Semantic Spaces of Persian Light Verbs : A Constructionist Account [1 ed.] 9789004274419, 9789004243026

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Semantic Spaces of Persian Light Verbs

Brill’s Studies in South and Southwest Asian Languages Series Editors John Peterson (University of Kiel) Anju Saxena (Uppsala University) Editorial Board Anvita Abbi (Jawaharlal Nehru University) Balthasar Bickel (University of Zurich) George Cardona (University of Pennsylvania) Carol Genetti (University of California, Santa Barbara) Geoffrey Haig (University of Bamberg) Gilbert Lazard (cnrs & École Pratique des Hautes Études) Harold F. Schiffman (University of Pennsylvania) Udaya Narayana Singh (Visva-Bharati, Shantiniketan, India)

Volume 6

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bssal

Semantic Spaces of Persian Light Verbs A Constructionist Account By

Neiloufar Family

LEIDEN | BOSTON

Cover illustration: Landscape in Iran. Picture courtesy of the author.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Family, Neiloufar.  Semantic spaces of Persian light verbs / By Neiloufar Family.   pages cm. — (Brill’s studies in South and Southwest Asian languages; Volume 6)  Revised version of the author’s thesis (PhD)—Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris, 2006.  “Originally wrote this work as a PhD dissertation in 2006, at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris, funded by the Ecole Doctorale Cerveau-Cognition-Comportement (ed 3c).”  Includes bibliographical references.  ISBN 978-90-04-24302-6 (hardback : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-90-04-27441-9 (e-book) 1. Persian language— Verb. 2. Persian language—Compound words. 3. Persian language—Semantics. 4. Persian language— Grammar. i. Title.  PK6285.F36 2014  491’.5556—dc23 2014034958

This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1877-4083 ISBN 978-90-04-24302-6 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-27441-9 (e-book) Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Global Oriental and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Dedicated to Nader Family and Simmin Moghadam

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Contents Acknowledgements  xi Abbreviations  xii 1 Foundations  1 1.1 Introduction  1 1.2 Light Verb Constructions  5 1.2.1 First Studies on lvcs  6 1.2.2 Light Verb Languages  7 1.3 Productivity  10 1.4 Persian  14 1.5 Construction Grammar  18 1.6 Outline of the Book  21 2 Light Verb Constructions in Persian  25 2.1 Persian lvs and pvs  25 2.2 Previous Studies  26 2.2.1 Lexical or Syntactic Status  27 2.2.2 Focus on Aspect and Event Structure  35 2.2.3 Focus on Noun Incorporation  39 2.2.4 Focus on Idioms  40 2.2.5 Interim Summary  41 2.3 A New Approach  42 2.3.1 Looking at the Data  42 2.3.2 Productivity in Persian lvcs  45 2.4 Clusters of Productivity  46 2.4.1 The Patterns  46 2.4.2 Clusters of Productivity  48 2.4.3 Transparency and Clusters  52 2.4.4 Cluster Alternations  54 2.5 Chapter Summary  55 3 Clusters of Productivity in Six Frequent lvs  57 3.1 Cluster Diagrams and Annotations  57 3.1.1 The Diagrams  57 3.1.2 Argument Structure  59 3.1.3 Aspect  59 3.1.4 Criteria for Clusters  60

viii 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

contents

Kærdæn ‘To Do’  61 ∫odæn ‘To Become’  66 Zædæn ‘To Hit’  70 Xordæn ‘To Eat’  94 Dadæn ‘To Give’  105 Gereftæn ‘To Get’  132

4 Clusters of Productivity in Eight More LVs  154 4.1 Ke∫idæn ‘To Pull’  154 4.2 Ændaxtæn ‘To Throw’  161 4.3 Oftadæn ‘To Fall’  165 4.4 Da∫tæn ‘To Have’  169 4.5 Aværdæn ‘To Bring’  175 4.6 Amædæn ‘To Come’  179 4.7 Bordæn ‘To Take’  183 4.8 Ræftæn ‘To Go’  187 5 Alternating Clusters  191 5.1 Past Studies on Alternating Constructions  191 5.1.1 Alternations in Other Languages  191 5.1.2 Alternations in Persian  193 5.2 Alternations: A Case of Shared Clusters  194 5.2.1 Alternations between kærdæn and ∫odæn  195 5.2.2 Alternations between zædæn and xordæn  197 5.2.3 Finer-Grained Alternations  201 5.2.4 Is it just Transitivity?  203 5.2.5 Alternations between dadæn and gereftæn  207 5.3 Other lv Alternations  210 5.4 Chapter Review  210 6 Reflections on Semantic Spaces and Constructions  212 6.1 On Constructions  213 6.1.1 Transparency and Productivity  213 6.1.2 Post-Hoc Meaning Attributions  215 6.1.3 A Special Type of Construction  217 6.2 How Can the Analysis be Applied  221 6.2.1 Loan Words  221 6.2.2 A Neurolinguistic Study  223 6.2.3 A Child Language Study  224

Contents

6.3 Reflections on Differences  226 6.3.1 Differences with Simple Verb Languages  226 6.3.2 Why not Only Two lvs?  228 6.4 Book Summary  229 References  233 Index  238

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Acknowledgements I originally wrote this work as a PhD dissertation in 2006, at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris, funded by the Ecole Doctorale Cerveau-Cognition-Comportement (ed 3c). Before thanking those who were involved in the first draft of this work, I would like to thank Shanley Allen, without whose constructive comments and support, this book would not have been possible. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Pierre Cadiot for being a valuable supervisor of the original version of this work. Pierre provided constructive comments on linguistic issues, while he allowed me to pursue my own ideas freely. I am highly indebted to Dick Carter who generously offered me his time and energy, studying my work at each step and arguing with me over controversial issues. Every discussion with him was motivating and insightful, and always ended with a discussion about jazz and Persian percussion rhythms. A third pivotal person who greatly inspired my work is my father, Nader Family, whose insatiable curiosity and intuitive questions helped drive this project forward; my deepest gratitude goes to him for his assistance and support. Special thanks also to other researchers in Paris who gave a helping hand at different points in the development of this manuscript: a special thanks goes to Victor Rosenthal for his timely assistance and advice, especially during the important initial phases of my work; Bernard Victorri, for finding time for open discussions at crucial points during my research; and Laleh Ghadakpour, who in addition to personal guidance, studied and commented every chapter of the original manuscript. Finally, I am truly grateful for Gilbert Lazard’s intuitive observations and incisive questions during my PhD defense, some of which I have integrated into the new text. And lastly, thank you to all the friends and family who tolerated my absences and negligences during the first version back in 2006, as well to the usual suspects who tolerated yet a second round in 2014!

Abbreviations The following is a list of abbreviations used in the morpheme glosses of this work: 1 2 3 acc ez

first person second person third person accusative (marked by the ra- morpheme) ezafe morpheme (similar to genitive, used to express possession/ relation) imp imperative indef indefinite inf infinitive neg negative pl plural prog progressive pres present past past ptcp participle sg singular subj subjunctive

CHAPTER 1

Foundations 1.1 Introduction One of the defining characteristics of the Persian verbal system is its predominant use of light verb constructions (lvc) to express verbal notions. Unlike English or French and many other languages, which have over 5000 simple verbs each, Persian has less than 200. However, this small number of verbs belies a complex system of constructions. From this limited set, around 14 verbs also occur as light verbs (lv) and serve as a basis for constructing a vast array of verbal notions. These lvs combine with a wide range of complements occurring before the lv, called preverbs (pv), to produce verbal notions via lvcs. These types of multiword constructions exist in many languages (e.g. English: take a walk, give a talk), but lvcs usually make up a rather small class compared to simple verbs, and are treated as marginal phenomena relative to the productive lexical class of simple verbs. Furthermore, in English, simple verbs can often replace lvcs with almost no change in meaning (e.g. to walk, to talk). However, Persian and a handful of other languages (e.g. Urdu, Hindi, Walpiri), use lvcs as the sole means of expressing the majority of verbal notions. pvs in Persian lvcs occur before the verb and can be nominal, adjectival, or prepositional. This productive process characterizes the core of a system that has evolved according to principles that help organize verbal semantic space in Persian. Some examples are listed in (1). (1)

Collocations in Persian be zæban aværdæn xun ændaxtæn kæm ∫odæn qæbul da∫tæn arame∫dadæn jæ∫n gereftæn t∫opoq ke∫idæn qorbæt ke∫idæn

to tongue bring blood throw few become assent have calmness give party obtain pipe pull remoteness pull

say, utter cause to bleed be diminished, become less maintain as true calm someone celebrate smoke a pipe suffer from longing for home

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004274419_002

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The lvs used in Persian can also be used as full verbs, often expressing simple actions with salient direction of motion and manner such as to pull, to bring, or to give. These types of simple action verbs often serve as the basis for lvcs in languages that have lvcs as the core of their system, like Persian, as well as those that use these constructions less frequently. For example, in English, give and take form the basis of many multi-word collocations, where the meaning of the full verb is backgrounded to give way to the resulting constructional meaning. In fact, in studies on English, a recurrent theme regarding lvcs revolves around the semantic contribution of lvs to the lvc. Certain studies report a zero contribution from the lv (Hale and Keyser, 1993), while other claim that lvs have vast and polysemous meanings and also have specific discourse functions (Brugman, 2001). The growing literature on the Persian verbal system also centers on similar questions. Previous studies have analyzed parts of the complex organization of this system, mostly focusing on two axes: semantics and morphosyntax. Regarding lvc semantics, previous studies aim to determine how to calculate the meaning contribution of each of the constituent elements in the construction. These studies use criteria such as aspect and event structure, in attempt to disentangle the semantic properties and structures inherent to each element (Megerdoomian, 2002). In morphosyntactic studies, the dilemma lies in the exact status of lvcs: on the one hand, they consist of two lexical items that can be isolated independently, but on the other hand, the multi-word construction functions as a single unit relative to certain syntactic operations as well to semantics. These studies focus on particular portions of the system, such as lvcs that are composed through noun incorporation (Dabir-Moghaddam, 1997). All previous analyses have taken a top-down approach, by starting with one semantic or syntactic phenomenon and applying it uniformly and exhaustively to the full lvc system. This approach has the advantage of providing an insightful analysis of the portions of the system that fit with the phenomenon of focus. Furthermore, this crucially highlights the breadth of differences in the structures under study. For example, we have learned that constituents of certain lvcs are more easily separated in a sentence than others, or that lvcs resulting from noun incorporation have specific properties, not shared with other types of lvcs. The disadvantage of these top-down approaches is that any given overarching property used to divide up the lvcs explains only part of the system. The full semantic diversity of each lv does not come through in these analyses. Crucial questions regarding meaning organization and construction are left open, and no study has mapped out the patterns underlying productivity

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within the system. Furthermore, no theoretical framework has been able to elegantly capture, in a unified manner, the dual nature of these constructions, which harbor both transparent and opaque properties relative to semantics and syntax. In the present book, we take a completely different approach to analyzing Persian lvcs. The current analysis aims to capture the semantics and the organization of lvcs in Persian, with comprehensive descriptive content within a constructionist framework. The resulting classification provides a first step in understanding how meaning is structured in this system, and how this structure provides templates for efficient disambiguation of constructional meaning and creation of new verbal notions. An analysis of the verbal system must crucially account for the productivity of these expressions, based on their inherent semantic constraints. Contrary to previous studies, the bottom-up approach presented in this book begins simply with a comprehensive list of collocations possible for a given lv. For example, a subset of the collocations possible with the lv ændaxtæn (full meaning: to throw) occurs in (2). (2) Collocations with lv ændaxtæn ‘to throw’ gir ændaxtæn stuck throw rah ændaxtæn path throw ja ændaxtæn place throw dur ændaxtæn far throw jelo ændaxtæn front throw serke ændaxtæn vinegar throw t∫eft ændaxtæn lock throw ∫i∫e ændaxtæn glass throw fær∫ ændaxtæn rug throw tir ændaxtæn shot throw nur ændaxtæn light throw

cause problems start up, ignite set into place, install throw away, discard set forward set vinegar hook the bolt of the lock install a window spread out or unfold a rug shoot a bullet shine light on something

At first glance, the semantic patterns in the meanings expressed elude description. Some of these collocations clearly show underlying traces of the full verb meaning of ændaxtæn ‘to throw,’ though extracting this meaning from the meaning of the whole in a systematic way would not be possible. For example, tir ændaxtæn (lit. shot throw) means ‘to shoot a bullet,’ from which we can extract the idea of projection from throwing. This full verb meaning also appears in nur ændaxtæn (lit. light throw), which means ‘to cast a light on,’ where the idea of throwing a light onto something can be discerned. These meaning motivations that come from the full verb ændaxtæn give us some

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post-hoc clues about how to decipher the meaning of the whole, but they do not help us in understanding the full scope of meanings constructed with the lv ændaxtæn. Rather, the key in understanding the organization of the semantic space of the lv ændaxtæn lies in the word class and, more importantly, the semantic restrictions of the pv. If we consider the many collocations that can be constructed around this lv, meaning similarities emerge partly based on the semantic properties of the pv. For example, if the pv expresses an entity that can be cast (e.g. light, shadow, look), the resulting collocations express the Persian equivalent of the English verb ‘to cast.’ On the other hand, if the pv expresses a projectile weapon (e.g. arrow, bullet, lasso), it combines with ændaxtæn to express attacking or shooting with that weapon. Considering all the collocations of each lv, semantic similarities result in clusters of collocations, partially based on the restrictions on the pv. As more of these clusters are defined in each lv’s semantic space, we get a clearer picture of the types of meanings expressed by constructions using that lv. These clusters are mapped out in lv diagrams, introduced in Chapter 3, used as visual tools that allow us to get a full picture of the variety of constructional meanings under one lv, and how these might relate to other meanings in the same space. These clusters of productivity constitute the foundation the verbal system. Each cluster can be represented by a construction which includes a specified lv, restrictions on the semantics of the pv, and a constructional meaning that is usually more than a mere sum of the meaning of its constituent parts. In our analysis, the term light verb construction or lvc refers to this template shared by a cluster of collocations. In other words, the term lvc refers to the construction that represents a cluster of collocations, which is only partially lexically determined. This new bottom-up approach has the advantage of leading us to considerable insights about semantic productivity within the system. Clusters of productivity do not only emerge within the spaces of each lv, but also serve as connecting points between different lv spaces. As discussed in Chapter 5, certain pairs of lvs can share clusters, in the sense that a same set of pvs can occur with two or more lvs to express distinct semantic differences. Fundamentally, this analysis uses the mechanisms and insights of Construction Grammar (cxg), a framework that provides us with the most appropriate tools to deal with structures that are not fully semantically transparent. Particularly, cxg posits that constructions fall on a continuous cline from transparent, rule-like constructions (e.g. the [-ed] past tense construction in English) to completely idiom-like constructions (e.g. fixed expressions like

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kick the bucket). As opposed to theories that posit a strict dichotomy between grammatical rules and the lexicon, using word formation rules to build complex predicates, this approach accounts for lvcs in Persian as occurring between two extremes of semantic transparency without being considered as exceptional cases. Constructions of the lvc type are composed of an explicit lexical item (here, the lv) plus an open slot to be filled more or less freely according to certain restrictions. These constructions have their own meaning and argument structure, not directly derived from the meaning and argument structure of their individual component parts. Insofar as the lvcs are constructions, I consider them to be a single semantic unit. Their semantics range from transparent to opaque, and some allow more syntactic flexibility than others. These differences between particular lvcs do not affect their status in the system. The lvcs in this book might have different syntactic behaviors, but they are all treated as the same type of phenomenon in regards to meaning construction and disambiguation. This analysis thus serves as an important complement to existing top-down analyses, and considerably extends our understanding of the intricacies of the system. Particularly, it equips us with the structure of the semantic spaces essential to meaning production and to forming new lvcs as new concepts and verbs are introduced to the language. This analysis thus also contributes to studies of productivity and flexibility in language in general. In the remainder of this chapter, I first present a brief history of the term light verb and its uses in regards to similar constructions occurring in English and other languages closer in structure to Persian, followed by a discussion on productivity and previous studies that have attempted to capture the idiosyncratic meanings of these constructions in English. I then discuss basic aspects of Persian verbs, followed by a brief sketch of the particular features of Construction Grammar used in this analysis. Finally, I provide an outline for the rest of the book. 1.2

Light Verb Constructions

Though lvcs exist in many languages, they have eluded formal definition. This is partly due to the heterogeneity of constructions that fall under this umbrella term, but they are also poorly understood due to their semi-compositional nature. Most studies on lvcs in different languages try to determine the exact contributions of each constituent element. In this section, I present a brief sketch of lvc studies on English and then for other languages similar in structure to Persian.

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1.2.1 First Studies on lvcs lvcs consist of an lv (usually also occurring as a full verb outside of the lvc context) combined with another, usually non-verbal, component. They have properties that can help us recognize them and eventually define them. Despite the fact that they do not consist of a single lexical item, they take on the function of a verb, both in terms of meaning contribution and predication in a clause. Their meaning is often non-transparent, as the meaning of the construction is more than the sum of the meaning of the parts (e.g. Persian: etefaq oftadæn ‘to happen’ (lit. event fall)). The discernible meanings of the full verb counterparts become reduced, or bleached, in lvc contexts. This has led for most studies on lvs to be centered on finding its exact contribution to a construction. One of the common themes in previous studies on lvcs is determining what each constituent contributes and how these two contributions sum up to express the meaning of a specific collocation. In traditional views on compositionality, the words of a structure combine according to the operations dictated by the syntactic properties of the sentence. In lvcs, it is almost never possible to determine exactly which semantic properties of the predicate derive from which constituent. As each lv serves as a basis for hundreds of lvcs in some languages, an abundance of meanings emerge, making the contributions of the lv even harder to pin down. The first use of the term ‘light verb’ in English (Jespersen, 1965 Volume vi, p. 117) refers to the process of placing a semantically empty verb, which takes marks of person and tense, before the main notion of the expression. The non-verbal element in these constructions was claimed to provide most of the semantic information while the lv contributes little or nothing to the semantics of the clause. For instance, in English v np constructions, such as take a drive, take a walk, have a drink, have a laugh, the argument structure is claimed to be almost solely derived from the non-verbal element of the construction. This led Jespersen to conclude that the lv does not contribute any lexical information (Jespersen, 1965). Chomsky (1995), following Hale and Keyser (1993) and Larson (1988), uses the term ‘light verb’ to refer to a verb that serves as a syntactic placeholder, typically with an incomplete event structure. The lv essentially functions as a mere host for verbal morphology, holding the place of agr (agreement marker) in a sentence, acting as the head of a transitive verb. However, other studies have shown that lvs in English do in fact provide some of the argument structure of the predicate. Cattell (1984) claims that lvs provide a predication license to the non-verbal component, but concludes that

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no algorithm can predict with which lv a particular complement will combine (Cattell, 1984; p. 91). This lack of predictability remains an important and unresolved question in lvc studies. While lvs often lose most of their original full verb meanings, varying lvs in English results in variable meanings, indicating a non-zero contribution of the lv (e.g. take a look vs. give a look). Brugman (2001) defines lvs in English as “lexical items, which provide simultaneously semantic contributions and discourse functions to their constructions” (e.g. adding coherence or fluency). She claims that lvcs are headed by a “verb which typically has a very wide distribution—it is polysemous and may be associated with a wide variety of patterns of argument selection.” Brugman’s study indicates that the contribution from the lv can indeed be substantial, though formal definition of the contribution continues to be evasive. There have been many studies on similar constructions in different languages (e.g. Japanese (Grimshaw and Mester, 1988); French, (Abeillé, Godard, and Sag, 1998); Chinese (Huang, 1992); German, (Eisenberg, 1989; Wittenberg and Piñango, 2008); Arabic (Ibrahim, 2002)). In these languages, inflecting full verbs fall into an open class, which means that new verbs can be added through loanwords, coinages, and derivations. However, for a number of languages more similar in structure to Persian, verbs do not occur in an open class, but rather in a closed class that otherwise includes grammatical and function words, which resist change and resist new additions. Unlike languages like English, which have a productive and open class of verbs, and much less frequent occurrences of lvcs, certain languages depend solely on lvcs for expressing a rich variety of verbal semantics, as well as for creating new verbal notions as necessary. In the following section, I present some of the work done on these types of languages, which offer ample data to study a unique set of problems posed by these constructions related to compositionality and productivity. 1.2.2 Light Verb Languages Certain languages from diverse language families actually resemble each other in the structure of their verbal systems. In these languages, verbs belong to a closed class, as no new verbs can be derived, and lvcs provide the most frequent means to express the diversity of verbal notions. However, lvs have a strange status as part of a closed class, because they seem to have semantic content while most elements in a closed class include only grammatical function words, and never full lexical items. On the one hand, lvs do not belong to an open class, similar to grammatical markers like auxiliaries. On the other hand, lvs are not semantically empty or

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devoid of lexical content, unlike auxiliaries, which serve purely grammatical functions. Furthermore, lvs appear in diverse contexts and not exclusively in a single tense or aspectual context (Butt and Geuder, 2004). This makes their status rather difficult to define, but what these languages have in common is that they only use a limited and ‘closed’ set of verbs to construct a large array of verbal notions usually expressed in other languages as simple or full verbs (for further discussion, see also Schultze-Berndt, 2006). For example, Bardi (Bowern, 2004), as well as several other Australian Aboriginal languages spoken in Northern and Western Australia, use only lvcs to construct verbal notions, and have a very limited number of actual full verbs (for an overview, see Baker and Harvey, 2010; Schultze-Berndt, 2003; McGregor, 2002; Capell, 1979). Jaminjung, from the Non-Pama-Nyungan language families of Northern Australia, forms lvcs as a main means of expressing actions, based on a small set of inflecting verbs (Schultze-Berndt, 2010). lvs in Jaminjung also affect the semantics of the constructions they occur in, contributing semantic properties like type of motion, causation, and other aspectual features. Papuan languages Kalam (Pawley, 1993) and Ku Waru (Merlan and Rumsey, upcoming) only have a handful of 80 to 100 inflecting verbs, a subset of which can serve as lvs. Similar to the Australian and Oceanic languages, many of the possible lv constructions in the Papuan languages occur with another verb as a complement (lvcs of the form v-lv), or in serial verb constructions. But regardless of the particular structures they occur in, these languages share the property of having a limited number of frequently used inflecting verbs that provide semantic contributions, which are, at best, relatively vague. South Asian languages, Urdu and Hindi are essentially identical, except for the use of a different alphabet. Urdu is spoken in Pakistan and Hindi in India. They belong to the Indo-European language family, and can also be characterized as languages that have prolific lvc use. Similar to Persian, lvs in Hindi have full verb counterparts. For example, the verb kar ‘to do’ and de ‘to give’ can occur as both full verb (3a) or as an lv (3b). (3)

Hindi Verbs (a) Full verb use of kar and de raam-ne apnaa homwark kiyaa. Ram self homework do Ram did his homework. niinaa-ne raam-ko kitaab dii. Nina Ram book give Nina gave Ram a book.

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(b) lv use of kar and de raam-ne mohan-par barosaa kiyaa. Ram Mohan reliance/trust do Ram trusted/relied on Mohan. niinaa-ne raam-kii kahaanii-par dyaan diyaa. Nina Ram story attention give Nina paid attention to Ram’s story.

As with the languages from Australia and Polynesia, these Southern Asian languages permit v-v lvcs alongside lvcs with non-verbal complements. In v-v lvcs, lvs provide extra information about the type of event described by the head or main verb, or the Aktionsart of the predication (Butt, 2010). Butt claims that different lvs change the meaning of the constructions in different, and at times idiosyncratic, ways due to the flexible nature of the underlying lexical content. As with most lvc studies, studies on Urdu and Hindi mostly focus on determining the contribution of constituent elements to the semantics and grammatical function of the construction as a whole. Mohanan (1997) investigates lvcs with nominal pvs in Hindi, focusing on the grammatical function of its constituent elements. She claims that lvcs are monoclausal (they have only one syntactic predicate), and that they constitute phrasal categories constructed post-lexically. She shows that the pv, while contributing to argument structure, can also be an argument of the lv. Case markings in Hindi provide an extra tool for exploring this aspect of lvcs in Hindi. Mohanan separates semantic structure from grammatical function structure, argument structure, and grammatical category structure (1997, p. 438) and divides nominal lvcs into two groups: those where the pv is an argument, and those where it is part of the construction. Focusing on v-v constructions in Urdu, Butt (1997) shows that the lv of the construction contributes aspectual and event information, such as inception, unaccusativity, ergativity, completion, suddenness, forcefulness, and volition (see also Butt and Ramchand, 2001). For example, the lv in the two sentences presented in (4) changes and the pv stays the same. The meaning of the lvc changes accordingly, relative to the semantic property of conscious choice (Butt, 1997, p. 122). The verb par ‘to fall’ expresses lack of conscious choice, whereas daal ‘to put’ implies volition.1 See the example from Butt (1997) below in (4). 1  In Hindi, lvs also express suddenness, benefaction, regret, violence, contempt, and thoroughness (see Poornima and Koenig, 2008, p. 7 for a summary of lvs and their semantics).

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(4) Urdu collocations using the same pv and different lvs par and daal vo ciik par-aa he scream fall He began screaming suddenly (despite himself). us-ne ciik daal-aa he scream put He screamed violently (on purpose).

Minimal pairs such as those in (4) will also be examined for Persian, as these pairs provide considerable clues to how meaning is constructed throughout the lvc system. They show how two alternating lvs (occurring with the same pv) can be connected in verbal semantic space, in such a way that one collocation can entail the other, with predefined semantic differences. Most studies to date on languages that use lvcs more frequently than simple verbs have focused on the semantic and grammatical contributions of the constituent elements. In essence, these studies attempt to reconcile lvc formation with the theory of compositionality, which posits that the meaning of every multi-word construction can be derived from the meaning of its parts. As with previous Persian studies, which will be surveyed in the next chapter, these analyses use a top-down approach, looking at broad semantic or syntactic properties and assigning them to groups of lvcs that might otherwise not express similar meanings. This approach sheds light on general variations in an lv’s aspectual and grammatical contributions, and has lead to many valuable insights on semantic and structural variability in lvcs, and to conjectures of function and meaning of the lvs in particular. In the current study of Persian lvcs, one of the goals is to understand how the patterns created by the variety of meanings expressed by lvcs orchestrate an efficient understanding of new forms and provide guidelines for the creation of new constructions. Before presenting an introduction to the Persian verbal system, I introduce the notion of productivity and present a couple of studies on lvcs in English that strive to provide an explanation to this, usually semantic, problem. Then, I provide a quick introduction to the Persian verbal system and how the system is productive (previous studies on Persian will be presented in full in Chapter 2). 1.3 Productivity Productivity refers to coining new words or expressions on the basis of rules or established patterns present in other words or expressions. A pattern may be

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used as a model for new items if the occasion demands (Adams, 1973, p. 197). This allows for both flexibility in expression and the potential for an infinite number of structures, used synchronically in word formation processes (Bauer, 1983, p. 18). The resulting systematicity plays an important role in different aspects of language: for example, in language acquisition, it helps children to bootstrap new structures based on the old. The mechanisms underlying productivity allow for the generalization from sets of constructions, and the refinement of these generalizations. Chomsky referred to this mechanism as linguistic creativity, or the capacity of a speaker to make use of “the intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, arousing in them novel ideas and subtle perceptions and judgments” (Chomsky, 1975, p. 4). Pinker (1999, p. 6) further elaborates that “specifying kinds of words rather than a string of actual words, the rules allow us to assemble new sentences on the fly and not regurgitate preassembled clichés—and that allows us to convey unprecedented combinations of ideas.” When forms can be built according to rules or other forms, a recognizable pattern emerges. An example of a highly productive process is the plural suffix [-s] in English. Except for a handful of exceptions, the addition of this suffix to any noun in English makes it a plural form. On the other hand, idioms represent nonproductive items. Between these two extremes, certain constructions display semi-productive patterns. Semi-productivity occurs when a process displays systematic behavior, though the amount of productivity of the forms is constrained by semantic or other restrictions. For example, the English expression go + N where N signifies ‘crazy,’ is a semi-productive expression (Goldberg, 1995). The whole expression means ‘to become crazy,’ and the noun in this expression is restricted to words with the general meaning ‘crazy’ (e.g. bonkers, cuckoo). While the slot available for the noun is quite open, the productivity of the construction is constrained by semantics. Frequency plays a role in productivity. The more frequently different instances of a construction are expressed (i.e. the more different tokens), the easier it is to make new forms based on existing ones. This could be partly because the more tokens a construction has, the more well defined the crucial attributes of the meaning become. Conversely, if a construction includes a clear perceptual or functional definition of the pv required, as for the nominal complement in the go + N construction, it allows for clear guidelines for productivity.

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In her study on the have a v2 construction in English (e.g. have a walk, have a swim, have a taste, have a bite, have a look), Wierzbicka (1982) looks at the different constructional meanings expressed by different complements combining with the lv have. Restrictions on the complement determine the meaning of this semi-productive expression. She suggests that the grammaticality of constructions like have a drink or have a try as opposed to *have an eat or *have a manage lies in the repeatability of the actions expressed by the complement. Wierzbicka begins by giving a sketch of the semantic invariant of a construction. She posits the following structure, in (5), as the semantic invariant, found in all possible have constructions, of which she examines ten. (5) Semantic invariant of the English lv have X had a v => for some time, not a long time, X was doing something (v) it could cause something (good) to happen in X that nobody else would know  about X was doing it not because X wanted anything to happen to anything other than  himself X could do it more than one time

Each sub-type has one or several construction-specific semantic properties. To describe these, Wierzbicka uses a language that is “in principle intelligible and intuitively verifiable” (p. 300). She provides a concise, though at times flexible definition to describe the meaning of the constructions. For example, two separate constructions are consumption of small parts of objects which could cause one to feel pleasure in (6a) and action aiming at perception which could cause one to know something and which would not cause one to feel bad if it did not in (6b). (6) Two subtypes of the English lv have (a) e.g. have a bite, a lick, a suck, a chew, a nibble X had a lick (of Y). => for some time, not a long time, X was doing something (v) taking through his mouth into his body small parts of Y it could cause X to feel something good (when X was doing it) X was doing it not because X wanted to cause anything to happen to  anything other than himself X could do it more than one time. 2  Unlike languages like Persian, any collocation of this type in English usually has an analogous simple counterpart. For example, have a walk has the counterpart walk or have a swim has the counterpart swim.

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(b) e.g. have a look (at), a listen (to), a smell (of ), a feel (of ), a taste (of ) X had a listen (to Y). => for some time, not a long time, X was doing something (v) it could cause X to come to know something about Y X would not feel anything bad if X did not come to know  anything about Y because of doing it X was doing it not because X wanted anything  to happen to anything other than himself X could do it more than one time.

Each construction (as a combination of an lv with a formally defined set of complements), with its specific nuances, allows for some prediction of any have a v collocations in English. If the complement of the lv belongs to one of the categories defined in a construction, the meaning of the whole can be predicted based on the restrictions and definitions of the construction. These also allow for productivity, since the type of complement that occurs with have in each of the constructions is specific and defined within the construction. Wierzbicka’s study takes us one step closer to unraveling the inherent constructional meanings used to guide the creation of new collocations. In a statistical corpus study on lvcs in English, Stevenson, Fazly, and North (2004) investigate the degree of acceptability of collocations based on semantic properties. In English, lvs include the verbs take, give, and make. These form lvcs when they occur in conjunction with particular types of nominal verbs. Instances of these lvcs include take a walk, give a talk, give a speech, and give a howl. The authors define lvcs as an lv occurring with a complement to form a multi-word expression and focus on lv a v constructions in particular (e.g. take a walk, give a groan). As in Wierzbicka’s study, the v corresponds to the nominal complement in the construction. Their study aims to determine the degree to which “words form a valid complement to a given light verb” on the basis of corpus statistics (p. 2). The authors hypothesize that lvcs are not fully idiosyncratic, but exhibit systematic behavior. This “class-based behavior” determines how a same LV “will show distinct patterns of acceptability with complements across different verb classes” (p. 3). Through a statistical analysis of Google searches and comparisons to human judgment tests, they find that the acceptability of particular instances of lvcs depends on the semantic properties of the complement. The categorization of the complements based on these properties allows for a certain degree of predictability. Syntactic and semantic constraints that dictate the formation of patterns provide an example of semi-productivity in language, as they constrain an otherwise productive process. They find that the potential complements in lvcs fall into semantically similar classes to verb classes defined for English by Levin (1993). However, even with Levin’s classes,

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the authors of the study found the classification too coarse-grained, requiring further semantic and syntactic features to give a more precise account of lvc acceptability. Ahmed and Butt (2011)’s attempt to classify Hindi n-v constructions in terms of combinatory possibility is the only study to my knowledge that has used this approach for a language other than English. Their analysis shows that the meaning of a construction, as well as argument and event structure, depends heavily on the semantics of the noun occurring as pv. In an earlier study, Ahmed (2010) classifies acceptable pvs for given lvs. His preliminary findings show that verbs with semantic properties related to ingestive, mental gain, and perception verbs can be clustered together in alternations. However, as the author suggests, in order to get Levin-style classes for Urdu, the analysis needs further refinement, particularly in describing the semantics behind the verb classes. In the next section, I will present the basic structure of the Persian verbal system, and specifically focus on certain productive patterns that have prescribed the creation of new collocations over the span of centuries. 1.4 Persian Modern Persian is an Indo-European language spoken in Iran and parts of Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Bahrain. It has a default sov word order and is a pro-drop language with relatively free word order. In the verbal system, an lvc used to express a verbal notion cannot be replaced by a simple verb and often only has a simple verb translation equivalent in English (e.g. hærf zædæn ‘to speak’ (lit. word hit)). Simple verbs can almost always replace LVCs in English; while Persian simple verbs can conversely almost always be replaced by one or more collocations. lvcs in Persian are formed by an lv combined with a nominal element, an adjective, a preposition, or a prepositional phrase, as listed and discussed in grammars available for the language (e.g. Lazard, 1992; Lambton, 1961; Rastorgueva, 1964; Beeman, 1982; Windfuhr, 1987; Mahootian, 1997). The lvs used as the basis of these constructions also occur as full verbs outside of these constructions. Full verbs constitute a closed class in Persian, as no new verbs can be added to the repertoire of existing simple verbs. In this book, I concentrate on the 14 most common verbs used as lvs. These lvs and the English translation equivalent of their full verb meanings appear below, in (7).

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foundations (7) Most frequent lvs in Persian amædæn ‘come’ kærdæn ‘do’ ændaxtæn ‘throw’ gereftæn ‘obtain, hold’ aværdæn ‘bring’ ke∫idæn ‘pull’ bordæn ‘take’ oftadæn ‘fall’ dadæn ‘give’ xordæn ‘eat, collide’ da∫tæn ‘have’ zædæn ‘hit’ ∫odæn ‘become’ ræftæn ‘go’

We can expect to find the full verb meanings of these lvs as the basis for metaphorical and other meaning extensions when they occur in the hundreds of collocations they form. Some examples are presented in (8). (8) Collocations in Persian dæst zædæn xæmiyaze ke∫idæn dust da∫tæn gu∫ dadæn hærf zædæn negah da∫tæn email zædæn tayp kærdæn qose xordæn

hand hit yawn pull friend have ear give sound hit sight have email hit type do grief eat

applaud, touch yawn like/love listen talk keep send an email type grieve

While these types of constructions have spread across the verbal system, the percentage of collocations relative to full verbs used in colloquial or written language has yet to be determined.3 A significant number of full verbs in Persian only occur as full verbs (e.g. budæn ‘to be,’ xabidæn ‘to sleep,’ didan ‘to see,’ xændidæn ‘to laugh,’ etc.), and are used very frequently in all registers of the language.4 lvcs have been gradually replacing simple verbs since the beginning of Modern Persian (Khanlari, 1973). For this reason, Persian can provide us with a large amount of data that has been in continuous usage over several centuries, 3  Preliminary data from child language and child directed speech (Family, forthcoming) indicates that, in these particular registers, speakers use lvcs in approximately half of verbal utterances (not including the verb budæn ‘to be’). 4  It has been reported that, in Kurdish, which also depends on lvs for expressing most verbal notions, a small set of 60 verbs account for 96% of all verbs in a corpus study (Haig, 2000).

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giving us access to a rich and robust system. This evolution from simple verbs to multi-word constructions continues in modern Persian. In certain cases, like those in (9), the pv is a fossilized nominal derivation of the original verb. The archaic simple verbs are being replaced by collocations and have almost ceased to exist in all registers of the language. (9) Archaic full verbs replaced by collocations in Modern Persian ku∫idæn → ku∫e∫ kærdæn to try geristæn → gerye kærdæn to cry (sob) avixtæn → avizan kærdæn to hang (something)

Unlike English, where nouns can often be used as verbs, as in ‘I will phone you,’ (the noun ‘phone’ to mean ‘contact by phone’), Persian speakers must always produce collocations by combining a non-verbal element with an lv. But even though multiple lvs are available for these new constructions, the choice is never random. Consider the following examples of recently created collocations in (10), based on nominal pvs introduced into Persian from other languages. (10) Loanwords as the basis for new collocations email zædæn email hit telefon zædæn phone hit losion zædæn lotion hit bat mitzva gereftæn bat mitzva get hepatit gereftæn hepatitis get tayp kærdæn type do tayp zædæn type hit mesaj dadæn message give

send off an email call on the phone apply lotion arrange a bat mitzvah catch hepatitis type (on a computer) type (on a manual typewriter) send a message

When spray fixative was first introduced to the Iranian market, it was verbalized with zædæn ‘to hit’ rather than pa∫idæn ‘to spray’. This selection was based on established meaning patterns within the semantic space of zædæn. Namely, one of the lvcs occurring with zædæn expresses the notion of controlled application of something onto another. Determining these senses and how they are organized in Persian verbal space is one of the main goals of this book. Each one of the most common lvs can be used to form upwards of 400 verbal notions. lvc formation in Persian is a semi-productive process. As new concepts and terms have been invented and borrowed, the number of possible collocations for each lv has also increased. This continuous expansion

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and evolution has caused the semantic contribution of the lvs to become gradually dispersed and difficult to pin down, as lexical polysemy increases. Nonetheless, this expansion has not been random, but has been guided by semantic constraints on possible combinations. Importantly, the system maintains complete coherence for production and allows creation of new terms. Our initial task centers around the investigation of construction meaning. In other words, how did telefon zædæn (lit. telephone hit) and telefon kærdæn (lit. telephone do) become acceptable verbal forms when the telephone was introduced, but telefon xordæn (lit. telephone eat) or telefon ændaxtan (lit. telephone throw) did not. When lasers were introduced as weapons, lazer ‘laser’ could occur as a pv with zædæn, and xordæn, meaning ‘to shoot a laser at’ and ‘to be shot with a laser’, respectively. Adult learners of Persian find most Persian collocations idiosyncratic or idiomatic,5 to be learned as arbitrary form to meaning pairings. No grammar or dictionary to date has provided any guidelines as to what constructional meanings are likely with each lv. Native Persian speakers also lack conscious knowledge of the variety of constructional meaning expressed via collocations. They unanimously provide the full verb meaning, and not constructional meaning that occurs with the lv, as the definition for an lv presented in isolation (outside of a collocation). For example, practically all Persian speakers would immediately say that xordæn means ‘to eat,’ while in fact, as we will see in the analysis, over ten frequent and varied constructional meanings result from using this lv. Similarly, zædæn will be translated as ‘to hit’ by all subjects, although it also occurs in certain constructions to express notions such as injecting, playing a musical instrument, cutting off, calling on the telephone, ringing a bell, or rusting, to name a few. The semantic variability of the lvs is not consciously available to Persian speakers, but productive creation of new lvcs follows certain underlying rules, intuitively known to all speakers. There must therefore be a method to capture these regularities. Once non-compositional semantics has been established as an inherent property of these constructions, and not as the main problem, the challenge shifts from understanding each element’s contribution to understanding the patterns inherent to the totality of the verbal system. These patterns within the Persian verbal system provide structure for a speaker to recognize the acceptability of particular collocations. The goal of this study is to provide a global view of the semantic spaces of lvs and how its organization lends to productivity. 5  Based on personal communication with second language learners of Persian.

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In the next section, I discuss Construction Grammar (Fillmore and Kay, 1996; Goldberg, 1995), which provides us with the appropriate and adequate tools to capture the semi-transparent, and non-compositional, nature of these constructions and their productivity patterns. Unlike other frameworks, Construction Grammar allows these semi-transparent constructions to take a central part in grammar, and does not treat them as exceptional or rare processes. 1.5

Construction Grammar

Construction Grammar (cxg) assumes that language consists of a repertoire of complex patterns, or constructions, that integrate form and meaning in conventionalized and often non-compositional ways. In a construction, form is the combination of syntactic, morphological, or prosodic patterns; and meaning, in a broad sense, includes lexical semantics, pragmatics, and discourse structure. A grammar in this view consists of intricate networks of overlapping and complementary patterns that serve as ‘blueprints’ for encoding and decoding linguistic expressions of all types (Goldberg, 1995). Language thus provides a means through which humans express a range of phenomena, both perceived and conceived. The meaning of constructions includes not only lexical information, but also certain information common to all cognitive linguistic theories (e.g. Langacker, 1987). Namely, cxg also takes into account perceptual and conceptual parameters using image-schemas, metaphors, force dynamics, movement, and real-world knowledge of the thing or action involved. Real-world knowledge includes information we have of how the world functions and what types of actions are pragmatically plausible. cxg considers meaning construction and comprehension as cognitive mechanisms grounded in nonlanguage-specific brain processes. The cognitive parameters implicated in these constructions include embodiment, cultural or social issues, and certain cognitive traits. The basic tenets of cxg include the following (from Goldberg and Jackendoff, 2004): 1. 2.

There is a cline of grammatical phenomena from the totally general to the totally idiosyncratic. Everything on this cline is to be stated in a common format, from the most particular, such as individual words, to the smost general, such as principles for verb position, with many subregularities in between. That is, there is no principled divide between “lexicon” and “rules.”

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At the level of phrasal syntax, pieces of syntax connected to meaning in a conventionalized and partially idiosyncratic way are captured by constructions.

At one end of the cline, constructions resemble grammatical rules, such as the specifications of the [-s] plural marker in English. In these cases, a construction does not differ much from a rule. On the other end of the cline, they resemble lexical items, such as words or idioms. Between the two ends of the cline, constructions consist of conventionalized form and meaning pairings of different internal complexity. No construction is more basic than another construction. According to cxg, a construction exists if one or more of its properties cannot be strictly predicted from the inherent properties of the lexical elements within it. The description of a construction specifies the types of elements that can occur within it, as well as how they will interact with the construction. In this sense, constructions are similar to idioms, in that they are stored as conventionalized forms that often include a syntactic structure, some phonological and discourse information, and a meaning. Some constructions can be rather abstract, like argument structure representations, which do not have explicit phonological information. These code structures, like strict word order, and meaning (e.g. the English resultative construction, which has the structure: Subject-Verb-Direct Object-End Point). Other constructions are easy to spot due to explicit lexical items within them. For example, the expression let alone occurs in a particular construction in English, which has two open slots for two arguments that are juxtaposed in terms of likeliness or suitability (e.g. She cannot boil potatoes, let alone cook a meal). Much of the content of constructions is language-specific and cannot be explained by universal linguistic parameters. Even though the semantic motivations of a particular construction might be deduced post hoc, constructions are learned and we cannot predict their existence. However, constructions can occur in families, where a group of constructions share some syntactic and/or semantic properties. These families can be partially productive, based on semantic or pragmatic parameters. Positing constructions and determining construction families avoids assigning multiple and idiosyncratic senses for certain verbs (Goldberg, 1996; p. 140): The reason for postulating constructions is analogous to the reason why other researchers have wanted to postulate a lexical rule: in order to capture generalizations across instances. Moreover, it is claimed here that what is stored is the knowledge that a particular verb with its inherent meaning can be used in a particular construction. This is equivalent to

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saying that the composite fused structure involving both verb and construction is stored in memory. By recognizing the stored entity to be a composite structure, we gain the benefits [. . .] over a lexical rule account. For example, we avoid implausible senses such as “to cause to receive by kicking.” It is the composite structure of the verb and construction that has this meaning. We also allow other syntactic processes to refer to the inherent lexical semantics of the verb. Thus we do not lose the information conveyed by the verb, because the verb is not changed into a new verb with a different sense. Constructions capture non-compositional semantics in a unified way. Consequently, cxg easily lends itself to the analysis of multi-word expressions without distributing discrete pieces of that meaning to different parts of the construction and without having to worry exactly what feature of the meaning or structure of a construction comes from a particular constituent. This aspect of the framework is especially conducive to the analysis of the semi-compositional lvcs that occur in Persian. Namely, unlike other approaches to syntax where each component is analyzed independently, cxg allows constructional meaning to represent the meaning of the whole in a non-derivational manner by default. In this study, I use constructions, in the cxg sense, in order to determine families of constructions that share certain properties (e.g. those that share an explicit lv). In turn, this allows us to get a global view of how constructions are laid out in semantic verbal space in Persian and how they interact with each other. While inspired by cxg, the current analysis only considers constructions at a single level of specification (i.e. one that includes explicit lexical items, and differentiates itself through construction meaning). In cxg, “a hierarchical network of constructions clearly enables the theory to be in principle fully descriptively adequate” (Goldberg, 2004, p. 3). Constructions higher in the hierarchy capture general patterns without being more basic than others, and lower level constructions account for idiosyncratic and perhaps more language-specific information. Investigating inheritance hierarchies (e.g. how argument structure constructions interact with lvcs) is beyond the scope of this book, though some of the discussion in Chapter 6 will touch on this topic. I am interested in the semantic patterns created by different lvcs of an lv. Constructions, as conventionalized form to meaning pairings, allow for the semantic diversity of the Persian verbal system to be captured in a bottom-up manner. As I will show in detail in the next chapter, clusters of productivity can

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be represented by a construction, avoiding large number of idiosyncratic meanings that would otherwise be allotted to the lv in a compositional analysis. Once constructions and their organization and relations are determined, we can also stipulate how new lvcs appear. The tools made available through cxg allow us to capture the idiosyncratic and often non-compositional semantic properties of lvcs in Persian. While the constructions investigated in this book occur at a language-specific level, this does not mean that the same type of patterns will not be found in many other languages, both those that depend solely on lvcs (e.g. Urdu, Jaminjung) or those that have verbs as part of an open class (e.g. English). 1.6

Outline of the Book

In Chapter 2, I present the basic structure of Persian lvcs, complementing the sketch provided in 1.4. I present some of the features that previous studies have focused on, namely event structure, aspect, and syntax. These approaches essentially take one or a set of constructions and only look at the lvcs that fit with those constructions. But these top-down approaches to studying Persian lvcs have not been fruitful in providing a global perspective, because for each rule, there either seems to be a substantial set of exceptions or the rule is so general that it does not capture the many nuances of the system, and thus lacks predictive value. These approaches have not been successful in describing the semantic space of each lv: an organized space used as a basis for productivity of verb forms. I argue that Construction Grammar (cxg) provides an appropriate framework within which we can explore this question. Namely, by replacing the traditional dichotomy of lexicon and grammatical rules with constructions that fall on a cline from the totally general to the totally idiosyncratic, we can capture many properties of lvcs in their many instances. Because these constructions represent the core of the verbal system, and are not only exceptional phenomena next to more regular patterns (as in English), it is important to frame the analysis within a theory of language like cxg that captures their importance within the system. An important notion that plays a central part in the current analysis is that of clusters of productivity. At first glance, the lists of hundreds of instances of lvcs that are possible with each lv seem disorderly, as in the list in (11) of collocations with zædæn ‘to hit.’

