Light Spaces: Designing and Constructing with Plasterboard 9783035609073

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Light Spaces

Kerstin Schultz Hedwig Wiedemann-Tokarz

Light Spaces

Birkhäuser Basel

Imprint

The book was prepared at the Faculty of Architecture and Interior Architecture at Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences www.fba.h-da.de Endowed chair CAPAROL Farben Lacke Bautenschutz GmbH and Knauf Gips KG Concept Hedwig Wiedemann-Tokarz, Kerstin Schultz Translation Jörn Frenzel Copy editing Susan James Project management Alexander Felix, Lisa Schulze Production Katja Jaeger Visual Design Peter Dieter, Dorothea Talhof www.formalin.de

Editions This publication is also available as an e-book (ISBN PDF 978-3-0356-0907-3; ISBN EPUB 978-3-0356-0887-8) and in a German language edition (ISBN 978-3-0356-1111-3).

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Bibliographic information published by the German National Library The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.

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Preface

08 Introduction 10 12 14 18

Qualities Spatial Diversity Form and Texture Colour and Light

20 Spatial Concepts 22 24 28

Structure and Spatial Concept Concepts in Existing Buildings Free-standing Elements

34 Spatial Conditions 36 40 44 50 54 60

Indoor Climate Building and Room Acoustics Reflection and Absorption Daylight Artificial Light, Space, and Colour Integrated Fit-out Systems

62 Material 64 66 68 70 72 76 77 80

Gypsum as Raw & Building Material Materials and Finishes Textures and Ornaments Domes Boards and Preformed Elements Tools Folded and Curved Boards Profiles and Construction Grids

82 Elements of Interior Space 84 92 104 112 122

Wall Finishes Ceiling Finishes Floor Build-ups Wall Planes and Cells Room-in-room Systems

132 Joining, Connecting, and Dividing 134 142

Openings and Doors Joints, Joining, and Connections

148 Appendix 150 152 154 155 156 157 160

Definitions, Measurements Standards and Guidelines Bibliography Addresses Brochures and Fact Sheets Index Photo Credits

Contents

Authors Kerstin Schultz (*1967) Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architektin Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences Studies of architecture at TU Darmstadt, since 1997 office with Werner Schulz in Reichelsheim, since 2008 Professor for Architecture and Interior Architecture at Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences.

Hedwig Wiedemann-Tokarz (*1975) Dipl.-Ing. Architektin Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences Studies of architecture at Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow and University of Stuttgart, since 2010 Scientific Assistant at the faculty for Architecture and Interior Architecture at Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences.

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Contributors B.A. Anna Bingenheimer B.A. Marina Baumgärtner M.A. Vanina Dyankova B.A. Annika Griewisch M.A. Yordanka Malinova Dipl.-Ing. Sabine Melzer M.A. Marie-Christine Wolf Special thanks Dipl.-Ing. Harald Hünting and Dipl.-Ing. Mathias Dlugay Architekt

Preface

This book is for both professionals and students. It is intended to present the possibilities and the variety offered by drywall systems, provide an understanding of the creative and technical dependencies, and demonstrate the overall structural implementation of a spatial design concept. Like no other type of construction, drywall installation offers a large degree of creative freedom for interior spatial concepts, while equally being economical and highly flexible. Particularly in terms of its physical properties and room comfort, drywall construction using gypsum plasterboard is considered a particularly sustainable and versatile construction method. Last but not least, this type of construction also has great architectural and sculptural potential, as is vividly shown by the examples in this book. Thus, innovative high-quality solutions meeting all technical and energetic requirements can be implemented. Usually, professional planners as well as students discover the architectural and structural possibilities of drywall construction at a rather late stage. Far too often, this type of construction is limited to strictly technical use, as in the fields of fire protection or sound insulation. Undoubtedly, this is where the special capabilities of this type of construction lie. Nevertheless, this book will not attempt to add yet another chapter with numerous working details and structural solutions to the existing popular technical literature; it will focus rather on the design-specific and structural aspects of drywall construction and their consistent implementation according to each respective architectural concept.

This book juxtaposes illustrations of interior architectural principles of space creation and structural/technical solutions of dry lining. In addition to numerous examples for detailing and joining of components, the interdependency of light, colour, material, finish, and structure will be explained. The architectural ideas are illustrated using numerous pictograms and drawings in different scales. The space-creating and spacedefining function of drywall construction is shown in both fit-out and conversion projects, as well as in new building projects. Drywall and light construction, forming the interface of architecture and interior design, offer excellent opportunities for the holistic implementation of spatial concepts with high technical and aesthetic requirements. Darmstadt, March 2016 Prof. Kerstin Schultz

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Lightweight structures can be used in various ways as separate spatial volumes, free-standing planes, or claddings – organizing, creating, or dividing spaces. Exhibition stand for Occhio, Light and Building, Frankfurt, Germany, 2010, Drändle 70|30 Corporate Architecture

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Introduction

Automotive light construction, lightweight body with tubular frame, ‘Mille Miglia’ BMW-328-Kamm Racing car, 1939, BMW

The non-load-bearing space creation in buildings using mainly dry materials is referred to as drywall construction or dry lining. This general term refers to various types of construction; it includes boarding and cladding as well as walls, floors, ceilings, slabs, three-dimensional bodies, and room-in-room systems. The available materials, such as wood, gypsum, or metal, and the related processing techniques allow for maximum creative freedom as regards shape and finish. Edged, precisely folded structures are possible, as well as curved free forms, two- or three-dimensional curved surfaces, and delicate millings. Depending on the design concept, the finish can be high-gloss polished, smooth matte, rough, textured, perforated, or bent, or it can bear milled ornaments. These techniques can be used on different substructures suitable to a given situation, thus forming seamless shells and claddings running across all vertical and horizontal surfaces or creating autonomous spatial volumes. Usually, ‘drywall construction’ refers to building with gypsum plasterboard, but in fact a significantly wider range of materials falls under this term. Typically, subconstructions are made of linear elements and define the basic architectural geometry and the visible surface is made of boarding material. Both layers work together to form a rigid self-supporting structure. Most commonly, systems consisting of gypsum board, metal, and mineral fibre and structures of wooden panels are in use. Common to all systems is the use of standardised boards and profiles and the relatively low dead load compared to solid building elements.

This construction method is derived from traditional steel and timber lightweight construction techniques. The first gypsum-based plasterboards were produced in Germany in the 1950s; however, the breakthrough in the construction method did not come until the 1970s and 1980s. Before that, solid construction methods with load-bearing components or timber-framed structures with earth or brick infill had been more common. Lightweight construction can be used in many ways. Floor plan configurations no longer have to be static, as with traditional masonry type partitioning, but can be flexibly adapted to changing space requirements. Dry constructions organise, create, or divide space, and may affect the physical properties and conditions of spaces. Choosing the appropriate board materials, adding layers, and filling the cavities, for example, with insulating materials makes it possible for drywall structures to meet high requirements in fire protection, sound insulation, room acoustics, heat protection, or radiation protection. This applies to the connection of spaces with other spaces and with building services. The rest of this chapter shows the possibilities and advantages of the drywall construction method in terms of flexibility, sustainability, speed, economy, and design aspects.

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Whereas flexibility and universal usablity count in apartment buildings, private housing calls for highly individual solutions.

This 3 × 3 × 3 m cube contains all the functions of a little house. PACO, Japan, 2010, Jo Nagasaka and Schemata Architecture Office

Flexibility and Creative Versatility The requirements for buildings and their interior spaces are always changing. They are based on the individual lifestyles of users or on highly differentiated and specialised working environments. Aligning building programme and site is the most basic task of every architect. Functional aspects must be considered, along with requirements for comfort, sound levels, and building services. Long-term, high-quality spatial strategies can be developed if the whole life cycle of buildings is taken into account. In this context, themes such as re-usability, flexibility of floor plans, efficiency, and the lifespan of interior fit-outs are of crucial importance. 10

Short-term usages such as in exhibition booths or in retail stores call for reversible and environmentally responsible structures. Such fit-outs are often heavily customised, branded, and designed for corporate recognition and identity. Even in private residential architecture, a variety of highly customised spatial concepts tailored to individual needs is commonplace. In apartment buildings, the required flexibility is achieved through easily moveable partitions or the flexible connection of neighbouring apartments. Thus, functionality for different types of dwellings can be improved. Floor plan concepts in office buildings are strongly influenced by the philosophy of the individual user. Specialised requirements often require a tailored spatial concept, which can

Qualities

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Apartment, Ceiling Architecture, Paris, France, 2011, Pascal Grasso Architectures House Antero Quental, Vila do Conde, Portugal, 2010, Manuel Maia Gomes

Speed The high degree of prefabrication of the systems and the elimination of the drying time for plaster speed up the building process. This is particularly relevant in the area of rental properties, such as office and retail space, as well as for new construction or renovation of residential projects. Specialised systems and a wide range of prefab products with finished surfaces at specified grids for floors or ceilings speed up the installation on large areas. In areas with particular geometries or room conditions, the user-friendly and highly adjustable plasterboards offer easy installation.

adapt to changing working conditions and HR constellations. The retrofitting of technical installations to adapt to rising standards must be considered in this context. Within the existing structure of a building, drywall spaces and walls can easily be changed; the space configurations and the design can be modified, and even the physical performance characteristics of building elements can be altered. This offers advantages for the planning process in new buildings. While the primary load-bearing structure has already been created, the planning of the spatial concept may still be dynamically adapted to changing requirements. Integration Depending on the particular design concept, building services may be deliberately exposed or concealed within the substructure. In the cavities of drywall boarding, the often densely packed technical installations can be accommodated and sealed for sound and fire protection. At the same time, furnished niches or closets can take advantage of such cavities and structural voids. Sustainability Assembly is done mainly through screwed and plug-in connections; this allows clean separation of materials after deconstruction, providing a high degree of recyclability. The main building materials, gypsum and aluminium, can be fully recycled into the production process. Specialised recyclers take plasterboard that has had any impurities removed and make it into new gypsum building materials by means of mechanical processing. The incorporated energy of drywall materials — the energy used for production and transportation — and therefore the construction cost, is somewhat lower than with solid components. The low dead weight of drywall structures saves on building material, and the low loads make possible a leaner and thus more economical supporting structure as well.

