in uniting was to protect themselves from common enemies — from the Native Americans, from the Dutch on the west, the French on the north, and even from England, which was torn apart in a civil war. Some historians see this union as nothing more than a business arrangement, but it surely presaged later colonial attempts at union. Nobody really wanted to do it, but it seemed necessary. The business of the confederation was to be transacted by a commission of eight men, two from each colony. A simple majority was sufficient. The expenses as well as the spoils of war were to be divided among the colonies in proportion to their respective male populations between the ages of 16 and 36. The articles provided for the delivering up of runaway slaves and of fugitives from justice. Provision was made for the admission of other colonies, and it was agreed that the union should be perpetual. While this was not the first confederation made in North America — the Iroquois had been governing with one for a while — it was the first European-created one. In Massachusetts, the big guy on the block, the people, exceeding in numbers the population of the other three colonies combined, were unhappy with the new confederation. In this agreement, Massachusetts was forced to share power with much less populated colonies. The union was dissolved in 1684.

1882 studio portrait of the (then) last surviving Six Nations’ warriors who fought with the British in the War of 1812. Portrait taken in Brantford, Ontario, Canada (PD).

Discussion Question How was the New England Confederation a prototype for later colonial unions?

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Lesson 3 King Philip’s War The relations of the colonists to the Native Americans were threefold: they traded with the Native Americans, they fought with them, and they preached the gospel to them. The early settlers carried on trade with the natives because it was profitable, and because it was often necessary to keep the colonists from starvation. The settlers also had pure and honest motives to convert the Native Americans to Christianity. The Puritans were leaders in this laudable ambition. For example, John Eliot, the apostle to the Native Americans, labored for many years to give them the Gospel, and translated the Bible into their language.

Algonquian Bible 1663, John Eliot 1663 (PD).

Nevertheless, conflict between the Europeans and the Native Americans was inevitable. Neither the Native Americans nor the Europeans could understand the perpetual obligations of a treaty, nor could they reconcile the different worldviews that both people groups exhibited. As Europeans moved west, Europeans and Native Americans clashed in open conflict. By the middle of the 17th century, Philip, the son of Massasoit, was chief of the Wampanoags, a native tribe that had made a treaty of friendship with the Pilgrims of Plymouth soon after their landing. This treaty had been kept faithfully for 50 years, but soon after the death of the aged chief, Massasoit, Philip and his tribe broke from the white settlers and began to prepare for war. It is supposed that the Native Americans, seeing the gradual encroachment of the white men upon their lands, determined to drive the Europeans from the country. And they could easily do so. It is estimated that they outnumbered Europeans at least tenfold. The war began with a Native American attack on a community in southeast Massachusetts, in which several men, women, and children were killed. It was rare that Native Americans initiated a war. They were acutely aware that they usually lost badly in wars with the Europeans. But they thought they could win this one. Three hours after a messenger had reached Boston, a body of men was on the march from that city toward the Native American country. However, it took over a year to quell the uprising. Philip was a crafty leader. He succeeded in enlisting the aid of the Narragansett, another Native group. In the summer of 1675, the towns of Brookfield, Deerfield, and Northfield were burned, and many of the inhabitants massacred. A band of soldiers led by Captain Beers was ambushed near Deerfield and almost all were killed. It was looking bad for the colonies. The following winter, 1,000 of the best men of New England marched against King Philip. By the spring of 1676, the Native Americans were on the defensive. Philip became a fugitive and escaped his pursuers from place to place. At length he was overtaken in a swamp in Rhode Island by Captain Ben Church of Plymouth, and was executed.

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The war soon ended, and the Europeans lost 3,000 men — an alarmingly high percentage of the New England male population. Nonetheless, Native American power was utterly broken, and never again was there a Native American war in New England.

Discussion Question In 1620–1621, it was arguably Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, who saved the lives of the scarecrow Pilgrim survivors of the first winter at Plymouth. Yet, scarcely a generation later, Massasoit’s son Philip suffered a terrible defeat. Philip was slain, his body drawn and quartered, and his head paraded in triumph in Plymouth. Philip’s son, Massasoit’s grandson, was sold into slavery in Bermuda. The generosity of Massasoit in 1620 indirectly resulted in the enslavement of his grandson 56 years later. Why?

Massasoit and Governor John Carver smoking a peace pipe (PD).

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Lesson 4 Edmund Andros Scarcely did King Philip’s War end than New England had to face a new danger, and one from an altogether different source. The new challenge was from the home country, the British monarch. King Charles II naturally resented the Puritan colonies in North America. After all, it was the English Puritans under Oliver Cromwell who had executed his father, King Charles I. Rancor was no doubt increased by the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights of 1661. While this document professed allegiance to the king, King Charles II nonetheless regarded it as an encroachment on his authority. This declaration is one of the most memorable documents of the colonial era. It blatantly insisted on local government and severely limited the rights of the Crown concerning personal liberties. By it the General Court declared any imposition contrary to their own just laws, not repugnant to the laws of England, “to be an infringement” of their rights. King Charles II was irritated, but was too busy re-establishing royal power after the Puritan Commonwealth to do much about it. The next king, James II, sent Sir Edmund Andros, who had made a record as governor of New York and New Jersey, to govern New England as well as in New York and New Jersey. Andros arrived late in 1686 and made his seat in Boston. The people despised him and he despised them, so the feeling was mutual.

Andros a Prisoner in Boston, 1876 (PD).

Andros abolished colonial legislatures and taxed without the consent of the governed. He even took from the local town meeting its power of taxing. He also sent innocent men to jail without a trial and curbed the liberty of the press. Andros demanded the Charter of Rhode Island and all other colonies, and while he was unable to obtain them, he was universally resented for his efforts. Andros wanted to make the colonies royal colonies, colonies subject directly to the authority of the king. Ultimately, Andros was seized and sent back to England. But the damage was done. The colonial experience with English tyranny was a memory lingering into the next century. Soon after, the older charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut were declared restored. Massachusetts failed to recover her old charter but was granted a new one. Through this charter the territory of the colony was greatly extended through the addition of Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia. These charters were important. If a colony did not have one, then the king, by default, owned it; he could be pretty rough on his subjects, as Kings Charles and James had so blatantly proven.

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But as one historian explains, “The ancient independence was gone. The laws were again to be made and the taxes levied by a legislature elected by the people; but every act must henceforth be sent to England for the royal approval, and henceforth the governor, his deputy and secretary were to be appointments of the Crown. The new charter also opened the door of citizenship, requiring a property test, but no longer a religious test. This feature destroyed forever that intimate union of Church and State that had characterized the first generation in Massachusetts Bay. The Church and State were still united, but the Puritan hierarchy had full control and the assembly — rendered it unlike any other American charter. From this cause Massachusetts is often placed in a class by itself as a semi-royal colony.”

Discussion Question Why did religion diminish in importance in the Puritan colony founded by Winthrop and his friends as a “city on a hill” to proclaim the goodness and love of the Lord Jesus Christ? King Charles II, circa 1660 to 1665 (PD).

Declaration of Rights of 1661 That the inhabitants of the English colonies in North America, by the immutable laws of nature, the principles of the English Constitution, and the several charters or compacts, have the following rights: Resolved, 1. That they are entitled to life, liberty, and property, and they have never ceded to any sovereign power whatever, a right to dispose of either without their consent. Resolved, 2. That our ancestors, who first settled these colonies, were at the time of their emigration from the mother country, entitled to all the rights, liberties, and immunities of free and natural-born subjects, within the realm of England. Resolved, 3. That by such emigration they by no means forfeited, surrendered, or lost any of those rights, but that they were, and their descendants now are, entitled to the exercise and enjoyment of all such of them, as their local and other circumstances enable them, to exercise and enjoy. Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council Resolved, 5. That the respective colonies are entitled to the common law of England, and more especially to the great and inestimable privilege of being tried by their peers of the vicinage, according to the course of that law. Resolved, 6. That they are entitled to the benefit of such of the English statutes as existed at the time of their colonization; and which they have, by experience, respectively found to be applicable to their several local and other circumstances. Resolved, 7. That these, His Majesty’s colonies, are likewise entitled to all the immunities and privileges granted and confirmed to them by royal charters, or secured by their several codes of provincial laws. 131

Lesson 5 Puritan Laws and Character An Historical Essay by Henry William Elson During the seventeenth century, the combined New England colonies formed practically, if we except Rhode Island, one great Puritan commonwealth. They were under separate governments; but their aims and hopes, their laws, for the most part, and their past history were the same. The people as a whole were liberty-loving in the extreme, but the individual was restrained at every step by laws that no free people of today would tolerate for an hour. Paternalism in government was the rule in the other colonies and in Europe, but nowhere was it carried to such an extreme as in New England. Here, the civil law laid its hand upon the citizen in his business and social relations; it regulated his religious affairs, it dictated his dress, and even invaded the home circle and directed his family relations. One law forbade the wearing of lace, another of “slashed cloths other than one slash in each sleeve and another in the back.” The length and width of a lady’s sleeve was solemnly decided by law. It was a penal offense for a man to wear long hair, or to smoke in the street, or for a youth to court a maid without the

Embarkation of the Pilgrims, by Robert Weir, 1857 (PD-Art).

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consent of her parents. A man was not permitted to kiss his wife in public. Captain Kimble, returning from a three-years’ ocean voyage, kissed his wife on his own doorstep and spent two hours in the stocks for his “lewd and unseemly behavior.” In the matter of education the Puritans stood in the forefront. Many of the clergy were men of classical education, and through their efforts Harvard College was founded but six years after the great exodus began. Before the middle of the century Massachusetts required every township of fifty families to employ a teacher to educate the young in reading and writing, while every township of one hundred families must maintain a grammar school. The other colonies soon followed with similar requirements. But the most striking feature in the life of New England is found in its religion. The State was founded on religion, and religion was its life. The entire political, social, and industrial fabric was built on religion. Puritanism was painfully stern and somber; it was founded on the strictest, unmollified Calvinism; it breathed the air of legalism rather than of free grace, and received its inspiration from the Old Testament rather than the New. There was a gleam of truth in the charge of Mrs. Hutchinson that the Puritans lived under a covenant of works. This was because they had not yet fully grasped the whole truth of divine revelation. No further proof of the legalistic tendencies of Puritan worship is needed than a glance at their own laws. A man, for example, was fined, imprisoned, or whipped for non-attendance at church services. He was dealt with still more harshly if he spoke against religion or denied the divine origin of any book of the Bible. Laws were made that tended to force the conscience, to curb the freedom of the will, and to suppress the natural exuberance of youth — laws that could not have been enacted and enforced by a people who comprehended the full meaning of Gospel liberty, or had caught that keynote of religious freedom sounded by the ancient prophet and resounded by St. Paul and Luther, “The just shall live by faith.” Nevertheless there is no more admirable character in history than the New England Puritan of the seventeenth century. His unswerving devotion to duty, his unlimited courage based on the fear of God, his love of liberty and hatred of tyranny — these are the qualities that have enthroned him in the memory of the American people. We deplore the narrowness and intolerance of the puritans; but they were less narrow and intolerant than the English and most of the Europeans of that day. They committed errors, but they were willing to confess them when they saw them. They banished Roger Williams as a disturber of the peace, not for his opinions; but they bore witness to his spotless character. They executed a few Quakers, but confessed their error by repealing their own law. They fell into the witchcraft delusion, which was prevalent throughout Christendom at the time; but they were first to see the dreadful blunder they had made and they were not too proud to publicly confess it. Judge Sewall made, before a large congregation, a confession of his error as only a hero could have done; and he begged the people to pray “that God might not visit his sin upon him, his family, or upon the land.” Such was a trait of the Puritan character that leads us to forget his faults and to admire rather than censure him. New England developed steadily throughout the colonial era. The people were chiefly of the stanch yeomanry, the great middle class, of England. Many of them were men of fortune and standing in their native land. The people of Massachusetts were slow

A fair Puritan by E. Percy Moran, 1897 (LOC).

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in reaching out from the seaboard; not till about 1725 did they begin to colonize the Berkshire Hills. The Connecticut Valley was more productive than other parts of New England, and the people of Connecticut were more purely agricultural in their pursuits than were those of any other portion, except New Hampshire. The chief industry of Rhode Island was trade, while Massachusetts was divided, agriculture and commerce holding about equal sway. Six hundred vessels plied between Boston and foreign ports, while the number of coasting vessels was still greater. Manufacturing was carried on, but not on any great scale. Sawmills and gristmills were numerous along the rivers, and they did a large business in preparing timber and grain for transportation. Hats and paper and other commodities were made on a small scale; but the most extensive manufacturing was carried on by the farmers and their families, who made many of the utensils for their own home use, as will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. The stern Puritan customs were gradually softened, more rapidly in Massachusetts than in Connecticut, owing to the many Crown officers residing in Boston. The first attempts to introduce the Episcopal form of religion were sternly resisted, but at length it found a footing, though not in Connecticut till well into the eighteenth century. About 1734 a religious revival, started by Jonathan Edwards and carried on by George Whitefield, the evangelist, spread over parts of New England, and to some extent revived the waning Puritan religious fervor. The population at the opening of the Revolution reached nearly 700,000, about 300,000 of which was in Massachusetts, including Maine. Connecticut contained about 200,000 people, New Hampshire some 75,000 and Rhode Island some 50,000. All colonies had Negro slaves, but very few in comparison with the southern colonies. Probably there were not more than 15,000 slaves in all New England, of whom Massachusetts and Connecticut had the majority. Indentured servants were slow in coming to New England, and when they came, their rights were guarded by salutary laws.1

Discussion Question With what part, if any, of the above essay will you disagree and why?

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1. Henry William Elson, History of the United States of America, “New England Affairs” (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1904), p. 127–130; http://www.usahistory.info/NewEngland/Puritans.html.

Chapter 17

Primary Sources: Eighteenth Century First Thoughts St. John’s Church, Hampton, Virginia built in 1728 (LOC).

History is a collection of individual narratives. It is the private history that richly blesses the historian with ineluctable insights into personal history. Each generation writes its own history — a history that reflects its needs and concerns. In the past, scholars mistakenly assumed that the history of private life was a chronicle of trivial changes in fashion and custom. As one historian explains, “After all, who needed to know when the bathtub was invented or when people began to eat with forks? But the history of private life is anything but trivial. Over the past 500 years, every aspect of our lives has undergone profound transformations: our holidays, our manners, our relations with loved ones. These changes reflect a fundamental shift in human sensibilities — in our emotions, our moral outlooks, our sense of self, and our psychic make-up.”1

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by reading a portion of a journal of a colonial soldier in the French and Indian War. Next, we will revisit the First Great Awakening. We will suffer with German indentured servants who were willing to pay the price of freedom for seven years to obtain a dream for generations. Finally, we will examine the great slave rebellion in New York City in the 1740s. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss the life of an American colonial soldier in the French and Indian War 2. Understand the impact of the First Great Awakening on American history 3. Discern the great suffering of thousands of indentured servants who came to America 4. Evaluate the causes of the slave revolts of the 18th century

Concepts Seven Years’ War Redemptioners 1. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/plife_overview.cfm.

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Lesson 1 “A Soldier’s Diary,” by Robert Moses The Seven Years’ War was a major military conflict that lasted from 1756 until 1763. It involved all of the major European powers of the period.

Colonial soldier Robert Moses provides a vivid firsthand account of fighting in northern New York during the early years of the Seven Years’ War (called the French and Indian War in North America), when the British and colonial forces suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the French and their Indian allies. Because of its global nature, it has been described as the “first World War.” It resulted in a million deaths and significant changes in world geography. We were informed that a number of Indians killed two men in a very barbarous manner. Destroyed eight cattle carried away the value of three. A scout consisting of thirty men pursued them on Friday July 25th [1755] but could not discover them . . . we received intelligence that a number of Indians supposed to consist of one hundred killed two men about two miles from the Fort [Bellowe’s Fort], took the man’s heart and cut it in two and laid it on his neck, and butchers the other most barbarously, sought a house near the Fort, wounded one man that he died about an hour after our arrival. . . . Saturday 7th [of September]: in the afternoon one of the Mohawks that came in informed Colonel Blanchard that he discovered a vast number of French and Indians about 4 miles from the camp and tract [tracked] thirty about a mile from the Camp. The Colonel ordered a scout of one hundred and 20 men to go and know the certainty of it, who returned and made no discovery excepting a few tracks which they supposed [were] made by some of their own men which were a hunting. Monday the 8th: day of September 1755 — a scout went out from Lake George commonly called by the Indians Lake Sacremaw, under the command of Colonel William being in number a hundred they receiving intelligence that an Army of French and Indians were on the borders and that their intention chiefly was to beset Fort Lyman. The Colonel with five men was making the best of his way down to reli[e]ve them in case any such emergency should happen but he had not marched not exceeding 4 miles from the Lake when he entered where the Enemy ambushed themselves on each side of the path in the form of a half moon. The Colonel had no sooner come up, with his men conveniently in the midst of them but he was fired on every quarter very briskly. The Colonel with men behaved themselves cowardly for some minutes but [were] overpowered by such a vast company their number suppose[d] to consist of 2500 men compelling Colonel with his 600 to fight and upon a retreat until they came to the Fort at the Lake. The Enemy pursued them very boldly with their firelocks shouldered and their Bay[o]nets fixed to them marched in towards ye Front of our Army and thought to rush into the camp. They in the camps took them to be New Hampshire forces [and] never fired a gun until the Enemy came so near them that they could discover a Frenchman from an Englishman upon which discovery the whole camp was alarmed and withstood them on the front fixed their cannons and played on them for an hour with the loss of many men to the French. They immediately begin to charge on the right and left. . . but at both places they met with strong resistance. The Indians on the Left Wing were so

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ambitious that they would feign enter into ye Artillery ground two cannon were mounted on that quarter on[e] of which being fired on them swept away sixteen which put the rest in such a terror that they drawed off as quick as possible. The Regiments which were camped at Fort Lymon distance from up lake 14 miles heard the cannons roaring. . . . immediately dispatched to the Lake the New Hampshire Regiment together with part of New York Regiment which number met ye enemy after they drawed off from ye Lake with a new salutation of firelocks. Cutlasses and hatchets playing on every quarter with much effusion of blood but our New Hampshire forces being fresh and courageous and the Enemy tired and much discouraged with the Defeat they met with, retreated and made their escape toward a Creek the next day they were pursued a vast quantity of plunder was taken up which they dropped in the creek. The day after ye battle three Frenchmen were taken up by the Guard of Fort Lymon who upon examination declared that their Army was entirely broke.2

Discussion Question How reliable do you think Moses’ account of this military incident is? Give reasons for your response.

Louis-Joseph de Montcalm trying to stop Native Americans from attacking British soldiers and civilians as they leave Fort William Henry at the Battle of Fort William Henry in 1757 (LOC). 2. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=102.

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Lesson 2 Accounts . . . of the Revival of Religion, 1743 The Great Awakening was one of the most important events in American history during the 18th century. It was a series of revivals that spread across the American colonies in the late 1730s and 1740s. Jonathan Edwards is the most famous pastor of this revival. The mid-18th century witnessed a wave of evangelism without precedent in America, England, Scotland, and Germany. In England, this wave would culminate in the Methodist revivals led by John Wesley (1703–1791), while in Germany, the revivals would give rise to a movement known as Pietism. In colonial America, in contrast to England and Germany, the revivals tended to cross class lines and to take place in urban as well as rural areas. The following is an excerpt from A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God by Jonathan Edwards.3

Theologian Jonathan Edwards, before 1855 (PD).

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Just after my Grandfather’s Death, it seemed to be a time of extraordinary Dullness in Religion: Licentiousness for some Years greatly prevailed among the Youth of the Town; they were many of them very much addicted to Night-walking, and frequently the Tavern, and lewd Practices, wherein some, by their Example, exceedingly corrupted others. It was their Manner very frequently to get together, in Conventions of both Sexes, for Mirth and Jollity, which they called Frolicks; and they would often spend the greater part of the Night in them, without regard to any Order in the Families they belonged to: and indeed Family-Government did too much fail in the Town. It was become very customary with many of our young People, to be Indecent in their Carriage at Meeting, which doubtless, would not have prevailed to such a Degree, had it not been that my Grandfather through his great Age (tho’ he retained his Powers surprisingly to the last) was not able to Observe them. There had also long prevailed in the Town, a Spirit of Contention between two Parties, into which they had for many Years been divided, by which, was maintained a Jealousy one of the other, and they were prepared to oppose one another in all public Affairs. But in two or three Years after Mr. Stoddard’s death, there began to be a sensible Amendment of these Evils; the young People. . . . by degrees left off their Frolicking, and grew observably more Decent in their Attendance on the public Worship, and there were more that manifested a Religious Concern than there used to be. 3. Jonathan Edwards, A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God, 1743; http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_ textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=91.

At the latter end of the Year 1733, there appeared a very unusual flexibleness, and yielding to Advice, in our young People. It had been too long their manner to make the Evening after the Sabbath, and after our public Lecture, to be especially the Times of their Mirth, and Company keeping. But a Sermon was now preached on the Sabbath before the Lecture, to shew the Evil Tendency of the Practice, and to persuade them to reform it; and it was urged on Heads of Families, that it should be a thing agreed upon among them to govern their Families, and keep their Children at home, at these times. . . . But Parents found little, or no, occasion for the exercise of Government in the Case; the young People declared themselves convinced by what they had heard from the Pulpit, and were willing of themselves to comply with the Counsel that had been given: and it was immediately, and, I suppose, almost universally complied with; and there was a thorough Reformation of these Disorders thenceforward, which has continued ever since. . . .

Falls Church, Fairfax County, Virginia, built in 1734 (LOC).

Presently upon this, a great and earnest Concern about the great Things of Religion, and the eternal World, became universal in all Parts of the Town, and among Persons of all Ages. . . . All other Talk but about spiritual and eternal Things, was soon thrown by. . . . The Minds of People were wonderfully taken off from the World; it was treated amongst us as a Thing of very little Consequence. . . . The Temptation now seemed to lie on that Hand, to neglect worldly Affairs too much, and to spend too much Time in the immediate Exercise of Religion. . . . There was scarcely a single Person in the Town, either old or young, that was left unconcerned about the great Things of the eternal World. Those that were wont to be the vainest, and loosest, and those that had been most disposed to think, and speak lightly of vital and experimental Religion, were now general subject to great Awakenings. And the Work of Conversion was carried on in a most astonishing Manner, and increased more and more; Souls did as it were come by Flocks to Jesus Christ. From Day to Day, for many Months together, might be seen evidence Instances of Sinners brought out of Darkness into marvelous Light, and delivered out of an horrible Pit, and from the miry Clay, and set upon a Rock, with a new Song of Praise to God in their Mouths.

Discussion Question What crisis did Jonathan Edwards find in his new church?

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Lesson 3 Immigration and Ethnic Diversity During the 18th century, the population doubled every 25 years. One source of newcomers were the Germans. About a third of 18thcentury Germans came as “redemptioners” who sold themselves or their children for a term of years in return for transportation to the American colonies.

Gottlieb Mittelberger, 1750 By 1750, when Gottlieb Mittelberger, a schoolteacher from the Duchy of Wurttenberg, left his wife and children to travel to America, recruitment and transportation of German settlers was controlled by Dutch shippers, who charged the emigrants by the day. Upon arrival in Philadelphia, the emigrants were kept on shipboard until someone agreed to pay the costs of their transportation. To obtain payment, many redemptioners agreed to serve a three or more years’ term of service and bound out their children until the age of 21. During the voyage there is on board these ships terrible misery, stench, fumes, horror, vomiting, many kinds of sea-sickness, fever, dysentery, headache, heat, constipation, boils, scurvy, cancer, mouth-rot, and the like, all of which come from old and sharply salted food and meat, also from very bad and foul water, so that many die miserably. Add to this, want of provisions, hunger, thirst, frost, heat, dampness, anxiety, want, afflictions, and lamentations, together with other trouble, as for example, the lice abound so frightfully, especially on sick people, that they can be scraped off the body. The misery reaches the climax when a gale rages for two or three nights and days, so that everyone believes the ship will go to the bottom with all human beings on board. In such a visitation the people cry and pray most piteously. . . . At length, when, after a long and tedious voyage, the ships come in sight of land, so that the promontories can be seen, which the people were so eager and anxious to see, all creep from below on deck to see the land from afar, and they weep for joy, and pray and sing, thanking and praising God. . . . But alas! When the ships have landed at Philadelphia after their long voyage, no one is permitted to leave them, except those who pay for their passage or can give good security. The others, who cannot pay, must remain on board the ships till they are purchased, and are released from the ships by their purchasers. The sick always fare the worst, for the healthy are naturally preferred and purchased first. And so the sick and wretched must often remain on board in front of the city for two or three weeks, and frequently die; whereas many a one, if he could pay his debt and were permitted to leave the ship immediately, might recover and remain alive. . . . The sale of human beings in the market on board the ship is carried on thus: every day Englishmen, Dutchmen, and High-German people come from the city of Philadelphia and other places, in part from a great distance, say 20, 30, or 40 hours away, and go on board the newly arrived ship that has brought and offers for sale passengers from Europe, and select among the healthy persons such as they deem suitable for their business, and bargain with them how long they will serve for their passage-money, which most of them are still in

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debt for. When they come to an agreement, it happens that adult persons bind themselves in writing to serve 3, 4, 5, or 6 years for the amount due by them, according to their age and strength. But very young people, from 10 to 15 years, must serve till they are 21 years old. Many parents must sell and trade away their children like so many head of cattle; for if their children take the debt upon themselves, the parents can leave the ship free and unrestrained. But as the parents often do not know where and to what people their children are going, it often happens that such parents and children, after leaving the ship, do not see each other again for many years, perhaps no more in all their lives. When people arrive who . . . have children under 5 years, the parents cannot free themselves by them; for such children must be given to somebody without compensation to be brought up, and they must serve for their bringing up till they are 21 years old. Children from 5 to 10 years, who pay half price for their passage, viz. 30 florins, must likewise serve for it till they are 21 years of age. They cannot, therefore, redeem their parents by taking the debt of the latter upon themselves. But children above 10 years can take part of their parents’ debt upon themselves. A woman must stand for her husband if he arrives sick, and in like manner a man for his sick wife, and take the debt upon herself or himself, and thus serve 5 to 6 years, not alone for his or her own debt, but also for that of the sick husband or wife. But if both are sick, such persons are sent from the ship to the sick-house, but not until it appears probable that they will find no purchasers. As soon as they are well again they must serve for their passage, or pay if they have means.

From the Old to the New World shows German emigrants boarding a steamer in Hamburg, Germany, to come to America, 1874 (PD).

It often happens that whole families — husband, wife, and children — are separated by being sold to different purchasers, especially when they have not paid any part of their passage-money. When a husband or wife has died at sea when the ship has made more than half of her trip, the survivor must pay or serve not only for himself or herself, but also for the deceased. . . . If someone in this country runs away from his master, who has treated him harshly, he cannot get far. Good provision has been made for such cases, so that a runaway is soon recovered. He who detains or returns a deserter receives a good reward.4

Discussion Question Describe the indentured servitude that these German immigrants endured and explain why they would persevere through such hardship to come to the New World. 4. Gottlieb Mittelberger, Journey to Pennsylvania in the Year 1750 (Philadelphia, PA: J.J. McVey, 1898); http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=81.

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Lesson 4 Fear of Slave Revolts By Daniel Horsmanden, 1744 In 1741, New York City executed 34 people for conspiring to burn down the city. Thirteen African-American men were burned at the stake and another 17 black men, two white men, and two white women were hanged. An additional 70 blacks and seven whites were banished from the city. The possibility of a slave insurrection was real and very scary! The following account was originally published in 1744 by Daniel Horsmanden (1694–1778), who presided over the trial and later served on New York’s Supreme Court. Wednesday, March 18 [1741]

Wood engraving illustrating Benjamin Phipps’s capture of Nat Turner (1800-1831). Slaves often tried to escape or rebel against the horrors of their captivity, c. 1831–76 (PD).

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About one o’clock this day a fire broke out of the roof of his majesty’s house at Fort George, within this city, near the chapel; when the alarm of fire was first given, it was observed from the town, that the middle of the roof was in a great smoke, but not a spark of fire appeared on the outside for a considerable time. . . . Upon the chapel bell’s ringing, great numbers of people, gentlemen and others came to the assistance of the lieutenant governor and his family; and . . . most of the household goods, etc. were removed and saved. . . . But the fire got hold of the roof . . . and an alarm being given that there was gun powder in the fort, whether through fear and an apprehension that there was, or whether the hint was given by some of the conspirators themselves, with artful design to intimidate the people, and frighten them from giving further assistance, we cannot say; though the lieutenant governor declared to everybody that there was none there. . . . Such was the violence of the wind, and the flames spread so fast, that in about an hour and a quarter’s time the house was burnt down to the ground. . . . Monday, April 6 [1741] About ten o’clock in the morning, there was an alarm of a fire at the house of serjeant Burns, opposite fort Garden. . . . Towards noon a fire broke out in the roof of Mrs. Hilton’s house . . . on the East side of captain Sarly’s house. . . . Upon view, it was plain that the fire must have been purposely laid. . . . There was a cry among the people, the Spanish Negroes; the Spanish Negroes; take up the Spanish Negroes. The occasion of this was the two fires . . . happening so closely together . . . and it being known that Sarly had purchased a Spanish Negro, some time before brought into his port, among several others . . . and that they afterwards pretending to have been free men in their country, began to grumble at their hard usage, of being sold as slaves. This probably gave rise to the suspicion that this Negro, out of revenge, had been the instrument of these two fires; and he behaving insolently upon some people’s asking him questions concerning them . . . it was told to a magistrate who was near, and

he ordered him to jail, and also gave direction to constables to commit all the rest of that cargo [of Africans], in order for their safe custody and examination. . . . While the justices were proceeding to examination, about four o’clock there was another alarm of fire. . . . While the people were extinguishing the fire at this storehouse, and had almost mastered it, there was another cry of fire, which diverted the people attending the storehouse to the new alarm . . . but a man who had been on the top of the house assisting in extinguishing the fire, saw a Negro leap out at the end window of one of them . . . which occasioned him to cry out . . . that the Negroes were rising. . . .5

Discussion Question Horsmanden ends the trial with the following statements that he gave to two convicted slaves: You both now stand convicted of one of the most horrid and detestable pieces of villainy, that ever satan instilled into the heart of human creatures to put in practice; ye, and the rest of your colour, though you are called slaves in this country; yet are you all far from the condition of other slaves in other countries; nay, your lot is superior to that of thousands of white people. You are furnished with all the necessaries of life, meat, drink, and clothing, without care, in a much better manner than you could provide for yourselves, were you at liberty; as the miserable condition of many free people here of your complexion might abundantly convince you. What then could prompt you to undertake so vile, so wicked, so monstrous, so execrable and hellish a scheme, as to murder and destroy your own masters and benefactors? nay, to destroy root and branch, all the white people of this place, and to lay the whole town in ashes. . . . I know not which is more astonishing, the extreme folly, or wickedness, of so base and shocking a conspiracy. . . . What could it be expected to end in, in the account of any rational and considerate person among you, but your own destruction? Why would these slaves commit these crimes?

La Amistad was a Spanish ship that was the site of a mutiny on board in 1939 by African captives being taken to the U.S. for sale as slaves. Captured off the coast of Long Island, both the slaves and the ship were held in custody until the courts could decide on their fate — because the international slave trade had been prohibited by the U.S. by this time — either as illegally trafficked people or ships salvage and thus property under the law. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the captive slaves in 1841, ordering their release. The survivors were able to return to Africa the following year (PD). 5. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=83.

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Lesson 5 The Diary of Mary Cooper Mary Cooper (1714– 1778) began her diary at age 54 while tending the family farmstead with her husband on Long Island, New York.

A Farm Wife on Long Island, 1769 Mary Cooper chronicled the hardships faced by colonial families and the solace they sought through faith and each other. When she died at age 64, Mary Cooper had survived all six of her children: two had died as infants, two in childhood, and two in their adulthood. The original dialect and spelling have been preserved. [January 7] Saterday. A fine clear and still morning with white frost on the ground but soone clouds over. Some hail but soone turns to a small rain and [struck out: hail] mist. Sister gone home. Evening. O, I am tired almost to death waiteing on visseters. My feet ach as if the bones was laid bare. Not one day’s rest have I had this weeke. I have no time to take care of my cloths or even to think my thoughts.

Women in Colonial America (PD).

[Febeaury the 19] Sabbath. Fine warme and still as ye[ster]day and more so. I went to the Newlig[ht] meten with greate delight and offer[ed] myself to be a member with them. [ ] seemed to be very glad but I was sudingly seased with a great horr[blot] and darkeness. E[ ] think darkeness as migh[t] be felt. O, my God, why hast thou forsaken me. Thou knowest that in the sinsarity and uprightness of my hearte I have done this, moved as I did belive by Thy spirit. Evening, I came home before the worship began, most distrest . . . Esther, the Coopers’ daughter, came to live with them after separating from her husband. [June 13] “this day is forty years sinc I left my father’s house and Come here, and here have I seene littel els but harde labour and sorrow” [August the 1] New moon this morning. Tuesday. A fine clear cool morning. I feele much distrest, fearing I shall hear from some of my credtors. 11 Afternoon, I have done my worke and feele something more comfortabl. I went to Salle Wheeler’s to meet Ester and Salle but am sent after in greate hurre. Ben Hildrith is come here in a littel boate with two men with him. I am up late and much freted them and their two dogs which they keep att tabel and in the bedroom with them. [December 13]Wednsday. Clears with a most frightfull harde west wind. Grows extreeme cold and freses hard all of a suding. This day is thirty seven years since my dear and amible sister Elisabeth departed this life.6

Discussion Questions What can you conclude about the average life of an 18th-century woman?

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6. http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/becomingamer/peoples/text5/marycooper.pdf.

Chapter 18

Founding Fathers: The Power of the Myth First Thoughts Writing the Declaration of Independence, 1776 (LOC).

Left to his own devices, John Adams might have lived out his days as a Massachusetts country lawyer, devoted to his family and friends. This is true of Samuel Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin. They were ordinary Americans who wished nothing more than to be left alone, but whose world was turned upside-down. Events overtook them, and men who were not fond of politics, not prone to histrionics, came to greatness as the most distinguished generation of revolutionary leaders any people could have.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by examining the life of John Adams, a great American, married to a great woman. Next, we will examine the life of the fiery Samuel Adams. Benjamin Franklin was one of the most extraordinary men in the 18th century. We will see how he championed the cause of the self-made man. Finally, we will look at the life of Alexander Hamilton, a brilliant, energetic patriot. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss the impact of John Adams on the revolutionary period 2. Analyze the life of Samuel Adams 3. Review the life of Ben Franklin 4. Examine the life of Alexander Hamilton

Concepts Boston Massacre Sons of Liberty Declaration of Independence Constitutional Convention Continental Congress in 1782 145

Lesson 1 John Adams (1735–1826) Adams defended the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre in a belief that they had a right to effective legal counsel. Adams obtained deathbed testimony from one of the five men mortally wounded by the British soldiers who swore that the crowd ― not the troops ― were to blame for the massacre.

John Adams’ family had been in America for generations when he was born on October 30, 1735. His father was a farmer who went to Harvard, then homeschooled his son John before he also went to Harvard College in 1751, graduating in four years. There were no law schools, but Adams read law books and apprenticed under another lawyer. He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1758. From the beginning, Adams was a man of principle. He would never compromise his conscience for any cause. And Adams was a passionate lawyer who pursued the truth wherever it took him. “Statues and monuments will never be erected to me, nor flattering orations spoken, to transmit me to posterity in brilliant colors,” wrote John Adams. Defeated and bitter after losing the 1800 election for a second term as president, Adams believed that his rival Thomas Jefferson, among others, would get credit for the creation of a new nation. But he never compromised his integrity for fame. John Adams loved his wife, Abigail. Over the course of their 50-year marriage, much of it spent apart, their letters show that Abigail was her husband’s greatest critic and strongest advocate. Adams relied heavily on his wife’s judgment. She was his closest confidante in both personal and political matters. “Abigail Adams was one of the most remarkable, admirable, wise Americans of all time,” says historian David McCullough, author of John Adams. “She was a better judge of people than he was. She was a much more insightful politician, if you will.”

John Adams, 1735-1826 (PD).

One historian explains, “Adams became the driving force behind the Continental Congress’s vote for independence. He went on to secure loans to keep the army going during the war. He wrote the state constitution for Massachusetts, still in use today and a model for other states. He helped negotiate peace with Britain, and as president, kept the United States from war with France. He was the first vice president and the second president.” Abigail Adams sensed that she was part of history. She urged her young son John Quincy, the future sixth president of the United States, to recognize the value of the experience. She wrote, “These are the times in which a genius would wish to live. It is not in the still calm of life that great characters are formed. The habits of a vigorous mind are formed in contending with difficulties. Great necessities call out great virtues.” John and Abigail Adams were both great Americans!

Discussion Question In the middle of his career, Adams had a great falling-out with his old friend, Thomas Jefferson. In 1796, Adams was elected president after serving two terms as vice president to Washington. His vice president was his friend Thomas Jefferson. By this point, though, the government was divided between the Federalists, the party of Adams, and the Republicans, led by Jefferson. The break between the two widened as Adams sought to keep America from becoming involved in a war with France. Adams’ attempt 146

to work out an agreement failed when Jefferson refused to go along with him. “The fact is,” says one historian, “Jefferson wanted to have some sort of peace negotiation with France. But Jefferson wanted the Federalists to fail, and for the Federalists to fail, Adams had to fail.” When Jefferson beat Adams in the election of 1800 it appeared that the rift was permanent. Jefferson spread spurious lies about Adams’ character. Over the years, however, Adams’ bitterness dissipated, and in 1812, he wrote a letter to Jefferson. “You and I ought not die before we have explained ourselves to each other,” he wrote. Jefferson immediately wrote back. They began writing to each other — 150 letters in all — and it became one of the greatest stories of reconciliation in American history. In October 1818, Abigail Adams was stricken with typhoid fever and died, just short of her 74th birthday. “God bless you and support you under your heavy affliction,” Jefferson wrote. “While you live, I seem to have a bank at Monticello on which I can draw for a letter of friendship when I please,” replied Adams. Both Adams and Jefferson would live nearly another eight years. They died on the same day, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1826. Jefferson went first, hanging on as long as possible. Later that day in Massachusetts, Adams died, his last words being, “Thomas Jefferson still survives.”1

Yesterday the greatest question was decided which ever was debated in America; and a greater perhaps never was, nor will be, decided among men. A resolution was passed without one dissenting colony, “that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.” — John Adams

What causes a great man to forgive the greatest of injustices?