22 (11) Collocations with the lv zædæn ‘to hit’ gitar zædæn guitar hit dad zædæn yell hit qædæm zædæn step hit ni∫ zædæn sting hit felfel zædæn pepper hit maye zædæn mix hit ræng zædæn paint hit ∫æm∫ir zædæn sword hit ampul zædæn syringe hit foru∫gah zædæn store hit tohmæt zædæn accusation hit gaz zædæn bite hit jib zædæn pocket hit mævad zædæn drugs hit jævane zædæn sprout hit t∫æmæn zædæn grass hit hærf zædæn word/sound hit

chapter 1

play the guitar yell stroll sting add pepper (to food) prepare paint strike with a sword administer a shot open a store accuse bite pick a pocket take drugs sprout trim grass talk

However, upon closer examination, patterns emerge from the data. Namely, certain groups of collocations express very similar meanings. I refer to these groups of expressions with similar meanings as clusters of productivity. Each of these is represented by a particular construction. The constructions presented in this book are used as means to organize semantic space. They have the following structure: an explicit lv, the selectional restrictions on the pv, and a constructional meaning. These constructions are crucial to our understanding of the semantic space of lvcs in Persian. In Chapter 3, I provide detailed diagrams that include the clusters of productivity in the semantic spaces of six frequent lvs: kærdæn ‘to do,’ ∫odæn ‘to become,’ zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ dadæn ‘to give,’ and gereftæn ‘to obtain.’ The lv occurs at the center of the diagram, which then branches off into semantically grouped clusters. For each of the clusters, I provide a list of example collocations, general construction meaning, restrictions on pv selection, a general aspectual reading and argument structure for the construction, as well as any relevant remarks. The diagrams map out the semantic spaces of each lv, allowing us to get a global view of possible meanings expressed by constructions using each lv. By mapping semantic spaces, I provide a new way to discern patterns of productivity in the system and to describe mechanisms through which new verbs are constructed and understood. In Chapter 4, I present the diagrams and less detailed entries for the remaining eight lvs presented in this book: ke∫idæn ‘to pull,’ ændaxtæn ‘to

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throw,’ oftadæn ‘to fall,’ da∫tæn ‘to have,’ aværdæn ‘to bring,’ amædæn ‘to come,’ bordæn ‘to take,’ and ræftæn ‘to go.’ My goal is not to describe the large set of lvcs in detail, but to investigate the dynamics of this relatively closed system, broadly presenting a new perspective through the presentation of the most common lvs. In Chapter 5, I will discuss how the given framework captures lv alternations. Alternations occur when the lv of a collocation changes and the pv stays the same, resulting in a related but different meaning. For example, the examples in (12) contain the pv ab ‘water’ and different lvs. (12) Collocations with pv ab ‘water’ ab ∫odæn water become ab ændaxtæn water throw ab dadæn water give ab gereftæn water get ab kærdæn water do ab ke∫idæn water pull ab oftadæn water fall ab ræftæn water go ab zædæn water hit

melt, dissolve make water appear (e.g. salivate) give a drink of water, irrigate extract juice, juice fill with water rinse become watery, become flooded shrink splash water

The difference in meaning that emerges in alternating pairs of lvcs can sometimes be captured by aspectual or other general differences (e.g. causativity, transitivity). When a group of clusters is shared, many semantically similar collocations alternate with similar differences in meaning. For example, xordæn ‘to eat’ can be the inchoative version of the same causative action expressed by zædæn ‘to hit’ for a large number of collocations, as in the examples in (13). (13) Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’ t∫aqu zædæn knife hit injure with a knife t∫aqu xordæn knife eat get wounded by a knife gul zædæn gul xordæn

trick hit trick eat

trick be tricked

On the other hand, shared clusters can also result in more subtle difference in constructional meaning. The differences can involve not only grammatical parameters, but also spatio-temporal features, like movement or alternating directions. Alternation patterns map out how the semantic spaces of the lvs in Persian are interconnected. While the individual clusters allow for meaning prediction

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relative to the semantics of the pv and the notion being expressed within an lv space, alternations trace out the connections to other collocations in another lv space. In Chapter 6, I discuss the properties of the system in light of the current analysis with a general discussion of constructions. I briefly describe some anecdotal neurolinguistic data, which suggests that such a semantic analysis could not only aid in understanding certain speech pathologies, but also in creating new assessment material, especially catered to language-specific phenomena. I also give an overview of a study on child language, which has contributed empirical data supporting the current analysis. Nota Bene regarding the data presented in this book: The problem of scarce data and corpora pose a big problem for studying lvcs in Persian. Collocations are not systematically listed in dictionaries. Searching the web for frequency poses problems since bracketed searches are not yet functional with Persian fonts and, more importantly, an lv can appear separated from its pv (grammatical properties of lvcs will be presented in Chapter 2). The Persian collocations presented in this book come from correspondence with native speakers and several dictionaries (Haim, 1995; Afshar, Hakami, and Hakami, 2002; Keshani, 1993), cross-checked for acceptability via Internet searches (i.e. Google) of Persian webpages.

CHAPTER 2

Light Verb Constructions in Persian 2.1 Persian lvs and pvs Persian lvcs form the foundation of a complex network of verbal collocations that have replaced simple verbs in the language. They provide the exclusive means to create new verbal elements. The lvs occurring in these constructions also occur as full verbs with basic action meanings. This book focuses on 14 lvs, repeated in (14) in order of usage frequency1 along with their full verb meanings. When occurring in a list of collocations in this book, the lv will be translated by the closest translation equivalent verb for its full verb meaning, while this meaning might not be present in the actual semantics of the collocation. (14) Persian lvs in order of frequency kærdæn to do zædæn to hit dadæn to give gereftæn to get da∫tæn to have amædæn to come aværdæn to bring xordæn to eat ke∫idæn to pull ∫odæn to become bordæn to take ræftæn to go ændaxtæn to throw oftadæn to fall

A Persian speaker will utter the full verb meaning as the meaning of a verb when asked in isolation, outside of an lvc context. Though the exact semantic contribution of the verb as an lv has eluded definition, the morphosyntactic function of the lv remains the same. Namely, it inflects for tense and aspect, as well as negation. 1  Karimi-Doostan, 1998, p. 83.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004274419_003

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CHAPTER 2

These lvs occur with a range of different non-verbal elements as pvs, as in the following list of collocations in (15), mostly from Beeman (1982, p. 134). These examples show the variety of types of pvs that can combine with an lv to produce a collocation. (15) Different pv + lv combinations noun + lv hærf zædæn word hit gu∫ kærdæn ear do dæst dadæn hand give t∫ane zædæn chin hit

speak listen shake hands bargain



adjective + lv bolænd kærdæn peida kærdæn bozorg ∫odæn

high do found do big become

lift find grow



preposition + lv pi∫ bordæn dær amædæn pæs dadæn

forward take out come back give

advance something come out, exit return



prepositional phrases + lv be ja aværdæn to place bring be kar bordæn to work take æz bein ræftæn from middle go

remember use die, wither away

In the next section, I will present lvc data that best portrays the lvc’s ambiguous behavior as single lexical unit with respect to certain grammatical processes, and as a transparent multi-unit syntactic construction with respect to other grammatical processes. The question of its unit or non-unit status is a recurrent theme in studies on Persian lvcs. I will then give an overview of previous studies and the features they focused on. 2.2

Previous Studies

In this section, I first describe the lexical and syntactic behaviors displayed by lvcs. Then, I give a succinct summary of the aspects of Persian lvcs that have come under attention in past studies.

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2.2.1 Lexical or Syntactic Status The issue of whether lvcs are stored as lexical units or if they are put together post-syntactically has been explored in several previous studies. In this section, I provide relevant example sentences and collocations from Megerdoomian (2002, chapter 3) and Karimi-Doostan (1997), and other works as noted. Some of the derivations and syntactic processes described here do not apply to all collocations in the system, but the patterns hold for a large representative subset. Some studies posit that lvcs are lexical units, formed in the lexicon, using some of the following properties as evidence (e.g. Dabir-Moghaddam, 1997; Karimi-Doostan, 1997). For example, lvcs can undergo the same derivational processes as full verbs, as exemplified in (16). These include gerundive nominalization (a), agentive nominalization (b), adjective formation (c), participle formation (d), and adverb formation (e) (Megerdoomian, 2002; Karimi-Doostan, 1997; Vahedi-Langrudi, 1996). These derivational processes are productive, despite certain grammatical restrictions (e.g. only agentive lvcs can undergo the agentive nominalization). (16) lvcs undergo derivational processes (a) gerundive nominalization: past stem + æn sigar ke∫id-æn dar in saxteman cigarette pull-inf in this building Smoking is not allowed in this building.

mamnu forbidden

æst. be.pres.3sg

æz hærf zæd-æn-e∫ mælum bud ke ne-mi-ay-æd. from speech hit-inf-3sg evident was that neg-prog-come.pres-3sg It was evident from his manner of talking that he was not coming.

(b) agentive nominalization: present stem + ænde (or +ø) gozare∫ dæh-ænde news give-nom reporter bazi kon-ø play do player



(c) adjective formation: infinitive + i in kelid peyda ∫odæn-i nist this key found become-adj neg.be.3sg This key is not to be found.

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(d) participle formation: past stem +e miz-e xak gereft-e table-ez dust take.past-ptcp dust covered table (e) manner adverb formation: present stem + an bæt∫e-ye ∫eytun jiq zæn-an varede otaq ∫od. child-ez naughty scream hit.pres-adv entered room become.past.3sg The naughty child entered the room screaming.

The lv undergoes these derivations mostly only in the context of an lvc, and not in its full verb version. For example, the full verb kærdæn ‘to do’ cannot undergo an agentive nominalization. However, gereftæn ‘to get’ can take an agentive nominal suffix as a full verb and as an lv. The unacceptable cases in (17) indicate that when the verbs occur as lvs, the lvc undergoes the derivation, and not the lv alone. (17) lvcs undergo agentive nominalization Verb: kærdæn to do, make Agentive: *kon-ænde doer Verb: Agentive:

bazi do bazi kon-ænde

play player

Verb: Agentive:

gereftæn gir-ænde

to get receiver

Verb: Agentive:

mahi get mahi gir-ø

to fish fisherman

Further evidence that lvcs are lexical units comes from the fact that collocations resist separation in a sentence. Adverbs cannot occur between the pv and lv, as seen in (18a), but must precede the whole construction as shown in the (18b) sentences. (18) Position of adverb in a sentence (a) Ungrammatical between pv and lv *apartman ejare zud ræft. apartment rent quickly go.past.3sg [target: The apartment was rented out quickly.]

29

Light Verb Constructions In Persian *ali ranændegi yæva∫ kærd ali driving slowly do.past.3sg [target: Ali drove slowly.] (b) Grammatical before pv apartman zud ejare ræft. apartment quickly rent go.past.3sg The apartment was rented out quickly.

ali yæva∫ ranændegi ali slowly driving Ali drove slowly.

kærd. do.past.3sg

Compare this to non-lvc verbs where the verb and the direct object can be separated with adverbs, as in sentences in (19). (19)

Adverbs separate objects from full verbs Ali ketab ziyad mi-xun-æd. Ali book much prog-read.pres-3sg Ali reads books a lot.



Ali ruye nun kære kæm Ali on bread butter little Ali spreads too little butter on the bread.

mi-mal-æd. prog-spread.pres-3sg

Similarly, the direct object of a sentence cannot occur between the two components of the lvc, as in the sentences in (20). (20) Position of direct object (a) Ungrammatical between pv and lv * Færhad nejat ∫irin ra dad. Farhad save Shirin acc give.pres.3sg [target: Farhad saved Shirin.] * fer muha-æ∫ ra zæde æst. curl hair-3sg acc hit-ptcp be.pres.3sg [target: She has curled her hair.]

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(b) Grammatical before pv Færhad ∫irin ra nejat dad. Farhod Shirin acc save give.past.3sg Farhod saved Shirin. muha-æ∫ ra fer zæd-e æst. hair-3sg acc curl hit.past-ptcp be.pres.3sg She has curled her hair.

Finally, lvcs only take a single main stress accent, which provides additional evidence that the lvc functions as a single unit (Vahedi-Langrudi, 1996; Family, 1998; Megerdoomian, 2002; Goldberg, 1996). In simple forms like (21a) below, the stress falls on the final syllable of the verbal stem by default, whereas in examples like (21b), the stress falls on the final syllable of the pv (example from Goldberg, 1996). (21) Word stress in Persian verbs (a) Final syllable of verb stem in full verbs Ali mærd ra zæ′d. Ali man acc hit.past.3sg Ali hit the man.

(simple verb)

(b) Final syllable of pv in lvc Ali ba Babæk hæ′rf zæd. (lvc) Ali with Babak word hit.past.3sg Ali talked with Babak.

Despite these seemingly lexical properties, lvcs can also display transparent phrasal behavior. Individual components of the construction can undergo certain morphological derivations separately. For example, verbal inflections are prefixed to the lv. This means that the inflection occurs between the pv and the lv. These include the imperative, the progressive, and negation markers, as displayed in the examples in (22). (22) Position of imperative, progressive, and negation verbal prefixes kæbab-ha ra bad be-zæn! kebab-pl acc wind imp-hit.pres Fan the kebabs!

Light Verb Constructions In Persian

31

salon ra jaru mi-ke∫-æd. room acc broom prog-pull.pres-3sg He is sweeping the room. diruz baran næ-amæd. yesterday rain neg-come.past.3s It did not rain yesterday.

Modals, like tævanestæn ‘to be able’ or da∫tæn ‘to have’, or the auxiliary of the future tense xastæn ‘to want’ also appear between the pv and the lv, and carry the verbal inflection, as in the examples in (23). (23)

Position of modals morad zæmin da∫t mi-xord ke man gereft-æm-æ∫. morad ground had.past.3s prog-eat.past.3s that I get.past-1sg-3sg Morad was falling when I caught him.



in gonje∫k pærvaz ne-mi-tun-æd bo-kon-æd. this sparrow flight neg-prog-able.pres-3sg subj-do.pres-3sg This sparrow cannot fly.

in zobale ra dur xah-æm ændaxt. this trash acc far want.pres-1sg throw.past I will throw this trash away.

In certain cases, namely when a process noun (Karimi-Doostan, 1997) or a certain type of abstract noun occurs as pv, it can be modified within an lvc. For instance, pvs can appear in the plural and be modified by pps or other elements. For example, the sentence with the collocation e∫tebah kærdæn ‘make a mistake’ (lit. mistake do) appears in (17a), and the version with the modified pv e∫tebah-at-e færavani ‘many mistakes’ (lit. mistake-pl-ez many) in (24b). (24) pv modification possible with abstract nouns (a) Original sentence hæsæn dær næql-e in dastan e∫tebah kærd. Hasan in telling-ez this story mistake do.past.3sg In telling the story, Hasan made a mistake.

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(b) Sentence with modified pv hæsæn dær næql-e in dastan e∫tebah-at-e færavani kærd. Hasan in telling-ez this story mistake-pl-ez many do. past.3sg Hasan made many errors in telling the story.

Compare the examples in (24) to cases where the pv is not a process noun, but a non-predicative (or concrete, non-argument bearing noun), as in (25). In these cases, the pv cannot be relativized. As mentioned earlier, many properties presented here do not apply globally to all instances and types of lvcs. (25)

pv modification not possible with non-predicative nouns Ali be radiyo gu∫ kærd. Ali to radio ear do.past.3sg Ali listened to the radio.

* Ali gu∫-e xubi be radio kærd. Ali ear-ez good to radio do.pst.3sg [target: Ali listened well to the radio.]

Emphatic elements might appear after the pv element and before the lv (Megerdoomian, 2002, p. 63). In these examples in (26), the emphatic particle ke appears between the two elements of the collocation. (26)

Position of emphatic element ke gerye ke mi-kærd mæn hæm ba u mi-nalid-æm. cry that prog-do.past.3sg I also with him prog-groan.past-1sg Whenever he cried, I also groaned with him.

deraz ke mi-ke∫id dærd-e kæmær-e∫ kæm long that prog-pull.past.3sg pain-ez back-3sg little mi-∫od. prog-became.past.3sg When he lay down, his back pain was relieved.

As mentioned earlier, adverbs cannot intervene between the pv and the lv. However, the adjectival version of the adverb can modify the pv. Changing the adverb into an adjective modifying the pv renders the ungrammatical sentence in (27a) into an acceptable sentence, shown in (27b). This only occurs in semi- or completely compositional collocations.

Light Verb Constructions In Persian

33

(27) pv modification (a) Ungrammatical adverb position in lvc *ali ranændegi yæva∫ kærd ali driving slowly do.past.3sg [target: Ali drove slowly.] (b) pv modification with derived adjective ali ranændegiy-e yæva∫i kærd. ali driving-ez slow do.past.3sg Ali drove slowly.

In certain cases, the pv can be gapped from the lv, without any ungrammaticality (see Karimi-Doostan, 1997, p. 67). Here in (28), two related pvs occur with the lv dadæn ‘to give’ without repeating the lv for each collocation. (28) Gapping in lvcs sal-ha sasan ra ∫ekænje va æzab dad-ænd. year-pl Sasan acc torture and torment give.past-3pl They tortured and tormented Sasan for years.

Finally, the pv can potentially grow indefinitely using modifiers. In the following example ( from Karimi-Doostan, 1997) in (29) the pv of the collocation lætme zædæn ‘to damage’ (lit. damage hit), is modified by the np ke tægærg be baq-e man ‘that the hail to my garden.’ (29) Relative clause modification of pv lætme-i ra ke tægærg be baq-e mæn zæd bavær damage-indef acc that hail to garden-ez I hit.past.3sg belief næ-kærd-æn-i bud. neg-do-inf-nom be.past.3sg The damage that the hail caused to my garden was unbelievable.

Given the complex behavior of lvcs, researchers have not yet established whether the Persian lvc is constructed in syntax or in the lexicon. Goldberg (2003) argues that Persian lvcs are constructions in the Construction Grammar (cxg) sense, where syntactic and lexical items are captured in a single format (see section 1.5 for a discussion on cxg). For example, to explain why the future marker (expressed by the auxiliary xastæn ‘to want’) occurs between the pv and the lv, she first posits a unit constraint for lvcs. Essentially, this

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constraint says that a verbal construction can consist of two elements and the first receives phonetic stress, in accordance with the pattern found in Persian. Then, she posits another construction that can override this construction: namely, the future construction, which calls for the future marker to occur before an inflecting verb. This renders the first sentence in (30) acceptable, and the second unacceptable. (30)

Position of the future marker Ali telefon xah-æd kærd. Ali telephone want.pres-3sg do.past Ali will call.

*Ali xah-æd telefon kærd. Ali want.pres-3sg telephone do.past

The direct object clitic poses further problems to the lexical or syntactic status of lvcs. In transitive collocations, like in (31), the direct object clitic can attach to the pv element as in (a). However, this clitic can also attach to the whole collocation, appearing as a suffix to the lv, as in (b), resulting in only a stylistic difference. This property most clearly emphasizes the dual nature of lvcs with respect to lexicon and syntax, as both versions are acceptable. (31) Position of clitics (a) Clitic attaches to pv kotæk-e∫ zæd. beating-3sg(clitic) hit.past.3sg He hit him. (b) Clitic attaches to lv kotæk zæd-e∫. beating hit.past.3sg-3sg(clitic) He hit him.

Similar to the analysis of the future marker, Goldberg posits a construction that calls for the clitic to occur post-verbally by default, and another construction that constrains clitics to occur after the primary stress of an lvc (which always falls on the pv element) (Goldberg 2003, p. 14). Allotting this construction free ranking, allows for the clitic to appear both in internal and external positions

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Light Verb Constructions In Persian

as in (a) and (b), respectively. In her analysis, each pattern results from a particular ranking of these constructions (where one dominates the other). In conclusion, she suggests that Persian lvcs are stored as constructions similar to what would in other frameworks be considered as lexical items, though they can later be treated as separated constituents (c.f. also Goldberg, 2004 and Müller, 2009). cxg analyses do not entail that a stored entity has atomic syntactic status. Rather, the unit-nature of the lvcs is determined on the basis of what other constructions and constraints it interacts with. In sum, the debate regarding the status of these constructions has not been fully resolved. In the rest of the chapter, I discuss the different semantic and morphosyntactic features that have been studied in Persian lvcs. 2.2.2 Focus on Aspect and Event Structure Given the composite structure of lvcs in Persian, previous studies have naturally focused on determining the contribution of each constituent element of an lvc. Karimi and Mohammad (1992) propose that lvs in Persian are semantically empty. They claim that the semantic content comes from the pv and the lv serves as a verbal marker. They present examples where changing the lv, while retaining the same pv, does not affect the resulting meaning. KarimiDoostan (1997) and Vahedi-Langrudi (1996) also argue for semantically bare lvs, and pvs that provide all semantic and argument structure. However, lists like that in (32) show that switching the lv while maintaining the same pv can drastically change the meaning of the collocation. (32) pv dæst ‘hand’ in different collocations dæst amædæn hand come dæst aværdæn hand bring dæst dadæn hand give dæst gereftæn hand get dæst kærdæn hand do dæst ke∫idæn hand pull dæst xordæn hand eat dæst zædæn hand hit

be obtained or obtainable obtain shake hands hold hands put hand into pull hand across be touched touch

Bashiri (1981) shows that substituting one lv for another can result in aspectual differences. One such alternation, which will be discussed in Chapter 5, involves the lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and ke∫idæn ‘to pull.’ Forms constructed with zædæn express an instantaneous or repetitive action, whereas those expressed with ke∫idæn express a prolonged version of the action (even if aspectual

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readings are identical for certain pairs of collocations). This subtle semantic difference is often translated with the same simple verb in English. Some examples are listed below in (33). (33) Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ jar zædæn yell hit yell (short or repetitive) jar ke∫idæn yell pull yell (durative) dad zædæn dad ke∫idæn

shout hit shout pull

shout out shout out (prolonged)

næfæs zædæn næfæs ke∫idæn

breath hit breath pull

pant breathe

Karimi-Doostan (1997) tests collocations with each of the lvs, using a bounded and unbounded modification of the predicate, to determine the acceptability of temporal adverbs within the clause. This method consists of inserting adverbials of the type in an hour and for an hour. Bounded predicates can combine with in an hour, but cannot occur with for an hour, which expresses an unbounded time span. Karimi-Doostan shows that in certain cases, the choice of lv determines the boundedness of the collocation. An example of this appears below in (34a) and (34b). (34) Temporal boundedness (a) Occurrence with ‘in one second’ Dæst-e daryu∫ dær yek saniye / *sa’æt-ha dærd gereft. Hand-ez Dariush in one second / hour-pl pain get.past.3sg Dariush’s hand (started to) hurt within one second / *for hours. (b) Occurrence with ‘for hours’ Daryu∫ *dær yek saniye / sa’æt-ha dærd ke∫id. Dariush in one second / hour-pl pain pull.past.3sg Dariush hurt *in one second / for hours.

In (a), combination of the pv dærd ‘pain’ with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ results in a bounded collocation. When the same pv is combined with ke∫idæn ‘to pull,’ the resulting collocation is unbounded. These tests allow us to determine the aspectual contribution of the lv to the lvc. However, Megerdoomian (2002, p. 69) shows that changing the pv can also change the aspectual interpretation of a collocation, indicating that the aspectual

Light Verb Constructions In Persian

37

information is not necessarily inherent to the lv. For example, in the sentences in (35a) and (35b), a different pv with the same lv (kærdæn ‘to do’) changes the boundedness of the resulting collocation. (35) pv changes boundedness (a) Occurrence with ‘for hours’ Hale *dær ærz-e nim sa’æt / sa’æt-ha gerye kærd. Haleh in length-ez half hour / hour-pl cry do.past.3sg Haleh cried *in half an hour / for hours. (b) Occurrence with ‘in half an hour’ Hale dær ærz-e nim sa’æt / ? sa’æt-ha qofl-e dær ra baz Haleh in length-ez half hour / hour-pl lock-ez door acc open kærd. do.past.3sg Haleh opened the door lock in half an hour / ? for hours.

In the first case, the collocation gerye kærdæn ‘to cry’ (lit. cry do) accepts the durative adverbial, and the temporally bounded reading is unacceptable. Whereas in the second case, the same lv, with a different pv expresses a bounded meaning. With an unbounded adverbial, the sentence is marginally acceptable, but would mean that Haleh locked and unlocked the door repeatedly for hours. Megerdoomian (2002) concludes that both the pv and the lv contribute aspectual information: the pv contributes substantive information (a core lexical meaning) and internal arguments, while the lv contributes external arguments and other specific aspectual properties (e.g. causation, change of state, duration, inception). Folli, Harley, and Karimi (2004) claim that for nominal pvs, when the pv is eventive, the resulting collocation may be telic (i.e. accomplishment), otherwise it is atelic (i.e. durative activity or punctual semelfactive actions). Megerdoomian (2002) also examines event structure alternations with the lvs kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become.’ When the pv stays the same, switching between these two lvs changes the event structure of the resulting predicates. Megerdoomian claims that “the transitive predicate is formed when a CAUSE event is added on top of the intransitive structure” (p. 74). Folli et al. (2004) investigate these alternations and show first that the event structure of the lv can differ from that of its full counterpart. Also, though the lv determines certain features of the lvc (e.g. agentivity), it does not fully determine its event structure, which also depends on the type of pv. They also

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suggest that the semantics of the pv partially determines whether it can combine with certain lvs. For example, they highlight non-alternating collocations between otherwise frequently alternating kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become’, as in (36) (Folli et al., 2004, p. 19). (36)

Non-alternating collocations with lvs kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become’ Kimea sorx ∫od. Kimea red became.past.3sg Kimea blushed.

*Papar Kimea ra sorx kærd. Papar Kimea acc red do.past.3sg [target: Papar made Kimea blush.]

Sorx ∫od ‘blushed’ can only be caused internally and the pv sorx ‘red’ cannot combine with kærdæn to mean ‘cause to blush,’ as it would imply an external causer. A similar restriction reemerges with pvs forming inchoatives with xordæn ‘to eat,’ whose lvcs tend to have an agentive alternation with zædæn ‘to hit’ (see chapter 5). Karimi-Doostan (1997) divides lvs into two categories Stative and Dynamic. Stative lvs express non-changing states, and only the lv da∫tæn ‘to have’ expresses this type of event. Dynamic lvs can be either Transition or Initiatory. Transition lvs usually express the change of state of the subject argument, whereas Initiatory lvs take an agent who initiates an action. The following list in (37) shows how he categorizes the 16 lvs he takes into consideration (he omits ændaxtæn ‘to throw’ and oftadæn ‘to fall,’ which are included in the current account). (37) Categories of lvs according to Karimi-Doostan (1997) DYNAMIC STATIVE Transition lv Initiatory lv xordæn ‘eat’ zædæn ‘hit’ da∫tæn ‘have’ yaftæn ‘find’ dadæn ‘give’ ∫odæn ‘become’ bæx∫idæn ‘offer’ amædæn ‘come’ aværdæn ‘bring’ gereftæn ‘take’ ke∫idæn ‘pull’ ræftæn ‘go’ bordæn ‘carry’ didæn ‘see’ goza∫tæn ‘put’ kærdæn ‘do’ kærdæn ‘do’

Light Verb Constructions In Persian

39

Transition lvs are always unaccusative, intransitive verbs where the subject does not initiate the action. Initiatory lvs can be either transitive (i.e. require a direct object) or unergative (i.e. the subject is responsible for initiating the action). It should be noted that kærdæn can be either a Transition lv or an Initiatory lv, depending on the particular collocation it occurs in. Using a cognitive approach to the problem of lv semantics, Family (2001) took a different kind of top-down approach to analyzing lvcs in Persian. Namely, she used properties from cognitive linguistics, such as movement and force dynamics, alongside aspectual readings to evaluate each of the lvs. She assigned each lv a value for each property according to trends in the sets of possible collocations. It was found that the lvs span across a continuum in a multi-dimensional space created by these parameters. In other words, the lvs in Persian cover a range of meaning-related parameters in an optimal way. However, a top-down analysis, where parameters encompass all collocations, has serious limitations. First, it only captures general properties and does not have any predictive power at more specific levels of meaning. For example, several lvs have causative meaning in only certain collocations (e.g. zædæn ‘to hit,’ kærdæn ‘to do’), and assigning this property to the lv itself will not allow us to predict which use of kærdæn would have a causative reading. And second, assigning these broad parameters to the lv gives rise to a significant number of collocation exceptions, in that the lvs might combine with pvs to create causative but also inchoative or other seemingly opposing meanings. 2.2.3 Focus on Noun Incorporation Some of the above approaches as well as those presented in this section use the technique of isolating a particular type of lvc or pv under study. For example, Karimi-Doostan (1997) divides nominal pvs into three groups and analyzes their respective morphosyntactic behavior: non-predicative nouns (concrete nouns that can never be separated from the lv in a sentence); process nouns (nouns that do not occur in non-lvc contexts, but can be modified, relativized, and separated from the lv); and verbal nouns (nouns that cannot occur independently and lack certain nominal and verbal properties that would allow them to be modified). Another sub-type of lvc that has been distinguished consists of lvcs formed as a result of noun incorporation. According to certain analyses (Karimi, 1997; Dabir-Moghaddam, 1997; Samvelian, 2001), lvcs fall into two different classes depending on whether or not they were formed by the incorporation of the direct object into the predicate. Noun incorporation occurs when a direct object loses its grammatical function and becomes incorporated into the verb

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to create an intransitive verbal complex. Thus, most of these studies deal solely with lvcs that take nominal pvs. Dabir-Moghaddam (1997, p. 43) differentiates noun-incorporated forms from combined lvcs. He uses the disappearance of grammatical object ­markers, structural differences that inhibit the appearance of pronominal reference, nominal ellipsis, and gapping, as evidence for noun incorporation. Compared to combined lvcs, incorporated lvcs remain relatively semantically transparent, have an un-incorporated counterpart, and are more productive than other lvcs. Samvelian (2003) claims that in fact both types give rise to new collocations, though they might display different syntactic behavior. Dabir-Moghaddam (1997) also focuses on the many similarities between the two types of lvcs and maintains that they are conceptual wholes, whether incorporated or combined. Furthermore, differentiating between lvcs and direct objects occurring with a verb is not always an easy task. Ambiguous cases usually involve transparent semantics, where the meaning of the whole can be directly derived from the meaning of its parts. As these cases are rather infrequent, they are not problematic or detrimental to the semantic analysis of lvcs. The discussion of noun incorporation only pertains to particular constructions and not to the system as a whole, as it does not take into account adjectival and prepositional pvs. Furthermore, the pv can often be modified. Since all lvcs undergo the same morphological derivations, it is not necessary to separate them (Vahedi-Langrudi, 1996). In this book, all constructions are treated at a single level, and the approach presented does not differentiate between noun incorporated and combined forms. 2.2.4 Focus on Idioms Persian lvcs often have non-compositional meanings. In other words, the two or more elements combine to form a collocation with partially idiosyncratic or unpredictable form-meaning pairing. However, their combined meanings are usually not fully idiomatic either. Karimi (1997) separates these two different types of collocations: pure idioms, as in (38a), completely opaque and noncompositional; and idiomatic combining expressions as in (38b), in the spirit of Nunberg, Sag, and Wasow (1994). (38) Idioms vs. idiomatic combining expressions (a) Idioms xær kærdæn donkey do dæst ændaxtæn hand throw bala ke∫idæn up pull sæbok kærdæn light do

fool insult steal belittle

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Light Verb Constructions In Persian

(b) Idiomatic combining expressions nærm ∫odæn soft become pi∫ ræftæn ahead go qærar dadæn position give fekr kærdæn thought do

soften progress put think

Nunberg et al. (1994) define idioms as conventionalized, inflexible, usually informal expressions that often involve some sort of figuration and establish an affective stance towards a subject (p. 493). They coin the term idiomatic combining expressions for expressions that look like idioms but are not as rigid as previously thought. For example, they show that parts of idioms can be assigned meaning, can be modified independently, and can be used for anaphora. Most Persian lvcs (except a handful of the type represented in (38a)) are also not fully opaque.2 As we saw in the previous sections, the jury is still out on what elements of meaning are contributed by either of the constituents of a particular collocation. In this regard, the labeling of lvcs as idiomatic combining expressions takes a first step in the direction of the current analysis, and I will show that these can be captured through constructions and constructional meanings. 2.2.5 Interim Summary Evidence from the syntactic and morphological properties presented in the previous section attest that the classification of Persian lvcs has been a subject of considerable debate, especially in the areas of syntax and semantics. Previous studies highlight important properties of Persian lvcs: differences in argument structure, differences in syntactic behavior, separability, and noncompositional semantics. Categorizing lvcs as purely lexical or purely compositional is problematic. Though helpful in highlighting interesting aspects of Persian lvs, previous analyses fail to explain crucial properties, like productivity and predictability, which play a large role in language acquisition and production of new constructions. In the next section, I will present how productivity pertains to Persian and the current analysis. I will show that interesting finer-grained patterns emerge, relative to overarching semantic properties, when I adopt a bottom-up approach. I start by looking at the individual collocations and groupings based on common semantic properties, and I will show how this allows us to create a basis for productivity and ­prediction of 2  Similarly, Venkatapathy, Agrawal, and Joshi (2005) annotated 1477 instances of n-lv compounds in Hindi from a written corpus and found that the semantics of the lvcs fall on a continuum that ranges from transparent or literal composition to purely idiomatic.

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meaning. As discussed at the end of section 2.2.3, taking a top-down approach to the data only allows large-scale generalizations, and provides no indications on the finer-grained properties of productive collocations. 2.3

A New Approach

Previous studies take a top-down approach to studying Persian lvcs. They begin with general semantic or syntactic properties (e.g. event structure, noun incorporation) and try to determine how the myriad of collocations fit within these properties. The advantage of the top-down approach is that we gain a better understanding of how the system can be broken up and what serves as evidence for the divisions between types of lvcs. This can be very useful in combination with an approach that looks for lower-level and more spontaneously occurring semantic similarities in the data. These top-down approaches provide much insight into the many different structures encompassed by the term lvc for Persian. The processes through which these forms became constructions may be rooted in different grammatical phenomena, but the resulting forms are all built around a small class of lvs. While certain studies have been successful in classifying different types of pvs and determining the morphosyntactic or semantic properties the resulting lvc displays, they have not been successful in providing a system within which to organize the many meanings possible for each lv. lvcs cannot be fully categorized using explicit overarching properties like aspect or even cognitive properties such as force dynamics. These properties, however, provide crucial information about what features play a role in verbal meaning construction in Persian. This book takes a novel approach, aiming to capture the variety of meanings expressed by each lv. The organization of these different meanings will be mapped out in the semantic space of the lvs making the interaction between the limited number of verbs in the system also easier to understand. These first steps serve as guides in predicting how meaning is disambiguated despite increasingly bleached meanings due to frequent and wide usage. Furthermore, this analysis will also help in understanding the guidelines available for adult speakers when coining new collocations. 2.3.1 Looking at the Data In the current study, I take a bottom-up approach to the data available for Persian. The hundreds of collocations possible with each lv will be considered together, and patterns of meaning similarity will be examined in an ­exploratory

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Light Verb Constructions In Persian

fashion, using semantic properties. Since a limited set of lvs serves as a basis for almost all verbal notions in Persian, lv meanings have become vague and difficult to define. Intuitively, the large sets of collocations constructed with a given lv share certain properties. One of the goals of this study is to determine what properties are shared, and how these pan out within the organization of semantic space for each lv. For example, the full verb zædæn can be translated most concisely by the English verb ‘to hit.’ However, when used as an lv, the meaning of the resulting construction often deviates, sometimes strongly, from this original meaning. A sample of the many possible collocations constructed with this lv appears in (39) (repeated from Chapter 1, example (11)). (39) Collocations with the lv zædæn ‘to hit’ gitar zædæn guitar hit dad zædæn yell hit qædæm zædæn step hit ni∫ zædæn sting hit felfel zædæn pepper hit maye zædæn mix hit ræng zædæn paint hit ∫æm∫ir zædæn sword hit ampul zædæn syringe hit foru∫gah zædæn store hit tohmæt zædæn accusation hit gaz zædæn bite hit jib zædæn pocket hit mævad zædæn drugs hit jævane zædæn sprout hit t∫æmæn zædæn grass hit hærf zædæn word/sound hit

play the guitar yell stroll sting add pepper (to food) prepare paint strike with a sword administer a shot open a store accuse bite pick a pocket take drugs sprout trim grass talk

As can be seen in the above set of lvcs, the semantics of the original full verb meaning of ‘to hit’ does not emerge in most of the collocations. For example, no hitting (in a non-metaphorical sense) occurs when one strolls or adds pepper. As we will see in the analysis, the lv zædæn is used in collocations that express notions such as applying, trimming, attacking, building, playing, preparing, doing a repetitive movement, and emitting sounds. These different notions are not inherent to the semantics of the lv zædæn or to a particular collocation constructed with zædæn, but rather to a construction that takes zædæn as the inflectional verb. If zædæn meant to add,

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for example, it would mean that the lv could be used to express the notion of adding in any context. However, the type of pv constrains novel uses of zædæn: for adding, only spices can appear as pv within a construction (and not any other notion). The different senses emerge from the interaction of zædæn with a particular type of pv. This type of meaning construction is reminiscent of the go + N construction in English discussed in Chapter 1, where N can be any noun that means crazy. This English construction results in the meaning to become crazy, and the verb go is not assigned a second meaning become. The goal of this book is to provide a method to differentiate these meanings for each lv in Persian, akin to discerning word formation rules for lvcs. Another common lv in Persian gereftæn ‘to get, obtain, catch’ occurs in collocations expressing meanings that include hiring, removing, choosing, attaining a quality or trait, understanding, hunting, and setting up. Some examples are listed in (40). (40) Collocations with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ kargær gereftæn worker get zæn gereftæn woman get mahi gereftæn fish get naxon gereftæn nail get taxi gereftæn taxi get æks gereftæn photo get du∫ gereftæn shower get sor’æt gereftæn speed get ræng gereftæn color get ævæzi gereftæn wrong get donbal gereftæn follow get gæt∫ gereftæn cast get tæmas gereftæn contact get ∫ohræt gereftæn fame get bu gereftæn smell get xak gereftæn dust get

hire a worker marry a woman fish clip the nails take a taxi take a picture shower speed up get colored, tanned mistake a thing for another follow up set in a cast contact become famous get smelly get covered with dust

Some of the collocations express a metaphorical extension of the original notion expressed by the full verb version of the lv, to get. For example, mahi gereftæn expresses the idea of catching a fish. Or in a less concrete example, ∫ohræt gereftæn expresses the idea of receiving a trait or an attribute. But this transparency does not apply to cases like showering or marrying, also possible meanings expressed with gereftæn as lv. However, these collocations, or rather their underlying constructions, allow for productivity to different degrees.

45

Light Verb Constructions In Persian

2.3.2 Productivity in Persian lvcs lvc formation has been a productive process in Persian for many centuries. Even with the massive influx of Arabic words over the 7th–11th centuries of Arab occupation of Iran, the number of Arabic verbs that were turned into simple verbs in Persian (e.g. ræqsidæn ‘to dance,’ fæhmidæn ‘to understand’) was very small (Dabir-Moghaddam, 1997). Almost all loanwords are used as pvs and combined with one of the lvs in the system, according to the verbal notion to be expressed and established semantic patterns used to express them. lvcs lay out the patterns used to introduce new verbal notions, to replace verbs of foreign origin, or to create new ways of expressing an already existing semantic concept (Sharifi, 1975). Evidence for productivity also comes from present-day borrowings into colloquial Persian. The examples in (41) are collocations currently in use, based on loanwords from English (see also the discussion in Section 1.4). (41) Loanword pvs in colloquial registers kap zædæn3 copy hit hæng kærdæn hang do laik dadæn like give

copy crash (i.e. of a computer system) like (e.g. on Facebook)

Other evidence for productivity comes from code-switching in bilinguals (Megerdoomian, 2002). In the examples in (42), the speaker uses an English pv in combination with one of the lvs. (42) Loanword pvs in code-switching berp dadæn burp give try kærdæn try do di em tee ke∫idæn dmt pull

make a baby burp try smoke dmt

The goal of this study is to determine the types of semantic classifications necessary to be able to create these new constructions. The advantage of this approach to previous, top-down approaches is that we can narrow down the choice of lvs further, when faced with expressing a new verbal notion. If we classify based on overarching properties, such as aspect, it would be impossible to predict which particular lv to use in the novel collocations presented in (41) and (42) above. In the next section, I will present the idea behind

3  This collocation was used by a professor speaking about students copying each other’s answers during an exam.

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the current approach and the types of constructions that serve as a basis for the analysis. 2.4

Clusters of Productivity

2.4.1 The Patterns lvcs contain two or more elements that combine and often give rise to noncompositional meaning. For example, the verb zædæn ‘to hit’ can be used in a construction meaning to transfer a substance into an object by means of a nozzle-like or sharp object. Some examples are listed in (43). (43) Collocations with the lv zædæn ‘to hit’ benzin zædæn gas hit gazoil zædæn diesel hit bad zædæn wind hit

pump with gas pump with diesel fill with air (e.g. a tire)

A compositional analysis would entail that the lv has a meaning similar to ‘transferring [pv] into [the direct object] through a pointy or nozzle-like object’ and not ‘to transfer’ in a general sense. The only acceptable pvs express substances that can be added to an object through a nozzle that goes into a receiving container. Thus, forms like *roqæn zædæn (lit. oil hit) will not mean add oil to the car,4 since oil is not pumped through a nozzle. The meaning of the collocation is specified by the type of liquid expressed by the pv and its ability to be pumped with a nozzle-like object. Positing such idiosyncratic meanings for zædæn is superfluous, as then a limited number of verbs in Persian would have a large variety of extremely detailed meanings. As discussed in Goldberg (1996), positing a constructional meaning can capture the patterns that a lexical rule would otherwise capture, but with the benefit of avoiding implausible senses like to transfer into through a pointy or nozzle-like object. As previous studies have shown, allocating meaning to the constituent parts of a collocation is difficult and a constructional view of the system would allow us to get a view of the semantics of each lv within a system, and to see how pieces interact with each other. This case is similar to the case of go + N construction presented previously, where adding the meaning become to the lexical item go would be counterintuitive and would not capture the semantic restrictions on the pv. Another similar example in point is that of the caused-motion construction in English 4  This form does exist in Persian, but means to spread oil on a surface. This and other constructions using zædæn will be discussed in the next chapter.

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Light Verb Constructions In Persian

as described by Goldberg (1995). She presents the sentence Frank sneezed the tissue off the table, where the normally intransitive sneeze occurs as a transitive. If the meaning of the construction came solely from the verb, then we would have to attribute the meaning cause to move by sneezing to the verb sneeze (Goldberg, 1995, 152). Rather, she posits that the meaning emerges from the caused-motion construction itself. Hence, unless we posit detailed and highly nuanced definitions for each of the 400+ forms constructed with zædæn, the above constructions cannot undergo a compositional analysis. Instead, I propose that the meaning of the collocations results from the meaning of the construction similar to the have a v construction in English, as analyzed by Wierzbicka (1982). An lvc in Persian thus consists of a particular lv combined with a semantically definable set of pvs. These combine to mean something beyond the original meaning of either element. lvs in Persian can be polysemous to the point where determining the meaning of a verb outside the constructions it occurs in is difficult. Another list of examples from Persian occur in (44). These collocations constructed with xordæn ‘to eat’ include a type of weapon as pv. The underlying construction expresses being wounded by the weapon. The patient or experiencer of the action occurs as subject. The resulting collocation expresses the idea of being stabbed by the sharp weapon expressed by the pv. (44) Collocations with the lv xordæn ‘to eat’ ∫æm∫ir xordæn sword eat t∫aqu xordæn dagger eat kard xordæn knife eat

be hit by a sword be stabbed be stabbed

This construction is reminiscent of the English expression I took a bullet, an idiom where only the complement bullet is allowed. In Persian, if xordæn provided a transparent and compositional contribution to the meaning of the construction, it would have to be something like ‘be stabbed by a sharp weapon of type X . . .’ where X is a noun for weapon. I argue that xordæn does not express such nuanced meanings, but the meaning results from the underlying constructions. Furthermore, Persian speakers will translate the lexical item xordæn as ‘to eat’ in English, unless it is presented in a construction. Its constructional meanings are explored in the next chapter. For example, xordæn can also occur in collocations that express more abstract or emotional notions, or notions that cannot be defined solely through physical or perceptual properties, as in (45). One can loosely categorize the common attributes of possible pvs as a continuous, irrepressible, negative feeling suffered by the subject as the result of their personal actions or state of mind.