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Wall Depending on its position in a space, a wall may create a zone, separate functions, or guide users through the space. Cell Walls form new enclosed spaces within the existing fabric. They subdivide a space and influence the component properties. Example: Showroom Kris van Assche, Paris, France, 2013, Ciguë

Light interior fit-out elements form contrasts or additions to the supporting structure and create spaces and atmospheres.

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Addition/Expansion An addition connects to the existing fabric and completes the space beyond the existing building volume.

Solid/Implant Free-standing or added-on volumes create space for additional functions or for building services without interfering with the base of the built fabric. The usable space is extended from within.

Example: Rucksack House, Leipzig, Germany, 2004, Stefan Eberstadt

Example: 2Raumwohnung, Berlin, Germany, 2006, Behles & Jochimsen Architekten

Shell Dry construction shells may follow the contours of the existing fabric or reshape it. They give the room a new plasticity.

Spatial Diversity

Example: Display cases in the Museum Grube Messel, Germany, 2010, Holzer Kobler Architekturen

Room-in-room Systems In spaces with restricted floor plans, room-in-room systems can accommodate auxiliary spaces and building services. As three-dimensional volumes in space, they create complex spatial relationships and structures. Example: Private house, Azeitao, Portugal, 2006, Aires Mateus & Associados

Cladding Introducing new cladding into existing structures can completely change the perception of space. Cladding forms new, independent finishes that may also relate to complex technical or physical building requirements such as room acoustics. Example: Concert Hall, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2009, Ateliers Jean Nouvel

Functional Wall Within the construction plane or in the clearance between the lining and the support structure, cavities are created for niches, fixtures, furniture, or technical infrastructure. 13

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1 Exhibition stand for Occhio, Light and Building, Frankfurt, Germany, 2014, Drändle 70|30 2 Exhibition design for Munksjö Decor, ‘Futuressence’, Interzum, Cologne, Germany, 2013, hw.d 3 Exhibition design for Brunner, Salone del Mobile, Milan, Italy, 2012, Ippolito Fleitz Group

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Temporary spaces invite formal experiments. Identity through Form In these times strongly influenced by the flood of digital images, the public image of companies and brands attains particular significance. Based on an analysis of product, self-image, corporate culture, and target groups, a corporate identity emerges that transcends a company logo, colours, and packaging. Rooms can bring thoughts and ideas to life and give more abstract products a ‘face’. Visual distinctiveness and a high degree of recognition can produce an identity and support the emotional identification of customers and employees. Besides brand recognition, evoking emotions by means of spatial perception is especially important in the field of exhibition stand or booth design. Through the interaction of space, colour, light, sound, graphics, moving images, and analogue or natural elements, abstract content can become physically tangible and may be experienced through spatial qualities. Spatial sequences with changing atmospheric qualities form a coherent narrative. The temporary nature of these

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structures invites formal experiments. The focus here is often on the event character as opposed to functional criteria. Creative Freedom The simple self-supporting construction of lightweight spaces offers great creative freedom with regard to geometry and form. The formal expression of an idea can be explored in threedimensional space. Speedy construction times and good recyclability further support this freedom. Simple manufacturing methods and accurate prefabricated components bring the plasterboard into the desired shape. Precisely cut sharp edges, three-dimensionally curved shapes, or serial elements such as cornices or ornaments can be made from inexpensive materials without costly production processes.

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Form and Texture Finishes The structure of the finished surfaces supports the plasticity of the space. Colour, light, and shadow in conjunction with perforations, layers, or relief work create depth and threedimensionality. The perception of space involves all our senses, with the interior surfaces acting as the direct interface between the user and the space. We experience finishes on a visual and haptic level, and their design is of crucial importance for the room atmosphere. The selective reflection of light, colour, and sound off the surfaces makes rooms seem bigger, wider, or more reverberant. Absorbent surfaces, however, make rooms or individual areas such as niches smaller, more muffled, or more intimate. By means of colour and material, large spaces can be zoned or separate spaces can be visually merged. Depending on the finish, surfaces and shapes in space may seem translucent and light, blend into the background, or appear heavy and solid. Particular products and materials may provide the visible finishes in themselves; this can be done by choosing ready-made products such as veneered or factorymade perforated boards or by means of additional coatings. Colour and gloss levels can be freely chosen; surfaces may be

polished to achieve a high-gloss finish, or they can be waxed or powder-coated. Coarse textures can be achieved through grained or structured coats of plaster. Depth, light, and shadow can become visible through structures directly machined into the material. Pierced and skeletonised surfaces make the material seem light and transparent. Function of the Finishes Through their individual finishes, the surfaces obtain not only design-related, but also functional qualities, for example, with regard to the absorption or reflection of sound. The durability of the surfaces can be influenced through the moisture content or impact resistance of the boards.

Installation ‘The End of Sitting’, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2014, RAAF (Rietveld Architecture-Art-Affordances) and Barbara Visser

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1 1 Horizontally layered boards create spatial volumes finished with a strong relief. Kapelle St. Elisabeth, Ravensburg, Germany, 2013, ARCASS freie Architekten 2 Curved spatial element, SYZYGY, Frankfurt, Germany, 2012, 3deluxe 3 Colour, graphics, and glossy finishes support the impression of a spatial continuum. KU64, dental clinic for kids, Berlin, Germany, 2005, GRAFT

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In the former imperial abbey Kornelimünster, a threewing baroque complex from the 18th century, the artist reinterpreted traditional stucco into contemporary gypsum-based construction; in a corner stucco cladding hints at a disused fireplace. In the opposite corner of the room an intervention was fitted out of plasterboards and stucco that reflects the dimensions and materiality of the fireplace. However, this installation is not an exact copy of its counterpart, but rather its spatially inverted, mirror image. Old fireplace and new feature form a perfect jigsaw-puzzle fit for each other, and their projections and recesses would perfectly match the respective counterpart if they could be detached from their corners. Art installation Minimal Mimikry I, Kornelimünster, Germany, 2004, Ralf Werner

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Disused fireplace with ledge feature Counterpart mirror-image feature Detail of the counterpart

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4 Gypsum relief: the texture creates depth and amplifies the impression of the colour. Student project at h_da (Hochschule Darmstadt), Christin Kappler 5 Transparency, Light, and Shadow, Student project at h_da, Jannecke Vock 6 Semi-transparent strips filter and diffuse light. SND Fashion Store, Chongqing, China, 2014, 3gatti 7 Cladding made of milled louvers forms a light filter. Bakery, Porto, Portugal, 2013, Paulo Merlini arquitectura

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The interplay of light, colour, structure, and geometry determines the spatial effect and perception. 1 2 3

Skylights control the incidence of light. Haus K, Rieden, Germany, 2006, Becker Architekten Light sail simulation, Staatstheater Darmstadt, Darmstadt, 2006, Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei Artificial light and colour organize the space. E64 LEAGAS DELANEY, Hamburg, 2008, Carsten Roth Architekt

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Colour and Light The two halves of this exhibition stand are clearly set apart by the stark contrast of the white and the strongly coloured area. Exhibition stand for the magazine Eigen Huis & Interieur, RAI Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2015, i29 interior architects

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Interior view Schematic floor plan

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Light, Finish, and Space The interplay of natural or artificial light with the space brings out its spatial qualities. Direction, type, and colour of light alter the effects of surfaces and textures. Smooth, reflective surfaces can be used for light focussing and reflection. Side-lighting creates visual depth on rough textures and reliefs. Direct light casts shadows, emphasises edges, and adds three-dimensional depth to structured surfaces and bodies. While reflective surfaces often come to the fore, spaces and objects in diffused light develop less depth. The controlled use of artificial lighting makes possible diverse spatial experiences; it may accentuate surfaces, specifically illuminate spaces, or even create a completely artificial and unbalanced atmosphere. Concealed light fittings (fixtures) emitting indirect light cause entire surfaces to float, and dissolve the edges of space. Direct light sources can be mounted flush with the ceiling or deliberately exposed. Light guns, sails, or large surfaces apply light sources in a dramatic way; they focus artificial or

natural light on a specific point or diffuse it broadly into the room, thus concealing the actual light fitting and turning the surface itself into a light source. Reflective coloured surfaces or coloured light can change the perception of the space completely. They may interact with the natural changing of light over the course of the day or nullify it completely.

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Most interior design projects take place in existing structures, ranging from user-specific fit-outs or conversions to the refurbishment of existing structures.

