Sport and Environmental Sustainability 0367435039, 9780367435035

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Routledge Research in Sport Business and Management

SPORT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL

SUSTAINABILITY

RESEARCH AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

Edited by

Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

Sport and Environmental Sustainability

Drawing on recent work in sport studies, business and management, health, science, and law, this book offers a critical examination of the latest published research on sport and environmental sustainability. It examines how strategic management, policy and education influence the relationship between sport and the natural environment, and how the transmission and advancement of knowledge via research journals can, and should, have an impact on policy and practice. Covering sport at all levels, from professional to non-profit, and across all sectors of sport management, from marketing and events to facilities and communications, Sport and Environmental Sustainability makes a powerful argument for an awareness of, and need for, environmental sustainability in sport. Chapters outline the research and methods used, expose gaps in the literature and encourage opportunities for future inter-disciplinary research. Topics include sport and climate change, sport and safeguarding air and water quality, education for sustainability, and sport policy. This is an invaluable resource for researchers in sport and environmental sustainability, and academics working in sport management, business, recreation and leisure studies, and sustainability programs, as well as sport policymakers and industry practitioners. Greg Dingle is Lecturer in Sport Management, and Researcher at the Centre for Sport and Social Impact at La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia. His research is focused on climate change impacts, risks, vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation by sport organizations. Cheryl Mallen is Associate Professor in the Department of Sport Management at Brock University, Canada. She teaches sport event and facility management and sport ethics. Her research expertise encompasses sport environmental sustainability, as well as new technologies and their future impact on sport management.

Routledge Research in Sport Business and Management

Emerging Technologies in Sport Implications for Sport Management Edited by Cheryl Mallen Global Sport Leadership Stephen Frawley, Laura Misener, Daniel Lock and Nico Schulenkorf International Sport Marketing Issues and Practice Edited by Michel Desbordes and André Richelieu The Global Sport Economy Contemporary Issues Edited by Michel Desbordes, Pascal Aymar and Christopher Hautbois Collective Bargaining in Professional Sports Player Salaries, Free Agency, Team Ownership, League Organizational Structures and the Power of Commissioners Scott Bukstein Sport Officiating Recruitment, Development, and Retention Lori Livingston, Susan L. Forbes, Nick Wattie, and Ian Cunningham Sport and Environmental Sustainability Research and Strategic Management Edited by Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen For more information about this series, please visit https://www.routledge.com/ Routledge-Research-in-Sport-Business-and-Management/book-series/RRSBM

Sport and Environmental Sustainability

Research and Strategic Management

Edited by Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-0-367-43503-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-00369-4 (ebk) Typeset in Goudy by MPS Limited, Dehradun

Contents

List of contributors Acknowledgements

vii x

1 Introduction to research on sport and environmental sustainability

1

GREG DINGLE AND CHERYL MALLEN

PART 1

Impacts of sport on the natural environment 2 Sport and safeguarding air quality

15 17

JONATHAN CASPER

3 Sport and the safeguarding of water resources

32

CHERYL MALLEN AND GORD WATKIN

4 Major sport events and environmental sustainability

47

JULIE STEVENS

5 Major sport facilities and environmental sustainability

86

SHEILA NGUYEN AND CHERYL MALLEN

PART II

Impacts of the natural environment on sport

105

6 Environmental impacts on sport: vulnerability, risk, resilience, and adaptation

107

GREG DINGLE

7 Summer sport and climate change PAUL JURBALA AND CHERYL MALLEN

126

vi

Contents

8 Winter sports and climate change

140

NATALIE KNOWLES, DANIEL SCOTT AND ROBERT STEIGER

PART III

Strategic management, policy and education for the sport-environment relationship 9 Sport and environmental policy

163 165

EFTHALIA (ELIA) CHATZIGIANNI

10 Sport environmental measurement tools, certification, and reporting

183

CHERYL MALLEN

11 Sport environmental awareness, perceptions, behaviour, motivations, and promotions

201

SCOTT MCROBERTS AND TRISTIAN REID

12 Sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for environmental sustainability

221

SCOTT MCROBERTS AND TRISTIAN REID

13 Sport and education for environmental sustainability

243

GREG DINGLE AND CHERYL MALLEN

14 Conclusions: envision the future in sport environmental sustainability (sport-ES)

261

CHERYL MALLEN AND GREG DINGLE

Index

268

List of contributors

Jonathan Casper is Associate Professor and Sport Management Program Coordinator in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management at the College of Natural Resources at North Carolina State University, USA. His research focuses on sport organizations and efforts in environmental sustainability and behavioural change. He has external grants to aid his research efforts in sustainability engagement and education. Efthalia (Elia) Chatzigianni is Associate Professor of International Organizations and Cooperation in the Sport Management Department at the University of Peloponnese, Greece. She has participated in the organization of various sport events, including three Olympic Games (1996, 2002, 2004), and lectured in undergraduate and graduate academic programs in Greece, Canada and elsewhere. She holds a seat on the Sport & Society Research Network Advisory Board. Paul Jurbala is a Canadian Sport for Life Expert and manages his consulting firm, CommunityActive Consulting, where he focuses on sport organizational innovations. He has experience teaching in Sport Management programs at Brock University, Canada, York University, Canada and Humber College, Canada. Natalie Knowles is a PhD Researcher at the University of Waterloo, Canada. Her research focuses on sustainable tourism including climate change risks, adaptive capacity, decarbonizing tourism, biodiversity conservation, and community-based indigenous tourism. Scott McRoberts is Associate Director in the International Institute for Sport Business and Leadership; Adjunct Professor at Lang School of Business; and Athletic Director at University of Guelph, Canada. Scott’s industry experience includes collaborating and providing leadership expertise to organizations such as the Niagara Sport Commission, City of Toronto, Region of Durham, Aboriginal Sport & Wellness Council, International Olympic Committee, Canadian Paralympic Committee, 2015 and 2017

viii List of contributors

North American Indigenous Games, 2018 Master’s Indigenous Games, 2015 Toronto Pan Am/Para Pan Am Games, Ontario University Athletics and U Sports. Sheila Nguyen is Co-founder and Executive Director of the Sports Environmental Alliance (SEA), a not-for-profit organization dedicated to leading, educating, and empowering the sport industry in ecological consciousness. Sheila is Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Associate certified, and her research on sport as a change agent for the betterment of society and the natural environment has been influential. Tristian Reid is Special Projects Assistant for the Director of Athletics at the University of Guelph, Canada. He has over 10 years of sport management experience in intercollegiate, high-performance, and recreational sports. He is also a master’s candidate in the sport management and leadership program at Western University, Canada. His area of focus is transformational leadership and its role in relation to implementing programs within the community and education system that focuses on inclusion and integration of marginalized groups to eliminate systemic barriers to achievement. Daniel Scott is University Research Chair, and Professor in the Department of Geography and Environmental Management at the University of Waterloo, Canada. Professor Scott is also a Vice-Chancellor’s Visiting Research Fellow at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management at the University of Surrey, UK. He has worked on the human dimensions of climate change for over 20 years and been a contributing author and expert reviewer for the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third, Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports, as well as the Special Report on 1.5°C warming. Robert Steiger is Assistant Professor in the Department of Public Finance at the University of Innsbruck, Austria. His research interests are in the field of sustainable tourism development, climate change impacts on tourism and tourist behaviour. He has worked on climate change and tourism for over 10 years and has contributed to the national Climate Change Assessments of Austria (APCC) and Switzerland (CH2014). Julie Stevens is Associate Professor in the Department of Sport Management at Brock University, Canada. Dr. Stevens teaches and conducts research in change management, organizational capacity, and social, cultural, and managerial issues in sport. She examines change and change dynamics within sport organizations according to various management theories and within numerous settings, including sport events. Her work studies types of capacity and capacity-building strategies within several different sport contexts and organizations. She also addresses a vast array of issues related

List of contributors

ix

to commercial and cultural aspects of sport, with a specific emphasis upon the sport of ice hockey, including the women’s and men’s games both within Canada and around the world. Gord Watkin is a Master of Arts candidate in Sport Management at Brock University, Canada. His research interest encompasses sport and environmental sustainability, in particular, sports use of plastics and its potential accumulation in water sources.

Acknowledgements

Cheryl and Greg take this opportunity to say thank you to the staff at Routledge for supporting us in preparing this book. In particular, we say thank you to Simon Whitmore for being prepared to invest in us, and Rebecca Connor for her administrative support. We also say thank you to the contributors to this text: it is your expertise and skill which deserves recognition, and which readers will appreciate. It was a pleasure to bear witness to their work in the editing process. Cheryl – I am very fortunate to have supportive family around me … and their love means everything! Greg would like to express his eternal gratitude to his Co-Editor, Dr Cheryl Mallen. Some things only happen in life because someone is there making them happen. Unequivocally, Cheryl has made this book happen. Greg would also like to say a huge thank you to his family, without whose love, support, and wisdom he would not have been able to play his part in making this book happen. He also thanks his colleagues at La Trobe University for their unwavering support.

Chapter 1

Introduction to research on sport and environmental sustainability Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

Research on the topic of sport environmental sustainability (sport-ES) is an important dimension of the global sport academy. This reflects, as McCullough, Pfahl, and Nguyen (2015) have noted, a “conversation about sport and the natural environment [that] cuts to the core of sport operations and planning” (p. 1044). The aim of this text is to inspire, promote, and guide researchers, including students and faculty members, to understand the current state of the research, to complete research projects that can fill in the gaps to expand our knowledge on the topic, and to work with practitioners to move sport-ES forward. This text provides the most comprehensive assessment of peer-reviewed research on sport-ES available. In total, 13 contributing authors revealed 229 sport-ES manuscripts published across 88 journals. Every chapter focuses on an environmental-related topic, including: the safeguarding of our air and water resources; major sport events and facilities; summer and winter sport and climate change; sport environmental policy; sport measurement tools, certification, and environmental reporting; sport environmental awareness, perceptions, behaviour, motivations, and promotions; sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for sport-ES; and, finally, sport and environmental education. Chapter 1 is designed to outline the parameters for the research examined for each topic discussed in the subsequent chapters. The parameters are outlined below and involve a working definition of sport and sport-ES, along with other requirements, such as language, competitive sport, years of publication, and breadth of topics and journals examined. The outline of parameters is followed by a discussion on sport’s dependence on the natural environment, sport and damage to our natural world, debates on sport-ES, and enacting sport-ES.

Parameters for the research manuscripts examined The parameters for the selection of journal manuscripts reviewed in this text were multi-faceted and, importantly, began with meeting the requirement of being a sport, and a sport-ES, manuscript. Beginning with the concept of sport, sociologist Klaus Meier (1981) observed that sport has had a variety of

2 Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

definitions. These include: “all physical activities” that are “not necessary for the survival of the individual” (McIntosh, 1970); a “challenge” taken on before crowds; “any free open-air activity”; and “physical exercises”. In light of developments in recent decades, such as globalization, institutionalization, corporatization, and digital technologies (Maguire, 2000; Smith & Stewart, 2010; Thibault, 2009), definitions have at the same time become more specific, and more inclusive. For example, the electronic phenomena of fantasy sport (Billings & Ruihley, 2013) and eSports (Jenny et al., 2017) have expanded contemporary notions of sport. For the purpose of this text, a widely accepted definition of sport is adopted which has three components: (1) competition; (2) physical activity; and (3) structures that accord with rules or laws (Guttmann, 1978, 2004; Nicholson, Kerr, & Sherwood, 2015). Given the physical dimension to sport in this definition, fantasy sport and eSports were excluded from consideration. Furthermore, non-competitive activities such as tourism and leisure were also not considered. Extreme sports (Brymer, Downey, & Gray, 2009; Brymer & Oades, 2009), though clearly physical activities, are also excluded, given the typical absence of competitive and/or rule-based structures. The natural environment concept is also a notion without a single, universal definition. To illustrate this point, the natural environment has been referred to in non-academic literature as “nature”, “natural habitat”, or “the part of the Earth that has not been built or formed by humans” (Collin, 2011, p. 143). Alternatively, scholars such as Parkin (2000) contended that the natural environment is the “biophysical limits” of life on planet Earth consisting of soils, air, water, and ecological systems upon which the social and economic dimensions of such life depend. Consistent with these definitions, it has also been argued that humans have an inextricable relationship with the natural environment. As noted by Brymer and Oades (2009, p. 197), humans often forget that: We are born in nature; our bodies are formed of nature; we live by the rules of nature. As individuals, we are citizens of the natural world; as societies, we are bound by the resources of our environment; as a species, our survival depends on an ecological balance with nature. (p. 197) Sport is therefore constrained by nature’s geophysical limits, and exposed to its extremes. For the purpose of illustrating these relationships in this book, the terms natural environment, nature and natural world will be used interchangeably. Next, environmental sustainability (ES) is defined by the authoritative United Nations (UN) Brundtland Report (1987) as the safeguarding of the natural environment for current and future generations. Further, Mazurkiewicz (2005) argued that sustainability had environmental implications that encompassed “an organization’s operations, products and facilities; to eliminate waste and emissions; maximize efficiency and productivity of resources; and

Introduction to research on sport and ES

3

minimize practices that adversely affect enjoyment of resources by future generations” (p. 35). Meanwhile, Bateh, Horner, Broadbent, and Fish (2014) established that the issues of sustainability “impact all business and non-business organizations, as well as the long-term sustainability of international business relations and quality of life issues worldwide … [and] required expanding beyond conventional thinking” (p. 35). An application of these positions was utilized to define sport-ES for this text as safeguarding the critical natural environment for current and future generations of sporting participants. It is the responsibility of all members within sport to act to ensure safeguards are in place to maximize all practices for the enjoyment of the natural resources by sport into the future. This responsibility is shared by groups such as the athletes, coaches, team management, game officials, sport organization administrators, members of the sport manufacturing industry, facility and event managers, and so forth. The authors of this chapter promote that in order to meet the demands of sport-ES, we must enact environmental safeguards that support current sporting endeavours and the future of sport. It is important to note that manuscripts that focused on corporate social responsibility (CSR) that encompassed financial, social, and ES were excluded from review in this text. Exceptions were made if there was a key environmental focus within the manuscript. This positioned sport-ES as important enough to be a stand-alone topic. Additional parameters included that the manuscripts examined were Englishlanguage academic peer-refereed journal publications published from 1994 to June 2019. The publications were found within (1) a sport-related journal (see examples below); (2) or was a sport management manuscript published outside of sport management specific journals (see examples below); (3) or was presented as an example from a management publication that can underscore future sport research topics. The breadth of the manuscripts examined were open to encompass the full range of topics within sport, including the multiple areas of sport (i.e. professional, amateur, or not-for-profit sport) and the multiple sectors of sport (i.e. marketing, sponsorship, event production, facility management, sporting goods, finance, etc.). Sport management research manuscripts examined were found in sportrelated journals (see www.nassm.org/journals/), such as: • • • • • • • • •

European Sport Management Quarterly; Event Management Journal; International Journal of Sport Communication; International Journal of Sport Finance; International Journal of Sport Management; International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing; International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship; International Review for the Sociology of Sport; Journal of Applied Sport Management;

4 Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education; Journal of Sport Behavior; Journal of Sport Economics; Journal of the Philosophy of Sport; Journal of Sport and Social Issues; Journal of Sport and Tourism; Journal of Sport Management; Sociology of Sport Journal; Sport in Society; Sport Management Education Journal; Sport Management Review; and Sport Marketing Quarterly.

Sport management research manuscripts examined that were found to be published outside of sport-related journals involved refereed research outlets, such as the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability; Energy & Building; Environment and Energy Report; Environmental Education Research; Environmental Health Perspectives; International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development; International Journal of Justice and Sustainability; Journal of Business Ethics; Journal of Cleaner Production; Journal of Contemporary Athletics; Journal of Environmental Planning and Management; Journal of Management and Sustainability; Journal of Sponsorship; Journal of Sustainability Management; Sustainable Futures: An Applied Journal of Technology, Environment & Society; and Urban Studies.

An examination of the sport-ES manuscripts within a wide range of journals is necessary to obtain an understanding of the literature on the important topic of sport and the natural environment.

A dependence on the natural environment as a place for sport Beyond a requirement for life; the natural environment is critical as the place of sport (McCullough & Kellison, 2016). This includes the provision of natural

Introduction to research on sport and ES

5

settings as sport training and competition sites. Examples include sports use of snow-topped mountains and cross-country ski trails for the multiple skiing and snowboarding events; clean bodies of water for canoeing, kayaking, sailing, surfing, swimming, and water polo; and water for the ice needed for ringette, ice hockey, and curling; healthy grass spaces (indoors and outdoors) for baseball, cricket, golf, and European football or soccer; as well as areas of sand for beach volleyball. Further, our natural resources are needed as raw materials in the manufacturing of sporting wear and equipment, such as bats for cricket, curling, hurling, and baseball, along with balls for American football, baseball, field hockey, netball, and rugby. Importantly, our natural resources are also critical for the health of athletes (Donnelly et al., 2016; Dyjack, 2016). Damage to our natural resources, thus, impacts sport.

Sport and damage to our natural world Patterns of behaviour around the world exhibit human actions that have caused unprecedented damage to our planet Earth (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014; United Nations Environment Programme, 2012;) at all levels – including the local, regional, and global levels (United Nations Environment Programme, 2007). The capacity of humans to damage planet Earth’s ecological systems has been widely acknowledged by scientists (United Nations Environment Programme, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2007, 2012, 2019a). The global scale of the impacts on the natural environment are now so pervasive, and it is “well established” (United Nations Environment Programme, 2019a, p. 24) that human activities are the primary “drivers of environmental change” (United Nations Environment Programme, 2019a, p. 24; 2019b). Humanity’s imprint on natural systems is now so extensive that geologists have coined a new term – the Anthropocene – to encapsulate the extent, magnitude and duration of such impacts (Lewis & Maslin, 2015; Steffen et al., 2015; Zalasiewicz et al., 2015). No region of the world can expect to be left out of the environmental damage (United Nations Environment Programme, 2007). Given the scale of global environmental change (GEC), there is little evidence to suggest that sport is immune from such impacts. Determining whom to blame is difficult as the damage is not being caused by one particular group within society, organization, or particular action, but is “driven by expanding flows of goods, services, capital, people, technologies, information, ideas and labour” (United Nations Environment Programme, 2007, p. 364). Sport, too, has been noted as contributing “a significant impact on the environment” (Thibault, 2009, p. 11). There is a growing body of literature in sport-ES (Mallen, 2017) that has noted the capacity of sport activities to adversely affect the natural environment (e.g. Collins & Roberts, 2018; McCullough, Pfahl, & Nguyen, 2015; Trendafilova et al., 2014). One example of sport impacting the natural environment stems from the clearing of land (e.g. Inoue & Kent, 2012; Thibault,

6 Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

2009; Trendafilova et al., 2014; Wheeler & Nauright, 2006) for sports fields and parking lots. Another example involves solid wastes generated at sport venues (e.g. Dolles & Soderman, 2010; McCullough & Cunningham, 2011; Thibault, 2009). This includes the food and beverage service at sport facilities that utilize plastics in the form of beverage cups and lids, food containers, straws, and so forth that generate waste (Collins et al., 2007). Sports demand for plastic contributes to the world’s plastics pollution from an estimated overall production of “a mere 9.2 billion tons of the stuff” (Parker, 2016, para. 4) that can be biodegraded in an estimated “450 years to never” (Parker, 2016, para. 4). The plastic fills landfill, is scattered by wind in natural settings, and, all too often, has entered the world’s waterways. An estimated 8 million tonnes of plastics end up in the oceans annually (World Economic Forum, 2016) and it has been predicted that by 2050 there will be a 1:1 “ratio of plastics to fish in the ocean (by weight)” (World Economic Forum, 2016, p. 14). A further example involves sport’s contribution to climate change with greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel use for travel and energy for sport facility heating and cooling demands (Chard & Mallen, 2012; Collins et al., 2007; Collins & Roberts, 2018; Dolf & Teehan, 2015; Dolles & Soderman, 2010; Otto & Heath, 2010; Wicker, 2018). Fossil fuel use contributes to contemporary climate change due to causing a rise in carbon dioxide, along with “other heat-trapping ‘greenhouse’ gases” (Trenberth, 2018, p. 467). As the carbon builds up in the atmosphere, the Earth warms (Trenberth, 2018) and is associated with extreme weather events that have been noted as impacting sport with intense rainfall, strong winds, longer droughts, extreme heat or cold events, along with new turf diseases (Mallen & Dingle, 2017), and heat that affects the health of athletes (Seto, Way, & O’Connor, 2005). Additionally, the airborne fossil fuel pollutants can impact athletes’ lung function (Brocherie, Girard, & Millett, 2015). Importantly, it has been argued that sports environmental effects specifically occur at a “much larger scale” (DeChano-Cook & Shelley, 2017, p. 67) due to the size of mega-events. The relationship between sport and the natural environment has been the basis of two key debate topics within the sport academy. The first debate topic concerns the environmental impacts or “footprint” of sport (Collins & Flynn, 2008; Collins & Roberts, 2018; Dolf & Teehan, 2015), especially its extent, how to measure it, and how to reduce it. The second topic for debate is focused on impacts of nature on sport. The former debate has a much longer history and wider scope, while the latter is much more recent and is less well-developed. Such debates are significant in the process of realizing sport-ES despite that it has been deemed difficult to achieve as “vague”, “context-specific”, and “complex” (Mallen & Chard, 2011, p. 425). Mallen and Chard (2011) provided a framework for guiding debates and argued that they needed to conclude with a “vision” (p. 427). Additionally, Mallen and Chard (2012) offered a vison of “what could be in sport-ES” (p. 230) and suggested that one’s imagined future can guide efforts moving forward in sport-ES.

Introduction to research on sport and ES

7

Enacting sport-ES A growing movement to advance sport-ES has begun (Szathmari, 2017), but sport has much more work to be completed before it can be declared as being entrenched with environmental actions. Examples of this movement include declarations, the establishment of commissions and sport environmental organizations, conferences, research centres, and actions in sports-ES. For instance, in the 1990s, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) introduced environmental protection as the third pillar of Olympism alongside the already existing two pillars of sport and culture (Cantelon & Letters, 2000), and established the IOC Sport & Environment Commission – later renamed the Sustainability and Legacy Commission (International Olympic Committee, 2017b). Further, the IOC Sustainability Strategy (International Olympic Committee, 2017a) was released with environmental plans through to 2030. Sport-specific environmental organizations have emerged, including: the Green Sports Alliance (http://greensportsalliance.org/about/); Sports Environmental Alliance (#SEA_the change, https://sportsenvironmentalalliance.org); Sports for Climate Action (https://unfccc.int/climate-action/sectoral-engagement/sports-forclimate-action); Sport and Sustainability International (https://www.sporttechie. com/sport-sustainability-international-new-organization-founded-help-protectenvironment-sports/); and The United Nations, Sport and the Environment (https:// www.thenewfederalist.eu/the-united-nations-sport-and-the-environment). Examples of sport-specific environmental conferences include: the Green Sports Alliance Summit (https://greensportsalliance.org/summit/); Sustainable Innovation in Sport Conference (http://www.sustainableinnovationinsport.org); and the World Conference on Sport and the Environment (https://www.olympic. org/news/10th-ioc-world-conference-on-sport-and-the-environment-kicks-offin-sochi).

The state of sport-ES The state of sport-ES, as outlined by Trendafilova and McCullough (2018), has shifted to where sport “organizations at all levels have begun to place considerable importance on becoming more environmentally conscientious” (p. 1). Multiple researchers have examined sport organizations and their progress in sport-ES – for example, in professional sport (Francis, Norris, & Brinkmann, 2017; Johnson & Ali, 2017; Nguyen, Trendafilova, & Pfahl, 2014) and the Olympic Games (McLeod, Pu, & Newman, 2018; VanWynsberghe, 2015; Walker & Leopkey, 2017). Additionally, McCullough, Pfahl, and Nguyen (2016) examined the progression of sport-ES and concluded that there have been three waves of development. Their three waves are interpreted to involve the primary, secondary, and advanced stages of awareness and action. Importantly, these authors indicated that the momentum for sport-ES is growing. This growth is not without its challenges as Trendafilova, McCullough,

8 Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

Pfahl, Nguyen, Casper, and Picariello (2014) outlined that communication management and sport organization resources are key to success. Despite issues within the process, greater advances in sport-ES organizational practices have been promoted as necessary by Sartore-Baldwin and McCullough (2018). This movement is key for safeguarding sport, but also has been noted as important as an educational platform for society (Trendafilova & McCullough, 2018). The authors of this chapter promote that sport-ES needs to be entrenched within every strategy and action to ensure the safeguarding of the natural environment for sporting participants today and into the future. We are capable of reaching this goal and such actions will positively impact our collective future. As a key step in moving forward in sport-ES, this text seeks to aid in understanding current research publications, and particularly the gaps in the literature that need to be filled.

The upcoming chapters This text lays out a comprehensive overview of the sport research manuscripts published in refereed journals. The upcoming chapters are organized around three themes: Theme 1, impacts of sport on the natural environment; Theme 2, impacts of the natural environment on sport; and Theme 3: strategic management, policy, and education for the sport–environment relationship. Themes 1 and 2 reflect the duality of the relationship between sport and the environment. Theme 1 recognizes the harms that sport has on nature, that are typically adverse. Theme 2 adopts the reverse perspective of the sport–environment relationship. Whilst nature is typically an enabler of sport activity, extremes of nature can adversely impact sport events, facilities, and participants. Theme 1 comprises four chapters. In Chapter 2, Casper focuses on research on sport and safeguarding air quality, and contends that sport’s relationship with air quality occurs through participant travel to sport events, sport events themselves, and spectator activities. In Chapter 3, Mallen reviews research pertaining to sport and water resources. In doing so, the global context of water resources is outlined, and the crucial role that water plays in enabling sport participation and events is discussed. In Chapter 4, Stevens explores research on the relationship between major sport events and sport-ES. A substantial body of research is examined, and three key research themes are identified. In Chapter 5, Nguyen and Mallen look at research focused on major sport facilities and sport-ES. In Theme 2, three reviews of research pertaining to impacts of the natural environment on sport are presented. In Chapter 6, Dingle considers research contemplating how nature affects sport. In doing so, five key concepts are considered: impacts, vulnerability, risks, resilience, and adaptation. In Chapter 7, Jurbala and Mallen consider research on the topic of summer sport and climate change. They review the small yet growing body of pioneering research literature, and identify key gaps for researchers to pursue in future. Next, in

Introduction to research on sport and ES

9

Chapter 8, Knowles, Scott and Steiger examine the topic of winter sport and climate change. They outline the global context of climate change, and an extensive body of research documenting the impacts of climate change on winter sport, and major risks. Implications for winter sport participation, and opportunities for adaptation, are then considered. Theme 3 encompasses five chapters. In Chapter 9, Chatzigianni reviews the research pertaining to the relatively new topic of sport and environmental policy. She highlights the critical role of governmental and non-governmental factors to the formulation of environmental sport policy at the global level, and evaluates opportunities for future research in a globalizing world. In Chapter 10, Mallen examines research on the three key environmental measurement tools outlined by Kuhndt (2004), and the use of such tools in sport for advancing certification and reporting. In Chapter 11, McRoberts and Reid review research on sport environmental awareness, perceptions, interactive behaviour, industry motivations, and marketing promotions. This chapter highlights the key role that sport communications can play in achieving environmentally sustainable sport. In Chapter 12, McRoberts and Reid review research on sport partnerships/ relationships and sport marketing for ES. This chapter illustrates the value of research that is either sport, or not sport, focused, and sport’s potential for making positive social and environmental contributions. Lastly, in Chapter 13, Dingle and Mallen review research pertaining to sport and education for ES. This chapter highlights the potential of sport-specific education to teach ES to sport professionals, and thereby develop a sustainable sport industry. In the final section of this book, we present our Conclusions chapter. In Chapter 14, we assess the current state of research for sport and ES and provide our perspective on ‘what could be’ in sport-ES. This Routledge book, Sport and Environmental Sustainability: Research and Strategic Management, is a comprehensive and interdisciplinary text that presents, details, critiques, and celebrates research focused on sport and ES. It is intended to complement the Routledge Handbook of Sport and the Environment, published in 2018. Overall, sport is not exempt from its shared societal responsibility of being part of the solution for safeguarding the natural environment. Let’s work to understand current research on sport-ES, move quickly to fill in the research gaps, and advance knowledge that supports action that safeguards the natural environment for current and future sporting participants.

References Bateh, J., Horner Jr, D. H., Broadbent, A., & Fish, D. (2014). Towards a theoretical integration of sustainability: A literature review and suggested way forward. Journal of Sustainability Management, 2(1), 35–42. Billings, A. C., & Ruihley, B. J. (2013). The fantasy sport industry: Games within games. London: Routledge.

10 Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen Brocherie, F., Girard, O., & Millett, G. (2015). Emerging environmental and weather challenges in outdoor sports. Climate, 3(3), 492–521. Brymer, E., Downey, G., & Gray, T. (2009). Extreme sports as a precursor to environmental sustainability. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14(2–3), 193–204. Brymer, E., & Oades, L. G. (2009). Extreme sports: A positive transformation in courage and humility. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49(1), 114–126. Cantelon, H., & Letters, M. (2000). The making of the IOC environmental policy as the third dimension of the Olympic movement. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35(3), 294–308. Chard, C., & Mallen, C. (2012). Examining the linkages between automobile use and carbon impacts of community-based ice hockey. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 476–484. Collin, P. (2011). Bloomsbury dictionary of environment and ecology. In P. Collin (Ed.), Bloomsbury dictionary of environment and ecology (p. 264). London: BloomsburyPublishers. Collins, A., & Flynn, A. (2008). Measuring the environmental sustainability of a major sporting event: A case study of the FA Cup Final. Tourism Economics, 14(4), 751–768. Collins, A., Flynn, A., Munday, M., & Roberts, A. (2007). Assessing the environmental consequences of major sporting events: The 2003/04 FA Cup Final. Urban Studies, 44(3), 457–476. Collins, A., & Roberts, A. (2018). Assessing the environmental impact of economic activity surrounding major sport events. In B. P. McCullough & T. B. Kellison (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport and the environment (1st edn, pp. 207–219). London: Routledge. DeChano-Cook, L. M., & Shelley, F. M. (2017). Climate change and the future of international events: A case of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. In B. P. McCullough & T. B. Kellison (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport and the environment (pp. 94–106). London: Routledge. Dolf, M., & Teehan, P. (2015). Reducing the carbon footprint of spectator and team travel at the University of British Columbia’s varsity sports events. Sport Management Review, 18(2), 244–255. Dolles, H., & Soderman, S. (2010). Addressing ecology and sustainability in megasporting events: The 2006 Football World Cup in Germany. Journal of Management and Organization, 16(2), 603–616. Donnelly, A. A., MacIntyre, T. E., O’Sullivan, N., Warrington, G., Harrison, A. J., Igou, E. R., et al. (2016). Environmental influences on elite sport athletes well being: From gold, silver, and bronze to blue green and gold. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1167. Dyjack, D. (2016). Environmental health is a contact sport. Journal of Environmental Health, 78(9), 46–47. Francis, T., Norris, J., & Brinkmann, R. (2017). Sustainability initiatives in professional soccer. Soccer Society, 18(2–3), 396–406. Guttmann, A. (1978). From ritual to record: The nature of modern sports. New York: Columbia University Press. Guttmann, A. (2004). From ritual to record: The nature of modern sports. New York: Columbia University Press. Inoue, Y., & Kent, A. (2012). Sports teams as promoters of pro-environmental behavior: An empirical study. Journal of Sport Management, 26(5), 417–432. doi: 10.1123/jsm.26.5.417.

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12 Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen Nguyen, S. N., Trendafilova, S., & Pfahl, M. E. (2014). The natural-resource-based view of the firm (NRBV): Constraints and opportunities for a green team in professional sport. International Journal of Sport Management, 15(4), 485–517. Nicholson, M., Kerr, A., & Sherwood, M. (2015). Sport and the media (2nd edn.). Oxford: Taylor & Francis. Otto, I., & Heath, E. T. (2010). The potential contribution of the 2010 Soccer World Cup to climate change: An exploratory study among tourism industry stakeholders in the Tshwane metropole of South Africa. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14(2–3), 169–191. Parker, L. (2016, August). We made plastic. We depend on it. Now we’re drowning in it. National Geographic. Retrieved from https://www.imphaltimes.com/pdf/2019/April/ 4%20April%20Page%202.pdf. Parkin, S. (2000). Sustainable development: The concept and the practical challenge. Civil Engineering, 138(November), 3–8. doi: 10.1680/cien.2000.138.6.3. Sartore-Baldwin, M. L., & McCullough, B. P. (2018). Equity-based sustainability and ecocentric management: Creating more ecologically just sport organization practices. Sport Management Review, 21(4), 391–402. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2017.08.009. Seto, C., Way, D., & O’Connor, N. (2005). Environmental illness in athletes. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 24(3), 695–718. doi: 10.1016/j.csm.2005.03.002. Smith, A., & Stewart, B. (2010). The special features of sport: A critical revisit. Sport Management Review, 13(1), 1–13. Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S. E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E. M., et al. (2015). Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, 347(6223), 736–748. doi: 10.1126/science.1259855. Szathmari, A. (2017). Building sustainability in sport: A clear offside or chance for a “slow” rebirth. Budapest Management Review, 48(11), 33–40. Thibault, L. (2009). Globalization of sport: An inconvenient truth. Journal of Sport Management, 23(1), 1–20. doi: 10.1123/jsm.23.1.1. Trenberth, K. (2018). Climate change caused by human activities is happening and it already has major consequences. Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, 36(4), 463–481. doi: 10.1080/02646811.2018.1450895. Trendafilova, S., & McCullough, B. P. (2018). Environmental sustainability scholarship and the efforts of the sport sector: A rapid review of literature. Cogent Social Sciences, 4(1), 1–15. doi: 10.1080/23311886.2018.1467256. Trendafilova, S., McCullough, B. P., Pfahl, M. E., Nguyen, S. N., Casper, J., & Picariello, M. (2014). Environmental sustainability in sport: Current state and future trends. Global Journal on Advances in Pure & Applied Sciences, 3, 9–14. United Nations Environment Programme. (1997). Global environment outlook 1997. Retrieved from http://www.ecoglobe.ch/unep/e/geo10712.htm#geo1wayahead. United Nations Environment Programme. (1999). Global environment outlook 2000. Retrieved from http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8219/Global%20Environment%20Outlook%202000%20-19991609.pdf?sequence=8& isAllowed=y. United Nations Environment Programme. (2002). Global environment outlook 3: Past, present and future perspectives. Retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/ handle/20.500.11822/8609/GEO-3%20REPORT_English.pdf?sequence=7&is Allowed=y.

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United Nations Environment Programme. (2007). Global environmental outlook 4: Environment for development. Retrieved from https://www.unenvironment.org/ resources/global-environment-outlook-4. United Nations Environment Programme. (2012). Keeping track of our changing environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992–2012). Retrieved from https://sustainable development.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=321&menu=1515. United Nations Environment Programme. (2019a). Global environmental outlook 6: Healthy planet, healthy people. Retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/ handle/20.500.11822/27539/GEO6_2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. United Nations Environment Programme. (2019b). Global environmental outlook 6: Summary for Policymakers. Retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500. 11822/27652. United Nations World Commission on the Environment and Development, & Brundtland, G. H. (1987). 96th Plenary meeting, United Nations General Assembly. Report to the World Commission on the Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/5987our-common-future.pdf. VanWynsberghe, R. (2015). The Olympic Games Impact (OGI) study for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games: Strategies for evaluating sport mega-events’ contribution to sustainability. International Journal of Sport Policy Politics, 7(1), 1–18. Walker, R. J., & Leopkey, B. (2017). The adoption and evolution of environmental practices in the Olympic Games. Managing Sport and Leisure, 22(1), 1–18. Wheeler, K., & Nauright, J. (2006). A global perspective on the environmental impact of golf. Sport in Society, 9(3), 427–443. Wicker, P. (2018). The carbon footprint of active sport tourists: An empirical analysis of skiers and boarders. Journal of Sport Tourism, 22(2), 151–171. doi: 10.1080/14775085. 2017.1313706. World Economic Forum. (2016). The new plastics economy: Rethinking the future of plastics. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_ The_New_Plastics_Economy.pdf. Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C. N., Williams, M., Barnosky, A. D., Cearreta, A., Crutzen, P., et al. (2015). When did the Anthropocene begin? A mid-twentieth century boundary level is stratigraphically optimal. Quaternary International, 383, 196–203.

Part I

Impacts of sport on the natural environment

Chapter 2

Sport and safeguarding air quality Jonathan Casper

Research pertaining to air pollution resulting from conducting sport operations and associated spectator activity has been noticeably limited, even though it is a vital environmental sustainability (ES) component related to human health and climate change risk mitigation. Air pollution is a global problem, estimated to account for 4.2 million deaths per year (World Health Organization, 2018a). Pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2), all linked to adverse health effects ranging from increased hospital admissions and emergency room visits, to increased risk of premature death (World Health Organization, 2018b). In addition to human health impacts, air pollution contributes to climate change and affects ecosystems. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to human activities are one of the leading causes of environmental degradation. Greenhouse gases trap heat and make the planet warmer. The burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity and heat, and for transportation, are responsible for almost all of the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the last 150 years (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.b). While sport event operations may have only a minimal effect on air pollution, sport-related transportation for participants and spectators poses a substantial concern. When vehicles are used for the purpose of sport, such as for travel to compete in sporting contests or to attend a sport event, sport participants are culpable for contributing to air pollution (Chard & Mallen, 2012). There is, therefore, a need for recognition, understanding, and accountability of the extent to which sports contribute, as well as proactive measures to mitigate air pollution impacts. Sport has exhibited an initial recognition of the issue. For instance, at a global level, international governing agencies, such as the United Nations (UN) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), have begun to acknowledge and encourage action concerning the impact of sport on the environment, with the UN developing a program on Sport and the Environment (Schmidt, 2018). The ecological footprint of sport events is indicated as one of the concerns of United Nations Environment Programme, including the impact of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions (Bunds, Casper, & Frey, 2018).

18 Jonathan Casper

As ES policies and practices gain momentum, considerations of air pollution, and associated air quality resulting from sport events and the health of athletes and spectators, becomes a prominent area to address. This chapter will examine the current research on air pollution and sport, most of which comes from nonsport management journals. Summarized are two major themes; the first is air pollution due to transportation/travel to sport events/programs; the second is associated with air pollution at events that can impact spectator and athlete health. Recommendations based on this research review, as well as addressing research gaps, will then be discussed.

Air pollution associated with sport participation Travel, mostly using personal automobiles, is necessary for “sport parents” to get their children to sport practices and games. Research on transportation behaviour for participatory sport has found that there are serious adverse consequences to the environment attributable to transportation associated with practices and sporting contests (Chard & Mallen, 2012).

Travel to sporting contests In a seminal study published in Sport Management Review, Chard and Mallen (2012) surveyed the car travel behaviours of a small group of ice hockey parents when travelling to competitions that were not at their home sport facility (e.g. away games). The objectives of the study were to describe the carbon footprint as well as generate ideas about ways to reduce and offset carbon impacts. Participants in their study (n = 32) were asked to provide details on the type of car they typically used to transport their child to sport competitions and what “away” games they attended. Their results indicated that sport parents travelled a combined 78,000 km, emitting approximately 20 tons of CO2 in the course of attending only away games for their child’s hockey team. The research team concluded that a reduction in the environmental impact of away games could be achieved through car-pooling, inter-parent coordination, or hiring a bus versus multiple individual vehicles. Additionally, the data showed that individual players could mitigate their environmental impacts for under $30 per player through the purchase of carbon offsets. The research team provided several recommendations, including for organizations to better coordinate game scheduling, adjusting game schedules, and possibly even considering league realignment. A summary of this study is included below. Chard & Mallen (2012) Research topic: Car travel behaviours of ice hockey parents travelling to competitions Method: Qualitative interviews

Sport and safeguarding air quality 19

Setting: Ontario, Canada; “A” level and “AAA” level youth hockey Area/sector of sport: Community sport, environmental impact of travel Theoretical foundations: Environmental social responsibility Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Human activity generates greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change and sport participants are culpable for contributing to global carbon emissions.

Conclusions: •

•

Developed and tested a simple methodology to estimate carbon footprint. By determining the carbon footprint associated with “away” game travel, individuals, teams, organizations, and governing bodies can benchmark impacts to reduce emissions. Authors recorded several reduction strategies for both the individual participants (i.e. parents) and community sport organizations.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

The majority of research on sport and the environment had focused on large, multi-national sport events or commercial sport ventures. The role of individuals, at the community sport level, and their contribution to the global carbon footprint had been neglected.

Travel to practices In the Journal of Transportation Research, Bunds, Kanters, Venditti, Casper, Rajagoplan, and Carlton (2018) measured the environmental impact of travel behaviours related to a competitive youth swim club. Similar to Chard and Mallen (2012), the researchers examined a community-level sport league, but the justification related to the environmental impact was assessed based on transportation in the context of practices rather than away competitions. A total of 172 parents/guardians agreed to participate in the study. For a period of three nonconsecutive weeks, each participating parent received a series of text messages assessing their car travel associated with driving to and from swim practices over the previous seven days, as well as the number of additional children to whom they provided rides to and/or from practices in the past week. Travel data responses were then matched with participant survey responses using subject identifiers to determine travel distances, time of travel, and logical route choices for each participant. Google Maps was used to determine distance, time, and route choice for each participant. To calculate the environmental impacts, they examined the life cycle car manufacturing (model, year, average miles per gallon) and driving of the automobile (distance, highway versus local driving).

20 Jonathan Casper

Results showed that the program emitted 414,745 kg of CO2 for the entire season (10 months) based on the entire program of 450 families. This would be equivalent to the electricity used in 62 American homes for one year, 88 passenger vehicles driven for one year, or 994,000 miles driven by an average passenger vehicle (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.a). In addition to CO2, the program caused emissions of 10,870 H+ moles towards acidification, 12.75 kg of PM 2.5, 11.81 kg of N and 51.98 g of NOx towards respiratory effects, eutrophication, and smog respectively. A deeper dive into the data included simulations to demonstrate that behaviour change initiated by participants (e.g., increased carpooling) or imposed (mandated emission regulations) can drastically reduce the environmental impact. For example, if every car transported a minimum of three children to and from practice facilities, 57 fewer cars would be needed to transport children and there would be a 73 per cent reduction in emissions/child passenger. If all participant cars had a minimum mile per gallon of 36, there would be a 40 per cent reduction in the total combined emission of CO2. Re-assigning participants to practice facilities closest to their homes achieved a 12 per cent reduction in emissions per child passenger. A summary of this study is included below: Bunds et al. (2018) Research topic: Car travel behaviours of youth swim team parents travelling to practices Method: Quantitative survey; SMS survey; life cycle analysis; simulations Setting: Wake County, North Carolina; individual and carpool travel Area/sector of sport: Community sport, environmental impact of travel/ commuting Theoretical foundations: None Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Decentralization of sport facilities and necessity of car travel.

Conclusions: •

• •

•

Participants travelled an average of 8 miles and spent an average of almost 17 minutes each time they drove to or from the practice facility and spent an average of 106 minutes in their car each week. The program emits 415,000 kg of CO2-equivalent over approximately 1 million miles driven in vehicles. Simulations show that the carbon footprint can be significantly reduced with carpooling, more fuel-efficient vehicles, and having participants practise at a facility closest to their home. This is the first study to use experiential sampling via text messaging to measure actual travel specific to the youth sport program.

Sport and safeguarding air quality 21

•

Behaviour change, whether independently initiated by participants or imposed by the organization, can significantly reduce the environmental impact of organized leisure activities.

Air pollution and sport events The travel associated with attending sport events is another significant source of air pollution. It has been noted that the energy required to operate a sports venue is fairly minor compared with the energy that spectators expend in simply getting to a game (Koerner, 2009). Further, no matter how big the facility, the largest carbon impact of sport events typically comes from spectator travel and activities (Orts & Spigonardo, 2013). Mega-, professional, and college sport all require spectator travel to and from stadia. While mass transportation options exist, a majority of spectators still use their own personal vehicles to attend games/events. Sport spectator attendance based on sheer numbers is noteworthy. For example, in 2018, Major League Baseball total attendance was nearly 70 million over 2,415 games. For each game, it is estimated that a significant amount of CO2 emissions are resultant specific to attendance at the event (see Table 2.1 developed by Bsales & Sarkis, n.d.). Stadiums that have more parking spaces are more likely to have more spectator transportation-specific CO2 emissions.

Air pollution due to spectator activity The surroundings of large spectator events serve as a microclimate where there is the potential for high dosage air pollution exposure. In addition to the transportation to events, spectator activity has also been connected to increased air pollution at the events. Tailgating, a spectator activity, usually happens many hours before the events and sometimes even after. It is during this time that individuals are exposed to the auto emissions resultant from traffic flow into the event, the air pollution emissions associated with tailgating itself, and automobile emissions after the event while exiting the stadia grounds. So, as Table 2.1 Estimated travel emissions per game, vehicles only (adapted from Bsales & Sarkis, n.d.) Stadium

Parking spots

Total miles driven*

CO2 emissions (lbs)**

AT&T Park (SF Giants) Dodger MetLife (NY Jets and Giants)

4,000 16,000 23,800

240,000 960,000 1,428,000

207,115 828,459 1,232,332

Notes * based on 30-mile distance. ** 22.5 mpg, 19.417 lbs CO2e per gallon.

22 Jonathan Casper

tailgaters and game attendees, spectators are exposed to a microclimate inundated with fumes from diesel exhaust, gasoline exhaust, generator exhaust, charcoal grills, and many other air pollutant sources (Bunds et al., 2019). In Event Management, Bunds et al.’s (2019) study on the microclimate related to college football games and utilized an innovative methodology to capture tailgating-associated air pollution. In their study, the researchers used mobile air pollution measurement (using a backpack with air monitoring equipment) to capture air pollution while walking the tailgating (parking areas) from three hours before the game until after the game. Additionally, stationary monitors (placed on lighting poles) were utilized to capture ambient air at the edges of the tailgating parking lots. Data was collected over three games in total. Results of the mobile measurement indicated that the air quality was fair during each of the tailgates and good inside the stadium. However, there were some statistically significant spikes in PM2.5 during the tailgating pre-game times associated with one of four things; moving traffic, idling vehicles, generators (particularly older generators), and charcoal grills. Each one of these is concerning due to the fact that multiple tailgaters were observed standing in front of generators, idling vehicles, and charcoal grills for hours at a time. Results from the stationary measurements found that tailgating activity and the entering traffic for the game showed good to fair air quality overall (PM2.5 levels < 300,000 ppm). During the game, the levels were even lower, as the auto traffic and tailgating activity was low. The significant finding is that air pollution levels become a health concern once the game ends (post-game). At this time, most people are looking to exit the stadium and the resultant traffic congestion raises air quality to poor, or unhealthy, levels. For the most part, air quality at the football games and during tailgating was in healthy ranges. Air pollution reached unhealthy levels during direct close-by exposure to pollutants (i.e. grills or generators) and when vehicles were exiting after the game. The results show that, for those with health issues (such being prone to heart attacks or asthma), efforts made to reduce and avoid pollutants are warranted. Some positive news for spectators and athletes was that the air quality inside the stadium was better than outside, so the stadium may actually serve as a barrier to pollution associated with vehicle traffic and spectators’ activities. A summary of this study is included below. Bunds et al. (2019) Research topic: Developing a methodology for measuring air pollutant exposure in a sport event microenvironment Method: Mobile measurement used a comparison of air pollution in transportation environments (backpack) over a predetermined route; stationary measurement used Dylos air quality monitors in four stadium vicinity locations. Setting: NCAA Division I Football events (three games) Area/sector of sport: Collegiate sport, air quality based on event-specific travel

Sport and safeguarding air quality 23

Theoretical foundations: None Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Quantifying ubiquitous pollutants is challenging given the information is subject to spatial and temporal variability.

Conclusions: • • •

•

A methodology was described on how to capture event-specific pollution. Mobile measurements found air pollution high around charcoal grills, idling cars, and older generators. Mobile monitoring instruments found that there are several examples of air polluters (i.e. idling vehicles, charcoal grills, and old generators) that emit significant spikes of unhealthy air (primarily PM2.5). Findings from the stationary monitors show that overall pollution (small count particles) becomes a potential health concern primarily upon completion of the game and remains at unhealthy levels several hours after.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

There is a dearth of research attempting to measure air pollution at sporting events. There is a gap in understanding concerning a sport event as a microclimate.

Air pollution due to spectator travel Published in Sustainability, Triantafyllidis, Ries, and Kaplanidou (2018) sought to understand the difference in CO2 emissions resulting from off-campus collegiate football events (CFE) compared to on-campus collegiate football events. The article was guided by several questions: How do CO2 emissions differ in onCFE (high-density area) to off-CFE (low density area)? How do CO2 emissions differ based upon transportation modes used to and from on-CFE and off-CFE? How do CO2 emissions differ based upon miles travelled to and from on-CFE and off-CFE? The study attempted to close the gap of knowledge regarding whether transportation modes to off-CFE emit higher CO2 compared to transportation modes to on-CFE. Additionally, the article sought to understand if CO2 emissions are higher or lower due to the miles travelled per spectator. The article contributed multiple key findings. First, spectators travelled further for on-CFE, which resulted in more CO2 emissions when compared to off-CFE. Additionally, spectators carpooled less when attending on-CFE, which resulted in higher CO2 emissions compared to off-CFE. Moreover, spectators travelled further distances to attend on-CFE compared to off-CFE, which resulted in higher CO2 emissions. With the aim of reducing carbon emissions,

24 Jonathan Casper

the researchers recommended that alternative modes of transportation should be made. The study also refuted urban planning literature and theory by proving that CO2 emissions for events held in urban areas are not necessarily reduced through public transportation, so other incentives and policies should be utilized. A summary of this study is included below. Triantafyllidis, Ries, & Kaplanidou (2018) Research topic: The quantity of CO2 emissions generated in an off-campus collegiate football event versus an on-campus collegiate sport event Method: Quantitative research approach Setting: United States collegiate football stadiums and campuses Area/sector of sport: Sport consumers’ environmental conservation and preservation behaviours Theoretical foundation: Sustainability framework and urban planning theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Spectator’s alternative transportation usage (e.g. public transportation, carpooling).

Conclusions: •

On-campus stadiums generate the largest quantity of CO2 emissions from spectators’ transportation compared to colleges with an off-campus stadium.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Lack of knowledge regarding environmental pollution of sport event participants’ transportation practices. Unknown willingness of the spectators regarding usage of sustainable modes of transportation when attending sport events.

Air pollution and attendance In the Journal of Sport Management, Watanabe, Yan, Soebbing, and Fu (2019) analyzed the impact that pollution had on attendance at professional soccer matches. Specifically, by using daily Air Quality Index (AQI) data from China’s Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) website, measures of air pollution were included in models estimating demand for Chinese Super League matches. Curiously, the results from all of the models found that the actual pollution level, as well as the other alert systems used by the media to inform citizens of the general level of pollution in the air, did not have a significant relationship with attendance. To further test this point, the authors also adjusted pollution using the averages for local markets, but still found no

Sport and safeguarding air quality 25

impact on spectator interest in attending games. The authors noted that the findings suggested that spectators in China continue to attend games even when it presents potential dangers to their own health, possibly hinting that the consumption of soccer is habitual and not easily influenced by changes in the environmental conditions. As such, it is argued that there is need for sport organizations, governments, and other stakeholders to consider the development of policy to protect spectators, as even short-term exposure to air pollution presents a danger to the health of individuals. A summary of this study is included below. Watanabe et al. (2019) Research topic: Impact of air pollution on consumer behaviour Method: Econometrics; regression analysis; quantitative Setting: All cities in China with a Chinese Super League team between 2014 and 2016. Area/sector of sport: Sports economics; air pollution; air quality index; environmental economics Theoretical foundations: Economics, demand for sport Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

“Specific real-time AQI measures need to be considered in the creation and implementation of such a policy, as it takes into account the six common air pollutants and can serve as a critical indicator (Ebenstein et al., 2017). From there, these efforts can be transformed into a wider part of the economic and political mechanisms that affect China’s environmental restructuring in the long term” (p. 11). “In the future, it is suggested that these segments of the market need to be considered a priority by the CSL, especially as there may not be an instant method to solve the complex problem of deteriorating air quality in China” (p. 11).

Conclusions: •

•

•

“The result that CSL fans were not affected by air pollution is rather surprising, as it contradicts the premise largely surrounding sport and the environment studies” (p. 9). “In this case, it is possible that China’s sport fans may have been conditioned to air pollution as a part of everyday life for a long time, thus, forgoing health-related rationales and warnings when viewing CSL games. The likelihood that a large number of CSL fans were relatively young, and therefore, less vigilant about the issues of air pollution and health must also be recognized” (p. 9). “In particular, for vulnerable populations of soccer fans such as those with

26 Jonathan Casper

•

asthma or other health conditions, attending CSL games may facilitate growing disparities of health among different groups of sport consumers” (p. 10). “Precisely because [China] lacks governmental forces that alert and protect civic and consumption activities from environmental degradation, it is critical for sport organizations to take an active role that negotiates power relations that underlie interactions between sport industry, government, consumers, and citizens” (p. 10).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

“this study brings attention to the need of identifying alternative market solutions and the necessity to negotiate market activities of sport attendance in polluted environment for ethical concerns” (p. 2). “While environmental conditions such as weather have long been theorized as a determinant for sport attendance (Borland & Macdonald, 2003), limited economic investigations have explored the relationship between the degradation of environmental conditions and sport consumer interest (Sanderson & Shaikh, 2017)” (p. 9).

Air pollution and athlete health Concerns over athlete health have come to the attention of researchers and sport governing bodies stimulating policy development to safeguard athlete health due to poor air quality. There are three reasons why otherwise healthy athletes are at special risk for inhaling pollutants (NCAA, 2018). These include: (1) as physical activity increases minute ventilation, the number of pollutants that are inhaled relative to when the athlete is at rest are increased; (2) during activity, a larger proportion of air is inhaled through the mouth, which bypasses the body’s built-in nasal filtration system; and (3) pollutants are inhaled more deeply and may diffuse into the bloodstream more quickly during physical activity. Further, for athletes with pre-existing pulmonary or cardiac conditions, the risks are heightened. In the British Journal of Sports Medicine, Rundell (2012) examined the effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on athletic performance and the effects of acute exposure on exercise performance. He stated that many sport activities expose athletes to toxic levels of air pollution. For example, ice-rink air is notoriously high in emission pollutants generated from combustion-powered ice resurfacers, and he noted that there have been numerous cases of NO2 and CO2 poisoning in ice rinks from ice-resurfacer exhaust emissions. In his study, Rundell explains how long-term exposure can have significant effects on resting airway function as well as early asthma development. He also provided an example of Nordic skiing in which ski-waxing fluorinated fumes from daily hot waxing provide a major contribution to exposure. This repeated exposure, in combination with airway damage from high ventilation of cold, dry air during

Sport and safeguarding air quality 27

competition and training, may contribute to reported airway dysfunction in Nordic skiers. Related to athlete performance, Rundell noted that for athletes competing in high PM pollution environments, even a 20-minute warm-up in high air pollution would have an impact on subsequent performance. Further, only one 6-minute bout of exercise in high pollution may have a carryover effect that will decrease exercise performance three days later. Rundell (2012) Research topic: Air pollution on athlete health and performance Method: Exposure measurements; correlations Setting: Indoor ice rinks; Nordic skiing Area/sector of sport: Community sport, environmental impact of travel/ commuting Theoretical foundations: None Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Minimize pollution exposure.

Conclusions: •

•

•

“Acute exposure to mixed exhaust aerosols during exercise can cause decreases in lung and vascular function in healthy and asthmatic subjects” (p. 411). “Chronic exposure to mixed exhaust aerosols during exercise may result in decreased lung function and may promote vascular dysfunction, which appear to be related to increased airway and systemic oxidative stress” (p. 411). “The physiological effects of high-intensity exercise in high levels of mixed exhaust aerosols support the observed compromised performance” (p. 411).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“The particles released from emissions are considered to cause oxidative damage and inflammation in the airways and the vascular system, and may be related to decreased exercise performance. However, few studies have examined this aspect” (p. 407).

Filling the research gaps At-event air pollution reduction Making people aware of when and where idling can be avoided is a simple way to help individuals and organizations save fuel, save money, and reduce environmental impacts. Idle Free programs aimed at staff, spectators, and area

28 Jonathan Casper

transportation providers can be part of a team’s sustainability strategy. Some tactical suggestions include the creation of “Idle Free” zones in and around team properties and hosting “Idle Free” tailgating events (Kestenbaum, 2016). Also recognizing that most of the pollution is from spectators entering and exiting events (Bunds et al., 2018), programs such as “Click and Park”, pre-paid “print at home” parking passes available for event parking, may reduce pollution and are being implemented at many sporting events. Event attendees choose and pay for their parking ahead of time to reduce idling time spent waiting, paying for, and finding a parking spot on arrival. Protecting athlete health An example for protecting athlete health is the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) air quality monitoring policy (NCAA, 2018) using the National Weather Service’s (NWS) Air Quality Forecast System. The NWS provides real-time monitoring of ozone, particulate matter, and other pollutant forecasts creating an Air Quality Index (AQI) with enough accuracy and advance notice to take action to prevent or reduce adverse effects. The AQI accounts for five different pollutants, including ground-level ozone, particle pollution (also known as particulate matter), carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. Of these, ground-level ozone and particulate matter are the most common and most concerning pollutants for outdoor physical activity. The AQI is a single number, presented on a scale of 0–500, where 0 indicates no air quality problems and 500 indicates the most hazardous levels of air pollution. With this information, the NCAA recommends attentive monitoring of local AQI and associated air quality alerts, especially during times of extreme environmental conditions. During times of high AQI, NCAA schools should consider shortening or cancelling outdoor athletic events (practices and competitions) in accordance with AQI guidance. Exposure should be managed more conservatively for student athletes with pre-existing pulmonary or cardiac conditions, as it may exacerbate the complications of these conditions and lead to an acute medical emergency. Specifically, at an AQI of 100 or higher, schools should consider removing sensitive athletes from outdoor practice or competition venues and should closely monitor all athletes for respiratory difficulty. At AQIs of over 150, outdoor activities should be shortened, and exertion should be minimized by decreasing the intensity of activity. Sensitive athletes should be moved indoors. At AQIs of 200 or above, serious consideration should be given to rescheduling the activity or moving it indoors. At AQIs of 300 or above, outdoor activities should be moved indoors or cancelled if indoor activity is not an option. (NCAA, 2018). Interestingly, the important topic of protecting athlete health with respect to air quality and the hosting of sport events is very limited.