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(45) Collocations with the lv xordæn ‘to eat’ æfsus xordæn regret eat ænduh xordæn sorrow eat hers xordæn axiety eat

regret grieve a lost chance /opportunity be anxious

sohrab æz dæst dad-æn-e rostæm xejli æfsus xord. Sohrab from hand give-inf-ez Rostæm much regret eat.past.3sg Sohrab heavily regretted the loss of Rostæm.

If xordæn had different global meanings, such as to suffer, we would expect the verb xordæn to appear in any sentence that expresses the Persian translation equivalent of the English ‘to suffer.’ However, the constructional meaning in collocations with xordæn only emerges in those collocations. In other contexts, such as the collocations in (46), xordæn does not occur as lv, as one would expect if xordæn expressed suffering. Here, collocations with the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ express continuous sufferance without necessarily being the result of an action. Substituting the lv xordæn in these cases would render the collocation ungrammatical. (46) Collocations with the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ æzab ke∫idæn torture pull rænj ke∫idæn rage pull entezar ke∫idæn waiting pull

grieve, be tortured suffer long for

æz duri-e dust-æm æzab ke∫id-æm. from distance-ez friend-1sg torture pull.past-1sg I suffered from being away from my friend.

When Persian speakers are asked for the word for suffer, different collocations based on xordæn might be elicited, but not xordæn in isolation. Similarly, collocations with ke∫idæn might also occur, but not ke∫idæn in isolation. In the next section, I present the framework used to capture these regularities and generalizations across examples. 2.4.2 Clusters of Productivity Given the hundreds of collocations possible with a given lv, the first task is to discover semantic resemblances in sets of constructions. Variation of the pv results in a variation of the meaning of the lvc. Conversely, varying the lv also results in the variation of the meaning of the lvc. Sets of examples like those in the previous section show that groups of collocations can actually share certain semantic attributes.

49

Light Verb Constructions In Persian

The meaning contribution of the lvs to each collocation cannot be directly predicted from the meaning of the associated full verb, nor can it be assigned to the lv itself. First focusing on individual lvs, we can isolate groups of collocations in what I labeled clusters of productivity, or clusters. These clusters of collocations group together and express similar verbal notions, based on the same lv and a specific type of pv. The clusters are formed based partly on certain, but not all, inherent attributes of the pv. Combined with the lv, this creates a meaning different from the meaning of either component. A construction captures the meaning expressed by the combination of type of pv and particular lv. This construction provides the blueprint for collocations, which occur with a lexically specified pv. The collocation thus belongs to a cluster with other collocations that share similar pvs and that serve to express similar verbal concepts. Each cluster of collocations has an underlying construction that encodes this information. For example, the verb gereftæn ‘to get’ appears as an lv with a pv that expresses a type of liquid that has the property of hardening or setting. The construction expresses ‘to cover with such a liquid,’ as in the collocations in (47). This transitive construction takes a subject who covers an explicit object. A cluster of productivity forms in the semantic space of the lv, based partly on the restrictions on the semantic properties of the pv. The collocations in (47) specifically express the notion of covering with different materials: liquids that can be applied over an object and which then set permanently into a hardened state. These pvs are not direct objects, as the constructions require an external direct object. (47) Collocations with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ gæt∫ gereftæn plaster get tæla gereftæn gold get siman gereftæn cement get

set in plaster gold-leaf cover in cement

doktor dæst-e bæt∫e-ro gæt∫ gereft. doctor hand-ez child-acc plaster get.past.3sg The doctor put the child’s hand in a cast.

The meaning expressed by the construction above is analogous to the English verb ‘set’ as applied to both plaster and cement as well as to gelatin, yogurt, or pudding, in which case the liquid mix transforms into a thicker form or becomes completely solid. The construction in (47) expresses the act of someone covering something with such a ‘setting’ mix. The inchoative notion of setting (e.g. for yogurt or gelatin) exists in another construction in Persian. This process of the liquid hardening or thickening on

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its own, as in the English ‘to set’ (similar to the French verb ‘prendre,’ as in le ciment a pris) has its own cluster. The setting of yogurt or pudding involves hardening that does not necessarily cover anything and occurs at a certain temperature, without an agent. This intransitive construction takes the substance as pv. Real-world knowledge of the properties of mast ‘yoghurt’ or jele ‘jello’ allow them to be acceptable in this construction, below in (48), just as properties of siman ‘cement’ allow it to occur in both. (48) Collocations with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ mast gereft yogurt get jele gereft jelly get siman gereft cement get

the yogurt set the jelly set the cement set

bæd æz t∫ænd sa’æt, mast gereft. after from few hour yogurt get.past.3sg The yogurt set after a few hours.

The two constructions presented in examples (47) and (48) show that constructions not only encode restrictions on pv selection, but also argument structure. However, as we will see in the variety of constructions presented in the next chapter, argument structure usually does not distinguish one construction from another. Furthermore, the construction in (48) has a special syntactic structure in that it only occurs in the third person singular, as though the subject of the sentence has been incorporated. Certain linguists (e.g. Dabir-Moghaddam 1997, Bashiri 1996) do not consider these forms as actual lvcs. They claim that they are full frozen sentences. However, others (e.g. Vahedi-Langrudi, 1996; Ghomeishi 1996) refer to them as impersonal constructions. I will return to these in the Chapter 6, but for the current analysis, I consider these as part of the lvc repertoire. Thus, pvs with certain physical, chemical, visual, tactile, and other attributes define clusters within the semantic spaces of an lv. From these, other collocations with similar meanings can be constructed. Each cluster’s underlying construction serves as a basis for productivity: it provides rules for making new forms. Real-world knowledge about the attributes of the pv in these constructions plays a crucial role in judging the acceptability of the form. Another cluster formed in gereftæn’s semantic space involves pvs that refer to liquids that do not necessarily harden, as the pvs in (49). However, these liquids are always within an object and do not flow out naturally. These collocations with gereftæn express the extraction of such essences or liquids. This

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cluster yields intransitive collocations, with an agentive subject who does the extracting. Unlike the above examples, the pv here can accept direct object marking in certain circumstances (e.g. in colloquial registers). However, differentiating the syntactic properties of these two different constructions is beyond the scope of the current analysis. (49) Collocations with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ golab gereftæn rose-water get ∫ire gereftæn syrup get xun gereftæn blood get

extract rose essence extract syrup pull blood

baqeban æz botteha ∫ire gereft. gardener from plants syrup get.past.3sg The gardener extracted syrup from the plants.

This cluster requires the pv to have the property of a liquid naturally present in an entity, which can be extracted. In other words, when taking water from the ocean, we cannot say ab gereftæn (lit. water get), while we could use this construction to express squeezing juice out of a fruit or even taking water from a deep well using a bucket. This construction can be defined by any liquid combined with gereftæn in a collocation meaning ‘the extraction of that liquid from its source.’ For example, xun gereftæn ‘pull blood’ (lit. blood get) specifically means extracting blood from a vein, and not grabbing a test-tube of blood from a lab or covering something with blood and letting it dry. Positing construction meaning to these collocations avoids many highly idiosyncratic meanings to be assigned to one lexical item, gereftæn. The clusters serve as attractors for new notions that need to be expressed. As another example, ke∫idæn, whose heavy verb meaning is ‘to pull,’ occurs in constructions with a variety of different meanings, as in (50). (50) Collocations with the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ dad ke∫idæn shout pull qælyan ke∫idæn hooka pull feraqæt ke∫idæn separation pull ælæm ke∫idæn banner pull æbru ke∫idæn eyebrow pull

shout smoke a hooka suffer from longing hoist a banner draw in eyebrows

The meanings of the above collocations seem to be unrelated when looked at in limited sets as above. When faced with the hundreds of collocations

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possible with ke∫idæn, some of the different meanings seem to be highly related and form clusters defined by the type of pv in the construction. For example, if the pv refers to a smokable substance or an instrument that can be smoked out of, the resulting meaning will mean to smoke that substance or out of that instrument, respectively, as in (51). (51) Collocations with the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ hæ∫i∫ ke∫idæn hash pull sigar ke∫idæn cigarette pull qælyan ke∫idæn hooka pull pip ke∫idæn pipe pull

smoke hash smoke cigarettes smoke a hooka smoke a pipe

On the other hand, if the notion expressed involves building or setting something up across a significant length in space, the pv will be the object that is drawn out, as in (52). (52) Collocations with the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ jade ke∫idæn road pull divar ke∫idæn wall pull nærde ke∫idæn fence pull

make a road build a wall put up a fence

Thus, lvs occur in constructions that have the basic schema: a specific semantic class for the pv, a particular lv, and a meaning for the whole construction. Ke∫idæn has about twenty different constructions that represent clusters of collocations. These will be explored further in Chapter 4. Clusters guide meaning formation and productivity, as word formation rules would in another framework for more transparent structures. Every lv has clusters of productivity. For example, at least thirty different clusters can be distinguished for the verb gereftæn ‘to get,’ the second most frequent verb in the system after kærdæn ‘to do.’ Xordæn ‘to eat’, a less common lv, has at least fifteen identifiable clusters. The collocations with each lv have meanings beyond the contribution of the already polysemous lv and the meaning of the pv. Each lv semantic space gives rise to a number of constructions, which form networks of different meanings. 2.4.3 Transparency and Clusters Clusters group together collocations with one type of pv combined with a particular lv to produce different but highly related meanings. As described in the previous sections, each underlying construction includes a specific lv, a type

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Light Verb Constructions In Persian

of pv (defined by common attributes, including physical, perceptual, semantic, and real-world knowledge), and the meaning of the whole construction. As mentioned earlier, lvs are highly polysemous due to their frequent use in varied contexts, making their contribution to the meaning of a construction difficult to pin down. Positing clusters of productivity allows the meaning attribution to shift to the construction, which allows for a straightforward explanation of productivity. All the collocations constructed with a specific lv do not necessarily fall into a cluster. Many collocations with idiomatic readings, as those in (53), do not occur in clusters. However, understanding the organization of meaning of lvs through clusters, can help in understanding post-hoc motivations of the meanings. I will return to this discussion in Chapter 6. (53) Idiomatic collocations pæhlu gereftæn side get kutah amædæn short come xo∫k zædæn dry hit

bring to port (ship) accept a compromise be shocked

Moreover, the existence of a cluster does not entail full productivity even within the semantic limits defined by the construction. Consider the two sets of collocations constructed with zædæn ‘to hit’ in (54). The set in (54a) is much more limited in the number of new pvs or imaginable pvs it accepts, whereas in (54b), it seems quite open. (54) Collocations with the lv zædæn ‘to hit’ (a) Cluster with low productivity hærf zædæn letter hit laf zædæn speech hit gæp zædæn chat hit

speak, talk vaunt chat

ma tæmam-e ruz rajebe gozæ∫te gap zæd-im. we all-EZ day about past chat hit.past-1pl We chatted all day about the past.

(b) Cluster with high productivity gitar zædæn guitar hit piano zædæn piano hit violon zædæn violin hit

play the guitar play the piano play the violin

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homayun dær konsert violon-e kelasik zæd. Homayoon in concert violin-ez classical hit.past.3sg Homayoon played a classical violin piece in the concert.

The collocations in (54a) express the emission of speech and the underlying construction accepts any pv expressing a type of speech element or speech act. The number of possible pvs is rather limited as not many new ways of expressing speech acts can be created or coined. Consequently, the productivity of this construction is low. On the other hand, the set of collocations in (54b) accepts any new noun expressing a musical instrument. The productivity of this cluster is high: many new forms can be created based on its structure to mean ‘playing that instrument.’ Goldberg (1995, p. 134) defines token frequency as the number of times a particular word occurs in a construction, and type frequency as the number of words that occur with a particular construction. A construction with high type frequency will have higher productivity. Following these definitions, the construction underlying the collocation in (54a) has high token frequency, and the one in (54b) has high type frequency. These parameters could be determinants of productivity. The collocations in (54a) above can be translated by single lexemes in English (i.e., speak, vaunt, chat). These cases happen to be less productive than collocations that have similar collocations as English translations. The English translation of (54b) is also a multi-word semi-productive construction: play a Ninstrument. The pv retains its full meaning and the lv contributes an idiosyncratic meaning that must be learned. Between these two types of cases, namely non-transparent and transparent collocations, most of the lvcs in Persian have semantics where the contribution of the constituent elements is not the sum, but rather a motivation of the sum of its parts. They form clusters and are semi-transparent, making assigning a meaning directly to the lv superfluous. 2.4.4 Cluster Alternations Another aspect of the system that this approach takes into account is the alternation patterns that arise from using different lvs with the same set of pvs. Parts of the networks of clusters built around a single lv can alternate with parts of networks built around other lvs. For example, any pv expressing a lesson or type of advice can be combined with gereftæn ‘to get’ to express the constructional meaning of receiving advice or a lesson, as in (55).

55

Light Verb Constructions In Persian (55) Collocations with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ dærs gereftæn lesson get yad gereftæn memory get pænd gereftæn advice get

be taught in class learn get advise

The same pvs can be used with dadæn ‘to give’ to express giving the lesson or advice, as in the forms in (56). (56) Collocations with the lv dadæn ‘to give’ dærs dadæn lesson give yad dadæn memory give pænd dadæn advice give

teach in class teach advise

These two clusters of two different lvs display an agent-patient, or giverbeneficiary alternation. These cases are captured by positing shared clusters of productivity, as connections between two lv spaces. Further discussion of these cases, and of productivity and predictability in the system, will be presented in Chapter 5. 2.5

Chapter Summary

Previous studies on the semantics of Persian lvcs focused on aspectual properties, event structure, noun incorporation, and idioms. One recurring question in previous literature focuses on whether lvcs comprise a single unit. Evidence in favor of unit-status in the grammar includes morphological derivations of the whole construction, single phonetic stress for all constituents, and inseparability in a sentence. On the other hand, the pv and lv can be separated by a number of specific intervening elements, and the pv can be modified on its own. While these previous studies have shed light on various properties that constrain the system as a whole, no study has mapped out the network of meanings of lvcs. Such a mapping would give us predictive power for the meaning of lvcs, and is the focus of this book. In this study, I take a top-down approach, looking for patterns that emerge in large sets of data. By positing constructions, in the cxg sense, I shift the focus onto constructional meaning. One of the advantages of this approach is that meaning is assigned to the whole construction and not to individual

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constituents. I show that collocations in Persian cluster together based on the semantic restrictions on the pv and the constructional meaning. Clusters of productivity, the basis of the descriptive analysis in this book, occur in every semantic space of the lv system. These clusters and the constructions they represent serve as a basis for produvtivity and connect to other clusters in other lv spaces. Individual clusters will be presented in the next two chapters, lv by lv, and connections across individual lv spaces will be presented in Chapter 5.

CHAPTER 3

Clusters of Productivity in Six Frequent lvs 3.1

Cluster Diagrams and Annotations

In this chapter, I will present the semantic maps and descriptions of six frequent lvs in Persian, and the details of the clusters they form. The eight other lvs included in this book will be presented in Chapter 4, with slightly less elaborate descriptions. The first two lvs presented here, kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become,’ form some of the most semantically general and transparent lvcs. Nonetheless, each lv has several clusters within its semantic space, allowing us to explore meaning and structural differences even with these most frequent and most semantically bleached lvs. The four other lvs presented in this chapter, zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ dadæn ‘to give,’ and gereftæn ‘to get,’ each form the basis for a large variety of verbal notions. Their semantic spaces are more complicated and include many clusters. Mapping out the clusters for each of the lvs allows us to get a global view of lv semantics as well as a blueprint for representing the many possible verbal notions that emerge. Before presenting each lv individually, I explain the diagrams used as visual aids, as well as the criteria applied to distinguish and describe clusters of productivity. The semantic spaces depicted in this chapter will reappear in Chapter 5, in the discussion about how certain lv pairs share one or more clusters, and how meaning differences emerge in corresponding lvcs when different lvs occur with the same pv. 3.1.1 The Diagrams Each lv’s semantic space is depicted in the form of a diagram. The diagrams presented in two dimensions serve as an exploratory tool. These visual aids allow us to better apprehend the extent of variability in the meanings manifested through the use of each lv. In the center of each diagram, the lv appears with its full verb translationequivalent verb in English. This center node branches out to several other nodes labeled according to the general verbal category semantics that subsequent clusters will express, either concretely or metaphorically. These verbal notions can be polysemous meanings of the simple verb versions of the lv, but not always. The first nodes represent the broad semantic groupings of further © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004274419_004

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branches, and reflect a suggested grouping of similar lvc meanings. In other words, clusters that express semantically related notions occur closer to each other, and often branch off the same nodes. The branch labels and the resulting groups of clusters are determined and defined by the semantic properties of the verbal notions expressed. Due to the lack of experimental data or appropriately tagged corpus data, no definitive metric can be applied to the semantic spaces quite yet. These visual aids allow us to better keep track of the clusters of a particular lv, in a semantically grounded, intuitive fashion. The actual clusters of productivity occur as nodes at the periphery of the diagrams. In certain cases, the periphery is simply the first node that branches off. For example, the first lvs presented, kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become,’ only have one level of branching in their respective spaces. However, in most cases, more nuanced semantic notions and clusters cause further branching. The radial nature of the diagrams is inspired by Lakoff’s radial diagrams (1987), originally used to illustrate polysemous meanings of words, not predictable by rules, but rather centered on prototypes. Subsequent nodes are labeled either as verbs, adverbs, or nouns that qualify the nodes that occur before them in the diagram. A verb narrows down the verbal notion of a previous node, an adverb qualifies the previous node, and a noun expresses the type of action or object involved in an action expressed by a previous node. These labels capture how meaning is narrowed down into constructional meaning. The most peripheral nodes represent clusters of related collocations, which are in turn defined by a common lvc. Two or three example pvs are also included in the diagrams next to these clusters. The particular grouping and layout of the diagrams are only a suggestion and the actual semantic structure of each lv might not adhere rigidly to the presented one. This analysis outlines a unique approach to the problem of capturing lv semantics in Persian. Using clusters of productivity and diagrams to depict these clusters allows us to understand how the system is organized globally. While the actual meaning of the lvcs (along with pv restrictions and other remarks) provide a full description of each cluster, the labels on the nodes leading up to them allow us to maintain points of reference in relation to the global space of the lv. Each lv’s diagram will be presented in full along with a brief discussion of general issues related to its use as full verb and as lv. Then all clusters, which represent individual lvcs at the periphery of each branch (i.e. the first node of the diagram), are presented and discussed in a clockwise manner around the diagram. A general construction meaning and restrictions on possible pvs define these clusters (criteria for establishing clusters will be discussed in section 3.1.4).

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Each description includes: a cluster label and path that reflects those in the mapped semantic space (serving partly to help locate it in the diagram), the general construction meaning, the semantic and word class restrictions on possible pvs, the argument structure of the corresponding lvc, its typical aspectual reading, some general remarks as necessary, a list of example collocations, and a sample sentence. While neither argument structure nor aspect are defining properties of clusters. I present these features as they relate to lvcs in the next two sections. 3.1.2 Argument Structure Determining obligatory arguments in Persian can be rather tricky for a couple of reasons. First, as a pro-drop language, Persian allows for arguments to be dropped in the presence of discourse cues. Second, for certain transitive lvcs, the second argument can be expressed as either a direct object or an indirect object (always headed by be ‘to’ or æz ‘from’ as marked in the argument structures). For example, in be qæza ædviye zæd-æm ‘I added spice to the food’ (lit. to food spice hit.past-1s), the object qæza ‘food’ occurs as indirect object. However, using qæza as a direct object would result in an equivalently grammatical sentence: qæza-ra ædviye zæd-æm (lit. food-acc spice hit.past-1s). In the lvc descriptions, argument structure is noted with the number of nps that occur in a typical sentence and the indirect object marker, as necessary. However, argument structure is not a defining property: while in most cases the indicated argument structure applies to all collocations, several clusters include lists of collocations where one or two have different argument structures as noted. 3.1.3 Aspect For the purpose of this analysis, the aspectual reading of the lvcs will be classified according to Vendler’s (1967) four aspectual classes (stative, activity, achievement, and accomplishment), as well as Comrie’s (1976) semelfactive. Statives (e.g. to know) express states that extend through time and do not change; they have no starting or ending point (labeled atelic) and cannot be modified internally by manner adverbs such as carefully or slowly (Persian: ba deqæt ‘with care’ or yæva∫ ‘slowly’). Achievements and accomplishments express telic events: they denote an action aimed towards a goal. These can occur with the phrase in one hour (Persian: dær yek saæt): for achievements, this temporal phrase results in the reading that something happens instantaneously after one hour; while for accomplishments, this phrase reads as a continuous process over a one hour period. Similar to accomplishments, activities extend in time, but cannot occur with bounded temporal phrases, such as in one hour. However, activities, as

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well as accomplishments, can occur with unbounded temporal phrases such as for hours (Persian: saætha ‘hours’). Finally, semelfactives express instantaneous events like achievements, but do not have an end point and can thus occur with the phrase for hours with a repetitive reading. Karimi-Doostan (1997) notes that lvs can be separated into two groups: stative and dynamic (non-stative). All lvcs formed with da∫tæn ‘to have’ express states while all other lvs express accomplishments, activities, achievements, or semelfactives. Accordingly, the stative da∫tæn cannot occur with the temporal phrases presented above. Most lvs produce a mixed bag of aspectual contours for different lvcs. In other words, a cluster within the space of an lv rarely shares the same aspect as every other cluster in the same space. The aspectual classes reported here can be modified by context (e.g. an activity verb can have an accomplishment reading in certain contexts), and a limited number of clusters have collocations with different typical aspectual readings (these are not always noted, since context plays a large role, and investigating these issues is beyond the scope of the current analysis). 3.1.4 Criteria for Clusters Clusters are based on distinct lvcs, which include an explicit lv, restrictions on the word class and semantics of the pv, and a general meaning for the construction that cannot usually be derived from the meaning of the parts. The criteria employed to isolate and later distinguish clusters within the hundreds of collocations of each pv include similarities in the semantic properties of the pv as well as similarities in overall meaning. As mentioned above, neither argument structure nor aspectual differences can be the sole determining factors for separating clusters. These might differ from one cluster to another, but clusters emerge based on the construction’s and the pv’s semantic properties only. In certain cases, two seemingly similar clusters are set apart from each other because only one of them alternates with another lv (some of these patterns will be described in Chapter 5). In other words, when a defined class of pvs can also occur with another lv, even though the class of pvs resembles the class of pvs of a neighboring cluster, the alternation possibility distinguishes it from the other cluster. The formation of clusters results from a purely bottom-up approach to the problem of classifying lvcs in Persian. Semantic similarities in meaning or in pv properties provide the basis for grouping collocations together, and to eventually assign an lvc meaning and template for a cluster of collocations. As opposed to attempting to test and group together collocations that instantiate

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an overarching grammatical or semantic property (e.g. aspect, transitivity) in the whole system, the advantage of the current approach lies in the capacity to understand the underlying structure of meaning formation in the Persian lv system at a fine level. And furthermore, this approach allows, to a certain degree, prediction of how new verbal notions will be expressed and accessed. 3.2

Kærdæn ‘To Do’

Karimi-Doostan (1997) describes kærdæn as the most common and “lightest” lv in the system (p. 124) and Vahedi-Langrudi (1996) says that the two lvs, kærdæn and ∫odæn (next section), are “definitely the most frequent lvs used to form” lvcs in Persian (p. 151). Translated with the English lv ‘to do’ or ‘to make,’ or the French lv ‘faire,’ this verb has one of the simplest diagrams and most bleached meanings. Kærdæn lacks the semantic nuances found in other semantically rich lvs. It is almost never used as a full verb, except for in imperatives (e.g. næ-kon! ‘stop!’ (lit. neg.Imp-do)). It can express carrying out an action on external entities or undergoing an internal process, but also carrying out activities that do not cause a change of state. Aspectually, kærdæn expresses achievements or activities.

kæj [bent]

ræha [free]

geriye [cry]

xo∫k [dry]

cause state

∫uxi [joke]

do

zendegi [life]

KÆRDÆN [to do]

pærdaxt [payment]

cause action xæbær [news]

figure 1

undergo montæqel [transfer]

Semantic space of the lv kærdæn ‘to do’.

tæb [fever] qæ∫ [faint]

qolqol [bubble]

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KÆRDÆN: Do Meaning: do an action that involves oneself. pv: noun—a sound or an action. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: This cluster includes unergative lvcs as well as lvcs of emission. ∫ærm kærdæn ∫uxi kærdæn ætse kærdæn aqaz kærdæn dærhæm kærdæn emtehan kærdæn fekr kærdæn gæman kærdæn gærde∫ kærdæn geriye kærdæn gonah kærdæn gozær kærdæn gu∫ kærdæn hæmam kærdæn hærekæt kærdæn nale kærdæn naz kærdæn pæsænd kærdæn pæsændaz kærdæn po∫t kærdæn sæbr kærdæn sælam kærdæn soxænrani kærdæn tæjob kærdæn tæma∫a kærdæn tæmæ kærdæn tæn kærdæn væqt kærdæn velvele kærdæn xahe∫ kærdæn xodahafezi kærdæn zendegi kærdæn

shame do joke do sneeze do beginning do mix do test do thought do opinion do circulation do cry do sin do passage do ear do bath do movement do moan do coquetry do admiration do savings do back do patience do hello do speech do surprise do viewing do greed do body do time do noise do request do goodbye do life do

be ashamed or embarassed joke sneeze start mix up try, test think opine circulate cry sin pass listen bathe move moan act coy approve, admire save turn back to wait say hello give a speech be surprised look be greedy put on have time make noise plead, request say goodbye live

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u dær birun-e ∫æhr zendegi mi-kærd. she in out-ez city life prog-did.past.3sg She lived outside of the city.

KÆRDÆN: Undergo Meaning: undergo or show symptoms of a change of state. pv: noun—an internal process that causes a state change. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The lvcs of this cluster are unergative and express auto-processes, in that the state results from an internal cause. The subject undergoes an action that affects it directly or indirectly. bad kærdæn gir kærdæn kæf kærdæn keyf kærdæn læj kærdæn qæ∫ kærdæn qælæt kærdæn qolqol kærdæn tæb kærdæn tæqir kærdæn væhm kærdæn zærær kærdæn

air do stuck do foam do pleasure do grudge do faint do mistake do bubble do fever do change do hallucination do loss do

fill with air get stuck foam have a good time hold a grudge faint err boil come down with a fever change hallucinate lose

u mariz ∫od væ tæb kærd. he sick become.past.3sg and fever do.past.3sg He became sick and came down with a fever.

KÆRDÆN: Cause Action Meaning: cause an action to take place, to do something. pv: noun—an action or instrument representing typical action. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc (or N1 lvc if the collocation expresses an activity) Aspect: the aspect of this cluster is unspecified: collocations can have activity or accomplishment readings. Remarks: The subject acts in such a way that something results from this action, but the object does not necessarily go through a change of state. The

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action itself is important and not the change of state that it might entail for the object, as in the previous cluster. ∫ane kærdæn ærz kærdæn azmaye∫ kærdæn bad kærdæn dæst kærdæn dævæt kærdæn ebraz kærdæn elan kærdæn færahæm kærdæn færz kærdæn gero kærdæn hæbs kærdæn jæfa kærdæn jæng kærdæn jaru kærdæn mat∫ kærdæn montæqel kærdæn mota’ele kærdæn otu kærdæn pærdaxt kærdæn peykar kærdæn peymane kærdæn setæm kærdæn tæhækom kærdæn tæhid kærdæn tæhrir kærdæn tæqaza kærdæn tærjome kærdæn tayp kærdæn vared kærdæn xæbær kærdæn

brush do presentation do test do air do hand do invitation do expression do announcement do gathered do supposition do hostage do custody do anguish do war do broom do kiss do transfer do investigation do iron do payment do combat do measure do oppression do domination do threat do written do request do translation do type do enter do news do

danesju mæqale ra mota’ele kærd. student article acc investigation do.past.3sg The student studied the article.

brush present test fill something with air put a hand in invite express announce gather suppose take hostage take in custody persecute fight sweep kiss transfer investigate iron transfer payment fight measure oppress dominate threaten write request translate type enter give news

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KÆRDÆN: Cause State Meaning: cause something to be in a state. pv: adjective—any physical, mental, or emotional state. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement, though some lvcs can also be activities (e.g. to warm, to bother). Remarks: The subject causes the object to undergo a change of state. This is one of the productive ways of creating a causative in Persian. ∫ærmsar kærdæn æziyæt kærdæn bænd kærdæn baz kærdæn bidar kærdæn birun kærdæn dæmær kærdæn delxor kærdæn gærm kærdæn gerd kærdæn gereftar kærdæn hæraj kærdæn hæras kærdæn kæj kærdæn kæm kærdæn kenar kærdæn lule kærdæn pæhn kærdæn payin kærdæn por kærdæn qæbul kærdæn qærq kærdæn ræha kærdæn ræng kærdæn ro∫æn kærdæn sæbok kærdæn sir kærdæn tæmiz kærdæn xærab kærdæn xo∫k kærdæn xub kærdæn

shamed do bothered do connect do open do awake do out do upside-down do sulky do warm do round do preoccupied do discount do scare do bent do few do away do rolled do flat do down do full do accepted do drown do free do colored do bright do light do satiated do clean do broken do dry do well do

shame bother connect, insist open wake up let out, force out flip over make sulk warm up make round make preoccupied put on sale scare bend lessen, take away push away roll flatten put or pull down fill accept drown free color turn on, brighten lighten (i.e. weight) feed to satiation clean break dry make well

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kar-ha-yæ∫ hameh ra ∫ad kærd. actions-pl-3sg everyone acc joyful do.past.3sg His actions made everyone joyful.

3.3

∫odæn ‘To Become’

∫odæn ‘to become’ is an inherently telic inchoative verb. It always expresses achievements, though some collocations allow an accomplishment reading. An adjectival pv always describes a state while a nominal pv describes a process. This lv can be compared to the English lv ‘to get’ as used in collocations like to get cold or to get soaked, or the more general verb ‘to become.’ The lvcs presented here should not be confused with the passive in Persian, which often employs the verb ∫odæn, as in æz pedæræ∫ pæræstari ∫od ‘His father was taken care of’ (lit. from father-3sg nursing become.past.3sg). In these structures, ∫odæn is always in the third person singular, while within the lvcs, it can agree in person and number with any subject. ræha [free] kæj [bent]

xo∫k [dry]

change state

sorx [blush] zeræng [clever]

undergo

∫ODÆN [to become]

atæ∫i [enraged]

pærdaxt [payment]

be acted upon montæqel [transfer]

figure 2

Semantic space of the lv ∫odæn ‘to become’.

e∫are [point]

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∫ODÆN: Change State Meaning: undergo a change of state. pv: adjective—a state. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject undergoes a change of state instigated by an external agent who may or may not be volitional. This cluster alternates with kærdæn’s ‘cause state’ cluster. The state may be physical, mental, or emotional. ∫ol ∫odæn a∫kare ∫odæn a∫ofte ∫odæn ab ∫odæn abestæn ∫odæn ælave ∫odæn ænjomæn ∫odæn æziyæt ∫odæn agah ∫odæn amade ∫odæn aram ∫odæn araste ∫odæn asan ∫odæn avare ∫odæn bænd ∫odæn bæstæri ∫odæn bæste ∫odæn batel ∫odæn baz ∫odæn bidar ∫odæn bozorg ∫odæn dæmær ∫odæn dæstpat∫e ∫odæn delxor ∫odæn færahæm ∫odæn færavan ∫odæn gærm ∫odæn geran ∫odæn gerd ∫odæn gereftar ∫odæn geryan ∫odæn gom ∫odæn

loose become visible become disheveled become water/melted become pregnant become added become institute become bothered become aware become ready become calm become adorned become easy become displaced become connected become bedridden become closed become cancelled become open become awake become big become flat become panicked become sulky become gathered become abundant become warm become expensive become round become captive become tearful become lost become

losen up become visible become disheveled melt get pregnant get added to gather be bothered become aware get ready calm down be decorated become easy be displaced connect, attach to become bedridden close get cancelled open up wake up grow be flipped panic become sulky be gathered become abundant get warm get expensive become round be captivated get teary get lost

68 gomrah ∫odæn hæbs ∫odæn hæmræng ∫odæn hol ∫odæn jæm ∫odæn kæj ∫odæn kælafe ∫odæn kæm ∫odæn lazem ∫odæn leh ∫odæn lule ∫odæn mæ∫qul ∫odæn mæqbul ∫odæn mæriz ∫odæn mo∫tæri ∫odæn moællæq ∫odæn moqer ∫odæn mot∫ale ∫odæn motmæen ∫odæn næ∫e ∫odæn nærm ∫odæn næzdik ∫odæn negæran ∫odæn pa ∫odæn pa berehne ∫odæn pæ∫iman ∫odæn pæri∫an ∫odæn penhan ∫odæn pu∫ide ∫odæn qæbul ∫odæn qærq ∫odæn qafel ∫odæn ræha ∫odæn rævane ∫odæn refuze ∫odæn saken ∫odæn sir ∫odæn tæmam ∫odæn te∫ne ∫odæn vækil ∫odæn vared ∫odæn

chapter 3 lost become stuck become same-colored become rushed become gathered become bent become frustrated become less become necessary become crushed become rolled become busy become acceptable become sick become customer become suspended become concave become crumpled become certain become high become soft become near become worried become foot become barefoot become regretting become disturbed become hidden become covered become accepted become drown become unaware become free become sent become rejected become resident become satiated become finished become thirsty become lawyer become entrance become

become lost get stuck join ranks be rushed gather, bunch up bend become frustrated diminish become necessary be crushed get rolled get busy be accepted get sick become a customer be suspended become concave get crumpled become certain get high soften get closer get worried get up become barefoot regret become distraught become hidden be covered be accepted drown remain unaware, neglect become free be sent be rejected become a resident become satiated be finished get thirsty become a lawyer enter

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs vel ∫odæn velo ∫odæn xo∫k ∫odæn zæde ∫odæn

lax become spread become dry become sick become

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relax, be released spread out dry get sick of

bæd æz t∫ænd sa’æt ræxt-ha xo∫k ∫od-ænd. after from few hour laundry-pl dry become.past-3pl The laundry dried after a few hours.

∫ODÆN: Be Acted Upon Meaning: be acted upon. pv: noun—an action. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject does not necessarily go through a change of state, but an action is done involving it. This cluster alternates with kærdæn’s ‘act upon’ cluster. ænjam ∫odæn e∫are ∫odæn elam ∫odæn jaru ∫odæn montæqel ∫odæn mota’ele ∫odæn ne∫ane ∫odæn nemune ∫odæn pærdaxt ∫odæn sævar ∫odæn tæxliye ∫odæn telesm ∫odæn xæbær ∫odæn

end become point become announcement become broom become transfer become investigation become sign become example become payment become horseman become evacuated become curse become news become

be completed be pointed out be announced be broomed be transferred be investigated become a sign become an example be paid get on horseback be evacuated be cursed get news

an marizi che juri be u montaqel ∫od? this illness which how to him transferred become.past.3sg How did he catch this illness? (lit. How was this illness transferred to him?)

∫ODÆN: Undergo Meaning: undergo a change of state through an internal auto-action. pv: adjective—an internally caused or acquired trait. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

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Remarks: The subject undergoes a change of state that cannot be the direct result of an external force, but must be a result of a process internal to the subject, perhaps instigated by an external force or event. ∫aqel ∫odæn ∫ekæste ∫odæn aftabi ∫odæn amixte ∫odæn atæ∫i ∫odæn sorx ∫odæn zeræng ∫odæn

employed become weathered become sunny become mixed become enraged become red become clever become

get employed become weathered become sunny get mixed up get angry/feisty blush become clever

hær dæfe ba-ha∫ sohbæt mi-kon-am, sorx mi-∫æv-æd. each time with-3sg speak prog-do.pres-1sg red prog-become pres-3sg She blushes each time I speak to her.

3.4

Zædæn ‘To Hit’

In its full verb use, zædæn is always transitive with a meaning close to the English hit or beat. As one of the most common lvs in Persian, about a third of its lvcs are intransitive and the rest are transitive. The clusters formed with zædæn fall into one of six broad categories: affect, move, emit, do a quick action, pierce and transfer, and steal. lvcs with zædæn do not invariably have an agent and the aspectual readings of the collocations are variable. The subject of the lvcs formed with zædæn is usually an agent. Sometimes this action causes a change of state in another entity, but certain lvcs express inchoative actions or actions where the subject acts upon himself. The action undertaken is usually spontaneous or instantaneous in nature, relatively quick and effective, and has the potential to be iterated. For example, combing hair is faster than doing plastic surgery, hence the occurrence of ∫ane zædæn ‘comb’ (lit. comb hit) with zædæn, but the occurrence of æmæl pelastik kærdæn ‘do plastic surgery’ (lit. operation plastic do) with the more generic kærdæn ‘to do.’ When taking a short nap, t∫ort zædæn ‘nap’ (lit. nap hit) occurs with zædæn, but longer periods of sleep do not (e.g. the full verb xabidæn ‘to sleep’ may be be used). And as another example of zædæn expressing mostly instantaneous or semelfactive actions, ∫irje zædæn ‘to dive’ (lit. dive hit) occurs with zædæn while ∫ena kærdæn ‘to swim’ (lit. swim do) occurs with kærdæn.

nap]

gitar [guitar]

kæf [applause]

expressive be∫kæn[s sounds

dæst [clap]

vocal

jez [sizzle]

vez [fizzle]

tombæk [tombak]

instrument

noise

visually

bærq [shine]

sæntur [santur]

emit

type of music

jaz [jazz]

position

drug

pierce and transfer

qælt [sommersault]

attack

hurt

affect

steal

t∫æko∫ blunt [hammer] weapon lægæd [kick] potk [sledgehammer]

bal [wing]

tolombe æsa [cane] rhythm [pump]

move

bank [bank]

gazoil [deisel]

∫ane [brush]

tæxte [board]

modify kæpæk be [mold] modified tæbxal [cold soar]

projectile mu∫æk weapon [missile] tir [bullet]

∫æm∫ir [sword]

t∫aqu [knife] kard hand held [knife] weapon

gul [fool]

bambul [cheat]

hoqe [trick]

trick

ri∫ [beard]

t∫æmæn [grass] mu trim [hair]

enhance

appearance

mesvak [toothbrush]

ju∫ [pimple]

t∫ador [tent]

lif [loufa]

protect

pærde [curtain]

jib gænj [pocket] [treasure]

fuel

benzin [gasoline]

ampul [shot]

instrument

hæ∫i∫ [hash]

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

mævad [substance]

vaksæn [vaccination]

varune rotation pit∫ sær pa [on [sommersault] [turn] foot]

zanu [knee]

tæriyak [opium]

do a quick action

muzik se zærbi [three [music] beat]

musical

aurally

jæræqe [spark]

su su [light]

create

figure 3  Semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit’.

qor [mumble]

zar [sob]

speech

ærbade [yell] manner of

coherent gæp speech [speech]

hærf [word]

laf [vaunt]

livan [cup]

∫i∫e [glass]

action

did [view] perform an

ændaze [size]

maye [starter] prepare

xame [cream]

næmæk [salt]

ætr [perfume]

bænd [connection]

bæxiye [stitch]

peyvænd [graft] repair

ta [fold]

damage lætme [damage] qat∫ [chop]

sædæme [damage]

change gereh [knot] topology

fer [curl]

dæst touch [hand] surface

suzæn [needle]

splash

golab [rose-water]

taste

ædvie [spice]

roqæn [oil] kære [butter] texture

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Zædæn: Affect These verbs are usually directed actions that change the state of another entity, abruptly or swiftly in time or space (i.e. cutting or hitting). These lvcs express potentially iterative actions over a period of time, but cannot have continuous durative readings.

∫ane [brush]

mesvak [toothbrush]

roqæn [oil] kære [butter]

appearance

texture

lif [loufa]

ædvie [spice]

næmæk [salt]

taste

t∫ador pærde [curtain] [tent] protect

tæxte [board]

affect

bambul [cheat] trick attack

suzæn [needle] touch surface

hoqe [trick]

gul [fool]

dæst [hand] fer [curl] ta [fold] change topology

ju∫ [pimple] modify kæpæk [mold] be modified tæbxal [cold soar]

hurt

ætr [perfume]

splash

t∫æmæn [grass] mu [hair] trim ri∫ [beard]

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

golab [rose-water]

enhance

gereh [knot] sædæme [damage]

damage peyvænd [graft] repair

bæxiye [stitch]

lætme [damage]

qat∫ [chop]

bænd [connection]

t∫aqu [knife]

t∫æko∫ blunt [hammer] weapon

lægæd [kick] potk [sledgehammer]

kard hand held [knife] weapon ∫æm∫ir [sword] projectile mu∫æk weapon [missile] tir [bullet]

figure 4  Affect branch of the semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit’.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Protect Meaning: Hang an object that serves as a divider or that serves to block or protect something. pv: noun—a type of board or cloth.

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Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: If a divide is set up between two things, the entities divided are expressed in a complement headed by beyn (between). In some cases, it can be transitive: the object expresses the periphery of something (e.g. dor-e otaq ra pærde zæd-ænd. around-ez room acc curtain hit.past-3sg. They hung curtains around the room—i.e. on the walls). The construction that represents this cluster has a special syntactic structure: the pv can easily take a direct object marker, unless it is used in a transitive construction. pærde zædæn t∫ador zædæn tækiye zædæn tæxte zædæn

curtain hit tent hit stage hit board hit

hang a curtain set up a tent set up a stage (religious) hang a board up

koli-ha væsæte rah-e esfæhan t∫ador zæd-ænd. nomad-pl middle path-ez esfahan tent hit.past-3pl The nomads setup tent on the way to Isphahan.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Enhance: Appearance Meaning: groom or clean with a tool (carrying out the function of the tool). pv: noun—a grooming tool. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: Accomplishment. Remarks: The object is the surface or entity being groomed. This cluster’s pvs include grooming or cleaning tools that require repetitive strokes on the same area. For example, it would be difficult to use the word æbr ‘sponge’ as a pv, since the cleaning action does not necessarily entail only repetitive movement but also dragging the sponge across a surface (see lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’). Some collocations can also occur with the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ for a physically or temporally stretched out action. ∫oxm zædæn boros zædæn kise zædæn lif zædæn male zædæn mesvak zædæn qæltæk zædæn sænge pa zædæn

plow hit brush hit sac hit loufa hit trowel hit toothbrush hit roller hit exfoliating stone hit

plow brush rub with exfoliating glove exfoliate with loufa trowel brush teeth roll exfoliate (i.e. feet)

74 sohan zædæn sombate zædæn værdæne zædæn

chapter 3 file hit sandpaper hit rolling pin hit

file sand roll

qabl æz lak-alcol zædæn ruy-e miz ra sombate zæd. before from laquer hit.inf top-ez table acc sandpaper hit.past.3sg He sanded the table top before applying laquer. .

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Enhance: Texture Meaning: spread a material across a surface. pv: noun—a spreadable semi-liquid, viscous material. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The surface is expressed as an indirect object. ∫ampo zædæn ahar zædæn dæva zædæn kære zædæn lak zædæn losion zædæn moræba zædæn pomad zædæn ræng zædæn roqæn zædæn sabun zædæn siman zædæn sorme zædæn sorxab zædæn vaks zædæn zirlaye zædæn

shampoo hit starch hit medicine hit butter hit laquer hit lotion hit jam hit ointment hit paint hit oil hit soap hit cement hit eyeliner hit rouge hit wax hit substrate hit

shampoo starch rub on medicine buter lacquer rub on losion spread jam rub on ointment paint (apply or spray) oil put soap on spread cement on apply eyeliner put rouge on wax spread substrate

nædjar paye-ha-ye miz ra ræng zæd. carpenter legs-pl-ez table acc paint hit.past.3sg The carpenter painted the table legs.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Enhance: Taste Meaning: add spice or another element to a compound (usually food). pv: noun—substance added.

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Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This cluster takes two arguments; the second (i.e. the food being acted upon) can be either the object or indirect object. ædviye zædæn felfel zædæn næmæk zædæn

spice hit pepper hit salt hit

add spices add pepper add salt

a∫pæz æz inke mo∫tæri qæza ra bi∫tær næmæk zæd cook from that client food acc more salt hit.past.3sg  narahæt ∫od.  upset become.past.3sg The cook got upset because the patron added extra salt to the food.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Splash Meaning: spray or splash a liquid across a surface, without complete coverage entailed. pv: noun—a liquid. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The surface is expressed as an optional direct or indirect object. This action is necessarily a controlled application of something onto another. Compare to pa∫idæn ‘to spray,’ which is the general verb for spray. ab zædæn ætr zædæn golab zædæn sæm zædæn

water hit perfume hit rose-water hit poison hit

spray/splash water apply perfume apply rose-water spray poison/insecticide

bejaye ∫ost-o-∫uye ∫æxsi mærdom dær æsre vosta ætr instead washing personal people in age middle perfume  mi-zæd-ænd.  prog-hit.past-3pl During the middle ages, instead of personal hygiene, people wore perfume.

Comment: This cluster does not necessarily mean a random spraying as with pa∫idæn to spray. It generally refers to applying a liquid in a controlled manner onto a very limited area.