A black insert replicating the shape of the school at a smaller scale accommodates new functional areas. Conversion of a former school into an information centre, Centro de Informacao do Romanico, Paredes, Portugal, 2012, Spaceworkers 1 2

Interior view Schematic plan

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Spatial Concepts

Spatial concepts involve a holistic planning process relating to or happening within an existing structure with all its specific features. Initially, specific evaluation criteria relevant to each individual design must be developed to serve as planning priorities. In doing so, all levels of the design — technical, functional, economic, and aesthetic factors — have to be considered. The spatial concept is based on the alignment of the existing fabric with any additional requirements. Structure and Spatial Concept Regardless of whether the task concerns the interior of a new building or fit-out work in an existing building, it is paramount to analyse the structure of the building first. The designer must understand the complexity of the existing structure, define hierarchies, identify basic elements, and finally develop an approach to the existing spatial configuration to determine the further planning procedures. Depending on the supporting structure, elements can be added or superimposed. Within existing buildings, facilities may need to be updated to serve the needs of the user. Often it is necessary to observe additional preservation and fire protection requirements or to upgrade the building services. User needs may be expressed in many ways: is the fit-out going to be fixed or subject to constant change? Is it expanding or shrinking? In any event, the requirements are very individual. The question of whether space needs to be added or reduced in size and how the new layout will fit into the existing fabric is also decided with particular view to the state of the structure. Does the existing building possess

a special spatial atmosphere of its own, or will only the bare structure be kept? The latter will create a stronger dialogue between addition and existing structure; the former will involve the blending of spatial qualities down to the complete merging of one space into another. Spatial Strategies The rest of this chapter looks at different types of existing structures and presents conceptual possibilities for dealing with the old and the new. The elements of the space creation that are used to define and organise space will be introduced by way of examples. This will allow for the range of possible designs to be categorised and demonstrate the possibilities for practical implementation of various conceptual approaches in detail.

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The independence of spatial configuration and load-bearing structure is highly flexible

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Principles for interaction of spatial concepts and existing space 1 Insert 2 Addition 3 Free-standing plane mediating between old and new 4 Cells 5 Cladding as functional element 6/7 Spatial objects in a loft space, Three Small Rooms, Brooklyn, USA, 2013, Studio Cadena

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Structure and Spatial Concept Building Structures Two basic types of building structures can be distinguished: solid and skeleton structures. Solid Construction In traditional solid construction, masonry walls and columns are load-bearing. At the same time, they form the greater part of the interior partitioning, which means that the load-bearing base-build structure simultaneously determines the spatial configuration. If the user requirements change, the integration of new circulation routes or technical infrastructure often necessitates additional structural measures. Lightweight fit-out elements can either be added in the form of sculptural, three-dimensional implants, or added to the existing load-bearing structure by means of cladding or shells. Replacing the base-build fabric partially with new lightweight structures creates an exciting juxtaposition of the old and the new. However, the basic structure of the building remains essentially unchanged. Based on the planning criteria relevant for the design, the architect decides whether the load-bearing and non-load-bearing elements will coexist or merge, whether they will be superimposed or layered onto one another.

Skeleton Construction The development of reinforced concrete as a building material around the beginning of the 20th century made it possible to separate the support structure and the interior spatial configuration. Columns and bracing cores or exterior walls bear the loads, allowing all the other elements of the floor layout to be freely arranged. Independently of the building structure, the spatial concept forms light spaces, creates surfaces, and improves spatial qualities. The elements of the spatial concept can act together with the support structure or allow the latter to take a back seat. Technical installations may be either deliberately exposed or invisibly integrated into the new elements. Lightweight fit-out designs allow for easy adaptation to ever-changing standards and free-floor plan configurations.

Superimposition: conversion of former farmbuildings into a summer house. Material and light guided the design. Summer house, Serra de Janeanes, Portugal, 2013, João Branco

Principles for free-standing elements 1 Superimposition 2 Addition 3 Coexistence of old and new fabric 4 Cladding 5 Spatial object/insert 6 Free-standing planes integrating the columns 7 Free-standing planes detached from the columns 8 Walls and cells

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Implant — New and old are of equal perceived stature, while the existing structures remain largely untouched and visible.

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Inserted spatial object Openings that reveal the existing base-build structure Schematic section of spatial object Schematic floor plan of spatial object

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Example of Implant In this project, four spatial volumes were introduced within the shell of a derelict traditional farmhouse in the Bavarian Forest. They fulfil the house’s functions and create spaces for new life, while keeping the past life visible. The existing structure remains largely unchanged. Renovation of a Bayerwald farmhouse ‘Birg mich, Cilli’, Viechtach, Germany, 2008, Studio für Architektur: Peter Haimerl, Jutta Görlich 3

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New interventions are restricted to selected areas, leaving the remaining space untouched. As self-supporting solids or claddings, they supplement the building programme or include formerly non-existent spatial qualities, for example, with respect to room temperature or technical equipment. Materials either create a deliberate contrast or blend into the existing fabric.

Concepts in Existing Buildings 1

Example of Interpenetration New spaces were ‘inserted’ into the attic, which changed the volume of the roof. New volumes subdivide the corridors and create breakout spaces. Only the ceiling height of the zones allows conclusions as to what is old and what is new. The result is a consistent spatial structure with a generously extended usable floor area. Rooftop conversion Alte Schule, Winterbach, Germany, 2011, archifaktur

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Usable corridor zones Conceptual section Schematic floor plan New volumes rise from the existing roof 3

The mutual interpenetration of new and old integrates the existing fabric and creates a consistent design in a homogeneous space. 4

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Example of Superimposition Like a parasite, a new functional, timber-finished element sits within the stone tower of this granary from the 16th century. It accommodates both circulation space and auxiliary rooms. Depending on the requirements, the form reveals itself in the space as a body or as timber cladding. The contrasting materials allow for a clear distinction between old and new. House in a former granary, Echandens, Switzerland, 2010, 2b architectes

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Multi-functional walls, cladding, or spatial objects reshape the existing fabric and create the spatial conditions for new uses and functions. The materials of the elements can contrast with each other or be similar; however, the existing structure remains clearly recognizable.

Superimposing new elements onto the old fabric transforms the existing spaces — the structure is partially replaced, supplemented, or altered. 1 Staircase 2 Superimposition of old and new 3 Schematic section of spatial object

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A spatial sculpture is added to the existing building and engages in fascinating interaction with it.

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Example of Addition As a spatial sculpture, the new roof-scape sweeps over the formerly ruinous and therefore unusable north and west wings of the late medieval castle. It creates suitable spaces for the art museum. Smaller gallery spaces are suspended from the new roof as white cubes. The distinction between old and new is clearly accentuated by shadow gaps, concealed lighting, and voids. This results in completely new spatial effects and new volumes for extended or modified uses and functions. Museum Moritzburg, Halle/Saale, Germany, 2008, Nieto Sobejano

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New addition in its historic context Schematic section Schematic floor plan New volumes Isometric view

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Claddings or shells define the visual, three-dimensional and tactile qualities of space. As functional walls they can protrude or step back, integrating fixtures, furnishings, smaller rooms, or functional areas. 1 2 3 4

Elements in use Schematic drawing of doors Schematic drawing of functional shell Elements in half-extracted state 1 2

Example of Functional Shell The three-dimensional shell freely inserted into an available space forms a separate room within the room. The cladding creates a cavity, and flush doors and drawers have been recessed into the surface to accommodate materials and functions. Very narrow backlit joints indicate these openings, hinting at the shape of the objects behind in an abstract way. The plane of this graphical pattern on the wall turns into a three-dimensional composition as soon as the individual furniture objects are opened. Schirnstudio, Frankfurt, Germany, 2012, Meixner Schlüter Wendt Architekten

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Free-standing Elements In addition to the contours and geometry of space, threedimensional cladding may also strongly affect the physical room conditions due to its material properties.

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Concert hall, showing services and stage lighting in the gaps Schematic section Concert hall, showing auditorium lighting in the gaps

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Example of Acoustically Effective Shell The concert hall has been completely clad with timber panels, covering all surfaces of the space. Form, structure, and material have been entirely guided by the acoustic requirements of the concert hall. The hall has a long reverberation time because it is designed for operas and concerts. Technical elements such as lighting and ventilation are integrated into the shell. Between the individual scales of this timber skin, LEDs for lighting, ventilation outlets, and any other required technical elements have been accommodated. The individual scales’ finishes remain undisturbed and smooth, thus making the space tangible as a protective shell and reducing the visual distance between audience and orchestra. 1

Festival Hall, Erl, Austria, 2012 Delugan Meissl Associated Architects

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Spatial objects are independent volumes in an existing context. Depending on their position and dimensions, they create new zones or paths and supplement functions or spaces in a compact way. 1

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Contrast between spatial object and existing structure Schematic floor plan Curved form 3

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Example of Spatial Object Erected at the Architecture Biennale, this spatial object playfully blurs the boundaries between wall, floor, and ceiling. The rigid material appears as flexible as a textile, and all areas merge into one flowing form. The spaces created within invite the visitor to explore and observe. The Changing Room, Venice, Italy, 2008, UNStudio

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Example of Spatial Object A former office floor was converted into a doctor’s office. A freestanding spatial object integrates the existing columns. It accommodates all functional areas and necessary technical installations; visitors access the volume via a circumferential path located between the body and the existing building shell. With its carefully executed, rough texture and its colour, the body stands out from the rough, exposed backdrop of the basebuild finishes. Praxis Dr. B, Filderstadt, Germany, 2010, AMUNT architects Martenson and Nagel Theissen

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As a self-supporting structure, the spatial object either integrates or negates the existing load-bearing structure. It remains within the constraints of the floor plates and outer shell — or it penetrates both as an autonomous ‘implant’. Depending on the design concept, spatial objects may assume the geometry of the existing fabric or adopt completely free forms.

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1 Contrast between spatial object and existing structure 2 Schematic floor plan 3 Recesses in the volume create counters

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Room cells divided by walls form acoustically and — depending on the design — also visually separated units within a larger existing space. Cells usually follow the primary structure of the building, forming individual modules aligned to the structural grid. Glass elements create visual connections; solid walls meet requirements for fire protection and soundproofing.

Example Cells Wall slabs separate the individual offices visually and acoustically. At the same time, large glass panes facing the corridors allow the user to experience the entire space. Offices of Leagas Delaney, Hamburg, Germany, 2008, Carsten Roth Architect 1

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Transparent corridor walls Schematic floor plan Transparent cells

Cells and walls organise the existing space and partition off new spaces. Both spaces may interact with each other or shut each other out. 32

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Free-standing walls can be selectively placed in space and create flowing, layered rooms of different lucidity.