Lesson 2 Samuel Adams (1722–1803) As one of the chief organizers of protests against British imperial policies, Adams was, in Thomas Jefferson’s words, “truly the man of the Revolution.” He was a member of the First and Second Continental Congresses, signed the Declaration of Independence, and served as governor of Massachusetts (1794–1797). A founder of the Sons of Liberty, the Boston-born, Harvard-educated Adams was also a key instigator of protests against the Stamp Act and the Townsend Acts.

Neither the wisest constitution nor the wisest laws will secure the liberty and happiness of a people whose manners are universally corrupt. Samuel Adams

Mr. Adams was a member of the first Continental Congress which assembled in Philadelphia on the 5th of September, 1774, and continued as a member of that body until the year 1781. During this period, no delegate acted a more conspicuous or manly part. No one exhibited a more indefatigable zeal, or a firmer tone of character. He early saw that the contest would probably not be decided without bloodshed. Like Patrick Henry, his hot-blooded Virginia friend, Adams welcomed the ensuing conflict. Therefore, he welcomed the Declaration of Independence. In his view, the die was cast, and a further friendly connection with the parent country was impossible. “I am perfectly satisfied,” said he, in a letter written from Philadelphia, to a friend in Massachusetts, in April 1776, “of the necessity of a public and explicit declaration of 1. http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2006/januaryfebruary/feature/life-in-letters.

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independence. I cannot conceive what good reason can be assigned against it. Will it widen the breach? This would be a strange question, after we have raised armies, and fought battles with the British troops; set up an American navy; permitted the inhabitants of these colonies to fit out armed vessels, to capture the ships, belonging to any of the inhabitants of Great Britain; declaring them the enemies of the United Colonies; and torn into shivers their acts of trade, by allowing commerce, subject to regulations to be made by ourselves, with the people of all countries, except such as are subject to the British king. It cannot surely, after all this, be imagined that we consider ourselves, or mean to be considered by others, in any other state, than that of independence.”2

Samuel Adams, 1900 (LOC).

One contemporary described him this way, “Mr. Adams was a Christian. His mind was early imbued with piety, as well as cultivated by science. He early approached the table of the Lord Jesus, and the purity of his life witnessed the sincerity of his profession. . . . The last production of his pen was in favour of Christian truth. He died in the faith of the Gospel. In his opposition to British tyranny, no man was more conscientious; he detested royalty, and despised the ostentation and contemptible servility of the royal agents; his patriotism was of a pure and lofty character. For his country he laboured both by night and by day, with a zeal which was scarcely interrupted, and with an energy that knew no fatigue. Although enthusiastic, he was still prudent. He would persuade, petition, and remonstrate, where these would accomplish his object; but when these failed, he was ready to resist even unto blood, and would sooner have sacrificed his life than yielded with dishonour. Had he lived in any country or epoch, says his biographer, when abuses of power were to be resisted, he would have been one of the reformers. He would have suffered excommunication, rather than have bowed to papal infallibility, or paid tribute to St. Peter; he would have gone to the stake, rather than submit to the prelatic ordinances of Laud; he would have mounted the scoffold, sooner than pay a shilling of illegal shipmoney; he would have fled to a desert, rather than endure the profligate tyranny of a Stuart; he was proscribed, and could sooner have been condemned as a traitor, than assent to an illegal tax, if it had been only a sixpenny stamp or an insignificant duty on tea; and there appeared to be no species of corruption by which this inflexibility could have been destroyed.”3

Discussion Question Why does a nation forget its heroes and heroines, and how can they be reclaimed?

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2. http://www.dsdi1776.com/president/samuel-adams/. 3. Rev. Charles A. Goodrich Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence. (New York: William Reed & Co., 1856). Pages 261–282. http://colonialhall.com/franklin/franklin.php.

Lesson 3 Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) The 18th child of a Boston candle maker and soap maker, 12-year-old Benjamin Franklin apprenticed to his volatile brother James, a printer who published the New England Courant. When he was 17, he ran away to Philadelphia, seeking a new start. Franklin was a self-made man. He read great books and learned to write great books himself.

If you would not be forgotten, as soon as you are dead and rotten, either write things worth reading, or do things worth the writing. B. Franklin

He went to London and worked in a printer’s shop until he returned to Philadelphia with the help of a merchant named Thomas Denham, who gave him a position in his business. On Denham’s death, Franklin set up a printing house of his own from which he published The Pennsylvania Gazette. Franklin, without the benefit of commercial advertising, made the Gazette a very successful paper and grew fabulously wealthy. In fact, he was able to retire at age 42 and devote the rest of his life to science and statesmanship. At the time of the Constitutional Convention, he was 81 years old and had to be carried on a sedan chair. His speeches had to be read by other delegates. At Independence Hall, as the delegates signed the Constitution, Franklin pointed to the president’s chair, which had a sun painted on it. “I have often . . . in the course of this session . . . looked at that . . . without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting; but now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun.”4 Only a year after the Constitution was ratified, Benjamin Franklin died. As the French Baron Anne-Robert Turgot said, Benjamin Franklin “snatched the lightning from the heavens, the scepter from tyrants.”5 What more could any man, let alone the son of a colonial tradesman, ever hope to accomplish?

Discussion Question Historian Walter Isaacson writes, “The most interesting thing that Franklin invented, and continually reinvented, was himself. America’s first great publicist, he was consciously trying to create a new American archetype. In the process, he carefully crafted his own persona, portrayed it in public, and polished it for posterity. His guiding principle was a ‘dislike of everything that tended to debase the spirit of the common people.’ Few of his fellow founders felt this comfort with democracy so fully, and none so intuitively.”6 Why was Franklin so able to champion the common man? 4. Rev. Charles A. Goodrich Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence. (New York: William Reed & Co., 1856). Pages 261–282. http://colonialhall.com/Hamilton/Hamilton.php. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid.

Benjamin Franklin, 1767 (PDArt).

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Lesson 4 Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) Those who stand for nothing fall for anything. A. Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton was one of the most influential of the United States’ Founding Fathers. As the first secretary of the treasury he placed the new nation on a firm financial footing. He believed in a strong federal government and ultimately this caused great conflict with Thomas Jefferson and other Democratic Republicans. Hamilton was born in the West Indies in 1757. Hamilton was obviously intelligent, and he enrolled at King’s College (now Columbia University), New York City, in 1773 or 1774. In 1774–75, when he was not yet 20, he entered the growing dispute between the American colonies and the British government by writing many tracts filled with doctrines of rebellion and natural rights derived from the philosopher John Locke. Hamilton’s bent, however, was toward action, so he enlisted in the militia and fought in the battles around New York City in 1775 and 1776. He was a very capable soldier and in March 1777, General George Washington appointed him a lieutenant colonel in the Continental Army and a staff officer to Washington himself. He served with Washington for four years and was able to lead an army group in the Battle of Yorktown in October 1781. Hamilton’s personal life and social position in the new nation improved considerably in December 1780 when he married Elizabeth Schuyler, daughter of the wealthy and influential General Philip Schuyler. This connection placed Hamilton in the center of New York society. In 1782, shortly after leaving the army, he was admitted to legal practice in New York and became the assistant to the most important lawyer in the colonies, Robert Morris (1734–1806). Before his 30th birthday, then, Hamilton had had a distinguished military career, knew intimately most of the leaders of the American Revolution, was wealthy beyond his dreams, and was recognized as one of the best lawyers in the country. Elected a member of the Continental Congress in 1782, Hamilton at once became a leading proponent of a stronger national government than that provided for by the Articles of Confederation. As a New York delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, he advocated a national government that would have strong federal power and even called for a president-for-life to provide inspired leadership. Most believe that Hamilton never intended to change the Articles of Confederation. He always meant to junk the Confederation and open a Constitutional Convention.

Alexander Hamilton was an American politician, leading statesman, financier, intellectual, and military officer. This statue stands at the U.S. Department of Treasury Building.

With John Jay and James Madison, Hamilton wrote a series of papers (published in book form as The Federalist, 1788) urging the people of New York to ratify the new constitution. He won the debate and got his constitution and new nation. Hamilton served as the first secretary of treasury in the Washington administration. Hamilton’s strong federalism so frustrated Democratic Republican Burr that he challenged Hamilton to an illegal duel. Hamilton, gentleman to the end and never intending to kill Burr, apparently fired into the air, but Burr took direct aim. Hamilton fell mortally wounded and died the next day in New York.

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How did Alexander Hamilton become so successful so quickly?

Lesson 5 Secondary Source The United States Manual of Biography and History by James V. Marshall Gouverneur Morris The ablest man among the New York delegates in the Continental Congress was Gouverneur Morris. He was born at Morrisania, near the city of New York, on the 31st of January, 1752. Being of a wealthy family, he enjoyed the advantages of a complete classical education. He graduated at King’s College in May, 1768. Immediately after [his graduation], he entered the office of William Smith (the historian of the colony) as a student of law. In 1771, he was licensed to practice law. His proficiency in all his studies was remarkable. He acquired early much reputation as a man of brilliant talents and various promise. His person, address, manners, and elocution were of a superior order. In May, 1775, Mr. Morris was chosen as a delegate to the Provincial Congress of New York. In June of that year, he served on a committee with General Montgomery, to confer with General Washington respecting the manner of his introduction to the Congress. He entered with zeal and efficiency into all the questions and proceedings which referred to a vigorous resistance to the pretensions of the mother country. In December, 1776, Mr. Morris acted as one of the committee for drafting a constitution for the State of New York, which was reported in March, and adopted in April of that year, after repeated and very able debates, in which Jay, Morris, and Robert R. Livingston were the principal speakers. In July, 1777, he served as a member of a committee from the New York Congress, to repair to the headquarters of Schuyler’s army, to inquire into the causes of the evacuation of Ticonderoga. In October of that year he joined the Continental Congress at York, Pennsylvania, and, in 1778, wrote the patriotic and successful pamphlet called Observations on the American Revolution, which he published at the beginning of 1779. We must refer to the journals of Congress for an account of his many and valuable services, rendered in that body to the Revolutionary cause. In July, 1781, he accepted the post of assistant superintendent of finance, as the colleague of Robert Morris. He filled every office to which he was called with characteristic zeal and ability.

Gouverneur Morris, member of congress, 1783 (LOC).

After the war of the Revolution, this active man embarked with Robert Morris in mercantile enterprises. In 1785, he published an Address to the Assembly of Pennsylvania on the Abolition of the Bank of North America, in which he cogently argued against that project. In December, 1786, he purchased from his brother the fine estate of Morrisania, and made it his dwelling-place. Here he devoted himself to liberal studies. In the following year, he served with distinction as a member of the convention for framing the constitution of the United States. December 15, 1788, he sailed for France, where he was occupied in selling lands and pursuing money speculations until March, 1790, when 151

Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, 1940 (PD).

he proceeded to London as private agent of the American government with regard to the conditions of the old treaty, and the inclination of the British cabinet to form a commercial treaty. In November, 1790, he returned to Paris, having made a tour in Germany. In the interval between this period and the beginning of the year 1792, he passed several times on public business between the British and French capitals. February 6, 1792, he received his appointment as minister plenipotentiary to France, and was presented to the king, June 3d. He held this station with great éclat until October, 1794. He witnessed the most interesting scenes of the Revolution in the capital, and maintained personal intercourse with the conspicuous politicians of the several parties. The abundant memorials which he has left of his sojourn in France, and his travels on the European continent, possess the highest interest and much historical value, he made extensive journeys after he ceased to be minister plenipotentiary, of which he kept a full diary. In the autumn of 1798, Mr. Morris returned to the United States, to engage in politics, with enhanced celebrity and a large additional stock of political and literary knowledge. He was universally admitted to be one of the most accomplished and prominent gentlemen of his country. In 1800, he entered the Senate of the United States, where his eloquence and information made him conspicuous. The two eulogies which he pronounced — one on General Washington, and the other at the funeral of General Hamilton — are specimens of his rhetorical style. His delivery was excellent. Mr. Morris, at an early period, gave special and sagacious attention to the project of that grand canal by which the State of New York has been so much honored and benefited. In the summer of 1810 he examined the canal route to Lake Erie. The share which he had in originating and promoting that noble work is stated in the regular history which has been published of its conception and progress. In May, 1812, he pronounced a public and impressive eulogium on the venerable George Clinton; in the same year, an oration before the New York Historical Society; in 1814, another on the restoration of the Bourbons in France; in 1816, a discourse before the New York Historical Society. Mr. Morris died at Morrisania, November 5, 1816. He passed the latter years of his life at Morrisania, exercising an elegant and munificent hospitality, reviewing the studies of his early days, and carrying on a very interesting commerce of letters with statesmen and literati in Europe and America. The activity of his mind, the richness of his fancy, and the copiousness of his eloquent conversation were the admiration of all his acquaintance.7

Discussion Question Was Gouverneur Morris the ablest man at the convention? Why or why not?

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7. James V. Marshall, The United States Manual of Biography and History (Philadelphia, PA: James B. Smith & Co., 1856), p. 137–139.

Chapter 19

Eighteenth-Century Life: The Family First Thoughts In colonial America, the family was, first and foremost, a unit of production. It also performed a variety of educational, religious, and welfare functions that were later assumed by other private and public institutions. The family educated children in basic literacy and in the rudiments of religion; it transmitted occupational skills; and it cared for the elderly and infirm.1 Even in the most healthful regions during the 17th century, three children in ten died before reaching adulthood; children were likely to lose at least one parent by the time they married. This chapter is the story of that family, from childbirth to death.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by examining the beginning of the 18th-century family at childbirth. Next, we will observe the changes that occur in 18th-century courtship. Then, we will explore the meaning of death and end by examining 18th-century art. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss colonial childbirth 2. Analyze colonial courtship patterns 3. Reflect on colonial views of death 4. Evaluate 18th-century art 5. State how 18th-century slave families were different from other families

Concepts Mayflower Courtship Vacation 1. S. Mintz, www.digitalhistory.com/

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Lesson 1 Childbirth in Early America Most 18th-century women gave birth to their children at home, while female relatives and neighbors clustered at her bedside to offer support and encouragement.

When the Mayflower left Plymouth, England, September 16, 1620, on its historic voyage to the New World, three of its 102 passengers were pregnant. Elizabeth Hopkins and Susanna White were each in their seventh month of pregnancy. Mary Norris Allerton was in her second or third month. Their pregnancies must have been very difficult. After a few days of clear weather, the Mayflower ran into “fierce storms” that lasted for six of the voyage’s nine-and-a-half weeks. For days on end, passengers were confined to the low spaces between decks, and the ship tossed and rolled on the heavy seas. Literally in the middle of a storm, while the ship was still at sea, Elizabeth Hopkins gave birth to a baby boy named Oceanus. Two weeks later, while the Mayflower was anchored off Cape Cod, Susanna White also had a baby boy. He was named Peregrine, a name that means “pilgrim.” Peregrine White would live into his 80s, but Oceanus Hopkins died during the Pilgrim’s first winter in Plymouth. In the spring of 1621, Mary Norris Allerton died in childbirth herself; her baby was stillborn. These statistics betray, in microcosm, the dangers of childbirth in colonial America. During the 17th and 18th centuries, between 1 percent and 1.5 percent of all births ended in the mother’s death. Since the typical mother gave birth to between five and eight children, her lifetime chances of dying in childbirth ran as high as 1 in 8. This meant that if a woman had eight female friends, it was likely that one might die in childbirth. Women in general survived into their thirties.

Passengers of the Mayflower signing the “Mayflower Compact,” including Carver, Winston, Alden, Myles Standish, Howland, Bradford, Allerton, and Fuller, 1620 (LOC).

Troubles did not end in childbirth. Three children in 10 died before their fifth birthday. Puritan minister Cotton Mather saw 8 of his 15 children die before reaching the age of two. When the daughter of Samuel Sewall, a Puritan magistrate, gave birth to her first child on the last day of January 1701, at least eight other women were present at her bedside. This included her mother, her mother-in-law, a midwife, a nurse, and at least four other neighbors. Most women were assisted in childbirth by a midwife. Most midwives were older women who relied on practical experience in delivering children. One midwife, Martha Ballard, who practiced in Augusta, Maine, delivered 996 women with only four recorded fatalities. Skilled midwives were highly valued and saved hundreds of lives.2

Discussion Question Why might superstitions have arisen around childbirth?

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2. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/references/landmark.cfm.

Lesson 2 Courtship in Early America Late in the winter of 1708–1709, Samuel Gerrish, a Boston bookseller, began to court Mary Sewall, the 18-year-old daughter of Puritan magistrate Samuel Sewall. Judge Sewall was a conscientious father, and like many Puritan fathers believed that he had a right and duty to take an active role in his daughter’s selection of a spouse. He had heard “various and uncertain reports” that young Gerrish had previously courted other women and immediately dashed off a letter to Gerrish’s father demanding “the naked truth.” Only after receiving a satisfactory reply did Judge Sewall permit the courtship to continue. In August, after a whirlwind six-month courtship, the couple married, but the marriage was cut tragically short 15 months later when young Mary died in childbirth.3 The motivation of “love” was not even a fleeting thought until the 19th century. In 17th- and early-18th-century New England, courtship was not simply a personal, private matter. The law gave parents “the care and power . . . for the disposing of their Children in Marriage”4 and it was expected that they would take an active role overseeing their child’s choice of a spouse. A father in Puritan New England had a legal right to determine which men would be allowed to court his daughters and a legal responsibility to give or withhold his consent from a child’s marriage. A young man who courted a woman without her father’s permission might be sued for inveigling the woman’s affections. Parental involvement in courtship was expected because marriage was not merely an emotional relationship between individuals but also a property arrangement among families. A young man was expected to bring land or some other form of property to a marriage, while a young woman was expected to bring a dowry worth about half as much. As one historian explains:

The Suitor’s Visit, circa 1658 (PD-Art).

In most cases, Puritan parents played little role in the actual selection of a spouse (although Judge Sewall did initiate the courtship between his son Joseph and a neighbor named Elizabeth Walley). Instead, they tended to influence the timing of marriage. Since Puritan children were expected to bring property to marriage, and Puritans fathers were permitted wide discretion in when they distributed property to their children, many sons and daughters remained economically dependent for years, delaying marriages until a relatively late age.5 This was to change. By the middle of the 18th century, parental influence over the choice of a spouse had sharply declined. One indication of a decline in parental control was a sudden upsurge in the mid-18th century of illegitimate births. By the middle of the 18th century, other signs of weakening parental control over marriage were visible. In 17th century Plymouth, the brothers and sisters of one family frequently married the sisters and brothers of another. After 1760 3. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/uscourt.cfm. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid.

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this pattern gave way to marriages based on individual choice. In one small Massachusetts town, greater freedom was evident in the growing ease with which younger daughters were able to wed before their older sisters. As parental influence over courtship declined, a new romantic ideal of love arose. In the years just before the Revolution, a flood of advice books, philosophical treaties, and works of fiction helped to popularize revolutionary new ideas about courtship and marriage. Readers learned that love was superior to property as a basis for marriage and that marriage should be based on mutual sympathy, affection, and friendship. Rather than choosing spouses on economic grounds, young people were told to select their marriage partner on the more secure basis of love and compatibility. In a survey of all magazines published during the 30 years before the Revolution, one issue out of four contained a reference to romantic love as the proper basis of marriage; during the next twenty years the number of references to romantic love tripled.6

Discussion Question Describe courtship in colonial America.

Lesson 3 Death in Early America Funerals were somber occasions, but also occasions to witness the resurrection of a loved one. Death was not an ending to most 17th- and 18th-century families, it was a beginning. Life began at conversion and did not end with the cessation of physical life.

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For 17th-century New Englanders, death was a grim and terrifying reality. Of the first 102 Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth in 1620, half died during the first winter. Death rates soon fell sharply, until they were about a third below those in England, France, or the colonial Chesapeake, but death still remained an omnipresent part of life. The tolling of church bells on the day of funerals was so common that it was legislated against as a public nuisance. It was customary in colonial New England to send a pair of gloves to friends and relatives to invite them to funerals. Andrew Eliot, minister of Boston’s North Church, saved the gloves that people sent to him. In 32 years he collected 3,000 pairs.7 Death was commonplace, especially among the young. Forty percent of children failed to reach adulthood in the 17th century. Epidemics accounted for a large proportion of deaths, sweeping thousands of people away in the course of a few months. Diphtheria, influenza, measles, pneumonia, scarlet fever, and smallpox ravaged the population, producing death rates as high as 30 per thousand. A smallpox epidemic in Boston in 1677–1678 killed one-fifth of the town’s population. Many of the individuals who survived a smallpox epidemic were left blind or pockmarked for life. Conflict with Indians also took many lives. One Indian war, King Philips’ War of 1675, killed a larger percentage of the population than any later war in American history. 6. Ibid. 7. S. Mintz – http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/.

How, then, did the Puritans bear the ever-present reality of death? On the one hand, in line with a long Christian tradition, the Puritans viewed death as a blessed release from the trials of this world into the joys of everlasting life. On the other hand, like Christian believers today, death was a painful ordeal and obviously something to avoid. The first grave markers were wooden, and early gravestones contained words but no designs because the Puritans believed the second commandment prohibited the use of graven images. Elaborate funerals or headstones seemed like idolatry. The original headstones faced east, so that on the morning of the Day of Resurrection, the bodies will respectfully face their loving Father God. In cemeteries, which were described as “dormitories,” winged cherubs replaced the grisly death’s heads and winged skulls that marked early Puritan graves. Republican symbols — such as urns and willows — began to appear in graveyards after the American Revolution and the discovery of the archaeological remains at Pompeii. The wording on gravestones also changed — reflecting a dramatic transformation in American views of death. Instead of saying, “Here lies buried the body of,” inscriptions began to read, “Here rests the soul of,” suggesting that while the corporeal body might decay, the soul survived. Death was regarded as merely a temporary separation of loved ones.

Discussion Question Why were Puritan cemeteries regarded as “dormitories?”

Lesson 4 Overview of Eighteenth-Century Art As science made steady progress and continued to “demystify” nature, art responded in kind. The discoveries of science steadily increased human understanding as well as control of the natural world, and affirmed superiority of human reason. In other words, the human intellect eclipsed faith as the guiding force of civilization. This deeply impacted the 18thcentury artistic impulse. The unifying culture of Christianity was replaced by the fractious disciples of science, philosophy, history, and literature. Colonials thought of their world in “scientific” or “philosophical,” rather than strictly scriptural, categories. Artistic subjects were “Jars of Olives” by Chardin, not religious or human subjects. Even the human subjects were ordinary, common people, who were disinterested in their surroundings and audience. To the 18th-century Western Europeans and Americans, art made a great leap forward by denying the claims of Christianity. Mary Wollstonecraft, circa 1797 (PD-Art).

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For the first time, art dared to define itself separate from God and the metaphysical. To do so was dreadfully dangerous. At the heart of art was aesthetics, and at the heart of aesthetics was the Spirit of the Living God. To attempt to separate God from His creation was a dangerous thing and could not be done. Art then became, in a sense, a hollow shadow of what it had been in the Renaissance, and especially in the Middle Ages. One historian explains, “The natural sciences exploded and hundreds of drawings were made of animals and plants. The impact of this change on art was subtle but significant. Although 18th-century artists served the same types of clients as their forebears, the images they created changed. By turns logical, intuitive, polemical, impulsive, brilliant or pedestrian, the art of the 18th century built on and exaggerated the tendencies of earlier periods. It became more refined, more delicate, more sensuous, more intellectual, more emotional, and more secular.”8

The interior of the Pantheon (Rome), 18th century painting (PD-Art).

The concept of a “vacation” emerged. The nobility of the 18th century considered a tour of the European continent a veritable pilgrimage and a necessity for educated Europeans to enjoy. The Grand Tour inevitably encompassed Italy, and Italy’s art, both contemporary and ancient, became a passion for Europe in general, and for the English in particular.

Discussion Question When does art cease to be art and become vulgar and irresponsible?

Lesson 5 Secondary Source “How Slavery Affected African American Families,” by Heather Andrea Williams In some ways enslaved African American families very much resembled other families who lived in other times and places and under vastly different circumstances. Some husbands and wives loved each other; some did not get along. Children sometimes abided by parent’s rules; other times they followed their own minds. Most parents loved their children and wanted to protect them. In some critical ways, though, the slavery that marked everything about their lives made these families very different. Belonging to another human being brought unique constrictions, disruptions, frustrations, and pain. 158

8. http://www.humanitiesweb.org/spa/gai/ID/464.

Slavery not only inhibited family formation but made stable, secure family life difficult, if not impossible. Enslaved people could not legally marry in any American colony or state. Colonial and state laws considered them property and commodities, not legal persons who could enter into contracts, and marriage was, and is, very much a legal contract. This means that until 1865 when slavery ended in this country, the vast majority of African Americans could not legally marry. In northern states such as New York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, where slavery had ended by 1830, free African Americans could marry, but in the slave states of the South, many enslaved people entered into relationships that they treated like marriage; they considered themselves husbands and wives even though they knew that their unions were not protected by state laws. A father might have one owner, his “wife” and children another. Some enslaved people lived in nuclear families with a mother, father, and children. In these cases each family member belonged to the same owner. Others lived in near-nuclear families in which the father had a different owner than the mother and children. Both slaves and slave-owners referred to these relationships between men and women as “abroad marriages.” A father might live several miles away on a distant plantation and walk, usually on Wednesday nights and Saturday evenings, to see his family as his obligation to provide labor for an owner took precedence over his personal needs. This use of unpaid labor to produce wealth lay at the heart of slavery in America. Enslaved people usually worked from early in the morning until late at night. Women often returned to work shortly after giving birth, sometimes running from the fields during the day to feed their infants. On large plantations or farms, it was common for children to come under the care of one enslaved woman who was designated to feed and watch over them during the day while their parents worked. By the time most enslaved children reached the age of seven or eight they were also assigned tasks including taking care of owner’s young children, fanning flies from the owner’s table, running errands, taking lunch to owners’ children at school, and eventually, working in the tobacco, cotton, corn, or rice fields along with adults. On large plantations, slave cabins and the yards of the slave quarters served as the center of interactions among enslaved family members. Here were spaces primarily occupied by African Americans, somewhat removed from the labor of slavery or the scrutiny of owners, overseers, and patrollers. Many former slaves described their mothers cooking meals in the fireplace and sewing or quilting late into the night. Fathers fished and hunted, sometimes with their sons, to provide food to supplement the rations handed out by owners. Enslaved people held parties and prayer meetings in these cabins or far out in the woods beyond the hearing of whites. In the space of the slave quarters,

A former slave sits on his steps in Marshall, Texas in 1939 and displays the large wooden horn once used to call slaves (LOC).

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parents passed on lessons of loyalty; messages about how to treat people; and stories of family genealogy. It was in the quarters that children watched adults create potions for healing, or select plants to produce dye for clothing. It was here too, that adults whispered and cried about their impending sale by owners. Family separation through sale was a constant threat. Enslaved people lived with the perpetual possibility of separation through the sale of one or more family members. Slaveowners’ wealth lay largely in the people they owned; therefore, they frequently sold and/or purchased people as finances warranted. A multitude of scenarios brought about a sale. An enslaved person could be sold as part of an estate when his owner died, or because the owner needed to liquidate assets to pay off debts, or because the owner thought the enslaved person was a troublemaker. A father might be sold away by his owner while the mother and children remained behind, or the mother and children might be sold. Enslaved families were also divided for inheritance when an owner died, or because the owners’ adult children moved away to create new lives, taking some of the enslaved people with them. These decisions were, of course, beyond the control of the people whose lives they affected most. Sometimes an enslaved man or woman pleaded with an owner to purchase his or her spouse to avoid separation. The intervention was not always successful. Historian Michael Tadman has estimated that approximately one third of enslaved children in the upper South states of Maryland and Virginia experienced family separation in one of three possible scenarios: sale away from parents; sale with mother away from father; or sale of mother or father away from child. The fear of separation haunted adults who knew how likely it was to happen. Young children, innocently unaware of the possibilities, learned quickly of the pain that such separations could cost. Even children were not spared the experience of slavery and its uncertainties. In this bill of sale from 1820, a mother and her daughter, Judy and Juliann, are sold for $500 to settle debts for an estate. They were then sold the next year to yet another new owner (LOC).

Many owners encouraged marriage to protect their investment in their slaves. Paradoxically, despite the likelihood of breaking up families, family formation actually helped owners to keep slavery in place. Owners debated among themselves the benefits of enslaved people forming families. Many of them reasoned that having families made it much less likely that a man or woman would run away, thus depriving the owner of valuable property. Many owners encouraged marriage, devised the practice of “jumping the broom” as a ritual that enslaved people could engage in, and sometimes gave small gifts for the wedding. Some owners honored the choices enslaved people made about whom their partners would be; other owners assigned partners, forcing people into relationships they would not have chosen for themselves.9

Discussion Question How were 18th-century slave families different from other families?

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9. http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/freedom/1609-1865/essays/aafamilies.htm.

Chapter 20

Great Battles: The Eighteenth Century First Thoughts The styles of warfare in the 18th century changed radically because of changing tactics and the emergence of gunpowder for use in weaponry. A new national army emerged as a professional band of soldiers under a strict organizational structure. At the same time, during wartime, citizen militia were quickly trained and added to the ranks. Local militias came to represent the bulk of fighting forces, especially in England, but throughout Europe as well. Eventually, it was the world’s first professional armies and armed militia that transformed warfare in Europe. In all, warfare became a less brutish effort on some levels for the individual soldier. The “intimacy” of sword and ax fights gave way to the long-range skirmishes provided by rifle and cannon fire. As one historian explained, “No longer would a general have to sacrifice half of his army to the initial offensive thrust, but he could meticulously calculate the effective use of his troops through formations, battlefield advantages and overpowering artillery.”1

Chapter Learning Objectives We will analyze the Battle of Blenheim and admire the brilliance of Marlborough, who skillfully stopped the French and their allies from capturing Vienna. Next, we will watch Wolfe beat Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham. Then, we will be inspired by the American victory at Lexington and Concord. Finally, we will evaluate the impact of the Battle of Hohenlinden on European history. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Describe the Battle of Narva 2. Analyze the Battle of Blenheim 3. Discuss the impact of the Battle of Quebec on history

Concepts

4. Reflect on why the Americans were able to defeat the British at Lexington and Concord 5. Evaluate the impact of the Battle of Hohenlinden

Battle of Narva Battle of Blenheim Battle of Quebec Battle of Lexington and Concord Battle of Hohenlinden 1. www.militaryfactory.com/battles/18th_century_warfare.asp.

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Lesson 1 Battle of Narva — 1700 The Holy Roman Empire existed for 1,000 years in Central Europe. It included Germany and portions of Austria and France.

During the 17th century, Russia was less advanced than the rest of Europe. This included Russian armies. Nonetheless, Peter the Great, with his eye on expanding his possessions toward the West, was keen to enlarge his territory by conquering parts of Sweden’s Baltic provinces. Russia knew it needed some friends in the region. To that end, Russia made an alliance with Denmark-Norway to wage war against Sweden. Peter the Great, in the years ahead, would drastically modernize Russia, but the army with which he traveled in 1700 was second-rate. Peter had employed foreign generals and officers to improve his armed forces, but they were still far from ready. Sweden, on the other hand, possessed a well-drilled and well-equipped army. She was fighting for her homeland and was ready for the Russians and their allies. Charles XII of Sweden had the best military force in northern Europe, even if it wasn’t the biggest. In November of 1700, Russian troops surrounded the Swedish city of Narva in Estonia (part of Sweden at the time), attempting to secure its surrender via siege. The Swedish King Charles XII personally commanded his armies as they approached Narva in 1700.

Battle of Narva, 1700, 19thcentury painting (PD-Art).

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For much of the day, a blizzard engulfed both armies, making attacks impossible. However, at midday, the winds changed and the snowstorm blew directly into the eyes of the Russians. Charles saw his opportunity and advanced on the Russian army. The Swedes attacked in two columns, then quickly broke through the Russian lines. At one crucial point, a bridge over the Narva River collapsed under retreating Russian troops. The stampede led to the overall losses of 6,000 men and the loss of 145 guns. The Russians remaining in Narva surrendered.

The Russian surrender brought to Charles XII’s army all of Peter’s cannons, muskets, and military supplies. This left Russia’s remaining armed forces, never short of men, with essentially no equipment. If Sweden, or any other aggressor, had invaded Russia immediately after Narva, Peter would have been almost powerless to stop them. Furthermore, the tactical Swedish victory also contained the seed of future strategic defeat. After Narva, Charles XII became convinced that he had knocked the Russians out of the war for a long time and heavily underestimated them. Peter, at the same time, learned the lesson of Narva and initiated a series of efficient military reforms. Finally, in 1709, the Swedes lost the Battle of Poltava, and in effect, the war. The Battle of Narva, then, was a tactical victory for the Swedes, but a strategic loss of far greater consequences would later ensue.

Discussion Question The Battle of Narva was a tactical victory for the Swedes, but a strategic loss of far greater consequences would later ensue. Compare this to the American Revolution where the British won almost every battle but lost the war.

Lesson 2 Battle of Blenheim — 1704 In 1704, King Louis XIV of France tried to remove the Holy Roman Empire out of the War of Spanish Succession by capturing its capital, Vienna. The Grand Alliance (England, Austrian Empire, Dutch Republic, Portugal, and Spain), led by the English Duke of Marlborough, intercepted the French and Bavarian forces before they could reach Vienna. Executing a brilliant campaign, Marlborough shifted his army from Holland to the Danube River (Austria) in only five weeks, placing himself between the enemy and Vienna. Marlborough encountered the combined French and Bavarian army along the banks of the Danube near the village of Blenheim. Separated from the Allies by a small stream and marsh, the French arrayed their forces in a four-mile-long line from the Danube north toward the hills and woods of the Swabian Jura. Marlborough attacked on August 13.

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was fought among several European powers over a possible unification of the kingdoms of Spain and France under one monarch. Such unification would have drastically changed the European balance of power.

The battle began at Blenheim at one p.m. Marlborough assaulted the village, but was unable to win a decisive victory or secure the village. Though the attack was not successful, it caused the French commander to panic and order the reserves into the village. This mistake robbed the French commanders of their reserve force and negated the slight numerical advantage they possessed over Marlborough. Seeing this error, Marlborough checked the French forces in the village but did not fully commit his forces to capture them. 163

At the opposite end of the line, Marlborough was having little success against the Bavarian forces defending Lutzingen despite having launched multiple assaults. With French forces pinned down on the flanks, Marlborough pushed forward an attack on the enemy center. After heavy initial fighting, Marlborough was able to rout the French portion. With no reserves, the French broke, and troops fled. They were joined in their flight by the Bavarians. Trapped in Blenheim, one French force continued the fight until nine p.m., when over 10,000 of them surrendered. As the French fled southwest, Marlborough’s troops managed to capture the French commander, who was to spend the next seven years in captivity in England. The English and their allies lost 4,542 who were killed and 7,942 who were wounded, while the French and Bavarians suffered approximately 20,000 killed and wounded, and 14,190 captured. The Duke of Marlborough’s victory at Blenheim ended the French threat to Vienna and was a turning point in the War of Spanish Succession, ultimately leading to the English victory and the end of French hegemony over Europe.

Discussion Question Why was the Battle of Blenheim so important?

Bataille de Marengo, by Louis-François Lejeune, 1802 (PD-Art).

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Lesson 3 Battle of Quebec — Plains of Abraham, 1759 During the Seven Years’ War (or the French and Indian War) following their successful capture of Louisbourg, Canada, New France in 1758, British leaders decided to organize a strike against Quebec the next year. After assembling a force at Louisbourg under Major General James Wolfe, they arrived off Quebec in early June 1759. The direction of the attack caught the French commander, the Marquis de Montcalm, by surprise as he had anticipated a British thrust from the west or south. Assembling his forces, Montcalm began building a system of fortifications along the north shore of the St. Lawrence and placed the bulk of his army east of the city at Beauport. Wolfe began a bombardment of the city and ran ships past its batteries to survey for landing places upstream. On July 31, Wolfe attacked Montcalm at Beauport but was repulsed and experienced heavy losses. Wolfe began to focus on landing to the west of the city. While British ships raided upstream and threatened Montcalm’s supply lines to Montreal, the French leader was forced to disperse his army along the north shore to prevent Wolfe from crossing. The largest detachment, 3,000 men under a French colonel, was sent upstream with orders to watch the river east back toward the city. Not believing that another assault at Beauport would be successful, Wolfe began planning a landing just beyond Pointe-auxTrembles. This plan was canceled due to poor weather, and on September 10 he crossed at Anse-au-Foulon. A small cove southwest of the city, the landing beach at Anse-auFoulon required British troops to come ashore and ascend a slope and small road to reach the Plains of Abraham. The approach at Anse-au-Foulon was guarded by 100 local militia. Though the governor of Quebec was concerned about a landing in the area, Montcalm dismissed these fears, believing that due to the severity of the slope a small detachment would be able to hold until help arrived. On the night of September 12, British warships moved to positions opposite Cap Rouge and Beauport to give the impression that Wolfe would be landing at two places. The French took the bait. Around midnight, Wolfe’s men embarked for Anse-au-Foulon. Nearing the landing beach, the British were challenged by a French sentry. A French-speaking Scottish officer replied in Flanders French and the alarm was not raised. Going ashore with 40 men, Brigadier General James Murray signaled to Wolfe that it was clear to land the army. A detachment under Colonel William Howe moved up the slope. As the British were landing, a warning reached Montcalm. Distracted by Wolfe’s demonstration off Beauport (north of Quebec), Montcalm ignored this initial report. Finally, Montcalm gathered his available forces and began moving toward Wolfe. While a more prudent course may have been to wait for all of the French to rejoin the army, Montcalm did not think he would need to wait. Gathering in an open area known as the Plains of Abraham, Wolfe’s men turned toward the city anchored on the river to their right, and to their left by a wooded bluff over165

looking the St. Charles River. Due to the length of his line, Wolfe’s force was very thin.

The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West, 1770 (PD).