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ZÆDÆN: Affect: Trim Meaning: trim overgrown parts or cut through an integral part. pv: noun—usually organic material that can be cut through or removed. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: Special syntactic structure: the pv can easily act as a direct object in most collocations and often receives an object marker. This special syntax makes the construction idiom-like. While the meaning of the collocations can be considered compositional in the sense that the pv contributes a clear meaning, the class of pvs is restricted by the construction. bor zædæn gærdæn zædæn mu zædæn ræg zædæn ri∫ zædæn t∫æmæn zædæn

cut hit neck hit hair hit vein hit beard hit grass hit

cut (e.g. deck of cards) behead trim hair cut a vein shave a beard off mow the grass

qæbl az inke t∫æmæn-ha ra be-zæn-æd, Usta Karim muhay-æ∫ before from that grass-pl acc subj-hit-3sg Usta Karim hair-3sg  ra zæd.  acc hit.past.3sg Usta Karim had his hair trimmed before he mowed the lawn.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Modify: Touch Surface Meaning: touch a surface with a hand or foot or an instrument, usually leaving a mark or imprint. pv: noun—an instrument doing the touching. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The surface touched is expressed as a direct object. The instrument used for this action is usually sharp unless it is a body part, but the meaning does not entail hurting the object. ængo∫t zædæn dændan zædæn dæst zædæn gaz zædæn læb zædæn

finger hit tooth hit hand hit bite hit lip hit

touch with the finger touch with tooth, taste touch bite touch with lips, taste

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs lis zædæn naxon zædæn pænje zædæn suzæn zædæn t∫ængal zædæn zæban zædæn

lick hit nail hit paw hit needle hit fork hit tongue hit

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lick pick with nail, taste paw at touch with a needle pierce/touch with a fork lick

kæffa∫ ruy-e kæf∫ ra suzæn-e riz zæd væ næq∫-e Shoemaker top-ez shoe acc needle-ez tiny hit.past.3sg and pattern-EZ  ziba dad.  nice give.past.3sg The shoemaker put a nice needlework pattern on the shoe with a fine needle.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Modify: Change Topology Meaning: cause an organized topological change in an entity. pv: type of topological transformation. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: It is important that the type of action carried out on the entity does not necessarily deform or damage it. In other words, the result of the action cannot be random in shape. It is in sympathy with the nature of the entity acted upon. However, the change must be direct and intentional. The form *t∫uruk zædæn (lit. wrinkle hit) does not exist: wrinkles are random in geometry and are not usually intentional. fer zædæn gere zædæn ta zædæn

curl hit knot hit fold hit

curl tie a knot fold

garson rumizi-ha ra tæmiz kærd va ta zæd. waiter tablecloth-pl acc clean make.past.3sg and fold hit.past.3sg The waiter cleaned and folded the tablecloths.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Modify: Damage Meaning: inflict damage on an entity. pv: noun—a type of damage. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The damaged entity occurs as a direct object or indirect object.

78 asib zædæn lætme zædæn qat∫ zædæn sædæme zædæn zæxm zædæn

chapter 3 injury hit damage hit slice hit injury hit wound hit

injure, damage damage (e.g. reputation) slice injure damage, wound

seil dehkæde ra næ-tævanest ziyad asib be-zæn-æd. flood village ACC NEG-able.past.3sg much damage subj-hit.pres-3sg The flood could not cause much damage to the village.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Modify: Repair Meaning: fuse or connect entities or parts of a single entity. pv: noun—a type of connection or instrument/material used for fusing or connecting. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: When the subject acts upon a single entity whose parts might need to be connected (e.g. hem of a skirt, two parts of a pipe), the lvc is transitive. If, however, the first entity is fused to a second entity, the first entity occurs as direct object and the second occurs as an indirect object. bænd zædæn bæxiye zædæn kuk zædæn mix zædæn peyvænd zædæn pit∫ zædæn t∫æsp zædæn væsle pine zædæn

tie hit stitch hit stitch hit nail hit graft hit screw hit glue hit patch hit

repair stitch (medical) stitch a seam nail graft plants, organs use a screw to connect glue patch over a hole

mærdom raz-e peyvænd zædæn-e derækht-an-e ham no ra people secret-ez graft hit.inf-ez tree-pl-ez same species acc  zud yad gereft-ænd.  quick memory get.past-3sg People learned the secrets of grafting trees of same species quickly.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Modify: Be Modified Meaning: acquire marks or irritation as evidence of some internal or external biological or chemical reaction on a surface.

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pv: noun—a type of mark or reaction. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject is not an agent, but undergoes a reaction causing the appearance of the pv. The subject rather expresses the location where the pv occurs. abele zædæn jævane zædæn ju∫ zædæn kæpæk zædæn læke zædæn pine zædæn tæbxal zædæn tavæl zædæn varuk zædæn xal zædæn zæng zædæn

pox hit sprout hit pimple hit mold hit splotch hit callus hit coldsore hit blister hit mole hit mole hit rust hit

get pox boils sprout get a pimple develop mold develop a splotch on skin develop a callus develop a coldsore develop a blister develop a mole develop a mole rust

teke-ye abtæla dad-e hit∫gah zæng ne-mi-zæn-æd. piece-ez goldplate give-ptcp never rust neg-prog-hit.pres-3sg Goldplated pieces will never rust.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Hurt: Trick Meaning: trick someone. pv: noun—a trick. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: It is interesting to note that if the English word trick was borrowed into Persian, the resulting verb would be trick kærdæn, and not *trick zædæn, perhaps because kærdæn allows a more general reading. If the person being tricked is explicit, it occurs as direct object. bambul zædæn belof zædæn gul zædæn hile zædæn hoqe zædæn kælæk zædæn

trick hit bluff hit trick hit trick hit foul-play hit trick hit

trick bluff trick trick trick play a trick, fool, cheat

80 naro zædæn neyæng zædæn

chapter 3 double-cross hit ruse hit

double-cross deceive

u dær væræq-bazi kælæk mi-zæn-æd. he in card-playing trick prog-hit.pres-3sg He plays tricks in card games.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Hurt: Attack: Hand Held Weapon Meaning: wound or penetrate another entity with a weapon. pv: noun—a sharp, penetrating weapon. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: The weapon used in this action must be sharp and able to directly penetrate the patient. For example, one can be wounded by a gun, but the form *tofæng zædæn (lit. gun hit) does not exist, because it is not the weapon that penetrates the patient, but the bullets. ∫æm∫ir zædæn kard zædæn qædare zædæn qæme zædæn six zædæn t∫aqu zædæn xænjær zædæn

sword hit knife hit sword hit dagger hit skewer hit knife hit scythe hit

stab with a sword stab with a knife stab with a sword stab with a dagger put on a skewer stab with a knife hit with a scythe

tarix mi-gui-æd ke Ali ra hengam-e namaz-æ∫ ∫æm∫ir zæd-ænd. history prog-say.pres-3sg that Ali acc time-ez prayer-3sg sword hit.past-3pl History says that Ali was hit by a sword during his prayer.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Hurt: Attack: Projectile Weapon Meaning: attack with a projectile weapon. pv: noun—a projectile weapon. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: Similar limitations as previous cluster. gule zædæn mu∫æk zædæn neyze zædæn ni∫tar zædæn sæt∫me zædæn

bullet hit missile hit spear hit harpoon hit pellet hit

shoot with a bullet fire a missile hit with a spear hit with a harpoon shoot with pellets

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs senan zædæn tir zædæn tup zædæn

spear hit bullet hit canon-ball hit

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hit with a spear shoot with a bullet shoot/hit with a canon-ball

polis-ha æl kapon ra dær ∫ikago tir zæd-ænd væ ko∫tænd. police-pl Al Capone acc in Chicago bullet hit.past-3sg and kill.past-3sg The police shot and killed Al Capone in Chicago.

ZÆDÆN: Affect: Hurt: Attack: Blunt Instrument Meaning: strike some entity with a heavy or blunt instrument, or with a body part. pv: noun—a type of hit or a blunt instrument used for striking. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: This action must directly affect the patient in a hurtful manner. For example, one cannot say *hol zædæn (lit. push hit), because the notion of push implies moving an entity without necessarily hurting it. ∫abixun zædæn ∫ælaq zædæn gu∫tkub zædæn lægæd zædæn mo∫t zædæn potk zædæn sili zædæn t∫æko∫ zædæn t∫omaq zædæn t∫ub zædæn tæbær zædæn tazyane zædæn ti∫e zædæn zærbæt zædæn

night attack hit whip hit meat-hammer hit kick hit punch hit sledge hammer hit slap hit hammer hit club hit stick hit axe hit whip hit axe hit stroke hit

attack whip pound with a meat hammer kick punch hit with a sledge hammer slap hammer beat with a club beat with a stick hit with an axe whip hit with an axe strike

gærdæn-koloft-ha daneshjuy-an ra t∫omaq zæd-ænd. neck-thick-pl student-pl acc club hit.past-3PL The rednecks beat the students with clubs.

Zædæn: Move The lv zædæn can also express unergative, dynamic movements, usually instantaneous, either carried out once or iterated in succession.

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ZÆDÆN [to hit]

move

zanu [knee]

æsa [cane]

position sær pa [on foot]

varune rotation [sommersault]

pit∫ [turn]

rhythm

tolombe [pump]

bal [wing]

qælt [sommersault]

figure 5  Move branch of the semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit’.

ZÆDÆN: Move: Rhythm Meaning: carry out a rhythmic action sometimes requiring an instrument. pv: noun—the instrument, the process used, or sometimes the thing being hit as a result of the action. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. Remarks: The action described is mostly inherent to the instrument pv. The functional properties of the instrument, part of real-world knowledge, are particularly salient. æsa zædæn bad zædæn bal zædæn bil zædæn dæm zædæn dær zædæn dæst o pa zædæn jaru zædæn læh læh zædæn læng zædæn

cane hit walk w/ a cane (hitting it on  the ground) wind hit fan wing hit flap wings (used for winged  animals) shovel hit plow breath hit breathe rhythmically door hit knock hand and foot hit beat arms and legs broom hit sweep breath hit pant limp hit limp

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs mik zædæn mohr zædæn næfæs zædæn pa zædæn pænbe zædæn pær zædæn paru zædæn pelk zædæn pok zædæn qædæm zædæn sine zædæn tolombe zædæn vulvul zædæn zur zædæn

suck hit stamp hit breath hit foot hit cotton hit feather hit paddle hit eyelid hit puff hit step hit chest hit pump hit squirm hit effort hit

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suck stamp breathe with short breaths pedal beat cotton beat wings (feathered wings) paddle blink puff (e.g. on a pipe) stroll beat chest pump water out of a well squirm exert effort

parænde-ye azad ∫od-e bal zæd o ræft. bird-ez free become-ptcp wing hit.past.3sg and leave.past.3sg The freed bird flew away.

ZÆDÆN: Move: Rotation Meaning: Flipping or rotating volitionally. pv: noun—a type of rotational movement. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: This action is usually volitional (as opposed to the same cluster occurring with xordæn, covered in the next section). Volition is a salient feature in the meaning of these collocations, but not always necessary. mælæq zædæn pit∫ zædæn po∫tæk zædæn qælt zædæn qute zædæn t∫ærx zædæn varu zædæn varune zædæn

somersault hit turn hit flip hit tumble hit plunge hit turn hit flipside hit flip hit

u æz xo∫hali mæl’æq mi-zæd. he from joy somersault prog-hit.past.3sg He did somersaults in joy.

do a somersault turn flip tumble plunge (under water) turn go the opposite way do a somersault (esp. in water)

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ZÆDÆN: Move: Position Meaning: position one’s body or bodies in a certain configuration or set in motion into a direction. pv: noun—a configuration, or position. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or accomplishment. Remarks: Some collocations express similar meanings to the English striking a pose, which also occurs with the translation equivalent verb of zædæn, ‘to strike.’ æqæb zædæn hælqe zædæn jelo zædæn qamæt zædæn særpa zædæn t∫ombatme zædæn t∫onbæk zædæn zanu zædæn

back hit ring hit front hit erect posture hit stand hit squat hit squat hit kneel hit

back up encircle take the lead stand in a position to pray stand to attention squat squat kneel

emperatur-e ∫ekæst xord-e jelo-ye do∫mæn zanu zæd. emperor-ez defeat eat-ptcp front-ez enemy knee hit.past.3sg The vanquished emperor kneeled in front of the enemy.

Zædæn: Emit These lvcs occurring with zædæn pertain generally to auditory emission, though one cluster’s collocations express visual emission. The subject emits something whether or not an explicit receiver is present. The subject carries out an action that does not directly affect his state or the state of any other vez [fizzle]

laf [vaunt] hærf [word] coherent speech gæp [speech]

jez [sizzle]

su su [light] jæræqe [spark]

bærq [shine]

visually

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

ærbade [yell] manner of

emit

vocal

speech

zar [sob] qor [mumble]

noise

aurally

dæst [clap] expressive

be∫kæn sounds [snap] kæf [applause] gitar [guitar]

musical

instrument

tombæk [tombak]

type of music sæntur [santur]

se zærbi [three beat]

jaz [jazz] muzik [music]

figure 6  Emit branch of the semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit’.

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entity. A salient trait common to these intransitive constructions is the segmented nature of the emission—both sound and visual emission. ZÆDÆN: Emit: Aurally: Musical: Type of Music Meaning: play a genre or style of music. pv: noun—a type or style of music or rhythm. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: This highly productive cluster is very similar to the next cluster, the only difference is the semantic category of the pv. hæft-zærbi zædæn jaz zædæn muzik-e kelaasik zædæn pærde zædæn rædif zædæn

seven-beat hit jazz hit classical music hit octave hit radif hit

play a seven-beat rhythm play jazz music play classical music play an octave playing in Persian mode

tæqi ba folut-e irani mi-xast jaz be-zæn-æd. taqi with flut-ez Iranian prog-want.past.3sg jazz subj-hit.pres-3sg Taqi wanted to play jazz with the Iranian flute.

ZÆDÆN: Emit: Aurally: Musical: Instrument Meaning: play a musical instrument. pv: noun—a musical instrument. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: This cluster is highly productive, semantically equivalent to the English play an instrument, or the French jouer un instrument (‘play an instrument’). ∫eypur zædæn dæf zædæn dayere zædæn folut zædæn ney zædæn org zædæn piano zædæn tænbur zædæn violon zædæn zæng zædæn gitar zædæn tombæk zædæn sæntur zædæn

horn hit frame-drum hit frame-drum hit flute hit ney hit organ hit piano hit tanbur hit violin hit bell hit guitar hit tonbak hit santur hit

play the horn play the frame-drum play the frame-drum play the flute play the ney play the organ play the piano play the tanbur play the violin play bells play the guitar play the tonbak play the santur

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hengami ke juki folut zæd mar æz sabæd sær birun kærd. while that juki flute hit.past.3sg snake from basket head outside do.past.3sg When the street jester played his flute the snake poked its head out of the basket.

Comments: It is fairly easy to formulate a compositional account of this cluster, positing a separate definition for the full verb zædæn, just as with the English verb ‘to play.’ In highly productive cases of lvcs, the syntax of the construction is freer and a construction analysis equates to one in which each cluster represents a different and separate lexical meaning for zædæn. However, it is important to note that one cannot gap across clusters. In other words, one cannot say *Hæsæn folut væ hæft zærbi zæd. (lit. Hasan flute and seven beat hit. past.3sg), see previous cluster for the type of music pv. ZÆDÆN: Emit: Aurally: Expressive Sounds Meaning: make clapping or clicking sounds with the hands. pv: palm or hand, or configuration making sound (snap, etc.). Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. Remarks: These collocations express applause or keeping a rhythm. It involves only socially typical ways of doing so, which includes hands. The lvc expresses the hitting notion of the full verb meaning of zædæn, especially repetitive and rhythmic hitting. For example, if stomping were a conventional manner of applauding, we would expect pa zædæn (lit. foot hit) to occur in this cluster. kæf zædæn be∫kæn zædæn dæst zædæn

palm hit snap hit hand hit

clap, ovation snap clap, applaud

tæma∫agær-an bæraye Tæqi kæf-e istade zæd-ænd. spectator-pl for Taqi palm-ez standing hit.past-3pl The spectators gave Taqi a standing ovation.

Comment: This is similar to the English put your hands together and the French battre les mains (lit. beat the hands). ZÆDÆN: Emit: Aurally: Vocal: Manner of Speech Meaning: speak or make vocalizations in a specific manner as to communicate mostly negative emotions such as stress, displeasure, boredom, etc. pv: noun—a type or manner of vocal expression. Argument structure: N1 lvc

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Aspect: activity or semelfactive when describing cry out. Remarks: The action does not imply a dialogue, but communicative intent on the part of an agent. When the collocation does not express a manner of speech, the pv expresses a sharp sound and emitted once or repetitively, usually as a cry. dad zædæn neq zædæn qor zædæn sæfir zædæn seda zædæn sut zædæn t∫ah t∫ah zædæn veng zædæn veq zædæn zar zædæn

yell hit whine hit grumble hit snort hit call hit whistle hit chirp hit whine hit whine hit cry hit

yell whine complain snort call whistle sing like a nightingale (staccato) whine whine cry, sob

bæt∫e-ye gorosne ziad neq mi-zæd. child-ez hungry much whimper prog-hit.past.3s The hungry child whimpered a lot.

ZÆDÆN: Emit: Aurally: Vocal: Coherent Speech Meaning: speak, talk in prose. pv: noun—a word that means sound or speech. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: Here, the notion of speaking entails communicating in a dialogue, though all collocations could also be used to refer to a monologue. Since no pv can actually be added to the set of pvs and the existing forms are non-compositional, these collocations can be almost considered as idiomatic. hærf zædæn laf zædæn gæp zædæn ver zædæn zer zædæn

utterance hit speech hit chat hit gibbering hit drivel hit

speak, talk vaunt chat gibber talk nonsense

bæd æz sal-ha ne∫æst-im væ xeyli gæp zæd-im. after from year-pl sit.pst-1pl and much chat hit.past-1pl After many years we sat and chatted a lot.

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Comment: Collocations in English, using equivalent lexical items to that of the full verb zædæn, include shoot the breeze or strike up a conversation or beat your gums. ZÆDÆN: Emit: Aurally: Noise Meaning: make sounds usually of sizzling but also other punctual sounds. pv: noun—onomatopoeia of a sound. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. Remark: Zædæn highlights the punctual aspect of the noise, as in the visual emission cluster. buq zædæn estart zædæn jelez velez zædæn jez zædæn

honk hit start hit crackling hit sizzle hit

beep, honk try to start an engine crackling sound (e.g. grilling) sizzle

kæbab-e jigær ru-ye mænqæl jez mi-zæd. kabob-ez liver on-ez barbecue-pit sizzle prog-hit.past.3sg The liver kabob was sizzling on the barbecue pit.

ZÆDÆN: Emit: Visually Meaning: emit a bright visible stimulus. pv: noun—a bright shimmer, or flash. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: This is the only cluster that expresses non-auditory emission in this group of clusters. It expresses usually a spontaneous, punctual, and potentially repeating visual phenomenon. The subject is never human, and never an agent. ∫ole zædæn bærq zædæn dud zædæn jæræqe zædæn kursu zædæn su zædæn t∫e∫mæk zædæn zæbane zædæn

flame hit shimmer hit smoke hit spark hit small light hit shine hit blink hit flame hit

flare up shine emit smoke spark emit light shine blink (as in a light)—also wink flare up (as in a fire)

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clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs hengami ke væsæt-e xiyaban resid t∫eraq qermez obur-e while that middle-ez street arrive.past.3sg light red cross-ez piade ∫oru kærd t∫e∫mæk zædæn. pedestrian start do.past.3sg blink hit.past-inf The pedestrian red signal started blinking when he got to the middle of the street.

Comment: In colloquial registers, this form can be used to say something has a hint of a specific visual property, or a tint of a color. The pv would then be a prepositional phrase expressing what the subject resembles. The argument structure is different from the cluster above, but the meaning of the resulting lvc pertains to the idea of flashing visual hints of a trait or feature. This could be an independent cluster (prepositional clusters for zædæn are not analyzed in the current study, as they often take multi-word pps or pp frames as below). For example: t∫ehre-æ∫ be æfqani mi-zæn-æd. face-3sg to Afghan prog-hit.pres-3sg His face has Afghan features. in pirahæn be qermez mi-zæn-æd. this shirt to red prog-hit.pres-3sg This shirt has a red tint.

Zædæn: Do A Quick Action Creating or producing something or obtaining quick measurements can be expressed with zædæn. Zædæn often implies a swift and rapid action, but also highlights a trivial aspect to the action. These lvcs often occur in colloquial registers. xame [cream] ændaze [size] did [view]

maye [starter] prepare

perform an action

∫i∫e [glass] livan [cup]

create

do a quick action

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

figure 7

Quick action branch of the semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit’.

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ZÆDÆN: Do a Quick Action: Create Meaning: produce any item or establish an institution or store. pv: noun—an object produced or manufactured. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This lvc expresses a process in an instantaneous, effortless, or trivial fashion. This productive cluster occurs in colloquial registers. If the same action would be described without the property of being effortless, one would expect the use of verbal constructions like tolid kærdæn ‘to manufacture’ (lit. manufacture do), or saxtæn ‘to build.’ ∫i∫e zædæn livan zædæn mæqaze zædæn pol zædæn taq zædæn

glass hit cup hit store hit bridge hit roof hit

make glass produce cups open a store build a bridge build a roof

komækar-an særi yek pol-e pantun zæd-ænd. rescuer-pl quick one bridge-ez pontoon hit.past-3pl The rescuers quickly built a pontoon bridge.

ZÆDÆN: Do a Quick Action: Perform an Action Meaning: undertake any short, trivial action. pv: noun—an action. Argument structure: N1 lvc or N1 N2 lvc, depending on the collocation. Aspect: achievement (e.g. to visit), but can also be an activity in some cases (e.g. to smile, to take a nap). ændaze zædæn did zædæn læbxænd zædæn mesal zædæn peymane zædæn sær zædæn t∫ort zædæn tæxmin zædæn

measurement hit sight hit smile hit example hit gauge hit head hit nap hit estimate hit

make a quick measurement take a peek flash a smile make an example gauge visit impromptu take a nap make an estimation

pire mard hami∫e bæd-e nahar t∫orti mi-zæn-æd. old man always after-ez lunch nap prog-hit.pres-3sg The old man always takes a nap after lunch.

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ZÆDÆN: Do a Quick Action: Prepare Meaning: prepare a starter or make a mold. pv: noun—a starter or mold. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive Remarks: This action usually starts the transition of a material from one form into another, such as milk into yogurt, hops into beer, cake into a baked form, mud or cement into brick form, liquid cream into whipped, etc. This might be an extension of processes where hitting or sudden movements are involved (e.g. making whipped cream) maye zædæn qaleb zædæn xame zædæn

starter hit mold hit cream hit

add a starter make a mold whip cream

∫agerd-e ∫irinipæz ævvæl bayæd xame zæd-æn ra yad be-gir-æd. student-ez pastry-cook first must cream hit-inf acc memory subj-get-3sg Pastry chef students must first learn how to whip cream.

Zædæn: Pierce and Transfer In these clusters, an instrument pierces or goes through the surface of something in order to transfer a substance into the pierced object. In other words, an outside to inside transferring event occurs. vaksæn [vaccination] mævad [substance] tæriyak [opium]

ampul [shot]

instrument hæ∫i∫ [hash]

drug

benzin [gasoline]

gazoil [deisel]

fuel

pierce and transfer

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

figure 8  Pierce and transfer branch of the semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit.’

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ZÆDÆN: Pierce and Transfer: Drug Meaning: voluntarily ingest or inject a substance into the body. pv: noun—a drug. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This cluster is highly productive: any drug can occur in this construction. The subject is always a human acting on himself, except when medicating, where another person can administer the drug (as in the example sentence below). The quickness with which the drug takes effect could be a reason for the choice of zædæn as lv, given the usual punctual property of its meaning. bæng zædæn hæ∫i∫ zædæn heroin zædæn kokain zædæn mævad zædæn penesilin zædæn

bhang hit hash hit heroin hit cocaine hit substance hit penicillin hit

smoke bhang smoke hash shoot heroin take cocaine take drugs administer penicillin

enqædr penesilin zæd-æn-e∫ ke defa-e badan-e∫ hit∫ ∫od-e. so much penicillin hit-3pl-3sg that defense-ez body-3S nothing become-ptcp They have injected him with so much penicillin that his body’s defense has dropped to nothing.

Comments: The prototypical case of this cluster involves a drug that is injected with a needle. However, the meaning has extended to include any ingestion of a psychoactive drug. This has been extended into a common colloquial utterance expressing the notion of eating, highlighting either the speed or the ability of food to put one in a drugged-like state (cf. French: se taper du shit, se taper un hamburger, etc.). For example: ye t∫el o kæbab be-zan-im? one rice and kebab subj-hit.pres-1pl Are you up for some rice and kebab? (lit. Shall we inject ourselves with rice and kebab?)

ZÆDÆN: Pierce and Transfer: Instrument Meaning: pierce the skin with an object that will inject something into the vein. pv: noun—an instrument that pierces, usually depositing a substance though the skin. Argument structure: N1 lvc

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs

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Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The semantic relations differ from the previous cluster (this one specifies the instrument used, whereas the previous specifies the substance). In these collocations, the subject does not necessarily undergo the effects of the action. If the subject administers a shot to someone else, the undergoer will be expressed as a direct object. ampul zædæn soræng zædæn ni∫ zædæn vaksæn zædæn

shot hit syringe hit sting hit vaccination hit

administer a shot administer a shot with a syringe sting vaccinate

æz bæs soræng zæd-æm bazu-æm ∫od-e abke∫. so much syringe hit.past-1sg arm-1sg become-.PAST-3S sieve I taken so many shots that my arm has become like a sieve.

ZÆDÆN: Pierce and Transfer: Fuel Meaning: put fuel to a machine through a nozzle shaped object. pv: noun—a fuel substance. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject adds fuel to a machine (usually a car, optionally expressed as the object). The instrument used must have a nozzle that enters a receptor. The type of pv that is acceptable in this case is limited, though it can be potentially productive (as new fuel-like substances replace petroleum-based fuel). benzin zædæn gazoil zædæn geris zædæn

gas hit diesel hit grease hit

pump with gas pump with diesel add grease

ma∫in xeyli seda mi-dæh-æd, bayæd hæme ja∫ o geris car much noise prog-give.pres-3sg must all place acc grease  be-zæn-æm.  subj-hit.pres-1sg The car makes a lot of noise; I must grease it all over.

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Zædæn: Steal jib [pocket] bank [bank]

steal

gænj [treasure]

pærde [curtain]

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

figure 9

Steal branch of the semantic space of the lv zædæn ‘to hit’.

Meaning: steal money from inside a place. pv: noun—a container or thing being stolen. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The pv easily accepts a direct object marker. This cluster is not very productive, though often used in colloquial registers. One cannot say *kase zædæn (lit. bowl hit) to mean steal money out of a bowl, since it is not a typical place one would keep money. Some collocations can form nouns that describe specific types of robbers, such as jib zæn ‘pickpocketer’ or bank zæn ‘bank robber.’ Similar expressions in English include hit a bank or knock off. bank zædæn jib zædæn kæf zædæn qænj zædæn

bank hit pocket hit palm hit treasure hit

rob a bank pickpocket steal (from someone) rob treasure

qæbl æz inke bærgærd-ænd ∫æhr, mi-xah-ænd before from that return.past.subj-3p city prog-want.pres-3p  bank be-zæn-ænd.  bank subj-hit.pres-3p Before they return to the city, they want to rob a bank.

3.5

Xordæn ‘To Eat’

The full verb xordæn has two different meanings: a transitive verb meaning to eat, or taking only an indirect object to mean to collide, or hit, against some-

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thing. When expressing the notion of eating, the full verb xordæn takes a volitional subject. In this case, the subject is agent and does the eating, while in the second case, the subject is one of the entities colliding, and has patient-like qualities. For a review of the semantic spaces of the verb eat in several languages, see Bonvini (2008) for Niger-Congo languages and Hénault (2008) for Indo-European. Xordæn produces mostly intransitive lvcs in which a patient undergoes a change of state, or experiences a state. The resulting constructions can be either telic or atelic, depending on the type of action (i.e. undergoing an action or experiencing a state). The meanings expressed by its lvcs usually have a negative connotation. Though not comparable to zædæn in frequency, this lv is interesting partly because of the clusters it shares with zædæn, discussed in Chapter 5.

nozul [interest] re∫ve [bribe]

gorosnegi [hunger] gij [dizziness] særma [cold]

pit∫ [twist]

usurp

qælt [sommersault]

rotation

physically

suffer

æzab [torment]

move

tækan [motion]

XORDÆN [to eat]

qose [grief] emotionally

in place vul [slither]

be affected

qæbn [cheat] færib [trick] gul [trick]

sædæme [damage]

trick hurt

modified

attack

surface suzæn [needle]

sæt∫me [pellet]

golule [bullet]

tir [bullet]

damage

naxon [nail]

projectile

repair topology gere [knot] ta [fold] fer [curl]

hand held kard [knife]

blunt sili [slap]

t∫æko∫ [hammer]

lægæd [kick]

figure 10 Semantic space of the lv xordæn ‘to eat’.

lætme [damage] qat∫ [chop]

væsle [connection]

bæxiye [stich] ju∫ [weld]

sekændari [stumble]

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Xordæn: Move In these lvcs, the subject undergoes certain types of motion. The motion is usually unintentional on the part of the subject and often repetitive. pit∫ [twist]

qælt [sommersault]

rotation

move

tækan [motion]

XORDÆN [to eat]

in place

sekændari [stumble]

vul [slither]

figure 11 Move branch of the semantic space of the lv xordæn ‘to eat’.

XORDÆN: Move: Rotation Meaning: rotate. pv: noun—type of rotational movement. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: This set of collocations express uncontrollable motions, involving the rotation or turning of the subject. mælæq xordæn pit∫ xordæn qælt xordæn qel xordæn t∫ærx xordæn

somersault eat roll eat flip eat roll eat turn eat

flip over twist, roll flip roll turn

ma∫in-e mosabeqe seta mælæq xord. car-ez race three somersault eat.past.3sg The racecar flipped over three times.

XORDÆN: Move: In Place Meaning: move. pv: noun—a type of movement. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or semelfactive. Remarks: These collocations express non-goal oriented movement, usually non-volitional. The movement results from an internal, uncontrollable condition, such as twitching from muscle spasms.

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clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs læqze∫ xordæn liz xordæn qute xordæn sekændæri xordæn sor xordæn tækan xordæn telo telo xordæn

trip eat slip eat plunge eat stumble eat slide eat movement eat sway eat

trip slip plunge stumble slide jerk, shake, wag sway

bæt∫e æz bihoselegi hæmæ∫ vul mi-xord. child from boredom constantly fidget prog-eat.pres-3sg The kid constantly fidgeted from boredom.

Xordæn: Be Affected The richest branch, in terms of clusters, expresses the notion of undergoing or being affected by an action. The subject of these lvcs usually undergoes the action expressed. The group of clusters that branch off to the right in the diagram is mostly used for inanimate subjects, whereas those to the left are animate. Some of these lvcs can be considered as inchoative alternants of lvcs constructed with zædæn, discussed in Chapter 5.

XORDÆN [to eat]

be affected

qæbn [cheat] færib [trick] gul [trick]

sædæme [damage]

trick hurt

modified

attack

damage

surface suzæn [needle]

sæt∫me [pellet] golule [bullet] projectile tir [bullet]

naxon [nail]

topology ta [fold] gere [knot] fer [curl]

hand held kard [knife]

blunt sili [slap]

t∫æko∫ [hammer]

lægæd [kick]

figure 12 Affected branch of the semantic space of the lv xordæn ‘to eat’.

lætme [damage] qat∫ [chop]

repair

væsle [connection]

bæxiye [stich] ju∫ [weld]

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XORDÆN: Be Affected: Modified: Damage Meaning: be damaged or deteriorated. pv: noun—type of damage or wound. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remark: These collocations express substantial physical damage sustained by the subject. This damage is usually incurred by effects of the physical environment and does not necessarily involve an external, conscious agent. The damage usually diminishes the value and usefulness of the subject. ∫ekæst xordæn asib xordæn jer xordæn lætme xordæn qat∫ xordæn sædæme xordæn t∫ak xordæn tæræk xordæn zærbe xordæn zæxm xordæn

defeat eat injury eat rip eat setback eat slice eat damage eat slash eat crack eat impact eat wound eat

be defeated be injured, be damaged get ripped sustain setback (e.g. progress) be sliced be damaged be slashed crack be impacted be damaged, wounded

saltænæt pæræst-an dar enqelab lætmeha-ye ziyad xord-ænd. royalty worshiper-pl in revolution setback-ez much eat.past-3pl The royalists sustained much setback in the revolution.

XORDÆN: Be Affected: Modified: Repair Meaning: become fused or connected to parts of itself or to other entities. pv: noun—a type of connection or instrument/material used for fusing or connecting. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: These collocations are used when the subject becomes fused or mended as a consequence of a natural process (rust, humidity, organic growth) and generally not the consequence of the actions of a conscience being. For example, the term kuk xordæn ‘be closed up by stitches’ is rare, because stitching can only be done by a volitional external entity. Or, ju∫ xordæn ‘weld or fuse’ can be used for a material when the fusion is the result of heat or rust or other environmental factors, but not directly when an entity has welded the items together. In the collocations expressing the fusion of two different entities, the second entity occurs as an indirect object.

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs bænd xordæn bæxiye xordæn ju∫ xordæn kuk xordæn peyvænd xordæn væsle pine xordæn

tie eat stitch eat weld eat stitch eat graft eat patch eat

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be repaired be stiched (medical) be welded, fused be closed up by stitches be grafted (plants, organs) be patched up

in lebas qæ∫æng æst hært∫ænd besyar væsle pine xord-e this dress beautiful be.pres.3sg despite much patch eat-ptcp  æst.  be.pres.3sg This dress is beautiful even though it has been patched up quite a bit.

XORDÆN: Be Affected: Modified: Topology Meaning: undergo an organized, topological change. pv: noun—a type of topological transformation. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The topological change expressed by these verbs is not imposed or directly inflicted by an explicit external entity, but rather by the environment (natural process) or unintended consequence of an action. For example, one cannot use the term fer xordæn to refer to someone’s hair after a visit to the hair salon, though it could be used if the curls result from humidity in the air. The change usually damages the subject or at least results in a state that is not necessarily desired. For example, one cannot say gere xordæn for a string that has been purposely tied into a knot, though the same collocation can be used to express a wire having gotten tangled from too much motion (i.e. a consequence of another action such as a tangled telephone wire from one walking around while using the phone). fer xordæn gere xordæn t∫in xordæn ta xordæn tab xordæn

curl eat knot eat pleat eat fold eat twist eat

get curled get tied in a knot get pleated get curled get twisted

hengami ke kenar-e dærya resid-im mu-hay-e ham-e-man fer when that side-ez sea arrive.past-2pl hair-pl-ez all-ez-2pl curl  xord.  eat.past.3sg When we arrived at the beach, all our hair got curled.

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XORDÆN: Affect: Modified: Surface Meaning: be touched with a hand or foot or an instrument, usually leaving a mark or imprint. pv: noun—an instrument doing the touching. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The instrument used for this action is usually sharp unless it is a body part. It can leave a non-negligible mark on the surface of the subject, and though the action does not entail hurting, it might have negative or damaging effects on the subject. These effects are usually not the direct intent of an action, but a consequence. In other words, someone might touch a surface, not meaning to leave a mark, and the mark is thus not the intent of the action: the surface can be said to have been dæst xorde ‘touched’ (lit. hand eat-ptcp). dæst xordæn naxon xordæn pa xordæn suzæn xordæn

hand eat be touched, altered nail eat get touched by a fingernail foot eat get hit with a foot needle eat be touched/pierced with  a needle

in æks æsl nist, dæst xord-e æst. this picture original neg.be.pres.3sg hand eat-ptcp be.past.3sg This picture is not an original, it has been altered.

XORDÆN: Be Affected: Hurt: Attack: Blunt Instrument Meaning: be hit with another entity’s hands, feet, or head. pv: noun—a type of hit or blunt instrument. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This action must directly affect the subject in a hurtful manner. For example, one cannot say *hol xordæn (lit. push eat), because the notion of push can imply acting on an entity without necessarily hurting it. An agent carries out the action, though not explicitly expressed, in a quick blow or repetitive hits. bazu xordæn gu∫mal xordæn gu∫tkub xordæn kotæk xordæn lægæd xordæn

forarm eat punishment eat meat-hammer eat beating eat kick eat

get hit be punished be hit with a meat-hammer get a beating get kicked

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs lætme xordæn mo∫t xordæn potk xordæn sili xordæn t∫æk xordæn t∫æko∫ xordæn zærbæt xordæn

stroke eat fist eat mallet eat slap eat hit eat hammer eat blow eat

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get struck get punched be hit with a mallet be slapped be hit be hammered receive a blow

tæræf anqædr xode∫-o lus kærd ke yek sili xord. guy so himself-acc pest do.past.3sg that one slap eat.past.3sg The guy made such a pest of himself that he got slapped in the face.1

XORDÆN: Be Affected: Hurt: Attack: Hand Held Meaning: be wounded or penetrated by a weapon. pv: noun—a sharp, penetrating weapon, usually hand held. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The weapon must be sharp and directly penetrate the subject. For example, one can be wounded by a gun, but the form *tofæng xordæn (lit. gun eat) does not exist, because it is not the gun that penetrates, but the bullets (see next cluster). ∫æm∫ir xordæn kard xordæn t∫aqu xordæn xænjær xordæn

sword eat knife eat knife eat dagger eat

be stabbed with a sword be stabbed with a knife be stabbed with a knife be stabbed with a dagger

gozærkon væsæt-e mahlæke t∫aqu xord. passerby middle-ez melee knife eat.past.3sg The passerby was stabbed in the middle of the melee.

XORDÆN: Be Affected: Hurt: Attack: Projectile Meaning: be attacked by a projectile weapon. pv: noun—a projectile weapon. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

1  In French slang, one can say “il s’est mangé un pain” (lit. he ate himself some bread) to express someone getting punched (Vanhove, personal communication)

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Remarks: This cluster is similar to the previous cluster, but differs in the type of weapon used. gule xordæn mu∫æk xordæn sæt∫me xordæn tir xordæn

bullet eat missile eat pellet eat bullet eat

be shot get hit by a missile get shot with pellets get shot with a bullet

mohafez-e ræis jomhur tir xord. guard-ez boss republic bullet eat.past.3sg The president’s guard got shot.

XORDÆN: Be Affected: Hurt: Trick Meaning: be tricked. pv: noun—a trick. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. færib xordæn gul xordæn hoqqe xordæn kælæk xordæn naro xordæn qæbn xordæn

deception eat trick eat trick eat trick eat double-cross eat fraud eat

be deceived be tricked be slighted be tricked be double-crossed be cheated

bit∫are hæmi∫e sær-e bazi hoqqe mi-xor-æd. helplesss always head-ez game trick prog-eat.pres-3sg The poor guy always gets tricked in games.

Xordæn: Suffer The following two clusters express suffering caused by a process or condition affecting a person physically or mentally. The cause of the suffering is usually an unintended result of an action. The lvcs here are telic, activity verbs: they express durational events.

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clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs gorosnegi [hunger] gij [dizziness] særma [cold]

physically

suffer

æzab [torment] qose [grief]

XORDÆN [to eat]

emotionally

figure 13 Suffer branch of the semantic space of the lv xordæn ‘to eat’.

XORDÆN: Suffer: Emotionally Meaning: suffer from a negative emotion. pv: noun—an emotion of regret, sorrow or grief. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: These collocations express suffering from an emotional burden. This emotion is a continuous, irrepressible, negative feeling that has to be suffered as the result of ones personal actions or experience. æfsus xordæn ænduh xordæn æsæf xordæn hers xordæn nedamæt xordæn pæ∫imani xordæn qæm xordæn qose xordæn tæsof xordæn

pity eat sorrow eat sorrow eat anxiety eat remorse eat regret eat grief eat concern eat regret eat

pity grieve suffer sorrow be anxious suffer remorse regret grieve worry, be concerned regret

hæmi∫e qosey-e færda ra mi-xor-æd. always concern-ez tomorrow acc prog-eat.pres-3sg She always worries about the future.

XORDÆN: Suffer: Physically Meaning: suffer from a physical condition that could cause bodily damage. pv: noun—a natural but uncomfortable condition that causes suffering or might entail more serious ailment. Argument structure: N1 lvc

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Aspect: activity, but sometimes achievement (e.g. to catch a cold, to get heat stroke). Remarks: These collocations express the condition or the process that causes the suffering, and not the symptoms. One cannot say *deldærd xordæn (lit. stomach-ache eat) since this is a symptom (e.g. of hunger) and not the actual condition that is causing the suffering. gærma xordæn gij xordæn gorosnegi xordæn særma xordæn

heat eat dizziness eat hunger eat cold eat

get heat stroke get dizzy suffer from hunger catch cold (from the cold)

u fekr mi-kon-æd æz særma særma xord-e æst. he thought prog-do.pres-3sg from cold cold eat-pctp be.pres.3sg He thinks he has caught a cold from the cold weather.

XORDÆN: USURP nozul [interest] re∫ve [bribe] usurp

XORDÆN [to eat]

figure 14 Usurp branch of the semantic space of the lv xordæn ‘to eat’.

Meaning: exploit service or property. pv: noun—the type of good exploited. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The collocations in this cluster express the notion of taking advantage of another person’s labor or property. The original meaning of xordæn ‘eat’ emerges in a metaphorical expression denoting gluttony or absorbing something. An implicit, though optionally explicit, agent does the usurping.

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs nozul xordæn pul xordæn re∫ve xordæn

interest eat money eat bribe eat

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charge interest embezzle or extract money accept a bribe

hoquq-e kæm baes-e re∫ve xord-æn ziyad ∫od-e æst. salary-ez small cause-ez bribe eat-inf much become-pctp be.pres.3sg Low salaries have become the cause of much bribery.

3.6

Dadæn ‘To Give’

Dadæn, as a full verb, expresses the notion of ‘giving,’ ‘offering,’ or ‘making available.’ The agentive subject causes the transfer of an object to a second entity, expressed as direct object and indirect object, respectively. As in the English translation equivalent verb ‘to give,’ most of its full verb occurrences express this type of ditransitive action. Viberg (2002) demonstrates that the Swedish verb ge ‘give’ has many polysemous meanings, with some forms similar to the translation equivalent English ‘give.’ The full verb ge was studied alongside its occurrences in complex constructions (lvcs or particle and verb). The different definitions extracted include concrete possession, yield, surrender, existence, production, emergence of sound, emotion, departure, and power and possibility (p. 5). Some of these meanings also emerge in uses of the lv dadæn. The lvcs of dadæn express a number of notions ranging from very tangible and concrete exchange of material to rather abstract events, where transfer is not particularly salient. These include actions such as altering states of mind, transferring information and knowledge, yielding social or political right, power, or permission, and providing emotional or spiritual aid. The general notions of ‘bringing forth’ and ‘imposing’ come about in the meanings of many clusters. The lvcs constructed with dadæn fall under four main categories: impose, relinquish, offer, and produce. Resulting lvcs can be transitive or intransitive, and the pvs that occur with dadæn are usually nominal. Most of the lvcs take an agent as subject, though some collocations take non-volitional subjects (for example, bu dadæn ‘smell’ (lit. smell give)).

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ejare [rent]

kerye [let]

safety

product/ service

mædæd [help] komæk [aid] help ælaj [cure] pænah [refuge]

knowledge

voluntarily

væqt [time] nobæt [turn]

del dærd [stomach ache] aramesh

produce

condition [calmness]

færman [order]

DADÆN [to give]

pace/ end

ju∫ [weld]

sud [profit]

nætije [conclusion] result

seda [noise]

bu [smell] nur [light] emanation

qærar [position] fasele position [distance]

motion

gærde∫ [movement] tækan [jerk] general tab [swing]

kut∫ [migration]

hol [push off]

displacement

∫ekl [form]

næq∫ [pattern]

shape

surface ab tæla [gold]

male∫ [massage]

qelqelæk [tickle]

upon væ'ede self [promise] qol [assurance]

sogænd [promise] qæsæm upon [swear] others

t∫ærx [roll]

pit∫ [turn]

qælt [flip]

rotation

aftab [sun]

contract

fe∫ar [squeeze]

manipulate

exposure gærma [heat]

physical change

regiment værze∫ [training]

pit∫ [twist] fer [curl]

xæm [bend] topology

ræbt linkage [relation] ræbt [relation]

pærvære∫ [raise]

gol [flower]

impose

∫ire [syrup]

product mive [fruit]

zærær [loss]

discomfort

connection

personal saze∫ a∫ti [reunited] [reunited]

etesal [join] physical

dærdesær [headache]

gorosnegi [hunger] zæhmæt trouble [hardship]

∫ekænje [torture] azar [torment] abuse

feysæle [closure]

xateme [ending] edame [continuation]

del jan [life] [heart]

involuntarily

relinquish

tæfsil [interpretation] tozih [explanation] sefare∫ dæstur [order] [order] explain ∫æhr [delineation] order

e’elam [announcement]

pasox næzær [response] xæbær [opinion] [news] sæboq neda [precedence] jævab response [message] [answer] dærs message [lesson] lesson

ændærz [advice] nozul [usury] maliat [taxes] money

ja [place]

locational

rezayat vekalæt [agree] [attorney]

extiyar [control]

offer

explain

næmaye∫ [show] konferans [conference]

promotive

present

favor

bestow

soxænrani [lecture]

permissive

forsæt [chance] opportunity emkan [possibility] okazyon [possibility]

kam [satisfaction] mæze [taste]

hal pleasure [joy]

rank

qeymæt [price] nam [name]

provide

qors [pill] nan [bread] pestan [breast] norishment

næzm [organization]

trait

tærtib [order] settlement saman [settlement]

∫æfa [cure]

∫am [dinner] sociality

mehmani [gettogether]

∫irini [sweets]

∫ohræt [fame] sor'æt [speed]

ærzan [cheap] tæxfif monetary [discount]

judicial hæq [right] ensaf [honesty]

roxsæt [permission] ejaze [permission]

dæreje [rank] erteqah [promotion]

figure 15 Semantic space of the lv dadæn ‘to give’.