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Coloured free- standing walls Cross perspectives Schematic floor plan

Free-standing walls may guide or intercept movement through a space. Moving walls in the form of large revolving doors or sliding walls allow changes in the floor plan configuration and provide flexible zoning without actually sealing off the space.

Example of Free-standing walls Coloured, free-standing walls form the exhibition space in this vast interior of the Scuola Nuova di Santa Maria della Misericordia in Venice. They provide a highly compressed space, channel visitor traffic, and organise the exhibition thematically. Large passages allow for cross perspectives and shortcuts, resulting in spaces that are readable in various directions. The use of colour emphasises the layered, condensed structure. 2

Exhibition design, Audi Urban Future Award, Venice, Italy, 2010, Raumlabor, Berlin

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Besides design criteria, other factors such as room climate, lighting design, and light distribution, as well as acoustics and sound, determine the spatial conditions.

The installation of interinal insulation ensures the church interior can be used and heated for short periods, while maintaining the external appearance of the building. Refurbishment of Melanchthonkirche, Hannover, Germany, 2013, dreibund architekten 1 2

View of the interior Schematic floor plan

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Spatial Conditions

The planning criteria for comfortable spatial conditions are a function of the space itself and its users. Considerations regarding natural and artificial light, sound, heat, cold, and room acoustics require accurate planning and must begin in the early design stages. Applying the most essential architectural means can often lead to convincing solutions for both room climate and interior design without excessive mechanical engineering. Volume of space or solid material, lightness or mass, geometry and shape, but also colour schemes and materiality, are key parameters for spatial quality. In addition, innovative finishing techniques and materials may be applied that are acoustically effective even in drywall construction and provide thermal mass or soundproofing qualities similar to those of solid components, while using significantly thinner wall thicknesses. Hence, relatively simple structural interventions may improve specific, unfavourable conditions in the existing fabric.

Interior insulation can be introduced behind inner drywall cladding to increase the thermal protection of listed (e.g., heritage) buildings, to upgrade individual rooms in larger existing structures, or in the case of low clearance with neighbouring buildings. The external appearance of the existing building remains unchanged, which is especially relevant when there are preservation requirements.

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The optimal climatic and atmospheric conditions of an interior cannot be absolutely defined; they depend on usage, room function, and individual levels of comfort. Comfort Objectively, it is fair to state that quiet and sedentary occupations require a different indoor climate than active ones. Certain underlying parameters generally improve the indoor quality of life. These include the measurable limits of light distribution, lighting, room temperature, humidity, fresh air, sound, and room acoustics, as defined in regulations and norms. Also, the materials in a space have specific properties and can make for a pleasant indoor climate if they are used thoughtfully. However, psychological factors that are hard to measure also have a huge impact on the perception of space, as do features such as switches and operable elements for individual control of room temperature, lighting, and so forth. External influences such as local climate, orientation, solar radiation, and views must be considered in the design as well. Additional building services may be required in the event of particularly high demands on the ambient conditions, for example in clean rooms, in rooms with special requirements for room acoustics, or in connection with noise protection measures.

Thermal Comfort Depending on the activity, a room temperature of 16–26 °C is perceived to be comfortable. The measurable room temperature can deviate from the individually perceived temperature. At a temperature of 20 °C, a relative humidity of 35–65 per cent is considered optimal. The surface temperature of the perimeter surfaces affects the room temperature. The temperatures may have a balancing effect on one another up to a maximum mean difference of 1.5–3.0 °C. At greater differences, the sinking air on the cold surfaces will be perceived as a draught. This effect is particularly noticeable against poorly insulated windows in cold weather. A pleasant room climate can be supported by active measures such as mechanical heating and cooling.

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Integrated air-conditioning elements a Integrated radiator b Exhaust air c Cooling surface d Heating surface e Air supply Integrated elements for passive heating/cooling f Screening wall/filter g Movable solar protection/screen h Thermal mass i Operable windows, possible cross-ventilation j Gypsum plaster or boards for humidity control

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Permanent Use In permanently used rooms, the thermal mass of the interior elements has a balancing effect on the room temperature. Solar gains, heat loss, and thermal heat are slowly absorbed and slowly discharged, so that daytime temperature fluctuations can be compensated for. Thus, overheating in summer at midday can be avoided, as can rapid cooling in winter. In solid constructions, heavy exposed components of the load-bearing structure perform this task. In timber or drywall construction, heavy boarding can be used to a certain extent. Special materials at a board thickness of 12.5 mm with built-in latent heat storage materials, e.g., in the form of paraffin beads as PCM (Phase Changing Material), equal the storage capacity of an 8-cm-thick concrete wall.

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Thermally separated fixing of studs within the insulation layer Mineral wool insulation Preservation of the historic facade Vapour barrier, wall profiles of the technical installation cavity and plasterboards Detailed schematic section with wall structure: insulation and vertical studs, vapour barrier, additional technical installation cavity, plasterboard

1 Thermal mass regulating temperature fluctuations 2 Inside insulation in existing context in case of spatial limitations or conservation orders. 3 Interior insulation for partial renovation or partial use, allowing quick heating of individual rooms

Example of Insulation and Preservation Internal insulation is being used to improve the thermal insulation properties of the building while preserving the historic facade. The newly built functional shell consists of an insulation layer and an outer cavity for services that simultaneously protects the vapour barrier from damage. This wall structure allows for easy installation of electrical cables, sockets, light switches, and so on, while minimizing the risk that users may pierce the vapour-proof layer when attaching furniture (e.g., shelving) or pictures. Interior insulation at Unikum student dorm, Greifswald, Germany, 2012, Office Torsten Labs

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Rooms for Temporary or Short-term Use Interior insulation prevents the existing building fabric from acting as a thermal mass, thereby permitting the rapid heating of temporarily or occasionally used rooms. In this case, great care must be taken in the planning of wall structure and its execution on site, since damage may occur and/or mould may grow due to condensation at the interface with cold components. Where there are wall and soffit connections, cold bridges may occur. Here, the installation of insulation is needed as a thermal ‘buffer zone’. It is necessary to provide a continuous vapour barrier, which should not be disturbed by technical installations. Alternatively, the installation of so-called capillary insulation is possible, allowing rapid transport of any moisture to the surface.

In some cases, especially when dealing with the fabric of listed (designated) buildings, when building on property lines, or when undertaking partial renovations, the use of interior insulation may be the only way to improve the thermal performance without changing the external appearance. If required, the combination of heat and sound insulation is possible.

If entire buildings or individual rooms for temporary use in larger volumes are to be heated quickly, ʻlightweightʼ interior finishing materials with interior insulation are recommended.

Thermal storage Solid or lightweight 1 Solid construction = thermal mass 2 Supporting lightweight structure with additional PCM cladding instead of thermal mass; suitable for permanent use 3 Lightweight, insulated volume; can be quickly heated or cooled; suitable for temporary use

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Example of Internal Insulation and Temporary Use The refurbishment of Melanchthonkirche in Hanover focussed on the integration of an existing community centre into the mass of the overall church, as well as on the preservation of the external facade. To achieve this, the existing interior has been restructured; flexibly combinable spaces were created, which are easy to heat whenever they are needed. The galleries in the wings of the cross-shaped floor plan were demolished and replaced by newly inserted functional areas. They accommodate the parochial offices and the premises of the community centre. A newly inserted organ loft in the central church hall connects all these areas. Below, large glass sliding walls can be moved to create a separate, smaller hall, or that space can be combined with the main church interior. The insulation of the walls from the inside allows rapid heating of the merely temporarily used church interior, while avoiding changes to the exterior at the same time. Reconstruction of Melanchthonkirche, Hanover, Germany, 2013, dreibund Architekten a b c d

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Existing exterior wall with inside insulation layer: 125 mm brick facing (thin format) 240 mm sand-lime masonry (solid bricks, standard format) 125 mm perforated brick facing (thin format) 10 mm lime-cement plaster (compensation layer) 10 mm adhesive filler 100 mm capillary inside insulation 15 mm reinforced plaster base and final coat New skylights Timber windowsill Embrasure lining

Detailed wall structure with inside insulation View of the church interior

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There is a clear distinction between building acoustics (sound transmission through enclosing or separating building components) and room acoustics (the distribution and behaviour of sound in space). Principles of sound transmission and soundproofing 1 Sound transmission through air 2 Sound transmission through structure 3 Soundproofing with flexible shell 4 Soundproofing by structural detachment (separation)

Acoustics and Sound Acoustics is the science of sound: its generation, propagation, and perception. Sound is the result of the vibration of particles in elastic environments such as air, solid materials, or liquids, with the generated sound waves spreading spherically. Obstacles influence the path and volume of the perceived sound by means of diffraction, refraction, reflection, and absorption. In addition to the spatial quality of sound, there is a temporal dimension to it, from sound generation to silence. Sound becomes audible when sound waves are received in the ear and transformed into nerve impulses. From a low value of 7 dB, noise is perceptible to the human ear; noise above 65 dB is harmful in the long run; at 130 dB the ear can be permanently damaged.

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or profiles. The proximity of spaces with similar functions, and the separation of areas with different, conflicting requirements, in the floor plan can replace structural measures. Room Acoustics The specification of spatial geometry, volume, and finishes during the early design stages determines the sound energy and the spatial distribution of sound, and thus the acoustic perception of space. This is supported by the specific sound qualities of the materials used. Attentive observers will automatically develop an expectation about the acoustic experience, integrating sensory impressions such as seeing and hearing, and other sensations, like smells. If the visual and acoustic experiences diverge too much from one another, this will lead to irritations. What kind of space is perceived as pleasant will depend on how it is used. Reverberant rooms, for example, generate a solemn religious sentiment; muted rooms provide a peaceful atmosphere.