Sport and safeguarding air quality 29

Further information and research Research on sport and safeguarding air quality is still in its formative stages, so further research is warranted. For this topic, there were only two articles that were published in sport management-related journals. Compared to other sportES issues, such as winter sport and climate change or major sport events and ES, there is very little guidance for sport managers regarding air pollution in the form of policies, recommendations, or guidebooks/manuals. This lack of research may be due to the cross-discipline nature of the topic and complexities when testing air quality at any one given open space. There are a number of research topics that need to be completed for a robust body of literature on the topic. The topics, as with the research outlined above, is open to qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods and examples of research topics include: •

•

• • • • • • • • •

air quality and athlete health; this includes developing knowledge on the interplay of geographic, industrial, regulatory factors and the risks of exposure if athletes compete at sport events that are hosted in cities with high air pollution; examine the current state of policies – and the advancement of such policy that goes beyond recommendations, but enforced safeguards – for athletes when the air quality at a sport event host city is poor; air pollution mitigation strategies by sport; air pollution and mega-events; establishing air quality standards for sport competition; environmental impact of sport; impact of recreational sport on air quality; greenhouse gases and sport operations; measuring air quality at sport events; preventive strategies for sport travel; and sport spectatorship and air pollution exposure.

Additional research on air pollution that can be used to support sport researchers to generate research on the topic is available. There are a number of journals that publish regarding air and transportation issues. Examples of such journals include: Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, Environmental Pollution; Exposure and Health; Environmental Management; Journal of Transport and Health; Journal of Transportation Research; and Journal of Travel Research. International Conferences include AirNOW and Earth Science and Climate Change.

Conclusions Air pollution reduction strategies can be leveraged as a positive point of difference for progressive sport event managers. This is a topic of importance as

30 Jonathan Casper

spectator sport events generate air pollution that is an issue due to vehicle use, venue operations, and spectator-related activities. This chapter provided evidence of proactive strategies that can help with mitigation and reduction, as well as policies to avoid high pollution conditions. A clear mission for sport organizations should be to work towards clean air for all spectators and players through education, advocacy, and working with stakeholders to reduce pollution. To this end, additional research needs to be completed to support this mission.

References Borland, J., & MacDonald, R. (2003). Demand for sport. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19(4), 478–502. Bsales, N., & Sarkis, K. (n.d.). Tackling carbon pollution from sport fans. TerraPass. Retrieved from https://www.terrapass.com/tackling-carbon-pollutions-sports-fans. Bunds, K. S., Casper, J. M., & Frey, H. C. (2019, May). Air pollution at college football games: Developing a methodology for measuring air pollutant exposure in a sport event microenvironment. Event Management, 23(3), 399–412. doi:13.3727/152599519X15403 53721484. Bunds, K. S., Kanters, M., Venditti, R., Casper, J., Rajagoplan, N., & Carlton, T. (2018). Organized youth sports and commuting behavior: The environmental impact of decentralized community sports facilities. Journal of Transportation Research, 65, 387–395. Chard, C., & Mallen, C. (2012). Examining the linkages between automobile use and carbon impacts of community-based ice hockey. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 476–484. Ebenstein, A., Fan, M., Greenstone, M., He, G., & Zhou, M. (2017). New evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China’s Huai River Policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(39), 10384–10389. doi:10.1073/pnas.1616784114. Kestenbaum, D. (2016). Vehicle exhaust and reduction strategies – how can we minimize outdoor pollutants? 2016 Green Sport Alliance Summit, Houston, TX. Koerner, B. (2009, April 9). Are the Yankees bad for the environment? The hidden costs of heading to the stadium. Slate Magazine (The Green Lantern). Retrieved from http:// www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/the_green_lantern/2007/10/are_the_yankees_bad_for_the_environment.html. McCullough, B. P., Pfahl, M., & Nguyen, S. (2016). The green waves of environmental sustainability in sport. Sport in Society, 19(7), 1040–1065. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). (2018). Air quality. NCAA Sport Science Institute. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/sport-science-institute/air-quality. Orts, E., & Spigonardo, J. (2013). Special report: The green sports movement. Initiative for Global Environmental Leadership, Wharton. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved from http://d1c25a6gwz7q5e.cloudfront.net/reports/2013-12-13-Greeningthe-Sports-Industry-R3.pdf. Rundell, K. W. (2012). Effect of air pollution on athlete health and performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46(6), 407–412.

Sport and safeguarding air quality 31 Sanderson, A. R., & Shaikh, S. L. (2017). Economics, sports, and the environment. In B. P. McCullough & T. B. Kellison (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport and the environment (pp. 36–53). New York: Routledge. Schmidt, R. (2018). Protecting the environment through sports? Public–private cooperation for regulatory resources and international law. European Journal of International Law, 28(4), 1341–1366. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/ chx063. Triantafyllidis, S., Ries, R., & Kaplanidou, K. (2018). Carbon dioxide of spectators’ transportation in collegiate Football Event: On-campus versus off-campus stadium. Sustainability, 10(1), 241–259. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.a). Greenhouse gas equivalencies calculator – Calculations and references. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/energy/ greenhouse-gases-equivalencies-calculator-calculations-and-references. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.b). Sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gasemissions. Watanabe, N. W., Yan, G., Soebbing, B. P., & Fu, W. (2019, in press). Air pollution and attendance in the Chinese Super League: Environmental economics and the demand for sport. Journal of Sport Management. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm. 2018-0214. World Health Organization. (2018a). Air pollution. Retrieved from https://www.who. int/airpollution/en/. World Health Organization. (2018b). Ambient air pollution: Health impacts. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/airpollution/ambient/health-impacts/en/.

Chapter 3

Sport and the safeguarding of water resources Cheryl Mallen and Gord Watkin

Attention is now turned towards research literature dealing with sport and its uses and impacts on water resources. The chapter begins by establishing a context pertaining to global water resources, including its value and associated issues. The chapter then offers an overview on sport’s dependence on water resources, followed by an examination of manuscripts on sport and its efforts to safeguard water published in sport management journals. The next research focus involves manuscripts on the topic that are published outside of the sport management journals. Then, the focus shifts to manuscripts about water resources that do not have a sport-related theme and are not published in sport management journals, but cover topics that are applicable to future sport management research. The conclusions section offers encouragement for future researchers to develop a full body of knowledge, and to envision ‘where we could be’ with respect to research on sport and water resources. Before we begin, it should be noted that other chapters focus on winter sports and the issue of snow and ice; summer sports and issues of water resources pertaining to topics such as the maintenance of grass-based sports fields; and sport facility water requirements, such as the making of ice for sport competition purposes. Consequently, these topics are not included in this chapter.

Global water resources In July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly Resolution declared access to water to be a fundamental human right (Gupta et al., 2013, para. 16). This is due to its necessity for maintaining life (Biswas, 2004), and value concerning livelihoods (Nazemi & Madani, 2018). This means everyone has access rights to only 2.5 per cent of water on Earth that is freshwater and only 0.3 per cent that is found on the surface and accessible for use (UNEP, 2002). This historical paradigm concerning water involves the “hydrologic cycle” that: … is the series of transformations that occur in the circulation of water from the atmosphere onto the surface and into the subsurface regions of the earth, and then back from the surface to the atmosphere. Precipitation becomes surface water, soil moisture, and groundwater. Groundwater circulates back to

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the surface, and from the surface all water returns to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. (Government of Canada, n.d., para. 2) A new paradigm today, however, is that our hydrologic cycle is uniquely coupled with human activity as “human activity is inseparable from the natural [water] system” (Vogel et al., 2015, p. 4410). This means that our transboundary water, such as any lake, stream, pond, groundwater site, or well, is not isolated but interconnected and how humans impact it in one area of the world can impact water in other areas of the system. These human activities have been generating “water challenges [that] will increase significantly in the coming years” (UNDESA, n.d., para. 3) and has been declared “a wicked problem” (Gupta, et al., 2013, para. 9). Issues stem from water quantity whereby a scarcity of fresh water “is creating a global crisis” (Stuckenberg & Contento, 2018, para. 1), and water quality concerns (Gupta, et al., 2013; Nazemi & Madani, 2018). For years now, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2018) has delineated examples of human actions that have impacted water that include, for example, the construction of dams, water pollution, and climate change. Each of these areas will now be discussed.

Water resources and dams In the past decade, the construction of dams on the world’s waterways has increased dramatically (Grill et al., 2015; Zarfl et al., 2014). Each dam offers benefits such as generating energy (hydropower), or supplying water purposed for irrigation, or offering protection from floods (Grill et al., 2015). Unfortunately, dams also produce adverse consequences that impact water quality through an interruption of water flow and the generation of “lacustrine (static water)” (Sharma, 2015, p. 176). For example, harmful algae blooms (HABs) can emerge in stagnated water, along with salinity imbalances (more acidic) and rising water temperatures (Frumkin, 2016). Anderson, Cembella and Hallegraef (2012) stated that HABs can cause “acute paralytic, diarrheic, and amnesic poisoning in humans, and can also cause massive die-offs in aquatic life” (p. 288). Carmichael (2001) proclaimed that HABs can be absorbed through the skin during water-related activities, or inhaled through aerosolized toxins. The HABs also threaten fish and marine animals (Canadian Council of Professional Fish Harvesters, 2018). Investigations are underway regarding the removal of dams due to their impacts on our natural waterways (Magilligan et al., 2016). This, however, is not the only water resources issue, as water pollution has reached a critical point.

Water resources and pollution It has been noted that “our rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and seas are drowning in chemicals, waste, plastics, and other pollutants” (Denchak, 2018, para. 1).

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Generally, water pollution stems from the dumping of waste, as well as untreated sewage and industrial discharge into water sources (Ahmed & Ismail, 2018) – that is, “pollution from … human-centered purposes” (Miller et al., 2017, p. 246). According to the World Economic Forum (2016), the breadth of plastic pollution is so immense that, by 2050, there will be more pieces of plastic in the world’s oceans than fish. Support for this prediction comes from multiple studies. For instance, Jambeck et al. (2015) linked worldwide data on solid waste, population density, and economic status to estimate the level of land-based plastic in the world’s oceans and forecast future projections. Collectively, it was calculated that 275 million metric tonnes of plastic waste enter the ocean annually (Jambeck et al., 2015). Miller et al. (2017) reflected that the process of ocean plastic pollution at the microfibre level was indirect, and consistent with findings published by the World Economic Forum (2016) that approximately 80 per cent of total ocean waste is indirect “leakage” (p. 22), with the other 20 per cent being deliberate dumping of waste from ships and barges. To illustrate that the plastics pollution issue goes beyond oceans, an example of water plastic pollution in the Great Lakes in Canada is offered. The Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change (OMECC) purports that the Great Lakes, on average, have over 6 million plastic particulate pieces per cubic foot of water (OMECC, 2016). At the same time, Canadians purchase an estimated 2.4 billion litres of bottled water daily (Driedger et al., 2015), some of which has the potential to end up in the waterways. In response, strategies to mitigate plastics pollution in waterways have been proposed. Baker (2018) argued that recycling strategies can be utilized to manage the plastics that have already been produced and indicated that “there are viable alternatives to entirely replace plastics” (para. 3). Much work, however, is needed to complete the transition away from our current plastics pollution situation that is exacerbated by climate change.

Water resources and climate change The atmospheric climate system fundamentally impacts the hydrologic cycle that produces water on Earth, and this means that water and climate are “tightly coupled partners” (Osborn et al., 2015, p. 15). Further, the World Health Organization (WHO) (2009), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2013), and the UN World Water Development Report (2018) have denoted that risks to water resources can be attributed to climate change. In addition, the Vision 2030 study produced by the WHO (2009) noted that this water and climate change issue is a “significant challenge” (p. 1). In this book, Chapter 1, “Introduction to research on sport and environmental sustainability”, provided an overview of the climate change concept that is now applied in this chapter specifically to water resources. Climate change, a “large-scale, long-term shift in the planet’s weather patterns or average temperatures” (Met Office, 2019), is impacting the water

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cycle around the world (UN World Water Development Report, 2018). The risks associated with climate change include “impacts [that] will be experienced through more droughts, floods and less predictable rainfall and waterflows” (p. 2). Harder-Lauridsen, Kuhn, Erichsen, Mølbak, and Ethelberg (2013) contended that an increased number of episodes of extreme rain due to climate change will cause flooding that generates “potential microbial contamination of surface water posing a range of risks to human health” (p. 1) and impact livelihoods (WHO, 2009). Jaramillo and Nazemi (2018) promote that climate change involves threats that have “implications on water security” (p. 907). The IPCC (2013) purported that climate change threats are reduced if adaptation and mitigation strategies are devised and put into effect. Examples include eliminating fossil fuel use and adapting renewable energy options such as biomass, solar, and wind energy options. Further, the UN World Water Development Report (2018) promotes nature-based solutions such as those that “mimic natural processes to contribute to the improved management of water” (p. 2). An educational initiative conducted during the World Water Day campaign held annually on March 22 promotes the implementation of such nature-based solutions (Worldwaterday, March 22). This campaign calls for action by “reconnecting rivers to flood plains and restoring wetlands … to help rebalance the water cycle, mitigate the effects of climate change and improve human health and livelihoods” (para. 1). Adaptations are necessary as it has been stipulated that “sustainable water security will not be achieved through business-as-usual approaches” (UN World Water Development Report, 2018, p. 2). As the world’s water resources are under stress, the WHO’s (2009) Vision 2030 study concluded that strategies to mitigate the negative impacts on the world’s water resources are available. As discussed above, such strategies include the removal of dams, reducing the impacts of climate change with renewable energy, and using available alternatives to plastics. The Vision 2030 study also concluded, however, that our “potential adaptive capacity is high but rarely achieved” (WHO, 2009, p. 4). We will now turn attention to the importance of water to sport. This is followed by an overview of the research literature specifically on water within the sport context. Then, importantly, gaps in the literature are discussed and the need for research on the topic is emphasized.

Sports dependence on water resources Water is crucial for sport. Water use in sport plays out across two different dimensions – (1) the degree of dependence and (2) the directness of consumption – along with two different classes of water: freshwater and saltwater. There are four sub-classes of freshwater use applicable to sport, including: (1) high-dependence, direct consumption, such as water for human hydration

36 Cheryl Mallen and Gord Watkin

and irrigating outdoor grass-based sports fields and golf courses; (2) low-dependence, direct consumption, such as water for motor racing vehicles, along with use at indoor stadia; (3) high-dependence, indirect consumption, such as water for an indoor ice hockey arena or swimming pools; and (4) low-dependence, indirect consumption, such as a cleaner for athletics tracks. Further, there are two classes for human use of saltwater, yet only one of these is evident in sport. This involves a high dependence on bodies of salt water, such as those utilized for sailing, surfing, kite surfing, ocean swimming, triathlons, and water skiing (many of these sports can be conducted on fresh water resources as well). The other typology involves low-dependence saltwater use; however, no examples of this could be found for sport. Sport is, thus, dependent on the availability, quality, and quantity of water resources for direct and indirect use. In this context, Kellett and Turner (2011) stated that the “implications of the [Australian] water crisis are far reaching – for the sport … and for those stakeholders that are directly and indirectly connected to sport” (p. 154). This means that understandings concerning water and sport are critical, so we will now examine research manuscripts published in journals on sport and its connection to, and dependence on, water.

Research on sport and water resources A literature review revealed minimal research on the topic. Only two manuscripts were found to be specifically focused on water related to sport that were published in the key body of 21 sport management journals examined. One manuscript was found in each of Sport Management Review and the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing. An overview of these two studies included the following: Kellett & Turner (2011) Research topic: Exploration of water management in sport Method: Case study; qualitative Setting: Multiple community sport facilities (used for recreational to professional level sport) managed by a community sport council of Geelong, Australia Area/sector of sport: Community sport facility water management; policies and practices for responsible water consumption Theoretical foundations: Resource-based view; social learning; stakeholder management Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

“Much of the planning for water management in sport and recreation has been reactive” (p. 154). Sport could “be a model for self-regulatory institutions” (p. 155).

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Conclusions: • •

•

Research on sport and water resources is “embryonic” (p. 154). “Many stakeholders within community-level participation-focused sport organisations understand their use of water as an ‘unconditional right’ … to ensure the continuation of sport and recreation activities for the lifeblood of their communities” (p. 153). “The implications of the water crisis are far reaching – for the sport and recreation industry and for those stakeholders that are directly and indirectly connected to sport” (p. 154).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

• •

“Currently, sports that have high water consuming needs are facing disadvantages without a clear understanding of their requirements for water use” (p. 155). Research is needed that aids to “bridge the divide that exists in the consumption and management of water in the sport and recreation sector. A research agenda must seek to understand each of the conceptual areas of water consumption and water management that is specific to the sport and recreation sector and its surrounding community” (p. 156). We need research that aids to “understand best practice in water management and the implications” (p. 158). Qualitative and quantitative perspectives are needed on the topic.

Phillips and Turner (2014) Research topic: This is a teaching note for guiding students through an assignment on managing water in the sport sector Method: Case study Setting: A community sport council (Geelong) in Australia Area/sector of sport: Community sport facilities Theoretical foundations: Resource-based view; stakeholder management Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: Drought conditions are impacting water resource available for community sport facilities Conclusions: •

Depending on the allocation of water resources, some sports may have to adapt their competition schedule or be “significantly compromised in their ability to continue” (p. 387).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Next, a computer search of literature on sport and water research published outside of the sport management journals was undertaken. Two studies were found and both focused on athletes and water-based illness. They included the following: Harder-Lauridsen et al. (2013) Research topic: Water pollution and illness among triathlon athletes Method: Quantitative, questionnaire Setting: The 2010 and 2011 Copenhagen Ironman triathlon competition; both events held in Copenhagen, Denmark on the same water course Area/sector of sport: Elite triathlon competitors Theoretical foundations: A demonstrated link between extreme rain events and outbreaks of water-borne disease Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“With a predicted increasing frequency of heavy rainfall, the future implications for human health on a world-wide basis could be considerable” (p. 7).

Conclusions: • • • •

•

“Heavy rainfall overloaded the sewage systems and led to sewage overflowing into surrounding urban and aquatic areas” (p. 6). “The attack rate of disease among 838 swimmers in 2010 was 42% compared to 8% among 931 swimmers in the 2011 competition” (p. 1). Illness included “gastrointestinal symptoms, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach cramps and fever” (p. 3). “The study demonstrated a considerable risk of illness from water intake when swimming in contaminated seawater in 2010 [due to an extreme rainfall event the day prior to the competition], and a small but measureable risk from non-polluted water in 2011” (p. 1). “In cities such as Copenhagen where sewage systems are not designed to accommodate sudden major increases in water flow, the potential economical and health-related impacts could be substantial” (p. 7).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Nikolic, Steffen, & Bilić-Zulle (2017) Research topic: Incidence of sailors getting travellers’ diarrhea (TD) from the water at the 2016 Olympic Games held in Rio de Janeiro

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Method: Quantitative, questionnaire Setting: Olympic sailing site on Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro Area/sector of sport: Olympic sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

“Overall, 43 participants reported TD, meaning the total TD attack rate during 15 days was 10.9% for the study population (n = 396)” (para. 3). “We conclude that during exposure to the waters of Guanabara Bay in August 2015 the athletes were not exposed to a significantly increased health risk through water contact. As World Sailing wanted to reduce the risks to a minimum before, during and after the Aquec Rio 2015 event, it launched several waves of health promotion campaigns informing International Federations of the identified risks and provided health guidelines. The aim was to change the behaviour of the athletes by strongly promoting and implementing preventive measures that were based on the results of the study and on-site inspections. Local organisers were requested to implement sanitary improvements in infrastructure and sanitary procedures. Also, a change in the behaviour of the athletes – primarily regarding the modes of food and beverage consumption and adoption of the recommended hygienic procedures – was noted. Finally, all measures taken by World Sailing resulted in a higher level of health protection of the athletes, contributing to the success of the Olympic Games in Rio in 2016” (para. 7).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Another manuscript by Tan, Leong, and Vaz Pardal (2016) was found to have focused mainly on injuries in international sailing, but did touch on gastrointestinal issues that arose from the water at competition sites. A further manuscript by Eisenberg, Bartram, and Wade (2016) discussed untreated sewage and concerns for public health. The main focus of this research was not on sport, but on the water pollution issue and indicated that athletes had to compete in these waters at the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janerio. These researchers indicated that “recent concerns about polluted waters that athletes may be exposed to highlights the conditions that more than a billion people globally are exposed to daily” (Eisenberg, Bartram, & Wade, 2016, p. A180). A robust body of literature was published outside of the sport management journals that was found to focus on water with respect to swimming pool

40 Cheryl Mallen and Gord Watkin

maintenance and pool water quality. None of the manuscripts reviewed made a distinction relating to use of the swimming pools for competitive sport that is the focus of this text, but examples are provided as they are related to the stadia developed for water-based pool events. Examples included examinations of water quality and filter backwash in pools within the US (Murphy et al., 2017), microbes in pool water in China (Wei et al., 2018) and bacterial quality of pool water in Uganda (Ekopai et al., 2017). Overall, the research on the topic of water and sport was found to be at the primary stage with four manuscripts: two published in sport management journals and two outside of the sport management journals. Two of the publications were quantitative case studies that examined a link between water pollution and water-borne illness in athletes – one in triathletes in Denmark (HarderLauridsen et al., 2013), and the other affecting those using water in Rio de Janeiro, including Olympic sailors (Nikolic, Steffen, & Bilić-Zulle, 2017). Additionally, Kellett and Turner (2011) completed a qualitative case study on sport facilities in Australia and water management in sport and Phillips and Turner (2014) published a qualitative manuscript involving a teaching resource to lead students through the same case examined by Kellett and Turner (2011). The theoretical foundations used in this body of research was limited to resource-based theory. A key conclusion is that there is a lack of knowledge pertaining to water as it relates to sport. Importantly, this includes that “no sport specific regulatory task force exists to ensure that members of the sector use water in an environmentally responsible manner” (Kellett & Turner, 2011, p. 153). So, there is no one sport body providing oversight to ensure sport is safeguarding the critical water resources for the future of sport. Furthermore, there is no research on any sub-committees within sport organizations that are seeking to safeguard the critical bodies of water for use for the future of sport. Interestingly, sport is well behind non-sport business in the study of water. This is illustrated by Kurland and Zell’s (2010) review of 135 water-related manuscripts published in 49 key business journals a decade ago. As such, sport needs to advance numerous research studies regarding water to contribute to a robust body of knowledge on the topic.

Research gaps and future research topics on sport and water resources The knowledge gap is large for a multitude of topics within the study of water and sport. Research gaps outlined by Kellett and Turner (2011) indicated a need for both qualitative and quantitative research that generated understandings on sport-specific water consumption and best practices in water management, along with the implications of the water-related issues for sport. Expanding the work by Harder-Lauridsen, Kuhn, Erichsen, Mølbak, and Ethelberg (2013) on water and triathlon athletes has the potential to increase

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knowledge concerning the health hazards of water on sport competitors. Also, research is needed to examine the associated water impacts from climate change and their implications on sport. These impacts can be considered at various levels, such as team, organizational and program, and on the sport industry, as well as geographical orientation, such as regions within the northern or southern hemispheres with differing populations and economic conditions. And, importantly, future research can indicate how sport can rise to become a model for self-regulatory management of water as suggested by Kellett and Turner (2011). Additional research topics can be garnered from publications on water found in multiple non-sport journals. These works can guide sport researchers with the topics adapted for the sport context. A number of journals publish research on water issues and can be examined for the subjects they cover. Examples of such journals include: Business Strategy and the Environment; Eco-Management and Auditing; Environmental Impact Assessment Review; Environmental Impacts: Management Mitigation and Recovery; International Journal of Sustainable Water and Environmental Systems; International Journal of Water; International Journal of Cleaner Production; Journal of Cleaner Production; Journal of Environmental Management; Journal of Water Resources Development; Journal of Water Resource and Protection; Journal of Water and Health; Lake and Reservoir Management; Sustainable Development and Planning; Urban Water Journal; Water; Water Science; and Water Research. An example of a topic from water research that is outside the realm of sport management but could be adapted for sport includes a study by Addo, Thoms and Parsons (2018) on water use behaviour. They conducted a meta-analysis of 88 correlation coefficients with 15,656 participants applying the Behaviour Change Wheel framework to review associations between capability, opportunity, and motivation dimensions and household water-use behaviours. There is the potential to adapt this wheel to determine sport water-use behaviours. Other examples abound as research published without a sport focus can guide sport research in areas such as: water awareness (Christiano & Neimand, 2017); attitudes to water consumption (Gilg & Barr, 2006; Stoutenborough & Vedlitz, 2014; Willis et al., 2011); water quality (Behmel et al., 2016); water policy (Tsur & Zemel, 2018); water challenges (Cosgrove & Loucks, 2015; Gourbesville, 2008), including pollution (Haseena et al., 2017); and lessons learned and best practices in water management (Ramakrishnaiah, 2014). Each topic can be applied to sport. Further, the authors of this chapter generated a list of additional examples of future research topics on water and sport, including: • • •

sport water policy and governance; evidence-based systematic reviews and assessments of sport and water management for each level or sector of sport; establishing water quality standards for sport competition;

42 Cheryl Mallen and Gord Watkin

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

mapping water quality for best places to host sport competitions to safeguard athlete health; trends in climate change and the associated water impacts on sport; water management adaptation strategies by sport; how dams impact the waterways used by sport; capacity of sport and water management that safeguards the resource for the future of sport; legal aspects of sport and water management; attitudes and perception in sport on safeguarding water resources; educational strategies for encouraging sports participation in safeguarding water supplies; sport and water programs/projects; sport and water decision-making processes and procedural frameworks; sport facility water management, including best practices; sport manufacturing and impacts on water resources; media framing and athlete and public reaction to water pollution at sport events; sport facilities use of catchments, rainwater harvesting, grey water collection, and retention ponds; the cost of clean-up water resources for sports future; how sport is reducing and recycling plastics in the water system; sport water management educational activities; marketing the educational message; sport water management best practices; optimal designs; cultural perspective of water management and sport; greenwashing and water resource management in sport; and predictions concerning water resources and the future of sport.

There are also conferences focusing on water in fields outside of sport. Examples include the Sustainable Water Management Conference, the International Water Conference, the International Conference on Monitoring, Modeling and Management of Water Pollution, Water: Risk Opportunities and Sustainability Conference, the UN World Water Forum, and the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress. Is it time for specific sport and water management conferences?

Conclusions Overall, research on the topic of water and sport is at the primary stage and there is a critical need to advance targeted research to fill a plethora of research gaps. Systematic assessments are necessary to provide sport with understandings on its vulnerability to challenges concerning water and how to optimize an adaptive capacity to maintain water resources for sport use into the future. Multiple topics found in non-sport water research can be utilized to guide sportbased research to advance understandings on this important topic.

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Envision research studies that can contribute to a growing body of knowledge on sport and water and then conduct the research. We encourage a plethora of research studies to advance understandings on the global and multi-level challenge of sport and use of water resources. Collectively, we are responsible for advancing knowledge and ensuring water resources are available for use by sport today and into the future. Researchers – let’s do our part!

References Addo, I., Thoms, M., & Parsons, M. (2018). Household water use and conservation behavior: A meta-analysis. Water Resources Research, 54(10), 8381–8400. Retrieved from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018WR023306. Ahmed, S., & Ismail, S. (2018). Water pollution and its sources, effects & management: A case study in Delhi. International Journal of Current Advanced Research, 7(2), 10436–10442. Anderson, D. M., Cembella, A. D., & Hallegraef, G. M. (2012). Progress in understanding harmful algae blooms: Paradigm shifts and new technologies for research, monitoring and management. Annual Review of Marine Science, 4(1), 143–176. Baker, M. (2018). How to eliminate plastic waste and plastic pollution with science and engineering. Interesting Engineering. Retrieved from https://interestingengineering. com/how-to-eliminate-plastic-waste-and-plastic-pollution-with-science-andengineering. Behmel, S., Damour, M., Ludwig, R., & Rodriguez, M. (2016). Water quality monitoring strategies: A review and future perspectives. Science Total Environment, 15(571), 1312–1329. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.235. Biswas, A. (2004). Integrated water resource management: A reassessment. Water International, 29(2), 248–256. Canadian Council of Professional Fish Harvesters. (2018). Economics of the Canadian fishing industry. Retrieved from http://www.fishharvesterspecheurs.ca/fishing-industry/ economics. Carmichael, W. (2001). Health effects of toxin-producing cyanobacteria: “The CyanoHABs”. External Human Ecology Risk Assessment, 7(5), 1393–1407. Christiano, A., & Neimand, A. (2017, spring). Stop raising awareness already. Stanford Social Innovation Review. Retrieved from https://ssir.org/articles/entry/stop_raising_ awareness_already. Cosgrove, W., & Loucks, D. (2015). Water management: Current and future challenges and research directions. Water Resources Research, 51, 4823–4839. Retrieved from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/2014WR016869. Denchak, M. (2018, May 14). Water pollution: Everything you need to know. Natural Resource Defense Council. Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/stories/waterpollution-everything-you-need-know. Driedger, A. G. J., Dürr, H. H., Mitchell, K., & Van Cappellen, P. (2015). Plastic debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes: A review. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 41(1), 9–19. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0380133015000064. Ekopai, J., Musisi, N., Onyuth, H., Namara, B., & Sents, C. (2017). Determination of bacterial quality of water in randomly selected swimming pools in Kampala City, Uganda. New Journal of Science. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1652598.

44 Cheryl Mallen and Gord Watkin Eisenberg, J., Bartram, J., & Wade, T. (2016). The water quality in Rio highlights the global public health concern over untreated sewage. Environmental Health Perspectives, 124(10), A180–A181. doi:10.1289/EHP662. Frumkin, H. (2016). Environmental health: From global to local. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Gilg, A., & Barr, S. (2006). Behavioral attitudes towards water saving? Evidence from a study of environmental actions. Ecological Economics, 57(3), 400–414. doi:10.1016/j. ecolecon.2005.04.010. Gourbesville, P. (2008). Challenges for integrated water resources management. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 33, 284–289. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/222550165_Challenges_for_integrated_water_resources_management. Government of Canada. (n.d.). Water sources: Groundwater. Section: Groundwater – a major link in the hydrolic cycle. Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/ services/water-overview/sources/groundwater.html. Grill, G., Lehner, B., Lumsdon, A., MacDonald, G., Zarfle, C., & Liermann, C. (2015). An index-based framework for assessing patterns and trends in river fragmentation and flow regulation by global das at multiple scales. Environmental Research Letters, 10, 1–15. Retrieved from http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/015001/pdf. Gupta, J., Akhmouch, A., Cosgrove, W., Hurwitz, Z., Maestu, J., & Ünver, O. (2013). Policymakers’ reflections on water governance issues. Ecology and Society, 18(1), 35. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05086-180135. Harder-Lauridsen, N., Kuhn, K., Erichsen, A., Mølbak, K., & Ethelberg, S. (2013). Gastrointestinal illness among triathletes swimming in non-polluted versus polluted seawater affected by heavy rainfall, Denmark, 2010–2011. PLOS One, 1–9. Retrieved from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0078371. Haseena, M., Malik, M., Javed, A., Arshad, S., Asif, N., Zulfigar, S., & Hanif, J. (2017). Water pollution and human health. Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, 1(3), 16–19. doi:10.4066/2529-8046.100020. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2018). Special Report: Global warming of 1.50C – summary for policymakers. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/ sr15/chapter/summary-for-policy-makers/. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2013). Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, & P. M. Midley (Eds.)). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/. Jaramillo, P., & Nazemi, A. (2018). Assessing urban water security under changing climate: Challenges and ways forward. Sustainable Cities and Society, 41, 907–918. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.04.005. Jambeck, J., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R., & Law, K. (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science Magazine, 347(6223), 768–770. Kellett, P., & Turner, P. (2011). CSR and water management in the sport sector: A research agenda. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 10(1–2), 142–160.

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Kurland, N., & Zell, D. (2010). Water and business: A taxonomy and review of the research. Organization & Environment, 23(3), 316–353. doi:10.1177/1086026610382627. Magilligan, F. J., Graber, B. E., Nislow, K. H., Chipman, J. W., Sneddon, C. S., & Fox, C. A. (2016). River restoration by dam removal: Enhancing connectivity at watershed scales. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 4, p.000108. doi:10.12952/journal. elementa.000108. Met Office. (2019). What is climate change? Retrieved from http://www.metoffice.gov. uk/climate-guide/climate-change. Miller, R., Watts, A., Winslow, B., Galloway, T., & Barrows, A. (2017). Mountains to the sea: River study of plastic and non-plastic microfiber pollution in the northeast USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 124(1), 245–251. Murphy, J., Hlavsa, M., Carter, B., Miller, C., Jothikumar, N., Gerth, T., Beach, M., & Hill, V. (2017). Pool water quality and prevalence of microbes in filter backwash from metro-Atlanta swimming pools. Journal of Water Health, 16(1), 87–92. doi:10.2166/wh. 2017.150. Retrieved from https://iwaponline.com/jwh/article/16/1/87/37983/Poolwater-quality-and-prevalence-of-microbes-in. Nazemi, A., & Madani, K. (2018). Urban water security: Emerging discussion and remaining challenges. Sustainable Cities and Society, 41, 925–928. Nikolic, N., Steffen, R., & Bilić-Zulle, L. (2017, October). Epidemiology and impact of travellers’ diarrhoea on participants in the pre-Olympic test event in Qquec Rio 2015. Research Letter: British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(21), 1572–1573. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098003. Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change (OMECC). (2016, February). Microplastics and microbeads. Retrieved from https://www.ontario.ca/page/microplasticsand-microbeads. Osborn, T., Gosling, S., Wallace, C., & Dorling, S. (2015). The water cycle in a changing climate. In the 7th World Water Forum: Words to Action. London: Fairmount Media Group. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275343031_THE_ WATER_CYCLE_IN_A_CHANGING_CLIMATE. Phillips, P., & Turner, P. (2014). Water management in sport. Sport Management Review, 17(3), 376–389. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2013.08.002. Ramakrishnaiah, C. (2014). Urban water management: Best practice cases. Canadian Urban Studies, 2, 83–87. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/cus.2014.22009. Sharma, D. (2015, July). Impact of dams on river water quality. International Journal of Current Advanced Research, 4(7), 176–181. Retrieved from http://journalijcar.org/sites/ default/files/issue-files/0121.pdf. Stoutenborough, J. W., & Vedlitz, A. (2014). Public attitudes toward water management and drought in the United States. Water Resource Management, 28(3), 697–714. doi:10.1007/s11269-013-0509-7. Stuckenberg, D., & Contento, A. (2018, May). Water scarcity: The most understated global security risk. Harvard Law School: National Security Journal. Retrieved from https:// harvardnsj.org/2018/05/water-scarcity-the-most-understated-global-security-risk/. Tan, B., Leong, D., Vaz Pardal, C., Lin, C. Y., & Kam, J. W. (2016). Injury and illness surveillance at the International Sailing Federation Sailing World Championships 2014. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(11), 673–681. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095748. Tsur, Y., & Zemel, A. (2018) Water policy guidelines: A comprehensive approach. Water Resources and Economics, 23, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.wre.2018.01.005.

46 Cheryl Mallen and Gord Watkin United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA). (n.d.). Why a ‘Water for Life’ decade? Retrieved from https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/ background.shtml. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). (2002). 2002: A step towards a sustainable future. Retrieved from http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500. 11822/8556/UNEP_Annual_Report_2002.pdf?.equence=4&isAllowed=y. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2018, March 19). World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based solutions for water. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-waterdevelopment.report-2018/. US Energy Information and Administration. (2019). Short-Term Energy Outlook (STEO). Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/steo/pdf/steo_full.pdf. Vogel, R., Lall, U., Cai, X., Rajagopalan, R., Weiskel, P. K., Hooper, R. P., & Matalas, N. C. (2015). Hydrology: The interdisciplinary science of water. Water Resources Research, 51(6), 4409–4430. doi:10.1002/2015WR01749. Wei, X., Li, J., Hou, S., Zhang, H., Atwill, E., Li, X., Yang, Z., & Chen, S. (2018). Assessment of microbiological safety of water in public swimming pools in Guangzhou, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(7), 1416. doi:10.3390/ijerph15071416. Willis, R. M., Stewart, R. A., Panuwatwanich, K., Williams, P. R., & Hollingsworth, A. L. (2011). Quantifying the influence of environmental and water conservation attitudes on household end use water consumption. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(8), 1996–2009. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.03.023. World Economic Forum (2016, January). The new plastics economy: Rethinking the future of plastics. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_The_New_ Plastics_Economy.pdf. Worldwaterday. (March 22). Fact sheet: The answer is in nature. Retrieved from https:// yourwatermatters.com/world-water-day-march-22-2018-the-answer-is-in-nature/. World Health Organization (WHO). (2009). Summary and policy implication Vision 2030: The resilience of water supply and sanitation in the face of climate change. Geneva: WHO Department of International Development. Retrieved from http:// apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44172/9789241598422_eng.pdf?sequence= 1&Allowed=y. Zarfl, C., Lumsdon, A. E., Berlekamp, J., Tydecks, L., & Tockner, K. (2014). A global boom in hydropower dam construction. Aquatic Science, 77(1), 161–170. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00027-014-0377-0.

Chapter 4

Major sport events and environmental sustainability Julie Stevens

This chapter provides a critical examination of environmental sustainability (ES) and major sport event research. The scope presents an inventory of sources, along with a summary of the specific research topic, method, setting, and sport sector of the scholarly work. In addition, the theoretical foundation and key issues are outlined as a guide to highlight the research to date. These aspects, when considered individually for each source, and collectively for the literature as a whole, provide insight about how the findings evident within the research are positioned, and how the conclusions drawn from the research advance our understanding of ES and sport events. Overall, the purpose of this chapter is to examine the research published on ES and sport events in order to identify gaps and recommend direction for future research. For this discussion, a total of 47 scholarly articles met the requirements for review. This chapter encompasses various sub-sections that highlight key themes related to the pool of articles. First, a brief summary of the methodologies is given, and second, an overview of theoretical orientations is provided. Third, the overall research themes are discussed according to seven sub-sections: impact, critical inquiry, stakeholder perspective, multi-impact views, legacy, event management, and small-scale events. Finally, the chapter concludes by explaining how to advance ES and sport event research in the future.

Research methodology trends in sport event and ES research The distribution of methodologies included 15 quantitative, seven qualitative, and one mixed method. Critical analysis was evident for three articles and a commentary approach was utilized in one article. The remaining 24 articles were analytical in nature and incorporated modelling, benchmarking, environmental assessment tools, critical analysis, systemic and expansive literature reviews, and content analysis. Regardless of the methodology, the dominant research design for sport event and ES research was case study. The case approach was evident within 21 articles, either empirical or analytical, and the context focused upon mega-, or major, sport events such as the Olympics and

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the FIFA World Cup, although some events were also analysed, such as marathons and cycle tours. Hence, the body of research on sport events and ES tends to focus upon a narrow type of international mega-event case, and upon analytical as opposed to empirical work.

Theoretical foundation trends in sport event and ES research Approximately two-thirds (28 articles) indicated a theoretical foundation compared to one-third (19 articles) where the theoretical orientation was not stated. A total of 13 distinct orientations were identified. The frameworks with the highest activity were legacy (four articles) and sustainability frameworks, critical approaches (four articles), sport event perceived and multi-impact views (three articles and two articles respectively), and behavioural change (two articles). Beyond these small theoretical clusters, the remaining 14 articles reflect work that spans across isolated theoretical areas that include stakeholder theory, planning theory, institutional theory, organizational adaptation theory, measurement, corporate social responsibility framework, and models. The last area, models, could be seen as a larger theoretical cluster in that six articles utilized models of some kind as a theoretical underpinning; however, the types of models ranged across topics such as corporate environmental management paradigms, event leveraging, planning, and legal. Overall, the theoretical foundations identified in the research review for sport events and ES demonstrated a wide range of approaches, with limited evidence of existing research streams that extend early work through ongoing inquiry.

Research theme 1: environmental impact, sport events and ES Measurement and assessment of sort event ES The first key research theme identified relates to environmental impacts. Within this theme, two key aspects emerged: the measurement and assessment of ES in sport event and strategic planning to address the ES of a sport event. A total of 13 articles addressed this area and spanned several topics. Collins, Flynn, Munday, and Roberts (2007) examined the ecological footprint of a major sport event. Others specifically addressed carbon offsetting in the context of both sport event attendees and participants (Crabb, 2018; Krugell & Saayman, 2013; Melville, Waldo, & Andrea, 2016). Each of these articles identified the need to utilize measurement tools in order to either ensure the environmental impact of a sport event is transparent, or to develop strategies that motivate event tourists to participate in carbon offsetting actions coupled with a sport event. Three articles specifically examined carbon offsetting strategies that were implemented for either a large-scale multi or single sport event.

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Collins et al. (2007) Research topic: Environmental impact of major sporting events Method: Case study, quantitative Setting: 2003/04 FA Cup Final, Cardiff, Wales Area/sector of sport: Football, elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Values of both ENVIO and ecological footprint tools; in a short span of time the ecological footprint produced by visitors at major events can be large.

Conclusions: The ecological footprint is a transparent tool to identify production externalities but does not account for displacements effects generated by the event. Stated gaps in the literature: •

Consider how visitor impact can be reduced in order to stage a sustainable event.

Crabb (2018) Research topic: Environmental impact (carbon offsetting) of major sport event Method: Ethnographic case study Setting: Mato Grosso, Brazil Area/sector of sport: Football, elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainable development Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Carbon offsetting is seen in the sustainable development paradigm as the economy transitions from fossil fuel towards renewable energy.

Conclusions: •

Carbon offsetting implementation is difficult and event tourists were misled because the carbon offsetting project did not fulfil its aim.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Krugell & Saayman (2013) Research topic: Carbon offsetting Method: Survey Setting: Two Oceans Marathon, South Africa Area/sector of sport: Marathon events Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Examine the willingness of event attendees to pay for greener products.

Conclusions: •

Demographic differences exist in carbon offsetting preference of attendees; older and self-employed participants were more likely to be greener

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Melville, Waldo, & Andrea (2016) Research topic: Willingness to pay to reduce carbon footprint Method: Survey, case study Setting: Cape Argus, Africa Area/sector of sport: Elite cycling Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There is a trend towards willingness to pay for environmental initiatives to offset carbon footprint.

Conclusions: •

Specific types of green views are positively associated with an event attendee’s willingness to pay; “[i]n summary, the data reveal that demographic variables, most notably age, occupation and education as well as the right attitude towards the environment, are significant predictors of stated WTP for climate change mitigation” (p. 444).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Other research examined climate change and its impact upon land quality, such as the effect of the 1992 Winter Olympic Games upon mountain terrain in the French Alps (May, 1995), and the need for greater initiatives to address air quality concerns during a mega-sport event, such as the 2008 Olympic Summer Games in Beijing, China (Sheets et al., 2007). Additional health implications from a sport event addressed the health gains from the environmental clean-up that may be completed as part of hosting a sport event (Mead & Brajer, 2008) and urban planning/legal analysis of who within a host community benefits or does not benefit from health improvements associated to new city development for sport event hosting (Vilani & Machado, 2015). May (1995) Research topic: Environmental impact Method: Case study Setting: Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The visual and physical impact of the areas used by winter activities is greater than summer activities” (p. 270); it is difficult to assess environmental change from an event due to no benchmarks for comparison (such as the condition of the environment if the event did not occur).

Conclusions: •

Hosting the 1992 Olympics continued “an existing trend of deforestation and damage to the fragile mountain ecosystems” (p. 274), but at the same time the event “was a catalyst for more rapid change and brought forward infrastructural changes which would have happened anyway” (p. 274).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Sheets et al. (2007) Research topic: Air quality management Method: Case study Setting: Beijing, China, 2008 Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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•

“There is an urgent need for regional air quality management studies and new emission control strategies to ensure that the air quality goals for [the Olympic Games] are met” (p. 490).

Conclusions: •

Beijing had implemented a number of measures to convert coal-burning stoves and residential boilers to cleaner energy and enforcing more stringent emission standards for vehicles was inadequate to meet national air quality standards.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Need new measurement and modelling studies for air quality in a region where events are hosted.

Mead & Brajer (2008) Research topic: Environmental concerns Method: Case study Setting: Beijing, China, 2008 Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

The Beijing host committee indicated that hosting the Olympic Games would serve as a “catalyst for environmental improvements and sustainable development” (p. 275); there is a growing concern amongst Chinese citizens about the environment.

Conclusions: •

Measures of health gains are mixed; preparation for Games “may disproportionately affect those in poorer parts of China or among the poorer sectors of Chinese society” (p. 292).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Vilani & Machado (2015) Research topic: Contradictions in Olympic Games legacies Method: Case study

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Setting: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2016 Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Urban planning and legal perspectives Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Draw upon urban planning and legal principles to propose a model for a “sustainable city” in relation to Olympic hosting; examined both health and environmental impacts, specifically areas of service that were excluded from the Olympic urban planning strategy.

Conclusions: •

Propose a multi-disciplinary approach, including health statistics and various stakeholders, to address impact of mega-events.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

The final measurement/assessment research area addressed the impact of meteorological changes in relation to sport events. One interesting article examined past Olympic Winter Games host cities and compared this to climate change trends in order to determine how many of the past host cities would be viable sites to host a Winter Games by 2050 (Scott et al., 2015). Other research examined what is claimed as an under-studied topic – meteorological conditions and its impact on a mega-sport event – by examining athlete and visitor concerns that may arise at the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Quatar (Matzarakis & Fröhlich, 2015), or conversely, the impact of the increased transportation demands of an event upon climate change which also used the FIFA World Cup as the case context (Otto & Heath, 2010). Another study also examined sport event transportation in relation to spectator behaviour when attending a sport event at a particular facility (Triantafyllidis, Ries, & Kaplanidou, 2018). Finally, Kou & Shen (2014) addressed the general issue of pollution control and maintaining ecological balance during a mega-sport event. Scott et al. (2015) Research topic: Strategies to cope with future climate change Method: Case study Setting: n/a Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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•

The “Olympic Winter Games can be majorly impacted by weather conditions; therefore, several technologies and strategies have been created to manage weather risks” (p. 913).

Conclusions: •

The findings indicate that “projected climate change would adversely impact the capacity of approximately half of the former OWG host cities/regions to host the games by mid-century” (p. 927); many climate adaptations implemented by Olympic Winter Games organizing committees are limited.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Examine implications for the IOC in choosing a Winter Games host city, and/or in deciding how to manage the number of sports and size of the event.

Matzarakis & Fröhlich (2015) Research topic: Impact of climate Method: Analytical Setting: Doha City, Quatar, FIFA World Cup Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: RayMan Model Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The effect of weather on sport events is not well studied which is problematic when deciding host cities for events” (p. 481).

Conclusions: •

Claimed “visitors and tourists are the groups which are affected the most by extreme meteorological conditions” (p. 485); concludes it would be more appropriate to host the championship during a different time of year.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Otto & Heath (2010) Research topic: Impact of mega-events on climate change Method: Analytical, case study Setting: South Africa; 2010 Soccer World Cup

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Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“There is a growing need to identify the key areas where mega-events can impact on climate change and to pro-actively develop and implement appropriate environmental management guidelines and processes for megaevents that consider climate change factors” (p. 170).

Conclusions: •

Participants identified four key solution areas (transportation, energy consumption, stadiums, and environmental management strategies and guidelines); participants indicated transportation as the greatest threat to climate change.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Triantafyllidis, Ries, & Kaplanidou (2018) Research topic: The quantity of CO2 emissions generated from spectators’ transportation Method: Survey Setting: Southeastern university; collegiate football Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Planning theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Carbon footprint significantly impacted by spectator transportation behaviour.

Conclusions: •

“Found that local planning in terms of transportation and density may not be sufficient to address CO2 emissions of sporting events” (p. 13); design and location of facilities should pay special attention to transportation impact.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Focus on CO2 emissions generated by the facility operation.

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Kou & Shen (2014) Research topic: Environmental science and practice of an Olympic Games Method: Case study Setting: 2008 Beijing Olympics Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Environmental science and technology Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Seeks to examine how best to develop environmental sport event planning, implementation, and monitoring mechanisms for major sport events.

Conclusions: •

The concept of ecological balance is key when hosting large-scale sport events.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Strategic perspective The second impact, sport events and ES sub-theme involves strategic perspectives. Two articles incorporated this view and while this number is small the topic is noteworthy. Preuss (2013) examined the impact that megaevents can have on the green economy. Specifically, Preuss (2013) suggested that rather than be considered a “footloose industry”, the sport event industry should be viewed as a catalyst to drive a green economy. This was supported by Mol (2010), who promoted institutionalizing ES for mega-events. Mol (2010) Research topic: Sustainable sporting events as attractors Method: Theoretical; documentary review Setting: 2008 Beijing Olympics Area/sector of sport: Elite sport mega-events Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Mega-event policies create patterns for other events to follow.

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Conclusions: •

Inclusion of sustainability norms in major events lead to institutionalization; practices become attractors for other events.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Preuss (2013) Research topic: Development of a green economy at an event host location Method: Analytical, critical Setting: FIFA World Cup, Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Hermeneutics, games theory, principal-agent theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Obstacles for a Green Games are often “financial shortcomings to a lack of serious environmental interest on the part of the organizers” (p. 3581); event organizers typically do not focus on the environmental impact.

Conclusions: •

There are three steps on how a mega-sport event can contribute to developing a green economy as a legacy: include environmental protection in its host charter; promote a green economy to ensure that promises made during bids are fulfilled; and utilize the interest in a mega-event to develop educational curricula.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Research theme 2: critical and inquiry-based analysis The second research theme relates to critical and inquiry-based research on sport events and ES. Two articles raise the questions of whether a sport event can even be sustainable. The discussion examined the global circuit of motorsport events (Dingle, 2009) and pond ice hockey in the United States (Fairley, Ruhanen, & Lovegrove, 2015), and highlighted a need to explore ways to adapt these sports in a manner that will build their sustainability, although the fate of pond hockey may already be determined. In an early piece, Wenner (1994) calls out athletic departments in American colleges and questions whether

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administrators understand how to “green” National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sport events. Given the scope of American collegiate sport, the criticism addresses whether the environmental impact of such activities will be positive or negative. Dingle (2009) Research topic: ES in motorsport Method: Analytical Setting: Motorsport courses Area/sector of sport: Elite motor sport racing Theoretical foundations: Triple bottom line, “four/five capitals” model Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Motorsport offers exciting competition, but has a high dependence on physical resources; automotive manufacturers have been identifying mitigating strategies, such as alternative fuels.

Conclusions: •

“Given the evidence of the global environmental problems facing humanity, there is considerable doubt as to whether it is marketed and managed in an environmentally sustainable way” (p. 93).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Need to examine the extent to which motorsport can be considered an environmentally sustainable sport.

Fairley, Ruhanen, & Lovegrove (2015) Research topic: Impact of climate change Method: Case study Setting: The Pond Hockey Classic in New Hampshire, Vermont, Montana, New York, and Philadelphia, United States Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Organizational adaptation strategy Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Climate change is placing ice hockey at risk.

Conclusions: •

The organizer partnered with sustainable and green organizations to foster

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environmentally friendly values and behaviours; “[t]he two key strategies for climate change were mitigation and adaptation” (p. 625). Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Wenner (1994) Research topic: Definitions of “green” Method: Secondary sources Setting: n/a Area/sector of sport: NCAA Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There are many variations of the meaning of the word “green”; NCAA athletic departments have been seen as “breeding grounds for organizational deviance” (p. 106).

Conclusions: •

Intercollegiate sport struggles with the different meanings of “green”; intercollegiate athletics is “like a long-polluting business... pushing too fast for an environmental ‘clean-up’ will only bring the whole enterprise to a grinding halt” (p. 107).

The Olympic Games were specifically addressed in four articles with a critical stance. Unique perspectives drew upon political ecology in order to examine the extent to which the ES goals of an Olympic Games are made public, and whether this generates pressure to ensure a Games host committee meets its ES goals (McLeod, Pu, & Newman, 2018). Kim and Chung (2018) examined counter-activism related to the 2018 Winter Olympic Games and raised a need to further examine the monopoly of the Olympic industry and public discourse regarding public environmental discourse in relation to the Olympic Games. The interpretation of ES within the Olympic movement was also examined by Paquette, Stevens, and Mallen (2011), who identified an incongruence between the corporate environmental management paradigm of the International Olympic Committee and many of the Olympic Organizing Committees of past Games. Finally, in an analysis of the construction of a golf course on environmentally protected land for the purpose of the 2016 Olympic Summer Games, Millington, Darnell, and Millington (2018) concluded environmentalism provides a forum for resistance against the negative implications of Olympic hosting.

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McLeod, Pu, & Newman (2018) Research topic: Utilize a political ecology perspective to examine ES of a megasport event Method: Case study Setting: 2008 Beijing Olympics Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Bruno Latour’s object-oriented political ecology Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“… argue environmental objectives are possible when environments are made public; this means environmental objects – such as skies and particulate matter – must be assembled and then articulated or, in other words, brought forward and made capable of speech” (p. 29).

Conclusions: •

Improved air quality during the Beijing Olympics was an environmental success during the Games; however, the restrictive practices utilized by the host organization and the government, and the return of poor air quality post-Games, means the case is imperfect.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Object-oriented political ecology provides a frame to examine mega-sport events, ES, and democratic governance.

Kim & Chung (2018) Research topic: The competing environmental discourses surrounding the 2018 PyeongChang Olympics in the Korean public sphere Method: Case study Setting: 2018 PyeongChang Winter Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Ecological modernization and policy Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

The environment was a key concern to government and civic actors; utilize a policy approach; focus upon the construction and contradiction of environment discourse about the Olympic Games.

Conclusions: •

Public resistance is limited in the Korean public sphere; therefore, gaps

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arise between promised environmental policy about the Games and implementation. Stated gaps in the literature: •

Need to further examine the monopoly of the Olympic industry and public discourse regarding public environmental discourse in relation to the Olympic Games.

Paquette, Stevens, & Mallen (2011) Research topic: The interpretation of ES within the Olympic Movement. Method: Multi-case study Setting: Olympic Games host committees Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Raufflet’s Corporate Environmental Management (CEM) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Some believe that regardless of all the environmental initiatives, the Olympic Games continue to cause significant environmental damage (p. 355).

Conclusions: •

The findings “indicated that the IOC and OCOGs corporate environmental management paradigms were incongruent” (p. 355) and indicate “how poorly the Olympic Movement meets the goals of its Agenda 21 initiatives” (p. 364).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Examine why incongruence between IOC and Olympic Organizing Committees exists.

Millington, Darnell, & Millington (2018) Research topic: The inter-relation of ecological modernization and global sport within the Olympic Games Method: Case study Setting: 2016 Rio Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Post-political approach to environmentalism Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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•

Examined the construction of a golf course on environmentally protected land for the purpose of the Games.

Conclusions: •

“Post-political refers to the de-politicization of the causes and solutions to global climate change, to an extent that criticism is rendered irrational and excessive in the face of these ‘common sense’ narratives” (p. 14); authors conclude environmentalism provides a forum for resistance against the negative implications of Olympic hosting.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

The final six articles related to the research theme 2, which critically addressed the concept of environmentalism and mega-sport events. In a seminal piece, Lenskyj (1998) addressed the notion of corporate environmentalism and “greening” a Games. She specifically called out the need to ensure the 2000 Olympic Summer Games Organizing Committee, as well as other organizing committees, approach any greening initiatives as a process rather than a quick fix. Loland (2006) critically examined the ideal of sustainable development, and similar to earlier articles that questioned whether sport events can be environmentally sustainable, raised the question of whether the IOC’s ES practices are inadequate because they only address “shallow concerns”. Pentifallo and VanWynsberghe (2012) found that the IOC failed to enforce the environmental goals and Sobol (2015) stated that the IOC must act more assertively, and put legal and policy tools in place, to ensure sustainability goals are reached. Death (2011) also found that 2010 FIFA World Cup environmental goals were not realized due to that lack of leadership. Finally, Babiak and Wolfe (2006) examined the impact of ES upon the Super Bowl for American football, and examined environmental impacts. Babiak & Wolfe (2006) Research topic: Organizational responsibility Method: Case study Setting: 2006 Super Bowl XL Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Carroll’s framework of CSR, focused on the ethical and discretionary components Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Organizations have responsibilities beyond profit maximization.

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Conclusions: •

The NFL needs to change their “boiler plate” programs (p. 221) and to address each city’s existing issues to have a long-term impact on the city; effective tool for corporations to enhance their reputation and build brand image and customer loyalty, as well as to positively influence society.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Measure the impact on brand image, identifying customer perceptions of CSR efforts, the motivation of CSR-related activities.

Death (2011) Research topic: “Greening” sport Method: Qualitative: documentary review, interviews Setting: 2010 FIFA World Cup Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Sustainability goals must be integrated into the bid stage, coordinated between international federation and host communities, and aligned with national strategies.

Conclusions: •

Due to lack of leadership and coordination, the environmental goals were not realized.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

n/a

Lenskyj (1998) Research topic: Corporate environmentalism Method: Case study Setting: Sydney Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Like all mega-events, international games pose many environmental

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problems, including waste management, energy consumption, transportation, materials recycling and negative impact on the natural environment” (p. 341). Conclusions: •

“The notion of ‘the greening of our games’ as a process rather than a ‘quick fix’ is useful in the case of Olympics” (p. 343); failure of Olympic organizers to communicate extent of environmental problems will undermine community confidence in such mega-events.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Loland (2006) Research topic: Sustainable development Method: Case study Setting: IOC Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“In Rule 2, Paragraph 13, of the Olympic Charter, it is said that one of the key roles of the IOC is to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport, and require that the Olympic Games are held accordingly” (p. 144); an IOC objective is to promote awareness of a healthy and sustainable environment.

Conclusions: •

“The IOC has introduced a series of measures to meet environmental demands. However, these are so-called shallow ecological concerns more directed toward reducing the negative environmental impact of Olympic events than toward promoting ecological values” (p. 154).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Pentifallo & VanWynsberghe (2012) Research topic: Environmental impacts Method: Case study, quantitative

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Setting: Rio Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Institutional theory; isomorphism Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

n/a.

Conclusions: •

Bid-organizing committees present bids with environmental plans while later abdicating responsibility. The IOC failed to enforce sustainability goals at the Rio Olympics.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

n/a.

Sobol (2015) Research topic: Environmental impact of Olympic Games Method: Qualitative: case study, document analysis Setting: 2014 Sochi Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Olympics, mega-events Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“As the Olympic Games … continue to grow in size and grandeur, the demand for curbing the environmental impact becomes increasingly apparent” (p. 169).