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clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs

Dadæn: Impose The grammatical subject imposes or provides a position, state, or topological configuration upon the object of the lvc. The receiver of these actions cannot choose whether or not to accept what is imposed upon him. Depending on the pv, the construction may express a change of state in the object. gærde∫ [movement] tækan [jerk] general tab [swing]

qærar [position]

hol [push off]

fasele position [distance]

displacement

kut∫ [migration]

qælt [flip] rotation

pit∫ [turn] t∫ærx [roll]

motion DADÆN [to give]

sogænd [promise]

aftab [sun]

impose

xateme [ending] edame [continuation] feysæle pace/end [closure]

upon others

væ'ede [promise] qol [assurance]

qelqelæk [tickle]

discomfort

manipulate

physical change

azar [torment]

connection

zæhmæt trouble [hardship]

qæsæm [swear]

upon self

contract

∫ekænje [torture] azar [torment] abuse

regiment værze∫ [training]

male∫ [massage]

fe∫ar [squeeze]

surface ab tæla [gold]

pærvære∫ [raise]

dærdesær [headache]

xæm [bend] topology

etesal [join] physical ju∫ [weld]

exposure gærma [heat]

personal a∫ti [reunited]

saze∫ [reunited]

ræbt linkage [relation]

pit∫ [twist] fer [curl]

shape

∫ekl [form] næq∫ [pattern]

ræbt [relation]

figure 16 Impose branch of the semantic space of the lv dadæn ‘to give’.

DADÆN: Impose: Position Meaning: provide or make a place or position for something. pv: noun—a spatial position. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The position may be literal, such as a physical placement, or in time, such as finding a time for an appointment for someone, or putting time between beats (in music).

108 fasele dadæn ja dadæn qærar dadæn

chapter 3 separation give place give position give

put space or time between find a place for something place something somewhere

polis bæraye contorole terafik ma∫inha ra fasele mi-dad. police for control-ez traffic car-pl acc separation prog-give.past.3sg The police was spacing out the cars to control the traffic flow.

DADÆN: Impose: Movement: General Meaning: make something move physically. pv: noun—a type of movement. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: The movement of the object is fully controlled by the subject, from beginning to end: it may be a pleasant action, such as showing someone around, or a disturbing one, such as shaking someone. gærde∫ dadæn hærekæt dadæn tab dadæn tækan dadæn

promenade give movement give swing give shaking give

show someone around move swing shake

u ra tækan dad ta bidar-æ∫ kon-æd. him acc shake give.past.3sg until awaken-3sg do.pres-3sg He shook him to wake him.

DADÆN: Impose: Motion: Displacement Meaning: forcefully move or make movement possible. pv: noun—a displacement or condition requiring displacement. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject either imposes or facilitates the displacement of the object. In the latter case, the pv expresses a condition that the object was not able to attain by itself. The context determines if the displacement is forced or facilitated. For example, in kut∫ dadæn the subject facilitates the migration of a herd to move them into safety or more lush location, while if it is related to forcing a tribe to migrate it is an imposition. Similarly in færar dadæn, a person might be allowed to escape to freedom as he wishes, while a domestic animal might be frightened into escaping. In both cases, the notion of displacing is present.

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs azadi dadæn færar dadæn gozær dadæn hol dadæn kut∫ dadæn obur dadæn pærvaz dadæn qosl dadæn vel dadæn

freedom give escape give passage give push give migration give crossing give flight give douse give loose give

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give freedom allow to escape allow to pass push force to migrate allow to cross fly douse let loose

cauboy-ha gælle gav-ha ra sad-ha kilometr kut∫ cowboy-pl herd cow-pl acc hundred-pl kilometers migration  mi-dad-ænd.  prog-give.past-3pl The cowboys move the cow herd hundreds of kilometers.

DADÆN: Impose: Movement: Rotation Meaning: cause an entity to rotate. pv: noun—a rotational movement. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. pit∫ dadæn qælt dadæn t∫ærx dadæn

twist give roll give turn give

twist around roll something make something turn

dust-an-æ∫ u ra ru-ye sahel qælt dad-ænd. friend-pl-3sg him acc on-ez shore roll give.past-3pl His friends rolled him on the beach.

DADÆN: Impose: Exposure Meaning: expose to an environmental element. pv: noun—a natural environmental element. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject exposes the object to a type of environment. The object consequently might undergo a change of state because of this exposure. The exposure is either curative, pleasant or damaging, causes illness or physical damage to the object. The implication is always that the subject forces exposure in a controlled manner.

110 aftab dadæn bad dadæn boxur dadæn dud dadæn gærma dadæn hæva dadæn kafur dadæn særma dadæn

chapter 3 sun give wind give steam give smoke give warm give air give camphor give cold give

expose to the sun expose to fresh air steam smoke (e.g. food) inflict heat give air put camphor on expose to the cold

anha lebas-ha-ye næftalini ra bad dad-ænd. they clothe-pl-ez moth-balled acc wind give.past-3pl They aired the mothballed clothes.

DADÆN: Impose: Contract: Upon Others Meaning: bind another person to perform an act or a deed. pv: noun—the execution of a promise. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The person agreeing to the contract or agreement usually occurs as direct object, and sometimes as indirect object. contora dadæn qæsæm dadæn sogænd dadæn

contract give oath give oath give

put someone under contract put someone under oath put someone under oath

qazi-an-e jadid ra sogæn dad-ænd judge-pl-ez new acc oath give.past-3pl The new judges were given the oath.

DADÆN: Impose: Contract: Upon Self Meaning: bind oneself to perform an act or a deed. pv: noun—a binding or agreement. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The person being promised can occur as indirect object. qol dadæn væde dadæn

promise give promise give

promise promise

kandid-e ræis jomhuri xeyli væde dad. candidate-ez president republic much promise give.past.3sg The candidate for the presidency made a lot of promises.

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DADÆN: Impose: Manipulate Meaning: imposing a physical pressure or acting on something physically. pv: noun—a physical action usually strong enough to reshape malleable objects. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The object is generally a malleable entity that the subject can reshape. ∫ok dadæn fe∫ar dadæn gir dadæn hol dadæn ke∫ dadæn male∫ dadæn masaj dadæn mo∫t o mal dadæn qelqelæk dadæn

shock give squeeze give entanglement give push give stretch give massage give massage give massage give tickle give

shock squeeze entangle, engage push pull, stretch massage massage massage tickle

madærbozorg hæmi∫e bæt∫e-ha ra qelqelæk mi-dad. grandmother always children-pl acc tickle prog-give.past.3sg The grandmother would always be tickling the children.

DADÆN: Impose: Physical Change: Surface Meaning: cover with. pv: noun—a type of coating. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject coats the surface of an object, usually covering it fully with the substance expressed by the pv. abnoqre dadæn abtæla dadæn loab dadæn seyqæl dadæn zærobærq dadæn zinæt dadæn

silver-plating give gold-plating give enamel give polish give shine give ornament give

kuzegær jam ra loab dad. potter cup acc enamel give.past.3sg The potter enameled the cup.

coat with silver coat with gold enamel polish make shine adorn

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DADÆN: Impose: Physical Change: Shape Meaning: give form to something. pv: noun—a form. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject is like a sculptor who gives a shape to something or part of an entity often expressed as indirect object. The reshaping can include adding something to the object. This construction can also be used for abstract objects, such as concepts or reports. This cluster alternates with a corresponding cluster in gereftæn ‘to get.’ ∫ekl dadæn form dadæn næx∫ dadæn suræt dadæn tæ∫kil dadæn tæhr dadæn

shape give form give inscription give face give formation give design give

shape shape inscribe shape form design

ostad ru-ye t∫ærx be goldan form dad. master face-ez wheel to vase shape give.past.3sg The master shaped the vase on the turntable.

DADÆN: Impose: Physical Change: Topology Meaning: reshape the external form of something pv: noun—a geometric manipulation. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The change inflicted by the subject usually reshapes the object temporarily. The change requires force, heat, or a special device. The resulting state is usually not the natural state the object should be in, but nothing is physically added to the object to accomplish the task. The object may be non-physical, such as a story or report, which can be convoluted by the subject’s deviations from the main line of the narrative. ∫ekaf dadæn ∫ib dadæn bore∫ dadæn fer dadæn

gap give slope give section give curl give

make a gap, unstitch make a slope cut curl

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs gere dadæn halæt dadæn jer dadæn kez dadæn læbe dadæn pit∫ dadæn qat∫ dadæn t∫ak dadæn tab dadæn tæra∫ dadæn xæm dadæn xæra∫ dadæn

knot give character give rip give burn give edge give twist give slice give slash give warp give carving give bend give scratch give

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knot give character rip burn add an edge twist slice slash warp carve bend scratch

u tebqe ræsm-e hengam mu-ha-yæ∫ ra fer dad. he according-ez tradition-ez time hair-pl-3sg acc curl give.past.3sg He curled his hair in fashion of his days.

DADÆN: Impose: Regiment Meaning: place under specific program for developing proper physical condition. pv: noun—a type of course or regiment used for physical conditioning or rehabilitation. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The subject acts as the teacher who oversees and maintains the object’s adherence to the prescribed regiment. ∫oste∫u dadæn adæt dadæn pærvære∫ dadæn qosl dadæn tæmid dadæn tæmrin dadæn værze∫ dadæn

cleansing give habit give breed give cleaning give baptism give practice give exercise give

ashoq sæg-æ∫ ra rejim mi-dad. Issac dog-3sg acc diet prog-give.past.3sg Issac would put his dog on a diet.

cleanse give habit to breed clean for prayer (also, douse) baptise make practice exercise (something)

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DADÆN: Impose: Connection: Linkage Meaning: relate. pv: noun—a type of relation or correlation. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. ertebat dadæn nesbæt dadæn ræbt dadæn

connection give relation give connection give

connect attribute, ascribe relate, connect

tarix kæ∫f-e qove jazebe ra be niyuton nesbæt history discovery-ez power-ez gravity acc to Newton attribute  mi-dæh-æd.  prog-give.pres-3sg History attributes the discovery of gravitational force to Newton.

DADÆN: Impose: Connection: Personal Meaning: cause two parties to get along. pv: noun—a state of peaceful coexistence or friendship. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. a∫ti dadæn saze∫ dadæn solh dadæn

reconciliation give collusion give peace give

make two people reconcile make two people agree make peace

miyani do tæræf ra a∫ti dad. mediator two side acc reconciliation give.past.3sg The mediator reconciled the two sides.

DADÆN: Impose: Connection: Physical Meaning: connect something physically. pv: noun—a type of physical connection. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: A permanent connection is made between rigid items using a process that uses the material of the items only, without a binding agent. This includes physical or chemical welding or using tight compressive connections such as twisting two wires together or a clamp. Glue, adhesives, tapes, or solder are thus not valid pvs.

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs etesal dadæn ju∫ dadæn peyvæst dadæn tæmas dadæn

junction give welding give appendix give contact give

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connect weld append connect

teknisiæn sim-ha-ye qæt ∫od-e ra etesal dad. technician wire-pl-ez disconnected become-ptcp acc connection give.past.3sg The technician connected the disconnected wires.

DADÆN: Impose: Discomfort: Trouble Meaning: abuse a friendship for personal gain. pv: noun—trouble or inconvenience. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: These collocations express ones gratitude for a friend’s help by exaggerating the trouble they went through, or to express the fact that someone is abusing a relationship thusly. The person being inconvenienced occurs as indirect object. dærdesær dadæn zæhmæt dadæn

trouble give effort give

be a headache inconvenience someone

u ba vorud-e bimoqe be dust-æ∫ dærde-sær dad. he with entrance-ez untimely to friend-3sg headache give.past.3sg He caused a headache for his friend with his untimely arrival.

DADÆN: Impose: Discomfort: Abuse Meaning: trigger or impose an unpleasant state on another person. pv: noun—suffering or torment. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: activity, though some collocations are achievements (e.g. to defeat). Remarks: The pv may be physical or psychological torment or torture. pvs expressing indirect torment can be feelings of greed, envy, and jealousy. ∫ekænje dadæn ∫ekæst dadæn æzab dadæn azar dadæn deq dadæn færib dadæn

torture give defeat give torment give harassment give anger give deception give

torture defeat torment harass make angry deceive

116 gorosnegi dadæn gu∫mali dadæn hers dadæn qose dadæn zæjr dadæn zærær dadæn

chapter 3 hunger give punishment give envy give worry give sufferance give loss give

starve someone punish cause envy make worry inflict suffering loss

u sæy mi-kærd ba xærj-e ziyad-e pul she try prog-do.past.3sg with spending-ez much-ez money  doxtær-æmuy-æ∫ ra hers be-dah-æd.  cousin-3sg acc envy subj-give-3sg She tried to make her cousin envious by spending a lot of money.

DADÆN: Conduct: Pace or End Meaning: affect the termination or pace of an act in progress. pv: noun—end or closure. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject causes an act in progress to come to an end, or defines the end of the process. The pv can generally be any concept that defines a clear termination. A loan word meaning ‘ending’ could also work, such as in script writing, one can say ending dadæn. ænjam dadæn extetam dadæn feysæle dadæn suræt dadæn tælaq dadæn xatæme dadæn

ending give completion give closure give shape give divorce give end give

complete a task complete bring closure to give a final shape grant a divorce bring to an end

jæm∫id kar-ha ra feysæle dad. Jamshid work-pl acc closure give.past.3sg Jamshid brought all tasks to close.

Dadæn: Relinquish The two following clusters represent the only two constructions with dadæn where the subject loses something as the action is carried out. The subject voluntarily or involuntarily relinquishes something. The English equivalent of these notions include the collocations give up or give away.

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DADÆN [to give]

relinquish

extiyar voluntarily [control] rezayat [agree] vekalæt [attorney] involuntarily

jan [life]

del [heart]

figure 17 Relinquish branch of the semantic space of the lv dadæn ‘to give’.

DADÆN: Relinquish: Involuntarily Meaning: lose something valuable. pv: noun—a cherished personal attribute or symbols of dignity, control, and independence. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This cluster expresses metaphorical meanings based on its constituent elements, and is not productive. del dadæn jan dadæn

heart give life give

fall in love, lose one’s heart perish, sacrifice ones life

ba negah-e ævvæl xosro be ∫irin del dad. with look-ez first Xosro to Shirin heart give.past.3sg Xosro lost his heart to Shirin at first sight.

DADÆN: Relinquish: Voluntarily Meaning: give up control or the right to something. pv: noun—control or right. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: When the subject lets someone take control of a situation or rights, that person occurs as an indirect object headed by be ‘to.’

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esnad dadæn extiyar dadæn rezayæt dadæn tævækol dadæn tæxsis dadæn vekalæt dadæn

predication give control give agreement give trust give allotment give proxy give

ascribe give control agree put trust in allot give power of attorney

u be farzænd-an-æ∫ bæraye hæme kar extiyar dad-e æst. he to children-pl-3sg for all task control give-ptcp be.pres.3sg He has given his children control of everything.

DADÆN: OFFER The meanings expressed in these clusters are closest to the full meaning of dadæn: the subject transfers, emits, or causes a change of state in a patient or receiver. The patient, or beneficiary is explicitly expressed as an indirect object for some collocations.

ejare [rent]

pasox næzær [response] xæbær [opinion] sæboq [news] [precedence] jævab neda response dærs [answer] [message] message [lesson] lesson e’elam ændærz [advice] [announcement]

kerye [let]

qors [pill] nan [bread] pestan norishment [breast]

product/ service mædæd [help] komæk [aid] help

money

knowledge

tæfsil [interpretation] tozih [explanation] sefare∫ dæstur næmaye∫ [order] [order] explain [show] konferans ∫æhr færman soxænrani [delineation] [conference] [order] [lecture] order present

provide

ælaj [cure] pænah safety [refuge]

express qeymæt [price] nam [name]

∫æfa [cure] mehmani [gettogether] ∫am [dinner] sociality ∫am [dinner]

nozul [usury] maliat [taxes]

næzm [organization] tærtib [order]

rank

DADÆN [to give] offer

settlement

bestow

saman [settlement]

∫ohræt [fame]

hal pleasure [joy]

trait

sor'æt [speed]

kam [satisfaction] mæze [taste]

ærzan [cheap] tæxfif monetary [discount]

forsæt [chance] opportunity emkan [possibility] okazyon [possibility] favor

locational

judicial hæq [right] ensaf [honesty]

permissive

roxsæt [permission] ejaze [permission]

ja [place]

væqt [time]

nobæt [turn]

promotive

dæreje [rank] erteqah [promotion]

figure 18 Offer branch of the semantic space of the lv dadæn ‘to give’.

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs

119

DADÆN: Offer: Favor: Locational Meaning: appoint a spatial or temporal spot. pv: noun—general place in time or space. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject allots a time or a place to the entity that occurs as an indirect object. A similar expression exists in English (e.g. give an appointment). ja dadæn mæjal dadæn nobæt dadæn væqt dadæn

place give opportunity give turn give time give

give a placement, place give an opportunity assign a turn give an appointment

be xastdaran-e molaqat dir væqt mi-dæh-ænd. to applicants-ez meeting late time prog-give.pres-3pl They give appointments to those requesting meetings far in the future.

DADÆN: Offer: Favor: Promotive Meaning: promote someone in rank. pv: noun—an official position or grade. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. dæreje dadæn erteqa dadæn rotbe dadæn post dadæn

degree give promotion give position give position give

promote to higher rank promote to the next job grade promote to an official position give a position

bæd æz salha xedmæt be u rotbe dad-ænd. after from year-pl service to him position give.past-3pl They gave him a graded position after years of service.

DADÆN: Offer: Favor: Permissive Meaning: giving permission or allocating something to someone. pv: noun—permission or allocation. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The reason or thing allowed or permitted is expressed via a relative clause and the beneficiary occurs as indirect object.

120 æzn dadæn ejaze dadæn extesas dadæn rah dadæn reza dadæn roxsæt dadæn

chapter 3 leave give permission give allocation give way give approval give permission give

permit allow allocate give way, let pass give approval permit

moælem ejaze dad anha mæ∫qe∫-an ra dær kelas teacher permission give.past.3sg they homework-3pl acc in class  be-nevis-ænd.  subj-write.pres-3pl The teacher permitted them to do their writing exercises in class.

DADÆN: Offer: Favor: Judicial Meaning: offer a favor by consideration of what is right. pv: noun—a just opinion or judgment. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The person to whom the justice is given occurs as an indirect object. ensaf dadæn hæq dadæn hokm dadæn

honesty give right give verdict give

make an honest judgment find a person in the right give a verdict

hakem be mo∫tari hæq dad. arbitrator to client right give.past.3sg The arbitrator sided with the client.

DADÆN: Offer: Favor: Monetary Meaning: offer a monetary incentive or favor to make a sale happen. pv: noun—a type of incentive to make a product attractive and affordable. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The usually optional object represents what is being reduced or offered at the cheaper rate. ærzan dadæn kahe∫ dadæn tæxfif dadæn

cheap give reduction give discount give

offer cheaper reduce give a discount

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bæd æz eid-e sale no qeymæt-ha ra kahe∫ dad-ænd. after from holiday-ez year new price-pl acc reduction gave.past-3pl They reduced the prices after the New Year holiday.

DADÆN: Offer: Opportunity Meaning: make something possible or give a person an opportunity or chance. pv: noun—a chance, opportunity, possibility, or probability. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The thing or person being given a chance occurs as an indirect object. ehtemal dadæn emkan dadæn forsæt dadæn ja dadæn mohlæt dadæn okazion dadæn

probability give possibility give chance give place give break give occasion give

give a chance allow for something give a chance give a place to someone give a break give a chance

mærd-e porhærf be hit∫ kæs forsæt næ-dad jævæb dah-æd. man-ez loquacious to no one chance neg-give.past.3sg answer give.pres-3sg The loquacious man did not give anyone the chance to answer.

DADÆN: Offer: Bestow: Pleasure Meaning: trigger a pleasant state for another person. pv: noun—pleasure. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The subject of these forms is rarely human, but rather an event, action, or an inanimate entity that gives pleasure to a person expressed as an indirect object (if overtly expressed). These collocations mostly occur in colloquial registers. hal dadæn kam dadæn keyf dadæn lezæt dadæn mæze dadæn sæfa dadæn

health give satisfaction give pleasure give pleasure give taste give clarity give

give a good feeling give satisfaction please give pleasure give taste give clarity

t∫ayi ba abe dorost xeyli keif mi-dæh-æd. tea with water right much pleasure prog-give.pres-3sg Tea made with proper water is very pleasurable.

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DADÆN: Offer: Bestow: Trait Meaning: bring about a desired state to another person or entity. pv: noun—a positive or desired psychological condition or abstract trait. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The person affected is usually expressed as an indirect object. ∫etab dadæn ∫ohræt dadæn arame∫ dadæn enerji dadæn go∫aye∫ dadæn niru dadæn qodræt dadæn ronæq dadæn soræt dadæn tævan dadæn tose’e dadæn vosæt dadæn

acceleration give fame give calm give energy give evolution give power give strength give expansion give speed give power give expansion give spread give

make accelerate make famous calm give energy make evolve strengthen strengthen expand speed up empower expand, develop expand

bi ∫æk qæzay-e tæbiyi særitær be hærkæs niru mi-dæh-æd. without doubt food-ez natural faster to anyone power prog-give.pres-3sg Without doubt, natural foods strengthen one faster.

DADÆN: Offer: Bestow: Settlement Meaning: put in order, give organization to, or arrange. pv: noun—organization. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject acts, either directly or indirectly, to cause something (usually expressed as indirect object) to be put in order or become organized. These collocations can be used for abstract (e.g. life) as well as concrete (e.g. books on a bookshelf) entities. næzm dadæn saman dadæn sazman dadæn tærtib dadæn

organization give welfare give infrastructure give hierarchy give

organize equip with furniture, prepare organize, give order arrange, put in order

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modir-e jædid be edare næzm dad. director-ez new to office order give.past.3sg The new director organized the office.

DADÆN: Offer: Bestow: Rank Meaning: assign a name, rank, value, or title to someone or something. pv: noun—rank of an entity. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The ranked entity often occurs as an indirect object. The subject is usually an authority that can affirm the assessment of new rank or title. ∫erafæt dadæn læqæb dadæn nam dadæn onvan dadæn qeymæt dadæn ræsmiyæt dadæn

honor give pseudonym/title give name give title give value give formality give

give honor give title name give a title give a value make formal

dær gozæ∫te-ha adæm-ha-ye mohem ra læqæb mi-dad-ænd. in past-ez person-pl-ez importance acc pseudonym prog-give.past-3pl In the past they would give a pseudonym title to important persons.

DADÆN: Offer: Provide: Sociality Meaning: provide by way of social entertainment, usually involving food. pv: noun—a type of ritual that involves providing food and entertainment for a festive occasion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject usually assembles some people to provide food or drink, usually to celebrate a positive outcome of some event, as expressed in English forms like give a party. ∫am dadæn ∫irini dadæn mehmani dadæn sur dadæn

dinner give sweets give get-together give banquet give

give a dinner provide sweets to celebrate have a get-together hold a banquet

be eftexar-e piruzi tenisbaz, ∫am dad. in pride-ez victory tennis-player dinner give.past.3sg In celebration of his victory, the tennis player gave a dinner.

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DADÆN: Offer: Provide: Safety Meaning: give refuge or cure someone. pv: noun—a refuge or cure. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The person or thing being saved, intentionally or by happenstance, occurs as direct object. ∫æfa dadæn ælaj dadæn æman dadæn mænzel dadæn nejat dadæn pænah dadæn

cure give cure give security give dwelling give saved give refuge give

cure cure providing security house save provide refuge

moælem-e ∫ena jan-e anha ra nejat dad. instructor-ez swimming life-ez them acc save give.past.3sg The swimming instructor saved their lives.

DADÆN: Offer: Provide: Help Meaning: provide personal, physical, or financial help. pv: noun—a type of aid, or the notion of assistance. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The receiver of the help occurs as an indirect object headed by the preposition be ‘to,’ or in certain registers as a direct object. The meaning of these constructions is reminiscent of the English give a hand. bæradæri dadæn bazu dadæn dad dadæn deldari dadæn komæk dadæn mædæd dadæn pæhlu dadæn qærz dadæn vam dadæn yari dadæn

brotherhood give bicep give help give sympathy give help give help give side give loan give loan give aid give

sympathize, support lend a hand help sympathize help help give support lend give a loan help

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dolæt dane∫ju-yan ra yari mi-dæh-æd. government student-pl acc help prog-give.pres-3sg The government helps the students.

DADÆN: Offer: Provide: Product or Service Meaning: offer a product for temporary use, sometimes against a fee. pv: noun—something that is rented or lent. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: In cases where an object is being lent, it occurs as a direct object. ∫æhadæt dadæn ejare dadæn gævahi dadæn keraye dadæn

witness give rent give witness give rent give

bear witness rent out attest rent out

bank-ha bæraye komæk dær tose-e eqtesad asan pul qærz bank-pl for help in expansion-ez economy easy money loan  mi-dah-ænd.  prog-give.pres-3pl Banks give easy loans in order to help expand the economy.

DADÆN: Offer: Provide: Nourishment Meaning: feed or make food available, or to administer medicine. pv: noun—a type of food or medicine. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The subject provides the food or medicine as alimentation, not just as an offering. The medicine that is administered must be taken orally. But in cases where the pv is a medicine, the meaning can be ‘to prescribe,’ as opposed to ‘to feed.’ ∫ir dadæn nan dadæn pestan dadæn qæza dadæn saqær dadæn zæhr dadæn

milk give bread give breast give food give cup give poison give

give milk, breastfeed provide bread breastfeed feed give a cup/goblet feed poison

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hær ankæs ke dændæn dæh-æd nan dæh-æd each who that tooth give.pres-3sg bread give.pres-3sg That who gives one teeth provides one bread. (Verse of a poem: whoever creates life, sustains it)

DADÆN: Offer: Provide: Money Meaning: pay dues. pv: noun—certain types of monetary transfer. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The money transfer is in return for a service, usage fee, loan interest, or for an illicit favor. pvs include necessary, albeit burdensome, payments but not for luxury, such as paying for a concert ticket, which would be expressed with a collocation like pul dadæn ‘to pay’ (lit. money give). ænam dadæn baj dadæn ejare dadæn hævale dadæn hoquq dadæn jire dadæn kabin dadæn kæfare dadæn maliæt dadæn nozul dadæn pada∫ dadæn pi∫æki dadæn re∫ve dadæn sædæqe dadæn sæhm dadæn tænzil dadæn tæsædoq dadæn

tip give bribe give rent give transfer give salary give ration give dowry give atonement give tax give interest give reward give offering give bribe give charity give share give interest give charity give

tip bribe pay rent transfer (money) give a salary give a ration give a dowry make an atonement pay taxes pay interest give a reward offer an offering bribe give to charity give a share pay interest give to charity

u ba nozul dad-æn movafeq nist. he with interest give.inf agreeable be.pres.neg.3sg He does not agree with paying interest.

DADÆN: Offer: Express: Present Meaning: give a public performance or presentation. pv: noun—a one-to-many presentation.

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Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The one-to-many attribute of the presentation type is essential to the pvs of this cluster. Similar expressions in English include give a concert, give a talk/lecture, and give a presentation. erae dadæn gozare∫ dadæn konferans dadæn næmaye∫ dadæn soxænrani dadæn

presentation give report give conference give performance give lecture give

present report give a talk at a conference perform lecture

memar-e saxteman dær bareye tarh-æ∫ konferans dad. architect-ez building in about design-3sg conference give.past.3sg The building’s architect gave a conference about its design.

DADÆN: Offer: Express: Knowledge: Lesson Meaning: give a lesson or advice. pv: noun—a lesson or advice. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or activity. Remarks: The subject makes available some knowledge or teaches. The subject may not be aware of his or her role in the process (i.e. a drunkard can be a lesson to the youth). In two cases below (yad dadæn and dærs dadæn), the subject being taught occurs as direct object. ændærz dadæn dærs dadæn ebræt dadæn mæ∫q dadæn pænd dadæn pi∫næhad dadæn tælim dadæn yad dadæn

advice give lesson give lesson give lesson give advice give suggestion give teachings give memory give

give advice give a lesson set an example, give lesson give a lesson, homework advise suggest teach teach

mærde movæffæq pænd ne-mi-dæh-æd, dærs mi-dæh-æd man-ez success advice neg-prog-give.pres-3sg lesson prog-give.pres-3sg A successful man does not give advice, he teaches.

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DADÆN: Offer: Express: Knowledge: Response Meaning: provide one’s answer or reaction to something. pv: noun—any general expression meaning reply, expression, or opinion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The response that occurs as pv can be an answer to a question or inquiry, a decision relating to a request, or an expert opinion expressed regarding a subject. The questions need not be explicit. As in English and to a certain degree French (i.e. répondre), answering the door and answering the telephone/telegraph/letter, are valid contexts in which to use this construction. The question or thing being answered is expressed as an object in cases where the lvc is transitive. æqide dadæn jævab dadæn næzær dadæn pasox dadæn foh∫ dadæn

opinion give answer give opinion give response give swear give

give one’s opinion answer give one’s opinion respond swear at

jærah æz næzær dad-æn xoddari kærd. surgeon from opinion give-inf self-control do.past.3sg The surgeon refused to give an opinion.

DADÆN: Offer: Express: Knowledge: Message Meaning: deliver a message or give news of something. pv: noun—a type of message or news. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The content of the message or news delivered occurs in a relative clause following the lvc. The message can include simple facts to spiritual proclamations and religious edicts. elam dadæn ente∫ar dadæn mesaj dadæn mojde dadæn neda dadæn pæyam dadæn peyqam dadæn sælam dadæn xæbær dadæn

announcement give publication give message give good news give proclamation give message give message give hello give news give

announce publish give a message bring good news proclaim give a message give a message say hello give news

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Radin payæm dad ke be mehmani dir miresæd. Radin message give.past.3s that to party late prog-arrive.pres-3s Radin gave/sent a message to say that he will be arriving late to the party.

DADÆN: Offer: Express: Explain Meaning: explain. pv: noun—an explanation, or clarification, especially one that adds to or brings out unknown details of a subject. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: activity. Remarks: The thing being clarified or explained occurs as the second argument. These constructions especially express the bringing about of unknown details of a subject matter. This can be compared to the English give an explanation, or give an account. ∫æhr dadæn tæfsil dadæn tozih dadæn

description give details give explanation give

give an account of, report tell with excruciating detail explain, elucidate

guyænde væziyat-e pænahænde-ha ra dæqiq ∫æhr dad. newsperson condition-ez refugee-pl acc exact description give.past.3sg The news-reader gave a detailed account of the refugees’ conditions.

DADÆN: Offer: Express: Order Meaning: place an order, make a request. pv: noun—an order or request. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. dæstur dadæn færman dadæn sefare∫ dadæn

order give order give order give

place an order command specify an order

næqi bæraye hæme qæza sefare∫ dad. Naqi for all food order give.past.3sg Naqi ordered food for everyone.

DADÆN: PRODUCE Dadæn can also be used in lvcs to express yielding a result or, in more concrete cases, fruits or flowers. The subject makes something appear.

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chapter 3 nætije [conclusion] del dærd sud [profit] [stomach ache] result aramesh zærær [loss] condition [calmness]

bu [smell]

emanation

nur [light] seda [noise]

gol [flower] product mive [fruit] produce

∫ire [syrup]

DADÆN [to give]

figure 19 

Produce branch of the semantic space of the lv dadæn ‘to give’.

DADÆN: Produce: Condition Meaning: cause a condition. pv: noun—a condition. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject of this lvc is usually not human and has the inherent property of causing the state expressed by the pv to come about in a human. The affected person can be expressed as the indirect object. arame∫ dadæn asaye∫ dadæn deldærd dadæn hæsasiyæt dadæn linæt dadæn tæskin dadæn yobusæt dadæn

relaxation give comfort give stomachache give allergy give laxity give relief give constipation give

calm comfort cause a stomach ache cause allergy act as laxative relieve cause constipation

xordæne ziyade qart∫ be adæm deldærd mi-dæh-æd. eating-ez much-ez mushroom to person stomachache prog-give.pres-3sg Eating too much mushrooms gives one a stomachache.

DADÆN: Produce: Result Meaning: yield results or an outcome. pv: noun—a type of result, positive or negative, from an act or an investment. Argument structure: N1 be N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject generally expresses an act, such as a trade, a business, an endeavor, or a financial instrument or transaction, such as stocks, real estate,

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loans, etc. The beneficiary often occurs as indirect object, though it is not an obligatory argument. fayde dadæn hasel dadæn nætije dadæn sud dadæn zærær dadæn

profit give result give result give gain give loss give

give a profit give results give results give a monetary benefit attain a loss

komæk be mohtaj-an be ejtema sud mi-dah-æd. help to needy-pl to society profit prog-give.pres-3sg Helping the needy benefits the society.

DADÆN: Produce: Emanation Meaning: emanate. pv: noun—an emanation or spreading that can be perceived. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity or achievement if it expresses a physical protrusion (e.g. to bulge out). Remarks: This construction is similar to the expression give off in English. The experiencer is implicit and cannot occur as an argument. ∫ekæm dadæn boxar dadæn bu dadæn foruq dadæn næm dadæn nur dadæn seda dadæn

belly give steam give smell give luminosity give moisture give light give sound give

bulge out let out steam smell shine give out moisture give off light make noise

dær-e ahæni xeili seda mi-dah-æd. door-ez steel much sound prog-give.pres-3sg The steel door makes a lot of noise.

DADÆN: Produce: Product Meaning: blossoming of flowers or the yielding of fruit. pv: noun—an entity yielded by a plant or tree. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject of these collocations is also the location of the production of the entity expressed by the pv.

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∫ire dadæn bærg dadæn gol dadæn mive dadæn sæmær dadæn sele dadæn

syrup give leaf give flower give fruit give fruit give crust give

give syrup (a tree) give leaves blossom give fruit (a tree) give fruit produce a crust

bia tu baqt∫e be-bin deræxt gol dad-e. come in garden imp-see.2s tree flower give.past-3s Come into the garden and look that the tree has blossomed.

3.7

Gereftæn ‘To Get’

The full verb gereftæn has two meanings: the first can be translated into English as ‘hold,’ ‘grab,’ or ‘block,’ and the second as ‘get,’ ‘receive,’ or ‘obtain.’ The subject of the full verb is an agent in all cases, except for the case where the meaning approaches ‘receive,’ where the subject is a receiver or patient. All but a couple lvcs constructed with gereftæn are intransitive. The subject, almost always human, can be either agent or patient. Karimi-Doostan (1997) classifies this verb as a Transitory dynamic lv. He claims that like other Transitory lvs, gereftæn provides a slot for an internal argument that undergoes a change of state. But he also claims that gereftæn is the only Transitory lv that can also be Initiatory, which takes an agent as subject. The analogous verb ‘get’ in English also has similar grammatical properties where the “active meaning is hard to disentangle from the non-volitional ones” (Dowty, 1991, p. 581). The lv gereftæn can denote instantaneous and telic achievements, or it can be a temporally extended accomplishment or activity. Sheik and Sharifi (1975, p. 469) posit, “most of the derived semantic units [of the lv] seem to share somewhat the basic meaning of the simple verb root.” The idea of being held together, sometimes the idea of seizure or overtaking, cramping, plugging, grasping, choking, seizing, or stumbling can all be expressed with lvcs of gereftæn. The ‘seizure’ or ‘taking’ causes a change of the state in a patient or experiencer with a force that creates a closing or cramping situation (Sheik and Sharifi, 1975, p. 473). Except for a handful of adjectives and prepositions, gereftæn combines almost exclusively with nominal pvs. These nouns usually express that which is ‘held’ or ‘obtained’. The different meanings expressed by gereftæn in lvcs yield seven main categories: grasp, perform a ritual, overwhelm, obtain, receive, assume, and remove.

help

aram [calm]

shape

qælb [heart]

cramp næfæs [breath]

roxsæt [permission] ejaze [permission]

permission

væqt [time]

ja [place]

cover

tæla be gat∫ [gold] ∫a∫ [plaster] oq [urine] covered [gag] xak qey [blear] [dust] seize

enan [reins]

æks [photo]

video [video]

outlaw dozd [thief] æsir [hostage]

tormoz [breaks] zendani [prisonner]

grip

capture

film [film]

wild mahi animal [fish] ∫ekar pærvane [hunt] [butterfly] tævælod [birthday] taharæt social [hygene] ærusi [wedding] personal rejim jæ∫n [diet] [celebration] ruze du∫ [fast] [shower]

zæn marital [wife]

doust pesar [boyfriend]

grasp catch

geran nædide [dear] [unseen] ævæzi [error] consider

gærd accumu- [dust] lation læke [stain]

t∫erk [dirt]

naxon growth [nail]

æbru [eye brow]

perform ritual

enrobe

remove

overwhelm

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

assume

ab mive jest [gesture] [fruit juice] golab body [rose-water] extract ∫ire [syrup]

reserve

pose

qiyafe [face]

qollab [hook]

money nozul [interest] re∫ve ejare [rent] [bribe]

settlement

næzm [order]

obtain

receive

position

saman [settled]

dærs pænd [lesson] [advice] sæboq [precedence]

lesson

info

trait

∫ohræt [fame]

væ'ede contract [promise]

qol [promise]

body

jan bu [life] [smell]

suræt [face]

∫ekl næx∫ [form] [design]

figure 20 Semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

jævab response [answer] xæbær [news]

vækil represent vaset [lawyer] [mediator] gævah [witness]

pæræstar [nurse]

næqa∫ employ [painter]

vam [loan] komæk [help]

service

særætan [cancer] pænah ∫æfa [refuge] [cure] abele ælaj [pox] disease [cure] safety

yari [help]

place

qærar [position]

sefare∫ færman [order] [order] dæstur [order] order

relative to donbal [after]

æz sær [from head]

ja [place]

væqt [time]

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Gereftæn: Grasp This group of clusters expresses notions related to grabbing hold of or catching. The subject carries out an action that results in him grasping something that was out of his control, or was fleeting and about to disappear. It can also express capturing mentally, as in having a particular impression of something. The ideas of domination or regulation emerge in some of these lvcs. geran [dear]

nædide [unseen]

ævæzi [error] consider

grasp

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

film [film] capture

grip

video [video] æks [photo]

enan [reins]

tormoz [breaks] zendani [prisonner] catch outlaw dozd [thief] æsir [hostage] wild mahi animal [fish] ∫ekar pærvane [hunt] [butterfly]

figure 21 Grasp branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

GEREFTÆN: Grasp: Consider Meaning: understand or grasp something in the manner expressed by the pv. pv: adjective—an evaluation. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The lvc expresses how the subject perceives, interprets, or judges the object. This construction can be compared to the English do you get it, take it easy, take it seriously. In some cases, the subject is consciously making the decision to understand something in a particular way (e.g. nædide); in others, he is not conscious (e.g. ævæzi). ∫ol gereftæn ævæzi gereftæn geran gereftæn nædide gereftæn

loose get erroneous get dear get unseen get

take loosely, not seriously mistake for something consider dear disregard, pass off as unseen

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mærdæk-e mæst mæn-o ba dust-æ∫ ævæzi gereft. guy-ez drunk me-acc with friend-3sg erroneous get.past.3sg The drunk guy took me for his friend.

GEREFTÆN: Grasp: Capture Meaning: record an image or sound on media in real time. pv: noun—a type of media. Argument structure: N1 æz N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The entity being recorded appears as indirect object headed by æz ‘from,’ though sometimes it can occur as a direct object. Similar expressions in English include catch on film or take a picture. The use of the type of media to verbalize recording on that media is also used in both English ‘to tape’ and French ‘filmer.’ æks gereftæn film gereftæn vidio gereftæn

photo get film get video get

photograph record on film record on video

æz hæme kar-e bæt∫e vidio mi-gereft. from all action-ez child video prog-get.past.3sg He shot videos of the kid’s every act.

GEREFTÆN: Grasp: Grip Meaning: grip with hands or mechanical means. pv: noun—a physical object that is grasped to serve its function. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject gains more control over something by gripping a functional part of it (e.g. the speed by clutching the break, the reins to control the horse). enan gereftæn kelat∫ gereftæn tormoz gereftæn

reins get clutch get brakes get

sævarkar dorost be moqe enan gereft. rider right in time rein get.past.3sg The rider took the rein just in time.

pull a horse’s reins press on the clutch (manual car) hit the breaks

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GEREFTÆN: Grasp: Catch: Outlaw Meaning: capture. pv: noun—a captive or an outlaw. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The entity apprehended is fleeing or free and must be brought under the control of some person or authority. æsir gereftæn dozd gereftæn zendani gereftæn

hostage get thief get prisoner get

take a hostage apprehend a thief obtain prisoners

be omid-e jælb-e næzær-e donya t∫ænd æsir gereft-ænd. in hope-ez attraction-ez view-ez world several hostage get.past-3pl They took several hostages in the hope of attracting the world’s attention.

GEREFTÆN: Grasp: Catch: Wild Animal Meaning: hunt. pv: noun—a wild animal. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The productivity of this cluster is restricted to wild animals, or animals that are difficult to get into the subject’s grasp. Therefore, the word dog can be used in this construction if it refers to a wild dog or a runaway dog, not the subject’s own dog. ∫ekar gereftæn mahi gereftæn pælæng gereftæn

prey get fish get leopard get

hunt fish hunt a leopard

adæm-e zeræng æz abe gelalud mahi mi-gir-æd. person-ez clever from water muddy fish prog-get.pres-3sg Opportunists catch fish in muddy waters.

Gereftæn: Perform Ritual The following set of clusters expresses carrying out societal or personal rituals or routines.

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GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

doust pesar [boyfriend] zæn marital [wife] perform ritual

taharæt [hygene] personal rejim [diet] ruze du∫ [fast] [shower]

social

tævælod [birthday]

ærusi [wedding] jæ∫n [celebration]

figure 22 Perform ritual branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

GEREFTÆN: Perform Ritual: Marital Meaning: get a sexual or life partner. pv: noun—a partner. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The pv usually expresses a woman partner. The only case the partner is a man appears below (i.e. boyfriend). To express a woman getting a husband, the generic verb kærdæn is used in ∫ohær kærdæn ‘husband do.’ A similar expression exists in English: take a wife. doustpesar gereftæn faseq gereftæn siqe gereftæn zæn gereftæn

boyfriend get lover get temporary wife get woman get

get a boyfriend get a lover get married temporarily take a wife

u dær jævani-ha-æ∫ zæn gereft. he in youth-pl-3sg wife get.past.3sg He took a wife in his youth.

Comment: Though not a very productive cluster (due to a limited number of marriage or partnership possibilities), gereftæn has come to mean ‘to take as a wife’ in certain contexts, as in the example below. This meaning, allotted to the full verb gereftæn, could be due to the high usage (or social importance) of this cluster. Hassan doxtær-e Hossein ra gereft. Hassan girl-ez Hossein acc get.past.3sg Hassan married Hossein’s daughter.

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GEREFTÆN: Perform Ritual: Social Meaning: have a gathering to celebrate or commemorate. pv: noun—a type of festive or socially important occasion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: These verb forms are similar to the English throw a wedding, throw a party, or have a wedding, have a party. ærusi gereftæn jæ∫n gereftæn mehmani gereftæn t∫ele gereftæn tævælod gereftæn xætm gereftæn

wedding get celebration get get-together get 40th-day get birthday get memorial get

throw a wedding have a celebration have a get-together organize a 40th day memorial have a birthday party have a memorial service

næmorde bæra-æ∫ xætm gereft-ænd. undead for-3sg memorial get.past-3pl They celebrated his demise prematurely.

GEREFTÆN: Perform Ritual: Personal Meaning: partake in a ritual or action that has a set form. pv: noun—a ritual or habit that involves the cleansing of the body. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: These lvcs all involve conscious partaking in a controlled or calculated process that results in the physical cleansing of the body, though sometimes involving spiritual or religious beliefs. The English and French terms take a shower/bath or prendre une douche/un bain might be related to this cluster. The equivalent form also exists in Persian: du∫ gereftæn ‘to shower’ (lit. shower take). ruze gereftæn vozu gereftæn rejim gereftæn

fast get ablution get diet get

fast cleanse oneself before prayer diet

ba ruze gereft-æn anha ehsas-e næzdiki mi-kon-ænd. with fast get-inf they feeling-ez closeness prog-do.pres-3pl They sense closeness by fasting together.

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Gereftæn: Overwhelm These clusters express the idea of covering or blocking. The action can either be oriented towards some object or towards the subject. In other words, in some clusters, the subject is an agent and in others he is a patient.

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

overwhelm

enrobe næfæs cramp [breath] qælb [heart]

cover

tæla be gat∫ [gold] ∫a∫ covered [plaster] oq [urine] [gag] qey xak [dust] [blear]

seize

figure 23 Overwhelm branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

GEREFTÆN: Overwhelm: Enrobe: Cover Meaning: wrap or cast. pv: noun—a soft and often viscous material that then hardens to cover something. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject uses the material expressed by the pv to wrap or cast the object completely. Gel gereftæn (lit. mud take) can also be used idiomatically, meaning to close up indefinetly (e.g. a store), expressing the idea of blocking passage, or covering up as not to let anything through to the entity covered. gæt∫ gereftæn gel gereftæn qab gereftæn qaleb gereftæn tæla gereftæn

plaster get mud get frame get mold get gold get

cover with plaster cover with mud frame get a mold gold plate

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dærz-e divar ra gæt∫ gereft-ænd. seam-ez wall acc plaster get.past-3sg They plastered over the crack in the wall.