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Building Acoustics Measures to improve the building acoustics involve insulating the separating elements, such as walls and ceilings, between different functional areas, or separate units against structure-borne, airborne, and impact sound — this may be noise from outside, from adjacent rooms, or from building services (e.g., HVAC). Plasterboard claddings or multi-layer constructions provide structural soundproofing based on the principle of two separate, flexible shells. Additional sound insulation in the cavity and the weight of the materials themselves will further affect the properties of the wall. It is important to prevent sound bridging from rigid parts of the substructure, such as fasteners

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Principle of soundproofing through functional separation Reduction of sound transmission by separating incompatible functions or by arranging buffer zones containing secondary rooms

Building and Room Acoustics Example of Sound Insulation In a residential building, a music bar is divided off by means of acoustic cladding in the basement. A room-in-room construction with a sound reduction index of 88 dB allows the coexistence of two usually incompatible uses. The bar’s integrated soundproof cladding with mineral wool insulation is self-supporting and completely detached from the supporting structure. Musikbar Charlie, Munich, Germany, 2010, Akustikbüro Schwartzenberger und Burkhart

Principle of soundproofing through acoustic insulation 1 Schematic section 2 Installation of acoustic insulation 3 Cladding construction: metal stud frame 100 CW profiles (walls) and 125 UA profiles (ceiling) Ceiling insulation 200 mm mineral wool Wall insulation 100 mm mineral wool Plasterboard with a base weight of 53 kg/m²: two layers of 12.5 mm gypsum accoustic boards boards with high mass per unit area plus a layer of 18 mm boards with increased strength 4 Completed room with integrated LED light strips

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Overhead widening – amplification of sound energy Flutter echo Scattering by irregular surfaces Focussing by convex surfaces Focussing by oval space section Focussing by vaulted space (dome effect)

The spatial geometry in plan and section determines the sound reflection and, therefore, the room acoustics. Room Acoustics and Room Geometry Room size, room height, and room volume affect the time it takes for the sound waves to hit a reflecting or absorbing surface. In broad spaces, the sound waves reflected from the walls often only reach the middle of the room after the ceiling reflections have already reached the listener. In a narrow space, however, the sound waves from the right and left are faster; since they sound generally different, listeners perceive this as pleasant. Low ceiling heights impair the sound distribution in the room. In almost square rooms, the sound waves hardly ever reach the middle of the room. Reverberation Time How surfaces and objects in a space reflect the incident sound depends on the specific absorption coefficient of their material; this creates an audible impression of space: the reverberation. The measurable value is the reverberation time; this is the time it takes for the sound pressure in a room to fall to one thousandth of its initial value, which is equivalent to a reduction of 60 dB. In rooms primarily designed for listening, such as classrooms, auditoriums, or concert halls, the reverberation time is of crucial importance for the design. Only a small proportion of the sound waves that reach the recipient are direct sound; the rest of the waves bounce off the surfaces back into the room or are absorbed. Reflections

Sound distribution and spatial geometry 7 Spatial volume affects the reverberation time. 8 Spatial geometry influences the sound distribution. High space: reflections from the right and left are faster. Wide space: reflections from the ceiling are faster. 9 Spatial geometry and surface properties affect reflection and absorption.

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that reach the listener within a time difference of 50 milliseconds of the direct sound are called early reflections; this corresponds to a difference of approximately 17 m in the lengths of the paths travelled by the direct sound and the reflection. These early reflections facilitate the intelligibility of speech in the room. They are followed by reverberation. Here, the reflection density increases, and the room continues to reverberate until the reflections slowly subside and fade away. Reverberation depends on the volume of the space, the finishes, and the number of people in the room, but not on the room geometry. The perceived optimal reverberation time varies depending on how the room is used. Large reverberation times make a room seem more spacious, and are favourable for acoustic music. The temporal fusion of direct sounds and reflections reduces intelligibility while increasing the volume. Therefore, a low reverberation time is required for good speech intelligibility in classrooms. If rooms are supposed to be used for different kinds of performances, intermediate values should be chosen that will match the expected main use of the space.

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Doors to echo chambers open Section: spatial volume expanded by echo chambers Plan of echo chambers Schematic view of sound diffusion by plaster relief KKL Luzern, Concert Hall, 2000, Architectures Jean Nouvel

Example of Concert Hall An abstract ornamentation made of plaster was developed as an acoustically effective finish to optimise sound distribution in this large concert hall. Five types of square plaster reliefs, 2400 in all, were glued to the concrete walls, parapets, and doors as sound diffusers; these were all tuned to certain frequency ranges. The individual elements measure 20 × 20 cm and are 7 cm deep. The plaster was poured into negative rubber moulds and the panels were then fixed (attached) in a predetermined rhythm of four rows of one type, randomly mixed in with 13 per cent of other types. The reliefs were individually designed for the acoustic conditions at each balcony and the cast forms were subsequently also hand-processed.

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Different sizes of reliefs react to different frequency ranges. An additional reflector was mounted above the stage. For further amplification of the reverberation, echo chambers can be opened in the wall, enlarging the spatial volume. For uses that require less sound diffusion, such as vocal events and jazz or pop concerts, the effect of the reliefs can be partially ‘muted’ with drapes, thus reducing the reverberation time. Concert Hall, KKL Luzern, Switzerland, 2000, Architectures Jean Nouvel with Russel Johnson (acoustics)

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Suspended reflective ceiling panels can be adjusted in height to adapt the hall’s acoustics for speech or music and for different positions of the performers in the hall. 1 Interior 2 Schematic ceiling plan StageCage – spatial intervention, Darmstadt, Germany, 2012, Cooperation project Hochschule Darmstadt and University of Applied Sciences and Arts Dortmund

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Acoustics and Material Due to their sound-absorbing or reflecting properties, the materials and the textures of finishes affect the spatial impression considerably. Reflective surfaces can make a space seem more reverberant, more spacious, and more impressive. Strongly absorbent materials, on the other hand, make the room appear dull, muted, and smaller; the extreme is the anechoic chamber, which makes orientation by ear impossible, causing great discomfort due to a lack of reflection and complete sound absorption. The properties of a material with respect to reflection, scattering, absorption, and insulation of sound depend on surface structure, pores, and density. A careful balance between the requirements of use and design principles is necessary.

Sound-scattering Surfaces Uneven finishes or surfaces in relief scatter the sound by diverting the sound waves as they strike. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence; the direction of dispersion thus depends on the geometry of the relief. However, the surface structure size matters as well; low frequencies with greater wavelength relative to the surface structure will not be scattered. In essence, they ignore the surface structure and are reflected as if from a planar structure. Only within the range of middle wavelengths is the sound dispersed in different spatial directions.

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Reflection and Absorption

Wavelength: distance between wave crests Frequency: the speed of periodically returning sound waves — the faster the return, the higher the pitch Audible frequencies for humans: between 16 Hz and 20,000 Hz

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Angle of incidence = angle of reflection 4 Reflection via ceiling and rear wall 5 Reflection via ceiling, absorbent rear wall 6 Altered spatial geometry, reflected sound reaches another point in the room 7 Reflection via ceiling, sound is scattered by rear wall

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Room dimensions and reflection 1 Long ceiling reflection, short side reflection 2 Short ceiling reflection, long side reflection 3 Favourable room geometry

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Reflective surfaces 8 Carved wood relief at the Alhambra 9 Milled, layered relief made of gypsum fibre material 10 Milled relief made of gypsum fibre material, sound diffusion by microstructure/high weight for the absorption of low frequencies

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Types of absorbers 1 Porous absorbers: foam material, acoustic boards, carpet, mineral wool, textiles 2 Resonance-type absorber with insulated or non-insulated cavity 3 Perforated absorber 4 Helmholtz resonator 1

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The degree of surface absorption influences the perception of room size and room atmosphere. Absorbent Materials Porous materials absorb the sound pressure. This means that the sound energy is turned into mechanical deformations or movements in the material and thus converted into frictional heat. The acoustic absorption depends on mass, weight, surface condition of the material, and frequency. The absorption capacity for a given frequency is referred to as sound absorption coefficient α. It ranges between the values of α = 0 for total reflection and α = 1 for total absorption. The technical specifications for acoustic products list the specific absorption coefficients. Most of these data are based on measurements performed in a laboratory according to DIN EN ISO 354 (international standard measurement of sound absorption in a reverberation room). Absorbent surfaces reduce the reverberation. Room acoustics can be specifically controlled by the surface area and arrangement of the absorbing and reflecting surfaces. Humans also act as an absorber for the medium and high frequencies. Planners need to consider that excessive attenuation of a space — as by sound-absorbing ceiling systems, carpeting, upholstered seating, and an audience — will greatly impair speech intelligibility and clarity.

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Porous Absorbers The properties of an absorber depend on the composition of the material and its thickness. The optimal absorption of porous materials or acoustic panels at a certain frequency depends on overall aperture area and perforation size. A large proportion of small holes is favourable for the absorption of higher frequencies, because of the smaller wavelengths. Most often, absorbent materials in the form of boards, plaster, or meshes are applied directly to the wall surfaces. If these surfaces do not suffice, baffles or other three-dimensional shapes may increase the surface area, and thus the overall effectiveness. Resonance-type Sound Absorbers Panel absorbers or resonance absorbers follow the principle of the spring-mass system. They are usually made of flexible panels, mounted at a distance from the wall. As a result, fully sealed or partially open cavities are formed, in which the air absorbs the energy of the sound waves. They are particularly effective with regard to the long sound waves in the lower frequency range. The maximum absorption can be specifically adjusted to a particular frequency range by variation of the distance to the wall, the size and spacing of the board perforations, and the sound insulation. A special form of the panel resonator is the Helmholtz resonator; the air behind the ‘bottleneck’ acts here as a ‘spring’, transforming sound energy into friction. In its smallest form, the Helmholtz resonator can also consist of the perforation holes in acoustic panels.