As Montcalm’s men formed for the attack, his three canons and Wolfe’s lone gun exchanged shots. Advancing to attack in columns, Montcalm’s lines became somewhat disorganized as they crossed the uneven terrain of the plain. Under strict orders to hold their fire until the French were within 30 to 35 yards, the British had double-charged their muskets with two balls. After absorbing two volleys from the French, the front rank opened fire in a volley that was compared to a canister (several hundred tiny balls instead of one large ball) cannon shot. Advancing, a second British line unleashed a similar volley, shattering the French lines. The French were devastated. Early in the battle, Wolfe was struck in the wrist. Bandaging the injury, he continued, but was soon hit in the stomach and chest. While issuing his final orders, he died on the field. With the army retreating toward Quebec City, Montcalm was hit in the lower abdomen and thigh. Taken into the city, he died the next day. The French conceded the battle and retreated the next day. The Battle of Quebec cost the British one of their best leaders; moreover, 58 soldiers were killed, 596 were wounded, and three were missing. For the French, the losses included their leader, with around 200 soldiers killed and 1,200 wounded. With the battle won, the British quickly moved to lay siege to Quebec. On September 18, the French surrendered the city to England. The Battle of Quebec, on the Plains of Abraham, essentially ended the French and Indian War in England’s favor.

Discussion Question Why was the Battle of Quebec a crucial 18th-century battle?

Lesson 4 The Battle of Lexington and Concord — 1775 On the 15th of April 1775, General Thomas Gage, British military governor of Massachusetts, destroyed the American arsenal at Concord. To accomplish this, Gage sent Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith and Marine Major John Pitcairn with a force of light infantry (no artillery support). The Americans saw the British marching from 166

Boston and Paul Revere spread the alarm. “The British are coming!” At midnight on April 19, the British column, consisting of 650–900 troops, left Boston and crossed the Charles River, followed closely by the alarm rider Paul Revere. As the British marched toward Concord, the entire countryside had been alerted to their presence, and the rebel militia was deployed to meet them. Until this time, no armed resistance to the British had resulted in loss of British life. Several months earlier, Gage had attempted to destroy military arms at Salem, Massachusetts, and the Americans resisted. No shots were fired, and the British retreated without completing their objective. Lexington militia captain John Parker had heard of the events at Salem and collected his men on Lexington Green to face the British column. He thought a show of force would cause the British to retreat. At dawn, Smith’s skirmishers (advanced forces) arrived at Lexington Green under the command of Major Pitcairn to see a group of armed militia across the Green. Pitcairn ordered the militia, led by John Parker, to be surrounded and disarmed. In response, Parker ordered his men to disperse. Then a shot rang out. No one really knows who fired first, but the British, hearing the shot, fired upon the small group of militia, killing eight and wounding ten more. The militia then retreated into the woods.

The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere, 1942–45 (NARA).

The British column then advanced to Concord, spreading out to destroy some cannons. While destroying these cannons, the British were attacked by a group of armed militia at Concord North Bridge. The short battle at the bridge was a rout, and this time the British retreated to Concord proper. Knowing that he was in a dangerous situation, Smith departed to Boston. Militia and minutemen attacked from behind prepared positions — stone walls and trees. British casualties were high, and eventually the British soldiers broke in a disorganized mass and retreated to Boston. The British suffered badly — nearly 120 casualties — but more importantly, this action led to the siege of Boston and the start of the Revolutionary War.

Discussion Question Why was the 18th-century Battle of Lexington and Concord so important?

The Concord Minute Man of 1775 by Daniel Chester French, erected in 1875 in Concord, Massachusetts.

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Lesson 5 The Battle of Hohenlinden — 1800 The “Second Coalition” (1798–1802) was the second attempt by European monarchs, led by Austria and Russia, to contain or eliminate Revolutionary France.

The Battle of Hohenlinden was fought on December 3, 1800, during the early leadership of Napoleon. A French army under Jean Victor Marie Moreau won a decisive victory over the Austrians and Bavarians (Germans) led by Archduke John of Austria. After being forced into a disastrous retreat, the allies were compelled to request an armistice that effectively ended the second war with Napoleon. The Battle of Hohenlinden was more of a frontier battle, behind trees and walls, than a classic 18th-century fight. The Austrians moved through heavily wooded terrain in four unsupported columns. The French ambushed the Austrians as they emerged from the Ebersberg forest, and launched a surprise envelopment of the Austrian left flank. Moreau’s generals managed to encircle and smash the largest Austrian column. The Austrians reported losses of 798 killed, 3,687 wounded, and 7,195 prisoners, with 50 cannons and 85 artillery caissons captured. Bavarian casualties numbered only 24 killed and 90 wounded, but their losses also included 1,754 prisoners, 26 artillery pieces, and 36 caissons. In round numbers, this amounts to 4,600 killed and wounded, plus 8,950 soldiers and 76 guns captured. The French admitted casualties of 1,839 soldiers, one cannon, and two caissons. Moreau’s army likely lost at least 3,000 men. After the disaster, France was the premier continental power in Europe. This crushing victory, coupled with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte’s victory at the Battle of Marengo on June 14, 1800, ended the War of the Second Coalition. In February 1801, the Austrians signed the Treaty of Lunéville, accepting French control up to the Rhine and the French puppet republics in Italy and the Netherlands. The subsequent Treaty of Amiens between France and Britain began the longest break in the wars of the Napoleonic period.

Discussion Question What was the result of the Battle of Hohenlinden?

Napoleon on his Imperial throne, 1806 (PD-Art).

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Chapter 21

Eighteenth-Century Science: Uneasiness in Zion First Thoughts Uranus, discovered in 1871.

The impact of an age is best determined by its impact on later generations. The 18th century saw some of the most significant events in world history: the Great Awakening, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution. However, all of these important events pale in the face of scientific progress in physics, chemistry, and astronomy. In this era, scientists were dreaming about a better age without the Christian fundamentalism of earlier centuries, as they called religion. This dream turned into a nightmare with the French Revolution, as science defined itself in opposition to Christianity — something it did not have to do. Like Victor Frankenstein, whose monster ultimately destroyed everything he loved, 18th-century science forgot, for a moment, who is the Creator and who is the creature.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by discussing 18th-century science in general. Then we will analyze the conflict between science and Christianity. Next we will reflect on the life of scientist Joseph Priestley. Finally, we will examine Herschel’s progress in astronomy. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss 18th-century scientific progress 2. Analyze the conflict between science and Christianity 3. Reflect on the life of scientist Joseph Priestley 4. Evaluate the impact of Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel

Concepts Enlightenment Theory of evolution Karl Linnaeus Jacques Turgot Dissenters Joseph Priestley 169

Lesson 1 Attacking History “The Age of Enlightenment,” Steven Kreis The Enlightenment attacked history. It attacked its past. It attacked its childhood. It attacked Christianity. Christianity was not in accordance with human reason. How does reason explain miracles? Christianity was not reasonable. Was Christianity necessary? As information about the natives of Pacific Islands was brought back to Europe, it was soon realized that even savages who had never heard of the pope, the Inquisition, Notre Dame, Jesus, and transubstantiation, still had a morality, still had definitive concepts of right and wrong, good and evil. What this realization accomplished was nothing less than doubt and skepticism about the universal nature of Christianity. Were all men who were not Christians then pagans? Well, we know what Dante would have said. Aquinas, too. We know the Catholic Church’s position on this as well. The Enlightenment, in general, thought otherwise.

Francis Bacon by Viscount St Alban, c. 1731 (PD-Art).

It is possible for society to exist and in fact thrive without religious supervision — however, not necessarily without religion. For proof, the Enlightenment turned to that civilization whose greatness was not built upon religious supervision — that civilization was republican Rome. No Enlightenment thinker from Charles de Secondat Montesquieu (1689–1755) to Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) could neglect the legacy of Rome during its republican days. Thinkers as diverse as Locke, Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), Kant, Jefferson, Adam Smith (1723–1790) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) all made their appeals to the Genius Populi Romani. I trust you’ve recognized something here. The Enlightenment did look to its past as it was at the same time trying to forge its new identity by abandoning its past. While foregoing a discussion of the kind of identity crisis this was sure to produce, note that the Enlightenment did not revere classical Greece. Nor did they have much good to say about Rome under the Empire. Instead, their vision was of republican Rome — it lived in their minds as an ideal of the past. Republican Rome served as the model of the new United States of America — not a democracy but a democratic republic. And when the French decided to embark upon their revolution at the end of the 18th century, their ideals, in both reality and imagery, were manifest in the Roman Republic. In general, the Enlightenment needed a positive scientific method by which human society could be remade. The new science was the science of man. As David Hume (1711–1776) and Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) discovered, this new science incorporated the study of how man learns, human motivation, social relationships, and the foundation of political and economic institutions. It was to be a science of man in all his plenitude, in his totality. The proposed science of man is the key to an understanding of the Enlightenment mission and the method was borrowed from science. It was the Newtonian system of natural laws that served as the justification for a science of man. Francis Bacon (1561–1626), of course, had already made this argument in the early 17th century. The scientific study of nature implied that man and society could also be the object of scientific study. And so, Bacon quite naturally became one of the patron saints of the Enlightenment. Newton, of course, was another deity. And John Locke’s episte-

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mology, his essays on toleration and education, and his two treatises on government secured his reputation as the third patron saint of the 18th century.1

Discussion Questions This is one of the most disturbing essays that this author has read. Yet, it is probably true. What happens when mankind practices “God playing” or sees himself as more important than God?

Lesson 2 Overview During the 18th century, science made advances on all fronts but particularly in chemistry. In 1751, Axel Cronstedt discovered nickel. In 1766, Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) isolated hydrogen and studied its properties. He also calculated the density of the earth. In 1772, Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819) discovered nitrogen. Two men, Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) and Karl Scheele (1742–1786), discovered oxygen. In 1756, Joseph Black (1728–1799) discovered carbon dioxide. The chemist of the 18th century was Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794). He discovered that during combustion, oxygen combines with substances. He also discovered the role of oxygen in respiration and corrosion of metals. There was also great progress in astronomy. In 1781, the astronomer William Herschel (1738–1822) discovered the planet Uranus. In 1784, John Goodricke (1764–1786) discovered other heavenly bodies, including several stars. Two great biologists of the 18th century were Georges Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707– 1788) and Karl Linnaeus (1707–1778). Linnaeus invented a method for classifying living things.

With the advent of Darwin’s theory of evolution in the 18th century, scientists theorized that the earth is very old. In 1785, James Hutton (1726–1797) published his book Theory of the Earth. This, of course, was not “progress,” but an ominous distraction that would have serious negative ramifications later.

In 1746, Petrus van Musschenbroek (1692–1761) invented a way of storing electricity called a Leiden jar. In 1752, Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) proved that lightning is a form of electricity. Then in 1800, Allessandro Volta (1745–1827) invented the first battery. However, during the 18th century, medicine made very little progress. Doctors practiced the same medical practices that the Greeks had practiced two centuries before. Doctors still did not know what caused disease. Most continued to believe in the “four humors,” and other doctors thought disease was caused by “miasmas” (odorless gases in the air).

Discussion Question In your opinion (i.e., the answer is not in the above text), why do you think so much scientific progress was made in this century? 1. http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture9a.html.

Carl von Linné, 1775 (PD-Art).

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Lesson 3 Age of Enlightenment The Enlightenment is the era in which reason was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority.

Eighteenth-century scientists and social reformers saw themselves as the social designers of a new age. Their plans for social reform were a reflection of the world of abundance and optimism in which they lived. Western Europe was moving away from a farm economy; commerce was growing. New wealth invited Europeans to look beyond their present world to the future. The French economist and statesman Jacques Turgot (1727–1781) said: “We see societies establishing themselves, nations forming themselves, which in turn dominate over other nations or become subject to them. Empires rise and fall; laws, forms of government, one succeeding another; the arts, the sciences, are discovered and are cultivated; sometimes retarded and sometimes accelerated in their progress, they pass from one region to another. Self-interest, ambition, vainglory, perpetually change the scene of the world, inundate the earth with blood. Yet in the midst of their ravages manners are gradually softened, the human mind takes enlightenment, separate nations draw nearer to each other, commerce and policy connect at last all parts of the globe, and the total mass of the human race, by the alternations of calm and agitation, of good conditions and of bad, marches always, although slowly, towards still higher perfection.”2 Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), who in a letter to Edmund Burke (1729–1797) wrote: “How glorious, then, is the prospect, the reverse of all the past, which is now opening upon us, and upon the world. Government, we may now expect to see, not only in theory and in books but in actual practice, calculated for the general good, and taking no more upon it than the general good requires, leaving all men the enjoyment of as many of their natural rights as possible, and no more interfering with matters of religion, with men’s notions concerning God, and a future state, than with philosophy, or medicine.”3 Progress was not a providential event. It was a man-made event. By the 18th century, man believed himself to be master of the universe, no longer its object of control. Sadly, the 18th-century enlightened man lost touch with the personal God of Scripture.

Turgot, French politician (18th century). Statue in the Hôtel de Ville of Paris (CCA-SA3.0).

Man was not a sinful creature but a being full of potential. One historian explains, “[T]he Enlightenment was not the last act of the Renaissance. It was not the continuation of the Renaissance nor was it the culmination of the scientifically brilliant generations of the Scientific Revolution. But, the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution were decisive for the growth of and new faith in Human Reason.”4 In summary, the Enlightenment taught the individual how to take control of his own life in humanistic terms. At least that was the ideal. Unfortunately, things did not turn out that way.

Discussion Question How did Enlightenment thinkers handle Christianity?

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2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid.

Lesson 4 Joseph Priestley Eighteenth-century Englishman and chemist Joseph Priestley did not want to be a chemist at all. He felt called to the ministry. During his boyhood, Joseph went to the local schools where he learned Greek and Latin at an early age, and during school holidays, Hebrew. In his mid-teens he fell seriously ill with tuberculosis, was forced to drop out of school, and for a time abandoned his plan of entering the ministry. But he persevered. He taught himself French, Italian, German, Syrian, and Arabic. Privately, he also learned the rudiments of geometry, algebra, and mathematics.

The Unitarian Church was a late-18th-century and early-19th-century movement that argued against the Trinity. Most Unitarians rejected the divinity of Christ.

However, before long, as math and science replaced his faith, the ministry became ancillary to his scientific studies, and, then this calling disappeared altogether only to be reborn in a humanist, heretical movement called Unitarianism. Regrettably, during the 18th century, certain church leaders opposed some of the advances in 18th-century science. Therefore, Priestley felt he could be a committed Christian or a scientist, but not both. He was a passionate man and thought that he could not love both passionately. So he chose to tie his life to science. He felt that a love of science inevitably brought a rejection of orthodox faith. With some trepidation, then, and ambivalence, Priestley began his education. He found himself in sympathetic surroundings. His colleagues held the same opinions and shared the same ideals as he did. If disagreement arose on any point, they looked on controversy as a means of discovering the truth, and not as a sign of moral reprobation. Of course, many 18th-century Christians agreed — notably the scientist/pastor/ evangelist Jonathan Edwards — but Priestley did not know these people. In 1762, Priestley married the love of his life, Mary Wilkinson, daughter of John Wilkinson, one of the leading figures of the emerging Industrial Revolution in England. Miss Wilkinson was an extraordinary woman, very intelligent and loving, and was a perfect helpmate for Priestley.

An electrical machine designed by Joseph Priestley, 1768 (PD).

A month before his wedding, in anticipation of impending financial obligations, he applied for and was conferred ordination to the Dissenting ministry. The Dissenters were a sort of Unitarian Universalist church. Priestley was now a pastor as well as a scientist. His “sermons” were actually lectures on political theory, laws, grammar, oratory, and criticism. He acquainted them with Shakespeare, Milton, and other writers and poets of that time. There was no hint of the Word of God. Pastoring his small congregation gave him ample time to do chemistry experiments. Pastoring and practicing science was not unusual at the time. Jonathan Edwards, for example, was a world-renowned specialist in spiders. During one of these experiments, Priestley discovered oxygen. With his newfound fame, Pastor Priestley was now free to travel the world. He visited the European continent and the United States, giving lectures on chemistry and metaphysics. He was especially popular among some of the nascent Unitarian Churches in the United States. 173

Discussion Question Joseph Priestley was a typical 19th-century scientist who maintained his faith while pursuing science. However, Priestley ultimately abandoned this orthodox faith in favor of heretical Unitarianism. How did this happen?

Lesson 5 Friedrich Wilhelm (William) Herschel Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel was a German musician of national fame when he pursued astronomy. Using 19th-century technology, on March 13, 1781, William Herschel discovered what he first thought to be a comet, but which was later found to be planet Uranus. In recognition of this discovery, he was elected to the Royal Society on December 7, 1781, and awarded an annual grant by King George III of England, which enabled him to give up his career in music (on May 19, 1782) and concentrate on astronomy as the court astronomer of the king. Later, Wilhelm obtained a copy of Messier’s Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters, originally published in 1771. The Messier objects were a set of astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier.

William Herschel, GermanBritish astronomer, 1785 (PD-Art).

Because Messier was interested in finding only comets, he created a list of non-comet objects that frustrated his hunt for them. The compilation of this list, in collaboration with his assistant Pierre Méchain, is known as the Messier catalogue. The first edition included 45 objects, with Messier’s final list totaling 103 objects. Herschel was deeply influenced by this list. In 1783, Herschel determined that our solar system is moving between the neighboring stars in the direction of the star Lambda Herculis; he introduced the term “solar apex.” In 1787, William Herschel discovered two moons of Uranus — Titania and Oberon.

Discussion Question William Herschel’s 40-foot telescope. The telescope was constructed between 1785 and 1789 at Observatory House in Slough, England and was the largest in the world for 50 years, c. 1797 (PD).

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How did Herschel discover the planet Uranus?

Chapter 22

Reflections of an Age: Eighteenth-Century Voices First Thoughts Mr and Mrs William Hallett (“The Morning Walk”), 1785 (PD-Art).

The 18th-century French philosopher Jean le Rond d’Alembert writes, “If one looks at all closely at the middle of our own century, the events that occupy us, our customs, our achievements and even our topics of conversation, it is difficult not to see that a very remarkable change in several respects has come into our ideas; a change which, by its rapidity, seems to us to foreshadow another still greater. Time alone will tell the aim, the nature and limits of this revolution, whose inconveniences and advantages our posterity will recognize better than we can.”1

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by examining the memoirs of an 18th-century New France official. Next, we will examine an 18th-century pastor’s view of family relationships. We will compare the curricula in an 18th-century school with contemporary school curricula. Finally, we will examine a patriot poem written by an 18th-century German. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Analyze a memoir by a New France citizen 2. Discuss the views of an 18th-century pastor and his views of the family 3. Reflect on the curricula of an 18th-century primary school 4. Evaluate 18th-century views of their homeland 5. Study 18th-century arguments against slavery

Concepts Olaudah Equiano Marquis de la Galissonière Boston Latin Grammar School Max Schneckenburger 1. Ch. 9, The Triumph of Science, www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture9a.html.

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Lesson 1 Olaudah Equiano According to his famous autobiography, written in 1789, Olaudah Equiano (1745–1797) was born in what is now Nigeria. Kidnapped and sold into slavery in childhood, he was taken as a slave to the New World. As a slave to a Quaker merchant, he eventually earned the price of his own freedom. Then, becoming a sailor, he traveled the world before publishing The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa the African (1789), a strongly abolitionist autobiography. The book became a bestseller and, as well as furthering the antislavery cause, made Equiano a wealthy man. I hope the reader will not think I have trespassed on his patience in introducing myself to him with some account of the manners and customs of my country. They had been implanted in me with great care, and made an impression on my mind, which time could not erase, and which all the adversity and variety of fortune I have since experienced served only to rivet and record; for, whether the love of one’s country be real or imaginary, or a lesson of reason, or an instinct of nature, I still look back with pleasure on the first scenes of my life, though that pleasure has been for the most part mingled with sorrow.

Olaudah Equiano, a.k.a. Gustavus Vassa, first published in 1789 (PD).

I have already acquainted the reader with the time and place of my birth. My father, besides many slaves, had a numerous family, of which seven lived to grow up, including myself and a sister, who was the only daughter. As I was the youngest of the sons, I became, of course, the greatest favourite with my mother, and was always with her; and she used to take particular pains to form my mind. I was trained up from my earliest years in the art of war; my daily exercise was shooting and throwing javelins; and my mother adorned me with emblems, after the manner of our greatest warriors. In this way I grew up till I was turned the age of eleven, when an end was put to my happiness in the following manner: — Generally when the grown people in the neighbourhood were gone far in the fields to labour, the children assembled together in some of the neighbours’ premises to play; and commonly some of us used to get up a tree to look out for any assailant, or kidnapper, that might come upon us; for they sometimes took those opportunities of our parents’ absence to attack and carry off as many as they could seize. One day, as I was watching at the top of a tree in our yard, I saw one of those people come into the yard of our next neighbour but one, to kidnap, there being many stout young people in it. Immediately on this I gave the alarm of the rogue, and he was surrounded by the stoutest of them, who entangled him with cords, so that he could not escape till some of the grown people came and secured him. But alas! ere long it was my fate to be thus attacked, and to be carried off, when none of the grown people were nigh. One day, when all our people were gone out to their works as usual, and only I and my dear sister were left to mind the house, two men and a woman got over our walls, and in a moment seized us both, and, without giving us time to cry out, or make resistance, they stopped our mouths, and ran off with us into the nearest wood. Here they tied our hands, and continued to carry us as far as they could, till night came on, when we reached a small house, where the robbers

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halted for refreshment, and spent the night. We were then unbound, but were unable to take any food; and, being quite overpowered by fatigue and grief, our only relief was some sleep, which allayed our misfortune for a short time. The next morning we left the house, and continued travelling all the day. For a long time we had kept the woods, but at last we came into a road which I believed I knew. I had now some hopes of being delivered; for we had advanced but a little way before I discovered some people at a distance, on which I began to cry out for their assistance: but my cries had no other effect than to make them tie me faster and stop my mouth, and then they put me into a large sack. They also stopped my sister’s mouth, and tied her hands; and in this manner we proceeded till we were out of the sight of these people. When we went to rest the following night they offered us some victuals; but we refused it; and the only comfort we had was in being in one another’s arms all that night, and bathing each other with our tears. But alas! we were soon deprived of even the small comfort of weeping together. The next day proved a day of greater sorrow than I had yet experienced; for my sister and I were then separated, while we lay clasped in each other’s arms. It was in vain that we besought them not to part us; she was torn from me, and immediately carried away, while I was left in a state of distraction not to be described. I cried and grieved continually; and for several days I did not eat anything but what they forced into my mouth. At length, after many days travelling, during which I had often changed masters, I got into the hands of a chieftain, in a very pleasant country. This man had two wives and some children, and they all used me extremely well, and did all they could to comfort me; particularly the first wife, who was something like my mother. Although I was a great many days journey from my father’s house, yet these people spoke exactly the same language with us. This first master of mine, as I may call him, was a smith, and my principal employment was working his bellows, which were the same kind as I had seen in my vicinity. They were in some respects not unlike the stoves here in gentlemen’s kitchens; and were covered over with leather; and in the middle of that leather a stick was fixed, and a person stood up, and worked it, in the same manner as is done to pump water out of a cask with a hand pump. I believe it was gold he worked, for it was of a lovely bright yellow colour, and was worn by the women on their wrists and ancles. I was there I suppose about a month, and they at last used to trust me some little distance from the house. This liberty I used in embracing every opportunity to inquire the way to my own home: and I also sometimes, for the same purpose, went with the maidens, in the cool of the evenings, to bring pitchers of water from the springs for the use of the house. I had also remarked where the sun rose in the morning, and set in the evening, as I had travelled along; and I had observed that my father’s house was towards the rising of the sun. I therefore determined to seize the first opportunity of making my escape, and to shape my course for that quarter; for I was quite oppressed and weighed down by grief after my mother and friends; and my love of liberty, ever great, was strengthened by the mortifying circumstance of not daring to eat with the free-born children, although I was mostly their companion. While I was projecting my escape, one day an unlucky event happened, which quite disconcerted my plan, and put an end to my hopes. I used to be sometimes employed in assisting an elderly woman slave to cook and take care of the poultry; and one

At first glance, this 1864 picture appears to be three children with an AfricanAmerican slave. Yet all are former slaves freed by federal troops, and are among a group of eight sent north to gather support for the emancipation and education of former slaves. It was felt that former slaves with very light skin and more Caucasian features would help white people to identify and sympathize with their plight (LOC).

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morning, while I was feeding some chickens, I happened to toss a small pebble at one of them, which hit it on the middle and directly killed it. The old slave, having soon after missed the chicken, inquired after it; and on my relating the accident (for I told her the truth, because my mother would never suffer me to tell a lie) she flew into a violent passion, threatened that I should suffer for it; and, my master being out, she immediately went and told her mistress what I had done. This alarmed me very much, and I expected an instant flogging, which to me was uncommonly dreadful; for I had seldom been beaten at home. I therefore resolved to fly; and accordingly I ran into a thicket that was hard by, and hid myself in the bushes. Soon afterwards my mistress and the slave returned, and, not seeing me, they searched all the house, but not finding me, and I not making answer when they called to me, they thought I had run away, and the whole neighbourhood was raised in the pursuit of me.

The U.S. ship Clotilde is the last known ship to bring captive Africans to American shores as slaves in 1859. Photographed in 1914, Cudjoe Kazoola Lewis and Abache were among this final group of slaves. The Clotilde was burned and deliberately sunk soon after arriving with her cargo (PD).

In that part of the country (as in ours) the houses and villages were skirted with woods, or shrubberies, and the bushes were so thick that a man could readily conceal himself in them, so as to elude the strictest search. The neighbours continued the whole day looking for me, and several times many of them came within a few yards of the place where I lay hid. I then gave myself up for lost entirely, and expected every moment, when I heard a rustling among the trees, to be found out, and punished by my master: but they never discovered me, though they were often so near that I even heard their conjectures as they were looking about for me; and I now learned from them, that any attempt to return home would be hopeless. Most of them supposed I had fled towards home; but the distance was so great, and the way so intricate, that they thought I could never reach it, and that I should be lost in the woods. When I heard this I was seized with a violent panic, and abandoned myself to despair. Night too began to approach, and aggravated all my fears. I had before entertained hopes of getting home, and I had determined when it should be dark to make the attempt; but I was now convinced it was fruitless, and I began to consider that, if possibly I could escape all other animals, I could not those of the human kind; and that, not knowing the way, I must perish in the woods. Thus was I like the hunted deer:

—“Ev’ry leaf and ev’ry whisp’ring breath Convey’d a foe, and ev’ry foe a death.”

I heard frequent rustlings among the leaves; and being pretty sure they were snakes I expected every instant to be stung by them. This increased my anguish, and the horror of my situation became now quite insupportable. I at length quitted the thicket, very faint and hungry, for I had not eaten or drank anything all the day; and crept to my master’s kitchen, from whence I set out at first, and which was an open shed, and laid myself down in the ashes with an anxious wish for death to relieve me from all my pains. I was scarcely awake in the morning when the old woman slave, who was the first up, came to light the fire, and saw me in the fire place. She was very much surprised to see me, and could scarcely believe her own eyes. She now promised to intercede for me, and went for her master, who soon after came, and, having slightly reprimanded me, ordered me to be taken care of, and not to be ill-treated. Soon after this my master’s only daughter, and child by his first wife, sickened and died, which affected him so much that for some time he was almost frantic, and 178

really would have killed himself, had he not been watched and prevented. However, in a small time afterwards he recovered, and I was again sold. I was now carried to the left of the sun’s rising, through many different countries, and a number of large woods. The people I was sold to used to carry me very often, when I was tired, either on their shoulders or on their backs. I saw many convenient well-built sheds along the roads, at proper distances, to accommodate the merchants and travellers, who lay in those buildings along with their wives, who often accompany them; and they always go well armed. From the time I left my own nation I always found somebody that understood me till I came to the sea coast. The languages of different nations did not totally differ, nor were they so copious as those of the Europeans, particularly the English. They were therefore easily learned; and, while I was journeying thus through Africa, I acquired two or three different tongues. In this manner I had been travelling for a considerable time, when one evening, to my great surprise, whom should I see brought to the house where I was but my dear sister! As soon as she saw me she gave a loud shriek, and ran into my arms — I was quite overpowered: neither of us could speak; but, for a considerable time, clung to each other in mutual embraces, unable to do anything but weep. Our meeting affected all who saw us; and indeed I must acknowledge, in honour of those sable destroyers of human rights, that I never met with any ill treatment, or saw any offered to their slaves, except tying them, when necessary, to keep them from running away. When these people knew we were brother and sister they indulged us together; and the man, to whom I supposed we belonged, lay with us, he in the middle, while she and I held one another by the hands across his breast all night; and thus for a while we forgot our misfortunes in the joy of being together: but even this small comfort was soon to have an end; for scarcely had the fatal morning appeared, when she was again torn from me forever! I was now more miserable, if possible, than before. The small relief which her presence gave me from pain was gone, and the wretchedness of my situation was redoubled by my anxiety after her fate, and my apprehensions lest her sufferings should be greater than mine, when I could not be with her to alleviate them. Yes, thou dear partner of all my childish sports! thou sharer of my joys and sorrows! happy should I have ever esteemed myself to encounter every misery for you, and to procure your freedom by the sacrifice of my own. Though you were early forced from my arms, your image has been always rivetted in my heart, from which neither time nor fortune have been able to remove it; so that, while the thoughts of your sufferings have damped my prosperity, they have mingled with adversity and increased its bitterness. To that Heaven which protects the weak from the strong, I commit the care of your innocence and virtues, if they have not already received their full reward, and if your youth and delicacy have not long since fallen victims to the violence of the African trader, the pestilential stench of a Guinea ship, the seasoning in the European colonies, or the lash and lust of a brutal and unrelenting overseer.2

Nigerian manillas or armlets served as a form of money and became known as slave trade money. (PD).

Discussion Question While the readers are sympathetic with this heart-wrenching passage, they are forced to ask if this passage is accurate. Is it too prejudicial to be accurate? Do you believe this ex-slave could discuss his situation with anything that approaches objectivity? 2. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa the African (1789) www.gutenberg.org/.

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Lesson 2 Marquis de la Galissonière The French and the English fought an epic struggle for over a century, ending in 1763 with the total defeat of the French in North America.

Memoir on the French Colonies in North America, December 1750 In 1750, when this memoir was written, New France was very much alive and covered all territory north of Maine and west of the Ohio River. The Marquis de la Galissonière (1693–1756) was the French governor of New France from 1747 to 1749. Motives of honor, glory and religion forbid the abandonment of an established Colony; the surrender to themselves, or rather to a nation inimical by taste, education and religious principle, of the French who have emigrated thither at the persuasion of the Government with the expectation of its protection, and who eminently deserve it on account of their fidelity and attachment; in fine, the giving up of so salutary a work as that of the conversion of the heathen who inhabit that vast Continent. Yet we shall not insist on these motives; and how great soever may be the inconveniences set forth in the preceding article, neither will we object to them, the future and uncertain revenues both of Canada and of Louisiana, although nevertheless, these are extremely probable, since they have for basis an immense country, a numerous people, fertile lands, forests of mulberry trees, mines already discovered, etc. We shall confine ourselves to regarding Canada as a barren frontier, such as the Alps are to Piedmont, as Luxembourg would be to France, and as it, perhaps, is to the Queen of Hungary. We ask if a country can be abandoned, no matter how bad it may be, or what the amount of expense necessary to sustain it, when by its position it affords a great advantage over its neighbors.

Portrait of la Galissonière 18th century (PD-Art).

This is precisely the case of Canada: it cannot be denied that this Colony has been always a burthen to France, and it is probable that such will be the case for a long while; but it constitutes, at the same time, the strongest barrier that can be opposed to the ambition of the English. We may dispense with giving any other proofs of this than the constant efforts they have made, for more than a century, against that Colony. We will add, however, that it alone is in a position to wage war against them in all their possessions on the Continent of America; possessions which are as dear to them as they are precious in fact, whose power is daily increasing, and which, if means be not found to prevent it, will soon absorb not only all the Colonies located in the neighboring islands of the Tropic, but even all those of the Continent of America. Long experience has proved that the preservation of the major portion of the settlements in the Tropical islands is not owing so much to their intrinsic strength, as to the difficulty of conveying troops thither from Europe in sufficient numbers to subjugate or keep them, and of supporting such troops there; but if the rapid progress of the English Colonies on the Continent be

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not arrested, or what amounts to the same thing, if a counterpoise capable of confining them within their limits, and of forcing them to the defensive, be not formed, they will possess, in a short time, such great facilities to construct formidable armaments on the Continent of America, and will require so little time to convey a large force either to St. Domingo or to the Island of Cuba, or to our Windward islands, that it will not be possible to hope to preserve these except at an enormous expense. This will not be the case if we make a more energetic and generous effort to increase and strengthen Canada and Louisiana, than the English are making in favor of their Colonies; since the French Colonies, despite their destitute condition, have always waged war against the English of the Continent with some advantage, though the latter are, and always have been, more numerous; it is necessary to explain here the causes to which this has been owing. The first is the great number of alliances that French keep up with the Indian Nations. These people, who hardly act except from instinct, love us hitherto a little and fear us a great deal, more than they do the English; but their interest, which some among them begin to understand, is that the strength of the English and French remain nearly equal, so that through the jealousy of these two nations those tribes may live independent of, and draw presents from, both. The second reason of our superiority over the English is, the number of French Canadians who are accustomed to live in the woods like the Indians, and become thereby not only qualified to lead them to fight the English, but to wage war even against these same Indians when necessity obliges. Hence ’twill be seen that this superiority of the French in America is in some sort accidental, and if they neglect to maintain it, whilst the English are making every effort to destroy it, ’twill pass into the hands of the latter. There is no doubt but such an event would be followed by the entire destruction of our settlements in that part of the Globe. This, however serious it may seem, would not be our only loss; it would drag after it that of the superiority which France must claim over England.

A rare and extremely influential 1755 map of the Great Lakes drawn by Jacques Nicholas Bellin. This map, which appeared in the 1755 issue of the Homann Heirs Atlas Major, covers all five of the Great Lakes as well as the adjacent Indian lands and the English colonies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (PD-Art).

If anything can, in fact, destroy the superiority of France in Europe, it is the Naval force of the English; this alone sustained the house of Austria at the commencement of the war of the Spanish succession, as it caused France to 181

lose, at the close of the last war, the fruit of the entire conquest of the Austrian Lower Countries. We must not flatter ourselves with being able long to sustain an expenditure equal to theirs; no other resource remains then but to attack them in their possessions; that cannot be effected by forces sent from Europe except with little hope of success, and at vast expense, whilst by fortifying ourselves in America and husbanding means in the Colonies themselves, the advantages we possess can be preserved, and even increased at a very trifling expense, in comparison with the cost of expeditions fitted out in Europe. The utility of Canada is not confined to the preservation of the French Colonies, and to rendering the English apprehensive for theirs; that Colony is not less essential for the conservation of the Spanish possessions in America, especially of Mexico.

The French Fleet on the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario, 1758-60, 1757 (PD).

So long as that barrier is well secured; so long as the English will be unable to penetrate it; so long as efforts will be made to increase its strength, ’twill serve as a rampart to Louisiana, which hitherto sustains itself only under the shadow of the forces of Canada, and by the connection of the Canadians with the Indians. Should any unforeseen revolution disturb the intimate union now existing between the two Crowns, we should even be able, by means of Louisiana, to share with the Spaniards the profit of the rich settlements they possess in America; but this event appears so distant, that it is the opinion that France, for its own interest, and in order to remove every jealousy, must not seek to extend its possessions Westward, that is to say, towards the Spaniards, but apply all its resources to strengthen itself at the East, that is, in the direction of the English. In fine, Canada, the fertility whereof is wonderful, can serve as the granary of the Tropical Colonies, which, in consequence of the men they destroy, sell their rich products very dear. It is proved that the number of Canadians who die in these Colonies that are admitted to be the most unhealthy is much less than that of European French. All that precedes sufficiently demonstrates that it is of the utmost importance and of absolute necessity not to omit any means, nor spare any expense to secure Canada, inasmuch as that is the only way to wrest America from the ambition of the English, and as the progress of their empire in that quarter of the globe is what is most capable of contributing to their superiority in Europe.3

Discussion Question List several reasons why Marquis de la Galissonière believes that the French are superior to the English in North America.

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3. www.let.rug.nl/usa/D/1726-1750/7yearswar/galis.htm.

Lesson 3 About the Duties of Husbands and Wives Benjamin Wadsworth, Boston, 1712 Concerning the duties of this relation we may assert a few things. It is their duty to dwell together with one another. Surely they should dwell together; if one house cannot hold them, surely they are not affected to each other as they should be. They should have a very great and tender love and affection to one another. This is plainly commanded by God. This duty of love is mutual; it should be performed by each, to each of them. When, therefore, they quarrel or disagree, then they do the Devil’s work; he is pleased at it, glad of it. But such contention provokes God; it dishonors Him; it is a vile example before inferiors in the family; it tends to prevent family prayer. As to outward things. If the one is sick, troubled, or distressed, the other should manifest care, tenderness, pity, and compassion, and afford all possible relief and succor. They should likewise unite their prudent counsels and endeavors, comfortably to maintain themselves and the family under their joint care. Husband and wife should be patient one toward another. If both are truly pious, yet neither of them is perfectly holy, in such cases a patient, forgiving, forbearing spirit is very needful. . . .

Stearns–Wadsworth House (CCA-SA3.0).

The husband’s government ought to be gentle and easy, and the wife’s obedience ready and cheerful. The husband is called the head of the woman. It belongs to the head to rule and govern. Wives are part of the house and family, and ought to be under the husband’s government. Yet his government should not be with rigor, haughtiness, harshness, severity, but with the greatest love, gentleness, kindness, tenderness that may be. Though he governs her, he must not treat her as a servant, but as his own flesh; he must love her as himself. Those husbands are much to blame who do not carry it lovingly and kindly to their wives. O man, if your wife is not so young, beautiful, healthy, welltempered, and qualified as you would wish; if she did not bring a large estate to you, or cannot do so much for you, as some other women have done for their husbands; yet she is your wife, and the great God commands you to love her, not be bitter, but kind to her. What can be more plain and expressive than that? Those wives are much to blame who do not carry it lovingly and obediently to their own husbands. O woman, if your husband is not as young, beautiful, healthy, so well-tempered, and qualified as you could wish; if he has not such 183

abilities, riches, honors, as some others have; yet he is your husband, and the great God commands you to love, honor, and obey him. Yea, though possibly you have greater abilities of mind than he has, was of some high birth, and he of a more common birth, or did bring more estate, yet since he is your husband, God has made him your head, and set him above you, and made it your duty to love and revere him. Parents should act wisely and prudently in the matching of their children. They should endeavor that they may marry someone who is most proper for them, most likely to bring blessings to them.4

Discussion Question What advice does Wadsworth offer to husbands and wives?