GEREFTÆN: Overwhelm: Enrobe: Be Covered Meaning: accumulate a substance on a surface naturally. pv: noun—an organic material. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This lvc has an interesting argument structure in that the semantic subject (i.e. the covered entity) occurs as the object, and there is no overt subject. The pv seems to take the place of the grammatical subject. This construction expresses a gradual and natural process of a build-up forming on the surface of something. This process usually results from neglect, or the lack of maintenance of the object by an external entity. læjæn gereftæn qey gereftæn sele gereftæn xak gereftæn

slime get blear get crust get dust get

get covered with slime become bleary form a crust get covered in dust

dær ærz-e t∫ænd dæqiqe hæmet∫iz ra xak gereft. in width-ez few minute everything acc dust get.past.3sg Everything was covered with dust in a few minutes.

GEREFTÆN: Overwhelm: Seize Meaning: be overwhelmed with an urge or condition. pv: noun—an involuntary psychological or biological urge that must be manifested or repressed. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The undergoer of this action is always a conscious being expressed through a pronomial suffix attached to the pv (in the examples below, it appears in the 1st person singular). This construction and other similar constructions are discussed further in the Chapter 6. The construction expresses a hidden force or a natural force, out of the control of the subject. This force seizes the subject.

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs bazi kærdæn-æm gereft oq-æm gereft xab-æm gereft xænde-æm gereft ∫a∫-æm gereft

play do get gag get sleep get laughter get urine get

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I became playful I felt like vomiting I got sleepy I was seized with laughter I was seized with need to urinate

æz hærf-ha-ye an mærd-e mohem xænde-æm gereft. from word-pl-ez that man-ez important laughter-1sg get.past.3sg I could not but laugh at that important man’s pronouncements.

GEREFTÆN: Overwhelm: Cramp Meaning: cramp. pv: noun—a body part. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The pv of this lvc must always be followed by a pronominal possessive suffix similar to the previous cluster. The pv breath is not a body part, but the meaning of the corresponding construction is related to that of the other lvcs in this cluster. A cramping feeling comes about in the body parts or processes, such as breathing. As with the previous cluster, a natural or biological force seizes the subject. næfæs-æm gereft pa-m gereft qælb-æm gereft

breath get foot get heart get

I am short of breath I have a cramp in my foot I have chest pains

væsæte mosabeqe pa-∫ gereft. middle-ez race leg-3sg get.past.3sg He got a leg cramp in the middle of the race.

Gereftæn: Obtain This group of clusters expresses meanings closest to that of the English obtain. The subject always accepts or obtains something from some external source. Some of the lvcs express actions that might require a greater involvement of mental capacities: they express the transfer of an entity or a service, which often include acts of persuasion, agreement, or transfering knowledge.

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chapter 3 pænah ∫æfa [refuge] [cure] ælaj [cure] safety

qol [promise] væ'ede contract [promise]

yari [help]

vam [loan] komæk [help]

help

service aram [calm]

næqa∫ employ [painter] pæræstar [nurse]

obtain

∫ohræt [fame] trait

reserve

settlement

info

næzm [order]

lesson

dærs pænd [advice] sæboq [lesson] [precedence]

ja [place]

væqt [time]

saman [settled]

vækil represent vaset [lawyer] [mediator] gævah [witness] response jævab [answer] xæbær [news]

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

permission

roxsæt [permission]

ejaze [permission]

money nozul [interest] re∫ve ejare [rent] [bribe]

figure 24 Obtain branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Reserve Meaning: reserve a place or time. pv: noun—a place or time. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject reserves a time or a place. A similar expression in English is get an appointment. ja gereftæn nobæt gereftæn otaq gereftæn qærar gereftæn væqt gereftæn

place get turn get room get appointment get time get

bæraye did-æn-e ræis-æ∫ væqt gereft. for see-inf-ez boss-3sg time get.past.3sg He got an appointment to see his boss.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Permission Meaning: get permission or allocation. pv: noun—permission or allocation. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

reserve a seat/place take a turn (i.e. appointment) reserve a room get an appointment get an appointment

clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs æzn gereftæn ejaze gereftæn roxsæt gereftæn

leave get permission get permission get

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get permission get permission get permission

u qæbl æz resid-æn ejaze næ-gereft-e bud. he before from arrive-inf permission neg-get-ptcp be.past.3sg He had not gotten permission before arriving.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Money Meaning: charge money. pv: noun—a fee or bribe. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: An optional indirect object expresses the source from which the subject obtains the money, headed by æz ‘to.’ ænam gereftæn ejare gereftæn gero gereftæn jærime gereftæn nozul gereftæn re∫ve gereftæn

tip get rent get pawn get fine get interest get bribe get

charge a tip charge rent take a pawn charge a fine charge interest accept a bribe

re∫ve gereft-æn yek t∫iz-e addi ∫od-e æst. bribe get-inf one thing-ez habitual become-ptcp be.pres.3sg Taking a bribe has become a normal thing.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Settlement Meaning: become settled or organized. pv: noun—organization. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject falls into place or is arranged, usually without an explicit external force. a∫iyane gereftæn næzm gereftæn saman gereftæn tærtib gereftæn

nest get organization get welfare get hierarchy get

get settled, nest become organized, ordered become settled be arranged

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bæt∫e-ha dær kelas ba vorude nazem næzm gereft-ænd. kid-pl in class with entrance-ez monitor organization get.past-3pl When the monitor entered the class the kids became orderly.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Info: Lesson Meaning: learn a lesson or get advice. pv: noun—a lesson or an advice. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: An indirect object expresses the event or the conscious being who bestows the new knowledge or wisdom upon the subject. ændærz gereftæn dærs gereftæn ebræt gereftæn pænd gereftæn tælim gereftæn yad gereftæn

advice get lesson get lesson get advice get teachings get memory get

get advice learn a lesson learn a lesson take a lesson get taught learn

pænd gereft-æn yek bar khub æst, dobar tænbih. lesson get-inf one time good be.pres.3sg twice punishment Taking a lesson the first time is good, the second time it’s punishment.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Info: Response Meaning: obtain information or an answer. pv: noun—information or answer. Argument structure: N1 æz N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The entity from whom the information is obtained occurs as indirect object. jævab gereftæn pasox gereftæn xæbær gereftæn

answer get response get news get

ba telefon æz anha xæbær gereft-æm. by telephone from them news get.past-1sg I called for some news about them.

get an answer get a response get news of

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GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Trait Meaning: acquire a trait. pv: noun—a psychological or abstract trait. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The subject does not directly partake in the acquisition of the trait, expressed by the pv. This lvc expresses a potentially gradual process through which the subject acquires this trait. ∫etab gereftæn ∫ohræt gereftæn æhæmiæt gereftæn aram gereftæn ertefa gereftæn foruq gereftæn ræng gereftæn ronæq gereftæn sebqæt gereftæn soræt gereftæn

acceleration get fame get importance get calmness get height get blaze get color get expansion get lead get speed get

accelerate become famous gain important become calm rise thrive get tanned/colored boom, expand take the lead, cut off speed up

bæt∫e ba did-æn-e madær-æ∫ aram gereft. child with see-inf-ez mother-3sg calmness get.past.3sg The child calmed down at the sight of his mother.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Service: Represent Meaning: assign a representative. pv: noun—a person that acts as an official representative or witness. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject hires or assigns a representative for himself. The service transferred is not of physical labor, but of social or legal expertise. gævah gereftæn govah gereftæn vækil gereftæn vaset gereftæn zamen gereftæn

witness get testifier get lawyer get intermediary get warrantor get

take as witness get a testifier engage a lawyer hire an intermediary get a warrantor

bæraye feysæle-ye kar vaset gereft-æm. for conclusion-ez task intermediary get.past-1sg I introduced an intermediary in order to resolve the issue.

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GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Service: Employ Meaning: hire. pv: noun—a type of worker. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This lvc is usually used when a single person, not an institution, employs someone. The less physical work a job requires, the less probable it is that this lvc is used. bigari gereftæn kargær gereftæn næqa∫ gereftæn pæræstar gereftæn

laborer get worker get painter get nurse get

employ a laborer/slave employ a worker employ a painter employ a nurse

bæraye ræng kard-æn-e otaq næqa∫ gereft-i? for paint do-inf-ez room painter get.past-2sg Did you hire a painter to paint the room?

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Service: Help Meaning: receive help. pv: noun—physical, moral, or financial help. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement or accomplishment. komæk gereftæn qærz gereftæn vam gereftæn yari gereftæn

help get borrowed get loan get aid get

get help borrow obtain a loan get help

bæraye xærid-æn-e xane-æ∫ vam gereft. for buy-inf-ez house-3sg loan get.past.3sg He took out a loan to purchase his house.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Safety Meaning: take refuge or be cured. pv: noun—a refuge or cure. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

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clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs ∫æfa gereftæn ælaj gereftæn æman gereftæn nejat gereftæn pænah gereftæn

cure get treatment get security get saved get refuge get

get cured get treatment get security be saved take refuge

ba kæmi zæhmæt æz nabesamani nejat gereft. with little work from unsettledness save get.past.3sg With a bit of hard work he was saved from his unsettled situation.

GEREFTÆN: Obtain: Contract Meaning: bind someone to perform an act or a deed. pv: noun—a binding agreement. Argument structure: N1 æz N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject asks for the promise or binding agreement and the entity that provides it occurs as indirect object. qol gereftæn væde gereftæn

promise get promise get

obtain a promise obtain a promise

madær-æm æz-æm qol gereft ke kare badi næ-kon-æm. mother-1sg from-1sg promise get.past.3sg that deed-ez bad neg-do.pres-1sg My mother made me promise her that I would not do anything bad.

GEREFTÆN: RECEIVE The following clusters express a similar dynamic to those above, in the sense that the subject is the beneficiary of the action, but in these cases, he does not exert any effort to attain what he receives (sometimes not something he wishes).

færman sefare∫ [order] [order] dæstur [order]

jan bu [life] [smell] body

order

særætan [cancer] abele [pox] disease

receive

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

figure 25 Receive branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

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GEREFTÆN: Receive: Disease Meaning: catch an illness. pv: noun—a type of illness. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The source of the illness can optionally occur explicitly as an indirect object. Analogous English expressions would be catching a cold or getting cancer. abele gereftæn enfluenza gereftæn gohgije gereftæn særætan gereftæn særgije gereftæn

pox get flu get confusion get cancer get vertigo get

catch the pox get the flu get confused get cancer get dizzy

adæm æz tæma∫a-ye film-e hit∫kak særgije mi-gir-æd. person from watching-ez film-ez Hitchcock vertigo prog-get.pres-3sg One gets vertigo from watching Hitchcock’s movie.

GEREFTÆN: Receive: Order Meaning: receive an order. pv: noun—an order or request. Argument structure: N1 æz N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remark: The source of the order occurs as indirect object. dæstur gereftæn færman gereftæn sefare∫ gereftæn

directions get decree get order get

be directed be commanded take an order

garson ba ehteram væ sæbr æz anha sefare∫ gereft. waiter with respect and patience from them order get.past.3sg The waiter took their order with respect and patience.

GEREFTÆN: Receive: Body Meaning: absorb. pv: noun—something that can be imbued into things and generally permiate to fully engulf it. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

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clusters of productivity in six frequent lvs atæ∫ gereftæn bu gereftæn jan gereftæn næm gereftæn niru gereftæn qovvæt gereftæn ræng gereftæn

fire get smell get life get moisture get energy get power get color get

catch on fire get smelly get energized get moist get energized get power get color

lebas-æm tu-ye kafeye por æz sigari bu gereft clothes-1sg in-ez café-ez full of cigarette-smokers smell get.past.3sg My clothes became smelly in the café full of smokers.

Gereftæn: Assume The subject of these clusters assumes a position or a shape. Depending on the construction, the subject may or may not be actively involved in attaining the configuration or trait.

ja [place]

væqt [time]

place qærar relative [position] to donbal [after]

æz sær [from head]

∫ekl næx∫ [form] [design] suræt [face]

shape

qollab [hook] qiyafe [face]

jest [gesture] body

pose position assume

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

figure 26 Assume branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

GEREFTÆN: Assume: Position: Relative To Meaning: take a position relative to an entity. pv: noun—a physical position. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement.

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Remarks: The subject positions itself relative to an entity. The lvc expresses the subject’s position with respect to more intangible entities. For example, singing a song from the beginning can be expressed with æz sær gereftæn, as in the example sentence below. Or, following up on a legal case can be expressed with donbal gereftæn. The action refers to a process of rerunning or developing on a process from a certain point. The process can be expressed as a direct object (as in the example below) or as an indirect object, depending on the collocation. æz sær gereftæn donbal gereftæn fasele gereftæn kenar gereftæn ons gereftæn

from head get pursuit get distance get edge get fondness get

take it from the start (restart) follow up take some distance step aside get accustomed

violonzæn ahæng ra æz sær gereft. violinist song acc from head get.past.3sg The violinist started the piece over.

GEREFTÆN: Assume: Position: Position/Place Meaning: take up time or place. pv: noun—time or space. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. gu∫e gereftæn ja gereftæn nobæt gereftæn qærar gereftæn tæræf gereftæn væqt gereftæn

corner get place get turn get position get side get time get

sit alone take up room take a turn be placed take sides take up time

neve∫t-æn-e mæ∫q væqt mi-gir-æd. write-inf-ez homework time prog-get.prs-3sg. Writing homework takes time.

GEREFTÆN: Assume: Pose: Shape Meaning: develop into a coherent or recognizable shape. pv: noun—a shape or form. Argument structure: N1 lvc

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Aspect: achievement. Remarks: The subject of this construction does not partake in the process described. Rather, it occurs autonomously, though usually in a consequence of the direct actions of one or more external agents (e.g. a sculpture takes shape because the sculptor sculpts it). ∫ekl gereftæn ænjam gereftæn næq∫ gereftæn suræt gereftæn tæ∫kil gereftæn

form get completion get design get face get formation get

take shape become complete be outlined get a form take shape

zære zære mojæsæme-ye ostad ∫ekl gereft. little little sculpture-ez master shape get.past.3sg Little by little the master’s sculpture took shape.

GEREFTÆN: Assume: Condition: Pose Meaning: put one’s body in a specific and recognizable configuration. pv: noun—a shape or configuration. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remark: In these lvcs, the subject volitionally locks into the shape or position described by the pv. æza gereftæn jest gereftæn qiyafe gereftæn qollab gereftæn xæ∫m gereftæn zærb gereftæn

mourning get gesture get face get hook get anger get beat get

act like one is mourning strike a pose make a face make a hook with the hands get angry tap the beat

ali bæraye mohsen qollab gereft ta æz divar bala ræv-æd Ali for Mohsen hook get.past.3sg until from wall up go.pres-3sg Ali made a hook for Mohsen so that he could climb the wall.

Gereftæn: Remove This group of lvcs expresses removing a part of an object.

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chapter 3 ab mive [fruit juice] golab [rose-water] extract ∫ire [syrup]

æbru [eye brow] naxon growth [nail] t∫erk [dirt]

remove

gærd accumu- [dust] lation læke [stain]

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

figure 27 Remove branch of the semantic space of the lv gereftæn ‘to get’.

GEREFTÆN: Remove: Extract Meaning: extracting an essence or liquid from its original source. pv: noun—an essence or liquid. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity or accomplishment. Remarks: The liquids expressed by the pv are always within an object and do not flow out naturally, but can be extracted. In other words, when taking water from the ocean, we cannot say ab gereftæn using the pv ab ‘water,’ while we could use it to express squeezing juice out of a fruit or even taking water from a deep well using a bucket, but not a pump. Xun gereftæn specifically means extracting blood from a vein, and not grabbing a test-tube of blood from a lab, which would be expressed using xun ‘blood’ as a direct object of the full verb gereftæn along with the source as an indirect object (e.g. azmaye∫gah ‘laboratory’). ∫ire gereftæn abmive gereftæn golab gereftæn xun gereftæn zæhr gereftæn

syrup get fruit-juice get rose-water get blood get poison get

extract syrup juice fruit extract rose-water extract blood extract poison

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sorur ba metod-e sonæti golab mi-gir-æd. Sorur with method-ez traditional rose-water prog-get.pres-3sg Sorur extracts rose-water the traditional way.

GEREFTÆN: Remove: Growth Meaning: remove excess tissue. pv: noun—tissue that grows external to the body. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. Remarks: This cluster expresses the removal of biological matter that tends to grow in excess (e.g. sheep hair). The final state of this action is the absence of any excess of the matter in question. Depending on the collocation, the pv either takes a suffix expressing the source, or an indirect object as in the example below. mu gereftæn pæ∫m gereftæn naxon gereftæn dæmaq gereftæn æbru gereftæn

hair get fur get nail get nose get eyebrow get

remove hair remove fur clip nails clear nose remove hair from eyebrow

æz xers mu gereft-æn qænimæt æst. from bear hair get-inf opportune be.pres.3sg To pluck (even) a single hair from a bear is opportune.

GEREFTÆN: Remove: Accumulation Meaning: remove something that has become encrusted on another entity. pv: noun—residual matter that collects on the surface of objects. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. Remarks: The thing getting cleared or cleaned is expressed as a direct or indirect object. t∫erk gereftæn gærd gereftæn qey gereftæn læke gereftæn

dead skin get dust get blear get stain get

nezafætt∫i hæme ja ra gærd gereft cleaner all place acc dust get.pres.3sg The cleaner dusted off the whole place.

exfoliate dust off remove bleariness remove stain

CHAPTER 4

Clusters of Productivity in Eight More lvs In this chapter, I provide the full semantic space diagrams for the remaining eight lvs considered in this study. These lvs are less frequent than those presented so far, but play integral roles in the varied verbal notions expressed in Persian. The cluster descriptions will not be as elaborate as in the previous chapter. Their spaces are presented as suggestions for how these verbal notions are organized, especially as they will partake in alternations, which will be discussed in the next chapter. 4.1

Ke∫idæn ‘To Pull’

KE∫IDÆN: Draw: Carry Meaning: carry. pv: noun—the entity being carried. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. bar ke∫idæn mæhmel ke∫idæn

cargo pull carriage pull

carry a load carry

KE∫IDÆN: Draw: Hoist Meaning: hoist. pv: noun—a banner-like entity. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ælæm ke∫idæn badban ke∫idæn pærde ke∫idæn

banner pull sail pull curtain pull

hoist a banner hoist a sail set up or pull a curtain

KE∫IDÆN: Draw: Create Meaning: create along a line, stretch across an area in space. pv: noun—the entity being created. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004274419_005

∫eihe [neigh]

hævar [shout

dad [shout]

yell

zuze [whimper]

animal sound

færyad [yell]

inhale

xæmiyaze [yawn]

smoke

hæ∫i∫ [hash]

her [laugh]

in

weapon

emotion

hura [horray]

nale [moan]

∫æm∫ir [sword]

kæman [bow]

te∫negi [thirst]

out

serve

qæza [food]

physical

gorosnegi [hunger]

sædæme [injury]

emit

hæftir [shotgun]

extract

roqæn [oil]

figure 28 Semantic space of the lv ke∫idæn ‘to pull’.

næfæs [breath

qælyan [hooka]

pip [pipe]

golab [rosewater]

∫ire [syrup]

along

zæjr [suffrance]

jaru [broom]

sæxti [hardship]

mental

KEıIDÆN [to pull]

færaqæt [separation]

suffer

pull

lif [loufa]

instrument

otu [iron] ængo∫t [finger]

bar [cargo]

æbru [eyebrow]

draw

mæhmel [carriage]

body part

dæst [hand]

xæt [line]

trace

carry

næq∫e [plan]

jade [road]

divar [wall]

lule [pipe] kabl [cable]

sim [wire]

create

badban [sail] ælæm [banner]

install

hoist

pærde [curtain]

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156 divar ke∫idæn jade ke∫idæn jædvæl ke∫idæn

CHAPTER 4 wall pull road pull curb pull

build a wall build a road draw crosswalk

KE∫IDÆN: Draw: Install Meaning: install an entity that stretches across an area in space. pv: noun—the entity being installed or stretched out. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. kabl ke∫idæn lule ke∫idæn sim ke∫idæn zeh ke∫idæn

cable pull pipe pull wire pull cord pull

install cables install pipes install wires string with a cord (tennis)

KE∫IDÆN: Draw: Trace Meaning: draw (usually something that requires drawing a line). pv: noun—either what is being draw or the instrument used. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. æbru ke∫idæn næq∫e ke∫idæn næqa∫i ke∫idæn nil ke∫idæn qælæm ke∫idæn rimel ke∫idæn sorme ke∫idæn xæt ke∫idæn

eyebrow pull plan pull painting pull blue paint pull pen pull mascara pull eyeliner pull line pull

draw in eyebrows plan, scheme paint a painting draw with blue paint on mosaic cross out put on mascara draw eyeliner draw a line, cross out

KE∫IDÆN: Suffer: Mental Meaning: suffer. pv: noun—the type of suffering involved. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. ∫æmsari ke∫idæn ælæm ke∫idæn æzab ke∫idæn dærd ke∫idæn

shame pull chagrin pull torment pull hurt pull

be ashamed be chagrined suffer torment suffer pain

157

Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs dærde sær ke∫idæn entezar ke∫idæn færaqæt ke∫idæn hæsræt ke∫idæn jæfa ke∫idæn mælamæt ke∫idæn mehnæt ke∫idæn nedamæt ke∫idæn qæm ke∫idæn qorbæt ke∫idæn rænj ke∫idæn sæxti ke∫idæn setæm ke∫idæn xejalæt ke∫idæn zæhmæt ke∫idæn zæjr ke∫idæn zærær ke∫idæn

headache pull waiting pull separation pull regret pull oppression pull blame pull distress pull regret pull sorrow pull homesick pull suffering pull difficulty pull oppression pull embarrassment pull effort pull torment pull loss pull

go through hardships long for long for long for, regret be oppresed be blamed go through hardships suffer from regret grieve be homesick suffer go through difficulty be oppressed be embarrassed work hard suffer torment suffer a loss

KE∫IDÆN: Suffer: Physical Meaning: suffer from something. pv: noun—the symptom causing the suffering. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. bigari ke∫idæn gorosnegi ke∫idæn sædæme ke∫idæn te∫negi ke∫idæn

slave-labor pull hunger pull damage pull thirst pull

doing hard work for free starve be damaged suffer thirst

KE∫IDÆN: Emit: Emotion Meaning: let out an emotional sound. pv: noun—an emotional sound, especially one that stretches out in time. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. ah ke∫idæn her ke∫idæn hura ke∫idæn merno ke∫idæn nale ke∫idæn

sigh pull laugh pull hurray pull cat’s call pull groan pull

sigh laugh mockingly cheer meow groan

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KE∫IDÆN: Emit: Animal Sound Meaning: emit an animal sound (for animals). pv: noun—an emitted animal sound. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. ∫eihe ke∫idæn zuze ke∫idæn

neigh pull whimper pull

neigh whimper

KE∫IDÆN: Emit: Yell Meaning: emit a prolonged yell or other sound. pv: noun—a type of cry or yell. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: semelfactive activity. dad ke∫idæn færyad ke∫idæn hærdud ke∫idæn hævar ke∫idæn jar ke∫idæn jiq ke∫idæn nære ke∫idæn qiye ke∫idæn sut ke∫idæn sæfir ke∫idæn

yell pull yell pull attack call pull shout pull proclamation pull scream pull roar pull cry pull whistle pull whistle pull

yell yell make an attack call shout proclaim, yell scream roar cry whistle whistle

KE∫IDÆN: Pull: In: Inhale Meaning: pull in, absorb. pv: noun—the action or thing being pulled in through the mouth or nose. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. bu ke∫idæn dæm ke∫idæn næfæs ke∫idæn xæmiyaze ke∫idæn

smell pull moisture pull breath pull yawn pull

smell, discover be infused, steamed breathe yawn

KE∫IDÆN: Pull: Smoke Meaning: smoke. pv: noun—the smoked instrument or substance.

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Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment or activity. hæ∫i∫ ke∫idæn pip ke∫idæn qælyan ke∫idæn sigar ke∫idæn t∫opoq ke∫idæn vafur ke∫idæn

hashish pull pipe pull water pipe pull cigarette pull pipe pull opium pipe pull

smoke hashish smoke a pipe smoke hookah smoke cigarettes smoke a pipe smoke opium with the pipe

KE∫IDÆN: Pull: Out: Weapon Meaning: pull a weapon on someone. pv: noun—the weapon used in the action. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ∫æm∫ir ke∫idæn ∫ax∫ane ke∫idæn hæftir ke∫idæn kæman ke∫idæn kard ke∫idæn neyze ke∫idæn nimt∫e ke∫idæn qæddare ke∫idæn t∫aqu ke∫idæn tiq ke∫idæn

sword pull horn pull pistol pull bow pull knife pull javelin/spear pull musket pull dagger pull knife pull blade pull

pull a sword threaten with a horn pull a pistol pull a bow pull a knife be ready to throw a javelin draw a musket threaten with a dagger pull a knife draw a blade or sword

KE∫IDÆN: Pull: Out: Extract Meaning: pull out of. pv: noun—the entity being extracted. Argument structure: N1 æz N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. ∫ire ke∫idæn hærf ke∫idæn golab ke∫idæn roqæn ke∫idæn kar ke∫idæn dændan ke∫idæn

syrup pull speech pull rose-water pull oil pull work pull tooth pull

extract syrup coerce to speak extract rosewater extract oil make someone work a lot pull a tooth

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KE∫IDÆN: Pull: Out: Serve Meaning: serve (i.e. food and drink). pv: noun—the food or drink being served. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ∫ilan ke∫idæn mey ke∫idæn peymane ke∫idæn piyale ke∫idæn qæza ke∫idæn tæam ke∫idæn

royal feast pull wine pull wine glass pull wine glass pull food pull food pull

serve a feast pour wine pour wine pour wine serve food serve food

KE∫IDÆN: Pull: Along: Instrument Meaning: pull an instrument across an area in space. pv: noun—the instrument. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment or activity. jaru ke∫idæn kise ke∫idæn lif ke∫idæn otu ke∫idæn qæltæk ke∫idæn

broom pull exfoliating glove pull sponge pull iron pull roller pull

sweep, broom exfoliate with a glove clean with sponge iron flatten with roller

KE∫IDÆN: Pull: Along: Body Part Meaning: touch. pv: noun—the instrument doing the touching. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ængo∫t ke∫idæn dæst ke∫idæn pa ke∫idæn

finger pull hand pull foot pull

touch with finger, erase pull hand across, extricate pull foot across

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4.2

Ændaxtæn ‘To Throw’

ÆNDAXTÆN: Throw: Cast Meaning: cast, usually a look or light. pv: noun—the thing being cast upon another entity. Argument structure: N1 locative N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. bæd ændaxtæn negah ændaxtæn nur ændaxtæn pe∫k ændaxtæn saye ændaxtæn t∫e∫m ændaxtæn t∫eraq ændaxtæn

bad throw look throw light throw fortune throw shadow throw eye throw light throw

have bad luck take a look, glance shine light on something take a chance cast a shadow cast eyes on shine light on something

ÆNDAXTÆN: Throw: Position Meaning: throw onto a path or position. pv: noun—a location in space. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. æqæb ændaxtæn dur ændaxtæn hæva ændaxtæn jelo ændaxtæn pi∫ ændaxtæn rah ændaxtæn zæmin ændaxtæn

back throw far throw sky throw front throw front throw path throw ground throw

push back, delay throw away throw into the air push forward advance start throw to the ground

ÆNDAXTÆN: Throw: Hit Meaning: hit, or fling. pv: noun—the instrument used to hit, usually inherent to the agent (e.g. body parts). Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: semelfactive. lægæd ændaxtæn mo∫t ændaxtæn t∫æng ændaxtæn

kick throw fist throw claw throw

kick punch scratch

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162

shape

pit∫ [twist] god [deep] t∫uruk [wrinkle]

secretion

xun [blood] ab [water]

qolqole [commotion]

surface

velvele [clamour]

læk [stain]

cause to appear

agitate

xæt [scratch]

install

cause motion

æz tæk o tab [from frenzy]

from a state

ÆNDAXTÆN [to throw]

fit

∫i∫e [window] sim [wire]

æz ju∫ [from boil] æz t∫e∫m [from eye]

figure 29 Semantic space of the lv ændaxtæn ‘to throw’.

fær∫ [rug]

bæstær [bed]

rumizi [tablecloth]

spread

tas [die]

negah [look]

t∫eraq [light]

toss

tæsbih [rosary]

cast

nur [light]

throw

to a be tæmæ state [to covetousness] be kar [to work] be geriye [to cry]

mo∫t [fist]

lægæd [kick]

tof [spit]

tup [canon]

hit

æqæb [behind]

dur [far]

jelo [front]

position

project

navæk [arrow]

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ÆNDAXTÆN: Throw: Weapon Meaning: throw or shoot a weapon. pv: noun—a projectile weapon. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. kæmænd ændaxtæn kæman ændaxtæn navæk ændaxtæn tir ændaxtæn tof ændaxtæn tup ændaxtæn xænjær ændaxtæn

lasso throw arrow throw arrow throw bullet throw spit throw canon throw dagger throw

throw a lasso shoot an arrow shoot an arrow shoot a bullet spit fire canon at hurl a dagger

ÆNDAXTÆN: Throw: Toss Meaning: throw or flip. pv: noun—the object being thrown. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. længær ændaxtæn tæsbih ændaxtæn tas ændaxtæn

anchor throw rosary throw die throw

throw down an anchor slide beads on rosary roll dice

ÆNDAXTÆN: Cause Motion: To a State Meaning: throw into a state or position. pv: preposition be ‘to’ + noun—a position or state the direct object is thrown to. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. be dam ændaxtæn be gerie ændaxtæn be kar ændaxtæn be tæmæ ændaxtæn

to trap throw to cry throw to work to greed throw

entrap make cry, drive to tears make start up, make use of make want

ÆNDAXTÆN: Cause Motion: From a State Meaning: throw something off track or out of a position or a state. pv: preposition æz ‘to’ + noun—the position from which the direct object is thrown off. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement.

164 æz ju∫ ændaxtæn æz pa ændaxtæn æz tæk o tab ændaxtæn æz t∫e∫m ændaxtæn

CHAPTER 4 from boil throw from foot throw from frenzy throw from eye throw

stop from boiling wear out calm from frenzy fall from sight, worsen opinion

ÆNDAXTÆN: Cause to Appear: Surface Meaning: affect (usually causing damage) the surface of an entity. pv: noun—the type of damage or alteration. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. læk ændaxtæn xæra∫ ændaxtæn xæt ændaxtæn

stain throw scratch throw line throw

cause a stain scratch scratch, groove

ÆNDAXTÆN: Cause to Appear: Secretion Meaning: trigger a spread, emanation, or appearance of a substance. pv: noun—the substance or thing being triggered. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. ab ændaxtæn xun ændaxtæn pust ændaxtæn

water throw blood throw skin throw

make water (i.e. saliva) make bleed shed skin

ÆNDAXTÆN: Cause to Appear: Shape Meaning: change the topology of an entity. pv: noun—the type of topological change. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. god ændaxtæn pit∫ ændaxtæn t∫uruk ændaxtæn

deep throw twist throw wrinkle throw

ÆNDAXTÆN: Agitate Meaning: cause a reaction in a crowd. pv: noun—a type of reaction in a crowd. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

cause to be deep, concave cause a twist to appear cause a wrinkle

165

Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs velvele ændaxtæn qolqole ændaxtæn tæfræqe ændaxtæn

reverberation throw commotion throw discord throw

cause a commotion cause a commotion cause discord

ÆNDAXTÆN: Install: Fit Meaning: install. pv: noun—the entity being installed. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. ∫i∫e ændaxtæn pine ændaxtæn sim ændaxtæn

glass throw patch throw wire throw

install window sew on a patch string a wire

ÆNDAXTÆN: Install: Spread Meaning: spread or roll out. pv: noun—the entity being rolled out. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. bæstær ændaxtæn fær∫ ændaxtæn rumizi ændaxtæn sofre ændaxtæn

4.3

bed throw rug throw tablecloth throw tablecloth throw

prepare a bed spread a rug spread a tablecloth spread out food on a cloth

Oftadæn ‘To Fall’

OFTADÆN: Fall: Happen Upon Meaning: gaze, cast, look inadvertently. pv: noun—ray of light or gaze. Argument structure: N1 (locative) lvc Aspect: achievement. aftab oftadæn negah oftadæn nur oftadæn saye oftadæn t∫e∫m oftadæn t∫eraq oftadæn

sun fall look fall light fall shade fall eye fall light fall

cover with sunlight glance shine onto be cast under a shade look upon be shone upon

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shape

pit∫ [twist] god [deep] t∫uruk [wrinkle]

ab [water] secretion xun [blood]

surface

appear

become agitated

qolqole [commotion] velvele [clamour]

læk [stain]

xæt [scratch]

figure 30 Semantic space of the lv oftadæn ‘to fall’.

læj [grudge] take stance

OFTADÆN [to fall]

move

æz ju∫ [from boil] from a state æz t∫e∫m [from eye] æz tæk o tab [from frenzy]

fall

joda [separate] æqæb [behind]

position

dur [far]

negah [look] aftab [sunshine] happen upon t∫e∫m [eye]

be geriye

to a [to cry] state be kar [to work] be tæmæ [to covetousness]

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OFTADÆN: Fall: Position Meaning: fall into a certain position in space or time. pv: noun—the final position of the subject. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. æqæb oftadæn birun oftadæn dæmær oftadæn donbal oftadæn dur oftadæn færaq oftadæn gir oftadæn ja oftadæn jelo oftadæn joda oftadæn pæs oftadæn pi∫ oftadæn qælæt oftadæn rah oftadæn zæmin oftadæn

back fall out fall flat fall pursuit fall far fall far fall hold fall place fall front fall separate fall behind fall front fall mistake fall path fall ground fall

fall back (schedule) fall out, be isolated fall flat pursue, follow be separated be separated be captured setlle in, fit fall ahead become separated fall behind move ahead fall in wrong place start on a path fall down

OFTADÆN: Move: To a State Meaning: be driven into a state, fall into a state. pv: preposition ‘be’+ noun—a state. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. be geriye oftadæn be kar oftadæn be tækotab oftadæn be tæmæ oftadæn

to tears fall to work fall to frenzy fall to greed fall

be driven to tears start working fall into a frenzy become gluttonous

OFTADÆN: Move: From a State Meaning: drop out of a state. pv: preposition ‘æz’ + noun—the state fallen out of. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

168 æz ju∫ oftadæn æz kar oftadæn æz pa oftadæn æz qælæm oftadæn æz t∫e∫m oftadæn æz tæk o tab oftadæn æz tæmæ oftadæn

CHAPTER 4 from boil fall from work fall from foot fall from pen fall from eye fall from frenzy fall from greed fall

stop boiling, calm down break down run out of energy be forgotten in text fall from esteem calm down after excitement loose desire

OFTADÆN: Appear: Surface Meaning: be damaged on the surface in some way. pv: noun—the type of damage. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. læk oftadæn xæra∫ oftadæn xæt oftadæn

stain fall scratch fall groove fall

get stained get scratched get scratched

OFTADÆN: Appear: Secretion Meaning: spread or ooze some substance. pv: noun—the substance that spreads. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ab oftadæn lit∫ oftadæn pust oftadæn xun oftadæn

water fall slime fall skin fall blood fall

drool, accumulate water become slimy start peeling (skin) start bleeding

OFTADÆN: Appear: Shape Meaning: develop a topological change. pv: noun—the topological change. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. god oftadæn pit∫ oftadæn t∫uruk oftadæn

deep fall twist fall wrinkle fall

get sunken in become twisted become wrinkled

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OFTADÆN: Become Agitated Meaning: get overtaken by some activity or emotion (i.e. in a crowd). pv: noun—the activity or emotion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. extelaf oftadæn hæras oftadæn qolqole oftadæn velvele oftadæn

difference fall fear fall commotion fall reverberation fall

develop difference, disagreement be taken over by fear get into a commotion get noisy

OFTADÆN: Take Stance Meaning: take a position relative to something, usually developing a grudge. pv: noun—grudge. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. læj oftadæn t∫æp oftadæn

4.4

grudge fall opposite fall

develop a grudge develop a grudge

Da∫tæn ‘To Have’

DA∫TÆN: Declaration Meaning: have a case, plea, or presentation to make. pv: noun—a type of presentation. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state. ærze da∫tæn ebraz da∫tæn elam da∫tæn esrar da∫tæn hærf da∫tæn hojæt da∫tæn sohbæt da∫tæn

DA∫TÆN: Have: Trait Meaning: have a trait. pv: noun—a trait.

presentation have declaration have announcement have insistence have word have plea have speech have

display declare announce, proclaim insist have something to say plead have something to say

170

CHAPTER 4 peyqam [message]

extiyar [choice] posess

væqt [time]

æziz [dear] qænimæt [windfall]

hærf [word]

consider

declaration

moæzam [highest esteem]

DA∫TÆN [have]

have

state of mind

trait

orze [ability] qeyræt [honor]

tærdid [hesitance]

inherent

sæbr [patience]

transient

zur [force]

tab [swing] ∫ohræt [fame]

arezou [wish]

meyl [apetite]

figure 31 Semantic space of the lv da∫tæn ‘to have’.

Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state. ∫ekæm da∫tæn ∫ohræt da∫tæn æhamiæt da∫tæn ænjomæn da∫tæn bu da∫tæn tæm da∫tæn e∫aræt da∫tæn e∫tehar da∫tæn edame da∫tæn

belly have fame have importance have association have smell have taste have reference have notoriety have continuation have

have a belly, bulge be famous be important be organized smell have taste (food) be well known be well known have continuation

ebraz [declaration]

171

Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs ertebat da∫tæn esalæt da∫tæn estebdad da∫tæn extesas da∫tæn fæaliæt da∫tæn gonah da∫tæn gonjaye∫ da∫tæn hozur da∫tæn kefayæt da∫tæn keifiyæt da∫tæn liaqæt da∫tæn lozum da∫tæn mæharæt da∫tæn mæze da∫tæn næm da∫tæn nætije da∫tæn nemud da∫tæn niyabæt da∫tæn pæyab da∫tæn pey da∫tæn qabeliæt da∫tæn qobn da∫tæn ræmæq da∫tæn sæfa da∫tæn saman da∫tæn sepas da∫tæn sud da∫tæn tab da∫tæn tæ∫æxos da∫tæn tæadol da∫tæn tæb da∫tæn tæfavot da∫tæn tæhædob da∫tæn tæhæmol da∫tæn tæmævol da∫tæn tæqædom da∫tæn tæzad da∫tæn vagir da∫tæn vir da∫tæn vojud da∫tæn

communication have nobility have despotism have specialty have activity have sin have capacity have presence have adequacy have quality have deserving have need have expertise have taste have moisture have result have appearance have representation have stamina have foundation have deserving have loss have life have fun have welfare have gratitude have benefit have warp have speciality have balance have fever have difference have convexity have tolerance have richness have priority have opposition have contagion have desire have existence have

be in communication with be of noble decent act dictatorially have a specialty be active be sinful to mistreat have capability be present be sufficient be qualified be deserving be needed be an expert have taste be moist be fruitful stand out, have an effect have a representative be strong have a basis be fit for be defrauded be lively be fun be settled be thankful be profitable be warped have a speciality be balanced have a fever have a difference be convex be tolerant be rich have priority have opposition be contagious crave exist

172 zærfiyæt da∫tæn zian da∫tæn zur da∫tæn

CHAPTER 4 capacity have loss have strength have

have the capacity suffer a loss be strong

DA∫TÆN: Have: State of Mind: Transient Meaning: have a particular attitude. pv: noun—a transient attitude. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state. ∫ærm da∫tæn ∫egoft da∫tæn adæt da∫tæn æza da∫tæn arezou da∫tæn bavær da∫tæn delalæt da∫tæn deriq da∫tæn e∫q da∫tæn e∫teha da∫tæn e∫tiaq da∫tæn ehtemal da∫tæn ehteram da∫tæn ehtiyaj da∫tæn eradæt da∫tæn erade da∫tæn etaæt da∫tæn etminan da∫tæn gæman da∫tæn hosele da∫tæn jædal da∫tæn jorræt da∫tæn matæm da∫tæn meyl da∫tæn mosælæm da∫tæn omid da∫tæn ozr da∫tæn qæm da∫tæn sorfe da∫tæn tæsob da∫tæn

shame have wonder have habit have mourning have wish have belief have implication have denied have love have appetite have enthusiasm have probability have respect have need have devotion have will have obedience have trust have opinion have patience have controversy have courage have mourning have appetite have certain have hope have excuse have chagrin have cough have prejudice have

be shameful of wonder at be used to mourn be wishful, wish believe in bode, reveal implication withhold have love for have an appetite for be enthused be probable be respectful need be devoted have will-power, be determined be obedient trust suspect have patience be conflicted with have courage be in mourning have appetite be certain of something have hope excuse oneself be chagrined need to cough have a prejudice

173

Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs tæmæ da∫tæn tænæfor da∫tæn tæqaza da∫tæn tærdid da∫tæn tæsmim da∫tæn tævæqo da∫tæn tæzælzol da∫tæn tæhæyor da∫tæn tækædor da∫tæn voquf da∫tæn xæbær da∫tæn yæqin da∫tæn

gluttony have hatred have request have hesitance have resolve have expectance have insecurity have surprise have offense have knowledge have news have certainty have

have excessive desire hate request be hesitant mind expect be insecure be surprised be offended know be informed be certain

DA∫TÆN: Have: State of Mind: Inherent Meaning: have a physical or psychological attitude. pv: noun—an inherent personality trait. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state. ædæb da∫tæn ærzani da∫tæn azærm da∫tæn bolhævæsi da∫tæn gozæ∫t da∫tæn hæng da∫tæn hæras da∫tæn jæriyan da∫tæn jediyæt da∫tæn keyf da∫tæn næxvæt da∫tæn orze da∫tæn ostovar da∫tæn qebahæt da∫tæn qeflæt da∫tæn qeyræt da∫tæn qorur da∫tæn sæbr da∫tæn tækæbor da∫tæn zærær da∫tæn

manners have generosity have piety have whim have forgiveness have personality have fear have flow have seriousness have pleasure have arrogance have capability have solid have shame have negligence have honor have pride have patience have arrogance have loss have

have manners be generous be pious be whimsical be forgiving have personality be fearful have movement be serious, work seriously be pleasurable be arrogant be capable be solid, keep with principles be discrete be inattentive be protective of honor be proud have patience act arrogantly be bad for you

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DA∫TÆN: Consider Meaning: see or consider something or someone in a particular manner. pv: adjective—attitude towards the object. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: state. æjæb da∫tæn æziz da∫tæn gerami da∫tæn hormæt da∫tæn jayez da∫tæn mæhsub da∫tæn moæzæm da∫tæn mohkæm da∫tæn næng da∫tæn naxo∫ da∫tæn nik da∫tæn qæbul da∫tæn qænimæt da∫tæn ræva da∫tæn vajeb da∫tæn xo∫ da∫tæn

strange have dear have dear have reverence have appropriate have counted have highest esteem have strong have shame have bad have good have assent have trophy have permissive have necessary have happy have

deem strange (poetic) hold dear hold dear have reverence for deem appropriate consider hold in high esteem hold strongly consider shameful take as a bad sign take as a good omen maintain as true consider important deem acceptable deem necessary take as a good sign

DA∫TÆN: Possess Meaning: be in possession of something. pv: noun—entity possessed. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state. baqi da∫tæn bimar da∫tæn edrar da∫tæn ejaze da∫tæn etela da∫tæn extiyar da∫tæn ezn da∫tæn forsæt da∫tæn gova da∫tæn ja da∫tæn kar da∫tæn

remainder have sick have urine have permission have information have choice have permission have occasion have witness have place have work have

have extras have sick person (to take care of ) have to urinate have permission be informed have the choice have permission have a chance have a witness have a place be employed

175

Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs læqæb da∫tæn mæjal da∫tæn mæmuriyæt da∫tæn mærqum da∫tæn mæskæn da∫tæn næsib da∫tæn niaz da∫tæn pænah da∫tæn pæyam da∫tæn qærar da∫tæn tæsælot da∫tæn væqt da∫tæn

4.5

title have opportunity have mission have written have residence have share have need have harbor have message have appointment have control have time have

be known as have the opportunity have or be on a mission be written reside have a share need be harbored have a message have an appointment be in control have time, have a chance

Aværdæn ‘To Bring’

AVÆRDÆN: Cause Motion: Position Meaning: bring something to a certain position. pv: noun—a final position. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. bala aværdæn færahæm aværdæn færaz aværdæn forud aværdæn gerd aværdæn gir aværdæn hæm aværdæn jæm aværdæn næzdik aværdæn pæs aværdæn payin aværdæn pi∫ aværdæn

up bring collected bring again bring down bring round bring hold bring together bring assembly bring near bring behind bring down bring front bring

AVÆRDÆN: Position: To Place Meaning: bring something to a certain position. pv: preposition be ‘to’ + noun—a final position.

throw up, vomit bring together bring back cause to descend bring together get a hold of, find bring to a closure assemble bring near return something throw down, lower bring something up

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bring about

expression

elæt [excuse] hojæt [reason]

mive [fruit] emtiaz object [point] bæt∫e [child]

ju∫ [boi] bænd [blocked]

bring forth

gir [grasp] payin [down] næzdik

be hu∫

be donya [to world]

to place [to consciousness]

xub [good]

be dæst [to hand

fortune

nik [good]

mental taqæt [tolerance] eteqad qeira [belief] [pride]

position [close]

attain

cause motion

physical

t∫ærbi [fat] pust [skin]

læk [stain]

AVÆRDÆN [to bring]

figure 32 Semantic space of the lv aværdæn ‘to bring’.