Conclusions: •

The IOC must act more assertively and put legal and policy tools in place to enforce sustainability goals.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

n/a.

Research theme 3: sport event stakeholder perception of ES and sport events Three articles focused on stakeholders and their connection to sport events and ES. While each of the articles indirectly dealt with impact, they were placed in this cluster because the focus was on stakeholder perspectives of such impact. For

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example, the research highlights the need to incorporate the input of many stakeholder groups in order to build the legitimacy of the ES practices of a sport event host (Fairley et al., 2011). The inclusion of various stakeholders as event attendees may also promote pro-environmental behaviour, as was found in the case of attendees at an extreme sport event. Brymer, Downey, and Gray (2009) argued that given extreme sports’ strong connection to the environment, event hosts have the opportunity to educate attendees and increase their positive ES behaviour. Finally, pro-ES behaviour was also examined in relation to attendees at American football events, where researchers found attendee pro-ES behaviour increased as a result of observing other attendee pro-ES behaviour. Hence, understanding sport events and ES can be informed through an approach that takes a stakeholder perspective. Fairley et al. (2011) Research topic: Environmental impacts Method: Case study Setting: Formula One (F1) Australian Grand Prix held in the city of Melbourne, Victoria Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Triple bottom line Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The net benefits and therefore the long-term sustainability of the F1 Australian Grand Prix has been heavily scrutinized in recent years” (p. 141).

Conclusions: •

The interests of many stakeholders needs to be addressed. It was recommended to “evaluate possible stakeholders in terms of each stakeholder’s power, legitimacy, and urgency in the relationship” (p. 145); “[r]esidents did not believe the F1 Australian Grand Prix had a positive or negative effect on their lives, however they did identify that there were both positive and negative elements of the hosting the event at Albert Park Reserve” (p. 151).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Brymer, Downey, & Gray (2009) Research topic: ES Method: Phenomenology Setting: 15 extreme sport participants from around the world (i.e. India, China, Taiwan, and Nepal)

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Area/sector of sport: Elite extreme sports Theoretical foundations: Hermeneutic phenomenology, eco-psychology Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Extreme sports facilitated an engagement with the natural world, which in turn triggers a change in behaviour (p. 199).

Conclusions: •

Extreme sports may be a first step towards an individual to be involved in environmentally sustainable practices (p. 202).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Ju, Nelson, & Kim (2015) Research topic: Environmental behaviours Method: Survey Setting: Tailgaters; Midwest region of the United States Area/sector of sport: NCAA American football Theoretical foundations: Behavioural change Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Colleges and universities reduced football game-generated waste and prevented more than 810 metric tons of carbon dioxide from being released in 2011” using a “Zero Waste” program initiative (p. 720).

Conclusions: •

An event attendee observes others’ behaviour, which influences their ES decisions and must see the event host is committed to pre-ES practices that reduce negative impact.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Research theme 4: multi-perceived impact frameworks Bramwell (1997) identified early in the sport event-ES dialogue that a sustainable development strategy is needed for sport mega-events. Later research began to expand upon this notion by building upon two key areas: multiple types

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of impact, which extended beyond economic impact; and perceived impact, which drew upon the views of various stakeholders, specifically residents and to some extent event attendees. Much of the research examined Olympic Games, such as that undertaken by Konstantaki & Wickens (2010), who found that older respondents were more sceptical about a sport event’s environmental impact, and Jin, Zhand, Ma, and Connaughton (2011), who concluded the effective environmental management of a mega-sport event may stimulate positive attitudes towards ES impact of the event. In regards to other sport events, such as the FIFA World Cup, education campaigns about the multiple impacts of an event can also improve perception of such event benefits among respondents (Govender et al., 2012). Finally, it was noted by Sotiriadou and Hill (2015) that the understanding of how to encourage an event host organization to reduce the negative impact of sport facilities and events on the natural environment is under-researched. Bramwell (1997) Research topic: The Games promoted sustainable development Method: Analytical, secondary data Setting: World Student Games, Sheffield, UK Area/sector of sport: Mega-sport event Theoretical foundations: Analytical sustainability framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Examine pre-, during, and post games; integrate three policy areas: economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental integrity.

Conclusions: •

Highlighted that some features of the Games investment are more sustainable than others, and that Games can serve as a catalyst for tourism and urban regeneration.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Early study as a foundation for future analysis using combined measures.

Konstantaki & Wickens (2010) Research topic: Resident perceptions of environmental issues Method: Survey Setting: 2012 London Olympics Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a

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Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Mega sport events can help preserve the physical environment and local heritage, which otherwise might not have happened if the mega event was not held” (p. 340).

Conclusions: •

Found that “older respondents viewed the event with more skepticism about environmental and security issues compared with their younger counterparts” (p. 353).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Jin et al. (2011) Research topic: Green Olympic initiatives Method: Survey Setting: 2008 Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Theory of reasoned action; Yale attitude change approach; social exchange theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“As the environment has become such an important part of the Olympic Games, it is necessary to understand the awareness, perception, attitude, intention, and behavior related to the Olympics’ environmental initiatives among the residents of the host cities” (p. 298).

Conclusions: •

Effective “environmental management and performance before, during, and after mega sport events may stimulate positive attitude, behavioral intention, and actual behavior” (p. 298).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Govender et al. (2012) Research topic: Environmental impacts

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Method: Survey Setting: 2010 FIFA World Cup, South Africa Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Perceived impact Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There is a carbon footprint for mega-sport events.

Conclusions: •

Significant environmental harm from event prompts the need and value of an environmental education campaign as part of mega-sport event promotion.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Sotiriadou & Hill (2015) Research topic: Understanding the environmental consequences of hosting sport events Method: Analytical, systematic review Setting: Literature review Area/sector of sport: Sport events Theoretical foundations: None Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Provides an overview of trends in ES and sport research over time; identified waves of research in ES and sport events; examined the ES practices of sport organizations, and the emergence of a triple-bottom-line approach to sport event impacts.

Conclusions: •

The understanding of how to encourage an event host organization to reduce the negative impact of sport facilities and events on the natural environment is under-researched.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Research theme 5: legacy While the legacy of a large-scale sport event is in some way an indication of event impact, the notion of legacy implies a far more intentional approach to generate sport event outcomes that will benefit a host community. Hence, the four research articles that addressed sport event-ES legacy issues are discussed as part of research theme 5. Preuss (2007) noted there are both net and gross legacy impacts, and the challenge of measuring legacy over time, and each of these are pertinent to how well the ES of a sport event can be understood. Preuss (2015) presented a framework to examine sport event legacy that incorporated how to include environmentalists and environmental outcomes despite the concern that these types of legacies are latent, or delayed. The complexity of legacy tracking for an Olympic Games, including environmental aspects, was reinforced by Agha, Fairley, and Gibson (2012). In regards to the 2010 Winter Olympic Games, research identified that the environmental legacies of the Games did not perform to expectations and, therefore, were not satisfactory, according to public perception (Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012). Preuss (2007) Research topic: Sport event legacies Method: Commentary, benchmark approach Setting: n/a Area/sector of sport: Mega-sport events Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The lack of agreement on the concept of legacy and its various elements makes it very hard to measure accurately or with confidence” (p. 207).

Conclusions: •

Identified obstacles in measuring sport event legacy: difficulty in measuring “net” legacy rather than “gross” legacy; difficulty in deciding whether a legacy has a positive or negative value; measurement of legacy over time (p. 223); suggests a bottom-up approach may be most effective to improve legacy measurement.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Preuss (2015) Research topic: Sport event legacies

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Method: Analytical, content analysis, literature review Setting: All types of mega-events Area/sector of sport: Mega-events Theoretical foundations: Generated a legacy framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Identified various event typologies, including those that embrace environmental legacy, stakeholders involved in event legacy, including environmentalists, and changes in land use caused by Olympic Games.

Conclusions: •

Legacies can be positive for some and negative for others; however, the objective is to maximize the positive; difficult to account for all legacies across all stakeholders over time.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Event legacy is latent and future research should take a long-term approach.

Agha, Fairley, & Gibson (2012) Research topic: Olympic legacies Method: Case study Setting: Olympic applicant city (anonymous) Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Stakeholder management Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Legacy is a complex term that is difficult to define.

Conclusions: •

Olympic legacy must be considered as a multi-dimensional construct; tangible and intangible Olympic legacies must be actively leveraged; legacies may be planned or unplanned, positive or negative.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Karadakis & Kaplanidou (2012) Research topic: Olympic Games legacies

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Method: Survey Setting: 2010 Olympic Winter Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Social exchange theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Organizers need to gain understandings of the perception of resident legacy outcomes to reduce Games infrastructure concerns.

Conclusions: •

“In the case of Vancouver, environmental, economic, and socio-cultural legacies were most important for residents’ quality of life” (p. 260); “The environmental legacies did not perform to expectations and, therefore, were not satisfactory. If major environmental initiatives are undertaken by the host city, then pertinent media communications have to take place to allow the proper assessment of these legacies by the residents” (p. 270).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Research theme 6: management and planning A total of six articles comprise the summary for research theme 6, related to management and planning. Organizing committees or host organizations often need to include stakeholders, but the event outcomes, including ES outcomes, often depend upon the composition of stakeholders who are involved in event planning. In the case of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, environmental stakeholders were involved in Games planning, but such inclusion presented challenging demands that made implementation at the practical level costly and difficult to execute in a tight timeline (Kearins & Pavlovich, 2002). Lesjø (2000) also found that while varied stakeholder input is valuable in setting ES goals during the planning stage of a mega-event, the democratization of a Games management can introduce complexity and make the outcomes of the megaevent more difficult to anticipate. In the end, such stakeholder inclusion can place the achievement of ES goals at risk because the scope and scale of the goals may be unrealistic given the nature of a mega-event. Kearins & Pavlovich (2002) Research topic: Green Games Olympic Initiative Method: Case study Setting: 2002 Sydney Olympic Games

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Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The Sydney 2000 Olympics promised consideration of a raft of environmental issues in five key areas: energy conservation, water conservation, waste avoidance and minimization, pollution management and the protection of significant natural and cultural environments” (p. 159).

Conclusions: •

“The political symbolism of International Olympic Committee commitments to environmentalism together with the Sydney 2000 bid proposal served to bring environmental issues to greater attention within the Olympic movement” (p. 168); the Olympic Organizing Committee involved environmental groups to help prepare the Sydney 2000 Olympics, but this presented challenging demands that made implementation at the practical level costly and difficult to execute in a tight timeline.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Lesjø (2000) Research topic: A green Olympic Games model Method: Interviews Setting: 1994 Olympic Winter Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Elias’s game model perspective Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“‘Green Games’ was not part of Lillehammer’s original bid and only emerged as a central feature of the event after complex and protracted negotiations among competing interest groups” (p. 282).

Conclusions: •

The democratization of a Games management can introduce complexity and make the outcomes of the mega-event more difficult to anticipate; this is problematic for ES initiatives which are more effective when more stakeholders offer support; despite this, the Lillehammer Olympic Winter Games became known as the “green Games”.

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Regardless of whether the ES goals of a sport event are realistic, the establishment of such goals often means the ability of an event-hosting organization to achieve the ES goals will, or should, be assessed. Mallen, Stevens, Adams, and McRoberts (2010) explored how to conduct such an assessment for a sport event host organization in their case study of an international multi-sport event. They found that there is no standardized approach to assess how well a sport event host achieves its ES goals, which makes event comparisons difficult. Further, the achievement of such goals, while sincere during the event-planning stage, often faces internal organizational barriers that emerge during Games-time and make goal achievement challenging. A concern about this very dilemma was examined in the context of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, where researchers noted the achievement of the biodiversity conservation goals set by the Brazilian host organization was dependent upon a commitment from FIFA and the Brazilian government (Melo et al., 2014). A nine-category organizational assessment model, called a “model for measuring the environmental sustainability of events” (METER), was developed to provide a standardized assessment of how effectively the management of an event achieve ES goals (Boggia et al., 2018). Finally, given that ES concerns have existed within the context of sport events (particularly mega-sport events) for some time, an understanding of how the ES practices of an event host organization has changed over time is needed. Ross and Leopkey (2017) examined the adoption and evolution of environmental practices in the Olympic Games and found a shift from environmental protection to ES, with most recent adoptions drawing upon a new “zero impact” ES theme. Mallen et al. (2010) Research topic: Environmental performance Method: Case study Setting: International Children’s Games Area/sector of sport: Youth elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There is a lack of a standardized approach for ES practices, which makes it difficult to access environmental performance of events.

Conclusions: •

“The findings of this case study indicated the 2008 ICG host organization demonstrated a high level of effort towards initiating an ES movement within

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the Games but ultimately achieved a weak to moderate level of EP” (p. 117); the event organizers encountered organizational barriers (structural, systematic, and cultural) which affected how the ES practices were implemented (p. 117). Stated gaps in the literature: •

Applied research will support sport event practitioners.

Melo et al. (2014) Research topic: Environmental initiatives Method: Analytical Setting: 2014 FIFA World Cup, Brazil Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

FIFA communicated “the importance of the environment and ecology as its key objective; to do so, it has chosen as the mascot of the endemic Brazilian Three-banded armadillo” (p. 257).

Conclusions: •

In order for the environmental initiatives to be successful, FIFA and the Brazilian government must support the World Cup Parks project, designate new protected areas, and accelerate the completion and publication of species conservation plans.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Boggia et al. (2018) Research topic: Measuring ES Method: Case study Setting: large-scale sport event Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Measuring events through environmental research (METER) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“There is currently no standard protocol or method to assess the ecosustainability of events” (p. 836).

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Conclusions: •

The METER index incorporates nine operational categories to assess the comprehensive ES of an event: location, energy, water resources, catering, promotional giveaways, materials, internal travel, waste management, and participatory approach (p. 838); “[e]ven though the METER index is still a prototype, it represents an innovation in the field of environmental management, due to its participatory approach” (p. 844).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Ross & Leopkey (2017) Research topic: Environmental practices Method: Case study Setting: n/a Area/sector of sport: Olympic Games Theoretical foundations: Institutional theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Environmental projects are often left to the Olympic Organizing Committee to plan at the local level, which is why the projects vary from city to city” (p. 2).

Conclusions: •

Over time, the various Olympic Organizing Committees have shifted their focus from environmental protection to the inclusion of sustainability into environmental planning; “[e]nvironment and sustainability are now considered a formal part of the environmental bid process and are thus institutionalized within the Movement” (p. 16).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Future research should examine the impact of organization learning occurred between the IOC and the OCOG” (p. 17).

Research theme 7: small-scale events The final research theme incorporates one article that raised an important concern for sport event and ES research. This outlier, while singular, identified the need to understand ES in the case of small-scale events. Given the

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frequency of such events, the need to examine this lesser scale in relation to ES is important. Such is the case that Gibson, Kaplanidou, and Kang (2012) raised this issue in their discussion of sustainable development. Specifically, they argued a strategic approach to small-scale sport event hosting may provide a community with the opportunity for economic growth that also seeks ES. Gibson, Kaplanidou, & Kang (2012) Research topic: Sustainability for small-scale sport events Method: Survey Setting: Small-scale sport events Area/sector of sport: Community sport competitions Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Combine a conceptual and empirical sustainability analysis.

Conclusions: •

Small-scale sport events may be a viable form of sustainable development.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Develop a standardized instrument to assess impacts across small-scale events.

Future research on sport events and ES In the 47 articles reviewed, there were seven research themes about ES and sport events. However, one question remained: what research is needed to advance our understanding of ES in the sport event industry? While the themes reveal clusters, the overall distribution of topics is broad and, as a result, various gaps emerge. If these gaps are strategically explored by researchers over time, then the collective scholarly work will evolve and generate complementary streams of inquiry. Potential areas of future sport event and ES research are outlined below.

Demographics and perception ES and sport event scholarship would benefit from inquiries that examine stakeholder perception in relation to environmental outcomes. Research could examine perceptions that focus on broader conceptualizations of environmental outcomes. For example, the work of Loland (2006), which argued for an expanded understanding of ES and sport events that incorporates a sustainable development perspective, would offer a new approach to understanding

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perceived environmental impacts of such events. Additionally, the evolution of environmental practices within the Olympic Games, as identified by Ross and Leopkey (2017), revealed a transition from environmental protectionism to sustainability to “zero tolerance”. However, is this same change evident in the perceptions of various Games stakeholders? More specifically, how do such environmental impact perceptions compare across different demographics? Analyses could expand upon literature by examining differences among social groups – be they differentiated by factors such as age, gender, education, socio-economic status, ethnicity, sport event affinity, to name a few. This would expand upon work by Krugell and Saayman (2013) and Melville, Waldo, and Andrea (2016), who compared the willingness to pay carbon offsetting costs for a sport event across demographic groups. It may be possible to delve even deeper into the nuances of environmental stakeholders, such as comparing perceived impacts according to those who are part of an environmental movement, part of other economic and social interest groups, or simply sport event attendees. Finally, social exchange theory and social identity theory can inform our understanding of why group comparison may or may not demonstrate differences.

Management and assessment of sport event-ES goals The research themes indicate a tendency towards event environmental impact assessment. To date, studies tend to focus environmental assessment upon existing goals of the sport event federation, such as Olympic Organizing Committees that adopt the IOC’s Olympic Agenda 2020 – Sustainability Strategy, or hosts that follow FIFA’s Football for the Planet environmental program. In cases where stated environmental goals and objectives for an event are not set out by a governing body, researchers have created models or tools to guide an environmental assessment, such as Boggia et al. (2018), who generated the METER model with nine environmental categories. The key dilemma, though, is developing a framework to assess the fulfillment of ES-sport event goals that can offer comparisons across events. Work that improves this potential would be valuable and could work with frameworks currently in the literature. In addition, drawing upon categories, measures, and metrics from models and tools from other domains would enable sport organizations that host events to situate environmental reporting within a broader context. One such area is the alignment of ES-sport event research to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2019). There are 17 SDGs that include 169 targets. How might these connect to ES research across the various functional areas that are needed to stage a sport event?

Sport events and ES goal fulfillment The summary of research overwhelmingly demonstrated a failure, regardless of the type of event host, to meet espoused ES goals. In the case of the Olympic

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Games, Geeraerta and Gauthier (2018) believe the Games not only fail to meet their declared environmental goals, but also cause environmental harm. They argued that the IOC must modify incentives to improve the ES compliance of Games organizers. What type of incentives would be most effective? Other disciplines, such as communication and accounting, offer insight on how to address this deficiency. One approach is to take a critical stance concerning declared environmental accomplishments by sport event hosts and how these statements stand up to actual accomplishments. The critical commentaries outlined in the research review begin to address this by raising concerns about environmental corporatism and the politics of ES practices within a sport event context. Miller (2016) examined greenwashing claims in sport and argued that motorsport and global football events are guilty of environmental despoliation and, further, engage in greenwashing to omit such negative impact. How might the issue of greenwashing be further examined within other sport events? Could research extend such a critical outlook to generate effective strategies to avoid greenwashing? Research could examine incentive versus compliance approaches and explore whether motivating event hosts to follow through on ES goals would be more successful than punishing event hosts who do not comply. Further, would other non-governmental and/or international environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, generate more success when it comes to sport events and ES goal fulfillment? A second approach is to draw upon accounting literature to examine links between how ES is analyzed in a sport event context and accounting practices that enable transparency. The review of literature discussed earlier highlighted the challenges faced by event host organizations when trying to fulfil ES goals that were set with good intentions. In some cases, the failure to meet ES goals was not due to inauthenticity, but rather to governance and managerial challenges that arose as the host progressed from bidding to event staging. Issues of greenwashing are now of interest in accounting research. For example, Fiandrino, Devalle, and Cantino (2019) argued corporate governance is closely connected to the degree of greenwashing that may occur in an organization. Hence, what specific governance factors would improve the ability of an event host organization to follow through on espoused ES goals? A critical perspective would identify the extent of greenwashing within the sport event industry; however, a more focused analysis of governance and accounting practices could offer insight on how to minimize such action and improve the ES of a sport event.

ES practices across the stages of sport event hosting While ES practices are important at all phases of major Games hosting, guiding principles of how a Games will approach ES should the applicant be successful are often declared at the bid stage. Hence, future research can examine whether

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bid stage ES objectives carry forward to the hosting stage. For example, the IOC is considering asking cities to hold a referendum before submitting a bid to host a Games (Morgan, 2019). In many cases, such a referendum addresses environmental impact concerns as part of the public discussion. The question, though, is whether the ES issues raised during the referendum dialogue endure in the event the bid is successful, and if they do, how well do the actual ES practices and outcomes of the Olympic Organizing Committee reflect the concerns. The Stockholm Ǻre 2026 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games bid committee pledged to stage a “climate-positive” Games, as well as create a Sustainability Council to “guide sustainability innovation, comprised of independent experts, stakeholders, academics, community groups, NonGovernmental Organisations and private sector representatives” (Etchells, 2019, para. 6). The early declaration to ensure ES–Games integration begs the question of how an early ES initiative may or may not carry forward to during and post Games-time, and what factors may enable or inhibit such carryforward.

ES across different types of sport events Events vary according to scale (large, moderate, and small), level (international, national, regional, and local), scope (multi-sport and single-sport), sector (professional or amateur), and location (urban and rural; multi- and single site). Future research could compare sport event ES practices and outcomes according to one or more of these categories, and explore factors that mitigate ES across different types of events. For example, Peric, Ðurkin, and Wise (2016) examined organizational challenges of achieving long-term outcomes for small-scale sport events in rural communities.

Event hosting, growth, and innovation When a new event, or a new sport within an event, is announced, concerns about the growing scale of the event and its impact upon the environment are often raised. For example, the addition of surfing to the 2020 Olympic Summer Games in Tokyo, Japan, spurred some early promotion of environmentalism. Women’s cricket, beach volleyball, and para table tennis are proposed sport additions for the 2022 Commonwealth Games. However, are environmental impacts considered during the decision process? Preuss (2013) argued the value of sport events in driving a green economy. What indicators might suit research to assess whether such potential actually materializes?

Conclusion This chapter summarizes 47 articles that addressed sport events and ES research. The intent is to encourage readers to develop research that fills gaps and, in so

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doing, expand scholarship in this area. The seven research themes described in the chapter offer a platform from which to recommend new research. The themes are not exclusive and inter-connection among themes, such as legacy and event management in relation to sport event ES, would be valuable. Overall, the intent is to inspire research projects and advance the body of knowledge about sport events and ES.

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Gibson, H., Kaplanidou, K., & Kang, S. (2012). Small-scale event sport tourism: A case of sustainable tourism. Sport Management Review, 15(2), 160–170. Govender, S., Munien, S., Pretorius, L., & Foggin, T. (2012). Visitor’s perceptions of environmental impacts of the 2010 FIFA World Cup: Comparisons between Cape Town and Durban. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation & Dance, Supplement, 18(4), 104–111. Jin, L., Zhand, J., Ma, X., & Connaughton, D. (2011). Residents’ perceptions of environmental impacts of the 2008 Beijing green Olympic Games. European Sport Management Quarterly, 11(3), 275–300. Ju, H., Nelson, C., & Kim C. (2015). Pro-environmental behavior in sport event tourism: Roles of event attendees and destinations. Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism, Space, Place and Environment, 17(4), 719–737. Karadakis, K., & Kaplanidou, K. (2012). Legacy perceptions among host and non-host Olympic Games residents: A longitudinal study of the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games. European Sport Management Quarterly, 12(3), 243–264. Kearins, K., & Pavlovich, K. (2002). The role of stakeholders in Sydney’s Green Games. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 9(3), 157–169. Kim, K., & Chung, H. (2018). Eco-modernist environmental politics and counteractivism around the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Games. Sociology of Sport Journal, 35(1), 17–28. Konstantaki, M., & Wickens, E. (2010). Residents’ perceptions of environmental and security issues at the 2010 London Olympic Games. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15(4), 337–357. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2010.533921. Kou, X, & Shen, K. (2014). Study on the ecological environmental problems of the big sport events in China. Applied Mechanics & Materials, 675–677, 1044–1047. Krugell, W., & Saayman, M. (2013). Running a greener race: Willingness-to-pay from the old mutual two oceans marathon in South Africa. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education & Recreation, 35(1), 53–70. Lenskyj, H. (1998). Sport and corporate environmentalism: The case of the Sydney 2000 Olympics. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 33(4), 341–354. Lesjø, J. (2000). Lillehammer 1994: Planning, figurations and the “green” Winter Games. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35(1), 282–293. Loland, S. (2006, October). Olympic sport and the ideal of sustainable development. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 33(2), 144–156. Mallen, C., Stevens, J., Adams, L., & McRoberts, S. (2010). An assessment of the environmental performance of an international multi-sport event: Understanding the organizational barriers to event sustainability. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10(1), 97–122. Matzarakis, A., & Frölich, D. (2015). Sport events and climate for visitors – the case of FIFA World Cup in Qatar 2022. International Journal of Bioeteorology, 59(4), 481–486. May, V. (1995). Environmental implications of the 1992 Winter Olympic Games. Tourism Management, 16(4), 269–275. McLeod, C., Pu, H., & Newman, J. (2018). Blue skies over Beijing: Olympics, environments, and the People’s Republic of China. Sociology of Sport Journal, 35(1), 29–38. Mead, R., & Brajer, V. (2008). Environmental cleanup and health gains from Beijing’s green Olympics. China Quarterly, 194(194), 275–293.

84 Julie Stevens Melo, F., Siqueira, J., Santos, B., Alvares-da-Silva, O., Ceballos, G., & Bernard, E. (2014). Football and biodiversity conservation: FIFA and Brazil can still hit a green goal. Biotropica, 46(3), 257–259. Melville, S., Waldo, K., & Andrea, S. (2016). Characterization of cyclists’ willingness to pay for green initiatives at Africa’s largest cycle tour. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 19(3), 432–447. Miller, T. (2016). Greenwashed sport and environmental activism: Formula 1 and FIFA. Journal of Environmental Communication, 10(6), 719–733. Millington, R., Darnell, S., & Millington, B. (2018). Ecological modernization and the Olympics: The case of golf and Rio’s “green” Games. Sociology of Sport Journal, 35(1), 8–16. Mol, A. (2010). Sustainability as global attractor: The greening of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Global Networks, 10(4), 510–528. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1471-0374.2010.00289.x. Morgan, L. (2019). IOC to ask cities to hold referendum before submitting Olympic bid under changes to candidature process. Inside the Games: The inside track on world sport. Retrieved from https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1080952/ioc-to-askcities-to-hold-referendum-before-submitting-olympic-bid-under-changes-tocandidature-process. Otto, I., & Heath, E. (2010). The potential contribution of the 2010 soccer World Cup to climate change: An exploratory study among tourism industry stakeholders in the Tshwane metropole of South Africa. Journal of Sport Tourism, 14(2–3), 169–191. Paquette, J., Stevens, J., & Mallen, C. (2011). The interpretation of environmental sustainability by the International Olympic Committee and Organizing Committees of the Olympic Games from 1994 to 2008. Sport in Society, 14(3), 355–369. Pentifallo, C., & VanWynsberghe, R. (2012). Blame it on Rio: Isomorphism, environmental protection and sustainability in the Olympic movement. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 4(3), 427–446. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940. 2012.694115. Peric, M., Ðurkin, J., & Wise, N. (2016) Leveraging small-scale sport events: Challenges of organizing, delivering and managing sustainable outcomes in rural communities, the Case of Gorski kotar, Croatia. Sustainability, 8(12), 1337–1343. Preuss, H. (2015). A framework for identifying the legacies of a mega sport event. Leisure Studies, 34(6), 643–664. Preuss, H. (2013). The contribution of the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games to green economy. Sustainability, 5(8), 3581–3600. Preuss, H. (2007). The conceptualization and measurement of mega sport event legacies. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(34), 207–227. Ross, W., & Leopkey, B. (2017). The adoption and evolution of environmental practices in the Olympic Games. Managing Sport & Leisure, 22(1), 1–18. Scott, D., Steiger, R., Rutty, M., & Johnson, P. (2015). The future of the Olympic Winter Games in an era of climate change. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 913–930. Sheets, D., Fu, J., Jang, C., Hao, J., He, K., Tang, X., et al. (2007). Air quality during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Atmospheric Environment, 41(3), 480–492. Sobol, A. (2015). No medals for Sochi: Why the environment earned last place at the 2014 Winter Olympic Games, and how host cities can score a “green” medal in the future. Villanova Environmental Law Journal, 26(1), 169–192. Retrieved from http:// digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/elj/vol26/iss1/6.

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Sotiriadou, P., & Hill, B. (2015). Raising environmental responsibility and sustainability for events: A systematic review. International Journal of Event Management Research, 10(2), 1–11. Triantafyllidis, S., Ries, R. J., & Kaplanidou, K. (2018). Carbon dioxide emissions of spectators’ transportation in collegiate sporting events: Comparing on-campus and offcampus stadium locations. Sustainability, 10(1), 241–258. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. (2019). 17 goals to transform our world. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/. Vilani, R., & Machado, C. (2015). The impact of sports mega-events on health and environmental rights in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Cadernos de Saúde Púlbica, 31(Suppl. 1), 39–50. Wenner, L. (1994). Behind the green door of intercollegiate athletics. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 18(2), 107–109.

Chapter 5

Major sport facilities and environmental sustainability Sheila Nguyen and Cheryl Mallen

It has been noted that sustainability principles have been applied to the design of sport facilities over the last several decades (Erten & Ozfiliz, 2006), and that sport facility managers “have the discretion to participate in leading advances in ES” (Mallen & Chard, 2012, p. 238). Also, “sport organizations are facing an increasing number of calls to reduce negative impacts of their facilities and events on the natural environment” (Kellison, Trendafilova, & McCullough, 2015, p. 63). This includes a 2018 call for greater environmental sustainability (ES) to be embedded in organizational practices (Sartore-Baldwin & McCullough, 2018), including sport facility management practices. Within this context, this chapter examines journal manuscripts that focused on sports facilities/stadiums and ES. Three key themes were derived from the literature, including: (1) support for the adoption of ES initiatives at sport facilities; (2) practices, performance, impacts, and challenges in sport facility ES; and (3) the future in sport facility ES. The research within each theme will now be outlined.

Support for adopting sport facility ES To begin, two manuscripts discussed support for adopting ES initiatives at sport facilities. One was a qualitative case study that utilized the Rogers’ diffusion-ofinnovations framework to examine decision-makers and the factors that contributed to architects adopting environmental initiatives (Kellison & Hong, 2015) They found that the key factors were the “economic savings over the life of the facility, perception-management opportunities, and demonstration of their innovativeness” (Kellison & Hong, 2015, p. 249). These authors concluded that sustainability was a trend that was expected to continue and that future research which examined barriers to sustainable design options was suggested. The other manuscript was a quantitative study that utilized the theory of planned behaviour and sought to understand donor intentions based on sport facility environmental initiatives (Jin et al., 2015). They concluded that there were no supporting linkages to donation intentions based on environmental initiatives and that future research should focus on barriers and decisions in environmentally sustainable activities.

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There was a paucity of research, with only two journal manuscripts on the topic advocating support for adopting ES initiatives at sport facilities. See the synopsis for both manuscripts below. Kellison & Hong (2015) Research topic: Factors that encourage environmental innovations being adopted Method: Case study Setting: Architects and owners of sport facilities Area/sector of sport: Elite sport facilities Theoretical foundations: Rogers’ diffusion-of-innovations framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There is growing pressure to build facilities with sustainability principles.

Conclusions: • •

“Facility designers predicted the diffusion of pro-environmental sport facilities would continue in the immediate future” (p. 249). “Innovation diffusion is driven by early adopters, who prioritize an innovation’s relative advantage and compatibility over its complexity, lack of trialability, and lack of observability” (p. 249).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Future research should explore both the decision-making process and barriers to sustainable design adoption in further depth” (p. 249).

Jin et al. (2015) Research topic: Investigated donor beliefs and intentions based on environmental stadium initiatives Method: Survey, quantitative, hierarchical regression analysis Setting: Intercollegiate sport in southeastern United States Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Theory of planned behaviour Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Found that donors were influenced by “attitude and social norms” (p. 37).

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•

Concluded that donors did not make their decision intentions on donating based on environmental initiatives.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Practices, performance, impacts, and challenges in sport facility ES The next theme involved 12 journal manuscripts on environmental practices, performance, impacts, and challenges in sport facility ES. It was noted by Mallen, Adams, Stevens, and Thompson (2010) that sport facility environmental practices were “slowly gaining credibility and priority … despite the low financial commitment” (p. 381). Further, “80% of the predicted trends are most likely to occur in the operational performance category … such as saving resources with LED lighting … and a 30% reduction in utilities” (Mallen et al., 2010, p. 381). Also, it was noted that “younger, more environmentally friendly staff and management [were] coming on board to make an impact on decision making” (Mallen et al., 2010, p. 377). In keeping with the trends in operational performance outlined above, Artuso and Santiangeli (2008) remarked that “sport facilities are characterized by special energy needs different from any other user and they are characterized by high heat and electricity loads” (p. 3182). Their research offered scenarios and then utilized their tool to determine the sport facility energy requirements for each scenario. Special consideration was given to local access to energy resource sources as they sought to determine the best options in the pursuit of zeroemissions and facility energy self-sufficiency. Further, Fantozzi, Leccese, Salvadori, Rocca, and Garofaio (2016) identified assessment criteria and compared lighting options and their ability to reduce the power demand at sport facilities. LED floodlights were rated the best choice, particularly when used for high-level competitions. Meanwhile, Oldmeadow and Marinova’s (2010) research involved a case study on a geothermal energy program at an Australian sport facility. The findings indicated that advancing innovative technologies demonstrates that renewable energy options are now more efficient and feature the added benefit of reducing the demand for greenhouse-producing fossil fuels. Other environmental practices were also examined. Trendafilova, Kellison, and Spearman (2014) examined waste management and stated that all sport facilities in their investigation in East Tennessee, United States, now recycled waste and that the larger sport facilities also had advanced environmental programming, such as energy-saving activities. Interestingly, their research participants outlined a number of barriers to embedding environmental initiatives in practice. These barriers arose from a lack of resources, such as leadership, staff, and financial support. Despite such barriers, it was noted that

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“sport facility personnel are optimistic about the future and constantly on the lookout for new opportunities to collaborate and implement additional programs to minimize the environmental impact” (Trendafilova, Kellison, & Spearman, 2014, p. 7). McCullough (2013) also examined recycling behaviour at largescale events/facilities. Interestingly, he found that negative attitudes to recycling stemmed from a belief that they would be doing the hard work of recycling while the recycling companies would reap the financial benefits of selling recycled waste. McCullough (2013) determined that promotions on recycling provided an enhanced opportunity for educational outreach to the spectators. Next, Gholami, Rezaei, Saman, Sharif, and Zakuan (2016) focused on sport facility ES from a human resource management perspective. They created the Green HRM (Human Resource Management) System that was found to be “internally consistent, reliable and valid” (p. 158) for generating synergies and embedding integrated strategies at sports centres (including the facility and programming) to enhance long-term ES performance. Abbaspour, Karbassi, and Khadivi (2006) examination found that sport facility personnel were the critical component in achieving increasing efficiencies. They concluded that the training of staff for ES was critical in the pursuit of ES performance advances. They also determined that the sport facility under examination in Iran could be a role model for others due to their continuous work to decrease water consumption and energy demand, along with advancing strategies to manage waste. Meanwhile, Kellison, Trendafilova, and McCullough (2015) stated that “proenvironmental sport facilities would drive social change both in sport and among fans” (p. 76). Kellison and Mondello (2012) expressed that proenvironmental behaviour associated with sport facility builds could be utilized to aid in achieving favourable results during referendums to support such development. And, finally, Mallen, Chard, and Sime (2013) generated an initial audit of communications concerning renewable energy initiatives at Canadian sport facilities and that the movement involved multiple directions, including the use of wind, biofuel, a heat exchange, and energy offsets. This followed the work of Spector, Chard, Mallen, and Hyatt (2012), which offered a content analysis of web-based ski facility environmental communications. These manuscripts involved a variety of methods, including: qualitative interviews (Kellison, Trendafilova, & McCullough, 2015; McCullough, 2013; Trendafilova, Kellison, & Spearman, 2014); case study (Abbaspour, Karbassi, & Khadivi, 2006; Oldmeadow & Marinova, 2010); scenario planning (Artuso & Santiangeli, 2008); techno-economic evaluation (Fantozzi et al., 2016); quantitative comparisons (Fantozzi et al., 2016); a Delphi study (Mallen et al., 2010); multiple applied research strategies (Gholami et al., 2016); hypothetical scenarios (Kellison & Mondello, 2012); and content analysis (Mallen, Chard, & Sime, 2013). Only three manuscripts outlined theoretical foundations, including: the Theory of Planned Behaviour (McCullough, 2013); Organizational Perception Management, along with the Desired Voting Outcome Framework (Kellison & Mondello, 2012); and the

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Ability-Motivation-Opportunity theory (Gholami et al., 2016); the rest had an implied use of sustainability theory. With the limited number of manuscripts on the topic of practices, performance, impacts, and challenges in sport facility ES, there are plenty of gaps for future research to fill. Several manuscripts outlined recommendations for future research. Artuso and Santiangeli (2008) suggested future research was needed to continuously upgrade their energy analysis tool; Mallen, Chard, and Sime (2013) recommended studies on sport facility environmental communications to understand the trends, best practices, effectiveness, leadership, and progress; McCullough (2013) indicated that multiple areas needed to be studied, including programs that encourage environmental behaviour, the intervention effectiveness, the effectiveness of relationships, and on the communication, including stakeholder perspectives on environmental reports, in particular concerns related to transparency; Fantozzi, Leccese, Salvadori, Rocca, and Garofalo (2016) recommended that future research determine why ski facilities are communicating their environmental activities; and, finally, Trendafilova, Kellison, and Spearman (2014) suggested that explorations involve “practical needs in the areas of facility/venue management, stakeholder engagement, and sustainability strategies in small cities and towns in particular” (p. 8). Finally, Kellison, Trendafilova, and McCullough (2015) stated that future research was needed to examine “support and opposition toward green building” (p. 76). Additionally, there are multiple future research topics applicable to this area of study and examples are offered. For instance, there was only one manuscript on geothermal energy use at sport facilities and greater understandings are needed about this form of energy. Also, according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (n.d.) “more energy from the sun hits the Earth’s surface in one hour than is used by everyone in the world in one year” (para. 1). The supply of energy provided by the sun, thus, cannot be questioned; rather, it is our ability to efficiently convert the sun into utilizable electric energy that is the issue. The first fully solar-powered sports facility was National Stadium built in Taiwan and designed by Toyo Ito, a Japanese architect (Aquino & Nawari, 2015; Pham, 2014) with a noted saving “660 tons of carbon dioxide annually” (Aquino & Nawari, 2015, p. 3). Yet, multiple non-journal writings were found and limited journal manuscripts were found to be examining this area of ES. A synopsis of each of the manuscripts is now offered below and is followed by the next section on the future of sport facility ES. Abbaspour, Karbassi, & Khadivi (2006) Research topic: Environmental management to eliminate contaminants Method: Case study Setting: Enghelab Sports Complex, Iran

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Area/sector of sport: Elite and recreational sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There is a movement towards green sports facility management.

Conclusions: •

•

•

• •

• •

“Green management pursues greater productivity, lower water and energy consumption, reduction of consumed materials like paper, management of solid wastes and creation of a recycling system in Enghelab Sports Complex” (p. 457). An estimation was made of the electrical and water consumption for the building; “the result … is indicative of a medium level of optimization for energy and water consumption … and there is a high potential to improve the efficiency of the system” (p. 457). “The personnel of the Complex revealed that approximately 50% occupants were not acquainted with green management and only 30% were faintly familiar with it. The personnel’s knowledge on green management was much better and about 64% of them were well acquainted with the related issues” (p. 457). The importance of general and specialized training of personnel and members is quite significant in proper implementation of green management. It was recommended that environmental management required modifications to water, paper, and energy use at the sports facility and that a conducive environment must be created to ensure all employees enact the environmental provisions. Overall, “the management of a sports complex adapts itself by making necessary changes in the present organizational chart to meet such a demand” (p. 465). The results indicated that the facility under examination could be “a suitable model for similar facilities” (p. 457).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

n/a.

Artuso & Santiangeli (2008) Research topic: Examination of sport facility energy needs and sources Method: Scenario planning for sport facility; aim is facility zero-emissions and energy self-sufficiency Setting: Dubai; but tool can be applied to any sport facility Area/sector of sport: Elite and recreational sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory

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Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The sports facilities are characterized by special energy needs different from any other user and they are characterized by high heat and electricity loads” (p. 3182).

Conclusions: •

Tool aids to “find the best combination under the energy and economic point of view on the basis of local renewable energies” (p. 3186).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Need to conduct research to continually upgrade the tool.

Fantozzi et al. (2016) Research topic: Comparative analysis of options for lighting Method: Techno-economic comparative analysis Setting: Italy Area/sector of sport: Elite and recreational sport facilities Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Trend is to replace luminaires with LED lighting.

Conclusions: •

•

•

This research identified criteria for assessing lighting options at sports facilities to reduce power demand; energy and economic analysis was carried out for each option. LED floodlights were rated highest for energy efficiency due to the “smaller number of luminaires … limited maintenance costs compared to the other solutions, but it has high investment costs, which involve reasonable payback times only when the sports facility is used intensively and for competitions of high level” (p. 1). “The choice of the light sources and of the luminaires should always be preceded by detailed lighting evaluations (i.e., illuminance levels, glare phenomena, photobiological safety, health effects, etc.), in order to verify that all the lighting requirements” (p. 8).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Gholami et al. (2016) Research topic: Embedding into human resource management into environmental practices Method: Applied research, multiple strategies Setting: Sport centre, Malaysia Area/sector of sport: Elite and recreational sport Theoretical foundations: Ability-Motivation-Opportunity theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

“The first section led to identifying an initial seven-factor structure based on factor analysis of a pilot study … Next, interpretive structural modeling was performed using a survey of experts’ judgment … Finally, structural equation modeling was considered to test the developed model” (p. 142). The results involved the completion of a modelling process and the creation of a Green HRM (Human Resource Management) System that was determined to be “internally consistent, reliable and valid” (p. 158) for generating synergies and embedding integrated strategies at sports centres to enhance the long-term ES performance.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Kellison, Trendafilova, & McCullough (2015) Research topic: “The link between pro-environmental sports stadiums and social change” (p. 63) Method: Interviews Setting: Architects of major sport facilities with successful ES designs Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

“Architects also indicated that, as individual designers, their influence was limited. Instead they argued social pressure coming from fans,

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• •

environmental activists, and ordinary citizens weighted heavily on decision-making” (p. 76). “Early adopters of sustainable stadium designs were influenced by the rising tide of social interest in environmental stewardship” (p. 76). “Pro-environmental sport facilities would drive social change both in sport and among fans” (p. 76).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Examine “support and opposition toward green building” (p. 76).

Kellison & Mondello (2012) Research topic: Use of pro-environmental behaviour to achieve favourable sport facility referendum results Method: Hypothetical Setting: Groups potentially impacted by sport facility referenda Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Organizational Perception Management (OPM); Desired Voting Outcomes Framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

“The Desired Voting Outcomes Framework considers the need to effectively manage organisational perceptions in order to receive the favour of the voting public. In professional sport, CPEB is becoming an increasingly relevant strategy not only because of its obvious environmental benefits, but also because of the predicted economic and social benefits to the team” (p. 510). “Despite the passionate and oftentimes contentious debate that arises prior to a facility subsidisation referendum, professional sport organisations should approach these instances as opportunities to connect to previously untapped markets in the community, rather than as challenges that can only be overcome with deception. Thus, through OPM, the public referendum represents a welcomed chance to build a facility representing not only the team and its fans, but also the community supporting it” (p. 510).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Mallen, Chard, & Sime (2013) Research topic: Sport stadiums and website communications on renewable energy initiatives Method: Content analysis Setting: Canadian sport facilities that host professional teams Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

• •

The research generated “a preliminary audit of the communications concerning a transition to renewable energy” (p. 5130). Renewable energy was used at 26.6% of the sport facilities, including one wind energy project, one biofuel project, a heat exchange project, and the use of renewable energy offsets. “The results revealed that the stadiums were heading in multiple directions with respect to renewable energy” (p. 5131). There was a basic lack of detail within the communication to fully determine the mitigation effects.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Future research that monitors the communication is necessary to understand the trends, best practices, effectiveness, leadership, and progress.

Mallen et al. (2010) Research topic: Sport facility ES Method: Delphi study Setting: North American major sport facilities Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Provided “a top ten list of ES challenges, best practices and competencies

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•

•

• •

needed by students entering the field and trends most likely to happen by 2015” (p. 386). ES challenges included energy, water, and waste reduction, meeting training requirements, obtaining environmental products, tools to measure ES, effective systems, and ensuring compliance – especially with regard to recycling. ES trends included advances in utility reductions and “younger, more environmentally friendly staff and management coming on board to make an impact on decision making” (p. 377). “An ES research agenda is promoted as foundational to meeting educational needs” (p. 386). An “imagined future includes advances in, and widespread use of, successful ES strategies, tools, relationship, practices and the ability to resolve the challenges in sport facility ES” (p. 386).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

McCullough (2013) Research topic: Influences on sport spectator recycling behaviour at large-scale events/facilities Method: Qualitative interviews Setting: An American university Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Theory of planned behaviour Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

Both positive and negative attitudes towards recycling emerged; interestingly, negative attitudes stemmed from spectators who felt burdened to recycle when the organization was going to sell the recycled products and make a profit on the activity, and due to obstacles, such as [in]convenience. Environmental impacts should be released using standardized reporting formats; communication is key (such as promotional announcements and signage) and offers an educational outreach opportunity.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Future research is required in multiple areas, such as on programs that encourage environmental behaviour, the intervention effectiveness, the

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effectiveness of relationships, and on the communication, including stakeholder perspectives on environmental reports, in particular concerns related to transparency. Oldmeadow & Marinova (2010) Research topic: Geothermal energy Method: Case study Setting: Challenge Stadium, Perth, Australia Area/sector of sport: Elite and recreational sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“New [geothermal] applications based on innovative technologies with greater efficiency of low temperature resources are starting to emerge” (p. 476).

Conclusions: •

•

“Key benefits … include: (1) reduced consumption of fossil‐based fuel; (2) cost savings; (3) water supply and water infrastructure development for a local school; [and] (4) enhanced sustainability profile” (p. 476). “For cities situated in geothermally‐rich environments, the greatest potential benefit from this type of project is the promotion of sustainability principles” (p. 476).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Spector et al. (2012) Research topic: Ski facility environmental communications Method: Content analysis Setting: US ski resorts/facilities Area/sector of sport: Elite and recreational sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory; social constructionism; Hudson and Miller’s classification model Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

“24% of ski resorts in the study were inactive, 10% reactive, 23%

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exploitive, and 43% proactive communications” (p. 431).

with

respect

to

environmental

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

“Advance understandings concerning sport and proenvironmental behavior” (p. 431); including “the motivation behind ski resorts publishing environmental communications” (p. 431). Examine skier perceptions of such communications and their impact.

Trendalova, Kellison, & Spearman (2014) Research topic: Challenges in environmental practices within sport facilities Method: Qualitative interviews Setting: Sport facility managers Area/sector of sport: Small-scale and larger sport facilities Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

• •

• •

“Data analysis revealed that all sport facilities had a recycling program, with some facilities solely focusing on recycling plastic bottles and other facilities (in addition to plastic bottles) on recycling cardboard and aluminum cans” (p. 7). “Larger facilities had additional programs focusing on energy saving equipment and stations for recharging electrical cars” (p. 7). There is “no system … in place to track down the outcome of some of these programs since most numbers are cumulative for the entire city and do not provide specifics for the facility itself ” (p. 7). More electric car recharging stations are needed. Barriers to environmental initiatives included: “organizational: the absence of leadership with expertise on green design, too few staff members to implement a plan, and a lack of financial resources. In other cases, psychological barriers may be present, such as citizens’ mistrust in local decision makers or their lack of attachment to the surrounding natural environment” (p. 4).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Explore gaps and practical needs in the areas of facility/venue management, stakeholder engagement, and sustainability strategies in small cities and towns in particular” (p. 8).

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The future in sport facility ES There were two key journal manuscripts that focused on the future of sport facility ES. The first was the seminal work by Aquino and Nawari (2015), which outlined current examples of sport facilities ES and, importantly, outlined future strategies, including, for example, the suggestion for greater use of solar power, green roofs, and rain water collection. The second was Mallen and Chard’s (2012) vision of where the Canadian sport facility industry could be with regard to ES. This manuscript outlined goals for sport facility managers to become leaders in safeguarding the natural environment through areas such as: “efficient and effective use of energy and resources” (p. 9); “dramatically reducing waste and pollution” (p. 9); “achieving air quality standards” (p. 10); excellence in “water stewardship” (p. 10); and positioning “ES as a key element within all decisions” (p. 11). Both manuscripts sought to encourage debate on sport facility ES in an effort to further understandings and practice. An overview of both manuscripts is now presented. Aquino & Nawari (2015) Research topic: Examples and future strategies for sustainable sport facilities Method: Case study, examined facility use of construction materials, green roofs, energy, waste, and water management Setting: Major outdoor sport facilities (maximum 5 years of age) Area/sector of sport: n/a Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

The facilities evaluated were built for major sport events/games.

Conclusions: • •

• • •

•

“This not only gives new stadia the opportunity to learn from the past but also creates a very shallow learning curve” (p. 1). Sports facilities can “be providers of electricity (potential of providing over 30,000 MWhr/year) and water (potential of providing 250,000 gallons of water per year)” (p. 26). “There is still a lack in rain water collection from major sport stadia” (p. 26). “Solar panel use as a majority of covered parking, which could create excess energy for the building, is still an unused strategy” (p. 26). “Green roofs and walls are a great way to reduce cooling needs (up to 5%) and subsequently greenhouse gas emissions, but … are still not often used by sustainable stadia” (p. 26). “Material reuse needs be planned from the beginning of the design phase” (p. 26).

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•

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“Recycling and composting plans are essential … an average game can generate 60 tons of waste, but through proper recycling and composting programs over 95% of this waste can be diverted from landfills” (p. 26). “There is quantifiable data that indicates the benefits of using these strategies and techniques and pushes the envelope to provide strategies that are not yet used in sport stadia” (p. 27). “The goal of all sport stadia should be two-fold: to not impact the environment negatively and to give back to the community. Many stadia are achieving the first goal to some extents, but the consciousness of giving back to the community has not yet been achieved” (p. 27).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Examine onsite renewable energy from wind and biomass projects.

Mallen & Chard (2012) Research topic: A vision of environmentally friendly sport facilities Method: Qualitative scenario Setting: Canadian sport facilities Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Precautionary principle; appreciative theory; sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

An alternative approach is needed that acknowledges and integrates ES.

Conclusions: • •

Debates are necessary in the process in determining the way forward in sport facility ES. Sport practitioners are responsible for engaging in and moving towards an environmentally focused future.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Sport facility ES research gaps With the lack of a robust body of literature on the multiple areas within sport facility ES, much research needs to be completed on sport facilities and ES to fill in the research gaps. Interestingly, Nielsen, Sarasoja, and

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Ramskov-Galamba (2016) produced a literature review of 151 publications within 85 scientific journals on sustainability in facility management (without a focus on sport facilities). These authors found the literature fell into categories such as: construction and sustainable building products; building design; building performance; the benefits of green buildings; facility sustainability management; and user perceptions, satisfaction, and productivity. Many of the 85 non-sport manuscripts found by Nielsen, Sarasoja, and Ramskov-Galamba (2016) can underscore future research with a particular sport facility focus. Despite the number of manuscripts found in the non-sport literature, it was determined that current knowledge was still insufficient and represented a niche area of facility management. Nielsen, Sarasoja, and Ramskov-Galamba (2016) stated that additional research should be directed towards understanding and developing the following: “visions, strategies and capabilities that enable FM [facilities management] professionals to operate with a … clear sustainability perspective” (p. 10). This perspective included the use of sustainable technologies and practices. They further noted that “sustainable facilities management in practice is not a simple matter but includes complex challenges with numerous dilemmas, such as how to prioritise energy savings in comparison with quality, economy and health” (p. 10). The Nielsen, Sarasoja, and Ramskov-Galamba (2016) stated directions above for future research are hereby applied as a guide for future sport facility ES research.

Conclusions There was a total of 16 journal manuscripts found on sport facilities and ES, representing a limited but growing number of published manuscripts on the topic. Within these manuscripts, 56.2% were published outside of the sport management journals. This left 43.7% which were published within sport management journals, including two in each of the Sport Management Review, European Sport Management Quarterly, and International Journal of Event Management Research and one manuscript in the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing. Examples of outlets utilized to publish outside of the sport academy included the Journal of Cleaner Production, Journal of Management and Sustainability, Journal of Facility Planning, Design and Management, and Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy. The greater percentage of manuscripts published outside of the sport management journals is interpreted to represent a perceived notion by sport management researchers that they need to go outside of the sport academy to gain support to publish their research. Importantly, with only 16 publications for the array of potential topics in the area of sport facility management and ES, the research gaps are plentiful and need to be filled with future research to advance our knowledge on this important topic.

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References Abbaspour, M., Karbassi, A. R., & Khadivi, S. (2006). Implementation of green management concepts in sport complexes. International Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, 3(3), 213–219. Artuso, P., & Santiangeli, A. (2008). Energy solutions for sports facilities. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 33(12), 3182–3187. Aquino, I., & Nawari, N. O. (2015). Sustainable design strategies for sport stadia. Suburban Sustainability, 3(1), 1–31. doi:10.5038/2164–0866.3.1.1020. Erten, S., & Ozfiliz, S. (2006). Stadium construction and sustainability: The review of mega-event stadiums (1990–2012), pp. 525–541. 1st International CIB Endorsed METU Postgraduate Conference, Built Environment & Information Technologies. Ankara, Turkey. Retrieved from http://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/06059012396.pdf. Fantozzi, F., Leccese, F., Salvadori, G., Rocca, M., & Garofaio, M. (2016). LED lighting for indoor sports facilities: Can its use be considered a sustainable solution from a techno-economic standpoint? Sustainability, 8(7), 618–631. doi:10.3390/su8070618. Gholami, H., Rezaei, G., Saman, M. Z. M., Sharif, S., & Zakuan, N. (2016). State-ofthe-art Green HRM System: Sustainability in the sports center in Malaysia using a multi-methods approach and opportunities for future research. Journal of Cleaner Production, 124, 142–163. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.105. Jin, L., Zhang, J., Pitts, B., Connaughton, D., Swisher, M., Holland, S., & Spengler, J. (2015). Factors associated with an athletic donor’s intention to donate to green stadium initiatives of a collegiate athletic program. International Journal of Event Management Research, 10(1), 37–62. Kellison, T., & Hong, S. (2015). The adoption and diffusion of pro-environmental stadium design. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(2), 249–269. doi:10.1080/ 16184742.2014.995690. Kellison, T., Trendafilova, S., & McCullough, B., (2015). Considering the social impact of sustainable stadium design. International Journal of Event Management Research, 10(1), 63–83. Kellison, T. B., & Mondello, M. J. (2012). Organisational perception management in sport: The use of corporate pro-environmental behaviour for desired facility referenda outcomes. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 500–512. doi:10.1016/j.smr. 2012.01.005. Mallen, C., Chard, C., & Sime, I. (2013). Web communications of environmental sustainability initiatives at sport facilities hosting major league soccer. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 33(3), 115–130. doi:10.5539/jmsv3n3p115. Mallen, C., & Chard, C. (2012). What could be in Canadian sport facility environmental sustainability. Sport Management Review, 15(2), 230–243. doi:10.1016/j.smr. 2011.10.001. Mallen, C., Adams, L., Stevens, J., & Thompson, L. (2010). Environmental sustainability in sport facility management: A Delphi study. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10(3), 367–389. doi:10.1080/16184741003774521. McCullough, B. (2013). Identifying the influences on sport spectator recycling behaviours using the theory of planned behaviour. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 14(1–4), 146–168. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). (n.d.). Energy basics: Solar energy basics. Retrieved from https://www.nrel.gov/research/re-solar.html.

Major sport facilities and ES 103 Nielsen, S., Sarasoja, A., & Ramskov-Galamba, K. (2016). Sustainability in facilities management: An overview of current research. Facilities, 34(9–10), 535–563. doi:10.1108/F-07-2014-0060. Oldmeadow, E., & Marinova, D. (2010). Into geothermal solutions: The sustainability case for challenge stadium in Perth, Western Australia. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 30(3), 476–485. doi:10.1002/ep.10476. Pham, D. (2014). Dragon-shaped solar stadium in Taiwan is 100% powered by the sun. Retrieved from https://inhabitat.com/taiwans-solar-stadium-100-powered-by-the-sun/. Sartore-Baldwin, M. L., & McCullough, B. (2018). Equity-based sustainability and ecocentric management: Creating more ecologically just sport organization practices. Sport Management Review, 21(4), 1–43. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2017.08.009. Spector, S., Chard, C., Mallen, C., & Hyatt, C. (2012). Socially constructed environmental issues and sport: A content analysis of ski resort environmental communications. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 416–433. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.04003. Trendafilova, S., Kellison, T., & Spearman, L. (2014). Environmental sustainability in sport facilities in East Tennessee. Journal of Facility Planning, Design, and Management, 2(1), 1–10.

Part II

Impacts of the natural environment on sport

Chapter 6

Environmental impacts on sport Vulnerability, risk, resilience, and adaptation Greg Dingle

The relationship that an industry (i.e. manufacturing, agriculture) has with the natural environment plays out in two fundamental ways: first, an industry’s physical impact on the natural environment; and, second, how the natural environment physically impacts that industry. It has been argued that an industry’s relationship with the natural environment is a useful means for organizing our understanding of how the sport industry relates to the natural environment (Dingle, 2016; Dingle & Stewart, 2018). In this chapter, it is argued that it is vital for sport managers, policymakers, and scholars to understand both types of impacts in order to achieve sustainable development for sport, a state described by Mallen and Chard (2011) as sport-environmental sustainability, or “sport-ES”. Evidence of sport’s capacity to negatively impact the natural environment has historically received the lion’s share of attention in academic sport literature. In contrast, the natural environment’s capacity to negatively impact sport facilities, participants, and the delivery of sport events has a much more recent history in sport research literature, and is less well developed. The conceptual foundations for interpreting the environmental impacts on sport, and sport organizations, have emerged in recent years following three major developments: (1) the phenomenon of global environmental change that has been consistently documented in a growing body of scientific literature; (2) the consequent emergence of non-sport business literature identifying the degrees to which organizational assets are exposed to environmental extremes, are susceptible to – or able to cope with – harms associated with these extremes; and (3) evidence of managerial responses that have evolved to address these risks. As a consequence, it is an appropriate time to review the orientation, foci, and major findings of existing research literature in this field. The aims of this chapter are therefore as follows. First, to clarify the impacts concept, and a set of inter-related concepts – exposure, risk, vulnerability, resilience, mitigation, and adaptation – that are present in various bodies of literature. Second, to evaluate research pertaining to these concepts and sport. Finally, this chapter considers gaps in the research literature and avenues for further research. For the purpose of reviewing sport-impacts research, in this chapter, the terms natural environment, nature, and natural world will be used interchangeably.