Lesson 4 The Curriculum of the Boston Latin Grammar School (1712) In 1712, Nathaniel Williams, master of the Boston Latin Grammar School, sent to Nehemiah Hobart, a Senior Fellow at Harvard, the following letter, in which he describes the curriculum pursued by the students at the Boston Latin Grammar School as they prepared for admission to Harvard College. Note: the spelling from 1712 has been preserved. The first three years are spent first in Learning by heart & then acc:[ording] to their capacities understanding the Accidence and Nomenclator, in construing & parsing acc:[ording) to the English rules of Syntax, Sententiae Pueriles, Cato & Corderius & Aesops Fables. The fourth year, or sooner if their capacities allow it, they are entered upon Erasmus to which they are allou’d no English, but are taught to translate it by the help of the Dictionary and Accidence, which English translation of theirs is written down fair by each of them, after the reciting of the lesson, and then brought to the Master for his observation and the correction both as to the Translatio & orthography: This when corrected is carefully reserved till fryday, and then render’d into Latin of the Author exactly instead of the old way of Repitition, and in the afternoon of that day it is (a part of it) varied for them as to mood tense case number &c and given them to translate into Latin, still keeping to the words of the Author. An example of which you have in the paper marked on the backside A [not available]. These continue to read Aesops Fables 184

4. www.constitution.org/primarysources/marriage.html.

with ye English translation, the better to help them in the aforesaid translating. They are also now initiated in the Latin grammar, and begin to give the Latin rules in Propr: As in pres: [Propria: As in praesenti] & Syntax in their parsing; and at the latter end of the year enter upon Ovid de Tristibus (which is recited by heart on the usual time fryday afternoon) & upon translating English into Latin, out of mr Garretson’s exercises. The fifth year they are entered upon Tullies Epistles (Still continuing the use of Erasmus in the morning & Ovid de Trist[ibus]: afternoon) the Elegancies of which are remark’d and improv’d in the afternoon of the day they learn it, by translating an English which contains the phrase something altered, and besides recited by heart on the repetition day. Ov[id] Metam[orphoses): is learn’d by these at the latter end of the year, so also Prosodia Scanning & turning & making of verses, & 2 days in the week they continue to turn mr. Gar[retson’s) English Ex[ercises) into Latin, w(hen) the afternoons exerc[ise): is ended, and turn a fable into a verse a distich in a day. The sixth year they are entered upon Tullies Offices & Lucius] Flor(us): for the forenoon, continuing the use of Ovid’s Metam[orphoses]: in the afternoon, & at the end of the Year they read Virgil: The Elegancies of Tull[ius’=Cicero] Off[ice]): are improved in the afternoon as is aforesaid of Tull[ius’]: Epist[les]: & withal given the master in writing when the lesson is recited, & so are the phrases they can discover in Luc[ius] Fl[orus). All of which they have mett with in that week are comprehended in a dialogue on Fryday forenoon, and afternoon they turn a Fable in Lat[in) Verse. Every week these make a Latin Epistle, the last quarter of the Year, when also they begin to learn Greek, & Rhetorick.

Boston Latin School plaque on School Street in Boston, Massachusetts (CCA-SA3.0).

The seventh year they read Tullie’s Orations & Justin for the Latin and Greek Testam[en]t Isocrates Orat[ions]: Homer & Hesiod for the Greek in the forenoons & Vergil Horace Juvenal & Persius afternoons. As to their exercises after the afternoon lessons are ended they translate mundays & Tuesdays an Engl[ish] Dialogue containing a Praxis upon the Phrases out of Godwin’s Roman Antiquities. Wensdays they compose of Praxis on the Elegancies & Pithy sentences in their lesson in Horace in Lat[in] verse. On repetition days, bec[ause] that work is easy, their time is improved in ye Forenoon in makeing Dialogues containing a Praxis upon a Particle out of Mr. Walker, in the afternoon in Turning a Psalm or something Divine into Latin verse. Every fortnight they compose a Theme, & now & then turn a Theme into a Declamation the last quarter of the year.5

Discussion Question Compare your own school curricula choices with the curricula at Boston Latin. 5. http://www.constitution.org/primarysources/grammar.html.

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Lesson 5 Max Schneckenburger: “The Watch on the Rhine,” 1870 This was a favorite song of the German soldiers during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. A voice resounds like thunder-peal, ’Mid dashing waves and clang of steel: The Rhine, the Rhine, the German Rhine! Who guards to-day my stream divine? Dear Fatherland, no danger thine; Firm stand thy sons to watch the Rhine! They stand, a hundred thousand strong, Quick to avenge their country’s wrong; With filial love their bosoms swell, They’ll guard the sacred landmark well! Chorus: Dear Fatherland, no danger thine; Firm stand thy sons to watch the Rhine!

The castle Katz from Patersberg and a part of the Upper Middle Rhine Valley (CCA-SA3.0).

The dead of an heroic race From heaven look down and meet this gaze; He swears with dauntless heart, “O Rhine, Be German as this breast of mine!” Dear Fatherland, no danger thine; Firm stand thy sons to watch the Rhine! While flows one drop of German blood, Or sword remains to guard thy flood, While rifle rests in patriot hand, No foe shall tread thy sacred strand! Dear Fatherland, no danger thine; Firm stand thy sons to watch the Rhine! Our oath resounds, the river flows, In golden light our banner glows; Our hearts will guard thy stream divine: The Rhine, the Rhine, the German Rhine! Dear Fatherland, no danger thine; Firm stand thy sons to watch the Rhine!6

Discussion Question This poem was popular among German armies in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. What are militaristic images that Schneckenburger presents?

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6. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1870wachtrhein.asp.

Chapter 23

The Government: Articles of Confederation First Thoughts Historians Charles and Mary Beard write about the Articles of Confederation period, “The rise of a young republic composed of thirteen states, each governed by officials popularly elected under constitutions drafted by ‘the plain people,’ was the most significant feature of the 18th century. The majority of the patriots whose labors and sacrifices had made this possible naturally looked upon their work and pronounced it good. Those Americans, however, who peered beneath the surface of things, saw that the Declaration of Independence, even if splendidly phrased, and paper constitutions, drawn by finest enthusiasm ‘uninstructed by experience,’ could not alone make the republic great and prosperous or even free. All around them they saw chaos in finance and in industry and perils for the immediate future.”1

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by examining America in the 1780s. We will review the Articles of Confederation. Next, we will see how powerful and detrimental state legislatures had become. We will discuss the causes and results of Shays’ Rebellion. Finally, we will review the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss America in the 1780s 2. Review salient components of the Articles of Confederation 3. Analyze the impact of state legislatures during the 1780s 4. Evaluate the causes and results of Shays’ Rebellion 5. Delineate the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Concepts Articles of Confederation Shays’ Rebellion

1. Charles and Mary Beard, The History of the United States (1921), pp. 139ff http://www.gutenberg.org/ files/16960/16960-h/16960-h.htm.

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Lesson 1 Introduction For the first time in world history, a democratic republic was dealing with a dysfunctional government.

The 1780s was one of the most difficult periods in American history. It was quite literally a decade of crisis. The country was on the verge of bankruptcy because the nation’s currency was virtually worthless. When the war ended, the economy was in turmoil. Exports to Britain were gone. Furthermore, British law prohibited trade with Britain’s colonies in the Caribbean. Thus, two most important sources of colonial-era commerce were eliminated. A flood of cheap British manufactured imports made the post-war economic slump worse. Inflation was out of control. Finally, the high level of debt taken on by the states to fund the war effort added to American unrest. The states merely printed more money and added to inflation. Even the army was in crisis. Continental Army officers threatened military action against Congress. Armed mobs in Massachusetts closed courts and threatened a state armory. There was no federal control of revenue. States imposed heavy duties on neighboring states and enacted laws violating the rights of creditors. With treaties nullified by the states, with no federal force to enforce laws and the treasury empty, the Congress of the United States was in shambles. It called upon the states to pay their quotas of money into the treasury, only to be treated with contempt — Congress had no way to enforce its laws, and the states knew it. Things were so bad that it was even difficult to secure a quorum for the transaction of business! Overseas, Barbary Coast pirates enslaved American sailors. England, in violation of the peace treaty ending the Revolution, refused to evacuate its forts on American soil. Why should they? Weak America could really do nothing. Spain conspired with none other than the famous frontiersman Daniel Boone to form a separate nation. The 1780s in America was indeed a time of crisis!

A Sea Fight with Barbary Corsairs by Lorenzo a Castro, after 1681 (PD-Art).

There were some bright moments. A foundation for future economic growth was being established. Farmers, for instance, were diversifying their planting and setting the foundation for the massive agricultural business that would emerge in the next century. One state — Massachusetts — chartered more corporations during the 1780s than existed in all of Europe. Nevertheless, by 1787, many of the new nation’s leaders were convinced that the success of the American Revolution was at risk. They were especially concerned that the tyrannical majorities in state legislatures threatened fundamental freedoms, including freedom of religion and the rights of property holders.

Discussion Question Discuss the crisis facing America in the 1780s. 188

Lesson 2 Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation was the United States’ first constitution. Proposed by the Continental Congress in 1777, it was ratified in 1781. The Articles upheld state sovereignty. Article 2 stated that “each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power . . . which is not . . . expressly delegated to the United States. . . .” Any amendment required unanimous consent of the states. There was a national government, of sorts, composed of a Congress, which had the power to declare war, appoint military officers, sign treaties, make alliances, appoint foreign ambassadors, and manage relations with Native Americans. It had no power to levy or to collect taxes. Congress could raise money only by asking the states for funds, borrowing from foreign governments, or selling western lands. There was no provision for national courts. And, while it could appoint military officers, it could not maintain or pay for a standing army — not without state support and funding. All states were represented equally in Congress, and nine of the 13 states had to approve a bill before it became law. There was no president. The states feared another George III might threaten their liberties. The new framework of government also barred delegates from serving more than three years in any six-year period. In short, the Articles of Confederation created a very weak central government. Sadly, the Confederation Congress could not muster a quorum to ratify on time the treaty that guaranteed American independence, nor could it pay the expense of sending the ratified treaty back to Europe! There was an immediate crisis in the Continental Army. Following the British surrender at Yorktown, Washington moved 11,000 Continental Army soldiers to Newburgh, New York. By 1783, the army was near the point of mutiny over Congress’s failure to pay them. Only a personal plea by George Washington sidetracked the mutiny.

The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781. This was the format for the United States government until they were replaced by the Constitution in 1789, printed by Alexander Purdie [1777] (LOC).

But another crisis was on the horizon. In 1783, former Revolutionary War soldiers, fully armed, marched on the Philadelphia statehouse where Congress was meeting. They threatened to hold the members hostage until they were paid back wages. When Congress asked Pennsylvania to send a detachment of militia to protect them, the state refused, and the humiliated Congress temporarily relocated, first in Princeton, New Jersey, and later in Annapolis, Maryland, and New York City, New York. The Confederation Congress, like most of the country, was in chaos!

Discussion Question Summarize the major components of the Articles of Confederation. 189

Lesson 3 The Tyranny of the Majority By the mid-1780s, many of the country’s most influential leaders became convinced that state legislatures had become the greatest source of tyranny in America.

The state governments, now with no interference from an outside power, still found themselves in a lot of trouble. They, too, were loaded with revolutionary debts calling for heavy taxes upon an already-burdened population. Farmers, confronted with post-Revolution falling prices, compelled their legislatures to issue large sums of paper money. The currency fell in value, but nevertheless it was forced on unhappy creditors to square old accounts. Then, predictably, states were unable to obtain further loans to fund government obligations. The truth was that many legislators were not statesmen and really did not know how to govern their states. In every part of the country, legislative action fluctuated violently. Laws were made one year only to be repealed the next. Lands were sold by one legislature, and the sales were canceled by its successor. Everyone wanted change. In the decade after independence, the state legislatures passed more acts than in the previous century. And what laws they were! These included laws postponing repayment of debts and paper money bills, allowing debtors to repay debts with worthless paper currency. Pennsylvania, in particular, was notorious for violating individual rights. It disenfranchised and even imprisoned Quakers (who had refused to fight in the Revolution). Several states established special trading relationships with European nations and negotiated treaties with Native American nations. So, nations and tribes would negotiate treaties with one state only to find that it would not be honored by another. Many national leaders referred to Rhode Island as “Rogues’ island.” Its delegates blocked nationalist measures — including a 5 percent duty on imports — in the Confederation Congress, and its legislature made it a criminal offense for merchants to refuse to accept the state’s nearly worthless currency. State judges who struck down the law were removed from office.

Discussion Question By the mid 1780s, many of the country’s most influential leaders became convinced that state legislatures had become the greatest source of tyranny in America. Why?

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Lesson 4 Shays’ Rebellion In 1786, nearly 2,000 debtor farmers in western Massachusetts were threatened with foreclosure of their mortgaged property. The state legislature had voted to pay off the state’s Revolutionary War debt in three years; therefore, between 1783 and 1786, taxes on land rose more than 60 percent. Desperate farmers, many Revolutionary War veterans, demanded relief. When the courts started to seize the property of farmers such as Daniel Shays, western Massachusetts farmers temporarily closed the courts and threatened a federal arsenal. Although the rebels were defeated by the state militia, they were victorious at the polls. A new legislature elected early in 1787 enacted debt relief. Shays escaped to Vermont and eventually was pardoned. Shays’ Rebellion thoroughly frightened Americans. For that and other reasons, by the spring of 1787, many national leaders believed that the nation’s survival was in jeopardy. Britain’s refusal to evacuate military posts, the threat of national bankruptcy, conflicts among the states, and armed rebellion in western Massachusetts accentuated the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. The only solution, many prominent figures were convinced, was to create an effective central government led by a strong chief executive. This led to the constitutional convention.

“Shays’ Rebellion.” The portraits of Daniel Shays and Job Shattuck, leaders of the Massachusetts “Regulators,” 1787 (PD-Art).

Discussion Question By 1687, why did most of the American leadership feel that something must be done?

Lesson 5 Other Voices Letters written during this period contain the thoughts and feelings of those living then. The following exchanges may well have helped influence various laws or sentiments in the legislation of the new country.

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“I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice, or Representation” (Abigail Adams to John Adams, 1776).

Portrait of Abigail Smith Adams (Mrs. John Adams) circa 18001815 (PD-Art).

“As to your extraordinary Code of Laws, I cannot but laugh. We have been told that our Struggle has loosened the bands of Government everywhere. That Children and Apprentices were disobedient — that schools and colleges were grown turbulent — that Indians slighted their guardians and Negroes grew insolent to their masters. But your letter was the first intimation that another tribe more numerous and powerful than all the rest was grown discontented. . . . Depend upon it, we know better than to repeal our masculine system. Although they are in full force, you know they are little more than theory. We dare not exert our power in its full latitude. We are obliged to go fair, and softly, and in practice you know we are the subject. We have only the name of masters, and rather than give up this, which would completely subject us to the despotism of the petticoat, I hope General Washington, and all our braves heroes would fight” (John Adams to Abigail Adams, 1776). “As to the doctrine of slavery and the right of Christians to hold Africans in perpetual servitude, and sell and treat them as we do our horses and cattle, that (it is true) has been heretofore countenanced by the custom formerly, but nowhere is it expressly enacted or established. . . . But whatever sentiments have formerly prevailed in this particular or slid in upon us by the example of others, a different idea has taken place with the people of America, more favorable to the natural rights of mankind, and to that natural, innate desire of liberty, which with Heaven (without regard to color, complexion, or shape of noses-features) has inspired all the human race. And upon this ground our Constitution of Government, by which the people of this Commonwealth have solemnly bound themselves, sets out with declaring that all men are born free and equal — and that every subject is entitled to liberty, and to have it guarded by the laws, as well as life and property — and in short is totally repugnant to the idea of being born slaves” (Quock Walker Case, Massachusetts, 1783).2

Discussion Question In the midst of crises, other problems still exist. The Articles of Confederation precipitated a political crisis, but there were social problems that remained untouched. Summarize what Abigail Adams, John Adams, and Quock Case wrote. What important social issues remained to be solved?

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2. John Adams Correspondence, MA Historical Society, http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/letter/.

Chapter 24

Dissenting Voices: A Vocal Minority First Thoughts The American Revolution was much more than a war for national independence, such as the Swiss struggle for independence from the Austrians during the 1400s. It was also much more than a revolt against taxation without representation. It was the first time in history that a people fought for their independence in the name of certain universal principles of human rights and civil liberties. When and where did these dissenting voices emerge?

Chapter Learning Objectives We will begin by examining the rise of dissent. Next, we will look at the antislavery movement. We will then reflect on revolutions and dissenting voices encouraged by the American Revolution. We will also evaluate and debate the impact of slavery on colonial America. Finally, we will determine the reason idealism has disappeared from today’s society. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Discuss new dissenting ideas 2. Analyze the antislavery movement 3. Reflect on new revolutionary movements unleashed by the American Revolution 4. Evaluate the impact of slavery on colonial America 5. Examine the first immigration laws 6. Determine the reason idealism has disappeared from contemporary society

Concepts Peter Zenger John Woolman Toussaint Louverture 193

Lesson 1 New Ideas During the 18th century, Englishmen drew upon the Magna Carta in the English Civil War to support their struggle against the autocratic rule of King George III. Englishmen and Americans had an acute sense that the rule of law superseded monarchial claims and that autocracies were limited by sacrosanct, external human rights that every Englishman enjoyed. It was his birthright, written into his political DNA. In fact, Englishmen were not reticent to remind English kings of these rights; this created a problem. As one historian explains, “The social history of eighteenthcentury America presents a fundamental paradox. In certain respects, colonial society was becoming more like English society. The power of royal governors was increasing, social distinctions were hardening, lawyers were paying closer attention to English law, and a more distinct social and political elite was gradually emerging. This was a result of the expansion of Atlantic commerce, the growth of the tobacco and rice economies, and especially the sale of land. To be sure, compared to the English aristocracy, the wealthiest merchants, planters, and landholders were much more limited in wealth and less stable in membership. Nevertheless, there was a growth of regional elites who intermarried, aped English manners, and dominated the highest levels of colonial government.”1 At the same time, the independent-minded American colonists were going much further. They wanted more rights, more safeguards. Americans were, as one historian explains, establishing “a tradition of republicanism” that did not exist in England.

A parade float in New York City portraying the 1735 trial of German immigrant John Peter Zenger, 1909 (LOC).

Thus there occurred a growing assertion of natural liberties against all forms of perceived tyranny and unjust treatment. For example, a landmark court case in New York in 1735 helped establish the principle of freedom of the press. Newspaper magnet John Peter Zenger (1697–1746), publisher of the New York Weekly Journal, openly and severely criticized the royal governor. Zenger was charged with libel. English law defined any criticism of a public official — true or false — as libel. But Zenger’s attorney, Andrew Hamilton (1676–1741), persuaded the jury that Zenger had printed the truth and that the truth was not libelous. By winning the court case, Hamilton showed his countrymen that there were some things more important than the “rule of law.” In other words, the American Englishman was going to go further than his cousins in Great Britain. He might even go all the way to independence.

Discussion Question What bothersome paradox was emerging in pre-Revolutionary American society?

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1. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3590.

Lesson 2 The First Antislavery Movement Shamefully, during the 18th century Great Britain and America dominated the Atlantic slave trade. Traders shipped one-half of the six million slaves exported between 1450 and 1700. During the 18th century, the slave trade became one of Britain’s largest and most profitable industries. By mid-century, a third of the British merchant fleet was engaged in transporting 50,000 Africans a year to the New World. But it was not just slave traders or planters who benefited from the slave trade. American ship owners, farmers, and fishermen also profited from slavery. In fact, slavery provided most of the solvent income in the colonies. The slave plantations of the West Indies became the largest market for American agricultural products. And it was not merely a southern issue. New Englanders distilled molasses produced by slaves in the French and Dutch West Indies into rum. In summary, slaves produced the major consumer goods that were the basis of world trade during the 17th and 18th centuries. These slave-grown products stimulated a consumer revolution, enticing the masses of Britain and then Western Europe to work harder and more continuously in order to enjoy the pleasures of new consumer goods. It was New World slave labor that ushered in the consumer culture that emerged at the end of the Industrial Revolution.

Quaker leaders visited various states advocating for the abolition of slavery. John Woolman was one of these leaders, and he worked hard to advance antislavery movements in the northeast. By the beginning of the American Revolution the antislavery movement in America was small, but growing.

A few groups opposed slavery. The Quakers, a pacifist group that worshiped without clergy, were among these few. By 1775, the Quakers founded the first American antislavery group. Through the 1700s, Quakers led a strong-held prohibition against slavery. The Quakers were radical Christians. They believed that all people were capable of receiving God’s spirit and wisdom. It was as early as the 1600s that Quakers began their fight against slavery, but their fight built momentum through the next century.

Discussion Question Why was there so little opposition to slavery?

Woodcut image of a supplicant male slave in chains appears on the 1837 broadside publication of John Greenleaf Whittier’s antislavery poem, “Our Countrymen in Chains.” The design was originally adopted as the seal of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery in England in the 1780s, and appeared on several medallions for the society made by Josiah Wedgwood as early as 1787 (LOC).

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Lesson 3 Racial Revolution In 1791, civil war erupted in Haiti. Haitian slaves were inspired by the American Revolution. Toussaint Louverture led a slave revolt that defeated the European armies and, in 1801, adopted a constitution prohibiting slavery forever. It was the first nation to do so.

The protests that broke out in the American colonies in 1765 against British taxation marked the beginning not only of the American struggle for independence, but also of over half a century of revolutions across the Western world. From the Ural Mountains in Russia to the Alleghenies and the Andes in the Americas, popular struggles against undemocratic rule took place in areas as diverse as France, Geneva in Switzerland, Ireland, and Mexico. This was the age of revolution. The age of revolution culminated with the Latin American wars of independence. In 1790, five European countries — Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain — controlled all of Latin America. But in 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and within two decades revolutions occurred all over the Western Hemisphere. This is beyond our period, but is presented to illustrate the energy generated before and during the American Revolution. Few in Britain or its colonies could have imagined in 1763 (at the end of the French and Indian War) that a war for independence would erupt within a dozen years, much less that there would be revolutions all over the world! The truth is, the American colonists had a long history of fighting with one another and, before 1763, relations among the colonists were much more quarrelsome than their relations with Great Britain. New York fought with Connecticut and Massachusetts; Pennsylvania with Connecticut and Virginia; and New York and New Hampshire over claims to Vermont.

Toussaint Louverture, 1889 (PD-Art).

Westerners and easterners within individual colonies also fought over issues of representation, taxation, Indian policy, and the slow establishment of governmental institutions in frontier areas. In 1764, the Paxton Boys, a group of Scotch-Irish frontier settlers from western Pennsylvania, marched on Philadelphia and only withdrew after they were promised greater representation in the Quaker-dominated provincial assembly and greater protection against Indians. In the late 1760s, in backcountry South Carolina where local government was largely nonexistent, frontier settlers organized themselves into vigilante groups known as Regulators to maintain order. Only extension of a new court system into the backcountry kept the Regulators from attacking Charleston. In North Carolina in the early 1770s, the eastern militia had to suppress conflict in the backcountry, where settlers complained about underrepresentation in the colonial assembly, high taxes, exorbitant legal fees, and manipulation of debt laws by the lawyers, merchants, and officials backed by eastern planters. Thus, in the years leading up to the American Revolution, the reader should note that there was more opposition among the colonists than among the colonists and England!

Discussion Question Why did colonial conflicts emerge in the years before the American Revolution? 196

Lesson 4 Historical Debate Few works of history have exerted as powerful an influence as a book published in 1944 called Capitalism and Slavery. Its author, Eric Williams, later the prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, charged that black slavery was the engine that propelled Europe’s rise to global economic dominance. He maintained that Europeans’ conquest and settlement of the New World depended on the enslavement of millions of black slaves, who helped amass the capital that financed the Industrial Revolution. Europe’s economic progress, he insisted, came at the expense of black slaves whose labor built the foundations of modern capitalism. In addition, Williams contended that it was economic self-interest and not moral convictions that ultimately led to the abolition of slavery. It was only after slavery came to be regarded as an impediment to industrial progress that abolitionists in Europe and the United States succeeded in suppressing the slave trade and abolishing slavery. This argument, of course, flies in the face of the great efforts of the great reformer Wilberforce. Did slavery create the capital that financed the Industrial Revolution? The answer is “no”; slavery did not create a major share of the capital that financed the European Industrial Revolution. The combined profits of the slave trade and West Indian plantations did not add up to 5 percent of Britain’s national income at the time of the Industrial Revolution. Nevertheless, slavery was indispensable to European development of the New World. It is inconceivable that European colonists could have settled and developed North and South America and the Caribbean without slave labor.

Discussion Question Do you agree with Eric Williams’ assessment of slavery?

In a painting from 1670, slaves working on a colonial tobacco plantation exemplify an economy based on the labor of slaves. It was the crippling reliance on slave labor that often stood in the way of reasoned arguments against the practice. Crops like tobacco had to be planted and harvested by hand. A lack of industrial solutions meant either paying free men fair wages (reducing vital profits) or the enslavement of people for life, hoping to profit more from their work than what their initial cost might have been (PD).

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Lesson 5 The Knotty Problem of Immigration The First Immigration Law Any free white person could receive citizenship providing they had renounced their allegiance to their previous state/sovereignty by name, lived in the United States for at least five years, behaved as a man of good moral character, and renounced any title they possessed in the previous states. Once the applicant had been approved and recorded by the court clerk, all related children would receive citizenship whether they had been born in or outside the United States, providing their father had at some point resided in the United States and never been legally convicted of joining the army of Great Britain. The first law was “An Act to Establish an Uniform Act of Naturalization.” United States Congress, “An act to establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization” (March 26, 1790).

Immigrants walking across pier from bridge, Ellis Island, between 1909–1932 (LOC).

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That any Alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, may be admitted to become a citizen thereof on application to any common law Court of record in any one of the States wherein he shall have resided for the term of one year at least, and making proof to the satisfaction of such Court that he is a person of good character, and taking the oath or affirmation prescribed by law to support the Constitution of the United States, which Oath or Affirmation such Court shall administer, and the Clerk of such Court shall record such Application, and the proceedings thereon; and thereupon such person shall be considered as a Citizen of the United States. And the children of such person so naturalized, dwelling within the United States, being under the age of twenty one years at the time of such naturalization, shall also be considered as citizens of the United States. And the children of citizens of the United States that may be born beyond Sea, or out of the limits of the United States, shall be considered as natural born Citizens: Provided, that the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons whose fathers have never been resident in the United States: Provided also, that no person heretofore proscribed by any States, shall be admitted a citizen as aforesaid, except by an Act of the Legislature of the State in which such person was proscribed. United States Congress, “An act to establish an uniform rule of Naturalization; and to repeal the act heretofore passed on that subject” (January 29, 1795). For carrying into complete effect the power given by the constitution, to establish an uniform rule of naturalization throughout the United States:

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SEC.1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That any alien, being a free white person, may be admitted to become a citizen of the United States, or any of them, on the following conditions, and not otherwise: — First. He shall have declared, on oath or affirmation, before the supreme, superior, district, or circuit court of some one of the states, or of the territories northwest or south of the river Ohio, or a circuit or district court of the United States, three years, at least, before his admission, that it was bona fide, his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty whatever, and particularly, by name, the prince, potentate, state or sovereignty whereof such alien may, at that time, be a citizen or subject. Secondly. He shall, at the time of his application to be admitted, declare on oath or affirmation before some one of the courts aforesaid, that he has resided within the United States, five years at least, and within the state or territory, where such court is at the time held, one year at least; that he will support the constitution of the United States; and that he does absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty whatever, and particularly by name, the prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, whereof he was before a citizen or subject; which proceedings shall be recorded by the clerk of the court. Thirdly. The court admitting such alien shall be satisfied that he has resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States five years; and it shall further appear to their satisfaction, that during that time, he has behaved as a man of a good moral character, attached to the principles of the constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same. Fourthly. In case the alien applying to be admitted to citizenship shall have borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobility, in the kingdom or state from which he came, he shall, in addition to the above requisites, make an express renunciation of his title or order of nobility, in the court to which his application shall be made; which renunciation shall be recorded in the said court. SEC. 2. Provided always, and be it further enacted, That any alien now residing within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States may be admitted to become a citizen on his declaring, on oath or affirmation, in some one of the courts aforesaid, that he has resided two years, at least, within and under the jurisdiction of the same, and one year, at least, within the state or territory where such court is at the time held; that he will support the constitution of the United States; and that he does absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty whatever, and particularly by name the prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, whereof he was before a citizen or subject; and moreover, on its appearing to the satisfaction of the court, that during the said term of two years, he has

Ellis Island, N.Y., immigrants from “Princess Irene”, 1911 (LOC).

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behaved as a man of good moral character, attached to the constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same; and when the alien applying for admission to citizenship, shall have borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobility in the kingdom or state from which he came, on his moreover making in the court an express renunciation of his title or order of nobility, before he shall be entitled to such admission; all of which proceedings, required in this proviso to be performed in the court, shall be recorded by the clerk thereof. SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, that the children of persons duly naturalized, dwelling within the United States, and being under the age of twenty-one years, at the time of such naturalization, and the children of citizens of the United States, born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, shall be considered as citizens of the United States: Provided, That the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons, whose fathers have never been resident of the United States: Provided also, That no person heretofore proscribed by any state, or who has been legally convicted of having joined the army of Great Britain during the late war, shall be admitted a citizen as foresaid, without the consent of the legislature of the state, in which such person was proscribed. SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That the Act intitled, “An act to establish an uniform rule of naturalization,” passed the twenty-sixth day of March, one thousand seven hundred and ninety, be, and the same is hereby repealed.2

Discussion Questions How was the 1790 law changed in 1795?

Immigrant Landing Station, N.Y., 1905 (LOC).

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2. 1791 Naturalization Act library.uwb.edu/guides/usimmigration/1790_naturalization_act.html.

Chapter 25

History Makers: Women of Faith First Thoughts History is not merely about battles and politicians and discoveries. History is about people, and at center stage are women of faith. The very first chapter of the New Testament portends the status to be accorded women under the law of Christ. There, four women are alluded to in the legal ancestral catalog of the Lord. Though the practice of mentioning women in such lists was not wholly unknown, it is, in the words of A.B. Bruce, “unusual from a genealogical point of view.”1 Paul affirmed that “God sent forth his Son, born of a woman” (Gal. 4:4). The birth of Jesus to the virgin Mary was the turning point in human history for women. Jesus Christ openly defied the attitudes of his day in his frequent dealings with women. He conversed with the woman at Jacob’s well (a Samaritan at that!) — something that shocked even the disciples (John 4:27). He refused to bend to Pharisaical pressures that he shun the sinful woman who anointed and kissed his holy feet (Luke 7:36). Godly women were numbered among those who ministered to Christ (Luke 8:3), some of them accompanying him even to the foot of the cross (John 19:25). In the Early Church, women continued to be extolled and honored. They continued to stand quietly on stage, ready to make history as well as participate in it. The following four women were all history makers.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will analyze four Christian women and the age in which they lived and discuss how they changed the course of history. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Understand the impact of Madame Guyon and her quietism on world history 2. Analyze Phillis Wheatley and understand how Wheatley was able to praise God even in slavery 3. Admire Rossetti who sacrificed many other lucrative vocations to make Kingdom work her priority

Concepts

4. Walk with Hanna Smith as she takes a stand for Christ at the end of the 19th century

Madame Guyon Phillis Wheatley Christina Rossetti Hanna Smith

1. Women’s Role in the Church: Christian Courier https://www.christiancourier.com/ articles/169-womans-role-in-the-church.

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Lesson 1 Madame Guyon (1648–1717), Pacifist Prayer Warrior Quietism is an assertive sort of passive resistance.

French Christian Madame Guyon made contemplative prayer accessible to many who could not read more theological books on the subject. A French contemplative, writer, and central figure in 17th-century theological debates in France, Guyon advocated “quietism.” In these quiet places, she believed, the Christian believer became an agent of God: That all are called to prayer, and by the aid of ordinary grace may put up the prayer of the heart, which is the great means of salvation, and which can be offered at all times, and by the most uninstructed. All are capable of prayer, and it is a dreadful misfortune that almost all the world has conceived the idea that they are not called to prayer. We are all called to prayer, as we are all called to salvation. Prayer is nothing but the application of the heart to God, and the internal exercise of love. St. Paul has enjoined us to “pray without ceasing” (1 Thess. v. 17), and our Lord bids us watch and pray (Mark xiii. 33, 37): all therefore may, and all ought, to practice prayer. I grant that meditation is attainable but by few, for few are capable of it; and therefore, my beloved brethren who are athirst for salvation, meditative prayer is not the prayer which God requires of you, nor which we would recommend. Let all pray: you should live by prayer, as you should live by love. “I counsel you to buy of me gold tried in the fire, that ye may be rich.” (Rev. iii. 18). This is very easily obtained, much more easily than you can conceive.

Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon (PD).

Come all ye that are athirst to the living waters, nor lose your precious moments in hewing out cisterns that will hold no water (John vii. 37; Jer. ii. 13). Come ye famishing souls, who find nought to satisfy you; come, and ye shall be filled! Come, ye poor afflicted ones, bending beneath your load of wretchedness and pain, and ye shall be consoled! Come, ye sick, to your physician, and be not fearful of approaching him because ye are filled with diseases; show them, and they shall be healed! Children, draw near to your Father, and he will embrace you in the arms of love! Come, ye poor, stray, wandering sheep, return to your Shepherd! Come, sinners, to your Savior! Come ye dull, ignorant, and illiterate, ye who think yourselves the most incapable of prayer! Ye are more peculiarly called and adapted thereto. Let all without exception come, for Jesus Christ hath called ALL. Yet let not those come who are without a heart; they are excused; for there must be a heart before there can be love. But who is without a heart? O come, then, give this heart to God; and here learn how to make the donation.2

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2. http://www.housechurch.org/spirituality/guyon_prayer.html.

Discussion Question Why does Guyon argue that prayer is for everyone?

Lesson 2 Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784), Slave Evangelist-Poet Born in 1753 in Africa, seven-year-old Phillis Wheatley was kidnapped and sold to a prosperous Boston family, the Wheatleys. While nothing could soften the horrors of slavery, the Wheatley family was very kind to her. They valued her sharp mind and taught her grammar and writing. It is clear that the Wheatley family were born-again Christians. Therefore, it is not surprising that Phillis Wheatley committed her life to Christ and came to know the Bible well. She became a sensation in Boston in the 1760s when her poem on the death of the great evangelist George Whitefield was circulated. She argued that all men and women, regardless of race or class, were in need of salvation.

To the University of Cambridge, in New-England Students, to you ’tis given to scan the heights Above, to traverse the ethereal space, And mark the systems of revolving worlds. Still more, ye sons of science ye receive The blissful news by messengers from heav’n, How Jesus’ blood for your redemption flows. See Him with hands outstretched upon the cross; Immense compassion in His bosom glows; He hears revilers, nor resents their scorn: What matchless mercy in the Son of God! When the whole human race by sin had fall’n, He deigned to die that they might rise again, And share with him in the sublimist skies, Life without death, and glory without end.

Phillis Wheatley, 1773 (LOC).

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Improve your privileges while they stay, Ye pupils, and each hour redeem, that bears Or good or bad report of you to heav’n. Let sin, that baneful evil to the soul, By you be shunned, nor once remit your guard; Suppress the deadly serpent in its egg. Ye blooming plants of human race divine, An Ethiop tells you ’tis your greatest foe; Its transient sweetness turns to endless pain, And immense perdition sinks the soul.

On Being Brought to America from Africa

Cadet Henry O. Flipper, a former slave, became an American soldier and is honored at the first AfricanAmerican to graduate from the prestigious West Point in 1877, earning his commission as 2nd Lieutenant in the US Army. He was transferred to an all-black regiment, and became the first non-white officer to command the Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th Calvary. After leaving the army, he served as a civil engineer and as an assistant to the Secretary of the Interior in 1921 (PD).

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’Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too: Once I redemption neither fought nor knew, Some view our sable race with scornful eye, “Their colour is a diabolic dye.” Remember, Christians, Negroes, black as Cain, May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train.3

Discussion Question Why would Wheatley say this? “ ’Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land.”

3. www.poetryfoundation.org.

Lesson 3 Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830–1894), A Woman Who Could Have Been Anything Christina Rossetti could have been almost anything. Intelligent, talented, and industrious, she chose to dedicate her life to the Lord’s work. God rewarded her, and us, with anointed poems and hymns.4

None Other Lamb None other Lamb, none other Name, None other hope in Heav’n or earth or sea, None other hiding place from guilt and shame, None beside Thee!

Rossetti came from a well-known literary and artistic family. Her father, Gabriele Rossetti, was a professor of Italian at King’s College in London. Her brothers, Dante Gabriel and William Michael, were accomplished artists.

My faith burns low, my hope burns low; Only my heart’s desire cries out in me By the deep thunder of its want and woe, Cries out to Thee. Lord, Thou art Life, though I be dead; Love’s fire Thou art, however cold I be: Nor Heav’n have I, nor place to lay my head, Nor home, but Thee.

Love Came Down at Christmas Love came down at Christmas, Love all lovely, love divine; Love was born at Christmas, Star and angels gave the sign. Worship we the Godhead, Love incarnate, love divine; Worship we our Jesus: But wherewith for sacred sign? Love shall be our token, Love shall be yours and love be mine, Love to God and to all men, Love for plea and gift and sign.

Portrait of Christina Rossetti, 1866 (PD-Art).

Discussion Question Describe several metaphors Rossetti uses to describe her relationship with God.

4. http://www.poemhunter.com/christina-georgina-rossetti/.

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Lesson 4 Hanna Whitall Smith (1832–1911), Holiness Advocate Hanna Smith influenced the rise of other theologically conservative movements, the founding of a number of institutions, the growth of foreign missions, and the theological perspective of several denominations. Smith matured as a believer, which is the best thing that can be said about any of us. She learned, she prayed, she struggled, and she emerged as one of the strongest advocates of holiness at the end of the 19th century. Smith had her excesses and faults. Some claimed that they embraced universalism. This author believes that, at the end of her life, Smith understood that people who committed their whole hearts to the Lord Jesus Christ could be saved, regardless of their denomination.

God of All Comfort, chapter 1 Hanna Whitall Smith (PD).