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Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. be dæst aværdæn be donia aværdæn be hu∫ aværdæn be ja aværdæn be sær aværdæn be tæng aværdæn be xater aværdæn be yad aværdæn be zæban aværdæn

to hand bring to world bring to awareness bring to place bring to head bring to press bring to mind bring to memory bring to tongue bring

obtain give birth make conscious recognize, place someone/thing bring to completion annoy, press to the limit remember remember name

AVÆRDÆN: Attain: Fortune Meaning: have good or bad fortune. pv: noun—chance or the equipment that determines a fortune. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. bæd aværdæn dæst aværdæn nik aværdæn tas aværdæn xub aværdæn

bad bring hand bring good bring die bring good bring

have bad luck have a good hand have good luck have good luck with dice have good luck

AVÆRDÆN: Attain: Mental Meaning: achieve a state of mind or state of being. pv: noun—a state or status. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. eteqad aværdæn nam aværdæn naz aværdæn qeiræt aværdæn tæb aværdæn taqæt aværdæn

belief bring name bring coquetry bring honor bring fever bring endurance bring

come to believe in become famous act coquetry become honor-bound develop fever endure

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AVÆRDÆN: Attain: Physical Meaning: accumulate (involuntarily) some physical thing on one’s body. pv: noun—a physical thing being accumulated. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ab aværdæn bad aværdæn gu∫t aværdæn læk aværdæn pih aværdæn pust aværdæn t∫ærbi aværdæn

water bring swell bring meat bring stain bring cellulite bring skin bring fat bring

accumulate water in a boil swell gain weight develop dark spots develop cellulite develop scab accumulate fat

AVÆRDÆN: Bring About Meaning: cause a change in another entity or act on it in a certain way. pv: noun—an action or physical condition (or cause of). Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. bænd aværdæn dærd aværdæn feshar aværdæn hal aværdæn ju∫ aværdæn ke∫ aværdæn xun aværdæn zur aværdæn

blockage bring pain bring pressure bring health bring boil bring elastic bring blood bring force bring

block cause pain put pressure on rejuvinate bring to a boil stretch cause to bleed put under pressure

AVÆRDÆN: Bring Forth: Object Meaning: bring something, yield something. pv: noun—a physical or psychological thing. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. bæt∫e aværdæn emtiaz aværdæn mive aværdæn tohfe aværdæn

child bring point bring fruit bring present bring

have a child score a point bear fruit give a cheap gift (derogatory)

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AVÆRDÆN: Bring Forth: Express Meaning: express, bring forth as something representative. pv: noun—a type of expression. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. bæhane aværdæn dælil aværdæn elæt aværdæn govah aværdæn hojæt aværdæn mesal aværdæn ozr aværdæn pasox aværdæn

4.6

pretext bring reason bring excuse bring evidence bring reason bring example bring apology bring answer bring

make excuses give a reason bring forth as an excuse, explain cite evidence give a logical explanation give an example give an excuse as apology answer

Amædæn ‘To Come’

AMÆDÆN: Move: Position Meaning: put oneself into a position. pv: noun—a position. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. gerd amædæn gir amædæn jæm amædæn kenar amædæn pædid amædæn pædidar amædæn payin amædæn sær amædæn

round come hold come collected come edge come visible come visible come down come end come

assemble be attained assemble step aside appear appear move lower end

AMÆDÆN: Move: To Place Meaning: appear in a position or place. pv: preposition be ‘to’ + noun—a position or place. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement.

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nayel [achiever]

overcome with

xab [sleep]

dærd [pain]

qelqelæk [tickle]

piruz [victorious] end up

kargær turn [worker] out lazem [necessary]

become

appear æjæb [strange]

e∫ve [coquetry] act

AMÆDÆN [to come]

bahu∫ [intelligent]

figure 33 Semantic space of the lv amædæn ‘to come’.

t∫e∫m o æbru [eye and eybrow]

emerge

move

bu [smell] emanation xun [blood]

kenar [side]

payin [down] næzdik [close]

position

bænd [blocked]

be hu∫ [to consciousness]

be dæst [to hand]

be donya [to world]

to place

state

ju∫ [boi]

zelzele [earthquake]

baran [rain]

weather bad [wind]

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Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs be dæst amædæn be donya amædæn be hu∫ amædæn be kar amædæn be qeiræt amædæn be sær amædæn

to hand come to world come to intelligence come to work come to honor come to head come

be obtained be born regain consciousness be put to use defend honor, become zealous reach the limit

AMÆDÆN: Move: State Meaning: come to have a property. pv: noun—a property. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment or achievement. bænd amædæn hal amædæn ja amædæn ju∫ amædæn kæm amædæn ke∫ amædæn qaser amædæn

blocked come health come place come boil come few come elastic come short come

become blocked be rejuvinated be restored boil run short of stretch come short of

AMÆDÆN: Emerge: Weather Meaning: undergo some meteorological happening. pv: noun—a meteorological event. Argument structure: (no argument) lvc Aspect: activity. bad amædæn baran amædæn zelzele amædæn

wind come rain come earthquake come

be windy rain occurring of anearthquake

AMÆDÆN: Emerge: Emanation Meaning: perceive or endure an emanating entity. pv: noun—the entity being perceived. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. bu amædæn neda amædæn xun amædæn

smell come message come blood come

have a smell perceived have a message received bleed

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AMÆDÆN: Become: Appear Meaning: have or appear to have certain characteristics. pv: adjective—a trait. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state. æjæb amædæn bahu∫ amædæn napæsænd amædæn pæsænd amædæn qærib amædæn

strange come intelligent come unaccepted come admired come strange come

appear strange appear intelligent appear unacceptable be acceptable appear weird

AMÆDÆN: Become: Turn Out Meaning: turn out to have a trait. pv: adjective—a trait. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. bæs amædæn bæsande amædæn dærxor amædæn do∫var amædæn karbær amædæn kargær amædæn lazem amædæn næfe amædæn vajeb amædæn

enough come sufficient come worthy come difficult come conclude come worker come necessary come stuck come imperative come

suffice suffice be worthy of end up difficult help conclude a task end up being functional turn out to be key become pinned become imperative

AMÆDÆN: Become: End Up Meaning: become something. pv: adjective—the property the subject attains. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. nayel amædæn piruz amædæn vaqef amædæn

achieve come victory come aware come

overcome, achieve become victorious become aware

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AMÆDÆN: Overcome With Meaning: be overcome with an emotion or attitude towards something. pv: noun—the emotion or attitude. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ∫ærm amædæn bæd amædæn dærd amædæn heif amædæn

shame come bad come pain come waste come

meil amædæn qelqelæk amædæn xab amædæn xo∫ amædæn zur amædæn

inclination come tickle come sleep come good come effort come

become ashamed dislike hurt want to preserve, reluctant to part become favorably inclined be tickled feel drowsy like feel hesitant

AMÆDÆN: Act Meaning: act pompously or coquettishly. pv: noun—a type of attitude. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment. e∫ve amædæn poz amædæn qeroqæmze amædæn qopi amædæn t∫e∫moæbru amædæn t∫osi amædæn

4.7

coquetry come show-off come coquetry come brag come coquetry come fart come

Bordæn ‘To Take’

BORDÆN: Require Meaning: require resources. pv: noun—a resource. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: state.

act coquettishly show off act coquettishly, over the top brag act coquettishly self-aggrandize

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gerogan [hostage]

capture

ræng [color] mæqz [brain] wear off gu∫ [ear]

del [heart] external

self mat [awe]

xab [sleep]

pæs [return] foru [down]

pi∫ [ahead]

zen [judgement]

in direction

figure 34 Semantic space of the lv bordæn ‘to take’.

from place

gæman [suspicion]

hæsræt [regret]

rænj [sufferance]

ers [inheritance]

benefit næf [benefit]

lezzæt [pleasure]

emotion

væqt [time]

enerji [energy]

require

sud [profit]

acquire

eteqad [faith]

æz miyan æz bein [from between] [from between] æz pi∫ [from ahead]

carry

BORDÆN [to carry]

suspect

∫æk [doubt]

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Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs enerji bordæn eteqad bordæn sæbr bordæn væqt bordæn zæman bordæn

energy take belief take patience take time take time take

require energy require dedication or belief require patience require time require time (take time)

BORDÆN: Acquire: Emotion Meaning: endure an emotion. pv: noun—an endured emotion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. hæsæd bordæn hæsræt bordæn lezzæt bordæn rænj bordæn tæmæ bordæn xejalæt bordæn

envy take regret take pleasure take suffering take greed take shame take

envy long for take pleasure suffer be greedy be ashamed

BORDÆN: Acquire: Benefit Meaning: benefit from a thing or situation. pv: noun—benefit. Argument structure: N1 æz N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. ers bordæn fayede bordæn næf bordæn natije bordæn sud bordæn

inheritance take benefit take benefit take result take profit take

inherit benefit benefit learn a lesson benefit

BORDÆN: Suspect Meaning: suspect. pv: noun—a guess, doubt, suspicion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ∫æk bordæn gæman bordæn

suspicion take guess take

suspect guess

186 pey bordan zen bordæn

CHAPTER 4 discovery take guess take

discover guess

BORDÆN: Capture: Self Meaning: be overwhelmed or seized with something. pv: noun—the nature of the seizing feeling. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. mat bordæn xab bordæn

aghast take sleep take

be aghast fall asleep

BORDÆN: Capture: External Meaning: take, capture, steal. pv: noun—the thing being taken. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. del bordæn gero bordæn gerogan bordæn

heart take stake take hostage take

steal someone’s heart take as stake, hostage take hostage

BORDÆN: Wear Off Meaning: wear off. pv: noun—the thing that is being worn off. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: activity. gu∫ bordæn mæqz bordæn ræng bordæn sær bordæn taqæt bordæn

ear take brain take color take head take patience take

BORDÆN: Carry: In Direction Meaning: take into a direction in time or space. pv: noun—a position in time or space. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: accomplishment or achievement.

talk someone’s ear off talk someone’s brain out remove tint, make pale talk someone’s head off wear someone’s patience thin

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Clusters Of Productivity In Eight More Lvs æqæb bordæn foru bordæn jelo bordæn pæs bordæn pi∫ bordæn

back take down take front take behind take front take

turn backward insert carry forward return something make progress

BORDÆN: Carry: From Place Meaning: take from a position. pv: preposition æz ‘from’ + noun—the position from which the entity is taken. Argument structure: N1 N2 lvc Aspect: achievement. æz bein bordæn æz miyan bordæn æz pi∫ bordæn

4.8

from middle take from middle take from front take

take away, destroy take away, destroy accomplish

Ræftæn ‘To Go’

RÆFTÆN: Move: To State Meaning: go to a position or use. pv: preposition be ‘to’ + noun—the position or use. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. be fæna ræftæn be kar ræftæn

to doom go to work go

be doomed be used

RÆFTÆN: Move: From State Meaning: go from a position. pv: preposition æz ‘from’ + noun—the position from which the subject leaves. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. æz beyn ræftæn æz dæst ræftæn æz mian ræftæn æz xod ræftæn æz yad ræftæn

from middle go from hand go from middle go from self go from memory go

disappear, die be lost disappear, die faint forget

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næzdik [near]

payin [down]

æqæb position [back]

næværd [traversal] activity

gærde∫ [excursion]

go

zæf [weakness]

gij [dizziness] become

RÆFTÆN [to go]

hædær [waste]

carry out næværde nezami pi∫vaz [military motion] [greeting] ∫irje [dive] figure 35 Semantic space of the lv ræftæn ‘to go’.

move

be fæna [to doom] be kar to state [to work]

æz yad [from memory]

from place æz xod [from self] æz dæst [from hand]

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RÆFTÆN: Carry Out Meaning: act out a procedure. pv: noun—a procedure. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. ∫irje ræftæn dive go næværd-e-nezami ræftæn military motion go pi∫vaz ræftæn greeting go

dive exercise military manoeuvers greet at door

RÆFTÆN: Go: Activity Meaning: go out, walk. pv: noun—a path or a place. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment or activity. dædær ræftæn gærde∫ ræftæn rah ræftæn

out go excursion go path go

go out (child talk) go out on an excursion walk

RÆFTÆN: Go: Position Meaning: go in a certain direction relative to something. pv: noun or preposition—the direction of motion. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: accomplishment or activity. æqæb ræftæn bala ræftæn baz ræftæn birun ræftæn foru ræftæn næzdik ræftæn pæs ræftæn payin ræftæn pi∫ ræftæn

back go up go again go out go into go close go behind go down go ahead go

retreat ascend go back go out sink go close retreat descend progress

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RÆFTÆN: Drift Meaning: drift into an uncontrolled state. pv: noun—an uncontrollable feeling or state. Argument structure: N1 lvc Aspect: achievement. gij ræftæn hædær ræftæn qæ∫ ræftæn va ræftæn zæf ræftæn

dizzy go waste go faint go apart go weakness go

become dizzy go to waste laugh to the point of fainting fall apart, give up become weak, faint

CHAPTER 5

Alternating Clusters In this chapter, the semantic spaces introduced in the previous chapters will be used to explore lv interactions in a larger perspective of semantic space. Using diagrams and descriptions based on clusters of productivity, I will show how these not only provide a structure for productivity within an lv, but they also allow prediction of other collocations using different lvs. In certain cases, for a given pv, its occurrence with different lvs will result in different but highly related meanings. This occurs productively at the cluster level: sets of similar pvs occur with two different lvs. The resulting meaning differences often revolve around aspectual or other grammatical properties. However, changing an lv can also result in idiosyncratic differences, which will also be discussed in this chapter. This productive property of the system allows even faster understanding and retrieval of new collocations. I will present previous studies that have highlighted this phenomenon in other languages. Then, I will provide a few examples from Persian and describe the language specific patterns of the system, and how these productive alternations can be understood within the framework presented in this book. 5.1

Past Studies on Alternating Constructions

5.1.1 Alternations in Other Languages In her article on English lvcs, Wierzbicka (1982) discusses the alternations between the have a v and the take a v constructions. She posits that the have a v construction “belongs to a family of constructions which includes at least two other members: take a v and give a v” (p. 337). The systematic alternations between the have a v and take a v constructions do not encompass all possible instances of either construction. She gives the list in (57) as examples of alternating and non-alternating pairs (p. 338). (57) Alternating and non-alternating pairs of English collocations have a look at take a look at have a bath take a bath have a walk take a walk have a lick take a lick have a sip take a sip

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004274419_006

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CHAPTER 5 have a play have a read have a cry have a cough have a pee have a try have a look for have a think have a suck have a chew have a listen have a feel have a chat have a cuddle *have a dive *have a leap *have a step

*take a play *take a read *take a cry *take a cough take a pee *take a try *take a look for *take a think ?take a suck *take a chew *take a listen *take a feel *take a chat *take a cuddle take a dive take a leap take a step

According to Wierzbicka, individual lv features block a full-scale alternation between these two lvs’ collocations. For example, the semantic invariant of the take a v construction requires that the action start at a definite moment in time, characterized by an initial, momentary impulse, which usually involves a deliberate physical motion. And unlike the have a v construction, which allows repetitive or aimless movements, the take a v construction is unitary, quick, and requires a voluntary subject who knows what he wants and takes an initiative. However, due to the contributions from the deverbal complement, alternations emerge to express different but related actions, despite inherent differences in lv meaning. Wierzbicka does not specify the constraints on this alternation. In her study on English lvs, Brugman (2001) highlights the alternation between the lvs take and give. She posits that the former lv refers to subjective experiences, whereas the latter refers to other oriented actions or to the potential utility of the action towards an object (p. 569). In certain cases, the same complement can occur with either of these lvs to express specific differences in meaning. Butt (1997) shows that Urdu lvs de ‘give,’ le ‘take’ and daal ‘put’ require ergative subjects while par ‘fall’ and bait ‘sit’ cannot occur with pvs that require a subject with conscious choice. However, some pvs can occur with different lvs, giving rise to semantic differences. Furthermore, different lvs result in

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different case restrictions in Urdu, allowing for more explicit clues on the meaning variations involved. Similar to lvcs in other languages, lvcs in Persian often resist a fully compositional analysis. Their meaning lies in their constructions, and depends highly on the semantic and word class restrictions of the pv. However, as observed in the English examples, the semantic opacity of these constructions does not affect alternation possibilities. Consider again the construction go N, where N is any expression meaning crazy, and the construction meaning is ‘go crazy’ (e.g. go bananas, go bonkers, go nuts). This semi-productive construction is highly idiomatic, but alternates systematically with drive N to mean ‘cause to go crazy.’ Knowing that a collocation using ‘go’ exists (e.g. go cuckoo) allows us to access the form with ‘drive’ immediately (e.g. drive cuckoo), without having to store each lexically specified structure as a separate lexical entry. 5.1.2 Alternations in Persian In order to study alternation patterns, lvcs must be first grouped together based on a particular pv. Some examples are listed below in (58), for the pvs ab ‘water,’ sær ‘head,’ and zæmin ‘ground.’ (58) Collocations with the same pv (a) pv ab ‘water’ ab ∫odæn water become ab dadæn water give ab gereftæn water get ab ke∫idæn water pull ab oftadæn water fall ab ræftæn water go

melt, dissolve give a drink of water, irrigate juice rinse become watery, become flooded shrink

(b) pv sær ‘head’ sær ∫odæn sær amædæn sær aværdæn sær dadæn sær gereftæn sær kærdæn sær ke∫idæn sær ræftæn sær xordæn sær zædæn

come to an end surpass, attain perfection bring to an end free, let go take a good turn, come into effect put or wear on the head, to begin drink up, supervise overflow, boil over be discouraged, disappointed inspect briefly, impromptu visit

head become head come head bring head give head get head do head pull head go head eat head hit

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(c) pv zæmin ‘earth’ zæmin ændaxtæn zæmin oftadæn zæmin xordæn zæmin zædæn

earth throw earth fall earth eat earth hit

throw down drop down fall down (negative connotation) hit against the ground

As can be seen for each of the three cases in (53), changing the lv changes the meaning of the collocation in a variety of ways. Grammatical and aspectual properties (e.g. event-type, duration) have been posited as underlying meaning differences in alternations (e.g. Folli et al., 2004; Megerdoomian, 2002). Though these types of meaning differences might be crucial to large-scale alternations where many pvs are shared by two lvs, no lv alternates fully with another lv. Rather, a subset of collocations might occur with a different lv, which in turn will be a subset of possible collocations with the second lv. More idiosyncratic traits involving perceptual or other cognitive features are needed to account for certain alternations. Features related to perception and real-world knowledge are also necessary for determining the meaning of some lvcs and their alternations. The notion of clusters of productivity allows for a global view of how different parts of the system interconnect. 5.2

Alternations: A Case of Shared Clusters

Goldberg (1995) argues that the repertoire of constructions is not unstructured, but systematically organized across constructions, which form networks. In CxG, the relation between “two constructions is quite analogous to a rule that the existence of one form can be used to predict the existence of the other form” (p. 138). These rules can relate to features such as aspect and argument structure, amongst others. Two or more lvs can share clusters, where corresponding lvcs express two different but related notions. Hence, a cluster found for an lv, regardless of its level of productivity, might signal the existence of other constructions with another lv (as in the go/drive alternation in English). This allows for further alleviation of redundant collocation entries in the lexicon. Most lvs share some of their clusters with one or more lvs, but not all of their clusters. Different alternations form the basis for different meaning differences. Large alternation sets, where many clusters are shared between two lvs can usually be characterized by a difference in aspectual or grammatical properties. Smaller alternations, where only one or a limited number of clusters are shared, underlie more semantically nuanced variations in meaning. As we saw

Alternating Clusters

195

in the previous chapter, lvs occur in many lvcs to express a large variety of meanings and usually a variety of aspectual readings, which make full-scale alternations impossible. Karimi-Doostan (1997) claims that for every Transition lv, there is one or more Initiatory counterpart. However, he does not indicate how this counterpart is chosen from the available lvs, nor what limits their alternation patterns. Megerdoomian (2002) also discusses aspectual alternations between lvs gereftæn ‘to get’ and ke∫idæn ‘to pull.’ She claims that gereftæn is a bounded action, representing the culmination of an event that affects the subject (unaccusative), whereas ke∫idæn expresses an unbounded, durational event where the subject is the agent or the initiator (unergative). However, this again only holds for a selected number of the lvcs possible with gereftæn and ke∫idæn, respectively. Understanding the process through which these shared clusters interact may allow us to predict other lvcs in the system. In the next section, I will describe a general alternation pattern between two of the most frequent lvs: kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become.’ I will then focus on alternations involving other lvs and features underlying their respective meaning differences. 5.2.1 Alternations between kærdæn and ∫odæn A large subset of lvcs constructed with ∫odæn ‘to become,’ as in example (59a), are inchoative/unaccusative alternants to certain transitive forms occurring with kærdæn ‘to do’, shown in (59b). (59) Alternations between lvs ∫odæn ‘to become’ and kærdæn ‘to do’ (a) Collocation with ∫odæn ‘to become’ mahin bidar ∫od. Mahin awake become.past.3S Mahin woke up. (b) Collocation with kærdæn ‘to do’ hadi mahin ra bidar kærd. Hadi Mahin acc awake do.past.3S Hadi woke Mahin up.

lvcs formed with ∫odæn are telic, as opposed to the atelic ones formed with kærdæn. However, two of kærdæn’s four clusters express achievements, which are telic events. These telic clusters alternate with clusters in ∫odæn’s semantic space. For this alternation, an aspectual reading is salient. Using the diagrams presented in the previous chapter, we can capture these alternations through

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the sharing of clusters between the two lvs, as shown in Figure 36. Not all clusters of kærdæn alternate with ∫odæn, and vice versa. The shared clusters have been highlighted in a darker shade, and only one of the two cluster labels is kept if the labels of the original clusters differ between the two lvs. ræha [free] kæj [bent]

xo∫k [dry]

geriye [cry]

state change

∫uxi [joke] do

zendegi [life]

sorx [blush] zeræng [clever]

undergo

atæ∫i [enraged]

∫ODÆN [to become]

pærdaxt [payment]

KÆRDÆN [to do]

action montæqel [transfer]

undergo e∫are [point]

qolqol [bubble]

tæb [fever] qæ∫ [faint]

figure 36 Alternations between lvs kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become’.

Folli et al. (2004) propose that certain ∫odæn collocations, namely those in the Internal cluster here do not have corresponding collocations constructed with kærdæn (p. 19), as can be seen in the sentence pairs (from Folli et al., 2004) in (60). (60) Alternations between lvs ∫odæn ‘to become’ and kærdæn ‘to do’ (a) Collocation with ∫odæn ‘to become’ kimea sorx ∫od. Kimea red become.past.3sg Kimea blushed. (b) Ungrammatical collocation with kærdæn ‘to do’ papar kimea-ro sorx kærd. Papar Kimea-acc red do.past.3sg *Papar made Kimea blush.

The collocation in (60a) is unaccusative, but the unacceptable alternate with kærdæn in (60b) cannot have a causative reading because blushing is an internally caused reaction and cannot occur with an agent, unless it is used in a

197

Alternating Clusters

periphrastic construction expressing indirect causation. Vahedi-Langrudi (1996) points out that real-world knowledge is necessary to block certain alternations with kærdæn (p. 192). In English, *she blushed me is unacceptable, as is *he feistied me (intended meaning: he made me feisty). Internal states of this kind cannot go through this derivation. The same restrictions hold for the Persian data. This also sheds light on the non-compositional property of the kærdæn constructions as a whole, in the sense that kærdæn cannot be taken to mean simply ‘to cause to.’ Conversely, kærdæn can form inherently unergative actions, which cannot alternate with ∫odæn (Megerdoomian, 2002; Folli et al., 2004). As these lvcs are already intransitive, they cannot partake in the transitivity alternations with ∫odæn. The diagram of these two lvs serves an as example of how this phenomenon can be visualized in the present framework. Not all lvcs alternate between two lvs, but alternations can highlight elements of meaning that are particularly salient in semantic clusters. As we will see with some clusters, an alternation can partly determine and distinguish a cluster in the semantic space of an lv. In the next sections, I explore lvs with richer semantic spaces, namely those of zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ dadæn ‘to give,’ and gereftæn ‘to get.’ 5.2.2 Alternations between zædæn and xordæn One group of clusters formed with zædæn ‘to hit’ expresses roughly the of notion affecting. The lv xordæn ‘to eat’ combines with the same set of pvs to express the non-agentive action in the group of clusters labeled as be affected. Karimi (1997) labels zædæn and xordæn as causative/unaccusative pairs, respectively, based on alternating collocations like those in (61). (61) Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’ t∫aqu zædæn knife hit injure with a knife t∫aqu xordæn knife eat get wounded by a knife gul zædæn gul xordæn

trick hit trick eat

trick be tricked

gereh zædæn gereh xordæn

knot hit knot eat

tie a knot get tied into a knot

bæxiye zædæn bæxiye xordæn

stitch hit stitch eat

stitch get stitches

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Megerdoomian (2002) uses minimal lvc pairs like those above to illustrate transitivity alternations. Namely, she claims that transitive clauses with zædæn ‘hit’ can be replaced by their “unaccusative counterparts” to provide the intransitive version of the same clause (p. 82). A subset of xordæn constructions expresses the intransitive, unaccusative, inchoative meanings, while the same pv used with zædæn produces a causative and otherwise agentive action, similar to the alternations between kærdæn and ∫odæn presented above. Folli et al. (2004) label zædæn as a semelfactive activity verb and xordæn as its inchoative counterpart. However, this pertains to only this subset of clusters, and not to all the lvcs with zædæn that alternate with xordæn are necessarily semelfactive. Vahedi-Langrudi (1996) claims that zædæn functions primarily as a simple activity verb, and that the pvs that occur with it qualify as instruments, handled by an agent to change the state of another entity. Xordæn, on the other hand, expresses experiencing a change of state caused by something external through coming into contact with an instrument. These descriptions again hold for certain collocations and not others. It is apparent that Persian speakers use intuitive rules to determine the relationship between these two lvs. In general, they know that they can express causing a change of state with zædæn, and undergoing a change of state with xordæn. As with the examples for kærdæn and ∫odæn, two constructions are associated to each shared cluster, one with xordæn and the other with zædæn. With xordæn, the subject is a patient, while with zædæn, the subject is agent of the same action. This meaning alternation is similar to the alternation between kærdæn and ∫odæn, only with a larger set of clusters. The link between the two lvs can be visualized in Figure 37. If we go back to the lv diagrams for zædæn and xordæn from the previous chapter, we see that the above diagram results from the fusion of the left and bottom branches of these diagrams, respectively. This suggests the existence of a system in which one collocation entails another. If the English words ‘missile’ or ‘dagger’ were introduced into Persian as loanwords, sustaining injury from the weapon would be expressed with xordæn while successfully injuring with would occur with zædæn, as in (62). Furthermore, knowing one collocation would entail knowing or coining the second, due to shared clusters. (62) Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’ with loanwords as pv misil zædæn ←→ misil xordæn dæger zædæn ←→ dæger xordæn

The advantage of a cluster account is that we can explain why the entirety of the lvcs constructed with one verb do not alternate with ones from another.

affect

hurt

attack

damage

blunt

hand held

trick

t∫æko∫ [hammer]

kard [knife]

færib [trick] hoqe [trick]

bæxiye [stich]

sædæme [damage]

mu∫æk [missile]

tir [bullet]

projectile

lægæd [kick]

sili [slap]

t∫aqu [knife]

gul [trick]

gere

topology [knot]

ta [fold]

qat∫ [chop]

lætme [damage]

dæst [hand] surface naxon [nail]

peyvænd [graft] repair

figure 37 Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’.

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

modify

fer [curl]

suzæn [needle]

attack

hurt

modified

be affected

XORDÆN [to eat]

Alternating Clusters

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Consider the following unacceptable alternation between zædæn and xordæn in (63). A tombæk ‘drum’ is not a sharp instrument with which one can attack and pierce or penetrate another entity. This provides evidence that zædæn cannot simply signify to attack, but rather occurs in a construction that expresses attack and penetrate an entity with a sharp instrument, which calls for a pv with particular perceptual and functional attributes. The ungrammaticality of these types of collocations lies in the specifications of the pv and the respective construction. (63) Ungrammatical alternation between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’ tombæk hit ‘to play the drum’ ←/→ *tombæk eat

Karimi (1997) suggests that a set of unaccusative lvs corresponds to a set of transitive lvs in Persian. However, she points out that the combination of lvs and pvs is restricted and therefore lvs cannot be generally interchangeable with their unaccusative counterparts (1997, p. 18). She suggests that the above form with xordæn is not acceptable because the pv tombæk can only combine with accomplishment events, and xordæn cannot. However, this does not explain how we get the constructional meanings, nor how alternations represent meaning change at the level of constructions. Alternations occur systematically, but only if we analyze the system through semantic clusters. The pv semantics and real-world knowledge constrain the meaning differences between alternating forms. It is not the case that the totality of branches extending from xordæn interconnects with those or even some of those extending from zædæn. Rather, the clusters shared between the two lvs come from the affect and be affected clusters from zædæn and xordæn, respectively. However, not even all branches extending from these two higher nodes connect with all those of the other lv’s. Vahedi-Langrudi (1996) posits that since zædæn has a wider range of aspectual properties than xordæn, not all of the lvcs of the two verbs can alternate. Also, xordæn expresses a certain independence from an external agent, whereas forms with zædæn require external control. He stresses that the “aspectual properties seem to have an effect on their combinability” (p. 239). However, this does not explain why all of xordæn’s clusters do not alternate with a subset of zædæn’s. A cluster analysis clearly sets limits on possible alternations in the system. While aspectual alternations might explain some largescale alternations like the one in Figure 37, smaller scale alternations also exist, where only one cluster is involved. These alternations in meaning do not usually stem from purely grammatical properties of the lvcs involved.

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Alternating Clusters

5.2.3 Finer-Grained Alternations Some alternations involve only one or two clusters, and not a big group of clusters like those seen in the previous section. One such instance can be observed when we expand the previous diagram to include clusters from the lvs ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ and ændaxtæn ‘to throw.’ These alternate with zædæn and xordæn in two separate clusters that involve weapons. Consider the following collocations in (64). (64) Alternations: ke∫idæn ‘to pull,’ ændaxtæn ‘to throw,’ zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat’ (a) pv t∫aqu ‘knife’ t∫aqu ke∫idæn knife pull pull a knife on someone *t∫aqu ændaxtæn knife throw (not valid) t∫aqu zædæn knife hit stab t∫aqu xordæn knife eat be stabbed (b) pv tir ‘bullet’ *tir ke∫idæn tir ændaxtæn tir zædæn tir xordæn

bullet pull bullet throw bullet hit bullet eat

(not valid)1 shoot a bullet shoot a bullet be shot (with a bullet)

In (64a), the pv t∫aqu ‘knife’ combines with ke∫idæn to mean roughly ‘pulling a knife on someone or threatening or attacking with a knife’ (without necessarily stabbing the person). The same pv combined with ændaxtæn in (64b) is unacceptable, because only projectile weapons combine with ændaxtæn. Conversely, in (64b), the collocation tir ke∫idæn (lit. bullet pull) is unacceptable, since a bullet is not a weapon that can be used manually by itself. The lvs ke∫idæn and ændaxtæn only share one cluster within the alternation patterns of zædæn and xordæn. Adding these to the previous diagram gives us the more elaborate Figure 38. Classification using clusters allows us to predict a third collocation from the connections within lv spaces. Reconsidering the example in (62a): if we introduce the loanword ‘missile’ to Persian, we can also predict a collocation with

1  In fact, tir ke∫idæn is a valid construction only with a homonym of tir, which means ‘searing pain,’ and not ‘a bullet.’ Tir has many homonyms (e.g. pole, the name of the 4th Persian calendar). Only tir, meaning ‘searing pain’ combines with ke∫idæn, all other homonyms are excluded from combining with this LV.

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202

ZÆDÆN [to hit] affect

ÆNDAXTÆN [to throw]

modify

hurt

suzæn [needle]

dæst [hand] surface naxon [nail]

sædæme [damage]

ta [fold] gere fer [knot] [curl] topology lætme [damage]

trick

sæt∫me [pellet]

hand held

kard [knife]

færib [trick] hoqe [trick]

repair

damage bæxiye [stich] qat∫ [chop]

golule [bullet]

t∫aqu [knife]

gul [trick]

peyvænd [graft]

attack

t∫æko∫ [hammer]

mu∫æk projectile tir [bullet] [missile]

sili [slap] blunt

lægæd [kick]

hurt

modified

attack

figure 38 Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ ke∫idæn ‘to pull,’ and ændaxtæn ‘to throw’.

be affected

XORDÆN [to eat]

KE∫IDÆN [to pull]

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Alternating Clusters

ændaxtæn and preclude one with ke∫idæn, whereas a pv like ‘dagger’ would show the opposite pattern, as in (65). (65) Collocations with loanwords as pv misil eat ←→ misil hit ←→ dæger eat ←→ dæger hit ←→

misil throw dæger pull

←/→ ←/→

*misil pull *dæger throw

Importantly, these examples show that specific attributes of the weapon pv allow or disallow combination with a third lv. The lvs do not alternate on purely grammatical or aspectual features, but rather on shared semantic restrictions of the constructions. The full verb meaning of ke∫idæn is ‘to pull’ or ‘to draw,’ an action that comes to mind when thinking of the motion of extending or drawing a weapon through the air towards a target in a controlled manner. The dynamic configuration of this action plays a large role in shaping the meaning of the corresponding construction. Similarly, the lv ændaxtæn ‘to throw’ encodes ideas of an initial impulse, a projection, and a trajectory. 5.2.4 Is it just Transitivity? Let us return to what seems at first glance to be a transitivity alternation between zædæn and xordæn. While transitivity alternations could underlie the meaning differences between these two lvs, other lvs also alternate with zædæn to express this same difference. The transitive-intransitive pairs with other lvs may preempt or block the creation of lvcs with xordæn. For example the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ alternates with zædæn to express the inchoative of certain causative clusters. The collocations in (66) come from a cluster shared between zædæn and gereftæn that expresses a process involving the absorption of something. (66) Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit’ and gereftæn ‘to get’ næm zædæn moisture hit wet, moisten næm gereftæn moisture get get moist or become damp atæ∫ zædæn atæ∫ gereftæn

fire hit fire get

set on fire catch fire

mærd-e divane xune-ye xod-æ∫ ra atæ∫ zæd. man-ez crazy home-ez himself-3sg acc fire hit.past.3sg The crazy man set fire to his own house.

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astin-æm ke næzdik-e ∫ole ∫od, atæ∫ gereft. sleeve-1sg that near-ez flame become.past.3sg. fire get.past.3sg As my sleeve got close to the flame, it caught fire.

Vahedi-Langrudi (1996, p. 240) explains that in this alternation, the pv does not count as an instrument and there is no physical or abstract repetitive movement or manipulation targeting the theme of the action (said to be representative of the zædæn/xordæn alternation). However, though no instruments are involved, there is no reason to suppose that no manipulation is involved in affecting the theme of the action. In the examples in (65), setting fire to something requires some kind of contact with it, as does moistening something. Furthermore, some alternations between zædæn and xordæn do not involve explicit instruments (e.g. the pvs sædæme ‘damage’ or kotæk ‘beating’). Another cluster alternation that further undermines the transitivity argument for the zædæn/xordæn alternations involves a cluster shared by both lvs and a third lv dadæn ‘to give.’ The examples of two different pvs occurring with each of the three lvs in (67) display the underlying meaning differences. (67) Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ and dadæn ‘to give’ qælt zædæn somersault hit do a somersault qælt xordæn somersault eat ‘undergo’ a somersault qælt dadæn somersault give make something flip over t∫ærx zædæn t∫ærx xordæn t∫ærx dadæn

turn hit turn eat turn give

turn ‘undergo’ a turn make turn

In these collocations, both dadæn and zædæn express agentive actions, while only collocations with the former express causativity. The difference between zædæn and xordæn is subtle and involves intentionality. The use of zædæn suggests intentionality whereas xordæn expresses the same action without intention. These alternations can be captured as a three-way shared cluster as in Figure 39. The example sentences in (68) show that the subject of the collocations with zædæn is volitional and propels himself in a rotational movement, whereas the subject of the lvc with xordæn is inanimate and merely undergoes the movement. With dadæn, the subject of the resulting collocation imposes a movement on another entity. These differences become apparent in the examples in

205

Alternating Clusters

DADÆN [to give] impose

motion

pit∫ [turn] varune [sommersault]

qælt [sommersault]

move

rotation

ZÆDÆN [to hit]

move

XORDÆN [to eat]

figure 39 Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ and dadæn ‘to give’.

(68). Namely, dadæn expresses a transitive, causative action; zædæn expresses a conscious unergative action;2 and xordæn expresses an unconscious action. (68)

Alternations between lvs zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ and dadæn ‘to give’ ræqqas ba ritm-e musik t∫ærx mi-zæd. dancer with rhythm-ez music turn prog-hit.past.3sg The dancer spun to the rhythm of the music.

hævapeyma-ye kaqæzi dær hæva t∫ærx xord. airplane-ez paper in air turn eat.past.3sg The paper airplane turned in the air. mot∫-æ∫ ra gereft o do bar t∫ærx dad. wrist-3sg acc get.past.3sg and two times turn give.past.3sg He grabbed his wrist and twisted it around twice.

2  Interestingly, zædæn can also be used for inanimate objects in certain specific contexts (e.g. ma∫in t∫ænd bar t∫ærx zæd (li. car many times turn hit.past.3sg) ‘the car flipped over several times’).

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As we saw in the previous chapter, all three of these lvs produce both agentive as well as unergative lvcs (e.g. dadæn occurs in unergative collocations such as læm dadæn ‘to lean back on, relax’ (lit. lean give)). A cluster-based analysis allows us to define which collocations have these underlying features and which lvcs can alternate with others in the system. When we expand the view of the semantic spaces further, we see that dadæn and xordæn also share clusters that do not involve zædæn. Xordæn occurs in alternations with dadæn for certain clusters, with a similar meaning difference as those with zædæn. Some examples are listed in (69). (69) Alternations between lvs xordæn ‘to eat’ and dadæn ‘to give’ tækan xordæn shake eat shake (no causation) tækan dadæn shake give cause something to shake ∫ekænje xordæn ∫ekænje dadæn

torture eat torture give

be tortured torture

qose xordæn qose dadæn

grief eat grief give

grieve cause to grieve

nozul xordæn nozul dadæn

interest eat interest give

charge interest pay interest

In the last example above, both collocations take agents as subject. In the first case, the subject obtains money (note that this cluster in xordæn has negative connotations, expressing the notion of usury or of being unjust). In the second case (with dadæn), the subject gives or pays money. Importantly, because of the negative connation of the lvc with xordæn, these constructions cannot alternate in all contexts. Namely, the lvc with xordæn only occurs in contexts where the transaction is unjust, and might be due to a metaphorical extension of the full verb meaning of xordæn ‘to eat’ (implying gluttony). The more neutral receiving of money would be expressed by an analogous construction with gereftæn whose alternation with dadæn will be explored in the next section. The collocation pairs in (69) come from different clusters shared by xordæn and dadæn, as depicted in Figure 40. Vahedi-Langrudi (1996, p. 242) suggests that one of the differences between dadæn and zædæn is that the former causes events that occur with a continuous or permanent contact of two objects. Also the pvs occurring with dadæn are never instruments of contact, and the action expressed does not involve any sort of manipulation. The lvcs that alternate with dadæn express a longer activity than those with zædæn, which are usually abrupt or punctual. Furthermore, a cluster shared between zædæn and

207

Alternating Clusters

DADÆN [to give] ZÆDÆN [to hit] impose offer

move motion

nozul [interest] usurp

qose [grief] æzab [torment]

emotionally

tækan [motion] in place

qælt [sommersault]

rotation varune [sommersault]

re∫ve [bribe]

suffer

move

XORDÆN [to eat]

figure 40 Other alternations between lvs xordæn ‘to eat’ and dadæn ‘to give’.

xordæn that expresses ‘damaging something’ or ‘being damaged,’ respectively with each lv. According to Vahedi-Langrudi (1996), the lvcs of this cluster should alternate instead between dadæn and xordæn since the pv is not an instrument and the action is not abrupt. Part of the choice of dadæn over zædæn ( for the causative or agentive versions of lvcs constructed with xordæn) revolves around aspect: dadæn more often expresses accomplishments. However, this type of generalization does not hold when we take into account the totality of lvcs possible with each lv and their varied aspectual readings. 5.2.5 Alternations between dadæn and gereftæn Dadæn ‘to give’ and gereftæn ‘to get’ also possess a large number of shared clusters. Many of the alternations between these two lvs can be grossly characterized as unaccusative-inchoative alternations as with the zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’ alternating clusters. As full verbs, these verbs express two perspectives of a same action (i.e. giver-beneficiary): dadæn ‘to give’ expresses causing a transfer, and gereftæn ‘to get’ expresses receiving. The c­ orresponding

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lvs also express a similar type of semantic difference when occurring in alternating lvcs. Around fifteen clusters are shared between these two lvs, as partly exemplified by the collocations in (70). (70) Alternations between lvs dadæn ‘to give’ and gereftæn ‘to get’ ejaze dadæn permission give grant permission ejaze gereftæn permission get get permission næzær dadæn næzær gereftæn

opinion give opinion get

give an opinion get an opinion

pænah dadæn pænah gereftæn

refuge give refuge get

give refuge take refuge

sefare∫ dadæn sefare∫ gereftæn

order give order get

order take an order

dærs dadæn dærs gereftæn

lesson give lesson get

teach learn

∫ekl dadæn ∫ekl gereftæn

shape give shape get

give shape take shape

tærtib dadæn tærtib gereftæn

order give order get

put some order in something get organized

At first glance, alternations between these two verbs seem to reflect a transitivity difference. However, both lvs produce transitive and intransitive lvcs, and both alternate with other lvs to express this particular meaning difference. As with the zædæn/xordæn alternation, which spanned across a number of semantically related clusters, this alternation can also be depicted as such in a diagram, as in Figure 41. Furthermore, gereftæn and dadæn also share clusters that result in the change of the subject’s position in an event. Consider the following collocations in (71), where the subject remains a patient or theme, despite changing lvs. (71) Alternations between lvs dadæn ‘to give’ and gereftæn ‘to get’ (a) pv bu ‘smell’ bu dadæn smell give be smelly (emanate a smell) bu gereftæn smell get get smelly

209

Alternating Clusters qærar [position]

fasele [distance]

position

position

∫ekl [form] shape næq∫ [pattern] upon self

physical change

pose

assume

væ’ede [promise]

qol [assurance] dæstur [order]

contract

impose

færman [order] pasox [response]

DADÆN [to give] express

knowledge

sefare∫ [order]

order næzær [opinion]

receive

jævab [answer]

response

sæboq [precedence] dærs [lesson] lesson mædæd [help] help

offer provide

GEREFTÆN [to obtain]

info

komæk [aid]

obtain service

ælaj [cure] safety pænah [refuge] ∫æfa [cure] nozul [usury] maliat [taxes] money

bestow

favor

tærtib [order]

settlement saman [settlement] sor’æt [speed]

trait

roxsæt [permission] permissive

∫ohræt [fame]

ejaze [permission]

væqt [time] locational nobæt [turn] ja [place]

figure 41 Alternations between lvs dadæn ‘to give’ and gereftæn ‘to get’.

(b) pv jan ‘life’ jan dadæn jan gereftæn

life give life get

die be invigorated

In (71a), with dadæn, the subject smells, involuntarily giving off an odor, whereas, with gereftæn, the subject absorbs an odor. In the second pair, (71b), the subject gives up his life with dadæn, or receives or absorbs life energy with gereftæn. Instead of a transitivity difference, the underlying lvcs highlight the dynamic feature of direction of movement, or transfer, which plays an important role in the alternation, perhaps as an extension of the respective full verb meanings.

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5.3 Other lv Alternations Other lvs in Persian share clusters in the same vain as those explored in this chapter. Almost every lv shares a set of clusters with one other lv in the system, resulting in large-scale alternations, as with zædæn and xordæn or dadæn and gereftæn. As we saw for these lv pairs, when many semantically related clusters alternate, the meaning differences can usually be captured by grammatical properties, such as argument structure. Of the lvs that we described in Chapter 2, all lvs except for ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ and da∫tæn ‘to have’ share many clusters with one other lv in the system. Typical lv pairs are listed in (72). (72) Alternating lv pairs kærdæn ‘to do’ zædæn ‘to hit’ dadæn ‘to give’ ændaxtæn ‘to throw’ aværdæn ‘to bring’ bordæn ‘to take’

– – – – – –

∫odæn ‘to become’ xordæn ‘to eat’ gereftæn ‘to get’ oftadæn ‘to fall’ amædæn ‘to come’ ræftæn ‘to go’

The meaning differences expressed by these alternating lvs usually involves transitivity, where one lv expresses an agentive action and the other expresses the converse inchoative or unaccusative action. However, the alternating clusters must be learned on a case-by-case basis, just as with the constructions in individual lv spaces. While the pairs in (72) frequently alternate, as we saw in this chapter, many clusters in otherwise alternating pairs do not alternate or alternate with different lvs for some of their clusters. Furthermore, when the alternation involves more semantically nuanced meaning changes, smallerscale alternations occur, as was observed with ke∫idæn and ændaxtæn’s shared clusters with zædæn and xordæn earlier in the chapter. 5.4

Chapter Review

In this chapter, we explored further benefits of a constructionist and clusterbased analysis of lv semantic space. Namely, we showed that the alternations resulting from using the same pv, but different lvs result in meaning differences. These differences can be explained and captured using the cluster diagrams for the lvs introduced in the previous chapter. Alternations between kærdæn ‘to do’ and ∫odæn ‘to become’ show that certain lv pairs in the system can occur with the same pv but change in transitiv-

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ity. This can be visualized as connections between the semantic spaces of the individual lvs. Though these two lvs have a limited number of clusters in their respective spaces, we observe that not all clusters engage in alternations. While broad scale grammatical differences, such as aspect or causativity, can explain certain alternations, these top-down features do not explain why only some lvcs alternate between two lvs. A cluster-based analysis allows us to define clear limits on alternations. Exploring alternations between zædæn ‘to hit’ and xordæn ‘to eat’ allows us to observe this in more detail. Similar transitivity changes exist for many clusters, as in the alternations between dadæn ‘to give’ and gereftæn ‘to get.’ We observed that the alternations involving overarching meaning differences like transitivity involve sections, or groups of clusters, of the semantic spaces of each lv. However, when two or more lvs share isolated clusters, these alternations may reflect more semantically nuanced meaning differences. For example, some of the alternations involving ke∫idæn ‘to pull’ and ændaxtæn ‘to throw’ involve perceptual and dynamic features, and not grammatical features, per se. More nuanced meaning differences can also occur in certain clusters belonging to two lvs that otherwise alternate frequently. For example, dadæn ‘to give’ and gereftæn ‘to get,’ a pair of lvs that usually alternate based on transitivity or causativity of an action, can also share clusters based on the direction of the action, where the salient notion expressed through the lvc with dadæn is one of giving away, while the one with gereftæn expresses absorbing or taking in. Alternations demonstrate that clusters of productivity extend further than within-lv productivity in generating new collocations. lvs can share spaces and interconnect. Just as with clusters of productivity, patterns of alternations of these clusters must be learned on a case-by-case basis. In the next chapter, I will provide a recapitulation of the analysis presented so far, with a discussion on constructions and the potential applications of such an analysis.