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Environmental impacts: a conceptual overview The concept of impacts has been defined in various ways. Within interdisciplinary academic literature, impacts of the natural environment have been variously described as the adverse effects of “perturbations” (i.e. sudden spikes in pressure), “harms”, and “disturbance(s)” (Gallopín, 2006). In contrast, other scholars use the term to describe “natural hazards” (Janssen & Ostrom, 2006; Wisner & Fordham, 2014), environmental “hazards”, or “stressors” (Füssel, 2007b) that create the adverse effects on human and natural systems. However, there is broader agreement that environmental impacts are the effects/changes/ consequences/ outcomes/transformations for a system (human or natural) as the result of an action, perturbation, or environmental phenomenon. Commonly cited examples of physical events (perturbations) of the natural environment causing negative impacts for natural and/or human systems include natural disasters and climate change (e.g. tsunamis, earthquakes, drought, storms, floods, sea-level rise, higher ocean acidity) (Field et al., 2012; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2018). Impacts of such events/perturbations can be gradual (e.g. increased water, food- and vector-born disease; soil degradation; reduced crop/agricultural yields; food insecurity) or sudden (i.e. destruction of property from a hurricane or tidal wave; heat stress; drownings) (Gallopín, 2006; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014a, 2014b; Müller, 2014; Sena, Corvalan, & Ebi, 2014). In the case of perturbations associated with large systems of nature (e.g. the global atmospheric climate system), “critical thresholds” can be exceeded (Pinkse & Gasbarro, 2016; Winn et al., 2011, p. 158). As a consequence, climate change can impact “asset integrity” (i.e. decreased functionality or efficiency, decreased levels of safety), and “staff health and safety” (i.e. worsened working conditions, increased accidents, and/or injuries) (Aguinaldo et al., 2018, p. 6). The impacts concept is closely tied to other concepts whose intellectual origins are in scientific literature. As discussed in Orr and Inoue (2018), climate impacts are interwoven in academic discourse with the interrelated concepts of exposure, vulnerability, resilience, adaptation, and mitigation. Yet these five concepts apply equally to environmental perturbations that are not climate-specific. Additional to these concepts is that of risk. The risk concept is difficult to be definitive about. As Aven (2012) has argued, there is “no agreed definition of the concept of risk” (p. 33). Indeed, there are “nine categories of risk definitions” (Aven, 2012, p. 39), with risk being both a noun (e.g. “taking a risk”) and a verb (“to risk losses”). However, as Aven (2012, p. 35) notes, three understandings of risk are common: (1) “(Exposure) to the possibility of loss, damage, injury”; (2) “A hazardous journey, undertaking, or course of action”; and (3) “A person or thing regarded as likely to produce a good or bad outcome … a person or thing regarded as a threat or source of danger.” With this diffusion around the risk concept, for the purposes of this chapter, risk may be equally understood to be potential for and/or exposure to environmental hazards/perturbations, and/or the impacts of such environmental hazards/ perturbations.

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The concept of vulnerability (Adger, 2006; Füssel, 2007b; Gallopín, 2006; Smit & Wandel, 2006) has been defined as: “the state of susceptibility to harm from exposure to stresses associated with environmental and social change and from the absence of capacity to adapt” (Adger, 2006, p. 268). Smit and Wandel (2006, p. 286) noted that a system’s vulnerability impacts the degree to which it is exposed – and sensitive to – hazards (perturbations), but also the system’s ability to “cope, adapt or recover from” such impacts. In summary, the state of vulnerability for a human system (e.g. industry, organization, program) may be considered to exist on a spectrum from low to high (Paton & Johnston, 2001). Vulnerability’s counterpart – resilience (Adger, 2006; Füssel, 2007b; Gallopín, 2006; Janssen & Ostrom, 2006; Smit & Wandel, 2006) – has been defined as “the ability to absorb shocks and still maintain function” (Folke, 2006, p. 253). In the context of organizations, resilience has been described as a “sufficiently wide coping range” (Linnenluecke & Griffiths, 2015). A system’s coping range/ resilience is, at least in part, a reflection of its exposure (Orr & Inoue, 2018; Smit & Wandel, 2006) to environmental hazards/perturbations. Like vulnerability and resilience, the exposure of a system to perturbations typically exists on a spectrum, from low to high. In the context of sport, some sports have high levels of interaction with the natural environment (i.e. outdoor sports), while others have low levels (i.e. indoor sports). As a consequence, it may be argued that sports highly exposed to environmental hazards (e.g. extreme heat or floods) have a higher potential vulnerability, but their actual vulnerability or resilience is determined by factors contributing to their capacity to cope. The concept of adaptation (Adger, 2006; Füssel, 2007a; Gallopín, 2006; Smit & Wandel, 2006) has been defined as: “an adjustment in social–ecological systems in response to actual, perceived, or expected environmental changes and their impacts” (Janssen & Ostrom, 2006, p. 237). In essence, such adjustments are aimed at enabling such a system to “better cope with” changed conditions, hazards, or risks (Smit & Wandel, 2006, p. 282). The concept of mitigation involves any action taken to reduce risks posed by exposure or vulnerability of a system to hazards/perturbations (Field et al., 2012; Paton, 2008). Whilst conceptually distinct, adaptation and mitigation are “interrelated” concepts (Linnenluecke & Griffiths, 2015), and in the case of climate change, are “complementary strategies for reducing and managing” risks (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014b, p. 17).

Research on environmental impacts on sport Existing research on environmental impacts on sport is at an early stage of development. A keyword-based literature search identified 18 publications. There were 11 publications in sport management journals, and seven published in non-sport management journals. The sport management publications involved 72 per cent (n = 8) that were published in the last five years. Of the 11 sport management publications, eight presented empirical studies, plus two papers (i.e. Fairley,

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Ruhanen, & Lovegrove, 2015; Phillips & Turner, 2014) were teaching case studies, while the final one was Orr and Inoue’s (2018) conceptual/theoretical paper. Of the eight empirical papers, five were of qualitative studies, two were of quantitative studies, and one reported mixed methods. The eight empirical papers were divided across those focused on environmental impacts on sport, and those that identified such impacts amongst other issues (i.e. Leopkey & Parent, 2009; Petrass, Twomey, & Finch, 2016; Sotiriadou, Filo, & Kunkel, 2018). The 11 publications (Dingle & Mallen, 2019; Dingle & Stewart, 2018; Fairley, Ruhanen, & Lovegrove, 2015; Filo, Cuskelly, & Wicker, 2015; Kellett & Turner, 2011; Leopkey & Parent, 2009; Orr & Inoue, 2018; Petrass et al., 2016; Phillips & Turner, 2014; Sotiriadou, Filo, & Kunkel, 2018; Watanabe, Wicker, & Yan, 2017; Wicker, Filo, & Cuskelly, 2013) were spread across five peer-reviewed sport management journals (Sport Management Review, Journal of Sport Management, International Journal of Sport Management & Marketing, European Sport Management Quarterly, and Journal of Applied Sport Management). At the time of publication of this chapter, Sport Management Review is the leading journal, with four publications. However, research on environmental impacts on sport extends beyond sport management journals. The literature search that was widened to include nonsport management journals identified a further seven publications. Of the seven studies, five were quantitative and two were qualitative. The journals in which these papers were published were: Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport (Swan et al., 2008); International Journal of Environmental Sustainability (Mallen & Dingle, 2017); Current Issues in Tourism (Rutty et al., 2014); and Journal of Leisure Research (Scott & Jones, 2006). Research in interdisciplinary journals, including Climatic Change (Falk & Hagsten, 2017; Visser & Petersen, 2009) and Sustainable Cities and Society (Sofotasiou, Hughes, & Calautit, 2015). Another feature of extant research focused on environmental impacts on sport are differences in temporal focus. Specifically, the majority of the research studies identified in sport management journals, and the studies identified in non-sport management journals, focused on existing environmental impacts on sport. However, studies published outside of sport management journals are often focused on future impacts (i.e. Scott & Jones, 2006; Scott et al., 2015). The contrast between studies focused on existing and future impacts is worth noting. While both types of studies reveal important consequences of environmental extremes and changes for sport, each relies on differing inputs, outputs, and research methods. To illustrate this point, studies of existing environmental impacts are typically based on inputs that document such impacts and damage (i.e. interviews, focus groups, media reports, government documents, researcher observations). Common outputs of such studies include research themes, findings, and recommendations, and both quantitative and qualitative methods have been applied. In contrast, future-focused studies typically apply quantitative methods. Common inputs for such studies are climate science literature, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions scenarios, and projections

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of rises in global temperatures. A common output of such future-based studies (i.e. Brocherie, Girard, & Millett, 2015; Scott & Jones, 2006) is modelling, from which findings are developed. Research on both existing impacts, and future ones, have utility. Overall, the development of research centred on environmental impacts on sport may be characterized in the terms devised by Steiger, Scott, Abegg, Pons, and Aall (2019) – as being at a pioneer stage.

Summaries of sport management research Summaries of research contemplating environmental impacts on sport and published in sport management journals are presented below in alphabetical order. This is followed by an overview of sport publications in non-sport management journals. Dingle & Stewart (2018) Research topic: Impacts of climate change on major sport stadia Method: Qualitative, case study Setting: Major sport stadia in Australia Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: •

Theory development approach. Pre- and post-data conceptual frameworks.

Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Water impacts, energy impacts, and waste impact themes. Ten factors shaped three management responses.

Conclusions: •

• • •

Three primary climate change issues: (1) organizational uncertainty; (2) greater management complexity; and (3) cost risks associated with water and energy inputs, and waste outputs. No revenue opportunities evident. Most physical impacts are manageable. Commercial and operational priorities “determine[d] organizational responses ahead of government climate policy, and any direct climate “signal to adapt” (p. 293).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Other climate-dependent sport (i.e. professional sport staged outside of stadia).

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How are sport organizations with climate-dependent facilities including climate change in their strategic thinking? Study other national contexts and their stadia responses.

Fairley, Rhuanen, & Lovegrove (2015) Research topic: Impacts of climate change on pond hockey tournaments Method: Qualitative; teaching case study Setting: North America (Canada and the United States). Area/sector of sport: Community-level pond (ice) hockey Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

Climate change adversely impacts sport events reliant on arctic climate. Adaptation to climate change is necessary for climate-dependent sport.

Conclusions: • •

Climate adaptation strategies, and mitigation efforts, are evident in Pond Hockey. The sport is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Research needed into how resilient pond hockey is to climate-change impacts.

Filo, Cuskelly, & Wicker (2015) Research topic: Sport club resources and flooding episodes Method: Qualitative; focus groups Setting: Queensland, Australia in 2010 and 2011 Area/sector of sport: Sport clubs Theoretical foundations: Resource dependence theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Three themes: (1) entities which provided resources; (2) resource use and relations with resource providers; (3) power relations.

Conclusions: •

Power relations between Community Sport Clubs (CSCs) and resource providers were influenced by the flooding and subsequent resource provision.

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

Organizational stress in sport remains a little understood topic.

Kellett & Turner (2011) Research topic: Water use and sport organizations in a drought-affected region of Australia Method: Qualitative; case study Setting: Victoria, Australia Area/sector of sport: Community-level Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Water entails a natural-resource dilemma.

Conclusions: •

As the drought intensified in the years leading up to 2007, water restrictions were tightened.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

Why and how sports consume water needs further research. More efficient use of water in sport organizations and facilities needs more inquiry. Enablers and constraints of socially responsible water management in the sport.

Leopkey & Parent (2009) Research topic: Risk management issues in large-scale sporting events Method: Qualitative, case study Setting: Sport event industry in Canada; the 2006 International Skating Union World Figure Skating Championships; and the 2007 Under 20 FIFA World Cup Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Stakeholder theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

The natural environment is one of nine risk categories for large-scale sporting events.

Conclusions: •

Environmental impacts include pollution, destruction of the environment.

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Environmental issues affected organizing committee, government, and sporting stakeholders.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Future research could examine the environmental risk issue in greater depth. Examine various sized sport events.

Orr & Inoue (2018) Research topic: Varying states of sport organization climate vulnerability Method: Qualitative, conceptual revision methodology Setting: n/a Area/sector of sport: Community to elite sport Theoretical foundations: Environmental social responsibility Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

Linkages between risk concepts and organizational capacity concepts were identified. Interdisciplinary concepts from natural resources, geography, management, and sport management … are necessary to address knowledge gaps relating to climate change.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

The framework remains untested. It should be discussed and refined to enhance its utility to managers. “Organizational learning theories … and qualitative methods, such as action research …” can be used to determine how organizations shift between states (p. 460).

Petrass, Twomey, & Finch (2016) Research topic: Safety of natural grass sports fields Method: Mixed methods Setting: Victoria, Australia Area/sector of sport: Sport clubs Theoretical foundations: None stated

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Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • • •

A Good Practice Sports Ground Inspection Form (GPSGIF) offers a checklist to identify injury hazards in sport. In research literature, climate extremes (e.g. drought) are linked to hard, dry fields which negatively impact sport safety. This has been identified as a primary reason for ground closures linked to increased injury risk.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Research is needed to refine and validate the GPSGIF.

Phillips & Turner (2014) Research topic: Water management in sport Method: Qualitative; teaching case study Setting: A regional city (Gellong) in the State of Victoria, Australia Area/sector of sport: Elite, sub-elite, and community-level Theoretical foundations: resource-based view, and stakeholder theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

Sports played on outdoor turf (grass) playing fields use water resources in large volumes to maintain such fields. Multiple stakeholders are involved in supplying and managing the use of these water resources.

Conclusions: • •

All sports in the Geelong region suffered as a result of 10 years of drought in the area. Sports impacted the most by the drought in Geelong were cricket, Australian football, soccer, Rugby League, and Rugby Union. Safety issues were evident.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Sotiriadou, Filo, & Kunkel (2018) Research topic: Sport participation Method: Qualitative; focus groups; interviews Setting: Queensland, Australia Area/sector of sport: Community-level basketball Theoretical foundations: Coakley’s socialization model Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Four themes: (1) climate and the population density; (2) the need to keep young people engaged in healthy lifestyles; (3) communities [that] are diverse in terms of age, gender, and socioeconomic status; (4) sport participation for time-poor communities.

Conclusions: •

Weather events (e.g. heavy rainfall, flooding, tropical cyclones) present challenges.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Data can be collected for different sports activities, locations, and times.

Watanabe, Wicker, & Yan (2017) Research topic: The effect of weather conditions, travel distances, and rest days on running performance Method: Quantitative Setting: 2014 FIFA World Cup, Brazil Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

Extreme weather conditions (e.g. heat, humidity) pose physical challenges for footballers. Heat significantly decreases running performance for footballers.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

A larger data set covering several World Cup tournaments needed to check robustness of this study’s findings.

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Wicker, Filo, & Cuskelly (2013) Research topic: Organizational resilience to natural disasters Method: Quantitative surveys Setting: Queensland, Australia Area/sector of sport: Community sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

A resilience index for sport organizations.

Conclusions: • • •

Natural disasters can severely impact sport even if occurring infrequently. Sport clubs with larger memberships recover to a much greater extent than smaller clubs. “The overall recovery of sport clubs was influenced by the type of sports” (p. 510).

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

This study is limited to flood and cyclone events. “Other natural disasters such as bush or forest fires, earthquakes, or tsunamis … need to be considered” (p. 523). Future research could measure organizational resilience using larger samples. Qualitative research is needed to develop the resilience scale.

Summaries of non-sport management research Summaries of the non-sport management research studies contemplating environmental impacts on sport are presented below, in alphabetical order. Falk & Hagsten (2017) Research topic: Climate change threats to cross-country skiing races Method: Quantitative; climate variability analysis 1951–2016 Setting: Dalarna, Sweden; event: the Vasaloppet Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

A significant relationship exists between the “cancellation ratio at the

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Vasaloppet and natural snow conditions in the area for the period 1980–2016” (p. 9). Improved snowmaking capacity and related preparations come with additional costs.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Mallen & Dingle (2017) Research topic: Climate change impacts and sport fields Method: Qualitative, interviews and document analysis Setting: Ontario, Canada Area/sector of sport: Community sport fields Theoretical foundations: Resource-based theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

Two major themes: (1) the impacts of climate change; (2) adaptations due to climate change. Impact sub-themes: (1) seasons are not normal; (2) new pests and disease. Adaptation sub-themes: (1) adaptations in grass seed selection; (2) irrigation adaptations lead to a polarization of perspectives; (3) drainage needed that can manage extreme rain events; (4) pressure for aeration and fertilization due to compaction; (5) need to manage sports fields access.

Conclusions: • •

Participants are in the process of adapting to “the impacts of climate change on grass-based sport facilities” (p. 56). Most participants thought they were coping with these challenges.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Barriers to climate change adaptation (e.g. associated costs, organizational change and adaptations) needed due to reduce greenhouse gases. How to balance safeguarding water resources, and financial resources.

Rutty et al. (2014) Research topic: Weather risks Method: Quantitative; climate data analysis Setting: Cities staging Olympic Winter Games 1924–2014 Area/sector of sport: Elite sport

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Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • • • •

Climate impacts experienced during Games preparation, Opening and Closing ceremonies, outdoor events. Impacts on spectator comfort, transportation, and television broadcasts. Adaptation enables some warmer cities to successfully complete winter Olympics. Three adaptation eras identified: (1) emergent adaptation; (2) technological transition; (3) advanced adaptation.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Can current adaptations cope with current and projected changes in temperature and natural snowfall? Which past host cities/regions would be capable of hosting in the future?

Scott & Jones (2006) Research topic: Impact of climate change on golf Method: Quantitative; case study Setting: Toronto, Canada Area/sector of sport: Community and elite golf competitions Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

Weather influences participation. Climate change influences participation.

Conclusions: •

Golf participation to increase under the most conservative climate change scenario.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Data from other golf courses needed, plus a longer record of data. Examine the full range of golf course operations and climate impacts.

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Sofotasiou, Hughes, & Calautit (2015) Research topic: Maintaining thermal comfort conditions within stadiums Method: Quantitative; climate data analysis Setting: Proposed major stadia in Qatar for 2022 FIFA World Cup football finals Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

• • •

“Qatar experiences … a temperature range of 25–46°C. during the summer season … if combined with a relative humidity of up to 100%, [this] can create a sensation of temperature more than 50°C” (p. 17). “For the 2022 FIFA World Cup, both passive and active cooling techniques should be adopted” (p. 29). Thermal thresholds of 20.0–25.5°C. can be delivered by either evaporative or solar sorption cooling. Feasibility of these techniques remain untested on large-scale arenas or under actual weather conditions.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Swan et al. (2008) Research topic: Policies and practices of sports governing bodies for assessing the safety of sports grounds Setting: Urban and regional area in the State of Victoria, Australia Area/sector of sport: Community-level cricket, soccer, hockey, and Australian football Theoretical foundations: None Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“There is accumulating evidence that harder sports grounds, and some types of grass coverage associated with dry weather patterns, could predispose sports participants to a higher risk of injury” (p. 171).

Conclusions: •

“Sports organisations … have a duty of care for the health and safety of their participants at all levels of play” (p. 173).

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• •

Formal ground safety assessment policies and guidelines are needed for local clubs. Sports organizations should regularly assess the safety of their sporting grounds, across all levels of play.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Understanding how organizations can change to increase the capacity of sports clubs to adopt safety measures or practices. The role, responsibility, and responses to ground assessment by local government authorities.

Visser & Petersen (2009) Research topic: The outdoor ice-skating marathon (the “Elfstedentocht”) and climate change Method: Quantitative; trend evaluation 1901–2008 Setting: Province of Friesland, Netherlands Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: None Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • • •

Since 1901, the chance of an Elfstedentocht has declined from once every 5 years to once every 10 years (in 2004). There are uncertainties with the Elfstedentocht indicator. The statistical approach offers the possibility to detect changes in climate change impact indicators, but does not enable attribution of these changes (i.e. anthropogenic influences).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Theoretical options for researching environmental impacts on sport Theoretical options for researching environmental impacts on sport are diverse. Research to date has taken on different theoretical hues ranging from stakeholder theory, to resource-dependence, and resource-based view (RBV)/ resource-based theory (RBT). In terms of the resource perspectives, these are

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not surprising given the conceptualization of natural assets as resources. In relation to organizational implications of climate change, it has been noted that institutional theory may also have potential for researchers (Kolk & Pinkse, 2007). Given the emergent nature of research around climate change impacts/ risk/ vulnerability/resilience/adaptation, theory building (Chelladurai, 2013; Doherty, 2013) is another avenue for scholars to explore.

Conclusions: filling the research gaps It has been argued in this chapter that some sport is vulnerable to adverse impacts of extreme environmental events. Despite the quality of the research that has considered environmental impacts on sport, this work has some limitations. First, it is limited geographically to a small range of locations and sports. The research to date is limited to three continents, and barely a handful of nations. Most of this work is limited to North America and parts of Western Europe, so almost nothing is known about environmental impacts on sport in Asia, Africa, or South America where most of the global human population live and participate in sport. This is a problem, as some of the research suggests that environmental impacts can have location-specific characteristics. As a result, environmental impacts on sport in regions of North America and Europe may be quantitatively and qualitatively different from those in regions of Asia, Africa, or Australia. Comparative research is needed. Second, although confirming the potential of nature to impact sport in adverse ways, and revealing specific impacts, the research to date does not consistently integrate concepts of exposure, risk, vulnerability, resilience, adaptation, and/or risk mitigation. These concepts are valuable analytical foundations for understanding, anticipating, and responding to environmental impacts. They afford opportunities for greater insight into the complexities of such impacts, but also facilitate opportunities for identifying more effective management responses. At a time of global environmental change, where significant uncertainties about natural resource availability and risk are evident, integrating these concepts into research offers the chance to better adapt sport to changing environmental, market, and regulatory contexts. Third, the human responses to environmental impacts need much wider elaboration, at different levels and timescales. For example, research is needed at the level of nation states, regions, industries, organizations, facilities, programs, and individuals (participants, managers, and spectators). Opportunities for impacts and risk research in sport present themselves to scholars at every one of these levels. In addition, the temporal dimension of environmental impacts research needs development. Specifically, research is needed into both sudden impacts and gradual ones. Both have their own complexities, and suggest management responses in sport that reflect these timescales. Research in sport contexts might also consider types of adaptation to impacts of natural disasters

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(McKnight, Linnenluecke, & Society, 2019) – for example, whether organizational responses are “anticipatory” or “reactive”. Finally, multiple research methodologies and methods are needed to build a robust understanding of environmental impacts on sport, and associated exposure, risks, vulnerabilities, resilience, and the potential for adaptations. Both quantitative and qualitative researchers have made important contributions to date, and this will continue into the future. Overall, understanding the implications of environmental impacts – for participants, managers, spectators, and stakeholders such as governments, suppliers, and sponsors – is at a very early stage of development, and researchers are encouraged to address the knowledge gaps.

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Chapter 7

Summer sport and climate change Paul Jurbala and Cheryl Mallen

This chapter focuses on research with regard to outdoor summer sport and the impacts of climate change. The sport literature indicates that the phenomenon of climate change is causing organizational uncertainty for some summer sport (Dingle & Stewart, 2018). This uncertainty can arise in relation to long-term public policy for climate change, higher costs and added complexity for managing water and energy resources, and waste outputs. Geophysical impacts associated with climate change (e.g. extreme heat or rain events) have been identified as problematic for some outdoor sport (e.g. Brocherie, Girard, & Millett, 2015; Mallen & Dingle, 2017), and make the issue of climate change complex (Chengfei, Zhengyu, & Hu, 2019). Unlike the topic of winter sport and climate change that had a robust body of literature, there is a small growing body of literature on summer sport and climate change. This limited literature indicates that climate change adds complexity when hosting summer sport due to such impacts as heat stress (Brotherhood, 2008; Brocherie, Girard, & Millet, 2015; Peiser & Reilly, 2004; Townsend et al., 2003) which can cause issues such as respiratory illness and even death (Brocherie, Girard, & Millet, 2015; Townsend et al., 2003), along with risks from ultraviolet rays (Brocherie, Girard, & Millet, 2015; Downs et al., 2019) which can lead to skin cancers (Townsend et al., 2003). Further, managers of grass-based sports fields are seeing more pests, weeds, drought/heat, and extreme weather events, including extreme rain and wind episodes (Mallen & Dingle, 2017), along with rising costs from associated water and energy source requirements (Dingle & Stewart, 2018). The manuscripts concluded that climate change can negatively impact sport (Evans, 2019) – including being a barrier to participation (Townsend et al., 2003) – and can put athletes, particularly endurance athletes, at risk (Peiser & Reilly, 2004). Sport, thus, needs to learn how to appropriately adapt for climate change (Dingle & Stewart, 2018; Mallen & Dingle, 2017). Additionally, managing environmental conditions by athletes themselves has long been understood to be a factor in performance in outdoor sport events (Peiser & Reilly, 2004); with betteradapted athletes gaining an advantage over rivals (Brocherie, Girard, & Millet, 2015). Determining the correct adaptations, however, can be challenging for organizations and athletes as climate change does not cause the same response

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around the world and, therefore, tailored responses are needed to address specific impacts within particular communities (Peiser & Reilly, 2004). Importantly, Dingle and Stewart (2018) proposed that it is imperative that sport organizations adapt without waiting for government climate policy to be imposed. Efforts to adapt, to date, have included encouraging athletes and spectators to be protected from harm caused by heat and UV issues (Brotherhood, 2008). This has been a particular theme in research concerning the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japan (Downs et al., 2019), and the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar (Matzarakis & Fröhlich, 2015). Evans (2019) showed that mitigation efforts are underway for events, such as marathon races, with regard to the start time of events so that they can be held in the cooler parts of the day. Further, Brocherie, Girard, and Millet (2015) sought to aid sport to adapt with a multi-risk factor assessment and guidelines for managing climate change risks; along with best practices for managing heat, UV, lightning, etc. Also, Baldwin (2010) indicated that any adaptation can be influenced based on how the topic is presented, as “climate change is a social construction as much as a physical one and how individuals respond to it as an issue is influenced by how it is presented to them” (p. 859). A smattering of knowledge is currently disseminated in the literature on how to manage summer sport and climate change; however, full understandings of the impacts, responses, or practices were not found in the literature. Overall, there were nine journal manuscripts that focused on summer sport and climate change. This represents a paucity of research on the topic – leaving plenty of future research to fill in the gaps. An overview of these manuscripts is provided below. Brocherie, Girard, & Millet (2015) Research topic: Emerging environmental challenges in outdoor sports Method: Qualitative; literature review Setting: Outdoor sport Area/sector of sport: Developmental to elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Summary of best practices for managing heat, UV, lightning, air pollution, etc.

Conclusions: •

An integrated multi-risk factor assessment and consequent creation of updated guidelines for management is presented.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Dingle & Stewart (2018) Research topic: Climate-dependent sport and climate change impacts and adaptation Method: Qualitative: multi-case study, interviews Setting: Major sport stadia in Australia Area/sector of sport: Sport stadia Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

All stadium cases interpreted climate change impacts as a cost issue to be mitigated, despite the national public policy uncertainty around climate change.

Conclusions: •

Primary issues included organizational uncertainty, greater management complexity and cost risks associated with water and energy resources, and waste outputs. Commercial and operational imperatives determine organizational responses ahead of government climate policy, and any direct climate “signal” to adapt.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Lack of similar studies of adaptation by stadia managers in other national and environmental contexts.

Downs et al. (2019) Research topic: UV risks at 2020 Tokyo Olympics Method: Quantitative: modelling UV and weather patterns Setting: 2020 Tokyo Olympics Area/sector of sport: All outdoor sports Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Climate-based modelling can be used to quantify risk to athletes and spectators at sport events.

Conclusions: •

11 of 20 outdoor Olympic sports present significant UV risk to athletes at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Evans (2019) Research topic: Projected behavioural impacts of climate change Method: Case study, quantitative Setting: The participants of sport Area/sector of sport: Developmental to elite sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Negative effect, interpersonal conflict, and stress arising from climate change may impact participation in sport.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

There are few studies of actual climate change impacts on psychological state.

Kay & Vamplew (2006) Research topic: The impact of weather and climate on sport Method: Essay Setting: British sport Area/sector of sport: Indoor and outdoor sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Sports need to plan and respond to weather and climate.

Conclusions: •

•

“When scientists disagree about the consequences, or even the existence, of global warming, how can the providers of sport be expected to plan for the future?” (p. 103). “Even if they could predict the likely outcome of climate change, it is probable that only the wealthiest organizations could afford to weatherproof facilities while the majority of clubs, councils and schools would still have to face the elements” (p. 103).

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“In the event of future water shortages, sport would still be given a low priority” (p. 103). If, on the other hand, the British climate becomes wetter leading to high water tables, waterlogging, and flooding, will clubs be forced to spend more on improved drainage, or will some attempt to relocate to more suitable ground?

Stated gaps in the literature: •

When scientists cannot agree on climate change and future impacts, how can sport learn to adapt?

Mallen & Dingle (2017) Research topic: Climate change and impacts on grass-based sports fields Method: Qualitative, interviews Setting: Canadian (Ontario) grass-based sports fields Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

The managers of grass-based sports fields are adapting to new conditions due to changes in climate.

Conclusions: •

•

The managers of grass-based sports fields are dealing with issues of extreme weather, including droughts, extreme rain events, along with more pests, weeds, and grass diseases. Sports fields managers are adapting to changes in climate by experimenting with a variety of grass seeds, ensuring proper drainage for fields, and accepting that the grass is not going to be as lush as it was in the past due to regulations that limit the use of pesticides for pests and weeds, and are managing more sport event cancellations due to climate issues.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

There is a need to understand the impacts of climate change and how sport can best adapt.

Otto & Heath (2009) Research topic: Environmental impacts and major sporting events; sports contributions to climate change

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Method: Qualitative; case study, interviews Setting: 2010 FIFA World Cup Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Findings are consistent with other research that there are climatic environmental impacts on large-scale events that impact resources.

Conclusions: •

Environmental costs associated with mega-events, particularly the CO2 footprint of transportation, contribute to climate change and must be managed to reduce such impacts.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Extend mega-event research from regional to national contexts; assess all environmental impacts, direct and indirect, of mega-events.

Peiser & Reilly (2004) Research topic: Environmental factors in modern-era summer Olympics Method: Qualitative; document analysis, historical review Setting: Summer Olympics 1896–2000 Area/sector of sport: Olympics, elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Climate challenges create risk for athletes, particularly endurance athletes (e.g. marathon). Unique environmental challenges experienced at Olympics (and events generally) are highly variable and difficult to predict.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Townsend et al. (2003) Research topic: Potential links between climate change and athlete participation

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Method: Qualitative; literature review Setting: All sports Area/sector of sport: Developmental sport to elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Climate change has the potential to be a barrier to participation in physical activity, particularly in areas where temperatures are already relatively high, and that a reduction in physical activity across the population is likely to have detrimental health impacts.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Further study of nature and extent of threat to physical activity posed by climate change.

The majority (70 per cent) of this body of research on summer sport and climate change utilized qualitative methods that included literature reviews (Baldwin, 2010; Brocherie, Girard, & Millet, 2015; Kay & Vamplew, 2006; Townsend et al., 2003), document analysis (Peiser & Reilly, 2004), and interviews (Dingle & Stewart, 2018; Mallen & Dingle, 2017; Otto & Heath, 2009). Additionally, three quantitative studies were published, representing 30 per cent of the work. These studies involved a quantitative modelling study (Downs et al., 2019), a quantitative case study on psychological impacts of climate change (Evans, 2019), and a quantitative examination of heat and the best time of year to host the FIFA 2022 World Cup (Matzarakis & Fröhlich, 2015). Five (50 per cent) of the manuscripts focused on elite sport (Baldwin, 2010; Dingle & Stewart, 2018; Downs et al., 2019; Matzarakis & Fröhlich, 2015; Otto & Heath, 2009;) and two additional manuscripts (20 per cent) had a focus on climate change and the sports fields used by elite sport participants (Mallen & Dingle, 2017) or stadia (Dingle & Stewart, 2018). Climatic change and athletes from the developmental stage to the elite stage was the focus of three manuscripts (30 per cent) (Brocherie, Girard, & Millett, 2015; Evans, 2019; Townsend et al., 2003).

Related literature It is important to note that there were numerous manuscripts concerning heat/ atmospheric temperature that are applicable as an impact of climate change. Some of these manuscripts directly relate to sport; however, they deal with

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heat-related issues without considering climate change. Two examples of these manuscripts are offered below. Brotherhood (2008) Research topic: Heat stress and strain in sport Method: Review of current practices as outlined by the literature Setting: Exercise and sport in heat Area/sector of sport: All sports Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Heat stress poses a considerable risk to athletes. It is a complex mix of behaviour, physics, and physiology.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Further research is required to develop sport-specific algorithms for modelling heat stress.

Matzarakis & Fröhlich (2015) Research topic: Determining the time of year (for the best thermal comfort) for hosting a major sport event in a desert climate Method: Human biometeorological analysis (based on indices such as the Physiologically Equivalent Temperature) Setting: FIFA World Cup, in Doha, Qatar 2022 Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The effect of weather on sport events is not well studied. It requires special attention if the event is taking place at a time and place with extreme weather situations” (p. 481).

Conclusions: •

“The results show that this kind of event may be not appropriate for visitors, if it is placed during months with extreme conditions. For Doha, this is the period from May to September, when conditions during

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a large majority of hours of the day cause strong heat stress for the visitors.” (p. 481). “The methods applied here can quantify the thermal conditions and show limitations and possibilities for specific events and locations” (p. 481).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Further examples of these types of manuscripts include: a focus on athlete health impacts with regard to heat (Chalmers, 2017; Howe & Boden, 2007); heat acclimation (Pryor et al., 2019); heat and athletic surfaces (Cheng, Hu, & Reinhart, 2014; Pryor et al., 2017); training in the heat (Racinais et al., 2015), including the use of artificial turf and surface temperature issues (Fleming, 2011; Jim, 2017; Petrass et al., 2014); Australian sport extreme heat policies (Chalmers & Jay, 2018); heat impacts on Paralympians (Griggs et al., 2019); along with the specific impacts of heat with regard to particular sports, such as American football (Cooper et al., 2016; Tripp, Eberman, & Smith, 2015), cricket (Gamage et al., 2016; Peterson et al., 2010), European football outcomes (Brocherie et al., 2015), cycling (Almudehki et al., 2012), field hockey (Sunderland & Nevill, 2005), running (Bergeron, 2014; DeMartini et al., 2014; Girard, Brocherie, & Bishop, 2015), and tennis (Schranner et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2018). Each of these manuscripts have the potential to be used to accentuate future research specifically on climate change and summer sport.

Gaps in the literature and future research The gaps in literature on summer sport and climate change were noted to be diverse and arise from a lack of understandings on sport and climatic risks (Brotherhood, 2008); to how sport can encourage adaptations, including the specific “contexts, mechanisms and outcomes” (Baldwin, 2010, p. 864); to specific regional and national impacts on stadia (Dingle & Stewart, 2018) and events (Otto & Heath, 2009); along with athletes and impacts on their psychological state due to climate change (Evans, 2019). Additional research on the topic was promoted as necessary to develop knowledge on the threat of climate change on sport (Townsend et al., 2003); and how sport can adapt for contemporary climatic conditions (Mallen & Dingle, 2017). Interestingly, Kay and Vamplew (2006) posed a question concerning how sport can plan for the future regarding climate change “[w]hen scientists disagree about the consequences, or even the existence, of global warming” (p. 103). Despite not having a full answer to this question, the authors of this chapter propose that the scientific body of evidence is mounting and sport should begin to fill in the knowledge gaps with additional research. Research on climatic impacts on summer sport is a relatively new area of research and there is not a full body of research on the topic to date. Future

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research is necessary to contribute a body of robust understandings of areas such as summer sport and climate change forecasts, impacts, thresholds, and responses. Examples of a future research agenda include the following four key areas. The first example of potential future research topics involves examining summer sport and the climate change impacts happening in specific local areas around the world. To underscore this research, Smith (2011) provided a definition and framework to guide future research and Reyes-Garcia et al. (2019) provided an example of management research that utilized place-based local observations concerning climate change. This type of sport research can encompass observed impacts by summer sport managers; impacts stemming from regional climate models that have been applied to local areas (accounting for variations throughout regions); as well as the impacts for a predicted future. Such research considers climate change risks (Jones, Scott, & Khaled, 2006), along with next-generation scenarios that are being developed with new technologies (Jacob et al., 2014), and are framed with the premise that assessments are necessary on “ecological consequences of climate extremes for ecosystem structure and function today and in a future world where their frequency and intensity are expected to increase” (Smith, 2011, p. 656). The second example of potential future research topics involves examining options for adapting/responding to the impacts of climate change on summer sport. This research can include a focus on areas such as the environmental precursors to change, such as the measured losses (sport events/ games postponed or cancelled due to climatic conditions), as well as case studies on the facilitation processes for the selection of adaptation actions with the objective of expanding the range of knowledge on alternatives. Additionally, the research includes reframing summer sport policies and procedures for climate change based on selected adaptations. These understandings are needed for summer sport as a whole and for best alternatives for the individual sports. A third example of potential future research topics involves examining the application of knowledge on summer sport and climate change to the development of infrastructure. For instance, how often is climate change integrated into decisions concerning where sports fields should be built? Hignell (1999) started this discussion with a recommendation of moving cricket grounds locations due to wet conditions. Understandings on how infrastructure can be protected from climate change impacts are not currently fully understood as, for example, how is moving such infrastructure impacting access inequities in sport? The fourth and final example of potential research topics involves knowledge sharing, such as cooperating networks that can aid summer sports to position themselves well for progressing climatic conditions, for learning from best practices, for understanding financial and economic impacts, and development management efficiencies. Management literature by O’Neill et al. (2013) examined shared socioeconomic pathways and Rosenzweig, Solecki, Hammer and

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Mehrotro (2010) studied cities that are leading climate-change action. Such examinations can emphasize sport research on leadership in sport climate change action and best practices in managing climate change.

Conclusions This chapter focused on research with regard to outdoor summer sport and the impacts of climate change. Overall, there were nine journal manuscripts that specifically focused on the topic and this represents a paucity of research – leaving plenty of gaps for future research to fill. Suggestions for a research agenda include topics ranging from understanding local climatic impacts and options for adaptation, including adapting sport infrastructure and knowledge sharing. Given the ongoing challenges of climate change, and the importance of summer to the wider landscape of sport, further research in this area is appropriate.

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Mallen, C., & Dingle, G. (2017). Climate change and Canadian grass-based sports fields. International Journal of Environmental Sustainability, 13(2), 45–59. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.18848/2325-1077/CGP/v13i02/45-59. Matzarakis, A., & Fröhlich, D. (2015). Sport events and climate for visitors – the case of FIFA World Cup in Qatar 2022. International Journal of Biometeorology, 59(4), 481–486. O’Neill, B., Kriegler, E., Riahi, K., Ebi, K., Hallegatte, S., Carter, T. et al. (2013). A new scenario framework for climate change research: The concept of shared socioeconomic pathways. Climate Change, 122(3), 387–400. Otto, I., & Heath, E. (2009, August). The potential contribution of the 2010 Soccer World Cup to climate change: An exploratory study among tourism industry stakeholders in the Tshwane Metropole of South Africa. Journal of Sport Tourism, 14(2–3), 169–191. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080902965207. Peiser, B., & Reilly, T. (2004, October). Environmental factors in the Summer Olympics in historical perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(10), 981–1002. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410400000298. Peterson, C., Portus, M., Pyne, D., Dawson, B., Cramer, M., & Kellett, A. (2010). Partial heat acclimation in cricketers using a 4-day high intensity cycling protocol. International Journal of Sports Physiology Performance, 5(4), 535–545. Petrass, L., Twomey, D., Harvey, J., Ortago, L., & LeRossignol, P. (2014). Comparison of surface temperatures of different synthetic turf systems and natural grass: Have advances in synthetic turf technology made a difference? Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology, 229(1), 10–16. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1754337114553692. Pryor, J. L., Pryor, R., Grundstein, A., & Casa, D. (2017). The heat strain of various athletic surfaces: A comparison between observed and modeled wet-bulb globe temperatures. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(11), 1056–1064. Pryor, L., Johnson, E., Roberts, W., & Pryor, R. (2019, January 2). Application of evidencebased recommendations for heat acclimation: Individual and team sport perspectives. Temperature 6(1), 37–49. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2018.1516537. Racinais, S., Alonso, J. M., Coutts, A. J., Flouris, A. D., Girard, O., González-Alonso, J. et al. (2015, June). Consensus recommendations on training and competing in the heat: Training and competing in the heat. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 25(Suppl. 1), 6–19. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12467. Reyes-Garcia, V., Garcia-del-Amo, D., Denyei, D., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Gravani, K., Junqueira, A. B. et al. (2019). A collaborative approach to bring insights from local observations of climate change impacts into global climate change research. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 39(August), 1–8. Retrieved from https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cosust.2019.04.007. Rosenzweig, C., Solecki, W., Hammer, S., & Mehrotro, S. (2010). Cities lead the way in climate-change action. Nature, 467(7318), 909–911. Schranner, D., Scherer, L., Lynch, G., Korder, S., Brotherhood, J., Pluim, B. et al. (2017). In-play cooling interventions for simulated match-play tennis in hot/humid conditions. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 49(5), 991–998. Smith, M. (2011). An ecological perspective on extreme climatic events: A synthetic definition and framework to guide future research. Journal of Ecology, 93(3), 656–663. Smith, M., Reid, M., Kovalchik, S., Woods, T., & Duffield, R. (2018). Heat stress incident prevalent and tennis matchplay performance at the Australian Open. Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport, 21(5), 467–472.

Summer sport and climate change 139 Sunderland, C., & Nevill, M. (2005). High-intensity intermittent running and field hockey skill performance in the heat. Journal of Sports Science, 23(5), 531–540. Townsend, M., Mahoney, J., Ball, K., Salmon, K., & Finch, C. (2003). Too hot to trot? Exploring potential links between climate change, physical activity and health. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6(3), 260–265. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/ S1440-2440(03)80019-1. Tripp, B., Eberman, L., & Smith, M. (2015). Exertional heat illness and environmental conditions during high school football practices. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(10), 2490–2496. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515593947.

Chapter 8

Winter sports and climate change Natalie Knowles, Daniel Scott and Robert Steiger

This chapter focuses on sport and climate change. In particular, the discussion covers climate change impacts, such as on ski events and other winter sports, the length of the winter sport season, projected future impacts of climate change on winter sport, and the methodological approaches and limitations. Next, the future of winter sport seasons and the implications on long-term participation is reviewed. Then, acknowledgment of climate risk and winter sports adaptations is presented, and prior to the conclusions, winter sport sustainability and contribution to decarbonization is presented. This chapter has the highest number of published peer-reviewed journal manuscripts of any topic within the sport and environmental sustainability research. Due to this situation, sample charts are offered in Appendix 1 on winter sport and climate change research. This is followed by Appendix 2, which provides a comprehensive list of winter sport and climate change references.

Sport and climate change The United Nations Sports for Climate Action Framework (2018) has identified a number of ways in which climate change has already impacted sports physically, logistically, and financially. The first area is obvious and includes “[w]armer winters and lack of natural snow threatening ski resorts at lower altitudes” (p. 4), but other relevant impacts include “damage to playing surfaces due to extreme temperatures” (p. 4), “damage to buildings and other infrastructure due to violent storms” (p. 4), “unseasonal rainfall forcing cancellation or abandonment of sport matches” (p. 4), and “climate adaption measures being required in the design of new or refurbished sport venues” (p. 4). Recent media reporting shows all these factors influencing competitive winter sporting events, venues, athlete participation, training and development, and fan experiences, yet there remains limited empirical research on the topic. Media reports suggest warm temperatures, extreme weather, and unseasonal rain have been a factor in many recent altered or cancelled winter sport events (Scott & Lemieux, 2010). Warm temperatures, rain, and extreme weather cancellations and venue changes have been increasing across FIS World Cup

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Nordic skiing races, as well as being a driver of climate adaptation at the Olympic Winter Games (Rutty et al., 2014). California’s drought forced cancellations in FIS World Cup Ski and Snowboard Cross events, while late snowfall over the past few years has impacted early FIS World Cup Alpine skiing races, including the cancellation of Beaver Creek, USA (November 2016), Lake Louise Canada (November to December 2016), and Levi, Finland (November 2015). These cancellations coincide with the warmest years globally (UN-IPCC 2018). Recent warm, low-snow winters in Europe have hindered many FIS World Cup Alpine skiing events, such as causing cancelled downhill training runs, delayed start times, shorter courses, or poor conditions which result in potentially unsafe or unfair competitions. Sochi 2014, the warmest city ever to host the Olympic Winter Games, exemplifies these climate concerns as athletes pull out of training runs due to fear of injury (Scott et al., 2018). Classic ski events, such as the Kitzbuhel Hahnenkamm downhill in Austria, have, in recent years, required imported snow at high costs to avoid cancellation (Serauta, 2018). Other historic winter competitions, including the Iditarod dog sled race in Alaska (Hagenstad, Burakowski, & Hill, 2018; Stubberud & Rudd, 2017), the Vasaloppet (Falk & Hagsten, 2017), and Birkebeiner (Orr & Inoue, 2018) marathon cross country races in Sweden and the United States respectively, and the Netherlands Elfstedentocht long-distance, outdoor ice-skating race (Maese, 2019), have struggled with warm temperatures and low snow, forcing investment in snowmaking, alterations to the traditional routes, and/or cancellations. Changes in winter sport season length The trend of warmer, shorter, and more unpredictable winters is prevalent across the Northern Hemisphere and is now beginning to negatively impact winter sports globally. Since reaching a peak between 2000 and 2010, because of continued investment in snowmaking capacity, the average ski season length throughout the United States has declined for the first time in over 30 years (Scott et al., 2019). In Austria, the current five-year average of total annual ski area operating days is 9.2 per cent less than the previous five-year average (WKO, several years). Similar declines in ski season length have been noted across Europe, Scandinavia, and Australia, with a general trend of low-elevation ski resorts facing higher-climate-induced closures (Scott & Steiger, 2013; Steiger et al., 2017). Southern Hemisphere ski destinations that are vital for snow-sport summer training have experienced droughts similar to California. In 2015, Valle Nevado, Chile, saw 86 per cent less precipitation than average (Quiroga, 2015). Despite this, no research exists on the climate change vulnerability in the South American market. With less reliance on annual snowfall, ski areas on glaciers are considered less vulnerable for winter ski events; however, these are often used as summer training venues which are negatively impacted as glaciers across Europe and

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North America continue to retreat (Demiroglu, Dannevig, & Aall, 2018; Diolaiuti et al., 2006;). Saas Fee and Zermatt Switzerland are retreating rapidly, leaving less space for on-snow training, Molltal Austria and Tignes France had to close training due to safety concerns as crevasses and water gutters opened up, while Stubai glacier in Austria has safety concerns related to a number of buildings built on melting permafrost (Aspden, 2018; Pells & Leicester, 2017; Thorne, 2017). Projected future impacts of climate change on winter sport Even if the world achieves the Paris Climate Agreement’s highly ambitious GHG emission reduction targets, a prospect considered unlikely (as low as 5 per cent change) by recent analyses (Raftery et al., 2017), the resulting change in climate would still alter winter sports as we know them. A large body of climate research (Bormann et al., 2018; Brown & Mote, 2009; Knowles, 2015; Krasting et al., 2013; Notaro et al., 2013) supports what Diffenbaugh, Scherer, and Ashfaq (2013) described as “an imminent shift towards low snow years in the Northern Hemisphere”, which “could have important impacts on natural and human systems in snow-dependent regions” (p. 379), winter sports being one of these systems. Climate change will continue to impact natural snow fall and the reliability of cold temperatures needed to preserve a snow pack and enable snowmaking. These differential impacts will vary by region, elevation, and local microclimates. Scott et al. (2006) foresee differential impacts within regional winter sport markets (i.e. regional winners and losers), with increased reliance on snowmaking at all venues and increased consolidation with potential crowding at the most climate-resilient destinations. Technological and managerial adaptations will also have an important influence on the extent of future impacts on winter sport (Scott & McBoyle, 2007). Methodological approaches and limitations A range of methodological approaches have been used to project varying location, severity, and timing of climate change impacts on the ski industry (Steiger et al., 2017). Importantly, many of these studies have methodological limitations that result in misinformation on climate change risks, including: (1) inappropriate temporal and spatial resolution of climate data; (2) inappropriate ski industry performance indicators; and (3) the omission or proxy representation of snowmaking – a widespread and expanding climate adaptation (Steiger et al., 2017). As the demand for foresight on the implications of accelerating climate change increases among diverse stakeholders (including investors and financial regulators, individual businesses and destination communities, and real-estate markets), decisions continue to be influenced by misinformation in the media resulting from these studies (Scott, Gössling, & Hall, 2012; Scott & Steiger, 2013). The sports research community has an important role to provide

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science-based, decision-relevant climate change risk information and Scott, Gössling, and Hall (2012), along with Abegg and Steiger (2017), emphasize the need for critical reflection on the research in this field and the reassessment of climate change risk in some regional ski markets. Future winter sport seasons Early studies modelling the future impacts of a warming climate on skiing suggested drastic shortening in season length (Scott, Gössling, & Hall, 2012; Steiger et al., 2017). As indicated, most studies on the ski industry did not account for snowmaking capacity, thus not representing the current operating realities of most ski areas, let alone their future operations as investment in snowmaking continues. Studies that have physically incorporated snowmaking found climate change risk was vastly overestimated by studies that only included natural snowfall (Steiger et al., 2017). For cross-country skiing, no climate change impact assessment exists to date. However, some demand-side studies in Scandinavia found that in situations of a lack of snow, cross-country skiers try to perform their activity at other than their usual locations and do not favour alternatives (Falk & Hagsten, 2017; Landauer, Sievänen, & Neuvonen, 2009; Pouta, Neuvonen, & Sievanen, 2009). Scott and colleagues (2014, 2018) evaluated the suitability of former Olympic Winter Games sites to host the Games under future climate scenarios. This model incorporated required operational snow depth minimums of 30 cm, with the probability of a minimum temperature of ≤0°C to account for snow and ice surfaces refreezing over night to provide fair and safe conditions for competitions. They found that the average February daytime temperature across historic Olympic Winter Games locations has increased significantly from 0.48°C between 1920 and 1950 to 7.88°C in the recent Vancouver and Sochi Games. Based on this analysis, of 21 former host cities, even in low-emission scenarios, only 13 will remain climatically suitable by 2050, while only 12 will be viable in 2080 (Scott et al., 2018). Paralympic Winter Games happening later in winter at the same destinations will be even less reliable. The locations that will remain climate-reliable under high-emission scenarios in the late twenty-first century include: North America – Calgary (Canada) and Salt Lake City (USA); Europe – St. Moritz (Switzerland), Cortina d’Ampezzo (Italy) and Albertville (France); and Asia – Sapporo (Japan), PyeongChang (South Korea), and Beijing (China). Implications for long-term winter sport participation Research in physical climate change predicts varied impacts with “winners and losers” in almost all regional ski markets (Scott et al., 2006; Steiger et al., 2017). Shortened seasons and degraded personal experiences due to climate are pushing some skiers to reduce their time participating, travel further distances to viable winter sport venues, or substitute with other sports (Liu et al., 2017;

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Rutty et al., 2015a). Pouta et al. (2009), studying cross-country skiers, found that females, individuals with lower socio-economic status, and urban dwellers are more likely to reduce their winter sport participation due to climate change. Acknowledging climate risk Despite the growing awareness of the potential impacts of climate change on winter sports, most winter sporting organizations could be classified as in a problem state, unprepared and unable to mitigate, manage, or adapt to current and future climate impacts (Orr & Inoue, 2018). Considerable evidence demonstrates outdoor winter sports are in the early stages of a climate-induced transition, yet research on ski area management perspectives across North America, the European Alps, Australia, and New Zealand shows varied levels of climate change awareness and concern with a focus on future rather than current climate risks (Bicknell & McManus, 2006; Hoy, Hänsel, & Matschullat, 2011; Knowles, 2019; Morrison & Pickering, 2013; Steiger et al., 2017; Trawöger, 2014; Wolfsegger, Gössling, & Scott, 2008; Wyss, Abegg, & Luthe, 2014). While perspectives across the ski industry generally agree that human-induced climate change is happening, there is limited urgency or consensus on responding to this risk (Gössling & Scott, 2018; Knowles, 2019; Trawöger, 2014; Wolfsegger, Gössling, & Scott, 2008). The perception across the ski industry that climate change poses limited short-term implications to operations is one of the reasons for this state of unpreparedness (Gössling & Scott, 2018; Steiger et al., 2017; Trawöger, 2014; Wolfsegger, Gössling, & Scott, 2008). While some winter sport organizations, including the International Olympic Committee, X-Games, and National Hockey League, have committed to taking action on climate change, the FIS – the international federation for nordic, alpine, and freestyle ski and snowboarding, remains notably absent from the climate conversation. Despite this, many individual winter sport athletes, coaches, sporting equipment brands, event sponsors, and NGOs such as Protect Our Winters (POW) and Beyond Boarding are outspoken on the current and future implications of climate on winter sports, and the resulting need for large-scale political climate action, and in response called for Kasper’s resignation from the FIS (The Associated Press, 2019). Winter sports – climate adaptation Many winter sports have already adapted to the weather and condition variability prevalent with outdoor sports by moving competitive venues indoors (Rutty et al., 2014). The most obvious example of this relates to ice sports (figure skating, hockey, speed skating), of which no major international events are held on outdoor rinks (save for infrequent NHL Winter Classic games). Additionally, snowmaking technology has substantially increased the resilience of ski areas to adverse weather and climate variability (Dawson & Scott, 2013;

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Hennessy et al., 2008; Scott, Dawson, & Jones 2008; Scott, McBoyle, & Minogue, 2007; Steiger, 2010; Steiger & Abegg, 2013) and the 2020 Beijing Winter Games are predicted to rely entirely on artificial snow production (Scott et al., 2018). Despite the reduction in vulnerability through snowmaking, this adaptation strategy becomes increasingly unviable in terms of costliness and effectiveness (Clement, Rivera, & Tashman, 2015) in many regions through future warmer scenarios. Furthermore, there are debates over snowmaking’s negative environmental impacts, including energy demand, biodiversity impact, and run-off/hydrological system alteration (Steiger et al., 2017). Other strategies to deal with warm temperatures and soft snow conditions for ski and snowboard events (including salting or adding chemicals which aid in freezing the courses) are only effective up to certain warming temperatures, and also have negative ecological impacts. Additionally, “snow-farming” techniques preserve existing snow under tarpaulins through the summer for early season use. Despite impacts requiring adaptations, sport continues to contribute to climate change. The UN Sports for Climate Action Framework (2018) identifies that while the relationship between sport and climate is complex, sport’s contribution to climate change is considerable. As such, this framework aims to mobilize the global sports community (1) to combat climate change through commitments to measure, reduce, and report greenhouse gas emissions that align with the Paris Agreement and (2) to use sports as a unifying tool to drive climate awareness and action among global citizens. A range of athlete-based organizations are promoting leadership in championing awareness and action, such as Sport4Climate, Beyond Boarders, and Athletes for Action. Protect Our Winters has chapters in 16 countries and nearly 200,000 active members globally. Research suggests celebrities, including athletes, have the potential to depoliticize and mobilize climate action (Anderson, 2011; Campbell, 2018). Monitoring emissions, however, remains a capacity gap across ski areas, but as investors, media, and consumers demand environmental reporting, many ski areas are starting to take steps forward. The IOC has shown leadership in championing carbon-neutral sporting events and showcasing new sustainable technologies that contribute to a low carbon economy, such as public transit development and green building (Scott et al., 2014). Conversely, the Olympic Winter Games are also massive generators of emissions through travel, infrastructure, and waste. Furthermore, research identifies that limitations in environmental impacts are assessed and remediated as they relate to mega events (Collins, Jones, & Munday, 2009; Dickson & Arcodia, 2010; Laing & Frost, 2010). For example, the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games was marketed as “carbon neutral”, but didn’t account for the scope of spectator and athlete travel emissions which accounts for half of the Olympic-related emissions (The Canadian Press, 2009). Further winter sports events including the 2017 FIS women’s World Cup events at Squaw Valley in the United States were the first carbon-neutral ski races and the

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Winter X Games have made comprehensive environmental stewardship a key component of all events. Monitoring emissions remains a capacity gap across ski areas, but as investors, media, and consumers demand environmental reporting, many ski areas are starting to take steps towards this. The National Ski Areas Association (NSAA) Climate Challenge has encouraged 24 ski areas in North America to voluntarily report and reduce their emissions. On average, each ski area in this program has reduced carbon emissions by 6,550 MTCO2e annually (NSAA, 2018). Vail Resorts (encompassing 18 ski areas across North America and Australia) have pledged to reduce emissions and environmental impact to zero by 2030, yet the outcomes of this program are uncertain. In the first year of the program, Vail Resorts saw a 4.6 per cent increase in greenhouse gas emissions, with Vail Resorts stating their “efforts in the first year of our commitment to zero put us on target to reach our goal of zero net emissions by 2030. The [4.6%] increase was a result of energy used for snowmaking, which was necessary to offset the historically low snowfall across the western United States during the 2017–2018 winter season” (Vail Resorts, 2019). This ignores current academic research predicting more frequent low-snow years and higher reliance on snowmaking (Steiger et al., 2017). Other individual North American ski areas such as Aspen Mountain Co., Whistler Blackcomb, and Jiminy Peak have taken substantial steps to engage in decarbonization by investing in clean energy projects, methane capture, micro-hydro and wind turbines, respectively, to power their resorts (Knowles, 2019). Conclusions There remain significant knowledge gaps that need to be filled to fully understand the relationship between winter sport and climate change, and the related pathways forward towards sustainability. Geographical imbalances in research currently hinder the global understanding of climate risk and responsiveness across the snow-sports industry (Steiger et al., 2017). China, the largest emerging snow-sport market, has set goals to double its number of ski resorts to 1,000 by 2030 and increase Chinese participation to 300 million skier days annually (Hornby, 2017) in preparation for the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympic Games. Despite this boom in Chinese winter sport infrastructure, athlete development, and growing importance for regional economies and local livelihoods, there are few studies investigating the implications of current or future climate change (Li et al., 2016). Japan, as the fourth largest ski market, remains notably underrepresented, as are other major ski regions, including France, Italy, Sweden, and Slovakia (Steiger et al., 2017). No country-specific climate research exists for the Czech Republic, Poland, Russia, or Slovenian ski industries, nor for any location in South America (Steiger et al., 2017). Sport is, however, starting to implement climate adaptation technologies to ensure adequate conditions for winter sport competitions (Rutty et al., 2015a).