I was once talking on the subject of religion with an intelligent agnostic, whom I very much wished to influence, and after listening to me politely for a little while, he said, “Well, madam, all I have to say is this. If you Christians want to make us agnostics inclined to look into your religion, you must try to be more comfortable in the possession of it yourselves. The Christians I meet seem to me to be the very most uncomfortable people anywhere around. They seem to carry their religion as a man carries a headache. He does not want to get rid of his head, but at the same time it is very uncomfortable to have it. And I for one do not care to have that sort of religion.” This was a lesson I have never forgotten, and it is the primary cause of my writing this book. I was very young in the Christian life at the time of this conversation, and was still in the first joy of my entrance into it, so I could not believe that any of God’s children could be as uncomfortable in their religious lives as my agnostic friend had asserted. But when the early glow of my conversion had passed, and I had come down to the dullness of everyday duties and responsibilities, I soon found from my own experience, and also from the similar experiences of most of the Christians around me, that there was far too much truth in his assertion, and that the religious life of most of us was full of discomfort and unrest. In fact, it seemed, as one of my Christian friends said to me one day when we were comparing our experiences, “as if we had just enough religion to make us miserable.” I confess that this was very disappointing, for I had expected something altogether different. It seemed to me exceedingly incongruous that a religion, whose fruits were declared in the Bible to be love, and joy, and peace, should so often work out practically in an exactly opposite direction, and should develop the fruits of doubt, and fear, and unrest, and conflict, and discomforts of every kind; and I resolved if possible to find out what was the matter. Why, I asked myself, should the children of God lead such utterly uncomfortable religious

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lives when He has led us to believe that His yoke would be easy and His burden light? Why are we tormented with so many spiritual doubts, and such heavy spiritual anxieties? Why do we find it so hard to be sure that God really loves us, and why is it that we never seem able to believe long at a time in His kindness and His care? How is it that we can let ourselves suspect Him of forgetting us and forsaking us in times of need? We can trust our earthly friends, and can be comfortable in their companionship, and why is it then that we cannot trust our heavenly Friend, and that we seem unable to be comfortable in His service? I believe I have found the answer to these questions, and I should like to state frankly that my object in writing this book is to try to bring into some troubled Christian lives around me a little real and genuine comfort. My own idea of the religion of the Lord Jesus Christ is that it was meant to be full of comfort. I feel sure any unprejudiced reader of the New Testament would say the same; and I believe that every newly converted soul, in the first joy of its conversion, fully expects it. And yet, as I have said, it seems as if, with a large proportion of Christians, their religious lives are the most uncomfortable part of their existence. Does the fault of this state of things lie with the Lord? Has He promised more than He is able to supply?5

Discussion Question What does Smith learn from her agnostic friend?

Lesson 5 “A Gathered Inheritance” Old Testament Levitical priests had a duty to tend the fire in the tent of meeting, to keep it roaring and bright. The fire on the altar, the eternal flame on which sacrifices were offered to God, was not to go out. Other tasks could be deferred. But the fire on the altar was never to go out (Lev. 6:8–13). Through the centuries believers have served well as fire tenders. “The secret things belong to the Lord our God, but the things revealed belong to us and to our children forever . . .” (Deut. 29:29). This is a gathered inheritance, kept alive by men and women of faith. In our own homeschool, history and the honor belongs to Hulsey, Harris, Ferris, and countless others.

Theologian Paul Tillich wrote, “The lightning illuminates all and then leaves it again in darkness. So faith in God grasps humanity, and we respond in ecstasy. And the darkness is never again the same . . . but it is still the darkness.” 6

Truth is restated; more than that, the reader will observe that saints throughout the ages have built on the faith of those who preceded them. Jesus Christ is the Way, the Truth, and the Life: that is true, and truth is the same forever. Revelation of truth, though, is 5. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/smith_hw/comfort.I_1.html. 6 people.bu.edu/wwildman/bce/tillich.htm.

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forever becoming better understood. The previous generation of believers passes the torch to us, and we pass it to the next, and so on. Each generation builds on the illumination of the previous generation. We trust that the world is better for it. On my farm grows an oak tree that began its life 30 years ago full of potential, and it was beautiful in its own right. Today it is so much more beautiful than it was 30 years ago. It is the same tree, but oh, how much larger and fuller are its branches and fruits! Diurnally I remove acorns and leaves deposited on my truck. It is the same tree, still full of potential, but producing more fruit than ever. A vicious blight or uncaring gypsy moth may kill it someday, but I already see a new oak seedling growing in its redolent shadow. I look at this new generation of homeschoolers and I know that we are not going to run out of fuel. The Holy Spirit is still here to encourage and inspire every generation. There is, I have no doubt, a new C.S. Lewis or Oswald Chambers alive today. Fear is dissipated by promises; evil is overcome by good. We again recognize that the secret things belong “to the Lord our God, but the things revealed belong to us and to our children forever” (Deut. 29:29). A gathered inheritance! All of God’s saints — past, present, and future — are flashes of lightning in the sky. And the darkness is never the same again because the light reveals what life can be in Jesus Christ. “Memory allows possibility,”7 theologian Walter Brueggemann writes. A gathered inheritance. We bring memory. You bring possibility!

Discussion Question Why is the author so hopeful?

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7. Walter Brueggemann, Finally Comes the Poet, (NY: Fortress Press, 1989), Preface.

Chapter 26

Religion: Eighteenth-Century Musings First Thoughts The 18th-century faith was attacked by intellectuals, scientists, and even apostate Christians. It was a time of great intellectual challenge. This challenge has been around for centuries. Roman essayist Cicero, in his essay, “The Nature of the Gods,” wrote: “There are many questions in philosophy to which no satisfactory answer has yet been given. But the question of the nature of the gods is the darkest and most difficult of all. . . .So various and so contradictory are the opinions of the most learned men on this matter as to persuade one of the truth of the saying that philosophy is the child of ignorance.”1

Chapter Learning Objectives We will read a portion of Thomas Jefferson’s Bible. Next, we will discuss David Hume’s attack on the miracles of Christianity. Then we will examine Thomas Paine’s view of the prophets. Finally, we will be inspired by the theistic views of English poet Richard Addison. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Analyze Thomas Jefferson’s view of Christianity 2. Discuss David Hume’s attack on faith 3. Reflect on Thomas Paine’s deism 4. Study the religious poetry of Richard Addison

Concepts The Jefferson Bible David Hume Thomas Paine Richard Addison John Wesley William Wilberforce 1. Cicero, Disputations, www.gutenberg.org/files/14988/14988-h/14988-h.htm.

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Lesson 1 The Jefferson Bible The Jefferson Bible, formally called The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth, focused on the doctrines of Jesus, excluding mention of miracles and supernatural events, including the Resurrection.

Thomas Jefferson extracted text from the New Testament that focused on the teachings of Jesus. The following is an excerpt from one of these extracted versions. Now at the feast the governor was wont to release unto the people a prisoner, whom they would.

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And they had then a notable prisoner, called Barabbas.

Therefore when they were gathered together, Pilate said unto them, Whom will ye that I release unto you? Barabbas, or Jesus which is called Christ?

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For he knew that for envy they had delivered him.

Moreover, while he was set down on the judgment seat, his wife sent unto him, saying, Have thou nothing to do with that just man: for I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him.

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But the chief priests and elders persuaded the multitude that they should ask for Barabbas, and destroy Jesus.

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The governor answered and said unto them, Whether of the twain will ye that I release unto you? They said, Barabbas.

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Pilate saith unto them, What shall I do then with Jesus which is called Christ? They all say unto him, Let him be crucified.

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And the governor said, Why, what evil hath he done? But they cried out the more, saying, Let him be crucified.

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Then released he Barabbas unto them: and when he had scourged Jesus, he delivered him to be crucified.

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Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the Praetorium, and gathered unto him the whole band of soldiers.

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And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it upon his head, and a reed in his right hand: and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him, saying, Hail, King of the Jews!

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And they spit upon him, and took the reed, and smote him on the head.

And after that they had mocked him, they took the robe off from him, and put his own raiment on him, and led him away to crucify him.

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Then Judas, which had betrayed him, when he saw that he was condemned, repented himself, and brought again the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests and elders,

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Saying, I have sinned in that I have betrayed innocent blood. And they said, What is that to us? See thou to that.

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And he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and departed, and went and hanged himself.

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And the chief priests took the silver pieces, and said, It is not lawful for to put them into the treasury, because it is the price of blood.

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And they took counsel, and bought with them the potter’s field, to bury strangers in.

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Wherefore that field is called, The Field of Blood, unto this day.

And as they led him away, they laid hold upon one Simon of Cyrene, coming out of the country, and on him they laid the cross, that he might bear it after Jesus.

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And there followed him a great company of people, and of women, which bewailed and lamented him.

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But Jesus turning unto them said, Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for me, but weep for yourselves, and for your children.

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For, behold, the days are coming, in the which they shall say, Blessed are the barren, and the wombs that never bare, and the paps which never gave suck.

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Then shall they begin to say to the mountains, Fall on us; and to the hills, Cover us.

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For if they do these things in a green tree, what shall be done in the dry?

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And there were also two other, malefactors, led with him to be put to death.

And he bearing his cross went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha:

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There they crucified him, and two other with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the midst.

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And Pilate wrote a title, and put it on the cross. And the writing was JESUS OF NAZARETH THE KING OF THE JEWS.

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This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Latin, and Greek.

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Then said the chief priests of the Jews to Pilate, Write not, The King of the Jews; but, This man said I am King of the Jews.

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Thomas Jefferson, c. 1846 (LOC).

Pilate answered, What I have written I have written.

Then the soldiers, when they had crucified Jesus, took his garments, and made four parts, to every soldier a part; and also his undergarment: now the undergarment was without seam, woven from the top to the bottom.

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They said therefore among themselves, Let us not rend it, but cast lots for it, in order to determine whose it shall be.

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And they that passed by reviled him, wagging their heads,

And saying, Thou that destroyest the temple, and buildest it in three days, save thyself. If thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross.

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Likewise also the chief priests mocking him, with the scribes and elders, said,

He saved others; himself he cannot save. He is the King of Israel: let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe in him.

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He trusted in God; let him deliver him now, if he will have him: for he said, I am the Son of God.

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And one of the malefactors which were hanged railed on him, saying, Art thou not the Christ? Save thyself and us!

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But the other answering rebuked him, saying, Dost not thou fear God, seeing thou art in the same condemnation? 42

And we indeed justly; for we receive the due reward of our deeds: but this man hath done nothing amiss.

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Then said Jesus, Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do.

Now there stood by the cross of Jesus his mother, and his mother’s sister, Mary the wife of Clophas, and Mary Magdalene.

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When Jesus therefore saw his mother, and the disciple standing by, whom he loved, he saith unto his mother, Woman, behold thy son!

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Then saith he to the disciple, Behold thy mother! And from that hour that disciple took her unto his own home.

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And about the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? That is to say, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?

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Some of them that stood there, when they heard that, said, This man calleth for Elijah.

And straightway one of them ran, and took a sponge, and filled it with vinegar, and put it on a reed, and gave him to drink.

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The rest said, Let be, let us see whether Elijah will come to save him.

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Jesus, when he had cried out again with a loud voice, yielded up the ghost.

And many women were there beholding afar off, which followed Jesus from Galilee, ministering unto him:

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Among which was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James and Joseph, and the mother of Zebedee’s sons.

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The Jews therefore, because it was the day of preparation, that the bodies should not remain upon the cross on the Sabbath, (for that Sabbath was an high day,) besought Pilate that their legs might be broken, and that they might be taken away.

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Then came the soldiers, and brake the legs of the first, and of the other which was crucified with him.

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But when they came to Jesus, and saw that he was dead already, they brake not his legs:

But one of the soldiers with a spear pierced his side, and forthwith came there out blood and water.

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And after this Joseph of Arimathaea, being a disciple of Jesus, but secretly for fear of the Jews, besought Pilate that he might take away the body of Jesus: and Pilate gave him leave. He came therefore, and took the body of Jesus.

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And there came also Nicodemus, which at the first came to Jesus by night, and brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight.

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Then took they the body of Jesus, and wound it in linen cloths with the spices, as the manner of the Jews is to bury.

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Now in the place where he was crucified there was a garden; and in the garden a new sepulchre, wherein was never man yet laid.

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There laid they Jesus,

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And rolled a great stone to the door of the sepulchre, and departed.2

Discussion Question In his contemporary (for his age) rendition of the New Testament, Thomas Jefferson removed the Resurrection. Why?

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2. Thomas Jefferson, The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/JefJesu.html.

Lesson 2 David Hume, “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding” A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature; and as a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, the proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can possibly be imagined. Why is it more than probable, that all men must die; that lead cannot, of itself, remain suspended in the air; that fire consumes wood, and is extinguished by water; unless it be, that these events are found agreeable to the laws of nature, and there is required a violation of these laws, or in other words, a miracle to prevent them? Nothing is esteemed a miracle, if it ever happen in the common course of nature. It is no miracle that a man, seemingly in good health, should die on a sudden: because such a kind of death, though more unusual than any other, has yet been frequently observed to happen. But it is a miracle that a dead man should come to life; because that has never been observed in any age or country. There must, therefore, be a uniform experience against every miraculous event, otherwise the event would not merit that appellation. . . . The plain consequence is (and it is a general maxim worthy of our attention), ‘That no testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more miraculous, than the fact, which it endeavours to establish. . . .’ When anyone tells me, that he saw a dead man restored to life, I immediately consider with myself, whether it be more probable, that this person should either deceive or be deceived, or that the fact, which he relates, should really have happened. I weigh the one miracle against the other; and according to the superiority, which I discover, I pronounce my decision, and always reject the greater miracle. If the falsehood of his testimony would be more miraculous, than the event which he relates; then, and not till then, can he pretend to command my belief or opinion.

David Hume, 1711–1776, historian and philosopher (PD-Art).

In the foregoing reasoning we have supposed, that the testimony, upon which a miracle is founded, may possibly amount to an entire proof, and that the falsehood of that testimony would be a real prodigy: But it is easy to shew, that we have been a great deal too liberal in our concession, and that there never was a miraculous event established on so full an evidence.3

Discussion Question What does Hume say about religion?

3. Thomas Paine, “Essays on Religion,” www.gutenberg.org/.

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Lesson 3 Thomas Paine, Essays on Religion Biblical Blasphemy The Church tells us that the books of the Old and New Testament are divine revelation, and without this revelation we could not have true ideas of God. The Deist, on the contrary, says that those books are not divine revelation; and that were it not for the light of reason and the religion of Deism, those books, instead of teaching us true ideas of God, would teach us not only false but blasphemous ideas of Him. Deism teaches us that God is a God of truth and justice. Does the Bible teach the same doctrine? It does not. The Bible says (Jeremiah xx, 7) that God is a deceiver. “O Lord (says Jeremiah) thou hast deceived me, and I was deceived. Thou art stronger than I, and hast prevailed.” Jeremiah not only upbraids God with deceiving him, but, in iv, 10, he upbraids God with deceiving the people of Jerusalem. “Ah! Lord God (says he), surely thou hast greatly deceived this people and Jerusalem, saying, ye shall have peace, whereas the sword reacheth unto the soul.”

Thomas Paine, c. 1876 (PD-Art).

In xv, 18, the Bible becomes more impudent, and calls God in plain language, a liar. “Wilt thou (says Jeremiah to God) be altogether unto me as a liar and as waters that fail?” Ezekiel xiv, 9, makes God to say — “If the prophet be deceived when he hath spoken a thing, I the Lord have deceived that prophet.” All this is downright blasphemy. The prophet Micaiah, as he is called, II Chron. xviii, 18–21, tells another blasphemous story of God. “I saw,” says he, “the Lord sitting on His throne, and all the hosts of Heaven standing on His right hand and on His left. And the Lord said, who shall entice Ahab, King of Israel, to go up and fall at Ramoth Gilead? And one spoke after this manner, and another after that manner. “Then there came out a spirit [Micaiah does not tell us where he came from] and stood before the Lord [what an impudent fellow this spirit was] and said, I will entice him. And the Lord said unto him, wherewith? And he said, I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. And the Lord said, Thou shalt entice him, and thou shalt also prevail; go out, and do even so.” We often hear of a gang of thieves plotting to rob and murder a man, and laying a plan to entice him out that they may execute their design, and we always feel shocked at the wickedness of such wretches; but what must we think of a book that describes the Almighty acting in the same manner, and laying plans in heaven to entrap and ruin mankind? Our ideas of His justice and goodness forbid us to believe such stories, and

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therefore we say that a lying spirit has been in the mouth of the writers of the books of the Bible.4

Discussion Question Discuss Paine’s views on religion.

Lesson 4 Joseph Addison, “Ode” (After Psalm 19:1–6) The Spacious Firmament on high, With all the blue Ethereal Sky, And spangled Heav’ns, a Shining Frame, Their great Original proclaim: Th’ unwearied Sun, from Day to Day, Does his Creator’s Power display, And publishes to every Land The Work of an Almighty Hand. Soon as the Evening Shades prevail, The Moon takes up the Wondrous Tale, And nightly to the list’ning Earth Repeats the Story of her Birth: Whilst all the Stars that round her burn, And all the Planets, in their turn, Confirm the Tidings as they rowl, And spread the Truth from Pole to Pole. What though, in solemn Silence, all Move round the dark terrestrial Ball? What tho’ nor real Voice nor Sound Amid their radiant Orbs be found? In Reason’s Ear they all rejoice, And utter forth a glorious Voice, For ever singing, as they shine, “The Hand that made us is Divine.”5

4. http://www.deism.com/paine_essay_biblical_blasphemy.htm. 5. http://www.hymnary.org/hymn/NCH1929/41.

Portrait of Joseph Addison (1672–1719) c. 1703–1712 (PD-Art).

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Discussion Question English poet Joseph Addison celebrates natural scenes as a foil to deism and romanticism emerging in late 18th-century Europe. Can you note at least three examples of this?

Lesson 5 John Wesley, “Letter to William Wilberforce” William Wilberforce was converted at a John Wesley revival and they remained friends all of their lives. Wesley encouraged Wilberforce many times. In fact, this is the last letter that John Wesley wrote (1791) before he died. Dear Sir: Unless the divine power has raised you us to be as Athanasius contra mundum, I see not how you can go through your glorious enterprise in opposing that execrable villainy which is the scandal of religion, of England, and of human nature. Unless God has raised you up for this very thing, you will be worn out by the opposition of men and devils. But if God be for you, who can be against you? Are all of them together stronger than God? O be not weary of well doing! Go on, in the name of God and in the power of his might, till even American slavery (the vilest that ever saw the sun) shall vanish away before it. Reading this morning a tract wrote by a poor African, I was particularly struck by that circumstance that a man who has a black skin, being wronged or outraged by a white man, can have no redress; it being a “law” in our colonies that the oath of a black against a white goes for nothing. What villainy is this?

John Wesley, 1932 (PD).

That he who has guided you from youth up may continue to strengthen you in this and all things, is the prayer of, dear sir, Your affectionate servant, John Wesley6

Discussion Question Write a letter to someone who has encouraged you in your Christian walk.

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6. http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/wilber.stm.

Chapter 27

Nineteenth-Century Europe: Revolution First Thoughts Coronation portrait of Queen Victoria, 1838 (PD).

Concepts Revolutions in 1848 Industrial Revolution Colonization Middle class entrepreneur Laborer Crimean War of 1853–56 Czar Alexander II

By the 19th century, Europe had undergone major changes that affected their beliefs about themselves. In his book A Generation of Materialism, 1871–1900, Carlton J. H. Hayes listed the following major developments in Europe: •

the French Revolution introduced the idea of the nation-state as an organizing concept for politics, and the Napoleonic Wars showed the strength of the nation-state;

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the rise of Liberalism supported a belief in progress and change;

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the Industrial Revolution changed how people worked and acquired goods, the number of goods in circulation, and economic relationship between industrialized and non-industrialized regions of the world;

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art and religion adapted to the new emphasis on materialism; and

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new techniques for communication and organization gave rise to the concept of “the masses” as a political and economic force.1

Chapter Learning Objectives We will make generalizations about 19th-century Europe. Next, we will observe Russia join the European fraternity of nations. We will discover why the Ottoman Empire declined so precipitously in the 19th century. We will examine the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Finally, in the back of our mind, is the fact that the seeds of World War I are being planted during these halcyon years at the end of an era, the 19th century. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Examine Europe in the 19th century 2. Explore the rise of Russia as a nation-state 3. Reflect upon why the Ottoman Empire declined in the 19th century 4. Analyze the state of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the 19th century 5. Understand the impact that Queen Victoria had on England and the world

Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 Duma Franz Joseph Magyar 1. Carlton J.H. Hayes, A Generation of Materialism, 1871–1900 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1941).

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Lesson 1 Government: Back to Monarchies The 19th century was a century of tremendous social change. The Industrial Revolution, which had begun in England during the second half of the 18th century, spread to Europe and Japan by the end of the century. By the end of the century, even Russia was on board.

Europe experienced unprecedented revolutions in 1848 (remember Les Miserables?). In spite of the 1848 revolutions, the 19th century saw most European nations ruled by conservative monarchs. Not that all nations were autocratic despotisms, however. England, for one, was one of the most democratic nations on the earth. But it is surprising that the liberal, democratic 19th century nonetheless spawned more retrogressive monarchies than republics. There were many wars in the 19th century. The Napoleonic Wars introduced the new century; the Crimean and Franco-Prussian Wars punctuated the middle of the century; and the British colonial wars ended the century. Between 1815 and 1914, no major world war, however, disrupted the general progress of economic and social development. Surprisingly, colonization experienced a revival. Now Africa was the destination of most European powers. Nations like Germany and Italy, whose unification occurred relatively late, were intensely interested in expanding their influence into Africa and in obtaining their own colonies. After 1870, there was a second wave of European colonization which led to the subjugation of almost all of Africa. By 1914, almost all the world was under European domination either directly as colonies or indirectly as colonial offshoots. The Chinese, Japanese, and Ottoman Empires, while remaining independent, were under tremendous pressure to create their own industry or be absorbed by European industry. Japan was the only non-Western state which, by the end of the century, had become industrialized, and therefore, remained economically independent.

Cornet assistant surgeon Henry Wilkin survived the Charge of the Light Brigade, 1855 (LOC).

The world was changing rapidly. New social phenomena were emerging: the middle class entrepreneur and the laborer. The forces of democracy, initiated by the American and French Revolutions, continued to demand an end to aristocratic rule. Class conflict and mass ideologies were prominent features of the 19th century. Everywhere, the wealthy business class was gaining economic strength and demanding its share of political power. Monarchs and aristocrats were losing power some places, gaining in others. Polarization among classes was common. Working-class poverty existed side by side with great wealth. The ideas of Charles Darwin on human evolution challenged Christianity. This anxiety indirectly helped to bring about World War I in the early part of the 20th century.

Discussion Question The 19th century was full of contradictions. How?

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Lesson 2 Russia — A Nation Out of Time, Out of Place Russia stumbled into the 19th century and modernization, ill-prepared to handle the dissonance modernization was to cause in its culture and economy. At the same time, other things were going wrong in Russia. Russia experienced significant military defeats and attempts at internal reform in the period prior to World War I. The Crimean War of 1853–56 was one in a series of struggles between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. What was unusual in this case was that Turkey found allies in two of the leading states of Western Europe: Britain and France. Neither side fought that well, but Russia’s opponents won, and Russian ambitions in the Balkans area were checked for the rest of the century.

Crimean War of 1853–56 — A small war fought to keep Russia in check on the Black sea.

Czar Alexander II (1855–1881) came to the throne in 1855. He was a more progressive monarch. A major accomplishment was the freeing of the serfs on March 3, 1861. Serfs were now free to move anywhere they wished in Russia for the first time since the Middle Ages. Twenty million peasants were freed from their masters. Vast labor reserves were available for the modernization and industrialization of Russia. Many reforms occurred. The reforms, however, did not produce a Western-style democracy. This was Mother Russia! More extreme demands by radicals were suppressed. These malcontents assassinated Czar Alexander II on March 13, 1881. Alexander III (1881–1894) was more conservative than his father, and modernization slowed. The last Russian czar, Nicholas II (1894–1917), became involved in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. The war was a major victory for the Japanese. A peace treaty was finalized by President Theodore Roosevelt at the Wentworth Hotel, Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The defeat initiated widespread violence. A group of peaceful protesters marching before the czar’s palace in St. Petersburg were shot on Bloody Sunday, January 22, 1905. Sailors mutinied, and a general strike was called. The Revolution of 1905 forced Czar Nicholas to offer concessions. He allowed the creation of a Duma, or legislative assembly. The Duma was not like the British Parliament or the American Congress. Representatives to the Duma had very limited powers and were elected under a restricted suffrage. Government ministers were responsible to the czar, rather than to the Duma. Alexander III of Russia (1878 or 1881) (PD).

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Painting of The Sinopskiy Battle on the 18th of November 1853 (PD-Art).

Even so, Nicholas II actually dismissed the first two Dumas. The Duma, as an institution, survived with minimal power. In a way, Russia lost its way in the 19th century. It did not know if it was Asian or European, feudal or industrial, capitalist or socialist. As World War I approached, Russia was a nation with large, unresolved internal problems and was ripe for the Russian Revolution.

Discussion Question Why was Russia so resistant to democratic reforms spreading across Europe?

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Lesson 3 Ottoman Empire In 1453, the Ottoman Turks finally succeeded in conquering the ancient city of Byzantium or Constantinople, which they renamed Istanbul. The Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire had fallen at last, 1,000 years after the Western Roman Empire, and Islam had triumphed over Orthodox Christianity. Only in Russia did Orthodoxy have the protection of a strong state, and Moscow promptly declared itself to be the Third Rome. Wishful thinking. The fall of Byzantium profoundly impacted the West. It disrupted the trade and wealth of the Italian city-states, triggered the Voyages of Discovery, and led to the economic dominance of countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean. Having breached the walls of Byzantium with their cannons, the Ottomans crossed over into Europe and conquered Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Albania, and Hungary. They took their Islamic faith with them. In 1683, the Ottomans were at the gates of Vienna. This marked the high point of Ottoman power. By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was mostly an empire in theory, and not in fact. Russia and Austria were its perennial enemies, with France and Britain switching alliances as their own national self-interests dictated. Hungary regained its independence from Turkey, only to be gobbled up by the Austrian empire. The Ottoman Empire’s possessions on the Black Sea were threatened by the Russian Empire.

Ottoman empire in the Crimean War, 1853 (PD-Art).

The Ottoman Empire, by 1900, was far more extensive in the Near East and northern Africa. The Ottoman Turks had become the successors of the vast Islamic Empire stretching from the Persian Gulf to Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria. European powers chipped away at Ottoman possessions for the entire 19th century. The beginning of this process may be seen in the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon in 1798. While this invasion was intended to be a first step toward attacking the British in India, Egypt, in fact, was part of the Ottoman possessions. Napoleon’s invasion brought Turkey into the wars against the French until peace was made in 1802. Russia emerged from its victory over Napoleon in the War of 1812 as the strongest power on the European continent, and Russia was the Ottoman Empire’s greatest enemy. However, by the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire had all but disappeared, as had the Russian Empire.

Discussion Question What caused the Ottoman Empire to fall? 221

Lesson 4 Austria-Hungary The partnership between Austria and Hungary was from its genesis an edgy affair. It was, so to speak, a shotgun wedding — a marriage made necessary by growing German nationalism and Slavic nationalism. However, both events could, and did, destroy the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Franz Joseph (1848–1916), was the single ruler of both parts of the empire. There were common imperial ministries for foreign policy, war, and finance, and also a common postal system and a common currency. In other respects, the two parts functioned as separate countries with their own constitutions, parliaments, and government offices for domestic affairs. German was the administrative language of the Austrian section, while Magyar was the administrative language of the Hungarian section.

Franz Joseph, 1898 (PD).

The fundamental problem was that within Austria, German speakers made up less than half the population, while in Hungary, Magyar was similarly the national language of about 50 percent of the people. The Austrian government tended to be conciliatory. A diversity of languages was tolerated and, by 1907, universal manhood suffrage was granted. In Hungary, the Magyars took the opposite tactic. They implemented draconian measures. They tried to force Magyarization upon the whole populace. Because of this policy of suppressing the use of other languages, the Magyars did not dare permit universal manhood suffrage in their nation. When World War I came, only about 25 percent of the adult males in Hungary had the right to vote. Neither policy satisfied ethnic minorities. The nationalities issue was the greatest problem in both parts of the empire. Czechs, Romanians, Serbs, Croats, and other nationalities wanted independence, which would require the dissolution of the empire. Strangely, AustriaHungary became interested in expanding in the Balkans at the expense of the dissolving Ottoman Empire. Expansion was seen as one means of distracting people from the internal discontent. In 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which Serbia also desired. This helped set the stage for the chain of events that led to the First World War.

Discussion Question What was the fundamental reason that the Austro-Hungarian Empire declined so precipitously during the 19th century?

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Lesson 5 England: Queen Victoria Queen Victoria was the longest reigning monarch in British history. There is no denying her impact upon Britain and its Empire, as well as all of Europe. On the 11th of May 1830, upon being shown a chart of the line of succession, she looked and pondered, and said briefly, “I will be good.” In February 1840, Victoria married her cousin, his full title being Prince Francis Charles Augustus Albert Emmanuel of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Victoria was devoted to her husband. Against the stereotypical image of a royal marriage, this couple really was in love. Victoria and Albert had nine children — four sons and five daughters: Victoria, Bertie, Alice, Alfred, Helena, Louise, Arthur, Leopold, and Beatrice. Victoria’s descendants would, eventually, succeed to the thrones of Germany, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia, a family which singlehandedly brought about the birth of the European monarchy.

When Victoria died on January 22, 1901, the nation seemed to be numbed by the loss of a queen whose reign had felt almost eternal.

Queen Victoria may have been the mother of all monarchs, but it was something she believed was the duty of all women. Personal disaster was to strike Victoria when, on December 14, 1861, her devoted, beloved husband Prince Albert died. While Victoria mourned, she began to neglect her duties and practically disappeared from the public eye for almost ten years. As time passed, Queen Victoria returned in spirit and body to her job. With some personal motivation from Prime Minister Disraeli, Queen Victoria took up a prominent position in the minds of her British subjects. For the last 30 years of her life, she resumed making public appearances, although always wearing clothes of mourning, and her popularity soon reached unprecedented heights. By the time of her golden jubilee in

Queen Victoria receiving the news of her accession to the throne, 1887 (PD-Art).

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1887 and her diamond jubilee in 1897, Victoria’s popularity was assured and the ceremonial role of the British monarchy was firmly established. One commentary suggests, “The vast majority of her subjects had never known a time when Queen Victoria had not been reigning over them.” The impact on the people of Britain was of a deep sense of loss; “astonished grief had swept over the country.” A special train carried the Queen’s body to Victoria Station and in the fields “as the train rumbled slowly east, people knelt.”2 The Marriage of Queen Victoria, 1840 (PD-Art).

Discussion Question Name another country, another age, whose identity was tied completely to the image and soul of one person, like England was bound to its Queen Victoria.

Queen Victoria, 1887 (PD).

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2. http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Public_Image_of_Queen_Victoria.

Chapter 28

Nineteenth-Century Europe: A Peace That Failed First Thoughts Fresco in the Städelschen Institute, allegorical figure of Germania 1834–1836.

The 19th century was marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Ottoman, and French Empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the British Empire, the German Empire, and the United States, spurring not only military conflicts but also advances in science and exploration. After the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire became the world’s leading power, controlling one-quarter of the world’s population and one-third of the land area. Old nations left the world stage — AustroHungary — and new ones emerged — Italy. It was a century of ethnic turmoil.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will see how Germany emerged as the most powerful nation in Europe. Meanwhile, Italy emerged as the newest nation on the block. France, though, declined precipitously. Finally, we will examine how prevalent democracy really was in 19th-century Europe. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Examine the unification of Germany 2. Explore the rise of Italy as a nation state 3. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Congress of Vienna 4. Discuss the dislocation that the Industrial Revolution caused in French society 5. Reflect upon why France declined in the 19th century 6. Analyze the degree to which France, Italy, and Germany were democratic in 1900

Concepts Otto von Bismarck Unifications of Germany Giuseppe Garibaldi Congress of Vienna Second French Empire Archduke Maximilian Alfred Dreyfus 225

Lesson 1 The Unification of Germany Until the middle of the 19th century, Germany was simply a bunch of small provinces and states. They shared a common language, but that was about all. Unification of Germany occurred when Prussia was strong enough to make it happen. Political dominance was attained for Prussia by Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), who became minister president of Prussia in 1862. On his father’s side he was from the Prussian nobility, or Junkers. Bismarck became minister president at a time of constitutional crisis. William I (1861–1888) had become king of Prussia in 1861 upon his brother’s death. The new king fought with the lower house of the legislature over funding for the military. The legislature would not finance the military buildup. Bismarck ignored the legislature and raised money anyway. Prussia got its strong army. Germany set a new trend: autocratic leaders could ignore the rule of law if political exigency demanded it and the German people would allow it to occur.

The proclamation of Prussian king Wilhelm I as German emperor at Versailles, by Anton von Werner. The first two versions of this were destroyed in the Second World War, 1885 (PD-Art).

A strong army was important to Bismarck, who is famed for making a speech in which he said that the great questions of the day would be decided by “blood and iron” rather than by speeches. Bismarck rejected the liberal reforms of 1848. The shrewd Bismarck would use a war against France to arouse German patriotism and gain the support of the smaller German states, especially the Catholic states in the south, who were suspicious of Protestant Prussia. France was Germany’s perennial enemy. In the middle of the 19th century, a series of curt exchanges occurred, and France was deeply offended. A few days later, on July 15, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Several German armies invaded France. When a French force became trapped at Metz, a second French army moved to relieve it. Instead, the second army was surrounded at Sedan. On September 2, 1870, that army surrendered. Emperor Napoleon III himself was captured. Paris was taken on January 28, 1871. The Franco-Prussian war had ended. The successful completion of this war cemented German unification. The unification of Germany changed the course of history. Germany upset the balance of power in Europe. The balance of both political and economic power in Europe was altered. France was bitter after the Franco-Prussian War and obsessed with revenge. France got its revenge in 1914–1918. Uneasiness in Europe led to rival alliance systems that set the stage for World War I.

Discussion Question Why did the unification of Germany cause such consternation in the foreign policy ministries of Europe? 226

Lesson 2 Italy Italy in the middle of the 19th century was, as it had been for 400 years, divided into several city-states. Unity began in earnest in 1849 when a series of local wars were fought to determine which city-state would have hegemony. Giuseppe Garibaldi, who drove French and Austrians from Italy, founded the new nation. There was still work to be done. Other Italian leaders became concerned about Garibaldi’s successes. They feared that Garibaldi would become king. Nonetheless, on March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as king. Garibaldi was not a threat after all. The only significant parts of the Italian peninsula not initially included in the new kingdom were Venetia, which was under the control of the Austrians, and Rome, which was under control of the pope, who was still backed by French troops. In 1866, Italy joined Prussia in a war against Austria. When the Prussians won, Italy’s reward was Venetia. When, in 1870, French troops withdrew from Rome so they could be used to defend France against Prussia, Italian forces seized Rome, which became the capital of the kingdom. Italian unity had at last been obtained. However, there were still many difficult issues facing the new nation. For one thing, the city-states continued to consider themselves citizens of Naples or Venice or Milan rather than members of Italy. The Papal State, the Vatican, exacerbated the problem by drawing wealth and human resources from the Italian state that admittedly was strongly Roman Catholic. It was hard to start a 19th-century secular state in the midst of so much ecclesiological opulence!

General Giuseppe Garibaldi, 1878 (PD-Art).

By the end of the 19th century, Italy was full of history and empty of real industrial progress. Italy was more like Russia or Turkey than France or England. It was relatively rural and backward and scarcely able to face the new century.

Discussion Question Why did Italian unity come so late?

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Lesson 3 The Treaty of Vienna There were four principles, which were meant to “guide” the decisions and changes that the Vienna Settlement brought about. They were: restoring the balance of power; containing France; restoring previous rulers; and rewarding and punishing those involved in the Napoleonic Wars, depending on which side they had fought on.

Over the years, the European nations were pretty good at making bad treaties, treaties that ended wars but did virtually nothing else. The Congress of Vienna was opened on October 1, 1814, following the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte’s Grand Armeé at Waterloo and his abdication earlier in that year. All European states were summoned to the congress, which was meant to “bring back the old times” to Europe, the times previous to the French revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars that followed. Of course, beware of treaties that seek to “bring back” anything. It is virtually impossible after a war, especially after a big war, to do so! The borders of pre-Napoleonic Europe were more or less restored. All the victors agreed that an effective balance of power needed to be restored, but no one had a clue how to do it. Balance was, more or less, restored to Europe, as even France came off fairly lightly. The folks at Versailles after World War I should have taken note. Containment of France was one of the issues on the agenda and was accomplished fairly easily by inviting France to help contain two old allied friends: Prussia and Russia. Thus, much like Germany became an American ally to contain Russia after World War II, France joined her former enemies to contain allied friends of former allies! The restoration of legitimate rulers was complicated because the legitimate rulers were nepotistic, arrogant, and generally of poor quality. But the allies did their best. The principle of handing out reward and punishment to the different powers would seem to have been more of a matter of “compensation” to those powers that gave up territory or gained territory in order to construct the “defensive belt” around France.

Congress of Vienna, 1857 (CCA-SA3.0).

Now it would seem that, for the most part, the four principles were followed, and they achieved the objectives they sought to achieve. Also, none of the Great Powers engaged in major hostilities in the next 40 years, and stability was more or less preserved in Europe. In conclusion, the Congress of Vienna managed to control and discourage war between the Great Powers in Europe for much of the 19th century. But they planted the seeds that would blow the world apart in the next century. They made no effort to deal with the Austro-Hungarian Empire already struggling with ethnic wars. They gave Germany a free reign to dominate central Europe and, in the same breath, made sure that France, at least initially, was a second-rate power. Thus they tamed a lion only to let a tiger loose in the land.1

Discussion Question What were the four goals of the Congress of Vienna and to what degree were these goals met? 228

1. http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=congress_of_vienna.