CHAPTER 6

Reflections on Semantic Spaces and Constructions The descriptive analysis of Persian lvcs from the previous chapters provides a novel view of Persian semantic space involving clusters defined by one or more constructions. Persian lvcs are built upon functional and sometimes perceptual traits of the pv. The semantics and the real-world knowledge attributes of the pv play a crucial role in determining the meaning of an lvc. To take an example from the analysis, we saw that one of the constructions with dadæn ‘to give’ expresses the action of making an entity undergo a certain type of regimen or action, as in (73). (73) Collocations with lv dadæn ‘to give’ værze∫ dadæn exercise give pærvære∫ dadæn breed give ro∫t dadæn growth give ∫ost o ∫u dadæn cleansing give

make someone exercise raise grow clean

Instead of positing a highly idiosyncratic meaning to the lv like ‘constrain an entity to adhere to the process of,’ alongside dozens of other equally idiosyncratic meanings, I posit that the meaning of the collocations results from the interaction of the pv and the lv in the form of a construction. The speaker must learn the construction meaning that includes restrictions on the pv. In the case in (73), the pv must be a process of development or of physical conditioning. This restriction and the knowledge that dadæn occurs as an explicit lexical item in such a construction must be learned similar to lexical meaning and word formation rules. However, once learned, new forms can be constructed based on the meaning of the lvc. Another example from the analysis occurs with the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ when it occurs in a construction to express gathering to celebrate or commemorate something, specifically for socially important or festive occasions, as in the examples in (74). (74) Collocations with lv gereftæn ‘to get’ xætm gereftæn memorial get ærusi gereftæn wedding get tævælod gereftæn birthday get

have a memorial service throw a wedding have a birthday party

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If gereftæn simply meant to celebrate, then there would not be any restrictions on the pvs it combines with. However, the meaning of the construction emerges only with a specific type of pv. This meaning is not allotted to the pv or the lv, nor can the lvc be decomposed into meaningful parts. Rather, the meaning is allotted to the construction. When asked for the meaning of dadæn or gereftæn, Persian speakers will not respond with one of the idiosyncratic meanings of the constructions, as those expressed in (73) and (74). If these meanings were part of the polysemous repertoire of each verb, then we would expect at least some of them to emerge when Persian speakers list the meanings of each verb (for which they provide only the full, simple verb meanings). On the other hand, Persian speakers have no trouble recognizing and understanding constructional meaning when the lvs occur in context. The current approach captures this fact, and also allows us to get a global view of the meanings possible in constructions with particular lvs, how they are related, and how they interconnect with other lvs to make alternations possible. Certain constructions are completely semantically opaque: their semantics are unrelated to the constituent elements. Other constructions are totally compositional, where the motivations for particular meanings can be sought within the lexical meanings of the constituents. In this chapter, I discuss constructions, their structure, and how they provide both template and meaning in the vast system of collocations in Persian. I also discuss potential applications of this work, and end with a summary of the book. 6.1

On Constructions

6.1.1 Transparency and Productivity One of the most interesting and intriguing properties of Persian lvcs is their semi-transparent semantics. Collocations in Persian lie on a continuum, between idioms (i.e. opaque or frozen expressions) and fully transparent multi-word expressions. A handful of examples occur at these two extremes of transparency, while most lvcs fall somewhere in between. In transparent lvcs, the lv essentially contributes the equivalent of a full verb meaning. In these cases, like in the collocations in (75), the resulting lvc has a compositional meaning. In other words, the meaning of the construction is simply the sum of the meaning of its constituent parts.

214 (75) Semantically transparent collocations fekr kærdæn thought do re∫ve dadæn bribe give qævi ∫odæn strong become payin amædæn down come violon zædæn violin hit

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think pay a bribe become strong come down, descend play the violin

Clusters of totally transparent lvcs tend to be highly productive. For example, any type of state expressed by an adjective combined with ∫odæn expresses changing into that state as exemplified by the third collocation in (75). The lv need not retain its original meaning to occur in a transparent construction. Sometimes, it is sufficient to postulate a new, albeit related, verb meaning. For example, in the semantic space of zædæn, the cluster Musical Instrument produces a potentially infinite number of collocations. The construction takes musical instruments as pv and the lv zædæn as in the last example in (75). The meaning of the construction is equivalent to the English verb play, in the sense of ‘to perform on an musical instrument.’ In cases like these, positing constructions is equivalent to positing lexical rules that determine how the constituents combine. In other words, in these cases, the verb zædæn can be said to have a second meaning ‘to perform on a musical instrument.’ Type frequency of the pv in this construction could underlie the vast productivity of the construction. The more pvs occur in a construction, the more distinct the meaning of the lv becomes. Interestingly, these are the cases where the lv can be used in a sentence without an explicit pv to express the constructional meaning. Consider the sentence Ali t∫i mi-zæn-e? ‘What does Ali play?’ (lit. Ali what prog-hit.pres-3s). The lv zædæn here acts as a full verb and refers to playing an instrument, and an overt pv is not explicitly needed to trigger this meaning. A similar case involves pvs expressing diseases and the lv gereftæn. This lv, combined with any disease expresses catching that disease. Again, the constructional meaning has gotten entrenched to the point where gereftæn can be used without an overt pv (with enough discourse information) to convey this meaning. For example, the sentence mæn æz mohsen gereft-æm (lit. me from mohsen get.past-1s) means ‘I caught it from Mohsen,’ where the disease would be implied due to previous discourse context. These two cases, of the English translation equivalents of play and catch, represent the most transparent type of lvcs, where the constructional m ­ eaning has been absorbed by the lv. In fact, the verb zædæn has ‘to play an instrument’ as a second definition for a full verb meaning in Persian dictionaries (e.g.

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Haim, 1995). Just as with the English verbs play and catch, which both express polysemous meanings in different contexts, the Persian verbs can be considered as expressing a full second meaning in these cases. Not only does this transparent pattern not apply to most of the lvcs in Persian, but the type of syntactic flexibility exhibited by transparent lvcs is also not allowed for more opaque lvcs. Idiomatic lvcs represent the other extreme of the transparency continuum. These collocations are opaque, and they do not allow any morphosyntactic flexibility beyond usual modifications (e.g. allowing the verbal suffixes to attach to the inflected verb). Some examples of these collocations appear in (76). (76) Idiomatic collocations xo∫k zædæn dry hit left dadæn fat give tæmiz dadæn clean give ab qure gereftæn verjuice get gærdæn gereftæn neck get ja xordæn place eat ju∫ xordæn boil eat

freeze in fear drag out, procrastinate distinguish cry declare oneself responsible be very surprised worry

These collocations have fully idiomatic meanings in the sense that they are frozen expressions. The meaning of these collocations cannot be even remotely discerned from the meaning of its parts. Furthermore, gapping, scrambling, or replacing the pv with anaphora is not allowed. The most interesting and frequent cases of Persian lvcs fall between the two extremes of transparency. Most often, the contribution of its constituents cannot be fully accessed but the meaning of the whole contains features motivated by its constituents. Most constructions, while not completely transparent, have more syntactic and semantic freedom than idioms but less than fully transparent expressions. 6.1.2 Post-Hoc Meaning Attributions Nunberg et al. (1994) propose that most of the expressions loosely categorized as idioms are in fact idiomatically combining expressions. Most Persian lvcs fall in this in-between category, where the meaning of the construction is highly constrained by the meaning of its constituents, but only complete with the meaning of the construction itself. Karimi uses this term to describe collocations in Persian (Karimi, 1997, p. 23). In these expressions, conventional idiomatic interpretation is based on certain properties of the components (Nunberg et al., 1994, p. 503). Furthermore,

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f­ amilies of idiomatically combining expressions form when a same verb occurs in different constructions to form distinct but related idiomatically combining expressions. Unlike idioms, idiomatically combining expressions can undergo grammatical transformations and derivations. This description applies just as well to the constructions presented in this analysis. Karimi (1997) claims that only a handful of Persian lvcs can be considered idiomatic (as those in (76) above). She discusses certain non-productive lvcs with less transparent meanings (p. 24): Let us examine châne zadan (chin hitting=to negotiate) and xar kardan (donkey doing=to fool someone) with regard to their compositionality. Once we learn the meaning of these idiomatic cvs [collocations], we can see the relation between their parts. That is, châne zadan involves figuration indicating that negotiation requires moving the chin. Xar kardan, on the other hand, becomes transparent on the basis of the idiomatic meaning of xar ‘donkey’ which implies foolishness and stupidity: there is an apparent relation between the concrete and the abstract meaning of xar that provides the idiomatic meaning of the cv [collocation] xar kardan. While these post-hoc explanations of the meaning have explanatory value, and allow us to better understand motivations of meaning, they do not provide guidelines to predict these meanings in new collocations. Goldberg (1996, p. 154) explains this relationship between motivations and construction meaning: If one knows that a construction has a particular form, then it is sometimes the case that one may reasonably infer that it has the particular interpretation that it has. However, it is fallacious to argue that because we may be able to pragmatically infer the meaning of a construction, its existence is therefore predictable rather than conventionalized. Such reasoning is based solely on a model of interpretation, yet we also must account for production. Having an idea of constructional meanings of the semantic space of a given lv might help to decipher the meanings of new constructions or of predicting certain alternations. As argued in Karimi (1997), even seemingly opaque lvcs display some sort of motivation from the meaning of the ­constituents. While the motivations for certain meanings might not determine how other collocations are interpreted, these collocations can still serve as a basis for alternations. Many collocations that do not have transparent meanings, partake in alternations as in (77).

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(77) Alternations of semantically opaque collocations be doniya amædæn to world come be born be doniya aværdæn to world bring give birth to yad gereftæn yad dadæn

memory get memory give

learn teach

The meanings of these collocations cannot be directly inferred from their constituents. Despite their relatively opaque semantics, these collocations occur in productive alternations. These alternations might be based on related constructional meaning that serves as a blueprint for other semantically related collocations; even those not included in particular clusters. Positing polysemous verb meanings would not allow for such clear patterns in alternations, but would rather call for idiosyncratic alternations next to idiosyncratic polysemous meanings. Clusters formed in the Persian verbal semantic space are similar to Nunberg et al.’s (1994) idiomatic combining expressions. They posit that these expressions “often come in families, e.g. take a walk, take a hike, take a trip, take a flight. Listing each such expression results in considerable loss of generality and lack of prediction.” In other words, it is redundant to list each collocation as a separate entry, as if it was an idiom. Speakers are sensitive to patterns, but natural language is full of exceptions. The framework adopted for this book provides the tools necessary to capture a large amount of the generalizations in the Persian verbal system, while allowing for exceptions to these generalizations to co-exist and form patterns of their own, as in (77). 6.1.3 A Special Type of Construction In the current study, the determining factors in distinguishing constructions are based purely on semantic properties. While this proved to be sufficient for capturing the level of patterns in the system required for productivity, in the sense used in this book, other similarities across collocations and across constructions can indicate the existence of ‘families’ of constructions. In this section, I discuss a particular type of structure that occurs in a handful of clusters, which could indicate the existence of a purely structural set of constructions that interact with lvcs. Dabir-Moghaddam (1996) argues that certain collocations considered as compounds are in fact “frozen sentences” (p. 46). These forms include the special construction where the pv serves as the subject of the verbal component of a sentence. These peculiar constructions occur with the lvs gereftæn ‘to get,’ amædæn ‘to come,’ and ∫odæn ‘to become,’ as in (78).

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(78) Collocations previously labeled as “frozen sentences” næfæs-æm gereft. breath-1sg obtain.past.3sg I was out of breath. xo∫-et amæd. good-2sg come.past.3sg You liked it. dir-æm ∫od. late-1sg become.past.3sg I’m running late.

These constructions always occur in the third person singular, with the experiencer of the action expressed as a direct object clitic attached to the pv (Ghomeishi, 1996). These pose a different type of problem to the debate on whether pvs have direct object-status in lvcs, a common theme in Persian lvc studies. In these cases, it seems that the pv serves as subject, which is semantically incorporated into the verbal construction. In analogous forms from other South Asian languages, the experiencer or ‘subject’ occurs in the dative or genitive case. But, since Persian does not encode for case, the precise grammatical relation of the constituents is unclear. The lvcs express a seizure of some kind, whether it be emotional, physical, or psychological (e.g. seized with pain or jealousy). Constructions like those presented in (78) provide evidence for a different type of construction: constructions that provide the morphosyntactic structure of the type of lvcs analyzed in this book. In cxg, constructions can belong to a hierarchy, where more abstract, structural constructions can determine the syntactic behavior of other constructions that call upon it lower in the hierarchy. In other words, “the motivation for one construction having the form it does may come from the inheritance hierarchy itself, insofar as the form is inherited by a construction higher in the hierarchy” (Goldberg 2004, p. 3). The lvcs presented in this book occur at a single level of the hierarchy, and are treated equally regardless of syntactic differences. They are defined by a set of parameters: an explicit lv, semantic and word class restrictions for the pv, and a constructional meaning. Many linguists exclude lvcs like those in (78) from their analyses due to their syntax, and because they form full sentences. Vahedi-Langrudi (1996) labels these constructions as defective, degenerate predicates (i.e. cases where the subject position of the predicate is empty). He explains that these colloca-

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tions cannot undergo derivation because they lack proper predication and this “prevents later application of word-formation” (Vahedi-Langrudi, 1996, p. 184). Given that these constructions occur in clusters within lv spaces, defined partly by stringent restrictions on the pv constituent, the current analysis easily includes these special cases. The meaning of these lvcs cannot be deduced solely from the meaning of their parts, but as with other semi-transparent lvcs, they are productive. When different lvs occur in these structural constructions it results in systematic differences in meaning. This type of meaning alternations, resulting from the use of different lvs, indicates the existence of a semantically distinct construction in each case. However, the pvs in these cases are not shared across clusters (they do not occur in alternate lvcs). With gereftæn, this structure expresses the sudden seizure of a psychological or biological state or pressure. A state or condition seizes or overwhelms the human experiencer. The pv always expresses an involuntary state or urge that seizes the experiencer and needs to be manifested or released somehow. The subject anticipates carrying out the action or he is seized with the urge to carry out the action. Some examples are listed in (79). (79) Collocations with lv gereftæn ‘to get’ oq-æm gereft gag-1sg get.3sg xænde-æm gereft laughter-1sg get.3sg bazi kærdæn-æm gereft play do-1sg get.3sg ∫a∫-æm gereft urine-1sg get.3sg ræqs-æm gereft dance-1sg get.3sg gery-æm gereft cry-1sg get.3sg æts-æm gereft sneeze-1sg get.3sg

I felt like vomiting I burst out laughing I had the urge to paly I had the urge to urinate I got the urge to dance I wanted to cry I had the urge to sneeze

In his article on gereftæn, Sheik and Sharifi (1975, p. 475) posit that the meaning of the lvc “is similar to a kind of biological, emotional seizure, resulting in the action which is temporarily controlled.” In addition to the semantic feature “experiential” and “state,” these verbs might also be labeled as “delayed action.” In other words, the type of action expressed in these constructions with gereftæn is one of anticipated action. An internal emotional, psychological, or biological pressure seizes the experiencer who must temporarily restrain himself until he is able to release that pressure in an associated action. A similar construction expresses a cramping or clogging situation does not involve an animate experiencer. In these forms, the pv itself is an experiencer or patient. The pv represents the entity that undergoes a clogging, choking,

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or cramping process as in examples in (80). The -1sg suffix occurring in some forms here is the possessive marker. (80) Collocations with lv gereftæn ‘to get’ mast gereft yoghurt get.3sg hæva gereft air get.3sg mah gereft moon get.3sg mahit∫-æm gereft muscle-1sg get.3sg næfæs-æm gereft breath-1sg get.3sg lule gereft pipe get.3sg

the yoghurt set the sky clouded up there was an eclipse of the moon I got a cramp in my muscle I had shortness of breath the pipe clogged up

The syntactic structure also occurs with the lv amædæn ‘to come.’ As in the forms with gereftæn, these constructions express the seizure of the subject by a state. However, with amædæn, the pv always expresses an emotional state that determines the attitude of the subject, expressed again through the pronominal suffix, as in (81). (81) Collocations with lv amædæn ‘to come’ xo∫-æm amæd good-1sg come.3sg bæd-æm amæd bad-1sg come.3sg heyf-æm amæd pity-1sg come.3sg xæsisi-æm amæd stingy-1sg come.3sg

I liked . . . I disliked . . . I felt unjust . . . I was overcome with stinginess . . .

∫odæn ‘to become,’ also occurs with this structure where the experiencer is seized by some force, but as a consequence of something or someone in the environment. Examples are listed in (82). (82) Collocations with lv ∫odæn ‘to become’ hæsudiæm ∫od1 jealousy-1sg become.3sg dir-æm ∫od late-1sg become.3sg særd-e∫an ∫od cold-3pl become.3sg gærm-et ∫od hot-2sg become.3sg

I got jealous. I’m running late.2 They got cold. You got warm.

A single pv, xab ‘sleep,’ can also occur with several lvs in this syntactically special construction, producing a minimal set of constructions. It occurs with 1  This form can also be expressed with amædæn: hæsudi-æm amæd. 2  It is interesting to note that this form is acceptable, but *zud-æm ∫od (intended meaning: I am early) is not. This is probably due to the fact that being early does not seize the subject as a feeling or as a necessity to act.

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several lvs: gereftæn ‘to get,’ ræftæn ‘to go,’ bordæn ‘to take,’ and amædæn ‘to come,’ all with different meanings as listed in (83). (83) Collocations with pv xab ‘sleep’ xab-æm gereft sleep-1sg get.3sg xab-æm ræft sleep-1sg go.3sg xab-æm bord sleep-1sg take.3sg xab-æm amæd sleep-1sg come.3sg

I got sleepy. I fell asleep. I fell asleep. I was sleepy.

In these lvcs, it is as if xab ‘sleep’ is a forceful, conscious entity acting as subject of the construction and seizing an experiencer. This is the only pv that combines with more than one lv in these constructions, but the resulting meaning differences provide hints about the meaning of the respective lvcs of each lv. Also, while the pv xab occurs in these constructions with a variety of lvs, the lvs ræftæn ‘to go’ and bordæn ‘to take’ do not normally occur with this structural construction productively. While this construction can be easily isolated due to its peculiar structure, one can imagine clusters (or many clusters) that share other more generic syntactic structures that determine argument structure and other syntactic behavior. Other lvcs that share argument structure might also have inherited their structure from a syntactic but semantically unspecified construction higher in the hierarchy. The study of such hierarchies goes beyond the scope of this book. 6.2

How Can the Analysis be Applied

6.2.1 Loan Words It may be the case that Persian speakers actually store most collocations in the lexicon. However, this would still not be much of a burden to learn, because of the clusters depicted in this book. The meaning contribution of the lv does not emerge compositionally, but knowledge of the construction it occurs in alleviates the burden of learning a completely new meaning with each collocation. In addition, a system like the one in Persian, the lv is not a new lexical item and neither is the pv. The only new thing is the meaning assigned to the whole, usually derived from a construction that generalizes over clusters of collocations. However, storing each lvc as a separate entity does not explain how new forms emerge. Even with mass storage of collocations, Persian speakers have awareness of the patterns inherent to the system. Consider two of the coinages

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presented in Chapter 2: kop zædæn ‘copy hit’ and berp dadæn ‘burp give.’ These collocations appeared in colloquial Tehrani speech and in American bilingual code-switching, respectively. Neither of these collocations is difficult to understand by Persian speakers who have never heard them before, given the appropriate discourse context. Given the tools from the current analysis, both collocations have constructional meaning that can be extracted from the clusters in the system. In the first case, zædæn has an cluster that expresses doing a quick action in creating something. Example collocations are repeated here in (84). (84) Collocations with lv zædæn ‘to hit’ livan zædæn cup hit pol zædæn bridge hit mæqaze zædæn store hit

produce cups build a bridge set up a store, open a store

Accordingly, the collocation kop zædæn would be created based on the constructional meaning of producing something quickly, and in an especially trivial, effortless, and quick manner. In this example, a copy of an answer is jotted down quickly during an exam. Similarly, the collocation berp dadæn also adheres to the specifications of a particular cluster in the semantic space of the lv dadæn. This collocation occurs in a context where an adult is making an infant burp. A cluster of collocation occurs with dadæn to express placing someone under a specific regiment to attain a physical outcome. Some examples from this cluster appear in (85). (85) Collocations with lv dadæn ‘to give’ værze∫ dadæn exercise give ∫oste∫u dadæn cleansing give adæt dadæn habit give

exercise cleanse give a habit to

In the code-switching example, berp dadæn, the English word ‘burp’ occurs as pv, and the constructional meaning determines the meaning of the collocation. This collocation was used to express putting the infant through the process of getting pats on the back in order to burp after feeding. These examples show that the current cluster-based analysis can guide the creation of novel collocations, and also guide the listener to disambiguating the possible meanings. In the next two sections, I will present one study on aphasics and one on child language, both of which provide evidence for a

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semantically organized set of clusters of collocations. These data can be better captured using clusters and put to use in building diagnostic and assessment tools for Persian. 6.2.2 A Neurolinguistic Study Neurolinguistic data on aphasic productions have revealed error patterns of interest to the nature of the Persian verbal system. Nilipour and Raghibdoust (2001) report a patient who replaces the pv or the lv of certain collocations with an empty pronoun (e.g. he substitutes the word ‘thing’ as pv, which might indicate a lack of access to the explicit pv). Another patient produces a collocation with a similar meaning in place of a target simple verb (e.g. pare ∫od ‘ripped’ (lit. rip become) instead of ∫ekæst ‘broke’). A third interesting case is a patient who substitutes one lv with an erroneous lv. A sample of his utterances appears below in (86). (86) Collocation errors produced by an aphasic in the form of novel collocations (a) Novel collocation with lv da∫tæn ‘to have’ setta bæt∫e ra negah mi-dar-ænd. three kid acc look prog-have.pres-3pl [target: They are looking at the three kids.] (b) Novel collocation with lv gereftæn ‘to get’ bæd ye dæfe ∫oru gereft-æm. then one time beginning get.past-1sg [target: Then, I suddenly began.]

In (a), the aphasic substitutes the lv da∫tæn ‘to have’ for the grammatically correct lv kærdæn ‘to do.’ In (86b), he substitutes the lv gereftæn ‘to get’ for the lv kærdæn ‘to do.’ This might indicate productivity in the face of lexical loss. The lv kærdæn ‘to do’ is usually considered as a generic lv, most neutral in meaning. But, the patient substitutes an lv with richer semantics for the more generic one. Also, (86b) makes sense in the light of another lexical item, æz sær gereftæn ‘to begin’ (lit. from head get). These errors provide evidence for clusters of productivity. In this case, the cluster serves as the basis for expressing ‘taking something from a certain position’ (a cluster in the semantic space of gereftæn). When the pv ∫oru is uttered, this cluster in gereftæn is triggered and used. The patient of this study exploits his knowledge of clusters when other information is not available due to the breakdown of his underlying linguistic or other cognitive abilities.

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Collecting a corpus of verbal errors produced by aphasics will be the first step towards a neuropsychological analysis that might support and help finetune parts of the descriptive analysis provided in this book. Furthermore, using a cluster-based approach to analyzing aphasic speech might lead to better understanding how different pathologies effect language-specific phenomena in Persian-speaking aphasics, and this can be used in rehabilitation as well as in diagnostic tools for these patients. 6.2.3 A Child Language Study In a study on child language, data were gathered on a weekly basis from two Persian-speaking children starting at ages of one year and eleven months (child name: Lilia) and four years and one month (child name: Minu) over a seven-month period (Family, 2010; MacWhinney, 2000). It was shown that children use their knowledge of idiosyncratic semantic classes based on clusters of productivity, to produce new verbs that do not exist in Persian, similar to the aphasic patients from the previous section. For example, in one recording session, Minu (at age four and a half ) describes her day at the playground to her mother and speaks of unsuccessful attempts to go up a slide. She slipped because her feet were slippery. To describe this quality about her feet, she invents a novel collocation sor da∫tæn (lit. slipperiness have), presented in the sentence in (87). (87) Novel collocation with lv da∫tæn ‘to have’ pa-m xeili sor dasht. foot-1s much slipperiness have.past.3s [target: My feet slipped a lot.]

Presumably, Minu is using her knowledge of the cluster in the semantic space of da∫tæn ‘to have’ that expresses having an intrinsic or inherent property. Some examples from this cluster are listed in (88). (88) Collocations with lv da∫tæn ‘to have’ tæhæmol da∫tæn tolerance have næm da∫tæn moisture have tab da∫tæn warp have

be tolerant be moist be warped

Minu seems to have an incomplete knowledge of this cluster, and thus combines a noun that describes a trait with the lv associated with this cluster. However, slipperiness is not an intrinsic property, but rather a superficial one,

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and thus unacceptable as a pv for this cluster. A correct construction here would be with the verb budæn ‘to be’ (e.g. as with the predicate in English: were slippery). Another example comes from Lilia, when she is two years and one month old. She uses the lv amædæn ‘to come’ to produce a novel collocation. She has just picked up the telephone and has heard a dial tone. She uses buq ‘beep’ with amædæn to express hearing a dial tone, in the sentence in (89). (89) Novel collocation with lv amædæn ‘to come’ buq mi-ad. beep prog-come.pres.3s [target: I hear a beep.]

However, the cluster from amædæn used here only takes pvs expressing basic, non-tactile stimuli with no specified source or quality (e.g. smell, sound, light) to express perceiving that stimulus. Some examples from this cluster are listed in (90). (90) Collocations with lv amædæn ‘to come’ bu amædæn smell come seda amædæn sound come nur amædæn light come

smell sound perceive light shining

Lilia seems not to have understood the selectional restrictions on the pv, as in the example from Minu in (87). The pv should not be a specific type of sound (as in buq ‘beep’), but just the generic word for the stimulus. The examples from Family (2010) show, just as in the examples from the neurolinguistic studies above, that interesting patterns directly related to the structure of the semantic spaces of the lvs emerge in speaker data. These errors show that speakers of Persian use clusters of productivity generatively. The organization of the semantics into clusters of productivity is at the core of the verbal system, allowing the production and comprehension of novel verb forms. Using the analysis provided in this book, further investigations can help understand how children go about learning multi-word constructions, especially in a language like Persian.

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Reflections on Differences

6.3.1 Differences with Simple Verb Languages In understanding linguistic expression, people use their knowledge of semantic and syntactic information, as well as real-world knowledge. The structure of Persian lvcs allows access to at least two components of the verbal notion expressed in the majority of verb forms. It seems almost as if we can observe the skeletal structure of the verbal notion. Persian speakers do not necessarily have to learn thousands of relations between form and meaning. Even if we consider that every collocation is stored individually, the patterns inherent to the organization of the system would guide the retrieval and production of collocations more than in a less transparently structured system. These patterns also provide a structure from which new forms can be evaluated and disambiguated. It is beyond the scope of this book to compare and apply the findings to languages that use much fewer lvs. However, I propose some preliminary discussion about the differences between these two types of systems. The meaning range of Persian collocations is much narrower than the meaning range of simple verbs in English or French. In these languages, simple verbs can be highly polysemous. For example, the verb call in English can be used to mean talk on the phone, ask for the presence of, say in a loud voice, announce, request, dial, to name a few. In Persian, these verbal notions would be expressed through specific collocations: telefon zædæn (lit. telephone hit), seda zædæn (lit. sound hit), dad zædæn (lit. yell hit), dærxast kærdæn (lit. request do), ∫omare gereftæn (lit. number get), respectively. The lvcs, which represent verbal notions in Persian, require a specific type of pv defined by its functional, perceptual, and concrete attributes. For this reason, an lvc can almost never be as semantically general as its English simple verb counterpart. Consider that in English, you can say he buttered his bread to mean he spread butter on his bread. A syntactic process allows the noun ‘butter’ to be used as a verb. In Persian, a cluster exists with zædæn ‘to hit,’ which expresses spreading a viscous material on a surface, of which kære ‘butter’ is an example. The lv zædæn does not mean spread. The verbal notion is expressed through the construction and its constituents: zædæn and a particular pv. New forms pertaining to spreading viscous materials are easily constructed in Persian (e.g. moræba (‘jam’) zædæn, peanut butter zædæn). However, in English, it is impossible to say *he jamed his bread or *he peanut buttered his bread, due to productivity limitations of the noun to verb derivation process. One must use the verb spread, which is more vague than the construction used in Persian since one can spread nearly anything (e.g. iron shreds on top of

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wood planks), whereas the construction in Persian pertains to specific types of materials, anchored to the contexts within the limits of the real-world properties of the lexical items. The full Persian verb malidan means to knead, graze, spread, smear, and other related notions, which could be as polysemous as the English verb ‘spread.’ However, its nominal derivative, male∫, occurs as a pv with the lv dadæn ‘to give’ to express specifically to give a massage. Furthermore, any type of physical manipulation occurring with dadæn (e.g. squeeze, tickle) specifically means to carry out that manipulation, rendering the construction less polysemous as its simple counterpart. In Persian, verbal forms have arguably more predictable meanings, but are phonetically longer than those in other languages, such as English or French. English and French speakers, on the other hand deal with more verbal polysemy than Persian speakers, but they have phonetically shorter collocations (often single lexemes), to memorize for each notion. Meanwhile, the fact that Persian lvcs are less polysemous than their English or French counterparts does not mean that collocations cannot themselves serve as bases for metaphors. Consider the forms in (91). (91) Collocations with metaphorical meaning zærbe xordæn shock eat gel gereftæn

mud get

ju∫ aværdæn atæ∫ zædæn

boil bring fire hit

be shocked => undergo a blow (psych.) cover with mud => close indefinitely boil => get fed up and angry set on fire => ruin, waste

The occurrence of these forms in metaphorical senses is similar to the collocation t∫ane zædæn ‘to bargain’ (lit. chin hit) described in Karimi (1997, p. 24, presented earlier in this chapter). This suggests that Persian lvcs, though much narrower in meaning, can indeed be used to express abstract verbal notions as do English and French verbs (e.g. break her heart, carry a burden, seal my lips). The transparency does not deter from this type of extension. Though each collocation is constructed with two potentially polysemous constituents in Persian, their meanings become predictable when they occur within a construction. In other words, when two polysemous elements occur in a linguistic utterance, a context is created for the speaker to at least partially disambiguate them. Thus, having two elements reduces polysemy within the construction.

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6.3.2 Why not Only Two lvs? One could argue that if everything is based on constructions, there need not be more than two or even just one lv in the system. If construction meaning depends only on the restrictions on the pv and the constructional meaning, there would be no reason to have many lvs. All semantic information could be included in the construction and not depend on the contribution of the lv. Even if the collocation has never been heard before, the hearer could immediately call upon knowledge of the full verb meaning to begin to decipher the new form. But the semantic contribution of the lv is non-negligible, as observed in salient meaning differences resulting from alternating lv minimal pairs created with the same pv. The lv often, but not always, contributes notions such as transfer, direction, emission, impact, and whether something is brought into possession or whether it is imposed and how that action is carried out temporally. Consider the following forms in (92). (92) Alternations between lvs (a) pv dæst ‘hand’ dæst kærdæn hand do dæst dadæn hand give dæst zædæn hand hit

insert hand (e.g. glove) offer one’s hand (handshake) touch

(b) pv otu ‘iron’ otu zædæn otu ke∫idæn otu ∫odæn

iron (usually quickly) iron be ironed (focus: general action)

iron hit iron pull iron become

In (92a), the pv dæst ‘hand’ occurs with three agentive lvs. However, different dynamic actions are associated to each case: inserting, offering, touching. These differences are due to the contributions of the lvs, as well as the effects of other constructional meanings found in that lv’s semantic space. In (92b), the first two collocations are both agentive and express similar meanings. The collocation with kærdæn expresses a general action, while the one with ke∫idæn focuses on the manner of action (i.e. pulling the iron across a piece of fabric). The multi-lv system satisfies both the need to express more nuanced and unambiguous meanings and also to store less idiosyncratic meaning, in favor of having some predictability. Meaning emerges as a result of the interaction between the constituents and the whole.

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229

Book Summary

The goal of this study was to explore the semantic spaces of lvs in Persian. In Chapter 1, I provide a working definition of an lvc as any construction that includes an lv, a semantically weak verb, and a non-verbal element producing a novel verbal notion that is neither fully compositional nor completely idiomatic (i.e. a frozen expression). Each lv in Persian combines with a large variety of pvs to form different collocations with a variety of meanings. Many languages have similar verbal constructions, but only a handful of languages use them to construct the core of their verbal systems. Persian provides ample data that has been in usage for centuries to address this phenomenon. This structure can shed light on compositionality, productivity, and the general organization of meaning in the verbal system. The analysis of lvcs provided in this study is based on the assumption that grammar consists of constructions, structured through linguistic and other cognitive processes. Like lexical entries, constructions are form to meaning pairs that must be learned. Unlike lexical entries, they can also include variable amounts of syntactic information. Thus, the existence of constructions in grammar blurs the distinction between the grammar and the lexicon. Construction Grammar (cxg) concisely captures linguistic generalizations and other fundamental properties of these constructions, such as compositionality, or rather semi-compositionality, and productivity. Furthermore, it allows the use of real-world knowledge: namely, functional, social, or perceptual attributes of the constituents involved in an utterance. In Chapter 2, I present previous studies done on Persian lvcs. Similar to approaches taken for other languages, scholars of the Persian verbal system take a top-down approach to studying lvcs. Using broad or general semantic or morphosyntactic parameters (e.g. aspect, noun incorporation), these studies focus on determining the general patterns in the system and more specifically, the contribution of each constituent to the meaning of the whole. While this type of approach provides us with rich information on the structure of lvcs in Persian, it does not give us any indication on how productivity works. Broadly grouped lvs or lvcs do not capture the nuanced patterns that underlie novel word formation and comprehension. Taking a bottom-up approach, I suggest looking at the raw data, of hundreds of collocations built using a particular lv. Patterns emerge based on similar construction meaning and similar pvs. I argue that the semantic space of each lv consists of groups of clusters. Clusters are formed when a set of collocations with a given lv express highly similar meanings. The collocations that gather into clusters result from a general construction which include an explicit lv, a

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type of pv defined by its functional, social, and perceptual attributes, and the meaning of the whole construction. These constructions preempt the positing of highly idiosyncratic secondary meanings for lvs, such as ‘hit and pierce with a weapon like + pv’ or ‘provide a lesson or advice in the form of + pv.’ Constructions provide a blueprint for different verbal notions and include rich semantic and syntactic information as an alternative to word formation rules. The non-compositional nature of lvcs is also taken into account since the meaning is inherent to the construction and does not result from the direct combination of the constituents. This approach complements previous top-down approaches. It uses parameters previously found to be important and adds more idiosyncratic semantic properties that are crucial for understanding the organization of semantic space. In Chapter 3, I provide descriptions of the constructions allotted to each cluster in six frequent lvs: kærdæn ‘to do,’ ∫odæn ‘to become,’ zædæn ‘to hit,’ xordæn ‘to eat,’ gereftæn ‘to get,’ and dadæn ‘to give.’ This is followed, in Chapter 4, by a less elaborate description of the eight other lvs: ke∫idæn ‘to pull,’ ændaxtæn ‘to throw,’ oftadæn ‘to fall,’ da∫tæn ‘to have,’ bordæn ‘to take, and ræftæn ‘to go.’ After presenting the organization of semantic spaces of the lvs, I present a different source of productivity in Chapter 5. A cluster, or even groups of clusters, in the space of an lv can alternate productively with clusters in the space of another lv. By alternation, I refer to pvs that occur with different lvs to produce different but related meanings. I explore alternations between zædæn and xordæn which involve groups of clusters and which can be captured by general semantic attributes, such as transitivity or agentivity. Then, I show that when single clusters are shared between lvs, they result in more nuanced semantic differences, often including dynamic and perceptual attributes of the actions. The full set of lvcs of a given lv can never alternate with a full set of lvcs of another lv. As seen in the presentation of clusters in Chapters 3 and 4, the variety of meanings expressed by any lv is too large to occur in any meaningful overarching alternations with another lv. Using clusters and semantic spaces of lvs, alternations can be captured efficiently as connections within these spaces. In Chapter 6, I return to the idea of constructions and discuss the system as a whole. I highlight the fact that most Persian lvcs lie on a continuum between the two extremes of transparency, namely fully transparent and idiomatic. They can be considered idiomatically combining expressions and are most concisely captured within the framework of cxg. Not positing individual

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word meanings also allows us to easier see how meaning is distributed within the semantic space of an lv. Even if a majority of lvcs are stored, the knowledge of the properties of clusters allows for easier disambiguation and processing. Not taking into account these generalizations would fail to capture obvious patterns in the organization of the system. Even though each construction has an idiosyncratic meaning assigned to it that must be learned, the patterns that emerge provide a basis for productivity in the structured system. Persian lvcs occur somewhere between the grammar and lexicon. Furthermore, certain phenomena (e.g. multiple constructions sharing a peculiar syntactic structure) signal the existence of a hierarchy of constructions. Finally, I present two studies that have provided data, specifically errors in production, which support the structure of the verbal system presented in this book. It has been shown that the productive capacities of Persian speakers actually lie in the knowledge and development of highly structured semantic spaces. These spaces contain many nodes that serve as attractors to certain types of verbal notions, and their development in child language or destruction in aphasics sheds further light on their structure. As a first study to investigate these properties of lvcs in Persian using particular aspects of cxg, this analysis represents a step in getting a global view of the semantic underpinnings of the Persian verbal system. More data, from both corpora as well as from psycholinguistics, would highly benefit the finetuning of the current analysis. In their current state, the diagrams, descriptions, and explanations on how to capture alternations can nevertheless provide sufficient tools to develop theoretical and practical tools applicable in diverse domains: from neurolinguistics to pedagogy to child language.

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Index Abeillé, A. 7 Adams, V. 11 Afshar, G. 24 Agrawal, P. 41n Ahmed, T. 14 alternations description 23, 54, 60, 191, 194–195, 219, 230 examples of 23, 35, 36, 55, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203–205, 206, 208, 209, 217, 228 in English 191–192 arabic loanwords 45 argument structure 5, 6, 7, 9, 14, 19, 35, 37, 50, 59, 60, 194, 210, 221 aspect, aksionsart 8, 9, 10, 22, 23, 25, 35–39, 42, 59–61, 194, 195, 200, 207 australian languages 8 auxiliaries 7–8, 31, 33 Baker, B. 8 bardi 8 Bashiri, I. 35, 50 Bauer, L. 11 Beeman, O. 14 bottom-up approach 3, 4, 20, 41, 42, 60, 229 boundedness 36–37, 59–60, 195 Bowern, C. 8 Brugman, C. 2, 7, 192 Butt, M. 8, 9, 14, 192 Capell, A. 8 Cattell, R. 6, 7 causative 23, 37, 38, 39, 47, 65, 196, 197, 198, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207 change of state 38, 61, 198 Chomsky, N. 6, 11 clusters of productivity description of 4, 22, 46, 48–55, 57–60 collocations, definition of 4 cognitive linguistics 18, 39, 42, 194 coinage 10, 42, 198, 221–222 colloquial 15, 45, 89, 90, 92, 94, 221, 222 compositionality 5, 10, 17, 18, 20, 21, 32, 40–41, 46, 47, 86, 197, 213, 216, 221 Comrie, B. 59

construction grammar 4, 5, 18–21, 33, 35, 194, 218 Dabir-Moghaddam, M. 2, 27, 39, 40, 45, 50, 217 diagrams 57–59, 191, 195–198, 201, 208 dictionaries, sources 24, 214 Dowty, D. 132 Eisenberg, P. 17 English 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11–14, 16, 19, 21, 36, 44, 45, 46–47, 54, 191–194, 197–198, 214–215, 226–227 event structure 2, 6, 14, 35–37 Family, N. 15, 30, 39, 224, 225 Fazly, A. 13 Fillmore, C.J. 18 Folli, R. 37, 38, 194, 196, 197, 198 French 1, 7, 39, 50, 61, 85, 86, 92, 101n, 128, 135, 138, 226, 227 frequency 11, 24, 25, 54, 95, 214 full verb 2, 3, 6–8, 14, 15, 17, 25, 28–29, 43, 44, 49, 57, 58, 203, 206, 209, 213, 214, 228 Geuder, W. 8 Ghomeishi, J. 50, 218 Godard, D. 7 Goldberg, A. 11, 18, 19, 20, 30, 33, 34, 35, 46, 47, 54, 194, 216, 218 Grimshaw, J. 7 Haig, G. 15n Haim, S. 24, 215 Hakami, N. 24 Hale, K. 2, 6 Harley, H. 37, 38, 194, 196, 197, 198 Harvey, M. 8 Hindi 1, 8, 9, 14, 41n Huang, C.J. 7 Ibrahim, A.H. 7 idiomatic combining expressions 40–41, 217 idioms 11, 17, 19, 40–41, 47, 53, 76, 87, 139, 193, 213, 215–217 impersonal constructions 50, 217–218

239

index Jackendoff, R. 18 Jaminjung 8, 21 Jespersen, O. 6 Joshi, A. 41n Kalam 8 Karimi-Doostan, G. 25, 27, 31, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 60, 61, 132, 195 Karimi, S. 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 194, 196, 197, 198, 200, 215, 216, 227 Kay, P. 18 Keshani, K. 24 Keyser, S.J. 2, 6 Khanlari, P. 15 Koenig, J-P. 9n Lakoff, G. 58 Lambton, A.K. 14 Langacker, R.W. 18 language acquisition 11, 15n, 41, 224–225 Larson, R. 6 Lazard, G. 14 Levin, B. 13, 14 light verb construction, definition of 1, 4, 5, 6 loanwords 16, 45, 198, 201, 203, 221–222 MacWhinney, B. 224 Mahootian, S. 14 McGregor, W.B. 8 Megerdoomian, K. 2, 27, 30, 32, 36, 37, 45, 194, 195, 197, 198 Merlan, F. 8 Mester, A. 7 metaphor 15, 43, 44, 57, 104, 117, 206, 227 Mohammad, J. 35 Mohanan, T. 9 morphosyntax 2, 25, 39, 42, 215, 218 Müller, S. 35 Nilipour, R. 223 North, R. 13 Nunberg, G. 40, 41, 215, 217 Papuan 8 passive 66 Pawley, A. 8 Piñango, M.M. 7 Pinker, S. 11

polysemy 2, 7, 17, 47, 52, 53, 57, 58, 213, 215, 217, 226, 227 Poornima, S. 9n process noun 31 productivity 1, 2–5, 7, 10–14, 16, 17, 19, 22–27, 40, 41, 44, 45, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 65, 85, 86, 90, 92, 93, 94, 117, 191, 194, 211, 213–216, 217, 219, 221, 223, 224–225, 226 Raghibdoust, S. 223 Ramchand, G. 9 Rastorgueva, V.S. 14 real-world knowledge 18, 50, 53, 82, 135, 194, 197, 200, 212, 226, 227 Rumsey, A. 8 Sag, I. 7, 40, 41, 215, 217 Samvelian, P. 39, 40 Schultze-Berndt, E. 8 semelfactive 37–38, 59, 60, 70, 198 Sharifi, H. 45, 132, 219 Sheik, H. 132, 219 stative 38, 59, 60, 197 Stevenson, S. 23 Swedish 105 telicity 37, 59, 195 top-down approach 2, 5, 10, 39, 42, 45 transitivity 6, 23, 34, 37, 39, 40, 47, 49, 50, 51, 59, 61, 195, 197, 198, 200, 203–205, 208–211 transparency 3–6, 18, 26, 30, 40, 41, 44, 47, 52, 54, 57, 213–217, 219, 227 Urdu 1, 8, 9, 10, 14, 21, 192, 193 Vahedi-Langrudi, M.M. 27, 30, 35, 40, 50, 61, 197, 198, 200, 204, 206, 207, 218, 219 Vendler, Z. 59 Venkatapathy, S. 41n Viberg, A. 105 volition 9, 192, 204, 209, 219 Wasow, T. 40, 41, 215, 217 Wierzbicka, A. 12, 13, 47, 191, 192 Windfuhr, G.L. 14 Wittenberg, E. 7 word formation rules/grammatical rules 5, 11, 19, 44, 52, 194, 212, 219 word stress 30