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Also, media and anecdotal evidence suggest that climate change is currently influencing other international winter sports events such as FIS ski and snowboard races, World Championship competitions, and Winter X Games events; however, no research exists evaluating the extent of these impacts. Current research has focused on skiing and climate change, leaving room for further investigation into specific climatic impacts and indicators on other winter sports. Further research should consider investigating winter sport athlete and coach perspectives on climate change impacts, such as on training opportunities and the safety and fairness of competitions, and the response by sporting organizations to provide advance knowledge on the topic.

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Winter sports and climate change 149 Maese, R. (2019, March 7). Game changer, waning winters. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/sports/wp/2019/03/07/feature/ in-the-netherlands-ice-skating-is-in-the-dna-a-warming-climate-could-change-that/? noredirect=on&utm_term=.7ce64e9290d1. Morrison, C., & Pickering, C. M. (2013). Perceptions of climate change impacts, adaptation and limits to adaptation in the Australian Alps: The ski-tourism and key stakeholders. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(2), 173–191. National Ski Areas Association (NSAA). (2018). Climate challenge 2018 annual report. National Ski Areas Association & Brendle Group. Notaro, M., Lorenz, D., Hoving, C., & Schummer, M. (2013). Twenty-first-century projections of snowfall and winter severity across Central-Eastern North America. Journal of Climate, 27(17), 6526–6550. Orr, M., & Inoue, Y. (2018). Sport versus climate: Introducing the climate vulnerability of sport organizations framework. Sport Management Review, 22(4), 452–463. doi: 10.1016/j. smr.2018.09.007. Pells, E., & Leicester, J. (2017, December 18). Climate change poses new challenges for Winter Olympics. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from https://www.theglobeandmail. com/sports/olympics/climate-change-poses-new-challenges-for-winter-olympicpreparation/ article37380630/. Pouta, E., Neuvonen, M., & Sievanen, T. (2009). Participation in cross country skiing in Finland under climate change: Application of multiple hierarchy stratification perspective. Journal of Leisure Research, 41(1), 91–108. Quiroga, J. (2015, June 21). Climate change hits Chile’s winter ski resorts. Bloomberg. Retrieved from https://skift.com/2015/06/21/climate-change-hits-chiles-winter-ski-resorts/. Raftery, A. E., Zimmer, A., Frierson, D. M. W., Startz, R., & Liu, P. (2017). Less than Less than 2°C warming by 2100 unlikely. Natural Climate Change, 7, 637–641. https:// dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclimate3352. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Johnson, P., Jover, E., Pons, M., & Steiger, R. (2015a). Behavioural adaptation of skiers to climatic variability and change in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11, 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2015.07.002. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Steiger, R., & Johnson, P. (2014). Weather risk management at the Olympic Winter Games. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 931–946. doi:10.1080/ 13683500.2014.887665. Scott, D. (2006). Global environmental change and mountain tourism. In S. Gossling & C. M. Hall (Eds.), Tourism and global environmental change (pp. 54–75). London: Routledge. Scott, D., Dawson, J., & Jones, B. (2008). Climate change vulnerability of the US Northeast winter recreation – tourism sector. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 13(5), 577–596. Scott, D., Gössling, S., & Hall, C. M. (2012). International tourism and climate change. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews – Climate Change, 3(3), 213–232. Scott, D., & Lemieux, C. (2010). Weather and climate information for tourism. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 1, 146–183. Scott, D., & McBoyle, G. (2007). Climate change adaptation in the ski industry. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies to Global Change, 12(8), 1411–1431. Scott, D., McBoyle, G., & Minogue, A. (2007). Climate change and Quebec’s ski industry. Global Environmental Change, 17(2), 181–190.

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Scott, D., McBoyle, G., Minogue, A., & Mills, B. (2006). Climate change and the sustainability of ski based tourism in eastern North America: A reassessment. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(4), 376–398. Scott, D., & Steiger, R. (2013). Vulnerability of the Ski Industry. In R. Pielke Snr and F. Hossain (Eds.), Climate vulnerability: Understanding and addressing threats to essential resources (pp. 305–313). San Diego, CA: Elsevier, Academic Press. Scott, D., Steiger, R., & Fang, Y. (2020). Regional ski tourism market risk to climate change: An inter-comparison of Ontario (Canada), Quebec (Canada), and the Northeast USA. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(4), 568–586. Scott, D., Steiger, R., Rutty, M., & Fang, Y. (2018). The changing geography of the Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games in a warmer world. Current Issues in Tourism, 2(11), 1301–1311. doi:10.1080/13683500.2018.1436161. Scott, D., Steiger, R., Rutty, M., & Johnson, P. (2014). The future of the Olympic Winter Games in an era of climate change. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 913–930. doi:10.1080/13683500.2014.887664. Serauta, P. (2018). Winter sports face a double threat, from climate change and demographic change. 2020 Economist Diaries. Retrieved from https://www.economist. com/international/2018/01/27/winter-sports-face-a-double-threat-from-climate-anddemographic-change. Steiger, R. (2010). The impact of climate change on ski season length and snowmaking requirements. Climate Research, 43(3), 251–262. Steiger, R., & Abegg, B. (2013). The sensitivity of Austrian Ski areas to climate change. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(4), 480–493. Steiger, R., Scott, D., Abegg, B., Pons, M., & Aall, C. (2017). A critical review of climate change risk for ski tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(11), 1–37. doi:10. 1080/13683500.2017.1410110. Stubberud, H. A., & Ruud, C. B. (2017). Exploring the extreme iditarod trail in Alaska. In Y. S. Lee, D. Weaver, & N. K. Prebenson (Eds.), Arctic tourism experiences: Production, consumption and sustainability (pp. 79–88). Wallingford: CABI. Thorne, P. (2017, August 24). Second alpine glacier stops summer skiing due to the heat. In the Snow. Retrieved from https://www.inthesnow.com/glacier-stops-summer-skiingdue-heat/. Trawöger, L. (2014). Convinced, ambivalent or annoyed: Tyrollean ski tourism stakeholders and their perceptions of climate change. Tourism Management, 40, 338–351. United Nations Climate Change, Global Climate Action. (2018, December). Sports for Climate Action Framework (Version 2.0). Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/sites/ default/files/resource/Sports_for_Climate_Action_Declaration_and_Framework.pdf. United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNCCC). (2015). Paris Agreement. Climate Change Conference. Paris, France. Parties to the Convention. United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN-IPCC). (2018). Special Report—Global warming of 1.5°C: Summary for policy makers. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/. United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN-IPCC). (2014). Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Vail Resorts. (2019). Epic Promise Progress Report. Retrieved from http://epicpromise. com/media/2202/epic-promise-progress-report-fy2019_final.pdf.

Winter sports and climate change 151 WKO (Austrian Chamber of Commerce). (Several years). Factsheet – die seilbahnen Österreichs. Association of Austrian Ski area operators. Retrieved from https://www. wko.at/branchen/transport-verkehr/seilbahnen/Factsheets.html. Wolfsegger, C., Gössling, S., & Scott, D. (2008). Climate change risk appraisal in the Austrian ski industry. Tourism Review International, 12(1), 13–23. Wyss, R., Abegg, B., & Luthe, T. (2014). Perceptions of climate change in a tourism governance context. Tourism Management Perspectives, 11(C), 69–76.

Appendix 1: Sample charts of winter sport and climate change research Scott et al. (2019) Research topic: Climate change impacts to ski area competitiveness Method: Climate scenario modelling, quantitative Setting: 110 ski facilities in Norway Area/sector of sport: Climate risk and impact on sport Theoretical foundations: N/A Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

“The demand for foresight on how climate change will alter the competitiveness of ski destinations continues to increase” (p. 1). “The ski industry has been particularly critical of studies that do not account for climate adaptation of snowmaking, arguing such studies do not represent their current operating reality, let alone their future adaptive capacity, and therefore misrepresent the climate change risk to their operations” (p. 2).

Conclusions: •

•

•

While “roughly half of ski areas in Norway do not have snowmaking capacity and many that do have snowmaking have less capacity than assumed in this study project” (p. 6), results show “a considerable shortening of the skiing season at ski areas that lack snowmaking as early as the 2030s” (p. 11). “With snowmaking, the majority of ski areas in Norway would still be snowreliable until the end of the twenty-first century, but with substantial shortening of the ski season of several weeks beginning in the 2050s under a high emission scenario” (p. 11). “Increased reliance on [snowmaking as a] climate adaptation has financial and environmental implications” (p. 11).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“It is increasingly incumbent upon the research community to continue to

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improve its methods in order to accurately represent the differential climate change risk within and among regional ski markets” (p. 12). “As no data on snowmaking capacity was available for all ski areas in Norway, advanced snowmaking capacity was applied to all ski areas to examine the adaptive capacity if advanced snowmaking was in place in the future” (p. 6).

Scott et al. (2018) Research topic: Geographic analysis of climate impacts on Winter Olympic host cities Method: Climate scenario modelling, quantitative Setting: Global, all previous Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games host destinations Area/sector of sport: Climate risk and impact on sporting events Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

•

“Since the inaugural OWG in 1924 in Chamonix (France), weather and snow conditions have been key determinants in the success of the Games” (p. 2). “With its high dependency on weather conditions, organizing committees, sporting federations, and the IOC have continually developed and refined strategies to reduce weather risk (i.e. transition of some competitions to indoor venues, snowmaking, advanced weather forecasting)” (p. 2). “Accelerating climate change will increasingly test the limits of current weather-risk management strategies” (p. 3).

Conclusions: •

•

•

“The findings indicate that projected climate change will exceed the limits of current weather-risk reduction strategies and substantially reduce capacity to ensure adequate conditions for fair and safe OWG and PWG outdoor competitions in the majority of host locations by the end of the twenty-first century” (p. 7). “Of the locations that remain climate reliable for the OWG under the highemission scenario for the late-twenty-first century, all of the global regions that have previously hosted the Olympics are represented … North America – Calgary (Canada) and Salt Lake City (USA); Europe – St. Moritz (Switzerland), Cortina d’Ampezzo (Italy) and Albertville (France); and Asia – Sapporo (Japan), PyeongChang (South Korea), and Beijing (China)” (p. 7). “More transformational adaptations may need to be considered for the Paralympic Winter Games” than the Olympic Winter Games because they are traditionally held later (p. 11).

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•

“The implications of the water crisis are far reaching – for the sport and recreation industry and for those stakeholders that are directly and indirectly connected to sport” (p. 154).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

Olympic host cities’ “climatological analyses are insufficient, because they do not include estimate the probability that problematic conditions that would adversely impact competitions could occur” (p. 9). “A more detailed risk assessment approach, informed by key climatic thresholds specified by sporting federations and competition surface experts, should be utilized to properly inform the IOC” (p. 9).

Dawson, Havitz, & Scott (2011) Research topic: Behavioural response to climate change Method: Sport participant surveys, qualitative and quantitative Setting: US Northeast ski region including 103 operating ski areas in New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island Area/sector of sport: Skiers’ behavioural response to climate change Theoretical foundations: •

Iso-Ahola’s (1986) Theory of Recreation Substitution, Kyle et al.’s (2007) Modified Involvement Scale, and Pritchard et al.’s (1999) Psychological Commitment Instrument.

Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

“The specific implications that changing climate conditions will have for individual ski areas within a geographic region will partially depend on the impacts experienced by its competitors” (p. 2). “Once an understanding is established regarding the possible supply-side impacts that might be expected within a specific ski tourism marketplace (such as the climate impacts established in the U.S. Northeast – Dawson and Scott, 2010), it is important to further evaluate what the resulting demand-side response might be to these changes” (p. 3).

Conclusions: •

“A common behavioral response to changed recreational conditions, such as the closure of a local ski area, involves substituting the activity that is no longer available for an all-together different activity. This is known as activity substitution as defined within the ‘theory of substitutability’ developed by Iso-Ahola (1986). Other behavioral responses involve

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changing the amount of time one participates in the activity (i.e., skiing less because of poor conditions) or substituting the place that the activity usually takes place” (p. 3). “Higher involved individuals are more likely to change their skiing behavior as a result of climate change than lower involved individuals” (p. 7). “Because of the specialized knowledge of highly involved individuals, they are more susceptible to negative influences – such as marginal snow conditions – and are more likely to perceive factors such as climate change as a constraint or conflict than less involved individuals” (p. 11).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

“Further research should be conducted to examine what adaptation strategies could be employed to reduce their high behavioral substitution tendencies while taking advantage of their higher commitment to certain ski centers” (p. 9). “Future research in this area should include further testing of climateinduced behavioral adaptation by activity involvement group thus accounting for the discrepancy in results found between this study and that of König (1998) and Behringer et al. (2000). Additional attention should be paid to more fully understanding the extent to which skiers are loyal to particular ski areas and the impact loyalty has on spatial substitution. This factor will play an important role in determining the future distribution of ski area demand patterns under climate change conditions and could help ski area businesses and regional governments plan for future change” (p. 9).

Liu et al. (2017) Research topic: Climate impacts and adaptive strategies Method: Qualitative and quantitative field observations and sport participant interviews Setting: Bei Hai Park of Beijing Area/sector of sport: Impact and adaptive response to climate change in outdoor sport Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Beijing has obtained permission to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, and the Chinese government is hoping to capitalize on this opportunity to promote the popularity of winter sports. Specifically, goals have been set to encourage 0.3 billion people nationwide and 8 million people from Beijing to participate in winter sports. Public winter sport venues

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•

mainly consist of outdoor skiing fields, skating fields, and indoor skating fields” (p. 1). “Evaluating the effects of climate change on outdoor skating activities and exploring related adaptive strategies in Beijing will not only determine whether the goal of promoting winter sports can be achieved, but also will provide information on whether historically meaningful folk customs can be inherited” (p. 1).

Conclusions: •

• •

•

“Outdoor skating is highly sensitive to climate change, and increases in temperature directly affect outdoor skating opening dates and operation duration times” (p.12). “Climate change is already altering the behaviors of frequent skaters” (p. 12). “In particular for speed skaters, the shrinkage of the skating areas has negatively impacted their sport. Facing such climate changes, outdoor skaters have begun moving to high-latitude regions in northeastern China to skate or have been reducing their time spent outdoor skating; some are even replacing outdoor skating with other winter sports or skating on obsolete, natural, unsupervised lakes for a ‘wild skating’ experience, but the latter option puts the skaters in great danger” (p. 11). “It was concluded that the outdoor skating activities, with a history of more than 1000 years, are being threatened by the warming climate” (p. 1).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

“In contrast to the effect of climate change on skiing activities, the effect on ice sports is less certain because of the lack of relevant investigation” (p. 2). “Data statistics and data sharing improvements should be prioritized in future work for scientifically assessing climate change effects and properly proposing adaptive strategies” (p.13).

Falk & Hagsten (2017) Research topic: Climate variability and sport participation Method: Quantitative, fractional logit model Setting: Sweden, Vassaloppet marathon cross-country ski race Area/sector of sport: Natural snowfall relation to cross-country ski race participation/cancellation Theoretical foundations: Time-varying coefficient models – fractional logit model Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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The Swedish Vasaloppet “now attracts 15,800 cross-country skiers from several parts of the world on the first Sunday of March each year … The large group of participants reflects how widespread cross-country skiing is in Sweden” (p. 60). “Climate change scenarios for Scandinavia project a reduction in the number of days with snow coverage and a larger proportion of days with only a thin layer of snow until the end of this century” (p. 60). “From a managerial perspective, activities, or a whole industry, built around a core that is not fully controllable (in this case, snow supply of satisfactory quality) is a risky venture” (p. 70).

Conclusions: • •

• •

“A lack of natural snow has led to significant increases in the cancellation ratio” (p. 69) “The dependence of cancellations on natural snow depth has declined of late indicates that the use of snowmaking facilities, snow farming and other adaptation methods is effective, but very likely to be costly. However, adaptation is only long-lasting if the fabricated snow is of satisfactory quality” (p. 70). “The results reveal an increased awareness of climate change among both participants and organisers” (p. 69). “A presumptive closure of the Vasaloppet race would have far-fetching effects not only on the region, where extensive businesses related to the competition have been established, but also on the sport” (p. 70).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Studies of the effects of climate change on traditional sporting events are rare” (p. 60).

Appendix 2: Reference list of winter sport and climate change peer-reviewed papers Bark, R. H., Colby, B. G., & Dominguez, F. (2010). Snow days? Snowmaking adaptation and the future of low latitude, high elevation skiing in Arizona, USA. Climatic Change, 102(3), 467–491. doi:10.1007/s10584-009-9708-x. Berghammer, A., & Schmude, J. (2014). The Christmas–Easter shift: Simulating Alpine ski resorts’ future development under climate change conditions using the parameter”‘optimal ski day”. Tourism Economics, 20(2), 323–336. doi:10.5367/te.2013.0272. Bicknell, S., & McManus, P. (2006). The canary in the coalmine: Australian ski resorts and their response to climate change. Geographical Research, 44(4), 386–400. doi:10. 1111/j.1745-5871.2006.00409.x.

Winter sports and climate change 157 Campbell, M. (2018, September 28). Can sport help the public understand the effects of climate change? Sport Sustainability Journal. Retrieved from https:// sportsustainabilityjournal.com/analysis/can-sport-help-the-public-understand-theeffects-of-climate-change/. Chard, C., & Mallen C. (2012). Examining the linkages between automobile use and carbon impacts of community-based ice hockey. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 476–484. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.02.002. Clement, V., Rivera, J., & Tashman, P. (2015). Using resilience to explore the limits and impacts of climate adaptation in the US ski industry. Academy of Management, 2015(1), 151–189. Collins, A., Jones, C., & Munday, M. (2009). Assessing the environmental impacts of mega sporting events: Two options? Tourism Management, 30(6), 828–837. doi:10.1016/ j.tourman.2008.12.006. Damm, A., Köberl, J., & Prettenthaler, F. (2014). Does artificial snow production pay under future climate conditions? A case study for a vulnerable ski area in Austria. Tourism Management, 43(C), 8–21. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2014.01.009. Dawson, J., Havitz, M., & Scott, D. (2011). Behavioral adaptation of alpine skiers to climate change: Examining activity involvement and place loyalty. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28(4), 388–404. doi:10.1080/10548408.2011.571573. Dawson, J., & Scott, D. (2010). Systems analysis of climate change vulnerability for the US Northeast ski sector. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 7(3), 219–235. doi:10.1080/1479053X.2010.502383. Dawson, J., & Scott, D. (2013). Managing for climate change in the alpine ski sector. Tourism Management, 35(C), 244–254. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.009. Dawson, J., Scott, D., & Havitz, M. (2013). Skier demand and behavioural adaptation to climate change in the US Northeast. Leisure/Loisir, 37(2), 127–143. doi:10.1080/ 14927713.2013.805037. Demiroglu, O. C., Kučerová, J., & Ozcelebi, O. (2015). Snow reliability and climate elasticity: Case of a Slovak ski resort. Tourism Review, 70(1), 1–12. doi:10.1108/TR01-2014-0003. Dickson, C., & Arcodia, C. (2010). Promoting sustainable event practice: The role of professional associations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(2), 236–244. Diolaiuti, G., Smiraglia, C., Pelfini, M., Belo, M., Pavan, M., & Vassena, G. (2006). The recent evolution of an Alpine glacier used for summer skiing (Vedretta Piana, Stelvio Pass, Italy). Cold Regions Science and Technology, 44, 206–216. Elsasser, H., & Messerli, P. (2001). The vulnerability of the snow industry in the Swiss Alps. Mountain Research and Development, 21(4), 335–339. doi:10.1659/02764741(2001)021. Falk, M. (2013, June). A survival analysis of ski lift companies. Tourism Management, 36, 377–390. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.10.005. Falk, M. (2015). The demand for winter sports: Empirical evidence for the largest French ski-lift operator. Tourism Economics, 21(3), 561–580. doi:10.5367/te.2013.0366. Falk, M. (2016). The stagnation of summer glacier skiing. Tourism Analysis, 21(1), 117–122. doi:10.3727/108354216X14537459509053. Falk, M., & Hagsten, E. (2016). Importance of early snowfall for Swedish ski resorts: Evidence based on monthly data. Tourism Management, 53(C), 61–73. doi:10.1016/j. tourman.2015.09.002.

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Falk, M., & Hagsten, E. (2017). Climate change threats to one of the world’s largest cross country skiing races. Climatic Change, 143(1–2), 59–71. doi:10.1007/s10584-017-1992-2. Falk, M., & Vanat, L. (2016). Gains from investments in snowmaking facilities. Ecological Economics, 130, 339–349. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.08.003. Falk, M., & Vieru, M. (2016). Demand for downhill skiing in subarctic climates. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism. 17(4), 1–18. doi:10.1080/15022250. 2016.1238780. Fairly, S., Ruhanen, L., & Lovegrove, H. (2015). On frozen ponds: The impact of climate change on hosting pond hockey tournaments. Sport Management Review, 18(4), 618–626. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2015.03.001. Haanpäa,̈ S., Juhola, S., & Landauer, M. (2015). Adapting to climate change: Perceptions of vulnerability of down-hill ski area operators in Southern and Middle Finland. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 966–978. doi:10.1080/13683500.2014.892917. Hamilton, L. C., Brown, C., & Keim, B. D. (2007). Ski areas, weather and climate: Time series models for New England case studies. International Journal of Climatology, 27(15), 2113–2124. Hamilton, L. C., Rohall, D., Hayward, G., & Keim, B. D. (2003). Warming winters and New Hampshire’s lost ski areas: An integrated case study. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 23(10), 52–73. Hanzer, F., Marke, T., & Strasser, U. (2014, December). Distributed, explicit modeling of technical snow production for a ski area in the Schladming region (Austrian Alps). Cold Regions Science and Technology, 108, 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2014.08.003. Harrison, R., Kinnaird, V., McBoyle, G., Quinlan, C., & Wall, G. (1986). Climate change and down-hill skiing in Ontario. Ontario Geographer, 28, 51–68. Hendrikx, J., & Hreinsson, E. (2012). The potential impact of climate change on seasonal snow in New Zealand: Part II – industry vulnerability and future snowmaking potential. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 110(4), 619–630. doi:10.1007/s00704-012-0713-z. Hendrikx, J., Zammit, C., Hreinsson, E. O., & Becken, S. (2013). A comparative assessment of the potential impact of climate change on the ski industry in New Zealand and Australia. Climatic Change, 965–978. doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0741-4. Hennessy, K., Whetton, P., Walsh, K., Smith I. N., Bathols, J., Hutchinson, M., & Sharples, J. (2008). Climate change effects on snow conditions in mainland Australia and adaptation at ski resorts through snowmaking. Climate Research, 35(3), 255–270. doi:10. 3354/cr00706. Heo, I., & Lee, S. (2008). The impact of climate changes on ski industries in South Korea – In the case of the Yongpyong ski resort. Journal of the Korean Geographical Society, 43(5), 715–727. Hopkins, D. (2014). The sustainability of climate change adaptation strategies in New Zealand’s ski industry: a range of stakeholder perceptions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(1), 107–126. doi:10.1080/09669582.2013.804830. Hopkins, D., Higham, J. S., & Becken, S. (2013). Climate change in a regional context: Relative vulnerability in the Australasian skier market. Regional Environmental Change, 13(2), 449–458. doi:10.1007/s10113-012-0352-z. Hopkins, D., & Maclean, K. (2014). Climate change perceptions and responses in Scotland’s ski industry. Tourism Geographies, 16(3), 400–414. doi:10.1080/ 14616688.2013.823457.

Winter sports and climate change 159 Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1986). A theory of substitutability of leisure behavior. Leisure Sciences, 8(4), 367–389. Johnson, J., & Ali, A. (2017). Skating on thin ice? An interrogation of Canada’s melting pastime. World Leisure Journal, 59(4), 259–271. Knowles, N. (2019). Can the North American ski industry attain climate resiliency? A modified Delphi survey on transformations towards sustainable tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(3), 380–397. doi:10.1080/09669582.2019.1585440. Kyle, G. T., Absher, J., Norman, W., Hammitt, W., & Jodice, L. (2007). A modified involvement scale. Leisure Studies, 26(4), 399–427. Landauer, M., Sievänen, T., & Neuvonen, M. (2009). Adaptation of Finnish crosscountry skiers to climate change. Fennia – International Journal of Geography, 187(2), 99–113. Retrieved from https://fennia.journal.fi/article/view/3697. Landauer, M., Haider, W., & Probstl-Haider, U. (2014). The influence of culture on climate change adaptation strategies: Preferences of cross country skiers in Austria and Finland. Journal of Travel Research, 53(1), 96–110. Li, Y., Zhao, M., Guo, P., Zheng, J., Li, Z., Li, F. et al. (2016). Comprehensive evaluation of ski resort development conditions in northern China. Chinese Geographical Science, 26(3), 401–409. doi:10.1007/s11769-016-0808-z. Lipski, S., & McBoyle, G. (1991). The impact of global warming on downhill skiing in Michigan. East Lakes Geographer, 26, 37–51. Malk, M., & Hagsten, E. (2017). Climate change threats to one of the world’s largest cross-country skiing races. Climate Change, 143(1–2), 59–71. McBoyle, G., & Wall, G. (1987). The impact of CO2 – induced warming on downhill skiing in the Laurentians. Cahiers de Géographie du Québec, 31(82), 39–50. Moen, J., & Fredman, P. (2007). Effects of climate change on alpine skiing in Sweden. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(4), 418–437. Morrison, C., & Pickering, C. M. (2013). Perceptions of climate change impacts, adaptation and limits to adaption in the Australian Alps: The ski-tourism industry and key stakeholders. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(2), 173–191. doi:10.1080/ 09669582.2012.681789. Orr, M., & Inoue, Y. (2018). Sport versus climate: Introducing the climate vulnerability of sport organizations framework. Sport Management Review, 22(4), 452–463. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2018.09.007. Orr, M., & Schneider, I. (2018). Substitution interests among active-sport tourists: The case of a cross country ski event. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 22(4), 315–332. doi:10.1080/ 14775085.2018.1545600. Pickering, C. M., & Buckley, R. C. (2010). Climate response by the ski industry: The shortcomings of snowmaking for Australian resorts. AMBIO, 39, 430–438. doi:10. 1007/s13280-010-0039-y. Pons, M., Johnson, P. A., Rosas, M., & Jover, E. (2014). A georeferenced agent-based model to analyze the climate change impacts on ski tourism at a regional scale. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 28(12), 2474–2494. doi:10. 1080/13658816.2014.933481. Pons, M., López-Moreno, J. I., Rosas-Casals, M., & Jover, È . (2015). The vulnerability of Pyrenean ski resorts to climate-induced changes in the snowpack. Climatic Change, 131(4), 591–605. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1400-8. Pouta, E., Neuvonen, M., & Sievanen, T. (2009). Participation in cross country skiing in

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Finland under climate change: Application of multiple hierarchy stratification perspective. Journal of Leisure Research, 41(1), 91–108. Pritchard, M. P., Havitz, M. E., & Howard, D. R. (1999). Analyzing the commitmentloyalty link in service contexts. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27(3), 333–348. Ramshaw, G., & Hinch, T. (2008). Place identity and sport tourism: The case of the heritage classic ice hockey event. Current Issues in Tourism, 9(4–5), doi:10.2167/cit270.0. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Steiger, R., & Johnson, P. (2014) Weather risk management at the Olympic Winter Games. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 931–946. doi:10.1080/ 13683500.2014.887665. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Johnson, P., Jover, E., Pons, M., & Steiger, R. (2015a). Behavioural adaptation of skiers to climatic variability and change in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11, 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2015.07.002. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Johnson, P., Jover, E., Pons, M., & Steiger, R. (2015b). The geography of skier adaptation to adverse conditions in the Ontario ski market. The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, 59(4), 391–403. doi:10.1111/cag.12220. Rutty, M., Scott, D., Johnson, P., Pons, M., Steiger, R., & Vilella, M. (2017). Using ski industry response to climatic variability to assess climate change risk: An analogue study in Eastern Canada. Tourism Management, 58(February), 196–204. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016. 10.020. Sauter, T., Weitzenkamp, B., & Schneider, C. (2009). Spatio-temporal prediction of snow cover in the Black Forest mountain range using remote sensing and a recurrent neural network. International Journal of Climatology, 30(15), 2330–2341. doi:10.1002/joc.2043. Scott, D., & McBoyle, G. (2007) Climate change adaptation in the ski industry. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies to Global Change, 12(8), 1411–1431. Scott, D., McBoyle, G., & Mills, B. (2003). Climate change and the skiing industry in southern Ontario (Canada): Exploring the importance of snowmaking as a technical adaptation. Climate Research, 23, 171–181. Scott, D., McBoyle, G., & Minogue, A. (2007). Climate change and Quebec’s ski industry. Global Environmental Change, 17(2), 181–190. Scott, D., Rutty, M., & Steiger, R. (2015). Climate change and the future of the Winter Olympic Games. Journal of Olympic History, 23(1), 52–61. Scott, D., Steiger, R., Dannevig, H., & Aall, C. (2019). Climate change and the future of the Norwegian alpine ski industry. Current Issues in Tourism, 1–14. doi:10.1080/ 13683500.2019.1608919. Scott, D., Steiger, R., Rutty, M., & Fang, Y. (2018). The changing geography of the Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games in a warmer world. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(11), 1301–1311. doi:10.1080/13683500.2018.1436161. Scott, D., Steiger, R., Rutty, M., & Johnson, P. (2014). The future of the Olympic Winter Games in an era of climate change. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 913–930. doi:10.1080/13683500.2014.887664. Shanlini, S., & Stubbs, W. (2013). Green Olympics, green legacies? An exploration of the environmental legacies of the Olympic Games. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48(4), 485–504. Steiger, R. (2010). The impact of climate change on ski season length and snowmaking requirements in Tyrol, Austria. Climate Research, 43(3), 251–262.

Winter sports and climate change 161 Steiger, R. (2011). The impact of snow scarcity on ski tourism: An analysis of the record warm season 2006/2007 in Tyrol (Austria). Tourism Review, 66(3), 4–13. Steiger, R., & Abegg, B. (2013). The sensitivity of Austrian ski areas to climate change. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(4), 480–493. doi:10.1080/21568316.2013.804431. Steiger, R., & Mayer, M. (2008). Snowmaking and climate change: Future options for snow production in Tyrolean ski resorts. Mountain Research and Development, 28(3–4), 292–298. doi:10.1659/mrd.0978. Trawöger, L. (2014, February). Convinced, ambivalent or annoyed: Tyrolean ski tourism stakeholders and their perceptions of climate change. Tourism Management, 40, 338–351. Uhlmann, B., Goyette, S., & Beniston, M. (2008). Sensitivity analysis of snow patterns in Swiss ski resorts to shifts in temperature, precipitation and humidity under conditions of climate change. International Journal of Climatology, 29(8), 1048–1055. doi:10.1002/joc.1786. Visser, H., & Peterson A. (2009). The likelihood of holding outdoor skating marathons in the Netherlands as a policy-relevant indicator of climate change. Climatic Change, 93(1), 39–54. Wobus, C., Small, E., Hosterman, H., Mills, D., Stein, J., Rissing, M. et al. (2017, July). Projected climate change impacts on skiing and snowmobiling: A case study of the United States. Global Environmental Change, 45, 1–14. Wolfsegger, C., Gössling, S., & Scott, D. (2008). Climate change risk appraisal in the Austrian ski industry. Tourism Review International, 12(1), 13–23.

Part III

Strategic management, policy and education for the sport-environment relationship

Chapter 9

Sport and environmental policy Efthalia (Elia) Chatzigianni

The topic of sport and environmental policy is relatively new in academic research. This chapter begins by introducing the concept of environmental policy and then moves to the inclusion of such policy within sport with an overview of the academic literature. The chapter concludes with suggestions for further research in an effort to encourage and enhance the discussion on how sport could further environmental policy worldwide.

The concept of environmental policy and sport Continuous and diverse pressures have been exerted by the emergence of globalization on communities throughout the world. In this context, sport is frequently used as a medium by which communities and policymakers deal with policy issues in order to encourage humanity to cooperate, build consensus, and achieve progress and economic and social cohesion (Hoye, Nicholson, & Houlihan, 2010), environmental policy included. According to Eccleston and March (2011), environmental policy focuses on goals and principles within a society that aid to protect and enhance natural benefits for its citizens. The benefits of such policy are difficult to measure because they may be long-term or difficult to quantify (Burns, Eckersley, & Tobin, 2019). Sport has been linked to environmental policy for decades as a relationship between sport and the natural environment was officially acknowledged by the Olympic Movement at the 1994 Lillehammer Olympic Games – also known as the “Green Games” (Trendafilova et al., 2014). The event Organizing Committee initiated 20 sustainability projects that promoted environmental friendliness at the Games (Trendafilova et al., 2014). Since then, measures have been taken to protect the environment, or environmental sustainability (ES), at many sporting events to mitigate what Dingle (2016) notes as threats to the sustainability of the natural environment. Sports actions to safeguard the natural environment can make an impact beyond sport to society in general (Harvey, 2008). This impact stems from sports ability to influence organizations, including governmental and non-governmental groups, to develop and implement environmental policies.

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Sports impact can transend borders and extend to organizations at the local, regional, and global levels (Andrews & Grainger, 2007; Chatzigianni, 2018). The examination of sport environmental policy is, thus, important.

The inclusion of the environment in sport policy academic literature The relationship between the governance of sport and the natural environment has become a topic of academic research mainly in the past decade. Before that, as Mallen, Stevens, and Adams (2011) concluded in their content analysis research of ES in sport-related journals, which covered the period between 1987 and 2008, relatively few studies examined the issue of ES in relation to sport and proposed further sport-ES research. In recent years, however, a number of researchers have enhanced the discussion concerning sport policy and ES. Here is an overview of key manuscripts within this literature. Book & Carlsson (2011) Research topic: Environmental awareness and sport policy Method: Literature review Setting: Sweden Area/sector of sport: Sport and environmental policy Theoretical foundation: Sociology of law, human geography Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

•

“In our view, the impact of sport on the environment and on sustainable development has to be challenged and discussed critically … However, we basically find a lack of such a substantial ecological and environmental discourse on sport in society and in sport as well as in sciences” (p. 403). “Undoubtedly, the ecological perspective on development will increase and become even more imperative, even for sport and its organizations and forms. It is only our everyday imaginations – and our preconception of sport – that restrict possible ecological reflections on sport, environmental policy and sustainable development” (p. 405). “In any case … sport in general seems to have little ambition to take genuine responsibility for the environment and the climate” (p. 408).

Conclusions: •

•

“There is no doubt that urban and human geography stand out as crucial in the field of cross-disciplinary research on sport and environmental issues and in the implementation/localization of an eco-policy in sport” (p. 406). “The absence of a considerable eco-policy is quite illustrative, as it presents

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an inflexible, more or less outdated organization in relation to modern societal demands and developments” (p. 412). “There is a need for better environmental strategies, policies and support from the central level towards local practice; at the same time there remains a great deal for the central level to adopt and learn from local practice where things have actually started to move a little” (p. 413). “Sports are used more and more in connection with social issues, and society makes higher and higher demands on sports” (p. 413).

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

“In the academic field of sport management, in particular, the ecological discourse appears to have been absent till now” (p. 403). “Sports geography exists as a sub-discipline to human geography but, unfortunately, not in combination with environmental aspects” (p. 405).

Cantelon & Letters (2000) Research topic: The IOC environmental policy Method: Literature review Setting: The Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: International Olympic Committee (IOC) environmental policy Theoretical foundations: Globalization, transnational organization (TNO) theory, global–local disjuncture Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Organizations like the International Olympic Committee increasingly have been pressured to respond to questions regarding the relationship between their mega-events and the impact they have upon the natural environment” (p. 295).

Conclusions: •

•

“Different cross-cultural interpretations of environmental protections constitute a serious challenge to transnational sporting organizations even if their committed totally to environmental responsibility” (p. 295). “If the IOC had in place a carefully considered policy for environmental protection, much of the excessive damage could have been avoided” (p. 301).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Geeraert (2015) Research topic: The environmental dimension of the European Union’s sport policy Method: Literature review Setting: The European Union Area/sector of sport: The integration of environmental policy in European sport policy Theoretical foundations: European Policy Integration (EPI), Hertin and Berkhout’s (2003) framework for the analysis of institutional strategies for EPI Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“The EU will only play a leading role in reducing the environmental degradation through sport if its sport-specific actions, directed toward (international) sport organizations, include environmental objectives” (p. 2).

Conclusions: •

•

•

•

•

•

“Focusing on institutional decision-making routines, power relationships, and the external context, it identifies four barriers to integrating environmental objectives in EU sports policy” (p. 12). “The first barrier concerns the lack of top-down EPI coordination in relation to the different Council formations (Jordan & Schout, 2006). High-level EU efforts to this end have largely failed” (p. 12). “The second barrier is a general shift to the economic pillar of sustainable development in EU policy due to different strategic initiatives, which have diverted attention away from integrating environmental objectives” (p. 12). “The third barrier pertains to ‘autonomy,’ a cherished principle in the sports world. Certain powerful international sport organizations are able to lobby the EU institutions (García & Weatherill, 2012)” (p. 13). “The final barrier is formed by preference heterogeneity among member states with regard to the appropriateness of government/EU intervention in sport (Parrish, 2003)” (p. 13). “The most important obstacle, however, is the fact that the issue of environmental degradation through sport as such is currently not on the agenda of the sport” (p.15).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“It is therefore unclear whether environmental objectives are adequately integrated in EU sports policy and, thus, whether the EU fulfills its potential in reducing the negative environmental impact of sport. This article fills this knowledge gap by analyzing the status quo governance situation with regard to EPI in EU sports policy” (p. 3).

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Geeraert & Gauthier (2017) Research topic: Why the IOC is unable to ensure an environmentally sustainable Olympic Games Method: Literature review Setting: The Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Olympic Games and sustainability Theoretical foundation: Principal–agent perspective Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

•

•

•

“Tensions between the natural environment and the organisation of the Olympic Games are long-standing” (p. 1). “Despite these controls [by the IOC], we are witnessing a negative trend: recent editions of the Olympic Games have fallen short of their sustainability goals, or have caused negative environmental impacts” (p. 1). “The core interest of (potential) host countries is to showcase themselves to a global audience … These short-term interests potentially conflict with the IOC’s interest in environmental sustainability” (p. 4). “A new problem of hidden action arises: the principal [the IOC] cannot fully observe whether the actions undertaken by the agent [HOST CITY] are in keeping with the promises made regarding environmental sustainability” (p. 5). “The IOC can, under certain circumstances, impose two types of costs on the agent in response to shirking. First, the IOC can unilaterally terminate the HCC (IOC, 2015d, 2015e). Second, it can retain up to 5% of the money that would be paid to the OCOG through a retention fund (IOC, 2015d)” (p. 11).

Conclusions: • •

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“What can the IOC do to make sanctions more credible and costly? The IOC has significant financial leverage over the hosts” (p. 11). “An additional sanction the IOC could impose upon the hosts is the refusal to support future sporting events being held in that country” (pp. 11–12). “Importantly, the effectiveness of the IOC’s controls ultimately depends on large and credible sanctions in the case of shirking. Indeed, a clear mandate in combination with rigorous (third-party) monitoring will only correct shirking if the costs of shirking are large enough to offset the potential benefit that the agent would gain from engaging in it. The changes introduced by the IOC as part of its Agenda 2020 reforms fail to address these issues” (p. 12). “The IOC would consequently be well-advised to translate its formal commitment to minimise the environmental impact of the Olympic Games into concrete action to reduce shirking” (p. 12).

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

“While it remains unclear whether the Agenda 2020 changes will have a positive effect, it is clear that, despite deploying several mechanisms for controlling Games organisers, the IOC fails to ensure an environmentally sustainable Games. The literature on the Olympic Games falls short of providing satisfactory explanations for this reality” (p. 2). “Further research could use the PA framework to explore the willingness of the IOC to control Games organisers, in turn determining the likelihood of the suggested changes” (p. 12).

Girginov & Hills (2009) Research topic: Olympics sports development legacy Method: Process-oriented research Setting: 2012 London Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Social constructivism perspective Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

“These new additions [environment and sustainable development] to the mission [to the Olympic Charter] present the IOC as a socially responsible transnational organisation, which conducts its business in an ethical manner. Equally, however, it urges the IOC to join the wider political and economic debates headed by the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank (WB) regarding the complex and contested concept of sustainability and how it is implemented in various fields and parts of the world.” (pp. 162–163). “The emergence of the Olympic legacy concept also raises an important issue of how to research and subsequently promote policy interventions that claim ‘sustainable sports development’ as an explicit goal” (p. 163).

Conclusions: •

•

“The idea of sustainable sports development has been framed through a political, academic and public discourse, which raises two important theoretical and methodological issues. This includes recognising sustainability as a complex issue which requires the use of a combination of perspectives for its understanding, and the concomitant changing relationship between researchers and policy-makers” (p. 172). “The aim of sports development policy research then becomes understanding how to make underdeveloped sports developed, unsuccessful sport organisations successful, underrepresented age, gender, disability or ethnic groups represented or unethical sport behaviour ethical. To understand how to overcome those perceptions entails studying change at social, community and personal levels.

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Here the emphasis shifts to the ‘BE-comings’ of sports development concerning the construction of personal and organisational identities, as well as space and place meaning construction” (p. 176). Stated gaps in the literature: •

“As demonstrated, sustainable sport development is not a well-bounded, clearly defined, simple problem with regard to cause and effect” (p. 174).

Millington & Wilson (2016) Research topic: Golf and environmental regulations Method: Literature review Setting: Canada Area/sector of sport: Sport and environmental policy in Canada Theoretical foundations: Neoliberalism, environmental policy, concepts sustainable development theory, ecological modernization, and environmental managerialism, voluntary regulation, dual mandate Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“As many scholars have noted, in the wake of the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development (also known as the Brundtland Commission), sustainable development was embraced by governments, industry, and activists alike” (p. 449).

Conclusions: •

•

•

“Sport retains ‘exceptional’ status in Ontario’s Cosmetic Pesticides Ban Act. The concepts of voluntarism and the ‘dual mandate’ are relevant to this legislation as well” (p. 453). “For those expressing concern over the acute and latent effects of chemicals, or for those seeking a fully precautionary approach to pesticide usage, the Cosmetic Pesticides Ban Act is certainly a step in the right direction” (p. 462). “Yet, reasons for cynicism remain when evaluating Canada’s system of pesticide regulation in general and Ontario’s Cosmetic Pesticides Ban Act in particular. Most of all, our analysis shows the practical manifestation of ‘environmental managerialism.’ Both the federal and provincial governments, faced with a mandate to at once protect the environment and stimulate the economy, have instituted complex regulatory systems that take steps towards environmental protectionism while also allowing for industry involvement in and, in the eyes of some, undue influence on the regulatory process” (p. 462).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Despite the considerable body of literature on environmental decision-making

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in neoliberal times, there remains a need for detailed investigations into the origins and eventual outcomes of specific policy decisions pertaining to the environment. This is true in particular for studies charting the relationship between various levels of government” (p. 452). “Contemporary discourses surrounding sport are not irrelevant to the politico-economic arrangement described herein, and should be the subject of further attention from researchers” (p. 463).

Porteshawver (2009) Research topic: Green-building policies Method: Literature review Setting: Major League Baseball (MLB) Area/sector of sport: Sport facility construction Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

•

•

•

“In this economic climate … Sports facilities will continue to be publicly subsidized through financial mechanisms such as government bonds backed by a general sales tax increase. By building green sports facilities, this money benefits the community in far more ways than by building conventional sports facilities” (pp. 249–250). “Requiring sports facilities to meet existing LEED standards encourages smart site selection, efficient use of water and energy, use of local, recycled materials and resources, smart indoor environmental quality, and overall innovative design” (p. 251). “Implementing these sports facility specific policies may prove somewhat difficult, especially because very few stadiums, team owners, and municipalities have made green stadiums a priority. In order to facilitate the development and implementation of these new or modified policies, it is helpful to consider other successful implementation processes and resulting green-building policies” (p. 252). “The modification of existing green-building policies or the adoption of new green-building laws will ensure that public monies are spent on sustainable facilities that are not just good for the team, but are good for its citizens” (p. 254). “Pursuing environmental leadership will also show that teams are concerned about their negative effects on the environment and are working to improve their practices. MLB is on the right the track, but its efforts are focused only on practices after the sports facility is built” (p. 262).

Conclusions: •

“Continued public subsidization of sports facilities ensures that teams

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play in the biggest and best sports facilities, but not necessarily the ‘greenest’” (p. 264). “Sports facilities should be built and upgraded with locally sourced building materials and should install renewable energy technologies and automated control systems to increase energy efficiency” (p. 264). “Finally, team owners should take advantage of state and federal financial incentives and jump on this opportunity to not only build a sustainable facility, but to improve their team’s city and the environment” (p. 265).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Schmidt (2018) Research topic: Protection of environment through sports and the public–private cooperation for regulatory resources and international law Method: Case study Setting: International; Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Sports and Environment Programme of the Olympic Movement Theoretical foundation: Global governance, legitimate authority, voluntariness, epistemic authority, international law, public–private cooperation Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

•

Shows the trend concerning “the increase of interactions between diverse types of regulators and regulatory regimes at the global level” (p. 1342) … “as a venue to exchange resources necessary in the regulatory process such as power, legitimacy or expertise” (p. 1344). “In this context, regulation moved increasingly beyond the national realm and is now frequently carried out at the supra-national or transnational level. As a result, international and national governance activities have merged, transforming national regulatory and traditional international relations structures” (p. 1345). “The need for expertise-driven governance is steadily increasing, and it is therefore also not surprising that expertise – epistemic authority – is a resource that is featured in regulatory cooperation” (p. 1360).

Conclusions: •

•

“Thus, through its cooperation with the IOC, UNEP was able to affect environmental concerns in the sports community and also in the context of some Olympic Games at the national and local level” (p. 1354). “Power dynamics including third party actors played a role in the IOC–UNEP cooperation” (p. 1354).

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“The IOC, when engaging in environmental regulation cooperated with environmental organizations; UNEP being the most prominent. Private regulators specifically tend to be interested in expanding participation and, thus, more easily bring about legitimization by cooperation with a public organization” (p. 1358). “The case study, however, also points out that cooperation is not always sufficient to overcome legitimacy deficits” (p. 1359). “In the sports and environment example, UNEP was not very successful in supporting environmentally friendly Games in Sochi, and, more importantly, it was also criticized for the way it dealt with what was, in the eyes of many NGOs, a failure” (pp. 1359–1360). Proposed “regulatory cooperation into international law scholarship to help recognize and scrutinize this practice. Thereby, two effects can be achieved: first, a formal recognition of the role of private authority within international practices and, second, a debate regarding the framework and the safeguards within which such activities generally, and interactions more specifically, can take place” (p. 1366).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Conceptual examinations of regulatory cooperation and “such an expansion should emphasize the potential of normative stabilization between different types of transnational regimes, putting the impact that different actors have on each other, and the ways in which public interests can be safeguarded, at the centre. This approach will also open space for future research that (critically) analyses existing frameworks for such cooperation” (p. 1344).

Thomas & Guitart (2013) Research topic: Transition to non-toxic gunshot in Olympic shooting; policy implications Method: Literature review Setting: International; Olympic sport Area/sector of sport: Elite sport shooting Theoretical foundations: Global sport governance, policy making and regulation Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“An international environmental toxic risk associated with lead has been documented scientifically; the sources of the point contamination have been identified precisely, together with the agents responsible; non-toxic substitutes for the lead shot are readily available that allow continuation of the games with minimal change; and a framework for regulating the use of the substitute metal exists” (p. 751).

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•

“To be concerned about lead from fuels, batteries, and paint and human health, one also should be concerned about lead ammunition discharge and wildlife’s health” (p. 751).

Conclusions: •

• •

•

•

“The position of the IOC Executive Board is critical because its policy is able to influence the policy of the ISSF [International Shooting Sport Federation] on phase out of lead shot in Olympic shooting” (p. 751). “The IOC acts in cooperation with the UNEP in pursuing its environmental sustainability objectives” (p. 751). “Thus, consistency of UNEP’s policy on lead is required. To be concerned about lead from fuels, batteries, and paint and human health, one also should be concerned about lead ammunition discharge and wildlife’s health” (p. 751). “A progressive change in ISSF rules on the permissibility of steel shot would, in a top-down manner, likely affect the rules governing trap and skeet shooting in other international games regulated by the ISSF. It is also possible that such a change would be adopted by the ESC, so as to achieve consistency in ammunition shooting regulations at the international level” (p. 752). “Suitable substitutes for lead shot cartridges already exist at the international level, and their costs and effectiveness are not obstacles to a transition … However, for industry to invest in the greater production of steel shot cartridges of this type, there must be an assurance of market demand that only an ISSF rule change can provide” (p. 752).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Trendafilova et al. (2014) Research topic: ES and sport: current state and future trends Method: Overview of existing literature, semi-structured interviews, published documents, website analysis, data analysis through qualitative methods Setting: North American, European, and Australian sport industry Area/sector of sport: The environmental initiatives of sport organizations Theoretical foundation: Strategic planning approach Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

“Sport organizations are increasingly paying attention to the environment from a strategic perspective and are proactively addressing the impact their operations have on the environment” (p. 11). “The trend is for organizations to increasingly implement more and expand on current environmental initiatives. This focus on the environment will

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continue to be on the agenda of various sport organizations not only because of shift in social values, but also because of new expectations from a variety of stakeholders” (pp. 12–13). Conclusions: • •

• •

•

•

“The landscape of sport organizations has changed dramatically over the past years” (p. 11). “The adoption of such activities [environmental initiatives] provides sport teams and venues the opportunity to save money by shifting to more efficient and environmentally friendly operations” (p. 12). “Sustainable efforts allow sport organizations to reduce the ecological footprint of sport and the associated activities” (p. 13). “Sport organizations need to develop relationships and establish long-term partnerships with industry experts, particularly in the field of solid waste management and the development of energy and water efficient technologies” (p. 13). “Considering the growing government intervention and mandatory requirements for certain certifications (e.g., LEED), it would be beneficial for sport leaders to make themselves familiar with and continually monitor mandates” (p. 13). “In a global society that is increasingly aware of ecological degradation caused by businesses, sustainable sports offer society a platform from which to address these issues and contribute to a sustainable future” (p. 13).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“This paper brings attention to the aspect of environmental sustainability in sport, which has received very little attention in the academic literature, but should be considered by sport managers and leaders” (p. 13).

Weiler & Mohan (2010) Research topic: The Olympic Games and the Triple Bottom Line of sustainability Method: Literature review Setting: The Olympic Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport and sustainability Theoretical foundation: Cost benefit analyses Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

“The IOC took a further step in the development of its sport and environment agenda in 1999 when it, in conjunction with UNEP, passed its own Agenda 21” (p. 193). “Social sustainability of the Olympic Games revolves around the belief that a

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mega event, rather than benefiting a small and perhaps elite segment of the population, can benefit and be inclusive of different groups and communities with the end result being that the entire host community and country benefits from the event. Social sustainability is a relatively recent addition to the objectives of OCOGs and is therefore a less well-developed concept than economic or environmental sustainability” (p. 197). Conclusions: •

•

“Yet, unlocking the potential of the Games to use sport to attract new audiences to sustainable living cannot be done in the absence of the IOC and Organizing Committees deploying credible efforts to ‘walk their talk’. This potential is being realized as the IOC and OCOGs embrace management frameworks that produce, track and report on key Gamesrelated social, economic and environmental outcomes” (p. 201). “Thus, the process of development of sustainability as an Olympic value has created the foundation for the pursuit of the once-unrealized potential of the Games to actually change the way individuals and organizations act on the choices involved in living more sustainably” (p. 201).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

The research in this body of sport policy literature encompassed 11 key manuscripts that represented a small but growing level of research. The focus within this literature was limited to the protection of the environment through sports (Schmidt, 2018; Trendafilova et al., 2014), environmental policy for the Olympics (Cantelon & Letters, 2000; Geeraert & Gauthier, 2017; Girginov & Hills, 2009; Weiler & Mohan, 2010), including environmental opportunities (Weiler & Mohan, 2010), and green building (Girginov & Hills, 2009; Porteshawver, 2009) also for countries, including Sweden (Book & Carlsson, 2011), those in the European Union (Geeraert, 2015), and Canada (Millington & Wilson, 2016). There were limited sport-specific environmental policy issues discussed that included the toxicity of gun shots occurring in competitions (Thomas & Guitart, 2013), pesticide regulations for golf course maintenance (Millington & Wilson, 2016), and baseball playing field maintenance in Major League Baseball (Porteshawver, 2009). The methods included qualitative literature reviews for all manuscripts, except two with the use of commentary (Porteshawver, 2009), and an examination of political process (Girginov & Hills, 2009). The theoretical foundations varied widely from, for example, global sport governance (Thomas & Guitart, 2013) and transnational rulemaking (Schmidt, 2018), to ecological modernization and managerialism (Millington & Wilson, 2016), to cost benefits (Weiler & Mohan, 2010) and the transnational organization (TNO) theory (Cantelon & Letters, 2000).

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Additionally, the research was focused on both corporate environmental policy for sport as well as public/government environmental policy for sport. As Rosenau noted (1995), one of the driving forces of globalization is related to the emergence of a multitude of governing factors other than the nation state, governmental and non-governmental, at global level. In the framework of this multi-actor perspective of global governance, “modern sport governance is defined as the plethora of actors that participate in the international sport related policy-making and implementation system as a result of globalization” (Chatzigianni, 2018, p. 7). Given this, modern global sport governance is influenced by governmental and non-governmental factors, including the Olympic Movement, national governments, and international organizations, and reflects the reality of the current “pluralization” (Colas, 2002, p. 162) of global governance, which requires the cooperation of all modern political factors in sport-related policy fields (Chatzigianni, 2018). Environmental policy is no exception; as this research demonstrates, governmental and nongovernmental sport-governing factors participate in a greater or lesser extent in the formulation and implementation of environmental policy in sport at a global level (Schmidt, 2018). This research, therefore, indicates that environmental policy for sport may be formulated and implemented by nongovernmental factors – sport governing bodies – such as the International Olympic Committee (Cantelon & Letters, 2000, Geeraert & Gauthier, 2010; Girginov & Hills, 2009; Thomas & Guitart, 2013; Weiler & Mohan, 2010), the Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (Weiler & Mohan, 2010), sport associations (Book & Carlsson, 2011; Trendafilova et al. 2014), and federations and leagues such as the International Shooting Sport Federation (Thomas & Guitart, 2013) and Major League Baseball (Porteshawver, 2009), as well as governmental factors – whether governments and regional authorities (Millington & Wilson, 2016) or international organizations such as the European Union (Geeraert, 2015) and the United Nations Environment Program (Thomas & Guitart, 2013). The literature review revealed that there is work to be done to generate a robust eco-policy within sport (Book & Carlsson, 2011; Trendafilova et al., 2014) and that work involves developing environmental policies in coordination with relationships and social structures (Girginov & Hills, 2009), as well as that there are four key barriers to moving to routines that encompass environmental objectives, including coordination issues, the variety of strategies, autonomy, and the appropriateness of government intervention in sport (Geeraert, 2015). In the Canadian golf context, Millington and Wilson (2016) found that volunteer environmental actions are acceptable; and Porteshawver (2009) concluded that sport facilities should aim to include ES strategies. In the Olympic context, Geeraert and Gauthier (2017) concluded that it is in the interest of the IOC to align and strengthen its control mechanisms so as to ensure the hosting of environmentally sustainable Olympic Games. Schmidt (2018) underlined the significance of cooperation between the public and private sectors in sport-related

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global rule-making. Thomas and Guitart (2013) found environmentally friendly options are available for lead shot cartridges; Cantelon and Letters (2000) stated that the variety of environmental interpretations and protections can lead to challenges and, importantly, that sport can influence society to act for ES (Weiler & Mohan, 2010). The literature outlined multiple gaps that extended from a need for more ecological discourse (Book & Carlsson, 2011). The gaps extended to positions that environmental causes and effects have not been clearly outlined (Girginov & Hills, 2009); that developing understandings regarding whether environmental objectives are being integrated well within sport policy (Geeraert, 2015); that we need to develop understandings concerning the outcomes of specific policy decisions (Millington & Wilson, 2016); and that there is a willingness of the IOC to control Games’ organizers in the area of ES. Additional examples of research topics that could be examined in future research on sport environmental policy include the following: • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

examining fundamental sport environmental policy objectives, including both the public and corporate aspects of such policy; sport specific case studies on individual teams and leagues and the environmental qualitative and quantitative impacts of sport environmental policies (or the lack of policies) and the baseline of policies for environmental management; a focus on each of the levels of sport (from local to international, along with amateur to professional) with regard to environmental policy development; the specific influence of the professional leagues on sport environmental policy compared to local sport influence; comparisons of countries and their sport environmental policies with their success of implementation of such policies; the role of sport organizations, government, and international organizations in sport environmental policy; critically examining existing frameworks of international cooperation between the various private and public actors and proposing new ones; issues in transnational sport organizations and environmental policy; financial implications of sport environmental policy; ways to improve international cooperation through formulation and implementation of sport environmental policy; best practices in sport environmental policy – including in policy development, promotion, and implementation; the cost of not implementing sport environmental policies; an examination of sport policy leadership (local to global); athletes and the impact of sport environmental policies on their lives; and voluntary versus regulatory sport environmental policy development and impact.