Lesson 4 France, 1800–1850, Social Problems Throughout the 19th century, France was a troubled country. It remained a great power even after the destruction of the Napoleonic Empire. But it was unable to find a stable political system. Monarchists and Republicans warred with one another throughout the century and were unable to reach a consensus. After Napoleon’s first abdication in 1814 and then again after the Hundred Days in 1815, Louis XVIII was installed as king of France until his death in 1824. Louis XVIII was the younger brother of Louis XVI, who was executed during the French Revolution. Louis XVIII issued a charter providing a two-house legislature elected through a system of restricted suffrage. Louis XVIII pursued relatively moderate policies. Charles X was the brother of Louis XVI and XVIII. He became king in 1824 and ruled for six years until a revolution in 1830 swept him aside. This small revolution was the French equivalent of the British Glorious Revolution — virtually no one was killed and order was restored quickly. Louis Philippe (1830–1848) then became king. He was the darling of the growing middle class. He scrupulously honored the constitution. There was no appearance of kingly absolutism in his dress or his pronouncements. During his 18 years of rule, France experienced an Industrial Revolution of sorts. The rapid development of the French middle class and the growth of a vigorous labor class led to social problems. There were food shortages, rising prices, and widespread unemployment in the now-industrialized country. As a result, there was a revolution in 1848. It was bloody. The problem with France, as it was to be in other countries, was that the French Industrial Revolution created more problems than solutions. The provincial, agrarian lifestyle of most French people could not cope very well with the rapid dislocation caused by industrialization. In April 1848, elections were held throughout France for a Constituent or National Assembly that was to write a new republican constitution. For the first time in French history, this assembly was elected by universal manhood suffrage. Suddenly, the electorate, which had been about 200,000, had risen to nine million. In December 1848, elections were held for a president of the Second Republic. Ironically, the new electorate, empowered by liberal, republican leadership, was far more conservative than the liberated intelligentsia. They elected the ultraconservative Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. The French had successfully formed a new government without the horrific bloodshed of 60 years before. But they had opted for another despot!

Napoleon III, emperor of France, 1865 (PD-Art).

Discussion Questions Why was it ironic that an ultraconservative was elected in France in the wake of the liberal revolution of 1848? How did this happen? 229

Lesson 5 France, 1850–1914, Delusions of Grandeur Louis Napoleon had been elected president of the Second French Republic in 1848. In December of 1851, he arranged for a plebiscite (special election) that gave the president power to draw up a new constitution. Napoleon’s new constitution provided for the establishment of the Second French Empire. He became Napoleon III. The Second Empire lasted from 1852– 1870 (the end of the Franco-Prussian War). Believe me, it was wishful thinking! The Second French Empire was a vague shadow of the first.

The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the Hôtel de ville, on December 2, 1852 (PD).

The Second French Empire was replaced by the Third French Republic. The sentiment for a republic was strong in Paris, but not in the countryside. Again, French farmers wanted a king, not a president.

Napoleon III was not the sharpest knife in the drawer. He dropped the ball in Italy. During the American Civil War, he sent French troops to Mexico to support an Austrian (Archduke Maximilian) as emperor of Mexico! Poor Maximilian, abandoned by his emperor, was executed by the Mexicans. Georges Boulanger (1837–1891) was a popular general who attracted the support of the monarchists (people who supported rule by a king) and frightened the republicans (who preferred democratic rule), who thought they saw another Napoleon. He won an election in Paris, and the expectation among supporters and enemies was that he would use the momentum to initiate a coup. Instead, he disappointed everyone. Another scandal rocked France. Alfred Dreyfus (1859–1935) was a Jewish army captain who served on the French general staff. He was falsely accused of spying for Germany. In late 1894, he was tried and unjustly convicted of treason. Stripped of his rank, he was sent to Devil’s Island in French Guiana for life. Shockingly, the French officer corps was willing to sacrifice an innocent man — Dreyfus — to preserve its reputation. The whole affair discredited the army and the government. The French ended the 19th century in tentativeness and discord.

Discussion Question Why was Alfred Dreyfus charged for treason?

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Chapter 29

19th-Century American Life: Falling in Love First Thoughts An 1833 engraving of 1830’s fashions (PD).

Nineteenth-century families had to deal with enormous changes in almost all of life’s categories. The generation that grew up in Jacksonian America matured during a period of nationalism, egalitarianism, and widespread reformism. The generation of the pre-war decades was innately diverse in terms of their ethnic backgrounds, employment, social class, education, language, customs, and religion. Americans were acutely aware of the need to create a stable and cohesive society firmly founded on the family and traditional family values. Yet the people of America were among the most mobile and diverse on earth. Geographically, socially, and economically, Americans were dedicated to change, movement, and progress. This dichotomy between tradition and change may have been the most durable and common of American traits, and it was a difficult quality to circumvent when trying to raise a family.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will analyze the 19th-century American family. We will also compare the 18thcentury family and the 19th-century family. Then we will examine the transformation from the Puritan evangelical family to the middle period 19th-century family. Next, we will look at historian Philip Greven’s view of the 19th-century family and judge its veracity. Finally, we will examine transcendentalism and its impact on the American family. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Analyze the 19th-century American family 2. Compare the 19th-century American family with the 18th-century American family 3. Evaluate historian Philip Greven’s assessment of the 19th-century family 4. Define transcendentalism

Concepts Abolitionists Transcendentalism 231

Lesson 1 Life in 19th-Century Cincinnati Family life in the 19th century, particularly in middle America — Cincinnati, Ohio — in many ways mirrored contemporary American family life. Couples married, had children, and struggled in a middle class life.

This is an image of the Louisville and Evansville mail packet boat, “Morning Star” on the Ohio River, 1858 (Commons).

However, family life in the 19th century was fundamentally different from traditional family life in the 18th century. Whereas the 18th century assumed continuity between generations, 19th century life, socially more heterogeneous (diverse) and economically less predictable, required a more flexible family structure. No longer could a dad assume that his sons would follow in his footsteps, as was the case in the 18th century. For instance, an 18th-century tanner could assume his children and grandchildren would be tanners. Not anymore. Family usually lived within five miles of each other, or they were separated by thousands of miles. Now, because of railroads, families in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, could gather at Christmas at grandmother’s house in Elmira, New York. Cincinnati was a microcosm of these changes. A border city on the Ohio River through which commerce flowed in four directions, Cincinnati in the 1850s contained as diverse a population as that which passed through it. The diverse mixture was potentially explosive, and conflicts between native-born Protestants and Catholic immigrants, between blacks and whites, and between abolitionists and anti-abolitionists frequently disrupted the city’s peace and prosperity. Civic or public life reflected competing interest groups, and although social harmony was the goal of the town’s politicians, social strife was often the reality. Cincinnati was as economically volatile as it was socially diverse. All of this discord had an impact on families. Families in poverty were rising to wealth, and families of wealth were sinking to poverty. Society was in upheaval. The children of common uneducated laborers were, by their hard work and enterprise, becoming noble in intellect, wealth, or office. On the other hand, the children of the wealthy, weakened by indulgence, were sinking to humble status.1 Thus the two main family pressures in the mid-19th century were growing individualism and economic change. As a result, parents began to lose control of young people in an unprecedented way. In the 18th century, parents exercised a great degree of control because a young adult’s ability to establish himself or herself in life depended on his or her access to the means of agricultural production — land, tools, livestock, and household goods. These means were more likely to be obtained through inheritance or parental gifts at the time of marriage than by striking out on one’s own. Typically, a traditional family would depend on sons and daughters in their teens and early twenties to contribute sufficiently to the family’s economy through their labor so as to provide a beginning stake for themselves, with land going to sons and movable goods to daughters.2 Now parents were an impediment. Wealth and status lay in the factory,

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1. Catharine Beecher, A Treatise on Domestic Economy (Boston, MA: T.H. Webb & Co., 1842). 2. Philip J. Greven, Four Generations: Population, Land and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1970).

or in the gold fields. The home was secondary. Thus, the 19th-century family was approaching its own sort of crisis.3

Discussion Question Discuss the state of the family in 19th-century America.

Lesson 2 Historical Essay Kathryn Kish Sklar, “Love and Marriage in the 19th Century” — An Essay These economic links across generations eroded significantly between 1750 and 1800, as parents were no longer able to provide their young adult children with economic resources superior to those they could obtain on their own. The result by 1850 was a participant-oriented, rather than a lineage-oriented, family structure. In this new structure young adults assumed responsibility for establishing their own economic base and choosing their own marriage partners, and child-rearing was designed to prepare offspring for economic independence of, rather than dependence on, the families in which they were born. Child-rearing changed from an effort to break the will of the child and bring it under parental control to an effort to cultivate the ability of children to think for themselves, especially with regard to their own self-interest.

By the middle of the 19th century, marriage was undertaken for affection, not for economic reasons.

Thus the protagonist of a popular song “You Never Miss the Water” was not only trained in traditional habits of thrift but also encouraged to develop an untraditional aptitude for calculated risk-taking in pursuit of self-advancement. Besides learning “waste not, want not,” he also learned: “Do not let your chances like sunbeams pass you by.” Although he “speculated foolishly” and his “losses were severe” when he first “embarked on public life,” the maxims of his childhood by which he practiced “strict economy” and “grasp’d each chance” eventually increased his “funds,” allowing him to marry and have children of his own. These he then instructed to do as he had done. With intergenerational hierarchies based on economic dependency less a factor in marriage formation, romantic love increased as a factor in courtship and in marital life. The affective aspects of family life grew increasingly important in the early decades of the nineteenth century and were extravagantly idealized by 1850. The insight, which the twentieth century shares with the nineteenth, that autonomous “character” in children is best built through love, reinforced this emphasis in . . . family life.4

3. Kathryn Kish Sklar, “Life in Nineteenth-Century Cincinnati,” http://www.newworldrecords.org/liner_notes/80251.pdf. 4. http://www.newworldrecords.org/liner_notes/80251.pdf.

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In summary, courtship became more elaborate and couples had more freedom. They attended dances, church socials, picnics, and concerts, and got to know one another well before they married. After the wedding, couples went on honeymoons for the first time. With increased wealth, and more money for incidentals, raising children became the most important job a wife performed, and children were to be loved and sheltered. Corporal punishment of children did not disappear, but many felt that punishment must be combined with encouragement and rewards. Between 1776 and 1820 American religion changed from a hierarchically run to a participant-run activity, and revivals and competition among denominations replaced state-established religious orthodoxies.5 There was nothing like the Puritan Congregational Church. The Church, like the family, was under attack by the subjectivity that was inherent in transcendentalism.

Discussion Question What replaced the dependency between generations that existed in the 18th century?

Lesson 3 Three Types of Families While the author was a graduate student at Rutgers University, he studied under history professor Philip Greven. In The Protestant Temperament,6 Greven argued that three family types prevailed among Americans between the 17th century and the mid-19th century.

Summertime by Mary Cassatt, 1894 (PD).

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The first of these temperaments, the “evangelical,” was exhibited by groups like the Puritans, the Baptists, and the Methodists. Evangelical parents, according to Greven, were obsessed by human sinfulness and so strove for complete authority over their children and used every means to “break the will” of youngsters. In adulthood, many children reared in such families surrendered any remnant of selfhood in a cathartic conversion experience, a final submission to a demanding deity — onto whom they projected parental characteristics. The second group, dubbed “moderates” by Greven, favored a less drastic approach of molding the wills of their children by pious, moral example. Less preoccupied with human sinfulness than evangelicals, moderates sought to control rather than to annihilate the self. Finally, a third group, whom Greven calls “the genteel,” indulged their children and showered them with affection. That mode of childrearing, in his view, nurtured youthful self-assertion and 5. Ibid. 6. Philip J. Greven, The Protestant Temperament (New York: Knopf, 1977).

produced adults who were more at ease with themselves than were either evangelicals or moderates. . . .7 Many historians, including the author, reject this delineation. First, the “genteel” category reflects Dr. Greven’s own prejudices — confirmed by a book he wrote in 1992 that was critical of parental punishment techniques. The author prefers the theories about families promulgated by Professor Perry Miller (mentioned in chapter 14 of this book), who extolled the virtues of evangelical families and showed that they were the background of the young nation.

Discussion Question What three types of families does Greven argue were present in 19th-century America?

Lesson 4 Transcendentalism Transcendentalism first arose among the liberal New England Congregationalists who departed from orthodox Calvinism in that they believed in the importance and efficacy of human subjectivity, as opposed to the Puritan picture of the Kingdom of God.

Transcendentalism was an American version of romanticism.

Transcendentalists founded the Unitarian Church. Unitarians argued that Jesus was in some way inferior to God the Father but still greater than human beings. The Unitarians’ leading preacher, William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), portrayed Orthodox Congregationalism as a religion of fear, and maintained that Jesus saved human beings from sin, not just from punishment. His sermon “Unitarian Christianity” (1819) denounced “the conspiracy of ages against the liberty of Christians” and helped give the Unitarian movement its name. In “Likeness to God” (1828) he proposed that human beings “partake” of Divinity and that they may achieve “a growing likeness to the Supreme Being.” A leading proponent of transcendentalism was Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson’s sense that men and women were, as he put it in Nature, gods “in ruins,” led to one of transcendentalism’s defining events, his delivery of an “Address” at the Harvard Divinity School graduation in 1838. Emerson portrayed the contemporary church that the graduates were about to lead as an “eastern monarchy of a Christianity” that had become an “injuror of man.” Jesus, in contrast, was a “friend of man.” Yet he was just one of the “true race of prophets,” whose message is not so much their own greatness, as the “greatness of man.”8 In a real sense, then, in the 19th century a culture war was roaring across the land. Increasingly, the enemy looked a lot like an old friend! 7. Christine Leigh Heyrman, “Religion, Women, and the Family in Early America,” http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/ tserve/eighteen/ekeyinfo/erelwom.htm. 8. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Transcendentalism,” http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism.

Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1859 (PD).

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Discussion Question Why was transcendentalism such a threat to Christianity?

Lesson 5 Free at Last Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (September 24, 1825–February 22, 1911), was an African-American writer and political activist who promoted abolition, women’s voting rights, and temperance. She was very active in political parties. But she is best remembered today for her poetry and fiction, which denounced the evils of slavery. The Dying Bondsman He had longed to gain his freedom, Waited, watched and hoped in vain, Till his life was slowly ebbing — Almost broken was his chain. By his bedside stood the master, Gazing on the dying one, Knowing by the dull grey shadows That life’s sands were almost run. “Master,” said the dying bondman, “Home and friends I soon shall see; But before I reach my country, Master write that I am free; Alexander H. Stephens, shown here in a photo with a servant, served as vice president of the Confederate States of America, as well as a U.S. Representative from Georgia before and after the Civil War. His was a childhood of sorrow and poverty to become a successful attorney, politician, and wealthy enough to own several dozen slaves. He represented the wrongly accused, including a female slave accused of murder and won. He believed that slavery was the natural condition for Africans, and that they were not equal to white men. Although all his slaves were freed, they voluntarily chose to remain with him — working for little money as his servants (PD).

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“For the spirits of my fathers Would shrink back from me in pride, If I told them at our greeting I a slave had lived and died; “Give to me the precious token, That my kindred dead may see — Master! write it, write it quickly! Master! write that I am free!” At his earnest plea the master Wrote for him the glad release.9

Discussion Question Paraphrase this scene of the last moments of a slave’s life. 9. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/amverse/BAC5663.0001.001/1:11?rgn=div1;view=fulltext.

Chapter 30

With Malice Toward None: The Power of Rhetoric First Thoughts The Peacemakers, 1868.

The 19th century was a period in history marked by the collapse of several empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the British Empire, the German Empire, and the United States, spurring military conflicts as well as advances in science and exploration. The following speeches capture the pathos of this unusual century.

Chapter Learning Objectives We examine the speech by President Polk calling for war between the United States and Mexico. Next, we will be inspired by Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address. We will review again the short but very effective speech by Bismarck calling for German nationalism. Finally, we will feel sadness as we read again the final speech of Chief Joseph. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Review the speech presented by President Polk to announce war with Mexico 2. Analyze Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address 3. Examine Otto von Bismarck’s Blood and Iron Speech 4. Evaluate the speeches of Chief Joseph 5. Synthesize the disparate components of the 19th century into a summary of this century

Concepts James K. Polk Abraham Lincoln Otto von Bismarck Robert E. Lee Chief Joseph 237

Lesson 1 James K. Polk Message on War with Mexico, May 11, 1846 To the Senate and House of Representatives: The existing state of the relations between the United States and Mexico renders it proper that I should bring the subject to the consideration of Congress. . . . In my message at the commencement of the present session I informed you that upon the earnest appeal both of the Congress and convention of Texas I had ordered an efficient military force to take a position “between the Nueces and the Del Norte.” This had become necessary to meet a threatened invasion of Texas by the Mexican forces, for which extensive military preparations had been made. The invasion was threatened solely because Texas had determined, in accordance with a solemn resolution of the Congress of the United States, to annex herself to our Union, and under these circumstances it was plainly our duty to extend our protection over her citizens and soil.

United States president James Knox Polk, 1849 (PD).

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This force was concentrated at Corpus Christi, and remained there until after I had received such information from Mexico as rendered it probable, if not certain, that the Mexican Government would refuse to receive our envoy. Meantime Texas, by the final action of our Congress, had become an integral part of our Union. The Congress of Texas, by its act of December 19, 1836, had declared the Rio del Norte to be the boundary of that Republic. Its jurisdiction had been extended and exercised beyond the Nueces. The country between that river and the Del Norte had been represented in the Congress and in the convention of Texas, had thus taken part in the act of annexation itself, and is now included within one of our Congressional districts. Our own Congress had, moreover, with great unanimity, by the act approved December 31, 1845, recognized the country beyond the Nueces as a part of our territory by including it within our own revenue system, and a revenue officer to reside within that district has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. It became, therefore, of urgent necessity to provide for the defense of that portion of our country. Accordingly, on the 13th of January last instructions were issued to the general in command of these troops to occupy

the left bank of the Del Norte. This river, which is the southwestern boundary of the State of Texas, is an exposed frontier. The movement of the troops to the Del Norte was made by the commanding general under positive instructions to abstain from all aggressive acts toward Mexico or Mexican citizens and to regard the relations between that Republic and the United States as peaceful unless she should declare war or commit acts of hostility indicative of a state of war. . . . The Mexican forces at Matamoras assumed a belligerent attitude, and on the 12th of April General Ampudia, then in command, notified General Taylor to break up his camp within twenty-four hours and to retire beyond the Nueces River, and in the event of his failure to comply with these demands announced that arms, and arms alone, must decide the question. But no open act of hostility was committed until the 24th of April. On that day General Arista, who had succeeded to the command of the Mexican forces, communicated to General Taylor that “he considered hostilities commenced and should prosecute them.” A party of dragoons of 63 men and officers were on the same day dispatched from the American camp up the Rio del Norte, on its left bank, to ascertain whether the Mexican troops had crossed or were preparing to cross the river, became engaged with a large body of these troops, and after a short affair, in which some 16 were killed and wounded, appear to have been surrounded and compelled to surrender. . . . The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even before the recent information from the frontier of the Del Norte. But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war. As war exists, and, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself, we are called upon by every consideration of duty and patriotism to vindicate with decision the honor, the rights, and the interests of our country. . . .

Reconstruction of an American and a Mexican soldier’s (left to right) uniform from the Mexican–American War (CCASA2.0).

In further vindication of our rights and defense of our territory, I invoke the prompt action of Congress to recognize the existence of the war, and to place at the disposition of the Executive the means of prosecuting the war with vigor, and thus hastening the restoration of peace. . . .1

Discussion Question What is the main reason President Polk declared war against Mexico? 1. James K. Polk, Message on War with Mexico, May 11, 1846, www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/two/ mexdec.htm.

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Lesson 2 Abraham Lincoln Second Inaugural Address Thousands of spectators stood in thick mud at the Capitol grounds to hear the President. As he stood on the East Portico to take the executive oath, President Lincoln, even as victory was in sight, offered an olive branch to his southern brothers. Chief Justice Salmon Chase administered the oath of office. In little more than a month, the President would be assassinated. Fellow-Countrymen: At this second appearing to take the oath of the Presidential office there is less occasion for an extended address than there was at the first. Then a statement somewhat in detail of a course to be pursued seemed fitting and proper. Now, at the expiration of four years, during which public declarations have been constantly called forth on every point and phase of the great contest which still absorbs the attention and engrosses the energies of the nation, little that is new could be presented. The progress of our arms, upon which all else chiefly depends, is as well known to the public as to myself, and it is, I trust, reasonably satisfactory and encouraging to all. With high hope for the future, no prediction in regard to it is ventured.

The second inaugural address of Abraham Lincoln, given on March 4, 1865, on the east portico of the U.S. Capitol (LOC).

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On the occasion corresponding to this four years ago all thoughts were anxiously directed to an impending civil war. All dreaded it, all sought to avert it. While the inaugural address was being delivered from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, urgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without war — seeking to dissolve the Union and divide effects by negotiation. Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came. One-eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it. Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or the duration which it has already attained. Neither anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease with or even before the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and

Abraham Lincoln 1863 and 1865, about 2 months before his death (LOC).

astounding. Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid against the other. It may seem strange that any men should dare to ask a just God’s assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of other men’s faces, but let us judge not, that we be not judged. The prayers of both could not be answered. That of neither has been answered fully. The Almighty has His own purposes. “Woe unto the world because of offenses; for it must needs be that offenses come, but woe to that man by whom the offense cometh.” If we shall suppose that American slavery is one of those offenses which, in the providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove, and that He gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to those by whom the offense came, shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living God always ascribe to Him? Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman’s two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said “the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether.” With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.2

Discussion Question This speech expresses strong opinions about God’s providence. What does Lincoln say?

2. Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, www.bartleby.com/.

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Lesson 3 Otto von Bismarck Blood and Iron Speech In September 1862, when the Prussian Landtag (Parliament) was refusing to approve an increase in military spending desired by King Wilhelm I, the king appointed Bismarck as Minister-President and Foreign Minister. A few days later, Bismarck appeared before the Landtag’s (Parliament’s) Budget Committee and stressed the need for military preparedness, as seen in his speech below:

Otto von Bismarck, painted in his seventy-fifth year, is depicted seated, and turned slightly to his left. He wears the white uniform of the Magdeburg Cuirassiers’ Regiment no. 7 (PD).

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The Conflict is viewed too tragically, and presented too tragically in the press; the regime does not seek war. If the crisis can be ended with honor, the regime will gladly do so. The great independence of the individual makes it difficult in Prussia to rule under the Constitution. In France it is otherwise; there, individual independence is lacking. The constitutional crisis, however, is no shame, but rather an honor. We are perhaps too educated to put up with a constitution — we are too critical. Public opinion wavers; the press is not public opinion; we know how that arises. There are too many Catilines, who have revolution at heart. The members [of the House], however, have the task of standing over public sentiment, and of guiding it. Our blood is too hot, we prefer armor too great for our small body to carry, but we should put it to service. Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism, but to its power. Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden would like to turn to liberalism, but they shall not assume Prussia’s role. Prussia must collect its forces for the favorable occasion, which has several times been neglected; Prussia’s borders are not favorable to a healthy national life. Not by speeches and decisions of majorities will the greatest problems of the time be decided — that was the mistake of 1848–49 — but by iron and blood. This olive branch (he drew it from his memorandum book) I picked up in Avignon, to

offer, as a symbol of peace, to the popular party: I see, however, that it is still not the time for it.3

Discussion Question What argument does Bismarck offer to the Prussian Landtag to convince them to fund an expanding army?

Lesson 4 Robert E. Lee’s Farewell Address to the Army of Northern Virginia After four years of fierce fighting, Confederate troops are persuaded to lay down their arms by a now legendary document. The lost cause is over. Robert E. Lee’s farewell address, “General Order #9,” also known as Lee’s farewell address, is composed at Appomattox, Virginia, upon the surrender of his troops in April 1865 and allows Confederate troops to retain their dignity in the face of a crushing defeat. Head-Quarters, Army of Northern Virginia, April 10, 1865. After four years of arduous service, marked by unsurpassed courage and fortitude, the Army of Northern Virginia has been compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers and resources. I need not tell the survivors of so many hard-fought battles who have remained steadfast to the last that I have consented to this result from no distrust of them; but feeling that valor and devotion could accomplish nothing that could compensate for the loss that would have attended the continuance of the contest, I determined to avoid the useless sacrifice of those whose past services have endeared them to their countrymen. By the terms of the agreement, officers and men can return to their homes and remain until exchanged. You may take with you the satisfaction that proceeds from the consciousness of duty faithfully performed, and I earnestly pray that a merciful God will extend to you his blessing and protection. With an unceasing admiration of your constancy and devotion to your country, and a grateful remembrance of your kind and generous consideration of myself, I bid you all an affectionate farewell.

Robert E. Lee in 1863 (PD).

Robert E. Lee4 3. http://www.speechwall.com/famous-speeches-otto-1.html. 4. Robert E. Lee, Farewell Address to the Army of Northern Virginia, www.civilwar.si.edu/appomattox_lee_farewell.html.

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Discussion Question Many consider this short farewell speech to be the best of its genre. Why?

The Room in the McLean House, at Appomattox, in which Gen. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant. Most written accounts of the surrender on April 9, 1865, noted the difference between Lee’s stiff dignity and Grant’s more relaxed demeanor. After the surrender, Wilmer McLean, the owner of the house, lost much of his furniture to soldiers desiring mementos of the historic event. Later, in what proved to be a futile effort to recoup his losses and raise funds for his needy family, he commissioned this print, 1867 (LOC).

April 9, 1865. With his Confederate armies on their last legs, retreating from Petersburg, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrenders to General Ulysses S. Grant. The American Civil War is almost over. Joe Johnstown in the West still has to surrender, but it is only a matter of time.

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Lesson 5 Chief Joseph Speeches I. The first white men of your people who came to our country were named Lewis and Clark. They brought many things which our people had never seen. They talked straight and our people gave them a great feast as proof that their hearts were friendly. They made presents to our chiefs and our people made presents to them. We had a great many horses of which we gave them what they needed, and they gave us guns and tobacco in return. All the Nez Perce made friends with Lewis and Clark and agreed to let them pass through their country and never to make war on white men. This promise the Nez Perce have never broken. II. For a short time we lived quietly. But this could not last. White men had found gold in the mountains around the land of the Winding Water. They stole a great many horses from us and we could not get them back because we were Indians. The white men told lies for each other. They drove off a great many of our cattle. Some white men branded our young cattle so they could claim them. We had no friends who would plead our cause before the law councils. It seemed to me that some of the white men in Wallowa were doing these things on purpose to get up a war. They knew we were not strong enough to fight them. I labored hard to avoid trouble and bloodshed. We gave up some of our country to the white men, thinking that then we could have peace. We were mistaken. The white men would not let us alone. We could have avenged our wrongs many times, but we did not. Whenever the Government has asked for help against other Indians we have never refused. When the white men were few and we were strong we could have killed them off, but the Nez Perce wishes to live at peace.

Chief Joseph (1840–1904), the chief of the Wal-lam-wat-kain band of Nez Perce Indians, 1900 (LOC).

On account of the treaty made by the other bands of the Nez Perce the white man claimed my lands. We were troubled with white men crowding over the line. Some of them were good men, and we lived on peaceful terms with them, but they were not all good. Nearly every year the agent came over from Lapwai and ordered us to the reservation. We always replied that we were satisfied to live in Wallowa. We were careful to refuse the presents or annuities which he offered. Through all the years since the white man came to Wallowa we have been threatened and taunted by them and the treaty Nez Perce. They have given us no rest. We have had a few good friends among the white men, and they have always advised my people to bear these taunts without fighting. Our young men are quick tempered and I have had great trouble in keeping them from doing rash things. I have carried a heavy load on my back ever since I was a boy. I learned then that we were but few while the white men were many, and that we could not hold our own with them. We were like deer. They were like grizzly bears. We had a small country. Their country was large. We were contented to let things remain as the Great Spirit Chief made them. They were not; and would change the mountains and rivers if they did not suit them. 245

III. [At his surrender in the Bear Paw Mountains, 1877]

Little Woman Mountain and son Looking-away-off in front of tipi with two horses, circa 1909 (LOC).

Tell General Howard that I know his heart. What he told me before I have in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are killed. Looking Glass is dead, Tu-hul-hilsote is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the young men who now say yes or no. He who led the young men [Joseph’s brother Alikut] is dead. It is cold and we have no blankets. The little children are freezing to death. My people — some of them have run away to the hills and have no blankets and no food. No one knows where they are — perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children and see how many of them I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs, my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands I will fight no more against the white man.5

Discussion Question Why does Chief Joseph decide to give up, finally, in his fight against the United States?

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5. Chief Joseph, Surrender Speech www.nezperce.com/npedu11.html.

Chapter 31

Asian Immigration: The Myth of the Melting Pot First Thoughts Historian Steven Mintz states, “The massive movement of peoples as a result of voluntary choice, forced removal, and economic and cultural dislocation has been one of the most important forces for social change over the past 500 years. Changes produced by migration — such as urbanization or expansion into frontier regions — transformed the face of the modern world. Migration has also played a pivotal role in the formation of modern American culture. Our most cherished values as well as our art, literature, music, technology, and an intricate process of cultural contact and interaction has shaped cultural beliefs and practices. Because ours is a nation of immigrants, drawn from every part of the world, the study of migration provides a way to recognize and celebrate the richness of our population’s ancestral cultures.”1 In many respects, the motivations for Asians to come to the United States are similar to those of most immigrants. Some came to the United States to seek better economic opportunity. Some left to escape detrimental home conditions. Yet others were compelled to leave either as contract laborers or refugees. Asians brought with them their language, culture, social institutions, and customs. Into the pathos and ethos that was the emerging nation, the Japanese deposited their heritage. Over time they made lasting contributions to America.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will examine a Japanese-American and his experience in the United States during the middle of the 19th century. We will then visit the Hawaiian Islands and explore immigrant experiences on sugar cane plantations. Next, we will read a diary entry from a Chinese immigrant in San Francisco, California. Finally, we will assess the value of Chinese labor in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Examine the first Japanese contact with America

Concepts

2. Explore the labor challenges of working on a sugar plantation in Hawaii 3. Reflect upon the experiences of a Chinese immigrant

Nakahama Manjiro William Hooper Lee Chew

4. Analyze the importance of Chinese labor on the building of the Transcontinental Railroad 5. Evaluate the reasons for opposition to Chinese immigration

Chinese Exclusion Act Pun Chi 1. www.digitalhistory.uk.edu/.

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Lesson 1 Nakahama Manjiro Its isolationism gifted Japan with one of the longest stretches of peace in history. During this period, Japan developed thriving cities and castle towns.

Nakahama Manjiro reluctantly became an American citizen, but later gladly became the first Japanese to be educated in the United States. Eventually, he helped Admiral Perry open Japanese trading centers. President Calvin Coolidge would later call him the United States’ first ambassador to Japan. Nakahama Manjiro (1827–1898) was a 14-year-old fisherman from Koichi-ken when he was shipwrecked in 1841. He and four others made it to a deserted island in the Pacific some 300 miles south of Tokyo. Stranded for 143 days, the fishermen were picked up by a passing U.S. whaler, and the ship captain, unable to spend the time to return Manjiro to his home, instead took Manjiro back to the United States. While in America, Manjiro studied navigation and land surveying, as well as English. Americans welcomed the taciturn Manjiro. And Manjiro admired the Americans, too. “The natives were extremely lovely in appearance, with fair skin and dark hair,” he would later write about the people he encountered. “They were more than five or six feet tall. Kind and gentle by nature, both affectionate and compassionate, they thought highly of morality and fidelity and were always diligent and industrious in everything, including trading far and wide.” Later, he became a whaler himself and, during the California Gold Rush, made $600 in just 70 days in 1848. Finally, in 1851, a decade after coming to the United States, he returned to Japan. At that time, Japan severely restricted foreign influences. Japan had a law that stated: “Any person who leaves the country to go to another and later returns will be put to death.” After his return, Manjiro was retained for two months before he was allowed to return to his home. Why was Japan so isolated? From 1641 to 1853, the government of Japan enforced a policy prohibiting foreign contact with most outside countries. However, the commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed is misleading. In fact, Japan maintained limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, and the Netherlands. Actually, the whole idea had merit. For one thing, Japan and China really wanted nothing the Europeans wanted until the Industrial Revolution. So isolationism made economic sense. In 1853, U.S. Navy Commodore Matthew Perry and his American warships arrived off Japan and ended this isolationism. Perry demanded that the Japanese government open diplomatic and commercial relations with America. Manjiro was one of the few people who knew English and Japanese. He was an invaluable asset to Perry. He spent the rest of his life working to build relations between the two nations he loved.

Discussion Question In what ways does the life of Manjiro shadow the Japanese-American relations? 248

The statue of Nakahama Manjirō at Cape Ashizuri.

Lesson 2 Hawaii’s Sugar Plantations William Hooper William Hooper was contracted by Ladd and Company to develop Hawaii’s first sugar plantation in 1835. His mission was not simply to produce sugar, but to also introduce “free labor” to the Islands. Hooper populated his plantation with Asian immigrant workers. The following is an excerpt from Hooper’s diary: Just one year to day since I commenced work on this plantation, during which I have had more annoyances from the chiefs and difficulties with the natives (from the fact of this land being the first that has ever been cultivated, on the plan of free labour, at these islands) than I ever tho’t it possible for one white man to bear, which, if followed up by other foreign residents, will eventually emancipate the natives from the miserable system of “chief labour” which has ever existed at these Islands, and which if not broken up, will be an effective preventitive to the progress of civilization, industry and national prosperity. . . . The tract of land in Koloa was [developed] after much pain . . . for the purpose of breaking up the system aforesaid or in other words to serve as an entering wedge . . . [to] upset the whole system.2 Japanese immigration started because of a demand for workers in Hawaii, which was suffering a serious labor shortage. The main employer was the Ladd & Company run by Hooper. Hooper hired 25 native Hawaiians at $2 a month and put the first sugar plantation in Hawaii into motion on September 13, 1835. The plantation laborers had increased from 25 laborers in 1835 to 40 the next year and to 100 laborers in 1838, most of whom were Japanese immigrants.

Sugar cane being harvested.

Working in the Cane Fields Awake! Stir your bones! Rouse up! Shrieks the Five o’Clock Whistle. Don’t dream you can nestle For one more sweet nap. Or your ear-drums I’ll rap With my steam-hammer tap Till they burst. Br-r-row-aw-i-e-ur-ur-rup! Wake up! Wake up! Wake up! w-ak-e-u-u-u-up!

2. Robert Takaki, Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835–1920.

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Filipino and Japanee; Porto Rican and Portugee; Korean, Kanaka, and Chinese; Everybody whoever you be On the whole plantation— Wake up! Wake up! Wake up! w-ak-e-u-u-u-up! Br-r-row-aw-i-e-ur-ur-rup!3

Discussion Question Why did Japanese populate the Hawaiian Islands?

Japanese laborers on Spreckelsville Plantation, Maui, oil on canvas painting by Joseph Dwight Strong, 1885 (PD-Art).

Lesson 3 Lee Chew In this autobiographical sketch published in 1903 in The Independent magazine (which ran a series of about 80 short autobiographical “lifelets” of “undistinguished Americans” between 1902 and 1906), Chinese immigrant Lee Chew looked back on his passage to America, and his years as a launderer and merchant on both the East and West coasts: The village where I was born is situated in the province of Canton, on one of the banks of the Si-Kiang River. It is called a village, altho it is really as big as a city, for there are about 5,000 men in it over eighteen years of age — women and children and even youths are not counted in our villages. All in the village belonged to the tribe of Lee. They did not intermarry with one another, but the men went to other villages for their wives and brought them home to their fathers’ houses, and men from other villages — Wus and Wings and Sings and Fongs, etc. — chose wives from among our girls. When I was a baby I was kept in our house all the time with my mother, but when I was a boy of seven, I had to sleep at nights with other boys of the village — about thirty of them in one house. The girls are separated the same way — thirty or forty of them sleeping together in one house away from their parents — and the widows have houses where they work and sleep, tho they go to their fathers’ houses to eat. My father’s house is built of fine blue brick, better than the brick in the houses here in the United States. It is only one story high, roofed with red tiles and surrounded by a stone wall which also encloses the yard There are four rooms in the house, one large living room which serves for a parlor and three private rooms, one occupied by my grandfather, who is very old and very honorable; 250

3. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore (1989), chapter 4. books.google.com/books?isbn=1456611070.

another by my father and mother, and the third by my oldest brother and his wife and two little children. There are no windows, but the door is left open all day. All the men of the village have farms, but they don’t live on them as the farmers do here; they live in the village, but go out during the daytime and work their farms, coming home before dark. My father has a farm of about ten acres, on which he grows a great abundance of things: sweet potatoes, rice, beans, peas, yams, sugar cane, pine apples, bananas, lychee nuts and palms. The palm leaves are useful and can be sold. Men make fans of the lower part of each leaf near the stem, and waterproof coats and hats, and awnings for boats, of the parts that are left when the fans are cut out. So many different things can be grown on one small farm, because we bring plenty of water in a canal from the mountains thirty miles away, and every farmer takes as much as he wants for his fields by means of drains. He can give each crop the right amount of water. Our people all working together make these things, the mandarin has nothing to do with it, and we pay no taxes, except a small one on the land. We have our own Government, consisting of the elders of our tribe — the honorable men. When a man gets to be sixty years of age he begins to have honor and to become a leader, and then the older he grows the more he is honored. We had some men who were nearly one hundred years, but very few of them. In spite of the fact that any man may correct them for a fault, Chinese boys have good times and plenty of play. We played games like tag, and other games like shinny and a sort of football called yin. We had dogs to play with — plenty of dogs and good dogs — that understand Chinese as well as American dogs understand American language. We hunted with them, and we also went fishing and had as good a time as American boys, perhaps better, as we were almost always together in our house, which was a sort of boys’ club house, so we had many playmates. Whatever we did we did all together, and our rivals were the boys of other club houses, with whom we sometimes competed in the games. But all our play outdoors was in the daylight, because there were many graveyards about and after dark, so it was said, black ghosts with flaming mouths and eyes and long claws and teeth would come from these and tear to pieces and devour any one whom they might meet.

Political cartoon showing the negative attitude toward Chinese immigrants in the early 1900s (LOC).