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Absorbers in a room a Baffles b Acoustic ceiling c Wall panels d Wall covering e Carpet f Curtain g Absorbing pinboard h Sound diffusing sail i Acoustic plaster

3 Absorbent materials 1 Melamine resin foam 2 Perforated gypsum plasterboards 3 Milled pattern 4 Slotted wood veneer board 5 Dyed wood-wool panels 6 Textile absorbent panel, smocked felt, Anne Kyyrö Quinn 7 Textile absorbent panel, folded felt, Anne Kyyrö Quinn 8 Acoustic ceiling with baffles, Chamber of Commerce, Hamburg, 2014, Johann von Mansberg and Hörter + Trautmann Architekten 9 Acoustic plaster

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The interplay of form and material shapes the visual and audible image of a space. Absorbent elements in space 1 Absorbent cladding using room surfaces 2 Acoustic sails for targeted absorption or reflection at defined locations in space 3 Baffles increasing absorbent surface 4 Pillows and cushions to increase the absorbent surface

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5 The ceiling elements are inspired by origami; they accommodate services below the soffit and absorb sound, thus enhancing room acoustics; acoustic ceiling; Assemble Studio, Melbourne, Australia, 2012 Assemble 6 Acoustic Device, Universidad Catolica Santiago, Chile, 2008 7 Acoustic device: suspension

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Example of Room for Sound Recordings Students of the Sound and Music Production (Department of Media) and Architecture (Department of Architecture) courses refurbished the recording and post-production studios of Mediencampus Dieburg at Hochschule Darmstadt as part of an interdisciplinary project. Apprentices of a vocational school for master plasterers in Heilbronn executed the drywall construction. In a surround-sound studio, uniform reverberation times are required across all frequencies. In addition, having early reflections at the position of the mixing console must be avoided. This is achieved by specifically calibrated, polygonal acoustic elements. These elements also assume further functions, such as mixer, bench, and storage space. At the height of the studio monitor, a change in material ensures the absorption of the early reflection points and enables high-quality work at the mixer. The selective use of absorbent and reflective materials keeps reverberation time on a smooth curve within the targeted range of 0.4–0.5 seconds. Secondary cladding was introduced into the space in order to protect the control room from ambient noise. The walls of this shell are placed at an angle of < 90 degrees to each other in order to avoid flutter echoes. It is covered by slats that act as diffusers.

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1 Surround-sound studio, interior view 2 Schematic ceiling plan of surround-sound studio. Polygonal elements three-dimensionally connect the early reflection points. 3 Schematic floor plan of surround-studio studio with mixing console. The geometry of the ribs breaks sound waves. 4 Acoustic slats, control room 5 Schematic floor plan, control room

Recording studios h-da, Mediencampus Dieburg, Germany, 2016 Room acoustics: Dipl.-Ing. Mario Miscioscia, RheinMain University Implementation: Jule Bierlein, Vanina Dyankova, Marie-Christine Wolf

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An inserted timber volume directs daylight from above into the hall, glowing with the warm colour of the material. Funeral parlour, Munich-Riem, Germany, 2000, Meck Architecten

Light itself is not visible, but it is only through light that we can see. It imparts texture and depth to planes and bodies. Light and Lighting We humans perceive 90 per cent of the environment through our eyes. Light is therefore a key factor in our orientation and our well-being. The measurable parameters of so-called visual comfort include illuminance, luminance, light direction, light colour, and, consequently, colour rendering. Illuminance indicates the luminous flux striking a surface. Luminance, in contrast, is a value for the reflected light emitting from an illuminated area or planar source of light; it can thus be construed as indicating the perceived brightness. The luminance depends strongly on the reflectance of the illuminated materials. Uneven light distribution may cause glare. Generally, with both daylight and artificial light it is possible to distinguish between direct and diffuse light. Directional light comes from a defined source and strikes the surfaces directly. Depending on the respective surface texture, it generates shadows and reflections that support spatial depth and the perception of objects. Diffuse light is distributed via large areas such as a cloudy sky or light sails, or in the form of light reflected by surfaces. It creates a relatively low-contrast environment with few shadows and little visual depth. 50

Daylight Daylight is usually perceived as pleasant; the eye can adjust to large variations in terms of brightness and colour, depending on geographic location, time of day, seasons, and weather. Adequate daylight is — next to the views the space offers — one of the most important factors for a successful relationship between interior and exterior and for a good spatial quality. When planning windows, planners need to remind themselves that an overcast sky is not equally bright in every direction. The brightest spot is always directly above the observer, at the zenith. Towards the horizon, the light density decreases by about two-thirds. The ingress of zenith light through skylights boosts brightness by up to 30 per cent. North-facing windows prevent excessive solar gains, while at the same time ensuring even illumination of the space by diffused light. Purely diffuse daylight, for example, for a gallery use, can be provided by combining a luminous ceiling with evenly arranged skylights above.

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a d Daylight in space a Screen scatters, deflects, or filters light b Daylight ceiling with optional artificial lights c Window for indirect lighting; reflector directs light to the ceiling d View e Skylight/light cannon

Daylight and Colour Rendering The light visible to the human eye ranges between wavelengths of 380–780 nm. Colours and coloured surfaces in space interact with light and reflection. Daylight ensures optimal colour rendering; however, it can colour surfaces through reflection, put them into strong contrast, and even alter the ambiance of a space during the course of day or through controlled lighting. Coloured surfaces influence the perception of spatial geometry due to their specific reflection or absorption of light.

1 Indirect light in gallery space, Gallery, KKL Luzern, Switzerland, 2000, Architectures Jean Nouvel 2/3 Diffuse light flattens plaster texture 4/5 Direct sidelight emphasises plaster texture

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Schematic section of St. Antonius Light object in the church Schematic section of light filter Schematic section of St. Ignatius Colour reflection Reflected light and side light in the church Diagram of colour reflection

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Example of Light Filter A light body runs like a luminous shell across the walls and the ceiling of the existing structure. It is illuminated by diffusely filtered daylight, which is supplemented by artificial light when needed. The cavity serves as an air plenum for the church interior. Church of St. Antonius, Stuttgart-Kaltental, Germany, 2006, Pfeifer Kuhn Architekten

Example of Coloured Light Reflection The atmosphere in the church is characterised by a complex interplay of geometry, materiality, texture, light, and coloured areas. The inner cladding of the building echoes the exterior shell in a geometrically abstract way. The strategically placed colour reflections move around the room throughout the day, constantly producing new light compositions. Chapel of St. Ignatius, Seattle, USA, 1997, Steven Holl Architects 4

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Light shapes space; it emphasises structures and edges or entirely dissolves space.

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Homogeneous white, slightly reflective surfaces and the zenith skylight as the only light source, make the edges of the room vanish. Romanian Pavilion, Biennale 2010, Venice, Italy, Tudor Vlasceanu Room edges are defined by light. Arp Museum Bahnhof Rolandseck, Remagen, Germany, 2007, Richard Meier & Partners Architects Light emphasises the ceiling structure. Boys get Skulls, Girls get Butterflies, Exhibition Georg Hornemann, MAKK Cologne, Germany, 2013, Thomas Kröger Architekt Ceiling gaps for indirect light emphasise the clarity of the space contours. Sandretto Re Rebaudengo Foundation, Turin, Italy, 2002, Claudio Silvestrin

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Artificial light can amplify or entirely distort the spatial impression. 1 Interaction of space object and light objects Office, Amsterdam, Netherlands, i29 Interior Architects 2 Highlight producing precisely drawn shadows LebenAusGestorben, exhibition for the 100th anniversary, Waldfriedhof Darmstadt, Germany, 2014, Implementation: Jule Bierlein, Frank Jochem, Yordanka Malinova, h_da, in cooperation with Theater Transit

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Artificial Light Artificial light fulfills a strongly creative function, besides having to compensate for the lack of natural light in buildings and providing acceptable illumination levels for the task at hand. In contrast to daylight, illumination, direction, and light colour are precisely defined and controllable. Strategically placed lighting provides focal points and spatial highlights, which is especially important in retail settings. Luminaries, as lighting objects, can enter into a dialogue with the fixtures and furniture in a space. Side-lighting causes static shadows and highlights the threedimensionality of finishes and objects. Soft, diffused light, however, can blur the defining edges of a room. The combination of various separately operable lighting circuits may create lighting scenarios, which will affect room ambiance or even completely alter the impression of space.

values above 80 CRI providing good colour rendering. Coloured artificial light, however, may also be used deliberately to unsettle the viewer’s expectations and to distort the colour reproduction intentionally.

Artificial Light and Colour Rendering The quality of colour reproduction depends to a large degree on the light source. The colour temperature of light is measured in degrees Kelvin. The red-orange-yellow light spectrum ranging from about 1500–3300 K is perceived as pleasant; the range of 3300–5000 K is perceived as neutral white light, that is, as the typical artificial lighting; and the cold blue light range of about 5000–9000 K is similar to zenith light. Depending on the colour of light, each lamp can be assigned a colour rendering index CRI in the range of 1–100, with all

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Example of Distorted Colour Perception Caused by Lighting Objects made of armouring irons representing border fences on blue sand are placed in a white room. The fading light colour of the backing walls constantly changes the colour of the objects in the room completely, reversing brightness and darkness; the blue colour turns green against the yellow light and almost black against the red light. The viewer can no longer safely classify whether the visible colour is the material colour or light colour.