Each of these topics, and others, can be used in a future research agenda and framed with current literature – even if it is outside of sport. For instance,

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another research topic involves instruments to formulate and implement policymaking mechanisms. These policy instruments are tools for developing, governing, assessing, and examining the propriety and impact of the environmental policies, including such areas as regulations, voluntary options, and incentives. Future research in this area can be framed with such work as Rowell (2018), which concerned behavioural instruments, Madarang (2014), which focused on the combination of tools, and the work of Tews, Busch, and Jörgens (2003) on diffusion of the instruments or the work of Dovers and Hezri (2010) examining policy processes. Further research that can be found to underscore future sport research agendas can be found in management journals such as: Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy; Environmental Economics and Policy Studies; Environmental Policy and Law; Environmental Science and Policy; Global Environmental Change; Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning; Journal of Environmental Protections; International Journal of Environmental Policy and Decision Making; and Society and Environment. Overall, the research on sport and environmental policy has grown due to an increasing interest by the international academic and non-academic community of the contribution of sport to the sustainable development and protection of the environment. Given the relatively new academic interest regarding the relation between sport and the environment, and the cooperation between sport-related governing bodies in the field of sport at a global level, as also demonstrated by the launch of the UN Sports for Climate Action Framework (2018) – an initiative co-developed by the IOC and the UN, the literature review reveals an increased interest expressed by sport authorities and sport-related governing bodies in the field of the adoption and implementation of specific measures to protect the environment.

Conclusion This chapter shows that the academic research on sport and environmental policy is still limited, but steadily growing, and the significance of sport in environmental policy is gaining attention, especially in the area of the Olympic Movement initiatives. This is first due to the fact that academic research published across a range of disciplines that focuses on the protection of the environment is increasing and, second, because people around the world recognize the impact of sport on human activity and the importance of adding concern for the environment in the priorities of sport-related policy and legislation at a national and global level by governmental and non-governmental sport-governing factors. To this end, more research is required by academics and practitioners in the areas related to the impact of sport on the environment and vice versa through the implementation of specific sport policy measures. This requires a more comprehensive approach of the ways in which governments and sport governing bodies tend to adopt and apply environmental legislation in both the commercialized and the amateur sectors of sport. Furthermore, given the growing

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literature on the environmental impact of sport events, and particularly megaevents such as the Olympic Games, it is interesting to see how governmental and non-governmental factors – national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and the sport organizations, including the Olympic Movement – initiate and implement policy to protect both sport and the environment and further enhance the future place of sport in environmental legislation. This type of research is encouraged as timely and understandings on sport and environmental policy are critical for successful ES throughout the sporting industry. And, finally, sport and understandings concerning environmental policy are intrinsically linked to successful community action as in September 2019, the UN Climate Change invited “sports organizations and their stakeholders to join a new climate action for sport movement that will set the trajectory and provide the support for sport to play a winning role in achieving global climate change goals” (UNCC, 2019, p. 4). The aim is to utilize sport to “combat climate change” and “to drive climate awareness and action among global citizens” (UNCC, 2019, p. 4). What sport policies are needed to reach this aim?

References Andrews, D. L., & Grainger, A. D. (2007). Sport and globalization. In G. Ritzer (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to globalization (pp. 478–497). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Book, K., & Carlsson, B. (2011). A diagnosis of environmental awareness in sport and sport policy. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 3(3), 401–416. doi: 10. 1080/19406940.2011.596155. Burns, C., Eckersley, P., & Tobin, P. (2019, January 11). EU environmental policy in times of crisis. Journal of European Public Policy. doi:10.1080/13501763.2018.1561741. Cantelon, H., & Letters, M. (2000). The making of the IOC environmental policy as the third dimension of the Olympic Movement. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35(3), 294–308. Chatzigianni, E. (2018). Global sport governance: Globalizing the globalized. Sport in Society, 21(9), 1454–1482. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2017.1390566. Colas, A. V. (2002). International civil society: Social movements in world politics. Malden, MA: Polity Press. Dingle, G. (2016). Sport, the natural environment, and sustainability. In R. Hoye & M. M. Parent (Eds.), SAGE Handbook of Sport Management (pp. 531–557). London: Sage. doi: 10.4135/9781473957961.n30. Dovers, S., & Hezri, A. (2010). Institutions and policy processes: The means to the end of adaptation. WIRES Climate Change, 1(2), 212–231. doi: 10.1002/wcc.29. Eccleston, C. H., & March, F. (2011). Global environmental policy: Concepts, principles and practice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Geeraert, A. (2015). It’s not that easy being green: The environmental dimension of EU’s sport policy. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 40(1), 62–81. doi:10.1177/ 0193723515576599. Geeraert, A., & Gauthier, R. (2017). Out-of-control Olympics: Why the IOC is unable to ensure an environmentally sustainable Olympic Games. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 20(1), 16–30. doi:10.1080/1523908x.2017.1302322.

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Girginov, V., & Hills, L. (2009). The political process of constructing a sustainable London Olympics sports development legacy. International Journal of Sport Policy, 1(2), 161–181. doi: 10.1080/19406940902950713. Harvey, J. (2008). Sport, politics and policy. In J. Crossmann (Ed.), Canadian Sport Sociology (pp. 221–237). Toronto: Thomson Nelson. Hoye, R., Nicholson, M., & Houlihan, B. (2010). Sport and policy: Issues and analysis. London: Elsiever. Madarang, K. (2014, November). Environmental policy instruments (direct regulation, marked-based tools and voluntary programs: Better together. Environmental Sustainability & Policy. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.23240.83202. Mallen, C., Stevens, J., & Adams, L. J. (2011). A content analysis of environmental sustainability research in a sport-related journal sample. Journal of Sport Management, 25(3), 240–256. doi: 10.1123/jsm.25.3.240. Millington, B., & Wilson, B. (2016). An unexceptional exception: Golf, pesticides, and environmental regulation in Canada. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 51(4), 446–467. doi: 10.1177/1012690214526878. Porteshawver, A. (2009). Green sports facilities: Why adopting new green-building policies will improve the environment and the community. Marquette Sports Law Review, 20(1), Article 4, 241–265. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1016&context=sportslaw. Rosenau, J. N. (1995). Governance in the twenty-first century. Global Governance, 1, 13–43. doi:10.1057/9780230245310_2. Rowell, A. (2018, December). Behavioral instruments in environmental regulation. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssm.3330205. Schmidt, R. (2018). Protecting the environment through sports? Public–private cooperation for regulatory resources and international law. European Journal of International Law, 28(4), 1341–1366. doi:10.1093/ejil/chx063. Tews, K., Busch, P. O., & Jörgens, H. (2003). The diffusion of new environmental policy instruments. European Journal of Political Research, 42(4), 569–600. Thomas, V. G., & Guitart, R. (2013). Transition to non-toxic gunshot use in olympic shooting: Policy Implications for IOC and UNEP in resolving an environmental problem. Ambio, 42(6), 746–754. doi:10.1007/s13280-013-0393-7. Trendafilova, S., McCullough, B., Pfahl, M., Nguyen, S. N., Casper, J., & Picariello, M. (2014). Environmental sustainability in sport: Current state and future trends. Global Journal on Advances in Pure & Applied Sciences, 3, 9–14. Retrieved from https://www.icsspe.org/system/files/Trendafilova%20et%20al.%20-%20Environmental %20sustainability%20in%20sport%20Current%20state%20and%20future%20trends.pdf. United Nations Climate Change (UNCC): Global Climate Action. (2019, September). Sports for climate action framework, Version 2.0. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/sites/ default/files/resource/Sports_for_Climate_Action_Declaration_and_Framework.pdf. Weiler, J., & Mohan, A. (2010). The Olympic Games and the triple bottom line of sustainability: Opportunities and challenges. International Journal of Sport & Society, 1(1), 187–202.

Chapter 10

Sport environmental measurement tools, certification, and reporting Cheryl Mallen

This chapter examines research on the three key environmental measurement tool groupings outlined by Kuhndt (2004), including: (1) analysis and evaluation tools; (2) tools for action (such as certification programs); and (3) communication tools for reporting. There are a number of analysis and evaluation tools in the management industry. Examples of such tools include the environmental Input-Output (ENVIO) economic analysis, the life cycle assessment (LCA), triple bottom line (TBL), triple top line (TTL), the balanced scorecard (BSC), the ecological footprint, and the carbon footprint. Each of these are outlined below. Further, environmental certification programs are used to guide organizations to adopt sustainable management strategies and examples of two key certification programs, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO), are outlined below. This is followed by a discussion on environmental reporting in the management industry. After the presentation of management environmental assessment tools, certifications, and reporting, the focus will move to research manuscripts published pertaining to sport and the employment of such tools for certification and reporting. Overall, this chapter seeks to present a body of research that aids in generating understandings concerning sport and its use of environmental management tools, reporting, and certification. Importantly, gaps in the sport literature are highlighted and literature from outside the sport milieu is positioned as being useful to frame future sport research. The completion of research to fill in the multiple gaps in the literature is encouraged.

Examples of environmental measurement tools There are multiple environmental measurement tools, a selection of which will now be presented. The environmental Input-Output (ENVIO) economic analysis was devised by the 1973 Nobel Prize winner, Wassily Leontief, who examined the implications of input and output theory. His focus was on the “analysis of environmental disruption and economic growth” (Nobelprize.org, n.d., para. 7). The ENVIO was devised to be an accounting tool that considered

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the production and consumption costs of products that could be applied to areas such as water footprints and carbon footprints. Next, the life cycle assessment (LCA) tool focused on measuring and reducing the design, development, use, and end-use waste, or the “cradle-to-grave” impacts of products (da Luz et al., 2018). This means the LCA focus is on the impacts from the development stage and over the lifespan of the product, including the disposal stage. The triple bottom line (TBL) was conceived by Elkington in 1997, and offers a framework “for measuring and reporting corporate performance against economic, social and environmental parameters … [offering] accountability … transparency in reporting of activities, and integration of the tenets of the triple bottom line into strategic planning and operations, and stakeholder engagement” (Fairley et al., 2011, p. 142). Stoddard, Pollard, and Evans (2012) proposed that the TBL strategy was a reliable instrument assessing environmental performance. Fifteen years later, the triple top line (TTL) was coined by McDonough and Braungart (2002) and this strategy pushed for greater impacts with “products that enhance the well-being of nature and culture while generating economic value” (p. 251, emphasis in the original). The TBL, therefore, calculates the environmental parameters/impacts of a product or activity and the TTL promotes working to reduce the impact on nature within the initial design of products, as well as throughout the use of the product or activities. The balanced scorecard (BSC) offers a strategic framework designed by Robert Kaplan and David Norton (Balanced Scorecard Institute, n.d.). The strategy involves planning and managing organizational activities by setting environmental targets, seeking continuous improvements within established strategic objectives, and measuring and tracking performance (Balanced Scorecard Institute, n.d.). The feedback from the performance measurements are used to encourage greater planning and management activities for a better future with reduced environmental impacts. Multiple indicators are utilized in this type of assessment (Iofrida et al., 2018). Similar to the LCA discussed above, the impacts can be based on the selection of raw materials and their chemical composition, the manufacturing process, the distribution impacts, use, and disposal of a product. The aim is to integrate this assessment within the product development stage (da Luz et al., 2018) in order to identify the environmental impacts and then to work to reduce the environmental impacts (Wang, Chan, & Li, 2015). The ecological footprint has been utilized since the 1990s to examine resource use and “seeks to account for the consumption of the Earth’s available resources” (Collins, Jones, & Munday, 2009, p. 832). The results are “expressed in global hectares per capita (gha/capita)” (Collins, Jones, & Munday, 2009, p. 832) and illustrate the demand and availability of the world’s resources. One such ecological footprint is the carbon footprint that involves measuring carbon emissions and working towards reductions, or to offset such emissions. The carbon footprint strategy provides insight into the “measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the planet’s ecological capacity to

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regenerate” (Gao, Liu, & Wang, 2013, p. 237). This strategic tool helps to illustrate the specific impact of carbon-generating activities, such as the carbon generated from transportation options such as airplanes and automobiles. Despite the variety of environmental measurement tools, none has been found to work without challenges. Genovese, Koh, Jumar, and Tripathi (2014) explored the challenges of measurement tools with a case study. Additional work to ensure seamless and efficient application of such tools is still required.

Examples of environmental certification programs Now, two key examples of environmental certification programs are outlined. First, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a popular North American certification program focused on green building design with concerns for efficiencies in the use of energy, water, the generation of waste, recycling programs, greenhouse gas emissions, and the use of green roofs (Canada Green Building Council, n.d.). This rating system “recognizes that sustainability should be at the heart of all buildings – in their design, construction and operation” (Canada Green Building Council, n.d., para. 3). For a substantial fee, entities submit their application, outlining their record of environmental activities completed in an attempt to meet certification parameters and to be granted a designation, such as certified, silver, or gold status (Canada Green Building Council, n.d.). Each entity can interpret how to gain efficiencies and environmental effectiveness in order to meet the parameters. Meanwhile, in Europe, the LEED Dynamic Plaque includes “an internet-based platform that scores a building or community’s current performance” (Ramanujam, 2016, para. 3). The scoring system encourages continuous improvements in building energy design and operation efficiencies. Second, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets standards and recognizes organizations that seek to meet such standards (ISO, n.d.). The environmentally focused standards, ISO 14000 series, provide suggested solutions for addressing areas such as management systems, the water footprint of organizations, sustainable procurement, managing climate change, and environmentally focused supply chains (ISO, 2015, 2017a, 2017b). For a substantial fee, entities submit their application which outlines their environmental activities whereby they strive to meet the standard parameters and to be granted a designation within the ISO 14000 series.

Issues in environmental reporting The environmental analysis and evaluation tools, along with the certification programs outlined above, serve to explicate environmental data for reporting purposes. There are, however, no consistently applied communication standards and guidelines for meeting and then reporting environmental achievements within or between industries. The environmental measurement tools above, and

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others, offer some level of consistency; however, there can be different elements examined and methods used to achieve results within each strategy. Another issue arises from the multiple definitions utilized to describe tools, such as the carbon footprint tool (Gao, Liu, & Wang, 2013), as well as different measuring strategies that impact the standardization for employing the tool (Pandey, Agrawal, & Pandey, 2010). This means that comparable “consistent results have not been achieved yet” (Gao, Liu, & Wang, 2013, p. 237). Also, for example, the input-output economic analysis “is limited by assumptions and methodological limitations” (Collins, Jones, & Munday, 2009, p. 835). Additionally, barriers concerning the tools were found to include “a lack of awareness … absence of perceived benefits … lack of knowledge and expertise … [as well as the] lack of human and financial resources” (Johnson & Schaltegger, 2016, p. 493). Further, the diversity and complexity of business means there may be a requirement for “different kinds of tools” (Johnson & Schaltegger, 2016, p. 488). It has been noted that the barriers can be overcome, but that organizations lack incentives and there is an absence of “perceived economic benefits coupled with insufficient external drivers and support programs” (Johnson & Schaltegger, 2016, p. 496). According to Ness, Urbel-Piirsalu, Anderberg, and Olsson (2007), environmental reporting issues begin with one’s interpretation of sustainability. One’s definition can arise “from a weak sustainability perspective implying that manufactured capital can be substituted for natural capital or from strong sustainability perspectives, where the stock of natural capital must be preserved and is not substitutable” (Ness et al., 2007, p. 506). Regardless of the critical environmental interpretation held, Johnson and Schaltegger (2016) support the utilization of environmental tools as a strategy to “reduce complexity … evaluation and decision support … and performance improvement” (p. 489). It has also been noted that such “tools enable business managers to operationalize sustainability-oriented strategies and to coordinate the activities throughout an enterprise … and simultaneously stay competitive and economically successful” (Johnson & Schaltegger, 2016, p. 483). In reality, however, Johnson and Schaltegger (2016) concluded that small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) tended to be involved “on a more general level (adopting systems and standards) … and less on a specific level (applying specific instruments)” (p. 488). As such, additional reporting tools are required to mitigate the arising issues (Perrini & Tencati (2006). Further, implementing specific environmental assessment tools has been largely left to be instituted by large organizations and “a review of the existing research on sustainability management tools for SMEs is nonetheless missing” (Johnson & Schaltegger, 2016, p. 481).

Greenwashing in environmental reporting The issues outlined above concerning environmental reporting contribute to what has been termed greenwashing or “selective disclosure” (Bowen &

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Aragon-Correa, 2014, p. 107). Greenwashing involves deception in one’s reports or communications (Bowen & Aragon-Correa, 2014) to make it seem that an entity is more environmentally conscious and effective than it actually is. Attempts at greenwashing seek “to present an environmentally responsible image” (Vollero et al., 2016, p. 120). An example of greenwashing involves posting that an organization has reduced their emissions or waste and how they will do this when, in reality, they have only set goals and have not worked to achieve such goals. The process, thus, seeks to manipulate perceptions (Kai-Michael, Werner, & Hogg, 2017); and Vollero, Palazzo, Siano, and Elving (2016) stated that there is a need for “political and judicial efforts based on specific guidelines … to prevent greenwashing” (p. 120).

State of the management research The management research on the analysis and evaluation tools, certification programs, and reporting has been expressed within several management-based content analysis manuscripts. These manuscripts elucidate understandings relating to the body of works on environmental sustainability (ES). For instance, Golicic and Smith (2013) applied the natural resource-based view of the firm in their examination of 20 years of literature specifically on measuring environmental supply chain practices. Moreover, Qorri, Mujkic, and Kraslawski’s (2018) content analysis of 104 manuscripts on supply chain sustainability performance concludes that the “literature is fragmented … [and that] existing measurement approaches only partially assess sustainability performance in various sectors” (p. 570). They proposed a “design structure for the development of supply chain sustainability performance measurement system” (Qorri, Mujkic, & Kraslawski, 2018, p. 570). Song, Fisher, Wang, and Cui (2018) reviewed environmental performance evaluation literature, such as life cycle assessment and the ecological footprint assessment methods, and positioned big data technologies as applicable for environmental management. Also, Alshehhi, Nobanee, and Khare (2018) analyzed 13 manuscripts on corporate sustainability performance and concluded that “more research is needed to facilitate convergence in the understanding of the relationship between corporate sustainable practices and financial performance” (p. 494). Finally, Leug and Radlach (2016) specifically examined sustainability performance by measuring the use of management control systems and offered “a structured map of contemporary research that points to areas where our understandings of SMCSs [sustainable management control systems] are still scarce” (Leug & Radlach, 2016, p. 158). Now we turn our attention to research that has been conducted on the topic with regard to sport.

Sport and research on environmental tools, reporting, and certificate programs Mallen, Stevens, and Adams (2011) conducted a content analysis of research in 21 sport-related journals published from 1987 to 2008 and found that a total of

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17 out of 4,639 articles (or 0.365 per cent) covered the topic of sport and ES. Out of the 17 manuscripts, only two dealt with environmental measurement tools, reporting, or certification – including articles by Collins, Flynn, Munday, and Roberts (2007) and Hede (2008). Four additional manuscripts were found to be published in sport management journals, making a total of six manuscripts on the topic. An examination of this small but critical body of manuscripts on sport and measuring tools, reporting, and certification research is now offered. It is noted that other examples of research, such as Preuss (2007), which measured sport for its major event legacies such as infrastructure and culture, did not present a main focus on ES in sport and, thus, was not considered for this chapter. Collins et al. (2007) Research topic: Reporting sport event impacts Method: Environmental Input-Output (ENVIO) economic analysis; and the Environmental/Ecological Footprint analysis Setting: Football Association Cup 2003/2004; Cardiff, United Kingdom Area/sector of sport: Professional sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Event had a “significant global environmental impact” (p. 473); “the event is connected to around 560 tonnes of emissions” (p. 474).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Encouraged additional research with “many potential applications” (p. 473) to regional and international events, including the Olympics.

Dolf & Teehan (2015) Research topic: Carbon footprint assessment Method: Quantitative; analysis of travel patterns Setting: Varsity sports; University of British Columbia Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

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Conclusions: •

•

“Carbon footprinting is promising as a method for quantifying environmental impacts” (p. 254); “a set of assumptions developed based on one event may not be valid for another” (p. 254). “Our findings indicate that out-of-town … is the most effective area to target in order to mitigate the footprint” (p. 254).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Emissions can be substantial and event organizers may wish to take an inclusive approach to holistically assess major impacts and design solutions that influence maximum impact reduction” (p. 254).

Conclusions: •

Encourages a review of the case and debate.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Hedayati, Iyer-Raniga, & Crossin (2014) Research topic: Greenhouse gas (GHG) at a sport stadium Method: Life cycle assessment (LCA) Setting: Sport stadium; Australia Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

“The stadium operation accounted for 72.5% of GHG emissions, with the operation of baseload heating, ventilation and cooling, lighting and refrigeration systems dominating” (p. 602). “Construction impacts account for 24.7% of impacts, while replacement materials, end-of-life management materials are relatively insignificant, contributing to less than 3% of life cycle GHG emissions” (p. 602).

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Johnson & Ehsan (2018) Research topic: Reporting environmental impacts Method: Document analysis Setting: 2014 NHL sustainability report; impact of communications Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Foucauldian discursive approach Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

environmental

None stated.

Conclusions: •

“The NHL policy is applaudable, but it is not effective as it leaves the incorporation of stated environmental measures to the sport facility managers; the NHL encourages fans to make environmentally responsible decisions concerning the use of resources, such as water and energy; the NHL should act “to increase the long-term sustainability for which it advocates” (p. 55).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Require understandings concerning “what … radical change on environmental policy from sport organizations would look like. There is a need for robust debates on the utility of sport as a site for environmental progress” (p. 55).

Nishioka et al. (2000) Research topic: Measurements of indoor thermal environment of a stadium Method: Quantitative; measurements of temperature distribution, humidity, and air flow of under-the-seat air condition units compared to the outdoor summer weather conditions Setting: Major sport facility/stadium Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Under-the-seat air conditioning can offer limited zone or area temperature control.

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Conclusions: •

The under-the-seat air conditioning offered in the separate zones of the stadium provided “horizontal temperature distribution [that] indicates that the air condition system separates the space effectively and each zone can run well separately” (p. 217).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

The six publications in the sport management journals represents a paucity of research on the topic. Two of these manuscripts reported on major sport events and ES – one in the UK (Collins et al., 2007) and one in Australia (Fairley et al., 2011) and two examined major sport facilities – one in Australia (Hedayati, Iyer-Raniga, & Crossin, 2014) and one in Japan (Nishioka et al., 2000), as well as one manuscript that examined a Canadian University varsity sports program (Dolf & Teehan, 2015). Finally, one manuscript examined the NHL sustainability report (Johnson & Ehsan, 2018). The methods involved document analysis (Johnson & Ehsan, 2018), measuring and reporting emissions (Collins et al., 2007; Dolf & Teehan, 2015; Fairley et al., 2011; Hedayati, Iyer-Raniga, & Crossin, 2014), and the effectiveness of stadia air conditioning (Nishioka et al., 2000). The research involved a sector of elite level sport. Two theoretical foundations were utilized, including stakeholder theory and sustainability theory. Limited and diverse conclusions were stated within the sport-focused manuscripts. One conclusion was that sport events generated a “significant global environmental impact” (Collins et al., 2007, p. 473). Hedayati, Iyer-Raniga, and Crossin (2014) offered specific details concerning the environmental impacts, such as that “the stadium operation accounted for 72.5 per cent of GHG emissions, with the operation of baseload heating, ventilation and cooling, lighting and refrigeration systems dominating” (p. 602). These researchers went on to state that “construction impacts account for 24.7% of impacts, while replacement materials, end-of-life management materials are relatively insignificant, contributing to less than 3% of life cycle GHG emissions” (p. 602). Meanwhile, Collins, Flynn, Munday, and Roberts found their major sport event of focus generated a total of “560 tonnes of emissions” (2007, p. 474). Dolf and Teehan (2015) confirmed the carbon footprint measurement strategy as “a promising as a method for quantifying environmental impacts” (p. 254). Their research conclusion noted, however, that “a set of assumptions developed based on one event may not be valid for another” (p. 254) and that a focus on the impacts of out-of-town event patrons “is the most effective area to target in

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order to mitigate the footprint” (p. 254). Nishioka, Ohtaka, Hashimoto, and Onojima (2000) noted that under-the-seat air conditioning offered in the separate zones of the stadium provided “horizontal temperature distribution [that] indicates that the air condition system separates the space effectively and each zone can run well separately” (p. 217). And, finally, Fairley, Tyler, Kellett, and D’Elia (2011) concluded that a review of cases and subsequent debate should be conducted on the directions for mitigating environmental impacts by sport in future. The stated gaps in the literature were limited in scope. Collins, Flynn, Munday, and Roberts (2007) encouraged additional research with regard to regional and international sporting events. Dolf and Teehan (2015) promoted a focus on “an inclusive approach to holistically assess major impacts and design solutions that influence maximum impact reduction” (p. 254). Additionally, Fairley, Tyler, Kellett, and D’Elia (2011) promoted a need to review cases and debate the future. Interestingly, there were four publications on the topic published outside of the sport management literature; they are outlined below. Collins, Jones, & Munday (2009) Research topic: Event environmental impacts Method: Quantitative; ecological footprint analysis and environmental input-out model Setting: 2004 FA Cup final and 2004 World Rally Championships, Great Britain Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Quantifying the environmental impacts of major sporting events will become increasingly important as sustainable development commitments become main-streamed into the constitutions and mission statements of sports organisations, and in the statutes of the public sector bodies” (p. 837).

Conclusions: •

“The environmental impacts of events are difficult to assess quantitatively, being complex and often occurring over extended periods … the practical issues mean that any quantitative techniques seeking to assess environmental impacts are likely to be partial in scope” (p. 828).

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Jones (2008) Research topic: Environmental impacts on the host region Method: Quantitative; input-output analysis Setting: 2004 World Cup Rally championship; Great Britain Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There is an increased dedication to incorporate ES into sport organizational decisions and actions.

Conclusions: •

•

ES measurement is difficult; “this method can give an indication of the ‘enviro-economic efficiency’ of hosting major events by comparing CO2 or other environmental indicators to regional economic value added” (p. 358). Issues arise, as “they will always rely on established (historical) relationships and sophisticated models will be expensive to construct and maintain, thus perhaps being outside the reach of smaller events and regions” (p. 358).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Mallen, Chard, & Sime (2013) Research topic: Major League Soccer (MLS) environmental communications Method: Case study Setting: Sport facilities utilized by MLS Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Trend is for zero waste; trend towards “preventative principles of environmental performance” (p. 10).

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Conclusions: •

“Facility managers are attempting to integrate ES activities into the daily operations of venues” (p. 10).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

“Continuous study … is necessary” (p. 10).

Scrucca et al. (2016) Research topic: Measurement of event sustainability Method: Mixed methods; developed an evaluation tool “named EBI 2012 … an Italian acronym for Low Impact Events (p. 2); “validated by the third-party certification body called RINA” (p. 7) Setting: 2014 World Orienteering Championship; Italy Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

“The total carbon footprint of the event was 165.34 tCO2eq and the avoided emissions were estimated as being 46 tCO2eq” (p. 1). “The adopted quali-quantitative method resulted to be efficient in assessing the sustainability impacts and can be applied for the evaluation of similar events” (p. 1).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

The manuscripts on the topic published outside of the sport management journals contributed to the body of literature, but the research remains limited. Two of these manuscripts were found in tourism journals and two in sustainability journals. Three manuscripts utilized analysis and evaluation tools as they reported the impacts of sport events (Collins, Jones, & Munday, 2009; Jones, 2008; Scrucca et al., 2016), while one examined communicated reports on environmental initiatives. None of the manuscripts within or outside of the sport management journals examined environmental certification programs as utilized in sport or examined available reporting tools and their related issues in sport or offered suggestions for best practices.

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Moving forward in sport research with the guiding management literature The research published on sport and environmental measurement tools, certification, and reporting represents a start in developing understandings on the topics. There is room for a plethora of research to fill in the understandings the gaps are numerous. Examples include: • •

•

•

•

interpretations of the definition of ES by sport; the impacts of the interpretations; the application of environmental analysis and tools in sport, including developing advanced understandings on the use of the TBL, TTL, BSC, LCA, and carbon footprinting in sport; the application and use of certificate programs, such as LEED and ISO, by sport organizations, including the demand for certification programs by sport and the advantages, barriers, and strategies for overcoming barriers to utilize such programs by sport; the demand for environmental reporting in sport; reporting strategies utilized, such as: stakeholder engagement; transparency; greenwashing; targets; tracking; barriers; best practices; trends; environmental progress; and measuring the environmental impact of sport manufacturing, including along the supply chain.

Interestingly, there is a gap in the research on acquired environmental certification by sport organizations and major sport events. For example, Ramirez (2018) reported that the Olympic Winter Games held in PyeongChang, South Korea, acquired the ISO 20120 certification designated for event sustainability management. Further, multiple sport stadiums around the world have received ES certification; for instance, Mercedes-Benz in Atlanta, Georgia, USA acquired platinum LEED certification, Levi Stadium in San Francisco, California, USA acquired the gold LEED certification (Climate Action, 2018), and Principality Stadium (Cardiff, Wales, UK) received ISO 20121 certification (Climate Action, 2017). Yet, our understandings of the actions for certification, and overall impact within sport, is unknown. Also, many leagues and sport events are releasing environmental reports. One example was noted by Hershkowitz (2018): “The NFL was the first sports league to issue a sustainability report” (p. 27). The National Hockey League (NHL) Sustainability Report released in 2018 can be found at http:// sustainability.nhl.com/report/#!/info/report-at-a-glance. This report promotes sustainable hockey venue management, the reductions of environmental impacts by the league, and the sport facilities and community in areas such as reducing carbon impacts, utilizing green energy, and the management of water and waste. The report promotes the setting of goals and tracking of results.

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Only one publication, Johnson and Ehsan (2018), examined the NHL sustainability report and the impact of such communications on environmental actions. Additionally, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association released their Sustainability Strategy 2018 FIFA World CupTM document (https://resources.fifa.com/mm/document/tournament/competition/02/66/69/ 50/sustainabilitystrategyfor2018fifaworldcup_neutral.pdf), which outlines a mega-event strategy to mitigate environmental impacts. These types of reports are gaining in sophistication; yet, understanding on the impacts of such actions and reporting is unknown. Sport also has the Sustainable sport and event toolkit (SSET, https://www. olympic.org/news/updated-version-of-the-sustainable-sport-and-environment-tool kit-available-now) which was developed and released by AISTS Mastering Sport from the International Academy of Sports Science and Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland. This document (offers a strategy for reducing sport’s environmental impacts. Again, this type of toolkit has yet to be examined in the research. Overall, certification, environmental reports, and guides on sustainability practices have not been examined within the academic literature. This means the literature is lagging behind the industry advances in ES.

Conclusions Despite Collins, Jones, and Munday’s (2009) statement, along with Mallen and Chard’s (2012) proclamation that “environmental data is complex and difficult to track and verify” (p. 99), we need to move research forward on the topic of environmental management tools, reporting, and certification – beyond the current level of 10 manuscripts. To do so, a large body of research in the environmental management literature can be utilized to guide studies on ES in the realm of sport. For instance, content analysis papers are available, such as the Landrum and Ohsowski (2018) content analysis study on environmental reporting and the messages conveyed. Also available is the Jaramillo, Wilder, Sossa, and Mendoza (2018) literature review of 50 manuscripts discussing barriers to sustainable development published from 2013 to 2017. Other management research can offer further guidance to sport researchers. This includes the Singh, Murty, Gupta, and Dikshit’s (2012) examination of environmental assessment methodologies; the Siew (2015) study critiquing sustainability reporting tools; Fuerst and McAllister’s (2011) examination of “the price effects of environmental certification on commercial real estate assets” (p. 45); and Seidel-Sterzik, McLaren, and Garnevska’s (2018) research that encouraged “sharing responsibility for addressing the entire supply chain of products and services … [as a means] to move towards more sustainable consumption and production systems” (p. 359). Furthermore, Also, a Xie and Hayase (2007) study offered a

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measurement model for evaluating corporate environmental performance. And a final example involves the work of Moldan, Svatava, and Häk (2012), which provided an analysis of indicators for setting targets and measuring advances in sustainability. Each of these management research papers, and others, could be utilized to frame the advance of research in sport and the use of environmental tools, certification strategies, and reporting. If sport is going to reach a high level of ES, research is needed to advance knowledge. Fairley et al. (2011) Research topic: Sport environmental impacts Method: Case study; TBL Setting: Formula One Australian Grand Prix; Melbourne, Australia Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Stakeholder theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: n/a

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Dolf, M., & Teehan, P. (2015). Reducing the carbon footprint of a spectator and team travel at the University of British Columbia’s varsity sports events. Sport Management Review, 18(2), 244–255. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2014.06.003. Fairley, S., Tyler, D., Kellett, P., & D’Elia, K. (2011). The Formula One Australian Grand Prix: Exploring the triple bottom line. Sport Management Review, 14(2), 141–152. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2010.07.001. Fuerst, F., & McAllister, P. (2011, spring). Green noise or green value? Measuring the effects of environmental certification on office values. Real Estate Economics, 39(1), 45–69. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6229.2010.00286.x. Gao, T., Liu, Q., & Wang, J. (2013). A comparative study of carbon footprint and assessment standards. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 9(3), 237–243. doi:10.1093/ijlct/ctt041. Genovese, A., Koh, L., Jumar, N., & Tripathi, P. (2014). Exploring the challenges in implementing supplier environmental performance measurement models: A case study. Production Planning & Control, 25(13–14), 1198–1211. doi:10.1080/09537287. 2013.808839. Golicic, S., & Smith, C. (2013). A meta-analysis of environmentally sustainable supply chain management practices and firm performance. Journal of Supply Chain Management, 49(2), 78–95. doi:10.1111/jscm.12006. Hedayati, M., Iyer-Raniga, U., & Crossin, E. (2014). A greenhouse gas assessment of a stadium in Australia. Building Research & Information, 42(5), 602–615. doi:10.1080/ 09613218.2014.896141. Hede, A. (2008). Managing special events in the new era of the triple bottom line. Event Management Journal, 11(1–2), 13–22. doi:10.3727/152599508783943282. Hershkowitz, A. (2018, November 12–18). Hockey Hall of Fame gains environmental steward in Bettman. Sports Business Journal, 21(30), 27. Iofrida, N., Strano, A., Gulisano, G., & DeLuca, A. (2018). Why social lifecycle assessment is struggling in development? International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 23(2), 201–203. International Standards Organization (ISO). (n.d.). About ISO. Retrieved from https:// www.iso.org/home.html. International Standards Organization (ISO). (2017a). 14046—Environmental management—water footprint—a practical guide for SMEs. Retrieved from https:// www.iso.org/publication/PUB100419.html. International Standards Organization (ISO). (2017b). ISO 14001:2015—Environmental management systems—a practical guide for SMEs. Retrieved from https://www.iso.org/ publication/PUB100411.html. International Standards Organization (ISO). (2015). ISO 14001—Key benefits. Retrieved from https://www.iso.org/publication/PUB100372.html. Jaramillo, J., Wilder, J., Sossa, Z., & Mendoza, G. (2018). Barriers to sustainability for small and medium enterprises in the framework of sustainable development – literature review. Business Strategy and the Environment, 28(4), 512–524. doi:10.1002/bse.2261. Johnson, J., & Ehsan, A. (2018). Ecological modernization and the 2014 NHL sustainability report. Sociology of Sport Journal, 35(1), 49–57. Johnson, M., & Schaltegger, S. (2016). Two decades of sustainability management tools for SMEs: How far have we come? Journal of Small Business Management, 54(2), 481–505. doi:10.1111/jsbm.12154.

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Chapter 11

Sport environmental awareness, perceptions, behaviour, motivations, and promotions Scott McRoberts and Tristian Reid

This chapter focuses on journal research manuscripts pertaining to sport environmental awareness, the perceptions therein, interactive behaviour, industry motivations, and marketing promotions. In all, this chapter demonstrates that future research is needed to advance understandings on these topics and suggestions for further exploration in sport are highlighted. It is noted that literature from other industries has proven useful to support future sport research. Completion of research to fill in the gaps is encouraged.

Manuscripts published in sport management journals Exploring environmental concerns is an ongoing topic throughout academia and the manuscripts on sport environmental awareness, perception, behaviour, motivation, and promotion provided below are published in sport management journals. Each manuscript brings ongoing awareness to this topic. For instance, Trail and McCullough (2019) tested the fit of a sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a 10-mile community run event. Moreover, Casper, Phahl, and McSherry (2012) stated that although environmental concern is high, there is a disconnect between concern and action that is perhaps due to a lack of communication between the athletics department and the general university, cost concerns, and a lack of knowledge about sustainability initiatives. Implications related to the need for better communication between the athletics department and university, as well as improved planning and prioritization, is discussed. They proposed examining areas such as strategic planning, goals, and objectives between athletics departments and university administration offices. Furthermore, unique contextual elements such as the role of the student-athletes in the process should be explored, as well as the idea of incorporating green teams in college athletics. Spector, Chard, Mallen, and Hyatt (2012) examined the safeguarding of the natural environment, or environmental sustainability (ES), of ski resorts in the USA. Results supported the notion that size and public profile are important factors in encouraging ski resorts to engage in environmental efforts. Also, Inoue and Kent (2012) specifically examined the process of how a sport

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team could induce consumers to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. This manuscript found that positive environmental practices by a team increased consumer internalization of the team’s values. We now turn to reviews of manuscripts on the topic that were published in sport management journals. Casper & Pfahl (2012) Research topic: Examines the values, beliefs, and norms of undergraduate sport management and recreation administration student environmental awareness and personal actions Method: Survey Setting: A large midwest USA higher education institution Area/sector of sport: Sport management students Theoretical foundations: Value belief-norm (VBN) theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Studies need to continue within perceptions and links between stakeholders and organizational activities.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

Longitudinal studies can develop more definitive links between environmental perceptions and actions. Study students’ response when encountering environmental issues. Examine sport suppliers’ and sponsors’ environmental perceptions and actions.

Casper, Phahl, & McCullough (2017) Research topic: Extent to which environmentally themed activities within the intercollegiate sport context impact fan engagement Method: Survey Setting: Fans; Division I athletic department; Western United States Area/sector of sport: Fan engagement Theoretical foundations: Perception, behavioural changes, engagement (psychological) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

n/a.

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Conclusions: •

• •

Fans expected athletic department environmental action and they help with favourable perceptions about the athletic program and university and influenced at-event and home behaviours. Provided a fundamental and foundational understanding of how environmental activities impact fan engagement and the value of such efforts. It is difficult to draw a causal link between the green theme games and activities to changes in a fans cognitive, affective, and behavioural levels.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Contexts studied are not identical; future research can study other contexts and segments within contexts.

Casper, Phahl, & McSherry (2012) Research topic: Examined American intercollegiate athletics department personnel in relation to their organization’s sustainability practices, organizational strategies, and personal perspectives Method: Survey Setting: National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) universities Area/sector of sport: Elite, collegiate sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

Although environmental concern is high, there is disconnect between concern and action perhaps due to a lack of communication between the athletics department and the general university, cost concerns, and a lack of knowledge about sustainability initiatives. Better communication is needed between the athletics department and university and improved planning and prioritization.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Unique contextual elements such as the role of the student-athletes in the process should be explored. Examine the nexus of planning, organizing, communication, and

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action within the athletics department–university relationship concerns environmentalism. Inoue & Kent (2012) Research topic: The process of how a sports team could induce consumers to engage in pro-environmental behaviour Method: Survey Setting: Northeastern university Area/sector of sport: fans; higher education sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

n/a.

Conclusions: •

Positive environmental practices by a team increased consumer internalization of the team’s values; this increased internalization mediated the relationship between environmental practices and pro-environmental behaviour measured by two behavioural intentions, including the intention to support the team’s environmental initiative and intention to engage in pro-environmental behaviour in daily life.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

First, the results of this study are based on responses from conveniently chosen students at a university. Second, the final model explains less than 10 per cent of the variance (R^ = .09) in daily pro-environmental behaviour. This result suggests that other factors than internalization are also likely to influence the adoption of such behaviour.

Further research: • •

Examine other factors that many influence pro-environmental behaviour. Further investigation is required to ascertain whether a sport organization can promote environmental behaviour more effectively than other types of organization, including general firms, non-profit organizations, and government agencies.

Kellison & Mondello (2012) Research topic: Perceptions concerning the subsidization of sport facilities for professional teams; referendums

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Method: Application of Organizational Perception Management (OPM) Setting: Community voting members Area/sector of sport: Professional sport Theoretical foundations: Desired voting outcomes framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

Professional sport team referendum activities can be perceived as questionable with the costs over the long term overshadowing the gains made in the short term. Professional sports organizations should approach referendum debates as opportunities to connect to the community as an untapped market, rather than a challenge that requires deception to succeed.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

OPM has yet to be integrated into sport management scholarship; including consumer responses.

Spector (2017) Research topic: Examination of environmental communications Method: Interviews Setting: New Zealand South Island; ski resorts Area/sector of sport: Developmental to elite skiing Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Transport is a key environmental issue for skiers and resorts.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Investigate the influence of size and country of operation on environmental perceptions. Examine policy options for addressing the environmental implications of skiers’ transport to the hills.

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Spector et al. (2012) Research topic: The safeguarding of the natural environment in sport based on the level of environmentally responsible actions Method: Rated website communications Setting: Application of Sustainable Slopes Program (SSP) at ski resorts Area/sector of sport: Developmental to elite skiing in the USA Theoretical foundations: Adaptation of Hudson and Miller’s (2005) model was used to classify ski resorts as inactive, exploitive, reactive, or proactive in their environmental activities. Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Result supports notion that size and public profile are important factors in encouraging ski resorts to engage in environmental efforts.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Examine the motivation behind ski resorts publishing environmental communications. Seek to understand skiers’ perceptions of environmental initiatives.

Trail & McCullough (2019) Research topic: To create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model Method: Survey Setting: 10-mile run event Area/sector of sport: Community-hosted sport Theoretical foundations: Theory of planned behaviour; the attitude-behaviourcontext model; the motivation-opportunity-ability model; value-belief-norm model; identity theory model of sustainability behaviour and model of sport consumer behaviour; self-determination theory; constraints theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

The sport industry is deepening its commitment to the natural environment by initiating various sustainability campaigns.

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Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1 per cent of the variance in attitudes towards the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behaviour, and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2 per cent of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess ES campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviours.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Examine additional aspects of the model to better explain the predictors of sustainable attitudes. Expand the model within the context of examining people’s thoughts, feelings, and intentions concerning ES campaigns and the overall effectiveness of the campaign; include behaviours to address the knowledge-action gap.

Trendafilova, Babiak, & Heinze (2013) Research topic: Institutional forces affecting ES in professional sport teams and leagues in North America Method: Interviews; document analysis (website and media reports) Setting: North American sport executives Area/sector of sport: Professional sport – the National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), and National Hockey League (NHL) Theoretical foundations: Institutional theory, upper echelon theory, identity theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

By looking at the role of the forces, we can learn more about what is driving the adoption of environmentalism in the sport industry. There is “a growing agreement among sport practitioners that environmentally responsible management practices can make a substantial positive impact both on the environment and on cost savings for the organization” (p. 301).

Conclusions: •

•

Forces that both reinforce each other and impact a sport organization’s adoption of behaviour for safeguarding the environment includes scrutiny, regulation, normative, and associative pressures. Sport organizations can leverage a variety of groups to communicate environmental messages to fans, including the media and suppliers.

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Team environmental activities may vary due to both constraints (e.g., time, money, knowledge, etc.) and enablers (e.g., leadership values, vision, and networks).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

We know little about the institutional conditions leading to environmental behaviours.

With a total of nine publications found in sport management journals, there is not a critical body of research on sport environmental awareness, perception, behaviour, motivation, and promotion. Three of these manuscripts reported on athletics departments and their ES practices and strategies at work – all focused on the United States (Casper, Phahl, & McCullough, 2017; Casper, Phahl, & McSherry, 2012; Inoue & Kent, 2012). Additionally, Trendafilova, Babiak, and Heinze (2013) analyzed institutional forces affecting ES in professional sport teams and leagues in North America. One examined the ski resort environmental communications (Spector et al., 2012). Another, Spector (2017), extended this work with an investigation on how ski areas might use environment-themed communications to develop social legitimacy without having addressed skiers’ transport. Furthermore, the manuscript by Kellison and Mondello (2012) proposed organizational perception management using corporate pro-environmental behaviour in sport to demonstrate how professional sport organizations can protect their images, reputations, and identities and obtain favourable referenda outcomes. Interestingly, there were multiple theoretical foundations utilized in the literature reviewed by Trail and McCullough (2019), including the theory of planned behaviour, the attitude-behaviour-context model, the motivationopportunity-ability model, the value-belief-norm model, sport consumer behaviour theory, self-determination theory, and constraints theory. Additional theories utilized included: perception, behavioural changes, engagement (psychological) theory (Casper, Phahl, & McCullough, 2017); adaptation of Hudson and Miller’s (2005) theoretical model (Spector et al., 2012); organizational perception management, as well as desired voting outcome framework (Kellison & Mondello, 2012); sport teams as promoters of socially beneficial behaviour, along with internalization theory and identification theory (Inoue & Kent, 2012); and institutional theory, upper echelon theory, and identity theory (Trendafilova, Babiak, & Heinze, 2013). These theoretical foundations illustrated that diverse perspectives were offered within the sport-focused manuscripts. The next area of focus involves sport manuscripts on the topics that were published outside of the sport management journals.

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Sport manuscripts published outside of sport management journals An additional 12 manuscript publications on sport environmental awareness, perception, behaviour, motivation, and promotion were published outside of the sport management journals. These manuscripts focused on sport and the concept of environmentalism, and examples abound. In the work of Death (2011), the focus was on the South African Green Goal 2010 initiative that was developed to stimulate urban renewal projects, garner economic advancements for construction, and stimulate pride and rebranding of the nation. Additionally, two manuscripts reported on North American professional sports leagues and their environmental management initiatives (Babiak & Trendafilova, 2011; Ciletti et al., 2010). Two manuscripts examined golf and sustainability awareness – one with a global focus (Minoli, Goode, & Metcalfe, 2018) and one through the Voluntary Environmental Programs (Minoli & Smith, 2011). Three manuscripts conducted research on environmental initiatives within the US university/college environment (Han, Nelson, & Chulwon, 2015; Mullenbach & Green, 2018; Pfahl et al., 2015). McCullough and Cunningham (2010) articulated a conceptual model of how and why sport organizations engage in environmentally friendly business practices. A case study analysis on environmentalism at the football club in Ipswich Town was completed by Baldwin (2010). Meanwhile, Fenton (2010) focused on the advantages of each type of environmental partnership and partners that may best support them. And, finally, Hansla, Gamble, Juliusson, and Garlin (2008) tested the relationships between the Dominant Social Paradigm (DSP), materialism, environmental concern, and environmental behaviours in four Asian economies. An overview of each of these manuscripts is now presented. Babiak & Trendafilova (2011) Research topic: Diffusion of environmental initiatives Method: Survey; interviews Setting: Teams and league executives in five professional sports leagues in North America, including the National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Hockey League (NHL), and Major League Soccer (MLS) Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Institutional theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There are cost savings associated with being environmentally conscious, such as encouraging the turning off of lights at practice and game facilities, adjusting the thermostat, and using solar or wind power.

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Conclusions: •

Environmental activities can provide advantages to a professional sport team financially and strategically, and simultaneously address a number of other important corporate objectives (i.e. bolster public image, meet needs of key stakeholders, be in alignment with community expectations, and achieve a marketing advantage).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Examine patterns of adoption and reporting of sustainability practices; how effectively environmental norms are adopted, disseminated, and put into practice.

Baldwin (2010) Research topic: The role that community can play in tackling climate change Method: Case study; mixed methods Setting: Ipswich Town; Football Club Area/sector of sport: Elite sport fans Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

The campaign successfully achieved its principal aim of encouraging behavioural changes among Ipswich Town Football Club fans to reduce their personal carbon emissions.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Identifying the contexts and mechanisms for removing barriers concerning adopting pro-environmental behavioural changes. Examine multiple contexts, mechanisms, and outcomes associated with community-based pro-environmental behavioural change initiatives, with the goal of helping government to develop appropriate policy through which to fully harness their potential.

Ciletti et al. (2010) Research topic: How teams are communicating sustainability principles and practices on their websites

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Method: Content analysis Setting: Sport teams websites Area/sector of sport: North American professional sports franchises Theoretical foundations: •

None stated.

Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

US and Canadian professional sports teams have a moderate level of focus on communicating environmental initiatives on their web pages.

Conclusions: •

Communication about environmental factors varied by league.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Examine the effect of sustainability communication on consumers’ perception of teams and consumption of team offerings. Study whether communication of sustainability efforts leads to increased consumption of league offerings or improvements in attitudes about the league.

Death (2011) Research topic: The politics greening Method: Content analysis; interviews Setting: South Africa Area/sector of sport: FIFA World Cup Theoretical foundations: •

None stated.

Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Mega events have a role in nation development, including environmentally focused development.

Conclusions: •

Future World Cup greening programs will need to ensure a number of fundamental aspects are in place, including the integration of the greening

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component into the bid, securing FIFA buy-in for environmental action, formulating a clear national strategy and vision for greening programs, ensuring program coordination, and establishing a participatory grassroots movement process at an early stage, which will provide impetus and buy-in for the projects, as well as contributing to the implementation and monitoring of the programs. Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Han, Nelson, & Chulwon (2015) Research topic: Sport event pro-environmental behaviour Method: Surveys Setting: Sport events; Midwest USA Area/sector of sport: Higher education sport; tailgaters Theoretical foundations: Social desirability bias Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

In the future, the study should be replicated in the same destination and at other sport event destinations. The social desirability bias is not a major issue on environmentally related research.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Target different types and sizes of sport events to determine if the findings are consistent.

Hansla et al. (2008) Research topic: Tests the relationships between the Dominant Social Paradigm (DSP), materialism, environmental concern, and environmental behaviours, in four Asian economies; examines the relationships between these constructs and identifies that the model of the relationship is applicable in regions with different cultural foundations Method: Online survey; structural equation modelling Setting: Four Asian economies with a strong Chinese background Area/sector of sport: n/a

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Theoretical foundations: Dominant Social Paradigm (DSP) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

• •

The model relationships were confirmed, with the exception of the link between the DSP and environmental concern, which was positive and suggests that within these Asian economies there may be a realization that consumption and the environment are intertwined. DSP was found to influence materialism with regard to environmental concerns. Environmental concern increased direct and indirect environmental behaviours.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Explore potential variations in relationships between Asian economies and environmental concerns.

Minoli, Goode, & Metcalfe (2018) Research topic: Golfers’ environmental worldviews Method: Survey Setting: Wales, UK Area/sector of sport: Golf; 175 clubs and approximately 100,000 golfers. Theoretical foundations: The New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) attitudinalmeasurement scale Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

n/a

Conclusions: •

•

This study advocates the importance of taking into account golfers’ environmental worldviews and attitudes as they influence a golf club’s intention whether or not to implement an environmental initiative. The NEP scale provides a simple, cost-effective means to measure and display golfers’ environmental worldviews and attitudes.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Examine different research settings and environmental worldviews. Extend examinations of environmental worldviews to groups within golf, such as greenkeepers, clubhouse managers, and administrators.

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Minoli & Smith (2011) Research topic: The emerging trend of golf participation in voluntary environmental programs (VEPs) Method: Conceptual Setting: International golf industry Area/sector of sport: Environmental actions by golfers Theoretical foundations: n/a Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • •

•

Golf has important economic and social benefits, but this comes with equally significant environmental impacts that need to be reconciled. Every principal stakeholder of golf (owners, managers, greenkeepers, golfers, governing bodies, trade associations, manufacturers, planners, developers, and course designers) are responsible for developing and managing golf in an environmentally sustainable manner. There is very limited research on the topic.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

Determine the role and significance of golf and voluntary environmental programs in protecting the natural environment. Research the development and diffusion of these programs in golf and other sports. Develop understandings on the reasons for sports to participate in these types of programs; measure the tangible and intangible costs and benefits of such programs.

Mullenbach & Green (2018) Research topic: Examines the effects of an environmental education program on student-athletes’ environmental attitudes, behavioural intent, and knowledge. Method: Survey Setting: University of Georgia student-athletes Area/sector of sport: Higher education sport Theoretical foundations: Environmental literacy Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: n/a Conclusions: •

Athletic Association Academic Services could implement environmental

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education to address a gap in the student-athlete academic support literature. Student-athletes are a population of university students frequently under-reached and advancing their sustainability knowledge can improve their behaviours and reduce the overall environmental impact of universities.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Determine how traits of student-athletes, such as their gender and chosen sport, may impact their level of environmental literacy and any possible impacts due to their mentors’ environmental values.

Pfahl et al. (2015) Research topic: Collaborative processes and practices for ES Method: Interviews Setting: Middle management; higher education athletic departments; USA Area/sector of sport: Higher education athletics Theoretical foundations: The five characteristics of collaboration Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: Conclusions: •

•

Five central themes: (1) relationship development; (2) relationship communication; (3) relationship decision-making development; (4) collaborative efforts; and (5) relationship challenges. The themes raise important issues about the diversity of relationships, the communicative and decision-making processes, and the involvement of stakeholders in environmental efforts, as well as future research in this area.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

Explore the different areas of the model. Document the different ways in which relationships are enacted and offer a typology of collaboration efforts for environmentalism. Trace the coordination of strategic and collaborative environmental activities.

Fenton (2010) Research topic: Using sponsorship to drive environmental practices Method: Informative Setting: None stated Area/sector of sport: Strategic partnership Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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As climate change becomes more tangible, concern and awareness can only mount and businesses will be adapting to, and in some cases thriving on, new opportunities and markets.

Conclusions: •

Sponsorship is a form of marketing and, as the environment is a test of a company’s reputation, and as businesses and the environment come ever closer and new forms of revenue are generated, sponsorship will be increasingly used to communicate to opinion makers, other businesses, and consumers on a product or brand level. Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

McCullough & Cunningham (2010) Research topic: To articulate a conceptual model of how and why sport organizations engage in environmentally friendly business practices Method: None stated Setting: None stated Area/sector of sport: Sport organizations Theoretical foundations: Institutional theory, upper echelon theory, identity theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

These relationships are thought to be moderated by the top management team’s disposition towards environmentalism.

Conclusions: •

Possible outcomes of these changed business practices include cost saving, increased competitive advantage, goodwill perceptions among consumers, and increased fan identification.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

Further inquiry is needed to understand the processes and challenges that an organization may face while adapting such policies from a stakeholder, managerial subordinate, or consumer perspective. Understanding the components that are needed to effectively create change to a more environmentally friendly consciousness will not only further institutional theory, but also provide a strong guide for other organizations and even industries seeking to be more environmentally friendly.

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The 12 manuscripts published outside of the sport management journals contributed to the body of sport literature on the topic, but the research overall remains limited. None of the 21 manuscripts – published within and outside of the sport management journals – examined sport environmental awareness, perceptions, behaviour, motivations, and promotions in many areas or sectors of sport outside of North America. It is noted that the social, economic, political, and financial status of regions outside of North America can affect the environmental literacy, in mitigating environmental concerns. This environmental literacy (EL) was defined by Roth (1992) as “the degree of our capacity to perceive and interpret the relative health of environmental systems and to take appropriate action to maintain, restore, or improve the health of those systems” (Mullenbach & Green, 2018, p. 2). Next, gaps in the sport management literature on these topics are examined.

Gaps in the sport management literature The gaps apparent in the literature are plentiful. To begin with, Trail and McCullough (2019) stated that additional research was needed to examine people’s thoughts, feelings, and intentions concerning ES campaigns and the overall effectiveness of the campaign in sport. Furthermore, Trail and McCullough (2019) indicated that future research needed to include behaviours to address the knowledge-action gap. Casper, Phahl, and McSherry (2012) indicated that further examination was needed on strategic environmental planning, goals, and objectives between athletics departments and university administration offices, as well as the various contexts, such as the role of the student-athletes. The list of suggested future research directions continued with a focus on: motivations behind ski resorts publishing environmental communications and skiers’ perceptions of the initiatives (Spector et al., 2012); factors influencing how a sport team could induce consumers to engage in pro-environmental behaviour (Inoue & Kent, 2012); and, finally, “a concentration of research is needed to develop further understandings concerning the contemporary issue of ES in sport” (Spector, 2017, p. 159). There were a number of gaps in the sport management literature on the topic that future researchers can seek to answer. Now, attention is turned to literature published on the topic in journals outside of sport management. Is this where sport researchers are publishing their work? Overall, the 21 research publications offered basic understandings on the topic; however, there is room for a multitude of research to fill in the numerous gaps in the literature. The gaps extend to topics encompassing sports awareness, perceptions, behaviour, motivations, and promotions of ES. Several research topic suggestions are now offered: • •

determine the awareness and priority of the environmental issues within the different segments of sport; explore the history of predictors of sustainable attitudes;

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examine people’s perceptions, including thoughts, feelings, and intentions, concerning ES campaigns and their effectiveness; study behaviours that address the knowledge-action gap; examine the nexus concerning planning, organizing, communicating, and actions for green activities; investigate how organizations respond to different environmental pressures and enact successful environmental actions; examine the linkages between cognitive, affective, and pro-environmental fan behavioural levels; explore the role of the athlete in environmental actions within sport; explore which athletes have been successful in promoting environmental actions and why; determine best practices in environmental promotions in sport; examine the expectations concerning sports leadership and enacting promotional programs for ES; and explore the processes and challenges that an organization may face while adapting such policies from a stakeholder, managerial subordinate, or consumer perspective.

There are plenty of manuscripts that are outside of sport that can be used to highlight sport research that aims to fill in the gaps. For example, Yapici and colleagues (2017) examined environmental awareness, while Tilokwan and Limjirakan (2018) examined effective mechanisms for enhancing environmental awareness. Eilam and Trop (2012) studied which was the horse or the cart – the environmental attitudes or the behaviour. Wonneberger (2017) tested a model of guilt arousal and the effects of environmental campaigns, while Ito (2017) studied the gaps between environmental knowledge and behaviour. Additional research includes Han and Hyun’s (2018) work on water conservation and Phillips’ (2019) work on relationship perceptions to motivate action. Supportive management research can be found in a range of journals, such as: Ecological Complexity; Environment and Behavior; Environmental Ethics; Environmental Practice; Environmental Sociology; Environmental Values; Ethics and the Environment; International Journal of Humanity Studies; International Journal of Sustainable Society; Journal of Environmental and Public Health; Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences; and Organization & Environment.

Conclusion In summation, this chapter contributes to understandings concerning the body of research on sport environmental awareness, perception, behaviour, motivations, and promotions, while identifying multiple gaps in the literature. There were a total of nine sport research manuscripts on the topics found in the sport management journals. Additionally, there were 12 sport-focused manuscripts found in non-sport management journals. This makes a total of 21 manuscripts, or

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realistically, a paucity of research on the topics. There is an abundance of knowledge that remains unexposed that could aid sport in working towards ES. Examples of gaps in the literature were offered, along with management research and journals to support additional research in sport. Researchers are encouraged to continue to explore this important area related to sport ES further in an effort to support sports’ actions that safeguard the future of sport, while preserving our natural environment.