It was not all play for us boys, however. We had to go to school, where we learned to read and write and to recite the precepts of Kong foo-tsze and the other Sages and stories about the great Emperors of China, who ruled with the wisdom of gods and gave to the whole world the light of high civilization and the culture of our literature, which is the admiration of all nations. I went to my parents’ house for meals, approaching my grandfather with awe, my father and mother with veneration and my elder brother with respect. I never spoke unless spoken to. . . . 251

I worked on my father’s farm till I was about sixteen years of age, when a man of our tribe came back from America and took ground as large as four city blocks and made a paradise of it. He put a large stone wall around and led some streams through and built a palace and summer house and about twenty other structures, with beautiful bridges over the streams and walks and roads. Trees and flowers, singing birds, water fowl and curious animals were within the walls. Chinese Exclusion Act The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed into law by President Arthur on May 8, 1882, which suspended Chinese immigration for ten years.

The wealth of this man filled my mind with the idea that I, too, would like to go to the country of the wizards and gain some of their wealth, and after a long time my father consented, and gave me his blessing, and my mother took leave of me with tears, while my grandfather laid his hand upon my head and told me to remember and live up to the admonitions of the Sages, to avoid gambling, bad women and men of evil minds, and so to govern my conduct that when I died my ancestors might rejoice to welcome me as a guest on high. My father gave me $100, and I went to Hong Kong with five other boys from our place and we got steerage passage on a steamer, paying $50 each. Everything was new to me. All my life I had been used to sleeping on a board bed with a wooden pillow, and I found the steamer’s bunk very uncomfortable, because it was so soft. The food was different from that which I had been used to, and I did not like it at all. I was afraid of the stews, for the thought of what they might be made of by the wicked wizards of the ship made me ill. Of the great power of these people I saw many signs. The engines that moved the ship were wonderful monsters, strong enough to lift mountains. When I got to San Francisco, which was before the passage of the Exclusion Act, I was half starved, because I was afraid to eat the provisions of the barbarians, but a few days’ living in the Chinese quarter made me happy again. A man got me work as a house servant in an American family, and my start was the same as that of almost all the Chinese in this country. The Chinese laundryman does not learn his trade in China; there are no laundries in China. The women there do the washing in tubs and have no washboards or flat irons. All the Chinese laundrymen here were taught in the first place by American women just as I was taught. When I went to work for that American family I could not speak a word of English, and I did not know anything about housework. The family consisted of husband, wife and two children. They were very good to me and paid me $3.50 a week, of which I could save $3. It was twenty years ago when I came to this country, and I worked for two years as a servant, getting at the last $35 a month. I sent money home to comfort my parents, but tho I dressed well and lived well and had pleasure, going quite often to the Chinese theater and to dinner parties in Chinatown, I saved $50 in the first six months, $90 in the second, $120 in the third and $150 in the fourth. So I had $410 at the end of two years, and I was now ready to start in business. The reason why so many Chinese go into the laundry business in this country is because it requires little capital and is one of the few opportunities that are open. Men of other nationalities who are jealous of the Chinese, because he is a more faithful worker than one of their people, have raised such a great outcry about Chinese cheap labor that they have shut him out of working on farms or

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in factories or building railroads or making streets or digging sewers. He cannot practice any trade, and his opportunities to do business are limited to his own countrymen. So he opens a laundry when he quits domestic service. The treatment of the Chinese in this country is all wrong and mean. It is persisted in merely because China is not a fighting nation. The Americans would not dare to treat Germans, English, Italians or even Japanese as they treat the Chinese, because if they did there would be a war.

Discussion Question What reason does Chew offer that Chinese immigrants often started laundry businesses?

Lesson 4 Chinese Immigrants and the Transcontinental Railroad In 1862, in the midst of the Civil War, Congress authorized the construction of a transcontinental railroad. The price tag was immense: $136 million, more than twice the federal budget in 1861. The challenge was daunting: 2,000 miles across deserts and through mountains. Two companies undertook the actual construction in return for land grants and financial subsidies worth from $16,000 to $48,000 a mile. The Union Pacific began laying track westward from Omaha, Nebraska. The Central Pacific laid track eastward from Sacramento, California. The Union Pacific’s task was easier; two-thirds of its track was laid across plains. The Central Pacific, in contrast, had to carve out a rail bed through the Rockies. The first year, it laid 31 miles of track; after two years, it had only put down 50 miles. The Central Pacific also faced an acute labor shortage. The Civil War had required many men. Therefore, in the winter of 1864, the company had only 600 laborers — far short of the 12,000 it needed. The Central Pacific turned to China to provide its labor.

During the winter of 1865– 1866, when the railroad carved passages through the summit of the Sierra Nevadas, 3,000 Chinese immigrants lived and worked in tunnels dug beneath 40-foot snowdrifts. Here is a winter scene with train and cars emerging from snowsheds as Chinese workers come down to greet the train, 19th century (LOC).

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Within two years, 12,000 of the Central Pacific railroad’s 13,500 employees were Chinese immigrants. The work was grueling, performed almost entirely by hand. With pickaxes, hammers, and shovels, workers chipped out rail beds. Dirt and rock were carried away in baskets and carts. Chinese immigration was vital to American expansion, especially in railroad construction, in the middle of the 19th century.

Discussion Question Why were Chinese workers brought into America to build the Transcontinental Railroad?

Lesson 5 A Chinese Merchant’s Appeal to Congress Pun Chi In an 1860 petition to Congress, Pun Chi, a Chinese merchant, describes the prejudice, violence, and discriminatory practices faced by Chinese immigrants to California. The sincere and gracious attention of your honorable body is earnestly requested to the consideration of certain matters important to our peace as foreigners, the following statements of which may be relied upon as certainly true and correct: We are natives of the empire of China, each following some employment or profession — literary men, farmers, mechanics, or merchants. When your honorable government threw open the territory of California, the people of other lands were welcomed here to search for gold and to engage in trade. The ship-masters of your respected nation came over to our country, lauded the equality of your laws, extolled the beauty of your manners and customs, and made it known that your officers and people were extremely cordial toward the Chinese. Knowing well the harmony which had existed between our respective governments, we trusted in your sincerity. Not deterred by the long voyage, we came here presuming that our arrival would be hailed with cordiality and favor. But, alas! what times are these! — when former kind relations are forgotten, when we Chinese are viewed like thieves and enemies, when in the administration of justice our testimony is not received, when in the legal collection of the licenses we are injured and plundered, and villains of other nations are encouraged to rob and do violence to us! Our numberless wrongs it 254

is most painful even to recite. At the present time, if we desire to quit the country, we are not possessed of the pecuniary means; if allowed to remain, we dread future troubles. But yet, on the other hand, it is our presumption that the conduct of the officers of justice here has been influenced by temporary prejudices and that your honorable government will surely not uphold their acts. We are sustained by the confidence that the benevolence of your eminent body, contemplating the people of the whole world as one family, will most assuredly not permit the Chinese population without guilt to endure injuries to so cruel a degree. We would therefore present the following twelve subjects for consideration at your bar. We earnestly pray that you would investigate and weigh them; that you would issue instructions to your authorities in each State that they shall cast away their partial and unjust practices, restore tranquility to us strangers, and that you would determine whether we are to leave the country or to remain. Then we will endure ensuing calamities without repining, and will cherish for you sincere gratitude and most profound respect. The twelve subjects, we would state with great respect, are as follows: 1. The unrighteousness of humiliating and hating the Chinese as a people. We have heard that your honorable nation reverences Heaven. But if they comprehend the reverence that is due to the heavenly powers, of necessity they cannot humiliate and hate the Chinese. Why do we aver this? At the very beginning of time, Heaven produced a most holy man, whose name was Pwan-ku. He was the progenitor of the people of China. All succeeding races have branched off from them. The central part of the earth is styled by its inhabitants, the Middle Flowery Kingdom. That is the country of the Chinese. The regions occupied by later races are distributed round and subordinate to it. Heaven causes it to produce in the greatest variety and abundance, so that of all under the sky this country is the greatest, and has bestowed upon it perfect harmony with the powers of nature, so that all things there attain the highest perfection. Hence we see that Heaven most loves our Chinese people, and multiplies its gifts to them beyond any other race. . . . 3. A brief statement of the manner in which our Chinese government acts toward foreigners. China possesses a mutual trade with all foreign lands. When a man from another country arrives in China, none of our officers and common people treat him otherwise than with respect and kindness. In case he be defrauded or injured, where it is a small matter the offender is fined or punished corporeally; in a graver one he forfeits his life. Even though there be no witnesses, still the local officers must thoroughly inquire into the circumstances. In murders and brawls, if the criminal be not discovered the magistrate is called to account and degraded from his office. When a foreigner commits a deed of violence against a Chinese, a spirit of great leniency and care is manifested in the judgment of the case. Not because there is not power to punish. But we sincerely dread to mar the beautiful idea of gentleness and benignity toward the stranger from afar.

End of track, on Humboldt Plains. Photo shows railroad track construction, including Chinese railroad workers, between 1865 and 1869 (LOC).

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Now why is it that, when our people come to your country, instead of being welcomed with unusual respect and kindness, on the contrary they are treated with unusual contempt and evil? Hence many lose their lives at the hands of lawless wretches. Yet though there be Chinese witnesses of the crime, their testimony is rejected. The result is our utter abandonment to be murdered and that of our business to be ruined. How hard for the spirit to sustain such trials! It is true some persons reply that the Chinese who come here are of no advantage to the country. Yet if a calculation be made only of the amount of licenses we pay, the value of our trade, the revenue to steamers, stage companies and other interests, amounting to several millions of dollars per annum, can it be affirmed that we are of no advantage? But, besides, it is to be considered that we Chinese are universally a law-abiding people and that our conduct is very different from the lawlessness and violence of some other foreigners. Were it not that each so little understands the other’s tongue, and mutual kind sentiments are not communicated, would not more cordial intercourse probably exist? 4. The perpetual vexations of the Chinese. The class that engage in digging gold are, as a whole, poor people. We go on board the ships. There we find ourselves unaccustomed to winds and waves and to the extremes of heat and cold. We eat little; we grieve much. Our appearance is plain and our clothing poor. At once, when we leave the vessel, boatmen extort heavy fares; all kinds of conveyances require from us more than the usual charges; as we go on our way we are pushed and kicked and struck by the drunken and the brutal; but as we cannot speak your language, we bear our injuries and pass on. Even when within doors, rude boys throw sand and bad men stones after us. Passersby, instead of preventing these provocations, add to them by their laughter. We go up to the mines; there the collectors of the licenses make unlawful exactions and robbers strip, plunder, wound and even murder some of us. Thus we are plunged into endless un-commiserated wrongs. But the first root of them all is that very degradation and contempt of the Chinese as a race of which we have spoken, which begins with your honorable nation, but which they communicate to people from other countries, who carry it to greater lengths. Chun Jan Yut, 7 years old, with his father, Chun Duck Chin, 1899 (NARA).

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Now what injury have we Chinese done to your honorable people that they should thus turn upon us and make us drink the cup of wrong even to its last poisonous dregs?

5. Fatal injuries unpunished. Your Supreme Court has decided that the Chinese shall not bring action or give testimony against white men. Of how great wrongs is this the consummation! To the death of how many of us has it led! In cases that are brought before your officers of justice, inasmuch as we are unable to obtain your people as witnesses, even the murderer is immediately set free! Sanctioned by this, robbers of foreign nations commit the greatest excesses. It is a small thing with them to drive us away and seize our property. They proceed to do violence and kill us; they go on in a career of bloodshed without limit, since they find there are none to bear testimony against them. . . . Why, then, is this burden laid upon us Chinese alone? Suppose there be false witness borne, are the judges of your honorable country blind and stupid, so that they cannot discern it and estimate testimony at its value? Because here and there a Chinese or two has proved a perjurer, shall it prejudice our entire nation? Shall this degrade us beneath the negro and the Indian? This is a great injustice, such as is not heard of in our Middle Kingdom! It injures your fair name. Every nation under heaven mocks at you. Hence it is not alone we Chinese that suffer, but blessings are lost thereby to your own land. 6. The persecution of the Chinese miners. If a Chinese earns a dollar and a half in gold per day, his first desire is to go to an American and buy a mining claim. But should this yield a considerable result, the seller, it is possible, compels him to relinquish it. Perhaps robbers come and strip him of the gold. He dare not resist, since he cannot speak the language, and has not the power to withstand them. On the other hand, those who have no means to buy a claim seek some ground which other miners have dug over and left, and thus obtain a few dimes. From the proceeds of a hard day’s toil, after the pay for food and clothes very little remains. It is hard for them to be prepared to meet the collector when he comes for the license money. If such a one turns his thoughts back to the time when he came here, perhaps he remembers that then he borrowed the money for his passage and expenses from his kindred and friends, or perhaps he sold all his property to obtain it; and how bitter those thoughts are! In the course of four years, out of each ten men that have come over scarcely more than one or two get back again. Among those who cannot do so, the purse is often empty; and the trials of many of them are worthy of deep compassion. Thus it is evident that the gold mines are truly of little advantage to the Chinese. Yet the legislature questions whether it shall not increase the license; that is, increase trouble upon trouble! It is pressing us to death. If it is your will that Chinese shall not dig the gold of your honorable country, then fix a limit as to time, say, for instance, three years, within which every man of them shall provide means to return to his own country. Thus we shall not perish in a foreign land. Thus mutual kindly sentiments shall be restored again. . . .

Chun Jan Yut at 22 years of age. Photograph from Immigration Service form 430, “Application of American-born Chinese for Preinvestigation of Status,” filed upon departure from San Francisco for a trip abroad, 1914 (NARA).

12. A request for an enactment appointing a time when the Chinese shall finally return to their own land. When we were first favored with the invitations of your ship-captains to emigrate to California, and heard the laudations which they published of the 257

perfect and admirable character of your institutions, and were told of your exceeding respect and love toward the Chinese, we could hardly have calculated that we would now be the objects of your excessive hatred — that your courts would refuse us the right of testimony; your legislature load us with increasing taxes and devise means how to wholly expel us; your collectors, even before the law is made, begin to demand larger sums, and to compel the month’s payment for shorter periods than that time; that foreign villains, witnessing your degrading treatment of us, would assume the right to harass, plunder and rob us, possibly kill us; that injuries of every hind would be inflicted on us, and unceasing wrongs be perpetrated; that if we would desire to go, we would be unable to do so, and if we desired to remain, we could not. But now if, finally, you do not will that we should mine and traffic in your honorable country, we beg that you will fix by law a limit of three years, within which we may collect our property and return to our country; and that you will strictly forbid your ship-captains to use inducements for people to come, and, if they do not obey, severely punish them. Thus we will endeavor after the lapse of three years to leave upon your honorable soil not a trace of the Chinese population. If, on the other hand, you grant us as formerly to mine and trade here, then it is our request that you will give instructions to your courts that they shall again receive Chinese testimony; that they shall cease their incessant discussions about expelling the Chinese; that they shall quit their frequent agitations as to raising the license fees; that they shall allow the Chinese peace in the pursuit of their proper employments; and that they shall effectually repress the acts of violence common among the mountains, so that robbers shall not upon one pretext or another injure and plunder us. Thus shall your distinguished favor revive us like a continual dew.

Discussion Question Describe the prejudice, violence, and discriminatory practices faced by 1860 Chinese immigrants in California.

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Chapter 32

Nation Building: Social Policy Dissonance First Thoughts Based on a Thomas Gray poem, inspired by a Welsh tradition that said that Edward I had put to death any bards he found, to extinguish Welsh culture (PDArt).

Nationalism was the most successful political force of the 19th century. It emerged from two main sources: the romantic exaltation of “feeling” and “identity” and the notion of a requirement that a legitimate state be based on a “people” rather than, for example, a dynasty, God, or imperial domination. Both romantic “identity nationalism” and liberal “civic nationalism” were essentially middle-class movements. There were two main ways of exemplification: the French method of “inclusion” — essentially that anyone who accepted loyalty to the civil French state was a “citizen.” . . . The US can be seen to have eventually adopted this ideal of inclusive civic nationalism. The German method, required by political circumstances, was to define the “nation” in ethnic terms. In any event, whatever method a nation-state preferred, nationalism walked on stage in the 19th century and stayed.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will examine the rise of nationalism in Europe. We will see that it emerged from the Renaissance, but eventually killed its spiritual parents by embracing romanticism. We will see that nationalism was more than a political movement; it was inextricably tied to social and artistic movements. Next we will examine the Franco-Prussian War, the first purely nationalistic war, and finish with a look at four primary source examples of nationalism. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Evaluate (i.e., is it a good thing and why) nationalism as a historical phenomenon 2. Discuss the distinctive of romanticism

Concepts

3. Describe two or three artistic movements that affect contemporary young people and their culture

Nationalism

4. Understand how the development of the gothic romance is tied to nationalism

Imperialism

5. Explain how nationalism showed a nasty side in the Franco-Prussian War

Nation Building

6. Compare and contrast four examples of nationalism

Romanticism Gothic Romance Völkisch Movement Franco-Prussian War 259

Lesson 1 Nationalism Nationalism began with the decline of feudalism and the beginning of the Renaissance. Inevitably, nationalism emerged around a central political figure. Good examples of nationalism supporting the rise of a single person are the case of Elizabeth I in England and Garibaldi in Italy.

Most people think that nationalism is a love for one’s country. Of course, it is much more. Throughout history, large groups of people who share a cultural identity (language, customs, history) have felt the pulling power of nationalistic feeling. But that alone is not nationalism. For instance, the homeschool movement shares the same cultural identity, but it is not a “nation.” A nation is a community of people or peoples living in a defined territory and organized under a single government. Nationalism, then, revolves around a community living in a geographical place. The nation may even be split — as Prussia was separated from Germany after World War II — but is still a nation and can exhibit nationalism. The spirit of nationalism leads a nation to think it is better off as an autonomous, separate state. Such nations are willing to go to extreme measures in achieving autonomous self-rule. Revolutions, wars, ethnic cleansing, and other conflicts of varying degrees have occurred throughout history because of a love for one’s country. Nationalism can unite people into cohesive, stable nations. Conversely, it can tear nations apart, resulting in long periods of social upheaval and political chaos. Political revolutions occurred, causing tremendous impact on subsequent revolutions, and resulted in ousting leaders and forming new governments. Many European nations experienced heightened periods of nationalism in the 19th century and were either unified by it or divided by ethnic group. The European nations that experienced unification because of nationalism eventually entered into a period of imperialism where they politically, socially, and economically conquered weaker nations in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. Still later, in the 20th century, these conquered, imperialized countries experienced nationalistic movements aimed at removing European influences in order to establish their own autonomous states. Today, in places like Iraq, the United States has even started “nation building” where the Americans tried to build a new, democratic Iraqi state.

Discussion Question Photographic print of Giuseppe Garibaldi (18081882), taken in Naples, Italy, 1861 (LOC).

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Evaluate (i.e., is it a good thing and why) nationalism as a historical phenomenon.

Lesson 2 Romanticism Nationalism was a political movement; however, it was always connected to social movements. Ironically, nationalism grew out of the Renaissance — a rebirth of the classics. Nationalism, at its core, asked its adherents to embrace an abstract, idealistic agenda. The German poet Friedrich Schlegel, who is given credit for first using the term “romantic” to describe literature, defined it as “literature depicting emotional matter in an imaginative form.” Imagination, emotion, and freedom are distinctive of romanticism. Any list of particular characteristics of the literature of romanticism includes subjectivity and an emphasis on individualism; spontaneity; freedom from rules; solitary life rather than life in society; the belief that imagination is superior to reason; a devotion to beauty; love for and worship of nature; and fascination with the past, especially the myths and mysticism of the Middle Ages. Of all the emotions celebrated by the romantics, the most popular was love. It was the romantics who first celebrated romantic love as the natural birthright of every human being, the most exalted of human sentiments, and the necessary foundation of a successful marriage. Such a novel ideal was appealing and very influential. Most of us reject the raw sentimentalism of romanticism, even defining its essence as false, exaggerated emotion. Nonetheless, as a critic explains, it is not clear that we have gained so much by prizing attitudes of cynicism, detachment, and ruthlessness in our modern literature. Romantic artists include Emerson, Thoreau, Goethe, Beethoven, Schiller, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, and Blake.

Discussion Question Discuss the distinctive of romanticism.

Ralph Waldo Emerson (LOC)

Henry David Thoreau (PD)

Ludwig van Beethoven (PD)

Percy Bysshe Shelley (NPG)

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Lesson 3 The Gothic Romance Another quite distinct contribution to the romantic movement was the Gothic romance. The modern horror novel and the women’s romance are both descendants of the Gothic romance, as transmuted through such masterworks as Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre and her sister Emily’s Wuthering Heights. Another classic Gothic work, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, is often cited as a forerunner of modern science fiction. The Gothic novel embraced the medieval culture so disdained by the early 18th century. Whereas classical art looked back constantly to the ancient Greeks and Romans, the romantics celebrated, for the first time since the Renaissance, the wilder aspects of the creativity of Western Europeans from the 12th through the 14th centuries: stained glass in soaring cathedrals, tales of Robin Hood and his merry men, and — above all — the old tales of King Arthur and the knights of the round table. In its age, then, romanticism was a modern movement.

Charlotte Bronte (PD).

This influence was to spread far beyond the Gothic romance to all artistic forms in Europe, and lives on in the popular fantasy novels of today. Fairies, witches, angels — all the fantastic creatures of the medieval popular imagination came flooding back into the European arts in the romantic period. What did this have to do with nationalism? The Gothic view encouraged emotionalism and sentimentalism. The longing for “simpler” eras not freighted with the weight of the modern world gave rise to a movement in national states, the Gothic romance völkisch movement, which celebrated indigenous folk groups and clans within a nation’s borders. The other influential characteristic of romanticism was its evocation of strong, irrational emotions — particularly horror. Whereas Voltaire and his comrades had abhorred “enthusiasm” and strove to dispel the mists of superstition, the Gothic writers evoked all manner of irrational scenes designed to horrify and amaze. Romantic writers generally also prized the more tender sentiments of affection, sorrow, and romantic longing. In this they were inspired by certain currents analogous to the Enlightenment, in particular the writings of JeanJacques Rousseau.

Mary Shelley (NPG).

In a sort of reverse snobbery, romanticism, and then its first cousin, nationalism, embraced a concept called the “noble savage.” Of course the motherland or fatherland was the center of the universe, but there were “natives” who needed to hear the “Gospel” of the land. Most “natives” were depicted as inevitably lazy and unable to govern themselves. But to the romantic and the nationalist, this was good. Later, this nationalism would switch to imperialism, and now the nationalist desired to share their good fortune with other nations, whether they wanted it or not. Historian Paul Brians argues, “One of the most important developments of this period is the rise in the importance of individualism. Before the 18th century, few Europeans concerned themselves with discovering their own individual identities. They were what they had been born: nobles, peasants, or merchants. As mercantilism and

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capitalism gradually transformed Europe, however, it destabilized the old patterns. The new industrialists naturally liked to credit themselves for having built their large fortunes and rejected the right of society to regulate and tax their enterprises. Sometimes they tried to fit into the traditional patterns by buying noble titles; but more and more often they developed their own tastes in the arts and created new social and artistic movements alien to the old aristocracy. This process can be seen operating as early as the Renaissance in the Netherlands.” Participating in a national state was a natural reaction for these young industrialists. The national state, flush with new nationalism, benefited from the nascent industries within its borders; moreover, industry benefited from the exclusive markets nations encouraged by implementing protective tariffs and corporate tax breaks. At this time, the Krupp Company, for instance, was a willing partner in the German nationalistic movement of the last two centuries. Historian Paul Brians finishes, “The changing economy not only made individualism attractive to the newly rich, it [also] made possible a free market in the arts in which entrepreneurial painters, composers, and writers could seek out sympathetic audiences to pay them for their works, no longer confined to a handful of Church and aristocratic patrons who largely shared the same values. They could now afford to pursue their individual tastes in a way not possible even in the Renaissance.”

Discussion Question How was the development of the Gothic romance tied to nationalism?

Lesson 4 National Wars: The Franco-Prussian War 1870 The Franco-Prussian War was a war France lost to the German states under the leadership of Prussia. The underlying causes of the conflict were the determination of the Prussian statesman Prince Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck to unify Germany under Prussian control and, as a step toward this goal, to eliminate French influence over Germany. On the other hand, Napoleon III, emperor of France from 1852 to 1870, dropped the ball. French Soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71 (PD).

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The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was a quick, splendid war for the Prussians (Germans) and a lingering nightmare for the French.

Ironically, France declared war on Prussia. The south German states, in fulfillment of their treaties with Prussia, immediately joined King William in a common front against France. The French were only able to mobilize about 200,000 troops. The Germans, however, quickly marshaled an army of about 400,000 men. All German forces were under the command of Graf von Moltke, one of the greatest minds of the 19th century. The decisive battle of the war opened in Sedan on the morning of September 1, 1870. It took the Germans one day to defeat the entire French army. The following day, Napoleon III, together with 83,000 troops, surrendered to the Germans. On January 18, 1871, William I, the Prussian king, was crowned emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, a galling insult. The Treaty of Frankfurt, signed on May 10, 1871, ended the war between France and Germany. The treaty declared that the French province of Alsace (excepting Belfort) and part of Lorraine, including Metz, were to be ceded to the German Empire, and that France was to pay a war indemnity of 5 billion gold francs ($1 billion), submitting to occupation by German troops until the amount was rendered in full. This heavy obligation was discharged in September 1873, and during the same month, after an occupation of almost three years, France was at last freed of German soldiers.

Otto von Bismarck and Napoleon III after the Battle of Sedan in 1870 (PD).

This was the first war fought between two “nationalist” countries, but it would not be the last. It showed the degree to which civilian armies would go to die for nation and leader. European kings and ministers now knew the sky was the limit, and in the years ahead, they would continue to draw on the romanticism and nationalism of their people.

Discussion Question Nationalism showed a nasty side in the Franco-Prussian War. How would you describe it?

Part of the panoramic painting “Battle of Bapaume” of Charles Édouard Armand-Dumaresq showing General Faidherbe (PD-Art).

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Lesson 5 19th-Century Nationalism A country is not merely a geographic territory. . . . A country is the sense of love which unites as one all the sons and daughters of that geographic territory. So long as a single person amongst you has no vote to represent him in the development of the national life; so long as there is one person left to vegetate in ignorance while others are educated; so long as a single person that is able and willing to work languishes in poverty through lack of a job, you have no country in the sense in which a country ought to exist. The right to vote, education, and employment are the three main pillars of a nation. The life of your country will be immortal so long as you are ready to die for your fellow men and women. From Giuseppe Mazzini: A Memoir by E.A. Venturi. Giuseppe Mazzini was a leader in the struggle for Italian unification. The noble-minded man will be active and effective, and will sacrifice himself for his people. . . . In order to save his nation he must be ready even to die that it may live, and that he may live in it the only life for which he has ever wished. . . . In this belief our earliest common forefathers . . . the Germans, as the Romans called them, bravely resisted the oncoming world domination of Romans. . . . Freedom to them meant just this: remaining Germans and continuing to settle their own affairs independently and in accordance with the original spirit of their race. . . . They assumed as a matter of course that every man would rather die than become half Roman, and that a true German could only want to live in order to be, and to remain, just a German. . . . It is they whom we must thank; we the immediate heirs of their soil, their language, and their way of thinking. . . . The present problem, the first task . . . is simply to preserve the existence and continuance of what is German. All other differences would vanish.

Voices Our hearts where they rocked our cradle, Our love where we spent our toil, And our faith, and our hope, and our honor, We pledge to our native soil. God gave all men all earth to love, But since our hearts are small, Ordained for each one spot should prove Beloved over all. ― Rudyard Kipling

Citizens shot for reading Mazzini’s Journal from Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian Hero and Patriot, 1888 (PD-Art).

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From Addresses to the German Nation by J.G. Fichte. Johann Fichte was a Prussian patriot during Napoleon’s occupation of Berlin. German National Anthem Germany, Germany above all, Above everything in the world, When always, for protection, We stand together as brothers. From the Maas to the Memel From the Etsch to the Belt — Germany, Germany above all Above all in the world. German women, German loyalty, German wine and German song, Shall retain in the world, Their old lovely ring To inspire us to noble deeds Our whole life long. German women, German loyalty, German wine and German song.

The painting Germania by Philipp Veit was completed in 1848 during a period of revolutions that swept through Europe fueled by growing nationalism. The figure of Germania utilizes the Imperial Eagle and oak leaves, which symbolize strength and a hemp branch as a sign for peace. The colors used are those of Germany’s flag today, the sword stands for leadership and defense, while the opened shackles at her feet stand for freedom (PD).

Unity and law and freedom For the German Fatherland Let us all strive for that In brotherhood with heart and hand! Unity and law and freedom Are the foundation for happiness Bloom in the glow of happiness Bloom, German Fatherland. Germany, Germany above all And in misfortune all the more. Only in misfortune can love Show if it’s strong and true. And so it should ring out From generation to generation: Germany, Germany above all, And in misfortune all the more.

Discussion Question Compare and contrast these examples of nationalism.

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Chapter 33

Urbanization: Sociological Advances First Thoughts Flatiron Building, New York, N.Y., between 1900 and 1905 (LOC).

From 1870 to the beginning of the 20th century, American cities grew from 10 million to 54 million. Cities grew in population and expanded geographically by absorbing nearby communities. Chicago grew from about 300,000 inhabitants in 1870 to more than a million in 1890. Three-quarters of the city’s residents were born outside the United States, and many lived in unsafe tenements. The growth of cities outpaced the ability of local governments to provide basic services to poorer areas, so conditions in cities were awful. Not surprisingly, corruption was rampant in city government and city services. In short, in the midst of the unprecedented prosperity that everywhere existed in the Gilded Age, debilitative poverty swamped American cities (Steve Mintz).

Chapter Learning Objectives We will examine the American city, in general. Next we will study the development of novel events, like the building of skyscrapers. We will meet Boss Tweed and celebrate, with thousands of New Yorkers, his demise. Finally, we will visit Chicago in October 1871 and review the facts surrounding the Great Fire. As a result of this chapter you should be able to: 1. Examine the 19th-century city 2. Explore the emergence of city skyscrapers 3. Study the reasons Boss Tweed dominated New York politics 4. Review the Great Chicago Fire

Concepts Industrial expansion Tenement housing Neighborhoods Skyscraper Boss Tweed Great Chicago Fire D.L. Moody 267

Lesson 1 Overview Many of those who resided in the city lived in rental apartments or tenement housing. Neighborhoods were often the center of community life. The Church was no longer the center of community life.

Between 1880 and 1900, cities in the United States grew at a dramatic rate. Owing most of their population growth to the expansion of industry, U.S. cities grew by about 15 million people in the two decades before 1900 in industrial areas. Therefore, growth was slower in agricultural southern cities and western cities. Many of those who helped account for the population growth of cities were immigrants arriving from around the world. A steady stream of people from rural America also migrated to the cities during this period. Between 1880 and 1890, almost one-half of small towns in the United States lost population because of migration. While America remained predominantly a rural nation until the 1990s, the last two decades of the 19th century brought radical demographic changes. Industrial expansion and population growth significantly changed the face of the nation’s cities. Noise, slums, air pollution, and sanitation issues became commonplace. The infrastructure of the 19th-century city could not sustain rapid urban growth. Nonetheless cities grew. And they grew larger and faster than anyone imagined. Mass transit in the form of trolleys, cable cars, and subways was built, and skyscrapers began to dominate city skylines. New communities, known as suburbs, were built just beyond the city. Commuters, those who lived in the suburbs and traveled in and out of the city for work, began to increase in number. Initially, the best housing was outside the city. Only later in the 20th century did people move back into the city. In rental apartments or tenement housing, immigrant groups tenaciously held onto and practiced precious customs and traditions. The reader should not imagine that America was ever a melting pot, then or now! At least through the first generation, immigrant groups clustered together in urban areas and resisted all efforts of assimilation. Even today, many neighborhoods or sections of some of the great cities in the United States reflect those ethnic heritages. Chinatown, Irishtown, the Bronx — all were outposts of immigrant heritage. The immigrant poor lived in overcrowded, unsanitary, and unsafe housing. Many lived in tenements, dumbbell-shaped brick apartment buildings four to six stories in height. In 1900, two-thirds of Manhattan’s residents lived in tenements.

Yard of a tenement at Park Avenue and 107th Street, New York, c. 1900 (LOC).

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In one New York tenement, up to 18 people lived in each apartment. Each apartment had a wood-burning stove and a concrete bathtub in the kitchen, which, when covered with planks, served as a dining table. Before 1901, residents used rear-yard outhouses. Afterward, two common toilets were installed on each floor. In the summer, children sometimes slept on the fire escape. Tenants typically paid $10 a month rent.

In tenements, many apartments were dark and airless because interior windows faced narrow light shafts, if there were interior windows at all. With a series of newspaper articles and then a book, entitled How the Other Half Lives, published in 1889, Jacob Riis turned tenement reform into a crusade. During the final years of the 1800s, industrial cities, with all the problems brought on by rapid population growth and lack of infrastructure to support the growth, occupied a special place in U.S. history. For all the problems, and there were many, the cities promoted a special bond between people and laid the foundation for the multiethnic, multicultural society that we cherish today.

Discussion Question Why did cities grow so rapidly at the end of the 19th century?

Jacob August Riis was an American social reformer. Here is Riis’ Children Sleeping in Mulberry Street, a photo from 1890 (PD).

Lesson 2 Skyscrapers Cities grew upward as well as outward. In 1889, the tallest building in the United States was New York’s Trinity Church, near Wall Street. The next year, it was overtaken by the 26-story New York World Building. Motivated by immense profits, the skyscraper transformed the appearance of American cities. For investors, skyscrapers promised significant profits. The cost of building up, instead of out, was much cheaper. A 14-story building more than doubled the profits of a sevenstory building, and the cost to build on top of existing structures was much cheaper than the cost of building onto existing structures. William LeBaron Jenney, a Chicago architect, designed the first skyscraper in 1884. Nine stories high, the Home Life Insurance Building was the first structure whose entire weight, including the exterior walls, was supported on an iron frame. However, this was a drafty, uncomfortable building. Besides, who wanted to walk up six floors every day! Elevators had not been invented yet. It would be another 14 years before engineers had invented the technology to sustain huge populations of workers in skyscrapers. The Equitable Life Assurance Building was constructed in New York City and contained all the characteristics of a modern

Skyscrapers were not possible with brick and cinder block construction. Brick could not bear the weight of buildings higher than six stories. But in the 1880s, Bethlehem Steel in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and U.S. Steel in Pittsburgh developed more durable steel. This allowed architects to design buildings of unprecedented height.

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skyscraper, including central heating, elevators, and pressurized plumbing. Even these skyscrapers were merely orthodox buildings built one floor on top of another. The weight load was immense, but the new building materials made this possible — to a certain extent. The arrival of several new technologies permitted the construction of buildings taller than ever before. Foremost among the new technologies was the metal frame, a method pioneered by architect William Jenney in Chicago. Skyscrapers bloomed all over the United States and Europe. One notable feat was the construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889, which taught architects how to brace a metal frame against the winds.

Discussion Question Why was a skyscraper such an appealing technology? Singer, City Investing & Hudson Terminal Buildings, New York City, 1909 (LOC).

Lesson 3 Boss Tweed Once Americans grew comfortable with political parties and political opposition, they began to embrace a sort of narcissistic governing strategy. This was especially true in the city where large groups of voters could be motivated and manipulated. Thus, political corruption was rampant. To many late-19th-century Americans, William M. Tweed — Boss Tweed — personified public corruption. In the late 1860s, William M. Tweed was New York City’s political boss. His headquarters was known as Tammany Hall. He controlled the city’s mayor, and rewarded political supporters. His primary source of funds came from the bribes and kickbacks he demanded in exchange for city contracts. The most notorious example of urban corruption was the construction of the New York County Courthouse, which began in 1861. The city spent nearly $13 million — roughly $178 million in today’s dollars, and cost nearly twice as much as the purchase of Alaska in 1867! William M. Tweed

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The corruption was breathtaking in its breadth and baldness. A carpenter was paid $360,751 (roughly $4.9 million today) for one month’s labor in a building with very little woodwork. A furniture contractor received $179,729 ($2.5 million) for three tables and 40 chairs. And the plasterer, a Tammany functionary, Andrew J. Garvey, got $133,187 ($1.82 million) for two days’ work; his business acumen earned him the sobriquet “The Prince of Plasterers.” Tweed personally profited from a financial interest in a Massachusetts quarry that provided the courthouse’s marble. When a committee investigated why it took so long to build the courthouse, it spent $7,718 ($105,000) to print its report. The printing company was owned by Tweed. It was too good to last. In July 1871, two low-level city officials with a grudge against the Tweed Ring provided The New York Times with reams of documentation that detailed the corruption at the courthouse and with other city projects. The newspaper published a string of articles. Those articles, coupled with the political cartoons of Thomas Nast in Harper’s Weekly, created a national outcry, and soon Tweed and many of his cronies were facing criminal charges and political oblivion. Tweed died in prison in 1878.

Discussion Question Why did men like Tweed gain such power in cities?

The Tweed Courthouse near City Hall in Manhattan. The courthouse currently is the headquarters of the New York City Department of Education (CCA-SA3.0).

Lesson 4 The Great Chicago Fire On the evening of October 7, 1871, Mrs. Catherine O’Leary’s cow kicked over a lantern, touching off the Great Chicago Fire. On the evening that the fire started, a 30-mile-perhour wind was blowing from the southwest. The city was dry from weeks of no rain. The fire scorched its way north and east. Ironically, Mrs. O’Leary’s house was almost untouched. Even the barn where the fire started had only a corner burned out. The fire raged out of control for a day and a half. The fire destroyed four-and-a-half square miles of Chicago — some 17,500 buildings. All of downtown was destroyed. At times, temperatures reached 1,500 to 1,800 degrees. People were literally incinerated; limestone disintegrated into powder. Two hundred and fifty people died, 200 were listed as missing, and 100,000 were homeless. Some historians do not believe that Mrs. O’Leary’s cow actually started the fire. It seems to many that this myth was the product of anti-Catholicism. But no one really knows how the fire started.

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The great fire at Chicago, October 8th, 1871, published by Currier & Ives, c. 1871 (LOC).

Ironically, the Great Fire overshadowed another huge blaze. On October 8, 1871, the most devastating forest fire in American history swept through Wisconsin. Railroad workers clearing land for tracks started a brush fire that burned 16 other towns and 1.25 million acres of surrounding forest, and killed 1,200 people.

Discussion Question Discuss the cause and impact of the Chicago fire.

Lesson 5 Evangelical Social Welfare in the City A Book Review By 1883, Thomas O’Donnell, an Irish immigrant, had lived in the United States for over a decade. He was 30 years old and married with two children. His third child had died in 1882, and O’Donnell was still in debt for the funeral. Money was scarce, for O’Donnell was a textile worker in Fall River, Massachusetts, and not well educated.