Light colour white — material colours are visible. Light colour magenta — blue is amplified. Light colour yellow — blue appears as green. Light colour red — blue appears as black. Optical distortion of the tunnel’s dimensions through colour and light Schematic floor plan showing real dimensions

Pavilion of the Republic of Kosovo: ‘Speculating on the Blue’, Venice Biennale 2015, Venice, Italy, Flaka Haliti

Example of Modified Spatial Impression Caused by Lighting A long underground passage is structured by the use of coloured surfaces and coloured light. Although the individual coloured areas have significantly different lengths in plan, they appear similar in perspective view, thus seemingly to shorten the space a great deal. Coloured ceiling panels used in conjunction with coloured light create planar stretches of space varied by asymmetrically arranged typefaces. Hence, visitors have the impression of passing through coloured portals, which are partly generated by mirroring and reflection. Redesigned pedestrian tunnel between Alice-Hospital and Children’s Hospital Darmstadt, Germany, 2015, Implementation: Natascha Roth, Hochschule Darmstadt

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Types of lighting a Pendant lamp b Spots (track lighting) c Downlight d Recessed ceiling strip light e Wall-mounted luminary f Recessed wall luminaries g Light gap, ceiling h Cornice with concealed light i Light gap, wall Lamp integrated into furniture j k Light gap in floor step Recessed floor light l m Recessed spot, floor

1 Light gap, KU64, Berlin, Germany, 2005, GRAFT 2 Integrated ambient light, weissraum dental office, Munich, Germany, 2010, Ippolito Fleitz Group 3 Principles of concealed lights and backlighting

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IBC International Business College, Kolding, Denmark, 2012, Schmidt Hammer Lassen 1 Isometric diagram of ceiling sail 2 View of interior

Ceiling Integrated Lighting Large ceiling surfaces allow uniform ambient illumination via indirect light. At the same time, the arrangement of light gaps, light panels, or illuminated ceilings can be used to subdivide a ceiling or make it the focal point of the room. Light gaps separate planes, bring them to the foreground, or seemingly make them float below the soffit. A bright ceiling makes the room appear higher and can simulate the effect of zenith light.

Museum of Bavarian kings, Hohenschwangau, Germany, 2011, Staab Architekten 3 Luminous ceiling produces evenly diffused light: LEDs behind polyethylene terephthalate (PET) panels 4 Schematic section

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Concealed light sources contour the room. Light Articulates Retail Exhibition Area On only 13 square metres of retail area, a cladding of vertical slats forms the backdrop for the presentation of shoes. An incised, lit band steps up to the ceiling and provides shelving. Each step is emphasised by a light box, consisting of translucent, backlit acrylic panels. Shoe shop ‘Importance of Walking’, Beijing, China, 1014, practice d’Architecture

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Light Dematerialises Spatial Contours Strips of suspended thin, white fibreglass confer on this space new contours and dramatic effects. All necessary furnishings are also suspended from the ceiling, with the floor surface remaining completely free. The strips reflect the light emitted from luminaries in the ceiling void, thus appearing virtually weightless. The permeability of the ceiling shell allows placement of smoke detectors, sprinklers, and other necessary technical equipment in the void without any visible outlets, thus sustaining the highly abstract design of the space.

Overall view Axonometric diagram of facade

SND Fashion Store, Chongqing, China, 2014, 3gatti

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Laser-cut suspended fibreglass s trips b Suspended aluminium profiles and steel substructure c Frosted glass d Glass e Existing soffit

1 The new volume hovers above the excavation site, almost as if suspended in mid-air. 2 View of isolated new volume separated by light gap 3 Detailed section of protective canopy

a Weatherproof cement bonded building boards on substructure b Substructure made of galvanised steel profiles 100 × 100 × 8 mm c Archaeological site from the Moorish period d 28W fluorescent tube e Steel sheet 4 mm f Steel sheet 5 mm g Steel sheet 3 mm h Polycarbonate panels 16 mm i Flat steel profile 5 mm j Timber slats 2.0 × 1.5 cm with brass spacers on steel supports

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Light Lets Spatial Object Float A light volume resting an the ground on only a few concealed bearings hovers above an archaeological site with mosaics from the 11th century, separated from it by only a light gap. Inside, the walls trace the floor plan of the former spaces in an abstract manner.

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Museum Praça Nova do Castelo de S. Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal, 2010, Carrilho da Graça Arquitectos

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A lightweight structure hovers above an archaeological excavation site — separated only by a light gap as if suspended in mid-air. 59

The cavities of drywall structures provide space for the integration of building services. Structural Integration of Technical Systems Pipes, conduits, and cable trays can be concealed in the cavities of drywall constructions in accordance with fire protection and acoustic requirements. Concealed access panels allow for maintenance and adaptation of the services. Outlets, switches, control devices, and luminaries can be installed flush with the surface, accomodated conceiled in light gaps, or deliberately exposed as special features. Activation of Surfaces The room surfaces themselves can be activated to serve as heating or cooling surface. For this purpose, either prefabricated elements with built-in copper pipe meanders or mats with integrated pipes behind the outer layers of boarding are used. In the latter case, boards with good thermal conductivity, for example, those with a graphite mixture in the gypsum core, give best results. An insulation layer separates the system from the substructure. In cooling ceilings, water with a flow temperature of usually 16–18 °C circulates in the system. The ascending air gives off heat to the ceiling and then drops after being cooled;

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1 Passive use of cavities for cable routing, active use for surface heating 2 Installation layers in walls, floors, and ceilings for heating, cooling, plumbing, electrical services, data cables, etc. 3 Use of installation bulkheads to create usable niches for seating, etc. 4 Suspended fireproof cladding used for concealed lighting effects on adjacent wall



A functional wall includes technical elements, such as light fittings, screens, and speakers, as well as functional elements such as a cloakroom and storage space. Dental practice weissraum, Munich, Germany, 2010, Ippolito Fleitz Group

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this happens without causing the usual draft known from conventional ventilation outlets. Surface heating systems follow a similar principle. However, since heat rises, they are usually accommodated at a lower level in the walls or floors. They heat the room by emitting radiant heat. Flat panel loudspeakers fit perfectly with the surrounding wall surface. For this purpose, gypsum boards are caused to vibrate by a so-called exciter mounted on the back. During installation, workers have to ensure that no vibrations can be transferred to the substructure to prevent interference noise. Activation of several strategically placed surfaces ensures excellent sound across all frequency ranges.

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Integrated Fit-out Systems

Copper coil Plasterboard with good thermal conductivity

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1 Schematic section of cooled ceiling with applied piping coil 2 Schematic section of panel loudspeaker in ceiling 3 Installation of cooling ceiling 4 Shaft wall with service pipes and access panel 5 Integration of services above the ceiling grid, and technical elements such as lighting, sprinklers, loudspeakers and signage system at ceiling level, Stachus Passagen, Munich, Germany, 2011, Allmann Sattler Wappner 6 Flush air supply, speakers, sprinklers, and smoke detectors in ceiling moulding, Chamber of Commerce, Hamburg, Germany, 2014, Johann von Mansberg Architekten and Hörter + Trautmann Architekten 7 Ceiling panel with recessed luminary and technical equipment Multimedia complex, Academy of Music, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2013, Feuerstein Rüdenauer & Partner

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Gypsum-based materials are characterised by a versatile appearance and a wide range of applications. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

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Moulded, solid colour plaster relief Milled relief, gypsum fibreboard Gypsum fibreboard with milling for underfloor heating Plasterboard stack Moulded plaster relief Patterns of different perforations and reliefs Gypsum perforated board Coated wall Structured plaster Embossed and coloured plaster Textured plaster Dyed acoustic plaster

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Material

All the spatial concepts featured here can be implemented with just a few basic materials. Usually, a formative and loadbearing substructure made of timber or metal is covered with one or more layers of timber or plasterboard. These layers stiffen the structure, and the top layer also forms the visible finish — similar to a skin. Depending on the specific use, the range of featured materials further includes metal, glass, and plastics. Additional layers of insulation or special board materials improve the physical properties of the structures. These boards are each manufactured for specific conditions; for example, cement-bonded panels are for use in humid conditions, particularly heavy boards for sound insulation, or boards with enclosed PCM particles for thermal mass. The rest of this chapter provides an overview of the usual finishing and building materials in drywall construction and the techniques for processing and treatment, as well as the range of applications.

Gypsum-based materials develop their specific materiality and appearance only through particular finishing techniques. Depending on the processing and treatment of the material, it can appear shiny and glossy, reflective, or dull/matte and earthy. When selecting the finish and materials, it must be considered whether an area is viewed up close or from a distance, what kind of atmosphere the room should have, and what sense of scale is to be generated. In addition, the characteristics of the materials are highly variable with respect to their properties in terms of building physics. The combined effects of reflection behaviour, room acoustics, and thermal performance determine our haptic or tactile and other sensory perceptions. Thus, materiality, structure, and texture have direct impact on our comfort. In this interplay of all elements, each must be able to develop its specific qualities and create a concerted, greater whole.

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Gypsum has been used as wall plaster or stucco for centuries and is, therefore, part of our cultural heritage.

Gypsum Gypsum-based building materials have been used as a mortar for masonry since ancient times. In the Middle Ages, they often served as a binding agent for screeds. Later on, the material’s malleability for use in moulding, carving, or layering became highly valued. In Baroque times, bold, improvised stucco ornaments blurred the boundary between heavy solid elements and immaterial-seeming floating structures. In interior building, plaster is used in many different forms: in its powdered form mixed with additives and water it becomes anhydrite screed. In moist form, stucco or plaster are both highly malleable; industrial products include boards and prefabricated building elements for dry use.