References Babiak, K., & Trendafilova, S. (2011). CSR and environmental responsibility: Motives and pressures to adopt green management practices. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 18(1), 11–24. doi:10.1002/csr.229. Baldwin, R. (2010). Football and climate change: Strange bedfellows or a means of going beyond the usual suspects in encouraging pro-environmental behavioral change. Local Environment: International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 15(9), 851–866. doi:10. 1080/13549839.2010.531252. Casper, J., & Pfahl, M. (2012). Environmental behavior frameworks of sport and recreation undergraduate students. Sport Management Education Journal, 6(1), 8–20. doi:10.1123/ smej.6.1.8. Casper, J., Phahl, M., & McCullough, B. (2017). Is going green worth it? Assessing fan engagement and perceptions of athletic department environmental efforts. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 9(1), 106–134. Casper, J., Pfahl, M., & McSherry, M. (2012). Athletics department awareness and action regarding the environment: A study of NCAA Athletics department sustainability practices. Journal of Sport Management, 26(1), 11–29. doi:10.1123/jsm.26.1.11. Ciletti, D., Lanasa, J., Ramos, D., Luchs, R., & Lou, J. (2010). Sustainability communication in North American professional sports leagues: Insights from web-site self-presentations. International Journal Sport Communication, 3(1), 64–91. doi:10.1123/ijsc.3.1.64. Death, C. (2011). “Greening” the 2010 FIFA World Cup: Environmental sustainability and the mega-event in South Africa. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 13(2), 99–117. doi:10.1080/1523908X.2011.572656. Eilam, E., & Trop, T. (2012). Environmental attitudes and environmental behavior – which is the horse and which is the cart? Sustainability, 4(9), 2210–2246. doi:10.3390/su4092210. Fenton, W. (2010). Using sponsorship to drive environmental awareness and change. Journal of Sponsorship, 3(2), 124–129. Han, H., & Hyun, S. (2018). What influences water conservation and towel reuse practices of hotel guests? Tourism Management, 64, 87–97. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2017.08.005. Han, J., Nelson, C., & Chulwon, K. (2005). Pro-environmental behaviour in sport event tourism: Roles of event attendees and destinations. Tourism Geographies, 17(5), 1–19. doi:10.1080/14616688.2015.1084037. Hansla, A., Gamble, A., Juliusson, A., & Garling, T. (2008). The relationships between awareness of consequences, environmental concern, and value orientations. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.08.004. Hudson, S., & Miller, G. (2015). The responsible marketing of tourism: The case of Canadian Mountain Holidays. Tourism Management, 26(2), 133–142. doi:10.1016/j. tourman.2003.06.005.

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Inoue, Y., & Kent, A. (2012). Sport teams as promoters of pro-environmental behaviour: An empirical study. Journal of Sport Management, 26(5), 417–432. doi:10.1123/jsm.26.5.417. Ito, H. (2017). Underlying gaps between environmental knowledge and behavior in the City of Toyota: Phase III. Asian Social Science, 13(10), 22–30. doi:10.5539/ass.v13n10p23. Kellison, T., & Mondello, M. (2012). Organisational perception management in sport: The use of corporate pro-environmental behaviour for desired facility referenda outcomes. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 500–512. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.01.005. McCullough, B. P., & Cunningham, G. B. (2010). A conceptual model to understand the impetus to engage in and the expected organization outcomes of green initiatives. Quest, 62(4), 348–363. doi:10.1080/00336297.2010.10483654. Minoli, D., Goode, M., & Metcalfe, A. (2018). Case study: Are sport tourists of an environmental mindset to drive the green? The case of golfers. Tourism Management Perspectives, 25(January), 71–79. doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2017.11.007. Minoli, D., & Smith, M. (2011). An exploration of golf and voluntary environmental programmes. Journal of Environmental Planning & Management, 54(7), 871–889. doi:10. 1080/09640568.2010.539372. Mullenbach, L., & Green, G. (2018). Can environmental education increase studentathletes’ environmental behaviours? Environmental Education Research, 24(3), 427–444. Pfahl, M., Casper, J., Trendafilova, S., McCullough, B., & Nguyen, S. (2015). Crossing boundaries: An examination of sustainability department and athletics department collaboration regarding environmental issues. Communication & Sport, 3(91), 27–56. doi:10. 1177/2167479513519253. Phillips, M. (2019). “Daring to care”: Challenging corporate environmentalism. Journal of Business Ethics, 156(4), 1151–1164. doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3589-0. Roth, C. E. (1992). Environmental literacy: Its roots, evolution and directions in the 1990s. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED). Spector, S., (2017). Environmental communications in New Zealand’s skiing industry: Building social legitimacy without addressing non-local transport. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 21(3), 159–177. doi:10.1080/14775085.2017.1298461. Spector, S., Chard, C., Mallen, C., & Hyatt, C. (2012). Socially constructed environmental issues and sport: A content analysis of ski resort environmental communications. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 416–433. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.04.003. Tilokwan, P., & Limjirakan, S. (2018). Effective mechanisms for environmental awareness enhancement of the Thai public company. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 17, Conference 1. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/117/1/012002. Trail, G. T., & McCullough, B. P. (2019). Marketing sustainability through sport: Testing the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model. European Sport Management Quarterly, 20(2), 1–21. doi:10.1080/16184742.2019.1580301. Trendafilova, S., Babiak, K., & Heinze, K. (2013). Corporate social responsibility and environmental sustainability: Why professional sport is greening the playing field. Sport Management Review, 16(3), 298–313. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.12.006. Wonneberger, A. (2017). Environmentalism – a question of guilt? Testing a model of guilt arousal and effects for environmental campaigns. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 30(2), 168–186. doi:10.1080/10495142.2017.1326873. Yapici, G., Ögenler, O., Kurt, A., Koças, F., & Sasmaz, T. (2017). Assessment of environmental attitudes and risk perceptions among university students in Mersin, Turkey. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2017, 1–8. doi:10.1155/2017/5650926.

Chapter 12

Sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for environmental sustainability Scott McRoberts and Tristian Reid

This chapter focuses on research manuscripts relating to sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for environmental sustainability (ES). Importantly, this chapter reviews each manuscript and outlines the gaps in the literature, as well as provides recommendations for future examinations in sport. Further, literature from industries outside of sport are offered as examples that can support a call for future sport research on the topic. Much work is necessary to increase our knowledge of ES related to sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing and researchers are encouraged to fill in the gaps.

Research in sport management journals on sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES Manuscripts published in sport management journals on sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES indicated an ongoing awareness of the topic within the industry. Each manuscript provided insights with regard to the topic. For instance, Bell and Gallimore (2015) examined the effectiveness of a subregional multi-agency strategic planning process in leveraging benefits from the London 2012 Olympics. They proposed that, with sufficient planning time and an appropriate forum, it is possible to create useful local partnerships for achieving leverage from mega-events which local populations can “embrace”. Kellison and Kim (2014) examined environmental awareness and noted a growing trend of pro-environmental sport facilities. Inoue and Kent (2012) investigated the process of how professional sport organizations influence consumer voluntary behaviour through their marketing initiatives. The findings suggested that these organizations can be an effective vehicle for socially beneficial behaviour by increasing their credibility in marketing involvement. Moreover, Kim and Train (2011) analyzed the shift in sport marketing from a traditional exchange paradigm to a relationship paradigm. They stated that relationship quality is critical to understanding sport consumer–organization relationships. This is because it can render a platform to organize wide-ranging relational constructs, provide insight into evaluating relationship-marketing effectiveness, and diagnose and address problems in relationships (Kim & Train, 2011).

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Meanwhile, McCullough, Trendafilova, and Picariello (2016) researched how strategic partnerships were beneficial and to what extent they are currently being used. This manuscript found that strategic alliances between environmental groups and sport organizations/venues can aid in a movement forward to integrate ES more profoundly into daily operations. Also, Harris (2013) specifically explored the relationship between large-scale sporting events and education for sustainable development. This manuscript found that the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games acted as a vehicle for education for sustainable development and in so doing impacted, to varying degrees, organizations, groups, and individuals across its host community (the State of Victoria) to be environmentally responsible. There are, however, only a total of six publications found in sport management journals on these topics. This means that there is not a critical body of research on sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for environmental substantiality. A synopsis of research published within sport management journals on the topic is now outlined. Bell & Gallimore (2015) Research topic: The effectiveness of sub-regional multi-agency strategic planning in leveraging mega-event benefits Method: Case study Setting: London 2012 Olympics Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Inter-organizational partnership approach Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

To gain access to resources (e.g. branding, intellectual property, and funding) held by powerful organizations such as the IOC and OCOG; sub-regional partnerships have to engage with these relationships and structures (Smith, 2009).

Conclusions: •

•

•

A more proactive stakeholder management approach (Ackermann & Eden, 2011) might have increased the involvement of stakeholders, although this clearly required dedicated resources to maintain. Improved communications might have improved the view of some respondents of the effectiveness of face-to-face meetings which were the principle mechanism for coordinating the steering group, but were difficult to maintain. With sufficient planning time and an appropriate forum, it is possible to create useful local frameworks and partnerships for achieving leverage from mega-events which local populations can “embrace”.

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Harris (2013) Research topic: The relationship between large-scale sporting events and education for sustainable development Method: Case study; explorative research Setting: 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games Area/sector of sport: Elite sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

There is a trend of a pre-existing commitment by government to sustainable development and the use of partnerships by the event’s organizers to progress its environmental agenda. Constraints on education for sustainable development were identified, including the failure to embrace environmental considerations in the Games legislation, the limited resources, and lack of emphasis placed upon the event’s overall environmental program.

Conclusions: •

The Games acted as a vehicle for education for sustainable development and in so doing impacted, to varying degrees, organizations, groups, and individuals across its host community (the State of Victoria) to be environmentally responsible.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Inoue & Kent (2012) Research topic: To investigate how professional sports organizations influence consumer voluntary behaviour through marketing initiatives Method: Survey Setting: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Area/sector of sport: Professional sport teams (Philadelphia Eagles (American football) and Philadelphia Phillies (baseball)) Theoretical foundations: Psychological connections and perspectives Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

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Conclusions: •

Environmental credibility was found to have a significant association with pro-environmental behaviour.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Research should assess the identified relationships through experimental studies. Investigate the effects of various persuasion variables to fully understand marketing influences on individual behaviour.

Kellison & Kim (2014) Research topic: Pro-environmental organizations’ motives Method: Interviews Setting: North America Area/sector of sport: Professional sports teams Theoretical foundations: Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

One of the most visible trends in corporate pro-environmental behaviour has been the construction of pro-environmental facilities.

Conclusions: •

The TBL’s three components are closely intertwined, and the implementation of commercial and social marketing strategies is necessary to attend to and realize the organizations’ stated goal of maximizing all three components.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

It is unclear how professional sport organizations create exposure about their pro-environmental initiatives after green facilities’ start-ups. Organizations have been unable to identify the most effective strategies for promoting the greenness of their arenas and stadiums.

Kim & Train (2011) Research topic: Shift in sport marketing from a traditional exchange paradigm to a relationship paradigm Method: Conceptual model Setting: None stated Area/sector of sport: Sport relationships; consumer-organization Theoretical foundations: Psychological/demographic characteristics

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Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Relationship quality is critical to understanding sport consumer–organization relationships because it can: (1) render a platform to organize wide-ranging relational constructs; (2) provide insight into evaluating relationshipmarketing effectiveness; and (3) diagnose and address problems in relationships.

Conclusions: •

Developed a conceptual framework to provide a foundation for understanding: (1) the central constructs of sport consumer–organization relationship quality; (2) the pivotal behavioural aspects of sport consumption that are affected by the sport consumer–organization relationship quality; and (3) some potential moderators of the link between relationship quality and sport consumer behaviours of interest.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • • •

• •

There remains a lack of research on the key elements comprising a good or bad relationship between sport consumers and the sport organization. Research offers few insights as to what a sport organization’s primary objectives of relationship marketing should be towards sport consumers. There exists a gap in the knowledge on how the effectiveness of relationship marketing should be evaluated. Greater understandings are needed on how relationship marketing strategies influence sport consumption behaviours; especially on sport consumers’ intermediate responses to relationship marketing, such as potential psychological effects that precede actual consumption behaviour (Hoyer & Maclnnis, 2007). To integrate the relationship quality construct with other key drivers known or found to affect sport consumption behaviours. Another interesting topic for further research is the applicability of the conceptual model to more general contexts.

McCullough, Trendafilova, & Picariello (2016) Research topic: The benefits of strategic partnerships Method: Informative work Setting: Sport industry Area/sector of sport: Strategic alliances Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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Conferences and events provide openings to share best practices, mobilize sport and entertainment organizations, and establish strategic green alliances. Sport and entertainment managers should seek out these opportunities to expand networks and see what other organizations are doing to reduce their environmental impacts.

Conclusions: •

The sporting industry can take additional steps to move forward in its efforts to integrate ES into its daily operation.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Two of these manuscripts examined sport mega-events and the effectiveness of partnerships and the factors present to make them effective (Bell & Gallimore, 2015; Harris, 2013). Additionally, McCullough, Trendafilova, and Picariello (2016) analyzed best practices for strategic alliances through conferences and events as they provide openings to share best practices, mobilize sport and entertainment organizations, and establish strategic green alliances. Furthermore, the manuscript by Kim and Train (2011) focused on sport relationship quality and found that it is critical to understanding sport consumer–organization relationships. Furthermore, two manuscripts investigated professional sports teams and concluded that these organizations can be an effective vehicle for encouraging socially beneficial behaviour (Inoue & Kent, 2012; Kellison & Kim, 2014). There were eight theoretical foundations utilized in the literature. This included the sustainability theory (Harris, 2013), psychological and demographic characteristics (Kim & Train, 2011), the inter-organizational partnership approach (Bell & Gallimore, 2015), psychological connections and perspective focus (Inoue & Kent, 2012), the triple bottom line, and, finally, the benefits of pro-environmental initiatives (Kellison & Kim, 2014). To date, a full range of foundations have not yet been utilized within the sport-focused manuscripts on this topic.

Gaps in the sport management literature There are plenty of gaps outlined in the literature and the authors encouraged future research to advance knowledge. Kim and Train’s (2011) manuscript indicated that there is a lack of research on the key elements comprising a good or bad relationship between sport consumers and the sport organizations. They stated that current research offers few insights as to what should be the

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focus of a sport organization’s primary objectives in relationship marketing. In addition, there exists a gap in the knowledge of how the effectiveness of relationship marketing should be evaluated (Kim & Train, 2011). Furthermore, the current literature does not provide sufficient explanation concerning relationship marketing strategies and their influence on sport consumption behaviours (Kim & Train, 2011). What is especially lacking is an understanding of sport consumers’ intermediate responses to relationship marketing, such as potential psychological effects that precede actual consumption behaviour (Kim & Train, 2011). Additionally, Kellison and Kim (2014) concluded that it is unclear how professional sport organizations create exposure about their pro-environmental initiatives after green facilities’ startups. Kellison and Kim also stated that organizations have been unable to identify the most effective strategies for promoting the greenness of their arenas/stadiums. Inoue and Kent (2012) suggested that further investigation is necessary to test their theoretical model using data obtained from different marketing programs. And, finally, more investigation on the effects of various persuasion variables is needed to fully understand marketing influences on individual behaviour (Inoue & Kent, 2012). Throughout the literature on sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES in sport management journals, there were a number of unanswered questions and gaps for future researchers to fill. With only six manuscripts published on this topic in sport management journals, and with the number of gaps in the literature exposed, we sought to examine understandings found in literature published on sport and the topic in journals but found to be outside of sport management. Each of these manuscripts are now reviewed below.

Research manuscripts published in non-sport management journals on sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES There were an additional seven manuscripts found on the topic relating to sport that were published outside of the sport management journals. Three manuscripts focused on the relationship of athletic departments and sport fans relating to environmental efforts (Casper, Pfahl, & McCullough, 2014, 2017; Pfahl et al., 2015); one manuscript offered a content analysis of the sport marketing and ES literature (Chard, Mallen, & Bradish, 2013); one manuscript tested the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model among sport participants of a 10-mile run event (Trail & McCullough, 2019); one manuscript offered a sport marketing approach (McCullough & Melton, 2017), and one manuscript examined sport team environmental communications (Wall-Tweedie & Nguyen, 2018). A synopsis of these manuscripts is now presented.

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Casper, Phahl, & McCullough (2017) Research topic: Extent to which environmentally themed activities within the intercollegiate sport context impact fan engagement Method: Online survey Setting: Fans; Division I university; athletic department; Western USA Area/sector of sport: Fan engagement Theoretical foundations: Perception, behavioural changes, engagement (psychological) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

n/a.

Conclusions: •

•

Fans expected athletic department environmental action and they help with favourable perceptions about the athletic program and university, and influenced at-event and home behaviours. The results provide a fundamental and foundational understanding of how environmental activities impact fan engagement and the value of such efforts.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

Contexts studied are not identical to the strategic landscape at every intercollegiate athletics department or sports organization – more research is necessary to replicate measures in this study and extend it by seeking to understand the nature of the clusters shown here (i.e. differences in female fans within their own community) or contextspecific consumer segments. The data was cross-sectional and it is difficult to draw a causal link between the green theme games and activities to changes in a fan’s cognitive, affective, and behavioural levels.

Casper, Pfahl, & McCullough (2014) Research topic: The first study to examine environmental education related to fan environmental behavioural intentions in a sporting context Method: Online survey Setting: Intercollegiate Division 1 football game Area/sector of sport: Intercollegiate sport Theoretical foundations: value-belief-norm (VBN) theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any:

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•

A majority of fans recognized or participated in green game-day activities and fans expected athletic departments to incorporate ES actions and education in athletic events.

Conclusions: •

•

Tests of the VBN found respondents’ values, beliefs, and norms significantly predicted pro-environmental behavioural intentions at the sport event and everyday life. Education intervention nature of the Green Game was effective in influencing the behavioural intentions of the sport fans, suggesting that the setting of a sporting event is an effective medium to educate university stakeholders on environmental issues.

Gaps in the literature: •

Future research should recruit participants before the sporting event as a sample to survey pre and post event in order to reduce the effects of response.

Chard, Mallen, & Bradish (2013) Research topic: A content analysis of management journals to reveal marketing and ES literature Method: Content analysis Setting: Publications in sport management journals on sport marketing and environmentalism Area/sector of sport: Sport marketing Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

•

The examination involved 49 journals published from 1999 to 2009 and found 63 marketing-ES manuscripts in the management literature to underscore future sport marketing-ES research. Outlined the concepts, themes, and sub-themes, along with their perspectives and influencers for each manuscript.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

It is time for sport researchers to generate a robust research response to the marketing-ES questions.

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McCullough & Melton (2017) Research topic: The extent to which environmentally themed activities within an intercollegiate sport context impact fan engagement Method: Online survey Setting: Division I athletics department; Western United States Area/sector of sport: Intercollegiate athletics Theoretical foundations: Corporate social responsibility framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

The context studied is not identical to the strategic landscape at every intercollegiate athletics department or sport organization.

Conclusions: •

Intercollegiate environmental activities were expected by fans and aided to generate favourable perceptions and behaviours.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Replicate and extend this study to other consumer segments.

Pfahl et al. (2015) Research topic: To develop a more comprehensive understanding of collaborative processes and practices between personnel in athletics departments and sustainability offices at universities and colleges Method: Interviews Setting: United States; higher education Area/sector of sport: Colleges and university athletics Theoretical foundations: Collaboration theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Five central themes were found: relationship development, relationship communication, relationship decision-making development, collaborative efforts, and relationship challenges.

Conclusions: •

The themes identified raise important issues about the diversity of relationships, the communicative and decision-making processes, and the involvement of stakeholders and resources usage.

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

Future research could document the different ways in which relationships are enacted and offer a typology of environmental collaboration efforts; and trace the strategic and collaborative threads from university planning down to athletics and sustainability department planning, along with action.

Trail & McCullough (2019) Research topic: To create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model Method: Testing of a created model; the Sport Sustainability Campaign Evaluation Model Setting: Community 10-mile run Area/sector of sport: Community sport Theoretical foundations: Sustainability theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: • • •

Sport professionals can use this model to assess ES campaigns and promote attitudinal sustainable behaviours. Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1 per cent of the variance in attitude towards the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behaviour, and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined explained 74.2 per cent of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

Replicate and extend study to other contexts (other sports, participation events, etc.). Add more aspects to the model to better explain the predictors of sustainable attitudes. Future research needs to include behaviours to address the knowledgeaction gap.

Wall-Tweedie & Nguyen (2016) Research topic: Examination of type and profile of ES initiatives being undertaken and communicated to stakeholders

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Method: Content analysis of communication mediums of 114 professional sport teams from seven countries – Australia, India, New Zealand, Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea – were evaluated using content analysis Setting: Asia-Pacific Region Area/sector: Professional sport ES Theoretical foundations: Conceptual model: antecedents for environmental initiatives Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There are differences in strategies, communication, etc.

Conclusions: •

Reveals low communication of environmental practices by professional sport teams in the Asia-Pacific region compared to North America.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

Future research could focus on better contextualizing environmental engagement through rich data, and on extending the descriptive understanding into inferential findings such as the motives, the likelihood of engagement and the outcomes, moderators and mediators of such attitudinal, cognitive, and behavioural ES variables.

Research on partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES published outside of sport management journals There were six manuscripts on the topic found in sport management journals and seven on sport published outside of the sport management journals. This means that there was a total of 13 publications specifically on sport partnership, relationships, and marketing on ES published inside/outside of sport management journals. This is a minimal level of publications on the topic. It is important to note that there are many research manuscripts on the topic without a focus on sport. Many of these manuscripts can be used to guide additional research on sport and the topic. Examples of this guiding research arise from journals such as the Journal of Business Ethics, Business Horizons, Business and Society, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Sponsorship, Academy of Management Executive, Sustainability, Strategic Management Journal, Organization & Environment, and Journal of Management and Sustainability. Several examples of literature that can guide sport researchers is now offered. Sadovnikova and Pujari’s (2017) examined the effects of announcements of green partnerships (marketing versus technology) on shareholder value. They found that green partnerships can be instrumental in carrying out a

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firms’ environmental strategies and can generate economic gains. Four manuscripts offered a focus on the advantages of each type of environmental partnership and partners that may best support them (Delmas & MontesSancho, 2010; Fenton, 2009; Wassmer, Pain, & Paquin, 2017; Yang & Lien, 2018). Another manuscript investigated the relationships among transaction features, governance mechanisms, and environmental performance (Yang & Lien, 2018). Yet another manuscript includes an assessment of a firms’ likelihood of choosing government-business partnerships for environmental improvements rather than selection of other cross-sector and interfirm partnerships (Lin, 2014). Sadovnikova and Pujari (2017) examined the effects of announcements of green partnerships (marketing versus technology) on shareholder value. A final example analyzed the corporate environmental responsibility which is becoming an increasingly important strategic concern for companies, their stakeholders, and nonprofit organizations (Rodinelli & London, 2003). Synopses of each of these manuscripts are now outlined with the intention of encouraging sport researchers to consider management literature to underscore their research on sport on the topic. Delmas & Montes-Sancho (2010) Research topic: An analysis of determinants of the degree of participation by firms in collective corporate political strategies that aim to shape government policy within the context of voluntary agreements Method: Examination of cooperative strategies of firms Setting: Firms participating in the Climate Challenge program (1995–2000) established by the US Department of Energy and representatives of the national electric utilities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions Area/sector: Environmental agreements/partnerships Theoretical foundations: ES theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

•

•

•

Substantive cooperative strategies are more likely to be pursued by firms that enter a voluntary agreement close to its initiation, while symbolic cooperation is more likely behaviour by late joiners. Late joiners and early joiners within voluntary agreements adopt different cooperative strategies because they face different institutional pressures. Early joiners were subjected to higher levels of political pressure at the state level and were more dependent on local and federal regulatory agencies than late joiners. Early joiners were also better connected to the trade association and more visible.

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Late joiners had significantly less investment in environmental improvements than early joiners.

Conclusions: • •

The results show no significant difference overall between those that partnered early or late in the reduction of their emissions. Illustrates the difficulty involved in using voluntary agreements to try to induce improved environmental outcomes when there are no sanctioning mechanisms.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

Examine the interaction of various strategies and how they influence the likelihood of a firm’s substantive or symbolic cooperation within a voluntary agreement. Identify whether changes in the political landscape, independent of the Climate Change program, reduced the level of threat that more stringent regulations would be put in place to ensure environmentalism.

Fenton (2009) Research topic: The environmental crisis Method: Informative Setting: The global environment Area/sector: Strategic partnership Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

As climate change becomes more tangible, concern and awareness can only mount and businesses will be adapting to, and in some cases thriving on, new opportunities and markets.

Conclusions: •

Sponsorship is a form of marketing and, as the environment is a test of a company’s reputation, and as businesses and the environment come ever closer and new forms of revenue are generated, sponsorship will be increasingly used to communicate to opinion makers, other businesses, and consumers on a product or brand level.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

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Lin (2014) Research topic: A firm’s likelihood of choosing government–business partnerships for environmental improvements rather than selection of other crosssector and inter-firm partnerships Method: Descriptive quantitative research Setting: Government partnerships/relationships Area/sector: Associated sport and government bodies; their directives and funding Theoretical foundations: Resource dependence theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

Government–business partnerships are likely to form when firms are in vulnerable strategic positions, for example: when their survival substantively relies on receiving government support; and when firms have strong resource or social positions that allow them to leverage governmental power in the development of strategic opportunities related to environmental improvements.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

• • •

•

Examine the key elements comprising a good or bad relationship between sport consumers and the sport organization. Extant research offers few insights as to what a sport organization’s primary objectives of relationship marketing should be towards sport consumers. There exists a gap in the knowledge of how the effectiveness of relationship marketing should be evaluated. Current literature does not provide sufficient explanation about how relationship marketing strategies influence sport consumption behaviours. What is especially lacking is an understanding of sport consumers’ intermediate responses to relationship marketing, such as the psychological effects that precede actual consumption behaviour (Hoyer & Maclnnis, 2007). Examine the applicability of the conceptual model to more general contexts.

Rodinelli & London (2003) Research topic: Corporate environmental responsibility is becoming an increasingly important strategic concern for companies, their stakeholders, and non-profit organizations (NPOs) Method: Content analysis of environmental performance and social responsibility reports

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Setting: Corporate cross-sector collaboration Area/sector: Non-profit organizations Theoretical foundations: Alliance theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Levels of collaboration involve arm’s length relationships, interactive collaborations, and intensive alliances.

Conclusions: • • • • •

Firms often enter into collaborative relationships to learn new skills or to acquire tacit knowledge. In intra-sector strategic alliances, corporations have learned that “cultural compatibility” (p. 31) is a key success factor. Cross-sector alliances are similar to intra-sector corporate alliances seen between customers and suppliers. The success of cross-sector alliance recommendations depends on enlisting the support or active participation of suppliers and customers. Even if both parties are willing, organizations with fundamentally different governance structures and missions can find it difficult to exchange information effectively.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Sadovnikova & Pujari (2017) Research topic: The effects of announcements of green partnerships (marketing versus technology) on shareholder value Method: Regression analyses; unique dataset of 190 green strategic partnerships announced by 59 firms in 2005–2007 Setting: Corporate environmentalism Area/sector: Partnerships Theoretical foundations: Contingency perspective Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • • •

Green partnerships can be instrumental in carrying out firms’ environmental strategies and generate economic gains. Managers must be aware that not all of those initiatives generate immediate positive returns. Managers interested in greening firm operations can choose alternative pathways to allocate firm resources to green marketing or green technology domains, based on their short-term and long-term goals.

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Conclusions: •

•

Announcements of green marketing partnerships have an immediate positive and significant effect on shareholder value, whereas announcements of green technology partnerships produce an immediate negative and significant effect. In the short term, green marketing partnerships systematically outperform green technology partnerships, which offers a contrasting view to previous research.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Future research could consider including data from, for example, European countries, where sustainability issues are of high importance. Investigate whether green partnerships with multiple partners, vertical and horizontal, make any difference to changes in stock returns.

Wassmer, Paquin, & Sharma (2014) Research topic: Building a conceptual understanding of environmental collaborations Method: Conceptual mapping Setting: 1989 to present, beginning 3 years prior to the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, when broad-based interest in ECs was first generated Area/sector: Environmental collaborations Theoretical foundations: sustainability theory; four dominant interorganizational collaboration types: (1) inter-firm collaborations; (2) firm–NGO collaborations; (3) firm–government collaborations; and (4) firm–university collaborations Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Environmental collaborations can be understood best at three levels of analysis: (1) the focal firm level; (2) the inter-organizational level; and (3) the external environment level.

Conclusions: •

•

While environmental collaborations, by definition, seek to develop environmental benefits, research reveals that they also generate economic and political benefits. Identifies and reviews key environmental collaboration research and offers a conceptual map to better understand the literature.

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Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

Future research should broaden its focus beyond firm–NGO and firm–government to other forms of environmental collaboration. Little work has been done on inter-firm or firm–university environmental collaboration. Future research needs to become more rigorous theoretically and methodologically to develop greater insight into and connection with other facets of the organizational literature.

Wassmer, Pain, & Paquin (2017) Research topic: The advantages of each type of environmental partnership and partners that may best support them Method: Review of literature Setting: Executives responsible for environmental partnerships and publicly available data Area/sector: Environmental partnership Theoretical foundations: ES Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

There are three main types of environmental partnerships: innovationseeking; legitimacy-building; and policy-influencing. Firms develop environmental partnerships to: (1) reduce negative or generate positive environmental impact in ways that strengthen their competitive position; and (2) access specific resources that cannot otherwise easily be acquired or internally developed.

Conclusions: • •

Executives and managers have become aware of the competitive value of strategically addressing sustainability within their core business. Companies have increasingly developed environmental partnerships with various types of partners.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Yang & Lien (2018) Research topic: The relationships among transaction features, governance mechanisms, and environmental performance Method: Case studies, statistical analysis, and heuristic optimization

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Setting: Conceptual Area/sector: Partnerships Theoretical foundations: Transactional cost economics as a conceptual framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

Statistical results revealed significant performance differences in how firms apply alternative governance mechanisms to mitigate opportunism, manage adaptation problems, and improve green supply chain collaboration and performance.

Conclusions: •

•

Data collected from 969 plants in 17 countries validated the proposed model and confirmed that three control mechanisms (contract, problemsolving cooperation, and information sharing) are simultaneously adopted to mediate the effects of asset specificity and environmental uncertainty. Revealed significant differences in the efficacy of alternative governance mechanisms in mitigating opportunism and managing adaptation problems to improve environmental performance.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

• • •

• • • •

•

Further longitudinal evaluation is needed. Further, additional future research topic suggestions are now offered: Focus on extending the descriptive understandings into inferential findings on motives and the likelihood of engagement, as well as the variables for predicted outcomes. Replicate and extend the studies to other sporting contexts. Further examine the environmental knowledge-action gap. Broaden the research focus to other forms of sport and environmental collaboration and alliances; including across the multiple areas of sport (i.e. amateur to professional); the cultures participating in sport; and the vertical and horizontal aspects of partnering. Determine the key elements comprising a good/bad relationship between sporting consumers and organizations. Examine effective relationship marketing and evaluation strategies. Study drivers of relationship quality in multiple sporting contexts. Develop academic understandings of sport partnerships to promote environmentalism, such as the Zero Mass Water and Australian Indigenous Basketball partnership to bring renewable water resources to remote areas of Australia (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xaTPqeqJGw). Complete cross-sectional research on relationships at one specific point in time, as well as longitudinal relationship evaluations.

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Overall, management literature is available to guide additional research topics in ES and sport. There is plenty of work for sport researchers to complete in order to generate a robust research response concerning sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES.

Conclusion In summation, this chapter generated a review of journal manuscripts found within and outside of sport management journals on sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES. There were six manuscripts in sport management journals and a further seven were found to be published outside of the sport management journals for a total of 13 academic publications on the topic. A synopsis was provided on each of these manuscripts, including their topic/focus, method, setting, sector, theoretical foundations, themes, conclusions, and their stated gaps in the literature. This examination aided in generating understandings of the quantity of research on the topic and much work is needed to advance the research from the current low level to a more robust level. Without additional examinations, understandings will be restrained on the effectiveness of sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing for ES. Further, this work is necessary to advance understandings on specific topics such as the principal benefits for building long-term relations, and how to effectively communicate one’s ES messaging to stakeholders, and how to increase compulsion for sports organizations to perform effectively in concert to obtain culture, financial, and political support around this environmental topic (Hayhurst, MacNeill, & Frisby, 2011). To promote advancing additional research, manuscripts outside of sport were presented as examples to underscore further research on the topic in sport. Further research is encouraged relating to sport partnerships, relationships, and marketing of ES. The impacts of such research have the potential to influence sport, which also has a unique way of making a positive impact on society. As stated by Inoue and Kent (2012), “[s]port, more than any other potential vehicle, contains qualities that make it a powerful force in effecting positive social contributions” (p. 331). Begin your research and fill in the gaps in the literature starting today!

References Ackermann, F., & Eden, C. (2011). Strategic management of stakeholders: Theory and practice. Long Range Planning, 44(3), 179–196. doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2010.08.001. Bell, B., & Gallimore, K. (2015). Embracing the Games? Leverage and legacy of London 2012 Olympics at the sub-regional level by means of strategic partnerships. Leisure Studies, 34(6), 720–741. doi:10.1080/02614367.2014.994553.

Sport partnerships 241 Casper, J., Pfahl, M., & McCullough, B. (2017). Is “going green” worth it? Assessing fan engagement and perceptions of Athletic Department environmental efforts. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 9(1), 106–134. Casper, J., Pfahl, M., & McCullough, B. (2014). Intercollegiate sport and the environment: Examining fan engagement based on athletics department sustainability efforts. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 7, 65–91. Chard, C., Mallen, C., & Bradish, C. (2013). Marketing and environmental sustainability in the sport sector: Developing a research agenda for action. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 3(1), 45–62. doi:10.5539/jms.v3n1p45. Delmas, M., & Montes-Sancho, M. (2010). Voluntary agreements to improve environmental quality: Symbolic and substantive cooperation. Strategic Management Journal, 31(5), 575–601. doi:10.1002/smj.826. Fenton, W. (2009). Using sponsorship to drive environmental awareness and change. Journal of Sponsorship, 3(2), 124–130. Harris, R. (2013). An exploration of the relationship between large-scale sporting events and education for sustainable development: The case of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games. International Journal of the History of Sport, 30(107), 2069–2097. doi:10.1080/09523367.2013.845173. Hayhurst, L., MacNeill, M., & Frisby, W. (2011). A postcolonial feminist approach to gender, development and Edusport. In B. Houlihan and M. Green (Eds.), Handbook of sport development (pp. 353–367). London: Routledge. Hoyer, W., & MacInnis, D. (2007). Consumer behavior. Boston: Houghton Miffin. Inoue, Y., & Kent, A. (2012). Investigating the role of corporate credibility in corporate social marketing: A case study of environmental initiatives by professional sport organizations. Sport Management Review, 15(3), 330–344. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2011.12.002. Kellison, T., & Kim, Y. (2014). Marketing pro-environmental venues in professional sport: Planting seeds of change among existing and prospective consumers. Journal of Sport Management, 28(10), 34–48. doi:10.1123/jsm.2011-0127. Kim, Y., & Train, G. (2011). A conceptual framework for understanding relationships between sport consumers and sport organizations: A relationship quality approach. Journal of Sport Management, 25(1), 57–69. doi:10.1123/jsm.25.1.57 Lin, H. (2014). Government–business partnership formation for environmental improvements. Organization & Environment, 27(4), 383–398. doi:10.1177/10860266/ 4554716. McCullough, B., & Melton, E. (2017). The benefits of becoming a green company: A corporate marketing approach. Journal of Contemporary Athletics, 11(1), 31–47. McCullough, B., Trendafilova, S., & Picariello, M. (2016). Legitimizing sustainability efforts through strategic partnerships. Sport & Entertainment Review, 2(3), 77–83. doi:10.1080/23311886.2018.1467256. Pfahl, M., Casper, J., Trendafilova, S., McCullough, B., & Nguyen, S. (2015). Crossing boundaries: An examination of Sustainability Department and Athletics Department collaboration regarding environmental issues. Communication and Sport, 3(1), 27–56. doi:10.1177/2167479513519253. Rodinelli, D., & London, T. (2003). How corporations and environmental groups cooperate: Assessing cross-sector alliances and collaborations. Academy of Management Executive, 17(1), 61–76. doi:10.5465/ame.2003.9474812.

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Sadovnikova, A., & Pujari, A. (2017). The effects of green partnerships on firm value. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 45, 251–267. doi:10.1007/S11747-016-0490-9. Smith, A. (2009). Spreading the positive effects of major events to peripheral areas. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events. 1, 231–246. doi:10.1080/ 19407960903204372. Trail, G., & McCullough, B. (2019). Marketing sustainability through sport and sustainability campaign evaluation model. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10(3), 1–39. doi:10.1080/16184742.2019.1580301. Wall-Tweedie, J., & Nguyen, S. (2018). Is the grass greener on the other side? A review of the Asia-Pacific sport industry’s environmental sustainability practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 152(3), 1–21. doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3320-6. Wassmer, U., Pain, G., & Paquin, R. (2017). Taking environmental partnerships seriously. Business Horizons, 60(1), 135–142. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2016.09.009. Wassmer, U., Paquin, R., & Sharma, S. (2014). The engagement of firms in environmental collaborations: Existing collaborations and future directions. Business and Society, 53(6), 754–786. doi:10.1177/0007650312439865. Yang, C.-L., & Lien, S. (2018). Governance mechanisms for green supply chain partnerships. Sustainability, 10(8), 2681–2696. doi:10.3390/su1008268.

Chapter 13

Sport and education for environmental sustainability Greg Dingle and Cheryl Mallen

Research on sport, environmental sustainability (ES), and education is limited despite such inquiry being critical to the goal of an environmentally sustainable sport industry. Since the late 1980s, ES in the sport industry has been identified as a global problem by practitioners and scholars alike, and creating sustainable sport will ultimately require, at least in part, advances in research pertaining to sport-specific curricula, assessment, and pedagogies. Before progressing this chapter any further, the first issue worth noting about education relating to sport and ES is a definitional one. To date, there is no single, universally agreed definition of what constitutes education as it pertains to ES and sport. This reflects diffusion in wider, non-sport academic discourse about “sustainability education” (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018; Jickling & Sterling, 2017; Somerville, 2016). In this chapter, we use the phrase “sport-EfS” (sport-Education for Sustainability), a sport-specific extension of the concept of Education for Sustainability (EfS) (Jones, Selby, & Sterling, 2010; Scott et al., 2012) – a field also known as Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (Sterling, 2012; United Nations, 2015; Wals, 2012). EfS/ESD are concepts used interchangeably (Scott et al., 2012), and are well-established in educational academic literature (e.g. Sidiropoulos, 2014; Sterling, 2004; Tilbury, 2010). As such, incorporating EfS/ESD into the nomenclature of sport-ES education is appropriate for this review of the research literature. In coining the phrase “sport-EfS”, we do so with some trepidation. We acknowledge that this term is new to academic consideration of the relationship between sport, ES, and education. We also acknowledge that it may be too broad for those wishing to focus on discipline-specific forms of EfS (e.g. sport management education). However, justification for sport-EfS can be found in links between sport, the natural environment, sustainability, and education in existing academic literature. For example, “sport management education” (e.g. Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018; Light & Dixon, 2007; Pfahl, 2015; Skinner & Gilbert, 2007) has wide and long-standing acceptance. Then there are regular references to sport management “curricula”, “programs”, “courses”, “students”, “academics”, and “educators” (e.g. McCullough, 2015; McCullough & Kellison, 2016; Mercado & Grady, 2017; Pfahl, 2015).

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However, given the early stages of research pertaining to sport, ES, and education, we propose the concept of sport-EfS, not just because it extends the existing concepts of EfS/ESD, but also as it is a concise yet sufficiently broad concept to capture EfS/ESD in both sport management – and sport studies – programs/courses. Sport-EfS also aligns well with the concept of sport-ES (Mallen & Chard, 2011; Mallen, Stevens, & Adams, 2011) that is also established in the academic literature. The intellectual context for sport-EfS research reflects the relatively recent importance that ES has acquired for its industrial counterpart – the global sport sector. Since the early 1990s, both the global sport industry and scholars have found common ground in concerns about the ES of sport (e.g. Cachay, 1993; Green Sports Alliance, 2019; International Olympic Committee, 1999, 2007; McCullough, 2012; Trendafilova, Babiak, & Heinze, 2013; United Nations, 2016). Emblematic of efforts to achieve ES in professional sport, “of the 122 teams in the four major sports leagues in North America, over 30 have shifted to renewable energy”, and over 60 have energy efficiency programs (Trendafilova et al., 2014, p. 11). While sustainability within sport has been “expanding at a steady pace” (McCullough, 2015, p. 13), only a small number of scholars have to date examined the role of education in progressing sport-ES, considered what sport-EfS curricula might look like, or what pedagogies are most useful (e.g. Dingle & Mallen, 2018; Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018; Mallen, Bradish, & MacLean, 2008; McCullough, Pfahl, & Nguyen, 2015; Pfahl, 2015). It is therefore an appropriate time to review the research literature in the field of sport-EfS. The aims of this chapter are therefore to: (1) evaluate the orientation, foci, and major findings of existing research in this field; (2) contemplate gaps in the research literature; and (3) consider avenues for further research.

Sport-EfS: rationale and key concepts Contrasting examples from the United States illustrate the value placed on sport-EfS by some universities and their industry partners. For example, Seattle University in the United States has pioneered a sport-specific EfS program, the graduate Certificate in Sport Sustainability Leadership (CSSL). Comprising four units of study plus a capstone project, the CSSL is aimed at positioning students for “leadership roles in the sustainable sport industry movement”, and is arguably the leading sport-EfS program in North America. In a similar vein, although in less depth, the University of Minnesota’s (2019) online course in Sport and Sustainability – offered in partnership with Major League Baseball – reflects increased interest in sport-EfS in higher education. Such EfS/ESD programs are part of a wider international trend. EfS/ESD has been defined as “education that concentrates on the concept of sustainability in a manner that fits with the values of sustainability” (Moore, 2005, p. 78). There is growing recognition that EfS/ESD is an important component of higher

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education in particular (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018; Jones, Selby, & Sterling, 2010; Sterling & Witham, 2008), and that institutions of higher learning have a vital role to play in challenging students’ thinking and behaviour in relation to the natural environment (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018; Mitchell & Walinga, 2017; Thomas, 2009). The rationale for, and features of, sport-EfS are perhaps best expressed in discussion of a field that may be included within sport-EfS: sport management education. Skinner & Gilbert (2007, p. 125) argued that high quality sport management education is “an important step in developing high quality sport managers”. The curriculum of sport management education has been described as a “pre-hire anticipatory socialization stage where students are preparing themselves for personal and career challenges within the sports industry” (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018, p. 424; Pfahl, 2015, p. 30). Within this overarching vocational context, it has also been argued that sport management education involves three key components that need to align with each other: curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy for critical thinking (Zakus, Malloy, & Edwards, 2007). Zakus, Malloy, and Edwards (2007) contended that the role of sport management educators was to “develop their students’ ability to link thought and action using a two-stage process” (p. 153). The first stage, critical thinking, enables the second stage, becoming “authentic change agents” (p. 153). The value of reflexive learning (Light & Dixon, 2007; Pfahl, 2015; Zakus, Malloy, & Edwards, 2007), and experiential learning (Pastore, 2003; Pfahl, 2015), have therefore been noted. While pedagogical discussion pertaining to sport management education is in its infancy, it offers some useful insights to the broader field of sport-EfS. For example, the value of learning theories such as social constructivism (Light & Dixon, 2007) has been highlighted, as have pedagogical practices such as co-construction of knowledge (Pfahl, 2015). The concept of constructive alignment (Biggs, 1996; Biggs & Tang, 2011; Larkin & Richardson, 2013), which is widely applied in higher education more generally, has been identified as having value for sport-specific higher education (Dingle & Mallen, 2018; Nicholson & Stewart, 2004; Zakus, Malloy, & Edwards, 2007). Surprisingly though, the value of systems thinking (Jickling & Sterling, 2017; Porter & Córdoba, 2009; Soderquist & Overakker, 2010; Wiek, Withycombe, & Redman, 2011), which has been identified as central to non-sport ESD/EfS, has received little academic attention (e.g. Dingle & Mallen, 2018). The rationale underpinning sport-EfS has other dimensions. For example, it has been argued that where sport management education incorporates ES, it has the potential to “shape future actions in the sport industry” (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018, p. 424; Pfahl, 2015). More specifically, the incorporation of the environment into sport management education can “shape assumptions, encourage innovative strategies and options that drive the

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advancement of environmental sustainability” (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018, p. 424; Mallen, Adams, Stevens, & Thompson, 2010). However, perhaps the most compelling justification for sport-EfS is more fundamental. While Mercado and Grady (2017) cited reasons for teaching sustainability within sport management education, such as greater industry interest in ES and competitive advantage for organizations, the strongest reasoning underpinning sport-EfS can be found in discussion of EfS/ESD: “Higher education institutions bear a profound moral responsibility to increase the awareness, knowledge, skills and values needed to create a just and sustainable future. These institutions have the mandate and potential to develop the intellectual and conceptual framework for achieving this goal. (Scott et al., 2012, p. 30) It may therefore be argued that this responsibility extends to sport-EfS. As a consequence, sport-EfS has the potential to make sport sustainable through challenging the way in which students and practitioners think about the natural environment.

Research on sport-EfS Existing research on sport-EfS is in its infancy. A keyword-based literature search identified nine published studies. Six of these studies were published in sport-focused journals, and three were published in non-sport focused journals. The studies in the sport-focused journals were all published since 2011, while the studies in the non-sport-focused journals were all published since 2012. Of the six studies in the sport-focused journals, three adopted qualitative methodology, two used quantitative methodology, and one had a mixed methods methodological stance. Of the three studies published in the non-sport-focused journals, two adopted qualitative methodology and one a quantitative methodology. Overall, the methodological stances of these divided approximately as follows: qualitative (55 per cent), quantitative (33 per cent), and mixed methods (11 per cent). Overall, the nine studies were published across seven different journals. Of these seven journals, five were education-specific or education-related. The studies published in the sport-focused journals were across the following: Sport Management Review (Mallen & Chard, 2011, 2012); Sport Management Education Journal (Casper & Pfahl, 2012; Mercado & Grady, 2017); Journal of Contemporary Athletics (Greenhalgh, LeCrom, & Dwyer, 2015); and Managing Sport and Leisure (Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas, 2018). The studies published in the non-sport-focused journals were across the following: African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance (Bob & Naidoo, 2012); Journal of Sustainability Education (McCullough & Kellison, 2016); and the Journal of Education for Sustainable Development (Saito, 2016). Of note was that none of

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this research was published in the International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, arguably the most prestigious journal for EfS/ESD research. An overview of these publications is provided below. Casper & Pfahl (2012) Research topic: An examination of “the values, beliefs, and norms of undergraduate sport management and recreation administration student’s related to environmental awareness and personal actions” (p. 8) Method: Survey Setting: Higher education students at two universities in the United States Area/sector of sport: n/a Theoretical foundations: Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) framework Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

“This study extends research related to environmental behavior and provides a departure point to improve understandings of the current foundational environmental perspectives held by future sport and recreation managers” (p. 8).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

Studies are needed “that speak to the awareness, knowledge, and actions of fans in relation to the efforts made by sport and recreation organizational personnel in terms of developing revenue generating or community outreach efforts emphasizing environmental issues” (p. 18). The “stakeholders such as suppliers and sponsors would also be another potential area of study … [as they are] needed to accomplish both organizational needs and environmental change efforts” (p. 18).

Graham, Trendafilova, & Ziakas (2018) Research topic: An inventory of sport management programs and ES curriculum Method: Survey of faculty members; interviews Setting: Higher education sport management programs in North America Area/sector of sport: n/a Theoretical foundations: None stated Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Little is known about the scope and content of environmental sustainability curricula” (p. 422).

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Conclusions: •

• • •

“There was no doubt about the importance of environmental sustainability becoming one of the pillars of sport management education as it encompasses all areas of sport management (e.g. facility, events, marketing, law, ethics, finance)” (p. 429), but the topic remains secondary. Few programs offer stand-alone sport-ES courses; many barriers significantly restrain the development of this type of course. Many sport management programs are integrating sport-ES into their curriculum of study. Suggestions are offered for developing sport management education that is integrated with ES.

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Research is needed in the area of “coursework components and teaching/ learning strategies that can optimize the integration” (p. 431). Future “inquiry needs to develop a holistic framework that encompasses a balanced understanding of environmental issues in the sport context while designing transformative learning experiences for students” (pp. 431–432).

Greenhalgh, LeCrom, & Dwyer (2015) Research topic: The behavioural impact of a sport and environment course Method: Quantitative; quasi-experimental research design; surveys for data collection Setting: University-level sport management program in the United States Area/sector of sport: University/tertiary education sector Theoretical foundations: New Ecological Paradigm (NEP); theories of attitude structure Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

“Sport managers are required to be more aware of how their actions, and the actions of their organization, impact the environment” (p. 50).

Conclusions: • •

No statistically significant differences were found between or within any of the groups (treatment or control). “The literature has demonstrated that some sport organizations and participants are willing and able to become more environmentally sensitive … once an education process has taken place” (p. 56).

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

•

“… a multi-institution sample of students taking environmentally focused classes providing a larger sample would offer more robust results” (p. 57). “Furthermore, the importance placed on the environment by sport organizations also requires attention from academicians. A longitudinal chapter following sport management students as they move through their careers may provide interesting results” (p. 57).

Mallen & Chard (2011) Research topic: The development of an educational framework for debating the concept of sport and ES Method: Case study Setting: Sport academia; debate for the sport management higher educational setting Area/sector of sport: All Theoretical foundations: ES theory; appreciative theory; environmental citizenship Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

There are paradoxes, uncertainties and trade-offs in ES.

Conclusions: • •

•

Eight key debate questions were posed concerning conserving the natural environment, including the consequences of not responding. The questions are offered with the hope that they generate debate among sporting scholars, undergraduate, and graduate sport management students and practitioners. “It is now up to the members in the sport academy to determine the extent of the debate, the visions conceived, strategies designed for managing arising paradoxes and if there will be a race to enact the visions” (p. 431).

Stated gaps in the literature: • •

Research is needed on the constraints that limit sport-ES. Additional research is needed determining actions to respond for sport-ES, including understanding the drivers, options and selected directions, policy and procedural changes required, and the impacts, as well as understanding how to overcome barriers such as paradoxes, uncertainties, and trade-offs.

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Mallen & Chard (2012) Research topic: A position paper for education debate on a vision of the future of ES at sport facilities Method: Essay Setting: Canadian sport facility sector Area/sector of sport: Elite-level Theoretical foundations: The precautionary principle; appreciative theory; the sustainable value framework; the sport event environmental performance measure, and the concept of green chemistry Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

Conclusions: •

None stated.

Stated gaps in the literature: • • •

“This vision was presented in the hopes of spawning debate that stimulates thinking and advancing sport facility ES” (p. 241). “It is now up to both the sport practitioners and the academic academy to engage in debate to further understandings concerning sport facilities and ES” (p. 242). “Sport facilities can be part of the solution to safeguard the natural environment … time will tell if they took the opportunity” (p. 242).

McCullough & Kellison (2016) Research topic: The education of sports fans for ES through fan engagement programs Method: Proposed a conceptual model and provided examples Setting: Sport fans in the United States Area/sector of sport: Professional sport Theoretical foundations: social identity theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

Sport fans are contributors to sports environmental impact. It is difficult to engage fans in environmental behaviours.

Conclusions: •

Sport management educators should utilize the conceptual model proposed when teaching in order to promote actions that relate to ES at large-scale events.

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Stated gaps in the literature: •

Future researchers should test the model.

Mercado & Grady (2017) Research topic: The importance integrating ES into student curriculum and connecting the student to the community Method: Essay Setting: Universities offering sport management education with ES Area/sector of sport: Higher education sector (range of sports) Theoretical foundations: ES theory Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: • •

The topic of ES is relevant to sport management education today. ES is being integrated within the sport industry, such as the field of sport facility management.

Conclusions: •

• •

It is important to link ES within the educational curriculum with a variety of strategies that link the student to the community, such as course-based learning, problem-based learning, and industry partnership projects. It is important to address barriers to integrating ES within the curriculum. The benefits of this type of integrated education positions students to be leaders for ES within the sport industry.

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Saito (2016) Research topic: Development of a concept map for training sport event volunteers in ES Method: Case study Setting: 2014 FIFA Brazilian World Cup volunteers Area/sector of sport: Elite sport; professional football (soccer) Theoretical foundations: ES theory; concept mapping; along with “concepts of integration, empowerment and critical thinking” (p. 306) Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: •

None stated.

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Conclusions: •

•

•

“The use of the concept map for the identification of the interactions among concepts and issues was effective for accomplishing the integrative systemic framework” (p. 306). “Environmental education requires careful strategizing to achieve the goals of promoting values and the necessary knowledge about critical issues so that stakeholders can develop an ecological literacy” (p. 306). A concept map provided a visual representation to guide an interdisciplinary approach for training purposes and the “systemic framework is capable of handling these requirements” (p. 306).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Bob & Naidoo (2012) Research topic: Assessing the perceptions of the sport event green educational program and awareness strategy Method: Survey Setting: 2010 FIFA World Cup, South Africa Area/sector of sport: Elite European soccer Theoretical foundations: Sustainability concept Themes, issues, trends, best practices stated, if any: Conclusions: • • •

ES is important in event management. The sport event environmental program “yielded benefits” (p. 93). “A well planned and implemented Green Goal programme can be used to promote environmental education during mega sport events” (p. 93).

Stated gaps in the literature: •

None stated.

Discussion and future research With only nine studies published since 2011, sport-EfS research is in its infancy. In the context of all published education research, it is a research topic that has received scant attention, and only in relatively recent times. Even sport-specific journals have given sport-EfS little consideration. However, the extant research offers several clues as to what future research might look like. First, the research

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methods encompassed qualitative ones (surveys) and qualitative ones (interviews, case studies, conceptual modelling). The presence of quantitative and qualitative methodologies suggests that both have potential for future sport-EfS research. Second, the settings for extant sport-EfS research extended to higher education programs, the Canadian sport facility sector, the global sport academy, a sport volunteer training program, and a population of sport fans. The diverse nature of these research settings suggests that future research may encompass a variety of sport-EfS contexts. However, in geographical and cultural terms, the research settings were somewhat narrow. The published research reflects studies situated in, or primarily focused on, four countries: the United States (n = 3), Canada (n = 1), South Africa (n = 1), and Brazil (n = 1). The Asian, European, and Oceania regions have so far been overlooked, and all represent opportunities for future sport-EfS scholarship. Third, the foci of existing sport-EfS research was somewhat diversified. The published studies focused on different study populations or units of analysis that included: (1) undergraduate and graduate sport-EfS students; (2) programs and curricula; (3) changes in behaviour after participating in such programs; (4) educational aspects of academic debate about the relationship between sport and ES; (5) educating sports fans to reduce their environmental impact; and (6) sport event volunteers. Whilst restricted to four nations, this range of topics suggests that there are numerous opportunities for future researchers to investigate. For example, Zakus, Malloy, and Edwards (2007) identified three key components of sport management education: curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy for critical thinking. To this can be added three further key components: curriculum learning outcomes and learning activities (Biggs, 1996, 2003; Biggs & Tang, 2007), and curriculum learning resources (Dingle & Mallen, 2018; Nicholson & Stewart, 2004). As a result, opportunities exist for sport-EfS researchers in future to contemplate curriculum (types, levels, structures, how learning outcomes align with learning resources, learning activities, and learning assessments). To date, little is known about how the concept of constructive alignment (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Dingle & Mallen, 2018) can be applied to enhance sport-EfS (What are the most appropriate learning outcomes for sport-EfS? Which learning resources are most relevant to achieving those outcomes? Which learning activities can be based on the learning resources? Which assessments are best to align with learning activities?). The theoretical perspectives used in extant sport-EfS are diverse. These perspectives included the Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) framework; New Ecological Paradigm (NEP); environmental sustainability theory; appreciative theory; social identity theory; the sustainable value framework; and the concept of green chemistry. Whilst some of these represent levels of theorizing (Fink, 2013; Mintzberg, 2005) rather than fully fledged theories that have been empirically validated (e.g. concepts, conceptual frameworks), all offer insights into the particular problems that the researchers were investigating. Given the

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complexity of the learning process, future research into sport-EfS may consider other theoretical options. These include learning theories such as Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory (TLT), which “provides the theoretical foundation for the [sustainability education] process” to enable transformational learning (Leal-Filho et al., 2018, p. 287). Additionally, theories such as Dewey’s theory of behaviour change (Earl et al., 2018) could be applied to sport-EfS experiences for students. The sport-EfS research literature highlighted several knowledge gaps. These may be summarized as follows. First, little is known about sport fans’ awareness, knowledge, and actions pertaining to ES. Stakeholders such as sponsors are another potential area of study. Second, research is needed in the area of “coursework components and teaching/learning strategies”. Future research might also consider how to balance understanding of environmental issues in sport contexts while designing transformative learning experiences for students. Third, in order to develop a more robust understanding of the efficacy of sportEfS, researchers could compare courses/classes across multiple institutions. Longitudinal research spanning the careers of sport management students are another opportunity. Fourth, research into institutional enablers and constraints of effective sport-EfS is warranted. Fifth, knowledge gaps exist around the role of social identity of sport fans in devising effective sport-EfS courses. Sixth, opportunities exist to evaluate the role of industry partners’ collaboration in sport-EfS courses. Seventh, very little is known about what pedagogical types are being use in sport-EfS, or about which ones have the greatest efficacy. Pedagogical options for research include: self-directed learning, collaborative learning, case studies, experiential learning, peer teaching, and locus of control (Kozak & Elliot, 2014). Eighth, given that sport-EfS is for the most part at post-secondary level and therefore involves adult learners, researchers might also consider exploring academic literature focused on andragogy (Beeson, 2018; Loeng, 2018). Finally, researchers could explore the application of EfS principles in sport-EfS. Scholars may note that there are divergent views as to what, and how many, EfS principles there are. The Australian Education for Sustainability Alliance (2014) asserts that there are five EfS principles: (1) envisioning a sustainable future; (2) systems thinking; (3) critical and creative thinking; (4) participation to encourage “ownership” of solutions; and (5) partnerships to maximize creativity and systems resilience. Other scholars (e.g. Nolet, 2015; Scott et al., 2012) have identified between five and seven EfS principles such as “transformation and change”. Regardless of how many EfS principles there are, researchers could explore the value of such principles to sport-EfS, linkages with pedagogies, and any challenges to their practical implementation. Beyond the stated gaps outlined above, other research topics can be conducted to fill in knowledge gaps. Topics worthy of sport-EfS research include: identification of teaching and learning issues (e.g. Thomas, 2004); the integration strategies (e.g. Rusinko, 2010); how systems theory might be tailored

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to sport-EfS (e.g. Porter & Córdoba, 2009); the trends and innovations (e.g. Iyer-Raniga & Andamon, 2016); and the applicability of competencybased EfS (e.g. Hesselbarth, Buhr, & Schaltegger, 2015; Wiek, Withycombe, & Redman, 2011). Additional topics for research include: •

•

• • •

problem-based learning opportunities on the challenge of climate change in sport (e.g. Carreira, Aguiar, & Onca, 2017; Ortiz & Huber-Heim, 2017) and active learning opportunities (e.g. MacVaugh & Norton, 2012); perceptions of sport-EfS, and the concept of sustainability, held by sport management academics (e.g. Christie et al., 2015; Reid & Petocz, 2006); capacity-building strategies for sport-EfS (e.g. Lozano-Garciá et al., 2008); the experiences of sport-EfS educators (Brunnquell, Brunstein, & Jaime, 2015); and the integration of ES into disciplines such as sport marketing (e.g. Perera & Hewege, 2016) and sport economics (e.g. Ceulemans et al., 2011).