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O’Donnell and his family were barely getting by even though he worked every day and some nights. They were marginally Roman Catholic, but often attended revival meetings

when they were held by the local Christian and Missionary Alliance Church. While they would never leave the Roman Catholic Church — mostly out of fear — they had already responded (more than once) to an evangelist’s appeal to give “their hearts to the Lord.” O’Donnell, and thousands like him, were part of the growing American urban working poor. Although no nationwide studies of poverty existed, estimates suggest that perhaps half of the American population was at poverty level. This “misery” was increasingly being concentrated in industrialized urban centers. Since its founding, the United States has changed from a rural to an urban nation. The most important city, for instance, New York, probably contained less than 22,000 people at the beginning of the American Revolution. During the 19th century, America was literally transformed into an urban nation. Regardless, in 1880, only 3.4% of the population lived in cities of over a million people. But if one defines a city as having at least 100,000 people, the percentage of the total population living in cities from 1850 to 1900 grew from 6% to almost 20%. And this figure is even more remarkable if one considers that urban growth from about 1750 to 1850 was only 5 percent to about 6 percent. This urban growth was, to a large degree, due to the Industrial Revolution occurring in America.

The Sunday schools and afternoon activities were vital to O’Donnell’s family. When his paycheck came up a little short, he received a bag of groceries from a Salvation Army Station. And, to a large degree, his life was indelibly improved by the kind acts of revivalist Christians in his neighborhood.

Perhaps the most important development in American history during this period, however, was the flourishing of the revivalist movement. Norris Magnuson, in his book Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work 1865–1920, advances an ambitious thesis: The pietistic, revivalistic, and holiness (as contrasted with later evangelical and fundamentalist movements) Christian movements of the latter part of the 19th century were actively involving themselves in evangelical social work that was critical to the lives of thousands of average urban Americans. Christian urban missionaries/pioneers involved themselves in a wide range of social concerns (food, shelter, recreation, health, unemployment, and so forth). And this was before there was a positive liberal state (i.e., where the government funds most social welfare interventions). Magnuson points out those revivalist movements like the Salvation Army, the Volunteers of America, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, and the “Rescue Movement” attempted some of the most ambitious and innovative urban redevelopment projects that America knew in the Gilded Age. Revivalist social reformers were able to reinforce the already natural link between revivalism and social reform. The revivalists saw soul-salvation as the only hope for society, to be sure. But obedience to biblical injunctions to preach the gospel to all people, in the evangelical revivalist mind, also required a profound empathic identity with the poor. This movement was, and Magnuson does not point this out, an aberration in the American religious scene. Remember that the famous Philadelphia Baptist preacher Russell Conwell was preaching his famous sermon “Acres of Diamonds” to millions of people. Religious giants like Andrew Carnegie expressed the ethic most clearly in an article entitled, “The Gospel of Wealth” (1889). In general, mainline Christianity praised wealth and unabashedly used it as a yardstick for spirituality. Riches were a sure sign of godliness, and mainline Christians stressed the power of money to do good.

Andrew Carnegie, 1913 (LOC).

This attitude is in direct contrast to men like D. L. Moody who never made a general appeal for money. And while the Revivalists did not extol poverty, they saw the poor as victims of systemic evil more than as congenitally lazy people. Moody, Gladden, and others became some of the best late-19th-century American social engineers. They understood firsthand the structural and environmental causes of poverty and social oppression. They offered, for their day, quite sophisticated and 273

enlightened social welfare interventions. Fresh air programs, homes for women, farm colonies — these were really very elaborate and in some cases expensive, and in some cases very successful. While some of their programs consisted of temporary, hand-out charity, some programs sincerely sought more long-term solutions. And while some programs sought to move folks out of the city to rural environments, and did betray a somewhat anti-urban bias, other solutions offered amazing answers that celebrated the city and sought to rehabilitate it rather than abandon the city. These social welfare projects were, by and large, marked by lay participation and leadership. This was the last era in American history in which most social welfare reform occurred through “non-professional volunteers.” After World War I, which is after Magnuson’s period, the paid social welfare professional began to replace the revivalist volunteer layperson. Also, as Donald Dayton discusses in his preface to Magnuson’s book, these movements were permeated with egalitarianism that affirmed the ministry of women and minorities. They transcended cultural context in overcoming race and class prejudice.

D.L. Moody and J.V. Farwell’s first Sunday school class, from circa 1876. Moody and Farwell are pictured standing with 14 street boys in Chicago (LOC).

With exhaustive evidence, Magnuson argues that evangelistic movements of the last half of the 19th century embraced all humankind with surprising equanimity. This openness was far ahead of even the most ardent Progressive. Rescue workers accepted African-Americans and the immigrant; they loved the prostitute and the unemployed. They opened their highest offices to women (especially in the Salvation Army). To these reformers, race, creed, ethnicity, and sex were illegitimate categories to make judgments: the only legitimate categories were “saved” or “unsaved.” And, far from being a hindrance to social Christianity, the revivalistic and holiness faith produced extensive social programs and close identification with the poor. Joining in the plight of the “least of these,” those evangelistic Christians found their Lord in the slums. The ugly, dilapidated parts of Chicago, New York, and Milwaukee became the Promised Land to these revivalists. They found their destiny with God among the poor and by their dedication graced an otherwise bleak American social scene. But they were not sentimentalists. They saw that they were themselves part of the problem. They saw the heaviness of environmental pressure. They were some of the first American reformers who partly blamed the plight of the poor on environmental factors rather than exclusively on congenital flaws or sheer laziness. As Magnuson ends his book: “. . . the combination of extensive personal knowledge of the slums with a teaching and experience that centered on the biblical meaning of love as practical helpfulness was primarily responsible for the philanthropy and the reform emphasis that marked the gospel welfare movement.”

Discussion Question Describe the late 19th-century evangelical movement and the impact it had on cities. 274

Chapter 34

1900: A New Century First Thoughts 1907 Buick (LOC).

A new century — 1900. The end of one century, the beginning of another. Baseball forms the American League with six teams. The Chicago Canal opens. The first stamp booklet is released in Washington, D.C. Dwight F. Davis begins the World Tennis Cup. The United States takes Wake Island. Hawaii becomes a territory. The airship Zeppelin makes its first flight. Wesson Oil opens its first stores. The Daisy BB gun hits the stores. We will visit the personal lives of four different Americans: A Southern African-American woman; a Pennsylvania coal miner; a New York collar starcher; and a Midwest college professor’s wife.

Chapter Learning Objectives We will study the journals of four different, courageous Americans. Along the way, we will get an insightful and inspiring insight into the intimate lives of ordinary 19th-century men and women. We will see what life was like for most 19th-century Americans. As a result of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Review the journal of an African-American southerner 2. Examine the life of a coal miner 3. Analyze the life of a collar starcher 4. Study the life of a college professor’s wife and homeschool mom of 1900 5. Evaluate all four lives and decide which life is most appealing

Concepts American Missionary Association Miner’s asthma 275

Lesson 1 1900: Daily Life While visiting my son in Thailand, I experienced what it was like in the United States in 1900. Or at least the prices were comparable. For instance, for lunch I had the lunch special, a three-course meal, for $.60. My whole family (4) ate for $3.00, counting a tip (which my son later told me Thais consider an insult). Here are some typical 1900 prices:

Meat Prices

A girl’s restaurant in Dayton, Ohio, c. 1902 (LOC).

Chicken

99¢ lb.

Pork

10¢ lb.

Beef

10¢ lb.

Turkey

10¢ lb.

Sausage

12.5¢ lb.

Bacon

12.5¢ lb.

Hens

7¢ lb.

Dinner Menu Appetizers Main Course Half of a Cantaloupe

10¢

Channel Catfish

20¢

Sliced Orange

10¢

Pork Tenderloins

20¢

Sliced Tomatoes

10¢

Omelet with Jelly

15¢

Sliced Cucumbers

10¢

Roast Pork with Applesauce 20¢

Soup Roast Beef

15¢

Old Fashion Navy Bean 10¢

15¢

Pork and Beans

Vegetables Dessert Corn on the Cob

10¢

Lemon Layer Cake

5¢

Buttered Beets

5¢

Ice Cream

10¢

Mashed Potatoes

5¢

Ice Cream and Cake

15¢

Pickled Beets

5¢

Raspberries and Cream

10¢

Cole Slaw

5¢

Rhubarb Pie

5¢

Salad

10¢

Green Apple Pie

5¢

Coffee

5¢ Tea

5¢

Milk

5¢ Buttermilk

5¢

Drinks

Clothing Back then most of the clothes for families were made by the family mom. So they cost only the expense of the material. That cost might be $.50 to a $1.00 for a dress or a medium suit. 276

Entertainment All of the songs back then were on sheets of paper, so if you had the instruments you could play them. Top of the Music Charts 1902 “Mr. Dooley” by Jean Schwartz 1902 “In the Good Old Summertime” by George Evans 1903 “The Burning of Rome” by E.T. Paull 1905 “What You Goin’ To Do When the Rent Comes ’Round?” by Harry Von Tilzer 1905 “In My Merry Oldsmobile” by Gus Edwards 1905 “Shade of the Old Apple Tree” by Egbert Van Alstyne 1907 “A New Rag, Dill Pickles” by Chas L. Johnson 1909 “My Pony Boy” by Charley O’ Donnell

Now, here are books popular from 1900–1910. 1901 The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by Robert Baum 1901 Up From Slavery by Booker T. Washington 1903 The Call Of the Wild by Jack London 1905 The Jungle by Upton Sinclair Have you read any of these?

Sports In the 1900s, football was popular at only a few Ivy League colleges, and basketball had yet to catch on. It was the only time in history that my alma maters dominated the sport. Since then I have languished in the throes of mediocre football. You can imagine my surprise when, in the beginning of the 21st century, Vanderbilt played in a bowl game! Professional baseball teams, meanwhile, had been around since 1880s, and began to get really popular in the 1900s. In 1902, professional teams had an overall fan ratio of 3.5 million people. And by 1911, that number had nearly doubled to 6.5 million. The American league was established in 1900 to rival the National League to organize teams. The rival leagues played the first World Series in 1903, with Boston defeating Pittsburgh. The Pirates, my favorite team, are still awful today.

Forbes Field, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania circa 1909 (LOC).

Also, the first baseball stadium was constructed in Pittsburgh — Forbes Field — followed soon by similar stadiums in Chicago, Cleveland, Boston, and New York. The famous baseball anthem, “Take Me Out to the Ball Game,” was first heard in 1909. 277

Inventions People had been dreaming about flying for years, and there were countless failing efforts. Not until the 1900s, however, would anyone succeed in piloting a heavier-thanair craft. Many believed that such a feat was impossible. In 1903, the distinguished astronomer Simon Newcomb stated, “Aerial flight is one of that class of problems with which man can never cope.” Oh yes. Without a doubt, the most important development in transportation during the 1900s was the rise of the gas-powered automobile. Americans could escape from the stultifying details of details of daily life to a realm of speed and fantasy, with cars. . . . The automobile radically changed the relationship of human beings to the physical world, to nature, and to one another. It became a courtship machine, a mobile love nest. The engine itself became a god of youth. It represented, perhaps above all, the conquest of the vast space of America. Automobile from the early 1900s (LOC).

Discussion Question When I was a little boy, my dad regularly took our family, three boys and a wife, forty-five minutes to eat at a new restaurant called “McDonalds” north of Pine Bluff, Arkansas. What a treat! The hamburgers were a little pricey — $.25 — and you could only have catsup on them — every southerner knows that mayonnaise and lots of it is the best thing to put on all sandwiches — but it was fun driving our 1957 Chevrolet Belair up Highway 65 with the windows down (because we had no air conditioning), trying to survive my parents’ nasty smoking habits and my older brother’s nasty stomach problems. Once, as we sojourned up 65, we spied a new store that had just opened. In blue and white letters was “Walmart.” It was just across the street from the Admiral Benbow Hotel, Pine Bluff, Arkansas. We were skeptical, but we thought we would give it a try. We were looking to buy some new duck decoys since our other ones were dry rotted. We went into the store, and I will never forget the experience. It was like I had lived all my life in the third world of West Department Store or the dime store or other little, uncluttered stores where one had virtually no selection at all. I have to tell you, it was completely disorienting suddenly to have forty-five choices of everything one might want. There were, for instance, at least, four different choices of Lucky 13 lures in the sporting goods section. The ebullience of this place was overwhelming. My dad, who was used to the brotherly care of Mr. Huddleston and Mr. Stuart who ran the local Sportsman’s Center, and always preferred a friendly handshake and smile to any old bargain, quickly looked for a salesman to help us. What he found was a lady. Yes, a lady was employed to help us in the sportsman section of a 1960ish Walmart. Poor dad first asked to speak to the sales clerk’s husband, but, discovering that the poor thing was a spinster — and no wonder, she was very rude to my dad. What poor soul would want to marry that lady? In great frustration, he gave up and purposed to wait and see if Mr. Huddleston and Mr. Stuart might have what he wanted. As we left the store, I distinctly remembering my dad shaking his head, feeling genuine pity for the Walmart folks, who Dad knew were decent folks. “Jimmy, take note. This store will never make it. Walmart will be out of business in a year.” Of course, he was wrong. What 1900 food choices and other cultural phenomenon have survived, and which ones have disappeared?

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Lesson 2 An Autobiography: A Southern African-American Woman, (1904) My father was slave in name only, his father and master being the same. He lived on a large plantation and knew many useful things. The blacksmith shop was the place he liked best, and he was allowed to go there and make little tools as a child. He became an expert blacksmith before he was grown. Before the war closed he had married and was the father of one child. When his father wanted him to remain on the plantation after the war, he refused because the wages offered were too small. The old man would not even promise an increase later, so my father left in a wagon he had made with his own hands, drawn by a horse he had bought from a passing horse drover with his own money.

The American Missionary Association had opened schools by this time, and my father went to night school and sent his wife and child to school in the day.

He had in his wagon his wife and baby, some blacksmith tools he had made from time to time, bedding, their clothing, some food, and twenty dollars in his pocket. As he drove by the house he got out of the wagon to bid his father goodbye. The old man came down the steps and, pointing in the direction of the gate, said: “Joseph, when you get on the outside of that gate stay.” Turning to my mother, he said, “When you get hungry and need clothes for yourself and the baby, as you are sure to do, come to me,” and he pitched a bag of silver in her lap, which my father immediately took and placed at his father’s feet on the steps and said, “I am going to feed and clothe them and I can do it on a bare rock.” My father drove twenty five miles to the largest town in the State, where he succeeded in renting a small house. The next day he went out to buy something to eat. On his way home a lady offered him fifty cents for a string of fish for which he had only paid twenty cents. That gave him an idea. Why not buy fish every day and sell them? He had thought to get work at his trade, but here was money to be made and quickly. So from buying a few strings of fish he soon saved enough to buy a wagon load of fish. My mother was very helpless, never having done anything in her life except needlework. She was unfitted for the hard work, and most of this my father did. He taught my mother to cook, and he would wash and iron himself at night. Many discouraging things happened to them. Often sales were slow and fish would spoil; many would not buy of him because he was colored; another baby was born and died; and my father came very near losing his life for whipping a white man who insulted my mother. He got out of the affair finally, but had to take on a heavy debt, besides giving up all of his hard earned savings. My father said after the war his ambition was first to educate himself and family, then to own a white house with green blinds, as much like his father’s as possible, and to support his family by his own efforts; never to allow his wife and daughters to be thrown in contact with Southern white men in their homes. He succeeded.

Young men training in blacksmithing at Hampton Institute, Hampton, Virginia, 1900 (LOC).

Three years later I was born in my father’s own home, in his coveted white house with green blinds, his father’s house in miniature. Here my father kept a small store, was burned out once and had other trials, but finally he had a large grocery store and feed store attached. . . . 279

The very first humiliation I received I remember very distinctly to this day. It was when I was very young. A little girl playmate said to me: “I like to come over to your house to play, we have such good times, and your ma has such good preserves; but don’t you tell my ma I eat over here. My ma says you all are nice, clean folks and she’d rather live by you than the white people we moved away from; for you don’t borrow things. I know she would whip me if I ate with you, tho, because you are colored, you know.”

Discussion Question What sort of indignities did African-Americans have to endure?

Lesson 3 A Miner’s Story, (1902) I am thirty-five years old, married, the father of four children, and have lived in the coal region all my life. Twenty-three of these years have been spent working in and around the mines. My father was a miner. He died ten years ago from “miners’ asthma.” Three of my brothers are miners; none of us had any opportunities to acquire an education. We were sent to school (such a school as there was in those days) until we were about twelve years of age, and then we were put into the screen room of a breaker to pick slate. From there we went inside the mines as driver boys. As we grew stronger we were taken on as laborers, where we served until able to call ourselves miners. We were given work in the breasts and gangways. There were five of us boys. One lies in the cemetery — fifty tons of top rock dropped on him. He was killed three weeks after he got his job as a miner — a month before he was to be married. In the fifteen years I have worked as a miner I have earned the average rate of wages any of us coal heavers get. Today I am little better off than when I started to do for myself. I have $100 on hand; I am not in debt; I hope to be able to weather the strike without going hungry.

Miners having dinner 2½ miles underground in a soft coal mine, Illinois, c. 1903 (LOC).

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I am only one of the hundreds you see on the street every day. The muscles on my arms are no harder, the callous on my palms no deeper than my neighbors’ whose entire life has been spent in the coal region. By years I am only thirty-five. But look at the marks on my body; look at the lines of worriment on my forehead; see the gray hairs on my head and in my mustache; take my general appearance, and you’ll think I’m ten years older. You need not wonder why. Day in and day out, from Monday morning to Saturday evening, between the rising and the setting of the sun, I am in the underground workings

of the coal mines. From the seams water trickles into the ditches along the gangways; if not water, it is the gas which hurls us to eternity and the props and timbers to a chaos. Our daily life is not a pleasant one. When we put on our oil soaked suit in the morning we can’t guess all the dangers which threaten our lives. We walk sometimes miles to the place to the man way or traveling way, or to the mouth of the shaft on top of the slope. And then we enter the darkened chambers of the mines. On our right and on our left we see the logs that keep up the top and support the sides which may crush us into shapeless masses, as they have done to many of our comrades. We get old quickly. Powder, smoke, after damp, bad air all combine to bring furrows to our faces and asthma to our lungs. I did not strike because I wanted to; I struck because I had to. A miner the same as any other workman must earn fair living wages, or he can’t live. And it is not how much you get that counts. It is how much what you get will buy. I have gone through it all, and I think my case is a good sample. I was married in 1890, when I was 23 years old quite a bit above the age when we miner boys get into double harness. The woman I married is like myself. She was born beneath the shadow of a dirt bank; her chances for school weren’t any better than mine; but she did have to learn how to keep house on a certain amount of money. After we paid the preacher for tying the knot we had just $185 in cash, good health and the good wishes of many friends to start us off. . . . In 1896 my wife was sick eleven weeks. The doctor came to my house almost every day. He charged me $20 for his services. There was medicine to buy. I paid the drug store $18 in that time. Her mother nursed her, and we kept a girl in the kitchen at $1.50 a week, which cost me $15 for ten weeks, besides the additional living expenses.

Miners pose with lunch pails in hand on a pile of “poor rock” (waste rock) outside of the Tamarack mineshaft. This mine was one of the most productive mines in Copper Country, 1905 (PD).

In 1897, just a year afterward, I had a severer trial. And mind, in those years, we were only working about half time. But in the fall of that year one of my brothers struck a gas feeder. There was a terrible explosion. He was hurled downward in the breast and covered with the rush of coal and rock. I was working only three breasts away from him and for a moment was unable to realize what had occurred. Myself and a hundred others were soon at work, however, and in a short while we found him, horribly burned over his whole body, his laborer dead alongside of him. He was my brother. He was single and had been boarding. He had no home of his own. I didn’t want him taken to the hospital, so I directed the driver of the ambulance to take him to my house. Besides being burned, his right arm and left leg were broken, and he was hurt internally. The doctors — there were two at the house when we got there — said he would die. But he didn’t. He is living and a miner today. But he lay in bed just fourteen weeks, and was unable to work for seven weeks after he got out of bed. He had no money when he was hurt except the amount represented by his pay. All of the expenses for doctors, medicine, extra help and his living were borne by me, except $25, which another brother gave me. The last one had none to give. Poor work, low wages and a sickly woman for a wife had kept him scratching for his own family.

Discussion Question Why did this miner strike? 281

Lesson 4 A Collar Starcher’s Story (1905) When I left school at the age of sixteen to go to work there were very few opportunities open to young girls, for the time was nearly thirty years ago. Therefore I considered myself unusually lucky to have been born and brought up in Troy, N.Y., where the shirt and collar factories offered employment to women. I was lucky also in being a large, stout girl, for the work offered me when I applied was that of a collar starcher, and while this does not call for much muscle, it certainly requires endurance and a good constitution. In those days practically all the laundry work was done by hand. There were no ironing machines and very few washing machines. The starching was about all there was for a girl of sixteen. So a starcher I became and a starcher I am to this day, or rather, I was until the strike came in May. I thoroughly enjoyed my first working years. The factory was not at all a bad place. I worked side by side with my friends, the girls I had gone to school with, met at church and at dances and picnics. The starching rooms were very hot and stuffy generally, like a Turkish bath, and the work was hard on the hands; but I didn’t mind these discomforts. Looking back at it now I think we were very well off. There was nothing like the rush and hurry we live in now. We were not driven at such a furious pace, for, of course, there was not nearly the business done then that there is now.

Photograph showing workers inside the Fuse Factory, Woolwich Arsenal, late 1800s, National Maritime Museum (PD).

The starching itself was a very different affair. The collars were two-ply, instead of the thick, unwieldy things men wear now, and there was no “lady work,” as we say. Just men’s collars, straight or folded back at the corners — two or three styles are all I remember. We were not obliged to dip those light collars. We simply rubbed in heavy starch, using our hands, and soft cloths. It was hot enough, but not the scalding work it is now. The working hours were not too long — about eight hours a day. We went to work at nine o’clock, except in the busy season, when we were on hand at eight. The day passed quickly with the talk and sometimes a bit of a song to liven things up. We used to sing part songs and old fashioned choruses. Some of the girls had beautiful voices. . . . My father and mother died before I was twenty. We had our little home and my brother and my three sisters and I lived on there. Three of us girls worked in the factories and one sister stayed at home and kept house for us. Our combined wages made a pretty good income. We lived well, dressed well and were very happy. My brother married and went West to live. The housekeeping sister married next and then my youngest sister found a husband. That broke up the home, for the two that were left couldn’t afford to keep it up. We took a couple of rooms and did our little housekeeping early in the morning before we went to work. At this time there came a break in the monotony of my life. I married a young man I had known for a number of years. He was an iron molder and made good wages. We

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went to housekeeping and I thought my collar starching days were over forever. But my husband was taken ill, and before I realized that he was seriously sick I was a widow with a two-year-old daughter to support. I naturally thought of the factory, but a friend who kept a grocery store begged me to come to live with her and help her with the business. I was glad to do it on account of my little girl and I did my best to become a good grocery clerk. I cannot say that I enjoyed it, however. It was slow compared with the sociability of the factory, and besides, when you have learned to do one kind of work well you prefer to stick to your trade. I stayed at the store for eighteen months and at the end of that time I married again, a young telegraph operator I met in the store. You see I have really done my best to fulfill what the ministers and others often tell us is the true destiny of a woman — to be a wife and mother. But the fates have been against me. My second husband had incipient consumption when I married him, altho neither of us knew it. He died after a short illness and six months later my little boy was born. Before the baby was a month old I was back in the factory, a starcher girl once more. Except for this interval of six years I have earned my living starching collars at four cents the dozen. I have managed to bring up my two children fairly well. They have gone to school and my daughter has had music and dancing lessons.

Discussion Question How is the woman conflicted?

Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle, PA, ironing class, 1901 (LOC).

Lesson 5 A College Professor’s Wife, A Homeschool Mom (1905) Many of the people in our town think that we members of the college faculty dwell on Mount Parnassus; that we eat of the ambrosia of books and drink of the nectar of music and painting. No burdens of ordinary mortals come near us, no sordid struggles engage us [as] ours is a life of high ideals and beautiful thoughts. The color and making of the next ball gown certainly never is discussed, but in place of it there is careful planning to see if a suit and a half for the boys may be gotten out of their father’s old one. The latest fad in dinner serving is unheard of, but we professors’ wives do try to learn the most attractive way to prepare the family breakfast without the luxuries of coffee and meat. My day begins at six o’clock the year round with giving or superintending cold baths for the four children and myself. Then there are backs to button and hair to comb, and it is easily quarter after seven, our breakfast hour, by the time all are ready. 283

Bertha, a student who earns her room and board with us during term time, prepares the breakfast of oatmeal and cocoa.

An income of $1,100 a year and four children and house rent, a taste for books, art and music, and travel and no struggles, think you?

After the meal there are the Professor and two boys to start off to college and school, respectively. Each needs personal inspection a loose button tightened, an application of the whisk broom, or the tie retouched. Then the little girls come with me into the kitchen, and we wash and put away the breakfast dishes, scalding all the milk pails and pans and skimming the cream for the butter. Then we make the beds and put upstairs in order. (Bertha cares for her own room.) The study and other living rooms come next, and when they are dusted and neat, it is time to prepare the vegetables for dinner. It is while I am getting dinner that Ruth and Mary have their book lessons. We do not care to have our children enter school before the third grade because of the class of children that attend our ward school. The two little girls use a wooden box for a desk, sitting on two lower ones, in a snug corner of the kitchen, where I can teach them as I peel potatoes, pare apples or move about the room mixing a pudding. It takes some time to prepare a meal for seven people, four of them hungry students. One thing that makes it harder is not having any water or sink in the house. By half after twelve the dinner is on the table, and I have spent a morning in careful planning, with quick, sure strokes to get all the work done, and yet have time to stop occasionally, as I have to, to teach the children. They come first, after all. . . . I give half an hour of music to each of the children during the afternoon as I sew. Except for his half hour at the piano or violin, each child lives out of doors all afternoon, no matter what the weather, and a rosy, jolly little group they make. On my constitutional with James the children skip and dance around us as we walk out over the prairie toward the glorious West sky. Then comes the most pleasant meal of the day, supper. Then my husband’s class work is over, and we are all hungry from the fresh air, and we have the fun of a foreign language. . . .

Wife and children of a sharecropper in Washington County, Arkansas, ca. 1935 (NARA).

Sometimes a neighbor spends the evening with me, sewing or reading aloud. What a delight to be read to as I sew! Because I loved books and music too well, I hardly knew how to handle a needle before I was married. But the college days and study in Europe help the needle thru hard places now. All this sewing does not mean that I am an atom in a sweatshop system. It means that I am taking the only, the last way possible, to make ends meet on our salary and yet live with my children in their work and in their play. My husband’s clothing and my winter under woolens are all that we buy ready-made. I make sturdy jackets for James to save the wear on his sacque coat, and keep a piece of carpet in his study chair to save the trousers. Of course, all repairs, relinings and pressing on his clothing I attend to. My coats and dresses are my hardest tasks, harder even than the boys’ suits. All of the children’s clothing, both outer and undergarments, I alone make, many of them from the sound parts of their parents’ clothing. Then there are carpets to mend, comfortables to make, and other household supplies to keep up. The regular weekly stocking darning and other mending for an active family of six is no small item.

Discussion Question Why does this courageous mom homeschool?

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Concept Words to Know Abolitionists: Antislavery activists. Abraham Lincoln: President of the United States during the American Civil War. Absolutism: Government that makes all the choices for everyone. Accommodation: To participate or to cooperate with competing forces. Aesthetic: Art appreciation. Age of Exploration: An era of vigorous exploration of the New World. Alfred Dreyfus: Jewish French officer unjustly charged for treason. American Missionary Association: The American Missionary Association (AMA) was a Protestant -based abolitionist group founded on September 3, 1846 in Albany, New York. Anabaptists: Early dissenters who preferred believer baptism and pacifism. Anabaptists: Radicals who embraced pacifism and believer baptism. Archduke Maximilian: Austria who ruled Mexico with French support. Arminianism: Christians who emphasize free will. Articles of Confederation: American government until 1789. Astrolabe: A navigation tool to calculate longitude and latitude of ships. Athanasius: Christian theologian, bishop of Alexandria, Church Father, and noted Egyptian leader. Atlantic slave trade: A slave business administered by Europeans between the West Indies and Africa. Authority: The essential characteristic of all government, whatever its form. Baroque: a “modern” artistic style that emphasized light and shadow. Bartholomew Dias: A Portuguese explorer. Battle of Blenheim: The battle that ended French domination of the continent until Napoleon. Battle of Lexington and Concord: The Battle that precipitated the American Revolution. Battle of Narva: That battle that showed Sweden was a major power. Battle of Quebec: The battle that assured English domination of North America. Beaux-Art: Art whose sole purpose is to bring beauty vs. art to glorify God. Boss Tweed: A dishonest, powerful 19th-century New York City politician. Boston Massacre: A 1770 incident where British soldiers fired on American citizens. Capital Accumulation: The collection of wealth for investment. Caravel: Fast, technological advanced ships that expanded exploration overseas. Cartography: The science of mapmaking. Chattel slavery: Slaves are considered as “chattel” or personal property. Chiaroscuro: Gold highlighting in Renaissance painting. Chief Joseph: Native American chief. 290

Chinese Exclusion Act: Anti-Chinese immigration law at the end of the 19th century. Christina Rossetti: A British writer and saint. Cola di Rienzi: An Italian nobleman who really wanted the papacy returned to Rome. Collar starcher: One who worked with laundry for a living. Colonization: European policy of expansion. Congress Of Vienna: Ended the Napoleonic wars. Constitutional Convention: A meeting to write a new constitution. Constitutional Governments: Government by consent of the governed through written documents. Continental Congress in 1782: The ruling national legislature at the end of the American Revolution. Corporal punishment: Physical penalty or pain used to deter or discipline a child. Council of Trent: The Roman Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation. Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf: A Moravian nobleman who started the Herrnhut communities. Courtship: Social relation to prepare for marriage. Covenant: A contract between two consenting parties. Crimean War of 1853-56: War between Russia and England and her western allies. Czar Alexander II: 19th century Russian Emperor. D. L. Moody: Evangelist with an outreach in Chicago. David Brainerd: Early missionary to the Native Americans. David Hume: A philosopher who really question the existence of miracles. Declaration of Independence: A declaration of American rights written in 1776. Democratic republic: Form of government elected by the people to represent them. Desiderius Erasmus: Dutch humanist. Dissenters: The Dissenters were a sort of Unitarian Universalist church. Duma : Russian parliament. Duman: Russian legislative branch. East: Original headstones faced this direction awaiting the Day of Resurrection. Eastern Woodlands: A forested area stretching from the Atlantic coast west to the Great Lakes and southward from Maine to North Carolina. Enlightenment: A period of great progress in science and knowledge in general. Eric Williams: Wrote the book Capitalism and Slavery. Ethnocentrism: Making value judgments about another culture from the perspective of one’s own culture. First Great Awakening: A great 18th-century revival. Franco-Prussian War: A war fought between France and Prussia ( and German states) in 1870.

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Franz Joseph: Habsburg dynasty monarch who ruled the Austro-Hungarian Empire for over 50 years. Geneva Bible: An early Protestant translation. Giuseppe Garibaldi: Italian patriot who unified Italy into a nation/state. Gottlieb Mittelberger: A schoolteacher who left his wife and children to travel to America. Great Chicago Fire: Fire that destroyed most of Chicago. Grievance Mentality: A mindset the reacts against a certain notion or philosophy. Hanna Smith: A great woman of holiness and faith. Hartford Convention: A 19th-century declaration of independence, of sorts, by New England. Herrnhut : Moravian communities famous for missionary work and a 100-year prayer meeting. History: A collection of individual narratives. Homeschool: An educational methodology where parents have the role of educator. Homogeneous Population: A group of people with similar traits. House of Hanover: The Hanovers replaced the Stuarts in the monarchy of England. Humanists: Scholars who focused on classic works and human achievement. Imperialism: A movement where a country seeks to colonize or control or both other areas of the world. Indentured Servants: Servants who were obligated to work for a few years but then were freed. Industrial Expansion: After the American Civil War a significant industrial expansion. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution began in England but spread to the whole world. Iron molder: One skilled in metalworking. Islamic Traders: Islamic commercial traders, mostly in slaves. Jacobite Uprising of 1745: An uprising, mostly in Scotland, who wanted James II to return to the monarchy. Jacques Turgot: French social thinker and economist. James K. Polk: President of the United States who declared war on Germany. Jamestown: The first permanent English settlement. Jean le Rond d’Alembert: French philosopher. Johannes Gutenberg: Used movable type to print papal documents and the first printed version of the Bible. John Calvin: Swiss reformer who championed the Reformed position. John Knox: A Scottish reformer. John Wesley: Father of the United Methodist Church. John Woolman: Early American abolitionist. Joseph Priestley: Most famous chemist of the 18th century. Karl Linnaeus: Invented a classification for living things. 292

King James Bible: The official British government translation in the early 17th century. L’Anse aux Meadows: The Newfoundland Viking settlement. Laborer: A new class of people who were employed in factories. Latin Vulgate Bible: An early Roman Catholic Bible. Lead Line: Used to measure the depth of water. Lee Chew: Asian American immigrant. Linkage: Connections. Madame Guyon: A great woman of intercessory prayer. Magyar: Important Eastern European ethnic group. Manifest Destiny: The view that Americans were destined to rule the North American continent. Manumission: To free from slavery. Mariner’s Compass: An more advanced compass used to navigate ships. Maroon Colonies: Colonies full of racially mixed people. Marquis de la Galissonière: French nobleman who wrote about New France. Martin Luther: Luther started the Protestant Reformation. Mary Cooper: Began her diary at age 54 while tending the family farmstead with her husband. Massachusetts Declaration of Rights of 1661: A statement of English rights. Max Schneckenburger: German poet. Mayflower: The ship that brought the Pilgrims to Plymouth. Middle Class Entrepreneur: Important socio-economic class that grew powerful in the 18th century. Midwives: Older women who relied on practical experience in delivering children. Miner’s Asthma: A euphemism for Black Lung Disease. Moral Absolutism: Society controlled completely by one person or small group. Moravian Church: A pietistic, 1700 church. Nakahama Manjiro: Japanese American who facilitated understanding between both countries. Nation building: Act of building a nation usually in the spirit and image of the creating institution. Nation Building: When a nation seeks to “help” another country build its economy, government, and society. Nationalism: A movement that celebrates the peculiarities and specialness of a geographical area. Nationalist Revolts: Revolutions stimulated by nationalist agendas. Natural Rights: Rights given by God not by man. Neighborhoods: People living near each other. Northwest Passage: An alleged shortcut from Europe to the Orient by going west.

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Olaudah Equiano: A former slave who wrote narrative stories about his slave experience. Otto von Bismarck: Great nationalist leader of Greater Germany; Prime Minister during German unification. Papacy: The pope and his office. Parthenon: Greek Athenian temple. Peace of Westphalia: The treaty that ended the Thirty Years’ War. Peter Zenger: First major freedom of the press trial in America. Phillis Wheatley: A slave poet of great ability. Plantations: Agricultural businesses that raised valuable crops. Pope Leo X: The pope who confronted Luther. Popular Sovereignty: Government instituted for the right of people, not the government. Premodern Era: The period after the Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution. Precedence: Priorities. Primary source: A document that is a firsthand account, found to be more reliable. Prince Henry the Navigator: The Portuguese minister who oversaw the discovery of Portuguese trade routes to the East Indies. Trade routes open around the tip of Africa to the East Indies. Pun Chi: Chinese statesmen who wrote a critical letter to the U. S. Congress. Quaker opposition: These Christians founded the first American antislavery group. Quietism: An assertive sort of passive resistance. Race Mixing: Marriage across racial lines. Ralph Waldo Emerson: A leading proponent of transcendentalism. Redemptioners: A kind of indentured servant. Renaissance: Literally means “rebirth.” Revolutions in 1848: European nationalist revolutions in 1848. Richard Addison: British author who was a Christian apologist. Robert E. Lee: Confederate commander. Romanticism: A world view that celebrates the subjective and individualism. Gothic Romance: A romantic, dark, sometimes horrible, theme that emerges at the end of the 19th century. Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05: A complete victory of the Japanese over the Russians. Scientific Revolution: A period at the end of the Middle Ages when much scientific progress was made. Second French Empire: Proclaimed by Louis Napoleon. Secondary source: A document that is based on secondhand information and not as reliable. Septuagint: The Old Testament in Greek. Seven Years’ War: The French and Indian War between France and England (primarily). 294

Shays’ Rebellion: A rebellion caused by dysfunctional nature of the Articles of Confederation. Sir Edmund Andros: Controversial English governor in New England. Skyscraper: Very tall building. Slave trades: Contributed to the development of powerful African states. Sons of Liberty: A Secret organization of American patriots. State sovereignty: States have governing authority over that of a central government. Stereotype: Oversimplified types. Sub-Saharan Africa: Below the Sahara Desert. Technological Innovation: technological, scientific advances related to new products. Tenement housing: Urban housing where individuals lived in adjoining apartments. The Battle Of Hohenlinden: Napoleon’s France was the premier power of Europe again. The Boston Latin Grammar School: One of the first public schools. The Declaration of Independence: Document that established a foundation for U.S. governance. The Iroquois League: Combined a central authority with tribal autonomy and provided a model for the federal system of government later adopted by the United States. The Jefferson Bible: An interpretation of Scripture that removed references to the miracles and divinity of Christ. Theory Of Evolution: A theory about the origin of species. Thomas Paine: An opportunistic atheist and capable writer. Total War: A war that affects soldiers and civilians. Toussaint Louverture: Leader of Haitian Revolution. Transcendentalism: 19th-century movement that celebrated the subjective and nature. Unifications Of Germany: Occurs in the middle of the 19th century. Unitarian Church: Founded by the transcendentalists. Vacation: An interlude, rest away from work. Vatican Avignon: The period of history when the Papacy was moved to Avignon, France. Völkisch Movement: A folk, indigenous national movement. Wampanoags: Native people in New England. Warrior Chiefs: Leaders chosen for their bravery, acumen, and style. William Hooper: American sugar cane industrialist in Hawaii who employed many Japanese workers. William Penn: Founder of the Quakers. William Wilberforce: British statesman who finished slavery expansion in England.

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