Conclusion Education for ES for sport is in its infancy. This reflects the relatively recent inclusion of ES into the curricula of sport management education and sport studies education. Despite the comparatively brief history of sport-EfS, it is an important and viable field of education that merits ongoing research and academic debate. This chapter provides discussion of how sport-EfS can be conceptualized, its intellectual origins in the field of EfS/ESD, and some key reasons why it can be included in higher education. This chapter evaluates the existing research pertaining to sport-EfS and offers suggestions for future research in this area. Pursuing high-quality sport-EfS should be a priority for the higher education sector, and its industry partners, in order to achieve an environmentally sustainable sport sector. Researchers are therefore strongly encouraged to fill the knowledge gaps discussed here.

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Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32(3), 347–364. Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill and Open University Press. Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does (3rd edn.). Bristol, PA: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Bob, U., & Naidoo, S. (2012). Green goal: Awareness of the 2010 FIFA World Cup’s greening programmes and implications for environmental education. African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 18(Suppl. 2), 93–103. Brunnquell, C., Brunstein, J., & Jaime, P. (2015). Education for sustainability, critical reflection and transformative learning: Professors experiences in Brazilian administration courses. International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development, 9(3–4), 321–342. Cachay, K. (1993). Sports and environment sports for everyone: Room for everyone? International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 28, 311–323. Carreira, F., Aguiar, A., & Onca, F. (2017). The Celsius game: An experiential activity on management education simulating the complex challenges for the two-degree climate change target. International Journal of Management Education, 15(2), 350–361. doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2017.03.012. Casper, J., & Pfahl, M. E. (2012). Environmental behavior frameworks of sport and recreation undergraduate students. Sport Management Education Journal, 6(1), 8–20. doi: 10.1123/smej.6.1.8. Ceulemans, K., Prins, M., Cappuyns, V., & Conin, W. (2011). Integration of sustainable development in higher education’s curricula of applied economics: Large-scale assessments, integration strategies and barriers. Journal of Management and Organization, 17(5), 621–640. Christie, B., Miller, K., Cooke, R., & White, J. (2015). Environmental sustainability in higher education: What do academics think? Environmental Education Research, 21(5), 655–686. doi: 10.1080/13504622.2013.879697. Cortese, A. D. (1992). Education for an environmentally sustainable future. Environmental Science Technology, 26(6), 1108–1114. Dingle, G. W., & Mallen, C. (2018). Sport-environmental sustainability (Sport-ES) education. In B. McCullough & T. B. Kellison (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport and the environment (1st edn., pp. 79–96). London and New York: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781315619514-6. Earl, A., VanWynsberghe, R., Walter, P., & Straka, T. (2018). Adaptive education applied to higher education for sustainability. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 19(6), 1111–1130. doi: 10.1108/IJSHE-08-2017-0131. Fink, J. S. (2013). Theory development in sport management: My experience and other considerations. Sport Management Review, 16(1), 17–21. Graham, J., Trendafilova, S., & Ziakas, V. (2018). Environmental sustainability and sport management education: Bridging the gaps. Managing Sport and Leisure, 23(4–6), 422–433. Green Sports Alliance. (2019). Green Sports Alliance. Retrieved from https:// greensportsalliance.org/. Greenhalgh, G., LeCrom, C. W., & Dwyer, B. (2015). Going green? The behavioral impact of a sport and the environment course. Journal of Contemporary Athletics, 9(1), 49–59.

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Sport and education for ES 259 Porter, T., & Córdoba, J. (2009). Three views of systems theories and their implications for sustainability education. Journal of Management Education, 33(3), 323–347. Reid, A., & Petocz, P. (2006). University lecturers’ understanding of sustainability. Higher Education, 51(1), 105–123. Rusinko, C. A. (2010). Integrating sustainability in management and business education: A matrix approach. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 9(3), 507–519. Saito, C. H. (2016). Concept map for environmental education planning: Capacitation of volunteers for the FIFA Football World Cup in Brazil. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 10(2), 289–308. Scott, G., Tilbury, D., Deane, L., & Sharp, L. (2012). Turnaround Leadership for Sustainability in Higher Education: Final Report. Canberra, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.olt.gov.au/project-turnaround-leadership-sustainability-higher-education-2011. Sidiropoulos, E. (2014). Education for sustainability in business education programs: A question of value. Journal of Cleaner Production, 85, 472–487. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro. 2013.10.040. Skinner, J., & Gilbert, K. (2007). Sport management education: Teaching and learning for the future. Sport Management Review, 10(2), 125–131. Soderquist, C., & Overakker, S. (2010). Education for sustainable development: A systems thinking approach. Global Environmental Research, 14, 193–202. Somerville, M. (2016). Environmental and sustainability education: A fragile history of the present. In Wyse, D., Hayward, L., & Pandya, J. (Ed.), The Sage handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (Vol. 1, pp. 506–522). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sterling, S. (2012). The future fit framework: An introductory guide to teaching and learning for sustainability in HE. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 7(1), 134–135. Sterling, S. (2004). Higher education, sustainability and the role of systemic learning. In P. B. Corcoran & A. E. J. Wals (Eds.), Higher education and the challenge of sustainability: Problematics, promise and practice (pp. 49–70). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Sterling, S., & Witham, H. (2008). Pushing the boundaries: The work of the Higher Education Academy’s ESD Project. Environmental Education Research, 14(4), 399–412. Thomas, I. (2009). Critical thinking, transformative learning, sustainable education, and problem-based learning in universities. Journal of Transformative Education, 7(3), 245–264. doi: 10.1177/1541344610385753. Thomas, I. (2004). Sustainability in tertiary curricula: What is stopping it happening? International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 5(1), 33–47. Tilbury, D. (2010). Higher education for sustainability: A global overview of commitment and progress. Retrieved from http://www.guninetwork.org/files/8_i.2_he_for_ sustainability_-_tilbury.pdf. Trendafilova, S., Babiak, K., & Heinze, K. (2013). Corporate social responsibility and environmental sustainability: Why professional sport is greening the playing field. Sport Management Review, 16(3), 298–313. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2012.12.006. Trendafilova, S., McCullough, B. P., Pfahl, M. E., Nguyen, S. N., Casper, J., & Picariello, M. (2014). Environmental sustainability in sport: Current state and future trends. Global Journal on Advances in Pure & Applied Sciences, 3, 9–14. UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. (2015). (2005–2014) United Nations General Assembly. Seventieth Session, Second Committee. Agenda Item 20(h). Draft resolution A/C.2/70/l.20.1–5.

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Chapter 14

Conclusions Envision the future in sport environmental sustainability (sport-ES) Cheryl Mallen and Greg Dingle

The world is challenged by a multitude of unprecedented environmental issues (United Nations Environment Programme, 2019), such as pollution from fossil fuel use, plastics pollution, and the effects of climate change. As a consequence, the institution/industry of sport is not exempt from doing its part to find solutions to these environmental challenges. Safeguarding the natural world is critically important for both sport and society at large. This text examined research on sport environmental sustainability (sport-ES) published in refereed journals. The aim was to inspire, encourage, and guide researchers, including students and faculty members, to complete research projects to fill in the gaps to expand our knowledge on sport-ES. The chapters were organized around three themes: (1) impacts of sport on the natural environment; (2) impacts of the natural environment on sport; and (3) strategic management, policy, and education for the sport–environment relationship. Chapters within each theme offered an understanding of a critical body of sport research literature published within sport management journals, as well as those on sport but published outside such journals, including, for example, business management, environmental, health, law, science, and tourism journals. The chapters encompassed numerous environmental topics, including safeguarding air quality and water resources, major sport events and facilities and ES, climate change impacts on summer and winter sports, environmental policy, certification, measurement tools and reporting, environmental behaviour, motivations and promotions, partnerships, and marketing, along with sport environmental education. The breadth of the research manuscripts spanned the multiple levels of sport (i.e. professional, amateur, not-for-profit sport) and the multiple sub-sectors within sport (i.e. marketing, sponsorship, events, facilities, etc.).

The state of the research on sport and ES The chapters in this text outlined over 225 manuscripts on sport-ES. This represents a growing body of literature on the topic. Further, the literature indicates a trend towards sport enacting ES policies and practices (Trendafilova et al., 2014). A robust body of literature, however, was only evident for two

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topics: (1) winter sport and climate change; and (2) major sport events and ES. The remaining sport-ES topics involved a paucity of research for the multiple topics. A key reason for the low level of research is that sport-ES is complex and the affiliated sub-topics are wide ranging and extend into every aspect of sport. Much research needs to be completed on this complex array of sport-ES areas of focus to fill in the gaps in knowledge identified within the chapters.

Moving forward in sport-ES research The editors of this text promote that sport must enact environmental safeguards that support current and future sporting endeavours. Resources are key to such success (Trendafilova et al., 2014), including financial, human, and technological resources, along with academic research. This text aids in understanding the current state of the sport-ES literature and this is noted as one step in confronting the environmental issues and guiding more researchers to fill the gaps. One step, however, is not enough. There is a strong argument to be made that every sector of the sport industry needs to meet the challenge of taking multiple steps to shift towards ES. This includes filling the research gaps and addressing the inherent disconnect between research and practice. Research can be structured to deliver a seamless stream of knowledge that aids in the practice of environmentalism – and vice versa – practice can assist with research knowledge development. Structuring both research and practice to jointly aid in the environmental challenge is important. Further, sport is encouraged to harness its unique communication abilities in order to show societies around the globe how to create safeguards for the natural environment. Before contemplating specific steps for the role of academic research in achieving sport-ES, it is worth pausing for a moment to reflect on some of the wider global research trends that confront contemporary sport-ES researchers. Whilst a comprehensive review of global research trends is beyond the scope of this chapter, some of these trends are worth considering. First, contemporary academic research is increasingly interdisciplinary (Tilbury, 2012; Van Noorden, 2015). This is illustrated by the fact that, since “the mid-1980s, research papers have increasingly cited work outside their own disciplines” (Van Noorden, 2015, p. 306). It is also worth noting that interdisciplinary research takes time to have an impact (Van Noorden, 2015, pp. 306–307). These features of interdisciplinary work have implications for sport-ES researchers as sport-ES research is inherently interdisciplinary in nature. By definition, sport-ES researchers are exploring linkages between sport, management, and the natural environment, and therefore what the field of sustainability has to offer these areas. A key implication of interdisciplinarity is the methodological challenge, whereby researchers “go beyond discipline boundaries” (Tilbury, 2012, p. 6) to uncover insights that are often considered “crucial by scientists, policymakers and funders” (Van Noorden, 2015, p. 306). For sport-ES researchers, being mindful of the challenges of working outside our original discipline

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(i.e. sport management) with other researchers who have “different methodologies and perspectives” is important (Tilbury, 2012, p. 6). Ultimately, the choice to take the interdisciplinary sport-ES research path shapes our choices of research methods, what we publish, where we publish, the impacts of what we publish, and the consequences for our academic careers (e.g. promotion). Second, contemporary academic research is increasingly focused on the longer-term impacts of such work. Research impacts have been defined as the demonstrable contribution that research makes to “one or more areas of the economy, society, culture, public policy and services, health, production, environment, international development or quality of life, whether locally, regionally, nationally or internationally” (Economic and Social Research Council, 2014; Greenhalgh et al., 2016, p. 2). Traditional academic inputs (e.g. discipline knowledge), outputs (e.g. publications), and outcomes (e.g. citations) are no longer enough. Impactful research is valued by funding bodies, governments, industry, wider society, and universities (Penfield et al., 2014). For sport-ES researchers, the emphasis on impactful research means being aware, at the outset, of who can benefit in the longer term from such work. Fortunately for most sport-ES scholars, the answer is likely to be that a variety of stakeholders can benefit. The sport industry, government, civil society, the health sector, and academia are all likely to benefit from research that explores the complexity of the relationship between sport and the natural environment, provided it is attuned to the needs of these stakeholders. If a broader view of what it means to be stakeholder is adopted (e.g. Driscoll & Starik, 2004; Haigh & Griffiths, 2009), then nature too is a critically important stakeholder that can be positively impacted by sport-ES research. Third, contemporary academic research gives much more emphasis on demonstrating research impact through research impact indicators (Tilley, Ball, & Cassidy, 2018; University of Sheffield, 2019). Such research impact indicators go beyond academic impact indicators (i.e. bibliometrics, altmetrics) (Williams & Padula, 2017), and work from the United States has divided these non-academic impact indicators into five categories: (1) advancement of knowledge; (2) clinical implementation; (3) legislation and policy; (4) economic benefit; and (5) community benefit (Bernard Becker Medical Library, 2019). To these categories can be added impact indicators from the United Kingdom (i.e. (6) creativity, culture, and society; (7) health, well-being, and animal welfare; and (8) practitioners and professional services) (University of Sheffield, 2019). For sport-ES researchers, impact indicators could include demonstrating positive environmental benefits (e.g. ecosystem improvement through reduced pollution from sport activities) and economic benefits (e.g. lower costs for sport organizations) that occur as a consequence of their research. Finally, another trend in contemporary academic research of which sport-ES researchers can be mindful is that the global research landscape is changing geographically and culturally. In the twenty-first century, globalization – in concert with geopolitical shifts such as the rise of China and other Asian

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nations – is changing the global composition of research (Rhoods & Babor, 2018). The distribution of research is shifting with China’s share of global research and development (R&D) now at 21 per cent, and exceeding that of the entire European Union (Johnson, Watkinson, & Mabe, 2018). Indeed, Chinese investment in R&D has tripled from 0.6 per cent of GDP in 1996 to over 2.1 per cent in 2017 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2018a, 2018b), and will likely meet the OECD average of 2.4 per cent by 2020. For sport-ES researchers, this shift in the global research landscape points to opportunities to broaden the scope, funding, and impact of their work from Europe and North America, to include Asia. At this time, only a fraction of sport-ES research focuses on Asia, despite Asia being home to almost 60 per cent of the Earth’s population (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2019) and 46 per cent of global GDP (International Monetary Fund, 2019).

The role of research in achieving sport-ES So, where can those interested in sport-ES research with regard to sport go from here? This text promotes that sport needs to meet the challenge by stepping forward and shift towards ES within every aspect of the sporting industry. Research can be structured to deliver a seamless stream of knowledge that aids in the practice of environmentalism – and vice versa, as practice can aid research knowledge dissemination. Structuring both research and practice to jointly assist in the environmental challenge is important. Further, sport is encouraged to harness its unique communication abilities in order to show societies around the globe how to create safeguards for the natural environment. A three-point plan for sport-ES is proposed, including: (1) to envision the future of sport-ES and encourage debate; (2) to conduct research on sport-ES to advance knowledge; and (3) to advance sport as a testing ground and role model for society. This plan is underscored by Mallen and Chard’s (2011) statement that sport environmental citizenship encourages “the embodiment of the care, concern and actions of all parties in the sport industry in an effort to safeguard the natural environment” (p. 427). Each point in the plan will now be outlined.

Envision the future of sport-ES and encourage debate The growing body of research on a diverse array of sport-ES topics illustrates that there is a trend emerging towards an awareness of the environmental issue, an understanding that solutions need to be found, and that sport must enact ES within their actions. As a first step, it is proposed that those in sport at all levels envision the future of sport-ES (Mallen & Chard, 2012). This envisioning can encompass, for example: how important the natural environment is to sport; the consequences of not responding to the environmental issues; how to avoid harmful impacts and the implementation of alternative actions aimed at safeguarding the natural environment for each sporting sector, such as

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environmentally responsible manufacturing, marketing, facility, and event management; as well as overall sport institutional change to enact sustainable processes implemented at the multiple levels of sport and the commitment required to reach this achievement (Mallen & Chard, 2011). This envisioning activity is noted as valuable to guide actions that propel sport towards an imagined future. Importantly, debates are part of the envisioning process. These debates need to include the entities within sport, such as sport corporations, organizations, counsels, government bodies, facility managers, event managers, team representatives, and individual athletes. It is proposed that debates be underscored by a statement by Senge, Smith, Druschiwitz, Laur, and Schley (2008) that the “core principle of a regenerative society is that life creates conditions for life” (p. 36) – so sport must position itself well for its own future. Additionally, an application of appreciative theory is strongly recommended for the debates as “a paradigm of thought and understanding that holds organizations to be affirmative systems created by humankind as solutions to problems” (Watkins & Cooperride, 2000, p. 6). This involves a “glass half-full” attitude and not an environment of complaining and negativity, but rather a focus on moving forward with actionable steps.

Conduct research on sport-ES to advance knowledge Researchers are needed to fill in the gaps in the literature to advance our understandings on the array of sport-ES topics. This research can assist in the visioning and debate process and include, for example, best practices in the production of sport products, policies, and facilities, along with sport event and organizational practices to support ES. It is also important for researchers not to work in isolation, but to work directly with industry personnel in an effort to share knowledge, to set measurable goals, to examine the progress, and to strive to implement envisioned best practices in sport-ES throughout sport. Each chapter in this text outlined key sport-ES manuscripts and gaps in the literature for undergraduate, graduate, and faculty members to tackle. Start anywhere – your contribution may benefit sport in the journey to sport-ES. Be part of the solution and work to generate a robust research response to the sport-environmentalism issue.

Advance sport as a testing ground and role model for sport and societal environmentalism Sport has been positioned as being able to fill a leadership role in guiding society to adapt where required (Sartore-Baldwin & McCullough, 2018). This leadership stems from sport having a unique ability to communicate messages to a global, diverse, social audience (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). Application of this position means that sport can utilize its power as a social influencer. For instance, sport can communicate to the world a need for an awareness of the environmental issues and to learn to act through sport as a testing ground for ideas and strategies in ES,

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as well as sport assuming the position of role model for communities to adapt to move forward with mitigating/managing our environmental issues. Those in sport can utilize this ability in order for sport to enact sport-ES and to influence society. Research on this area is absent and knowledge in this area could aid in future success in sport-ES and society-ES.

Conclusion Overall, this text outlined the most comprehensive body of research published in academic journals on sport-ES and promoted a call for researchers to advance knowledge within an array of topics. Undergraduate and graduate students, along with faculty members, and industry personnel are encouraged to research the plethora of topics on sport-ES. This call is related to sport fulfilling its shared societal responsibility of being part of the solution for safeguarding the natural environment. This includes the impacts of sport on the environment and the impacts of the environment on the future of sport. Let’s move quickly to generate a vision of what could be in sport-ES and complete research to fill the research gaps and guide the way forward. We can meet this challenge to ensure the natural environment is safeguarded for the future of sport.

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Index

Aall, C. 111, 125, 142, 148, 150, 160 Abbaspour, M. 89–90, 102 Abegg, B. 111, 125, 143–5, 147, 150–151, 160 Ackerman, F. 222, 240 Adams, L. 75, 83, 88, 102, 166, 182, 187, 199, 244, 246, 257–258 adaptation 35, 59, 107–109, 112, 118–119, 122, 127, 128, 135–136, 141–142, 144–146, 151, 154, 156, 239 Addo, L. 41, 43 Adger, W. N. 109, 123 Agha, N. 71–72, 82 Agrawal, M. 186, 199 Ahmed, S. 34, 43 air pollution: and athlete health 26–27, 28, 127; produced by participant travel 17–21; from spectator activity 21–23, 27–28; and spectator travel 23–26; see also tailgating and carbon footprint Ali, A. E. 7, 11 Almudehki, F. 134, 136 Alshehhi, A. 187, 197 American football 62–63, 67, 134, 203, 207, 209, 223, 228; see also tailgating Andamon, M. 255, 257 Anderberg, S. 186, 199 Anderson, A. 145, 147 Anderson, D. M. 33, 43 Andrea, S. 48, 50, 79, 84 Andrews, D. L. 166, 181 Aquiar, A. 255–256 Anthropocene era 5, 144 Aquino, I. 90, 99, 102 Aragon-Correa, J. A. 187, 197 Arcodia, C. 145, 148, 157 Artuso, P. 88–91, 102 Ashfag, M. 142, 148

Aspden, L. 142, 147 Australian football 115, 120 Aven, T. 108, 123 Babiak, K. 62, 82, 207–209, 219–220, 244, 259 Babor, A. 264, 267 Baker, M. 34, 43, 267 balanced scorecard (BSC) 183–184, 195 Baldwin, R. 127, 132, 134, 136 Ball, L. 263, 267 Barr, S. 41, 44 Bartram, J. 39, 44 baseball 5, 21, 172, 177–178, 207, 209, 223, 244 basketball 116, 207, 209, 239 Bateh, J. 3, 9 Beeson, E. 254, 255 Behmel, S. 41, 43 Bell, B. 221–222, 226, 240 Bicknell, S. 144, 147, 156 Biggs, J. 245, 253, 255–256 Bilic-Zulle, L. 38, 40, 45 Billings, A. C. 2, 9 Bishop, D. 134, 137 Biswas A. 32, 43 Bob, U. 246, 252, 256 Boden, B. 134, 137 Boggia, A. 75–76, 79, 82 Book, K. 166, 177–179, 181 Borland, J. 26, 30 Bormann, K. 142, 147 Bowan, F. 186–187, 197 Bradish, C. 227, 229, 241, 244, 257 Brajer, V. 51–52, 83 Bramwell, B. 68, 82 Braungart, M. 184, 199 Brinkman, R. 7, 10

Index 269 Broadbent, A. 3, 9 Brocherie, F. 6, 10, 111, 123, 126–127, 132, 134, 136–137 Brotherhood, J. 126–127, 133–134, 136, 138 Brown, R. 142, 147, 158 Brunnquell, C. 255, 256 Brunstein, J. 255–256 Brymer, E. 2, 10, 66, 82 Bsales, N. 21, 30 Buhr, M. 255–256 Bunds, K. S. 17, 19–20, 22, 28, 30 Burakowski, E. A. 141, 148 Burns, C. 165, 181 Busch, P. O. 180, 182 Cachay, K. 244, 256 Calautit, J. K. 110, 120, 125 Campbell, M. 145, 147, 156 Cantelon, H. 7, 10, 167, 177–179, 181 Cantino, V. 80, 82 carbon dioxide (CO2) 6, 17–21, 23–24, 26–28, 55, 67, 90, 193, 210; carbonneutral 145–146; carbon offsetting 48–50, 79; see also carbon footprint carbon footprint 18–20, 50, 52, 70, 131, 183–186, 188–189, 191–192, 194–195 Carlsson, B. 166, 177–179, 181 Carlton, T. 19, 30 Carmichael, W. 33, 43 Carreira, F. 255–256 Casa, D. 137–138 Casper, J. vii, 8, 12, 17, 19, 30, 182, 201–203, 208, 217, 219–220, 227–228, 241, 246–247, 256, 258–259, 267 Cassidy, C. 263, 267 Cembella, A. D. 33, 43 certification 176, 183, 185, 187–188, 194–197 Ceulemans, K. 255–256 Chalmers, S. 134, 136 Chard, C. 6, 10–11, 17–19, 30, 86, 89–90, 95, 99–100, 102–103, 107, 124, 157, 193, 196, 199, 201, 220, 227, 229, 241, 244, 246, 249–250, 264–267 Chatzigianni, I. vii, 9, 165–166, 178, 181 Chelladurai, P. 122, 123 Chen, S. 134, 136 Cheng, H. 134, 136, 149 Chengfei, H. 126, 137 Christiano, A. 41, 43 Christie, B. 255–256

Chulwon, K. 209, 212, 219 Chung, H. 59, 60, 83 Ciletti, D. 209, 211, 219 Clement, V. 145, 147, 157 climate change: and emissions 5–6, 17, 19; impacts on climate dependent sports 107–109, 111–114, 117–119, 121–122, 126–132, 134–136, 140–147, 151–156; role of sport in mitigating 210, 216, 234, 255; and sports events 50–51, 53–55, 58–59; and water resources 34–35, 41 Colas, A. V. 178, 181 Collin, P. 2, 10 Collins, A. 5, 6, 10, 48–49, 82, 145, 147, 157, 184, 186, 188, 191–192, 194, 196–197 community–level sports 19–20, 27, 36–37, 78, 112–120, 206, 231 Connaughton, D. 68, 83, 102 Contento, A. 33, 45 Cooper, E. 134, 137 Cooperride, D. 265, 267 Córdoba, J. 245, 255, 258 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 3; framework 48, 62–63, 230 Corvalan, C. 108, 125 Cosgrove, W. 41, 43–44 Crabb, L. 48–49, 82 Crainger, A. D. 166, 181 cricket 5, 81, 115, 120, 135 critical thinking 245, 251, 253 Cui, L-B. 187, 200 Cunningham, G. 6, 11, 209, 216, 220, 258 Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4 Cuskelly, G. 110, 112, 117, 123, 125 cycling 50, 134 D’Elia, K. 192, 198 da Luz, L. 184, 197 Dannevig, H. 142, 148, 160 Darnell, S. 59, 61, 84 Dawson, J. 138, 144–145, 148–149, 153, 157 Death, C. 62–63, 82, 209, 211, 219 DeChano-Cook, L. M. 6, 10 Delmas, M. 233, 241 DeMartini, J. 134, 137 Demiroglu, O. 142, 148, 157 Denchak, M. 33, 43 Devalle, S. 80, 82

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Dickson, C. 145, 148, 157 Diffenbaugh, N. S. 142, 148 Dikshit, A. 196, 200 Dingle, G. W. 1, 6, 8–9, 11, 57–58, 82, 107, 110–111, 118, 123–124, 126–128, 130, 132, 134, 137–138, 165, 181, 143, 244–245, 253, 256, 261 Diolaiuti, G. 142, 148, 157 Dixon, M. A. 243, 245, 257 Doherty, A. 122–123 Dolf, M. 6, 10, 188, 191–192, 198 Dolles, H. 6, 10 Donnelly, A. A. 5, 10 Dovres, S. 180–181 Downey, G. 2, 10, 66, 82 Downs, N. 126–128, 132, 137 Driedger, A. G. J. 34, 43 Driscoll, C. 263, 266 Druschiwitz, N. 265, 267 Dwyer, B. 246, 248, 256 Dyjack, D. 5, 10 Earl, A. 254, 256 Ebenstein, A. E. 25, 30 Ebi, K. L. 108, 123, 125, 138 Eccleston, C. H. 165, 181 Eckersley, P. 165, 181 ecological footprint 17, 48–49, 176, 184, 187–188, 192 economic: analysis 92, 183, 186; benefits 94, 97, 176–177, 186, 214, 237, 263; see also ENVIO Eden, C. 222, 240 education 35, 42, 57, 70, 96, 214–215, 223, 228–229, 243–246, 250–55; see also EfS and sport-EfS education for sustainability (EfS) 243–247, 254–255 Ehsan, A. 190–191, 196, 198 Eilam, E. 218–219 Eisenberg, J. 39, 44 Elliott, S. 254, 257 Elving, W. 187, 200 emissions see greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide Energy & Building 4 energy: consumption of 55, 64, 88–91, 96, 111, 128, 145–146, 190; efficiency 74, 91–92, 99, 126, 172–173, 176, 185, 209; renewable 35, 49, 95, 98–100, 146, 244 Environment and Energy Report 4 Environmental Education Research 4

Environmental Health Perspectives 4 Environmental Input-Output (ENVIO) economic analysis 49, 183, 188, 192 environmental protection 7, 57, 77, 79, 167, 171, 173, 180 Erichsen, A. 35, 40, 44 Erten, S. 86, 102 Etchells, D. 81–82 Ethelberg, S. 35, 40, 44 European Sport Management Quarterly 3, 101, 110 European Union (EU) 168, 177–178, 264 Evans 126–127, 129, 132, 134, 137 Evans, M. 184, 200 Event Management Journal 3, 22 extreme weather: heat and drought 6, 37, 108–109, 113, 115–116, 126–127, 130, 132–134, 140–141, 145; rain 38, 112, 116–117, 118, 126, 130, 140 Fairley, S. 57–58, 66, 71–72, 82, 109–110, 112, 123, 184, 191–192, 197–198 Falk, M. 110, 117, 123, 141, 143, 148, 155, 157–518 Fang, Y. 150, 160 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) 48, 53–54, 57, 62, 63, 68, 70, 75–76, 79, 113, 116, 120, 127, 131–133, 196, 211–221, 251–252 Fenton, W. 209, 215, 219, 233–234, 241 Fiandrino, S. 80, 82 field hockey 120, 134 Field, C. B. 108–109, 123 Filo, K. 110, 112, 116–117, 123, 125 Finch, C. 110, 114, 125, 139 Fink, J. 253, 256 Fish, D. 3, 9 Fisher, R. 187, 200 Fleming, P. 134, 137 Flynn, A. 6, 10, 48, 82, 188, 191–192, 197 Folke, C. 109, 124 Fontozzi, F. 88, 102 football (soccer): attendance 24–26; changing climate and 53–55, 113, 115, 116, 120, 127, 131–134; and environmental practices 209–212, impact of event 49, 188, 192–194, 196; and sport event-ES 79, 251–252 Fordham, M. 108, 125 Francis, T. 7, 10 Frey, H-C. 17, 30 Frisby, W. 240–241

Index 271 Fröhlich, D. 133, 138 Frost, W. 145, 148 Frumkin, H. 33, 44 Fu, W. 24, 31 Fuerst, F. 196, 198 Füssel, H-M. 109, 211 Gallimore, K. 221–222, 226, 240 Gallopin G. C. 108–109, 124 Gamage, J. 134, 137 Gamble, A. 209, 219 Gao, T. 185–186, 198 Garnevska, E. 196, 200 Gasbarro, F. 108, 123, 125 Gauthier, R. 80, 82, 169, 177–178, 181 Geeraert, A. 80, 82, 169, 177–178, 181 Genovese, A. 185, 198 Gholami, H. 89–90, 93, 102 Gibson, H. 71–72, 78, 82–83 Gilbert, K. 243, 245, 259 Gilg, A. 41, 44 Girard, O. 6, 10, 111, 123, 126–127, 132, 134, 137–138 Girginov, V. 170, 177–179, 181 globalization 2, 165, 167, 178, 263 golf 36, 62, 119, 171, 177–178, 213–214 Golicic, S. 187, 198 Goode, M. 209, 213, 220 Gössling, S. 142, 143, 144, 148–149, 161 Gourbesville, P. 41, 44 Govender, S. 68, 69, 83 Grady, J. 243, 246, 251, 258 Graham, J. 243–245, 246–247, 256 Gray, T. 2, 10, 66, 82 Green Sport Alliance (GSA) 7, 244 Green, G. 214, 217, 220 Greenhalgh, G. 246, 248, 256, 263, 266 greenhouse gases (GHGs) 6, 17–19, 88, 99, 110–111, 118, 142, 145–146, 185, 189, 191, 233 greening 62–64, 211–212, 236 greenwashing 42, 80, 186–187, 195 Griggs, K. 134, 137 Grill, G. 33, 44 Guitart, R. 174, 177–179, 182 Gupta, J. 32–33, 44 Gupta, S. 196, 200 Guttmann, A. 2, 10 Hagenstad, M. 141, 148 Hagsten, E. 110, 117, 123, 141, 143, 148, 155, 157, 159

Haigh, N. L. 263, 266 Häk, T. 197, 199 Hallegraef, G. M. 33, 43 Han, H. 218–219 Han, J. 209, 212, 219 Hansla, A. 209, 212, 219 Hänsle, S. 144, 148 Hao, J. 84, 148, 159 Harder-Lauridsen, N. 35, 38, 40, 44 Harris, R. 222–223, 226, 241 Harvey, J. 138, 165, 182 Hashimoto, N. 192, 199 Hayhurst, L. 240–241 health 17, 22–23, 25–29, 33, 38–41, 126–127, 132–134 Heath, E. T. 6, 12, 53–54, 84, 130, 132, 134, 138 Hedayati, M. 189, 191, 198 Hede, A. 188, 198 Heinz, K. 207–208, 220, 244, 259 Hennessy, K. L. 145, 148, 158 Hershkowitz, A. 195, 198 Hesselbarth, C. 255, 256 Hezri, A. 180–181 Hignell, A. 135, 137 Hill, B. 68, 70, 85 Hill, R. 141, 148 Hills, L. 170, 177–179, 181 Hogg, J. 187, 199 Hong, S. 86–87, 102 Hornby, L. 146, 148 Horner, D. H. 3, 9 Howe, A. 134, 137 Hoy, A. 144, 148 Hoye, R. 165, 182 Hoyer, W. 225, 235, 241 Hu, Y. 126, 134, 136–137 Huber-Heim, K. 255, 258 Hudson, S. 97, 206, 208, 219 Hughes, B. R. 110, 120, 125 human: relationship with nature 2, 5, 17, 19, 33–34, 108–109; resources 89, 93, 186, 262; see also Anthropocene era and health Hyatt, C. 89, 103, 201, 220 Hyun, S. 218–219 ice hockey 18–19, 36, 57–59, 112, 144, 195–196, 207, 209 ice-skating 113, 121, 141, 144, 155 impact of sport on the environment 18–21, 48–57, 81, 86, 89, 96, 107, 145,

272

Index

166–169, 175–176, 180–181, 188, 190–193, 214 Inoue, Y. 5, 10, 108–110, 114, 124, 141, 144, 149, 159, 201, 204, 208, 217, 220–221, 223, 226–227, 240–241 institutional theory 48, 65, 77, 122, 207–209, 216 interdisciplinary 108, 110, 114, 252, 262–263 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5, 33–35, 108–109 International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development 4 International Journal of Justice and Sustainability 4 International Journal of Sport Communication 3 International Journal of Sport Finance 3 International Journal of Sport Management 3 International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing 3, 36, 101, 110 International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 3 International Olympic Committee (IOC) 7, 17, 33, 54, 59–62, 64–65, 74, 77, 79–81, 144–145, 152–153, 167, 169–170, 173–180, 222, 244 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 183, 185, 195 International Review for the Sociology of Sport 3 Iofrida, N. 184, 198 Ismail, S. 34, 43 Ito, H. 218, 219 Iyer-Raniga, U. 189, 191, 198, 255, 257 Jacob, D. 135, 137 Jaime, P. 255–256 Jambeck, J. 34, 44 Janssen, M. A. 108–109, 124 Jaramillo. P. 35, 44, 196, 198 Jay, O. 134, 136 Jenny, S. E. 2, 11 Jickling, B. 243, 246, 257 Jim, C. 134, 137 Jin, L. 68–69, 83, 86, 87, 102 Johnson, J. 7, 11, 190–191, 196, 198 Johnson, M. 186, 198 Johnson, P. 84, 125, 149–150, 159–610 Johnson, R. 264, 266

Johnston, D. 109, 125 Jones, B. 110–111, 119, 125, 135, 137, 145, 149 Jones, C. 147, 157, 184, 186, 192–194, 196–197, 199 Jones, P. 243, 245, 257 Journal of Applied Sport Management 3, 110 Journal of Business Ethics 4, 232 Journal of Cleaner Production 4, 41, 101 Journal of Contemporary Athletics 4, 246 Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 4 Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4 Journal of Management and Sustainability 4, 101, 232 Journal of Sponsorship 4, 232 Journal of Sport and Social Issues 4 Journal of Sport and Tourism 4 Journal of Sport Behavior 4 Journal of Sport Economics 4 Journal of Sport Management 4, 24, 110 Journal of Sustainability Management 4 Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 4 Ju, H. 67, 83 Juliusson, A. 209, 219 Jumar, N. 185, 198 Jurbala, P. vii, 8, 126 Kai-Michael, G. 186, 199 Kang, S. 78, 83 Kanters, M. 19, 30 Kaplanidou, K. 23–24, 31, 53, 55, 71–72, 78, 83, 85 Karadakis, K. 71, 72, 83 Karbass, A. R. 89–90, 102 Karins, K. 73, 83 Kaufman, P. 265–266 Kay, J. 129, 132, 134, 147 Kellett, P. 36, 40, 41, 44, 82, 110, 113, 124, 138, 192, 198 Kellison, T. B. 4, 10–11, 30, 86–90, 93–94, 98, 102–103, 204, 208, 220–221, 224, 226–227, 241, 243, 246, 250, 256, 258 Kent, A. 5, 10, 201, 204, 208, 217, 219, 221, 223, 226–227, 240–241 Kerr, A. 2, 12 Kestenbaum, D. 28, 30 Khadivi, S. 89–90, 102 Khaled, H. A. 135, 137 Khare, N. 187, 197

Index 273 Kim, C. 67, 83 Kim, K. 59–60, 83 Kim, Y. 221, 224, 226, 227 Knowles, N. vii, 9, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 158 Koerner, B. 21, 30 Koh, L. 186, 198 Kolk, A. 122, 124 Konstantaki, M. 68, 83 Kou, X. 53, 56, 83 Kozak, S. 254, 257 Kraslawski, A. 187, 199 Krasting, J. 142, 148 Krugell, W. 48, 50, 79, 83 Kuhn, K. 35, 40, 44 Kuhndt, M. 9, 11, 183, 199 Kurland, N. 40, 45 Laing, J. 145, 148 Landauer, M. 143, 148, 158, 159 Landrum, N. 196, 199 Larkin, H. 245, 257 Laur, J. 265, 267 leadership in energy and environmental design (LEED) 172, 176, 183, 185, 195 Leal-Filho, W. 254, 257 Leccese, F. 88, 90, 102 LeCrom, C. W. 247–248, 256 Leicester, J. 142, 149 Lenskyi, H. 62–63, 83 Leong, D. 39, 45 Leopkey, B. 7, 13, 75, 77, 79, 84, 110, 113, 124 Letters, M. 7, 10, 167, 177–179, 181 Leug, R. 186, 199 Lewis, S. L. 5, 11 Li, Y. 146, 148, 159 Lien, S. 233, 238, 242 life cycle assessment (LCA) 183–184, 187, 189, 195 Light, R. 243, 245, 257 Limjiraka, S. 218, 220 Lin, H. 233, 235, 241 Linnenluecke, M. K. 109, 123–125 Liu, J. 143, 149, 154, 185, 186, 198 Loeng, S. 254, 257 Loland, S. 62, 64, 78, 83 London, T. 233, 235, 242 Louks, D. 41, 43 Lovegrove, H. 57–58, 82, 110, 112, 123, 158

Lozano-Garcia, V. 135, 138, 155, 157 Luthe, T. 144, 151 Ma, X. 68, 83 Mabe, M. 264, 266 MacDonald, R. 26, 30 Machado, C. 51–52, 85 MacLean, J. 158, 244, 257 MacNeill, M. 240–241 MacVaugh, J. 255, 257 Madani, K. 32–33, 45 Madarang, K. 180, 182 Maese, R. 141, 149 Magilligan, F. J. 33, 45 Maguire, J. 2, 11 Mallen, C. 1, 5–6, 8–11, 17–19, 30, 32, 61, 75, 83–84, 86, 88–90, 95, 99–100, 103, 107, 110, 118, 124, 126, 130, 132, 134, 138, 157, 166, 182–183, 187, 193, 196, 199, 201, 220, 227, 229, 241, 243–246, 249–250, 253, 256–258, 261, 264–267 March, F. 165, 181 Marinova, D. 88–89, 97, 103 Maslin, M. A. 5, 11 Matschullat, J. 144, 148 Matzarakis, A. 53–54, 83, 127, 132–133, 138 May, V. 51, 83 Mazurkiewicz, P. 2, 11 McAllister, P. 196, 198 McBoyle, G. 142, 145, 149–150, 158–160 McCullough, B. P. 1, 4–8, 10–12, 30, 86, 89–90, 93, 96, 102–3, 182, 201–202, 206, 208–9, 216–217, 219–220, 222, 225–228, 230–232, 241–244, 246, 250, 256, 258–259, 265, 267 McDonough, W. 184, 199 McIntosh, P. 2, 11 McKnight, B. 123–124 McLaren, S. 196, 200 McLeod, C. M. 7, 11, 59, 60, 83 McManus, P. 144, 147, 156 McRoberts, S. vii, 9, 75, 83, 201, 221 McSherry, M. 201, 203, 208, 217, 219 Mead, R. 51–52, 83 Meier, K. V. 1, 11 Melo, F. 75–76, 83 Melton, E. 227, 230, 241 Melville, S. 48, 50, 79, 84 Mendoza, G. 196, 198 Mercado, H. 243, 246, 251, 258 Metcalfe, A. 209, 213, 220

274

Index

Miller, G. 206, 208, 219 Miller, R. 34, 45 Miller, T. 80, 84 Millett, G. 6, 10, 111, 123, 126, 132, 136 Millington, B. 59, 61, 84, 171, 177–179 Millington, R. 59, 61, 84 Mills, B. 150, 160 Minoli, D. 209, 213–114, 220 Minoque, A. 145, 150, 160 Mintzberg, H. 253, 258 Mitchell, I. K. 245, 258 mixed methods 110, 114, 194, 210, 246 Mohan A. 176–179, 182 Mol, A. 56, 84 Moldan, B. 197, 199 Mondello, M. 89, 94, 102, 204, 208, 220 Montes-Sancho, M. 233, 241 Moore, J. 244, 258 Morgan, L. 81, 84 Morrison, C. 144, 149, 159 Mote, P. 142, 147 motorsport 57–58, 66, 80, 193, 197 Mujkic, A. 187, 199 Mullenbach, L. 209, 214, 217, 220 Müller, C. 108, 124 Munday, M. 10, 48, 82, 145, 147, 157, 184, 186, 188, 191–192, 194, 196–197 Murphy, J. 40, 45 Murty, H. 196, 200 Naidoo, S. 246, 252, 256 National Football League (NFL) 63, 195, 207, 209 natural resources 3, 5, 114, 122, 187 Nauright, J. 6, 13 Nawari, N. O. 90, 99, 102 Nazemi, A. 32–33, 35, 44–45 Neimand, A. 41, 43 Nelson, C. 67, 83, 209, 212, 219 Ness, B. 186, 199 Neuvonen, M. 143, 148–149, 159 New Environmental or Ecological Paradigm (NEP) 213, 248, 253 Newman, J. I. 7, 11, 59–60, 83 Nguyen, S. N. viii, 1, 5, 7, 8, 11–12, 30, 86, 182, 220, 227, 231, 241, 242, 244, 258, 260, 267 Nicholson, M. 2, 12, 165, 182, 245, 253, 258 Nikolic, K. 32–33, 40, 45 nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 17, 26–28 Nobanee, H. 187, 197

Nolet, V. 254, 258 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 81, 144, 174, 237–238 Norris, J. 7, 10 Norton, M. 255, 257 O’Connor, N. 6, 12 O’Neil, B. 135, 138 Oades, L. G. 2, 10 Ohsowski, O. 196, 199 Ohtaka, K. 192, 199 Oldmeadow, E. 88–89, 97, 103 Olssan, L. 186, 199 Onca, F. 255–256 Onojima, J. 192, 199 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 264 Orr, M. 108–110, 114, 124, 141, 144, 149, 159 Ortiz, D. 255, 258 Orts, E. 21, 30 Osborne, T. 34–35 Ostrom, E. 108–109, 124 Otto, I. 6, 12, 53–54, 84, 130, 132, 134, 138 ozone 17, 28 Padula, D. 263, 267 Palazzo, M. 187, 200 Pandey, D. 186, 199 Paquette, J. 59, 61, 84 Paquin, R. 233, 237, 238, 242 Paralympic Games 81, 143, 152 Parent, M. 110, 113, 123–124 Parker, L. 6, 12 Parkin, S. 2, 12 Parsons, M. 41, 43 particulate matter (PM) 17, 22–23, 27–28, 60 Pastore, D. L. 245, 258 Paton, D. 109, 124–125 Pavlovich, K. 73, 83 pedagogy 245, 253 Peiser, B. 126–127, 131–132, 138 Pells, E. 142, 149 Pentifallo, C. 62, 64, 84 Peric, 81, 84 Perrini, F. 186, 199 perturbation see extreme weather Peterson, A. 110, 121, 125 Peterson, C. 138, 161 Peterson, J. 134, 137

Index 275 Petocz, P. 255, 258 Petrass, L. 110, 114, 125, 134, 138 Pfahl, M. E. 1, 5, 7, 8, 11–12, 30, 182, 202, 209, 215, 219–220, 227–228, 230, 241, 243–247, 256, 258–259, 267 Pham, D. 90, 103 Phillips, M. 118, 220 Phillips, P. 37, 40, 45, 110, 115, 125 Picariello, M. 8, 12, 181, 222, 225–226, 241, 259, 267 Pickering, C. M. 144, 149, 159 Pinkse, J. 108, 122, 124–125 Pollard, C. 184, 200 Pons, M. 111, 125, 149–150, 159–160 Porter, T. 245, 255, 258 Pouta, E. 143–144, 149, 159 Pruess, H. 56–57, 71, 81, 84, 188, 199 Pryor, J. L. 134, 138 Pu, H. 7, 11, 59, 60, 83 Pujari, A. 232–233, 236, 242 Qorri, A. 187, 199 qualitative research 18–19, 36, 40, 65, 89, 96, 98, 100, 110–118, 123, 127–128, 130–132, 153–154, 175, 179, 246, 253 quantitative research 20, 24, 25, 38–39, 40, 49, 64, 87, 89, 110, 116–121, 123, 128–129, 132, 151–155, 179, 188, 190, 192–193, 235, 246, 248, 253 Quiroga, J. 141, 149 Racinais, S. 134, 136, 138 Radlach, R. 187, 199 Raftery, A. 142, 266 Rajagoplan, N. 19, 30 Ramakrishnaiah, C. 41, 45 Ramanujam, M. 185, 200 Ramirez, E. 195, 200 Ramskov-Galamba, K. 101, 103 recycling 34, 42, 88–89, 91, 96, 98, 100, 185; recycled materials in construction 64, 172; see also waste Redman, C. 245, 255, 260 Reid, A. 255 Reid, M. 138, 221 Reid, T. viii, 9, 201 Reilly, T. 126–127, 131–132, 138 Reinhart, M. 134, 136 research impact 263 resilience 109, 117, 122–123 resource-dependence: 112, 121, 235; resource-based view (RBV) 36–37,

115, 121, 187; resource-based theory (RBT) 40, 118, 121 revenue 111, 216, 234, 247 Rezaei, G. 89, 102 Rhoods, S. 254, 267 Richardson, B. 245, 257 Ries, R. J. 23–24, 31, 53, 55, 85 risk: mitigation in response to climate change 17; to resources 34–35; to sport 54, 58, 107–109, 111, 113–115, 118, 122, 128, 135, 144, 146, 151–152; see also health Rivera, J. 145, 147, 157 Roberts, A. 5, 6, 10, 48, 81,138, 188, 191–192, 197 Rocca, M. 88, 90, 102 Rodinelli, D. 233, 235, 242 Rosenau, J. N. 178, 182 Ross, W. 75, 77, 79, 84 Roth, C. E. 217, 220 Rowell, J. 178, 182 rugby: league 115; union 115 Ruhanen, L. 57–58, 82, 110, 123, 158 Ruihley, B. J. 2, 9 Rundell, K. W. 26–27, 30 Rusinko, C. 254, 258 Rutty, M. 84, 110, 118, 125, 141, 144, 146, 149–150, 160 Saayman, M. 48, 50, 79, 83 Sadovnikova, A. 232–233, 236, 242 sailing 36, 38–39 Saito, C. 246, 251, 258 Salavadori, G. 88, 90, 102 Saman, M. Z. M. 89, 102 Sanderson, A. R. 26, 30 Santiangeli, A. 88–91, 102 Sarasoja, A. 100–101, 103 Sarkis, K. 21, 30 Sartore-Baldwin, M. L. 8, 12, 86, 103, 265, 267 Schaltegger, S. 186, 198, 255–256 Scherer, M. 138, 142, 148 Schley, A. 265, 267 Schmidt, R. 17, 31, 173, 177–178, 182 Scott, D. viii, 9, 53, 84, 110–111, 119, 125, 135, 137, 140–145, 148, 149, 150–153, 157, 160–161, 243, 246, 254 Scott, G. 259 Scrucca, F. 194, 200 Seidel-Sterzik, H. 196, 200 Selby, D. 242, 245, 257

276

Index

Sena, A. 108, 125 Senge, P. 265, 267 Serauta, P. 142, 250 Seto, C. 6, 12 Shaikh, S. L. 26, 30 Sharma, D. 33, 45 Sharma, S. 237, 242 Sheets, D. 51, 84 Shelley, F. 6, 10 Shen, K. 53, 56, 83 Sherif, S. 89, 102 Sherwood, M. 2, 12 shooting 174–175, 177–79 Siano, A. 187, 200 Sidiropoulos, C. 243, 259 Sievänen, T. 143, 148–149, 159 Siew, R. 196, 200 Sime, I. 89–90, 95, 102, 193, 199 Singh, R. 196, 300 Sishioka, T. 190–192, 199 skiing 26–27, 97–98, 117, 140–147, 151–156, 205–206, 208, 217 Skinner, J. 243, 245, 259 Smiraglia, C. 148, 157 Smit, B. 109, 125 Smith, A. 2, 12, 222, 242 Smith, B. 265, 267 Smith, C. 187, 198 Smith, I. 148, 158 Smith, M. 134–135, 215, 220 snowboarding 5, 144 Sobol, A. 62, 65, 84 society, influence of sport on 63, 165–167, 240, 264–266 Society, J. B. 123–124 Sociology of Sport Journal 4 Soderman, S. 6, 10 Soderquist, C. 245, 259 Soebbing, B. P. 24, 31 Sofotasiou, P. 110, 120, 125 Somerville, M. 243, 259 Song, M-L. 187, 200 Sossa, Z. 196, 198 Sotiriadou, P. 68, 70, 85, 110, 116, 125 Spearman, L. 88–90, 98, 103 spectators or fans: and negative environmental impacts 17, 21–24, 49, 55, 145; and programs to reduce impact 27–30, 89, 96–97, 190, 202–204, 207, 210, 227–230, 247, 250, 253–254; and social pressure on sport for ES 93–94; and health 25–26, 127–128

Spector, S. 89, 97, 103, 201, 205–206, 208, 218, 220 Spigonardo, J. 21, 30 sponsorship 215–216, 234 sport education for sustainability (sportEfS) 243–246, 252–255 sport environmental sustainability (sportES) 1–3, 5–8, 29, 107, 166, 243–244, 248, 261–266 sport facilities: and community 204–205; environmental impacts of 4–6, 23–24; and green building policies 172–173, 224; impact of changing environment on 151; and negative health impacts 26–27; and sustainable practices 87–88, 90–100, 190–196 Sport in Society 4 sport management 114, 167, 243–249, 251, 253–255, 262–263 Sport Management Education Journal 4, 246 Sport Management Review 4, 18, 36, 101, 110, 246 Sport Marketing Quarterly 4 sports marketing: 42, 221–222, 226–227, 255; ability of sport to influence community through 209–210, 215–216, 223–224, 228–230; and advantages of green alliances for sport 225–226, 232–240 stadium (stadia): and air pollution 21–22, 24; and climate change 55, 111–112, 134; costs 128, 172; and GHGs 189, 191–192; and sport facility ES 86–87, 90, 93–95, 97, 99–100, 195, 224, 227; and warming 120, 190–192; and water use 36–40 stakeholder: engagement 98, 184, 195; management 36–37, 72–74, 222; perception 65–67, 78–79, 90, 97; theory 113–115, 121, 191, 197 Starik, M. 263, 266 Steffen, R. 38, 40, 45 Steffen, W. 5, 12 Steiger, R. viii, 9, 84, 111, 125, 140–147, 149, 150, 160 Sterling, S. 243, 245, 257, 259 Stoutenborough, J. W. 33, 45 Stevens, J. viii, 8, 47, 59, 61, 75, 83, 88, 102, 166, 182, 187, 199, 244, 246, 257, 258 Stewart, B. 2, 12, 107, 110, 111, 123, 126–128, 132, 134, 137, 245, 253, 258

Index 277 Stoddard, J. 184, 200 Stubberud, H. A. 141, 150 Stuckengerg, D. 33, 45 sulphur dioxide 17, 28 supply chain 185, 187, 195–196, 239 surfing 5, 36, 81 sustainability: 57, 64, 67–68, 78, 101, 140, 146, 166, 168–170, 176–177, 180, 185–186, 194, 206–207, 210–211; theory 24, 48, 91–93, 95, 97–100, 113, 130, 171, 188–194, 203–204, 213, 223, 226, 231, 237, 243–246, 252, 255 Sustainable Futures: An Applied Journal of Technology, Environment & Society 5 Svatava, J. 197, 199 swimming 5, 19–20, 36, 39–40 Szathamri, A. 6, 12

Turner, P. 36–37, 40–41, 44–45, 110, 113, 115, 124–125 Twomey, D. 110, 114, 125, 138 Tyler, D. 82, 192, 198

tailgating 21–23, 27–28 Tan, B. 39, 45 Tashman, P. 145, 147, 157 Teehan, P. 6, 10, 188, 191, 192, 198 Tencati, A. 186, 199 tennis 134 Tews, K. 180, 182 Thibault, L. 2, 5, 6, 12 Thomas, I. 245, 255, 259 Thomas, V. G. 174, 177–179, 182 Thompson, L. 88, 102, 246, 257 Thoms, M. 41, 43 Thorne, P. 142, 150 Tilbury, D. 243, 259, 262–263, 267 Tilley, H. 263, 267 Tilokwan, P. 218, 220 tourism 2, 68, 153; see also transportation Trail, G. T. 201, 206, 208, 217, 220, 227, 231, 242 Train, G. 221, 224, 226–227, 241 transformative learning theory (TLT) 254 transportation to sports events 18–24, 29–30, 54–55, 77, 143, 145, 185, 188, 205, 208 Trawöger, L. 144, 160–161 Trenberth, K. 6, 12 Trendafilova, S. 5, 6, 7, 8, 12 Triantafyllidis, S. 23–24, 31, 53, 55, 85 Tripathi, P. 185, 198 triple bottom line (TBL) 58, 66, 70, 176, 183–184, 195, 197, 224, 226 triple top line (TTL) 183–184, 195 Trop, T. 218–219 Tsur, Y. 41, 45

value belief-norm (VBN) theory 202, 206, 208, 228–229, 247, 253 Vamplew, W. 129, 132, 134, 137 VanWynsberghe, R. 7, 13, 62, 64, 84, 256 Vaz Pardal, C. 39, 45 Venditti, R. 19, 30 Vilani, R. 51–52, 85 Visser, H. 110, 121, 125, 161 Vogel, R. 33, 46 Vollero, A. 187, 200

United Nations (UN) 17, 32, 34–35, 170, 180, 244 United Nations Brundtland Report (1987) 2; Brundtland Commission 171 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 5, 17, 173–176, 178, 261 university: collaborations with sporting organisations 237–238; -level sport 21–22, 24, 55, 57–58, 96, 201–204, 209, 214–215, 217, 228–231 Urban Studies 4 Urbel-Piivsalu, E. 186, 199

Wade, T. 39, 44 Waldo, K. 48, 50, 79, 84 Walinga, J. 245, 258 Walker, R. J. 7, 13 Wall-Tweedie, J. 227, 231, 242 Wandel, J. 109, 125 Wang, J. 184–187, 198, 200 Wassmer, U. 223, 237, 238, 242 waste: generated at sports venues 6, 145; management of 63–64, 74, 77, 88–89, 91, 96, 99–100, 111, 126, 176, 195; ‘zero waste’ 67, 193; see also recycling Watanabe, N. W. 24–25, 31, 110, 116, 125 water: conservation and management 74, 89, 91, 96–97, 99, 115, 118, 126, 128–130, 145, 172, 176, 185, 190, 195, 218, 239, 261; pollution 6, 33–34, 38–40, 42; resources 32–35, 111, 153; use in sport 35–43, 77, 113 Watkin, G. ix, 32 Watkins, J. 265, 267 Way, D. 6, 12

278

Index

Wei, X. 40, 46 Weiler, J. 176–179, 182 Wenner, L. 57, 59, 85 Werner, K. 187, 199 Wheeler, K. 6, 13 Whetton, P. H. 148, 158 Wickens, E. 68, 83 Wicker, P. 6, 13, 110, 112, 116, 117, 123, 125 Wiek, A. 245, 255, 260 Wilder, J. 196, 198 Williams, C. 263, 267 Willis, R. M. 41, 46 Wilson, B. 171, 177–179, 182 Winn, M. I. 108, 125 Wise, N. 81, 84 Wisner, B. 108, 125 Witham, H. 245, 259 Withycombe, L. 245, 255, 260 Wolfe, R. 62, 68 Wolff, E. 265–266 Wolfsegger, C. 144, 151, 161

Wonneberger, G. T. 281, 220 World Bank 170 World Health Organization (WHO) 17, 34–35 Wyss, R. 144, 151 Xie, S. 196, 200 Yan, C. L. 233, 238, 242 Yan, G. 24, 31, 110, 116, 125 Yang, C. L. 233, 238, 242 Yapici, G. 218, 229 Zakuan, N. 89, 102 Zalasiewicz, J. 5, 23 Zell, D. 40, 45 Zemel, A. 41, 45 Zhand, J. 68, 83 Zhang, L. 46, 102 Zhengyu, L. 126, 137 Ziakas, V. 243–247, 256 Zukas, D. 245, 253, 260