Gypsum cycle

Raw gypsum Ca [SO4] · 2H2O

During setting/hardening, the gypsum slurry crystallises with the water, releasing heat energy in the process Ca [SO4] · 2H2O + n - 1½H2O

Gypsum is dehydrated by burning Ca [SO4] · ½H2O + 1½H2O The result is stucco (calcium sulphate hemihydrate) Ca [SO4] · ½H2O

When mixing, water is added again Ca [SO4] · ½H2O + nH2O

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Raw Material and Building Material The great plastic malleability of gypsum is based on its chemical composition. Mined natural gypsum is a compound of calcium sulphate and water; it is also found as anhydrite, which is formed by intense heat and pressure. The occurrence of gypsum is relatively common. Depending on the geological conditions, gypsum is mined in open pits or underground. Today, more than half of processed pure gypsum is produced in flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) units. Both natural and industrially produced gypsum is characterised by full recyclability and absence of pollutants. In order to further process raw gypsum and turn it into a building material, it must be crushed and dehydrated by burning. The temperature during the firing process can be adjusted to influence strength and setting time, producing gypsum with specific properties for various applications, such as stucco, gypsum plaster, or plaster for board materials. As a building material, gypsum is mixed with water and then hardens in the air, with thermal energy being released and the excess mixing water evaporating. During setting, gypsum crystallises to take on the desired shape without shrinking. This process can be reversed as often as desired; hence, gypsum can also be recovered from construction waste. Specialised recycling companies process this waste to produce new gypsum. Interior Building Material Due to its capacity for repeated absorption and release of water, gypsum as a building material has a positive effect on indoor climate. The material absorbs moisture from the air into its pores and subsequently releases it. However, plaster is not suitable for areas that are always damp or humid, since constant exposure to water dissolves the material. In addition to its capacity to absorb and release moisture, gypsum building material has good strength and low thermal conductivity. Due to the chemical properties of gypsum, all board types are non-combustible — the stored water of crystallisation is released in the event of fire and prevents rapid and excessive overheating of the back of the panel. The high number of macro pores in the boards has a regulating effect on room climate due to rapid vapour absorption and release.

Gypsum as Raw & Building Material

Raw gypsum

Gypsum binders for direct application or further processing

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Factory-mixed gypsum plasters

Gypsum plaster for special purposes

Prefabricated elements, e.g.

Gypsum building plaster Gypsum-based building plaster Gypsum-lime building plaster Lightweight gypsum building plaster Lightweight gypsum-based building plaster Lightweight gypsum-lime building plaster Gypsum plaster with enhanced surface hardness

Gypsum plaster for fibrous plasterwork Gypsum mortar Acoustic plaster Thermal insulation plaster Fire protection plaster Thin-coat plaster, finishing product

Gypsum building boards Gypsum wallboards Fibrous gypsum products Gypsum elements for suspended ceilings Gypsum fibreboard

Gypsum-based Building Materials

Gypsum as raw material 1 Anhydride Ca [SO4] — without crystal water 2 Anhydride mining below ground 3 Burnt gypsum: gypsum powder 4 Gypsum mining in a quarry 5 FGD (flue gas desulphurised) gypsum

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The finishes of a room not only show off the visible material, but also determine the spatial effect.

2 Reflection of coloured light 1 Reflecting surface coating mirrors colour, model study, Darmstadt, Germany, 2010, student work at h_da, M. Oswald, T. Spinnler 2/3 Textured plaster reflecting coloured light Chapel of St. Ignatius, Seattle, USA, 1997, Stephen Holl Architects

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Indoor climate and atmosphere are closely related to the surfaces and finishes immediately surrounding us. This is due to their material properties as well as their colour schemes and structures. Depending on the design concept, the finishes are attractive or repellent, feel smooth, rough, uneven, carved in relief, soft, hard, cold, or warm. This is especially true for the surfaces within reach. We speak of the ‘authenticity’ of a surface when the exposed grain of aggregates brings out the typical properties of a material, or traces of wear and tear tell its history. In contrast, the smooth ‘elegance’ of a surface brings out the technical precision and finishing processes, and the interplay of light and shadow. An unexpected finish may cause irritation, reveal the unexpected, or carry a message. In addition to their potential to create associations, all finishes possess material-specific properties in terms of durability, suitability for repeated 66

cleaning, and fire protection. The manipulation of material appearance creates an awareness of the environment and of space. Hardness, temperature, and roughness are just as important as colour schemes and veining. Coarse structures appear animated and have a strong presence in the room. The finer the grain of a finish, the more even and the lighter it appears, while extra attention is needed for its appearance in side-lighting. Due to the reflecting and absorbing properties of smooth or textured surfaces, the visual impact of texture and light mutually influence each other. Side-light can bring out the graphical qualities of even fine structures, and reliefs come to life through the interplay of light and shadow. Diffuse light can make surfaces seem flatter.

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Materials and Finishes Finishes in Drywall Construction Surface treatment is of crucial importance in drywall construction, as a large number of joints and screw holes have to be patched and smoothed after the raw boards have been fixed (attached) to the stud walls or other framing. Depending on application and type of subsurface, various fillers and levelling compounds are available. The most common fillers for interior use are gypsum-based, with the possible addition of plastic particles for particularly thin and smooth layers. Since the latter do not cure in closed containers, they are also suitable for machine processing. In wet areas, cement-based fillers are the material of choice. Joints should be reinforced with strips of paper, mesh, or fibreglass tape in order to prevent cracks and fissures. Surface qualities in drywall construction are not standardised, but the German Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e.V. (Federal Association of the Gypsum Industry) has released state-of-the-art guidelines that stipulate the treatment of plasterboard finishes. These guidelines extend the tolerances defined in DIN 18350 by another set of standards. Depending on the planned appearance of the finished surface, four quality levels for the processing of gypsum and plasterboard are defined. Similar guidelines stipulate standards for gypsum fibreboard and gypsum plaster.

From Rough to High-gloss Finishes Quality Level 1 (Q1) defines a surface without particular decorative finish requirements, for example, a surface used as a base for tiles or a further cladding, or surfaces without any design requirements, such as installation spaces. The joints between gypsum wallboards are filled; joint reinforcement tape is applied and visible screw holes are patched if construction procedures or the drywall system should necessitate this. This surface forms the basis for all subsequent work stages. Quality Level 2 (Q2) describes the so-called standard filling and should meet basic requirements for wall and ceiling surfaces. The surfaces are a suitable base for further matte, filling coats, such as emulsion paint, a suitable plaster with a particle size of more than 1 mm, or the application of textured wallpaper. The Q1 finish is skimmed and — if necessary — also sanded to achieve a continuous transition between joints and board surface. Quality Level 3 (Q3) is about surfaces with higher aesthetic requirements, such as areas that form the base for finely textured wallpaper, matte and non-structured paint coatings, or very fine top coats with a maximum particle size of less than 1 mm. Basic filling (Q2) is followed by wider finishing of the joint, and the plasterboards are skimmed across their entire surface to fill the pores. Quality Level 4 (Q4) ultimately creates a very smooth surface of the highest standard, which is the basis for smooth, or even glossy wallpaper, varnish, medium-gloss paint, or special smoothing techniques such as Venetian stucco lustro. Based on the standard filling (Q2), the joints are broadly filled and the entire surface is smoothed with a continuous layer of levelling. When high-gloss paint or lacquered wallpaper is to be applied to the surface, additional priming steps are required. Final refined finishing techniques include milling, painting, sanding, glazing, waxing, brushing, and punching.

1 Filler 2 Filling of joints 3 Smoothing

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Textures and ornaments may change the perceived scale of a space by adding another materiality level. The size and grain of textures and ornaments can emphasise the scale of a room, or distort perception due to an unexpected degree of detail or visual density. Shadow gaps and light bring out edges, corners, and volumes more strongly. A change in finish separates areas and components from each other. In this light, the special treatment of joints and junctions supports the architectural idea. Reliefs Reliefs are highly textured surfaces that are either composed of recurring elements or designed freely. The production of reliefs from gypsum may involve both additive techniques, such as plastering, stucco, moulding or layering, as well as subtractive techniques, in which the final shape emerges by way of milling, carving, scratching, or sanding.

Stucco Stucco has been applied since ancient times; the technique takes advantage of the plastic malleability of gypsum mixed with water. Embellishments and ornaments of wet stucco are applied directly onto walls or ceilings, being modelled free-hand or with stencils. Frequently recurring elements can be prefabricated in silicone moulds. Geometric elements, trim strips, cornices, and domes are made with panel moulds. Here, the gypsum slurry is poured onto a running table and then the panel mould is run over the plaster, thus shaping the desired profile.

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1 Stucco 2 Stucco: Cafe Luitpold, Munich, Germany, 2010, design by Demmel und Hadler GmbH, implementation: Knauf 3 Negative relief (silicone mould) 4 Detailing of relief on site

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Textures and Ornaments

Milled Reliefs Reliefs can also be milled out of panels or moulds. This method enables fully automated prefabrication of reliefs in large numbers or with fine textures. Layering A very material-intensive way to create reliefs is the regular or irregular layering of flat components. This can involve, for example, CNC-cut panels.

3-D Printing Complex computer-generated forms can be printed directly on a 3-D printer. Gypsum-based objects are produced using what is called binder jetting. This is an additive process, in which a liquid binding agent is selectively deposited to join powder particles on the printer’s base. The job box lowers after each step and layers of material are then bonded to form an object. After completion, excess material is removed. Afterward, post-processing by hand, for example by sanding or smoothing, is possible. This method is commonly used in making models; however, on a larger scale it is rather expensive when compared to more traditional methods. Furthermore, the size of the object is limited to the dimensions of the printing device.

Principles of relief 1 Schematic section layering 2 Schematic section moulded relief 3 Schematic section milled relief with added elements

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4 Moulded reliefs for diffuse reflection of sound, Concert hall, KKL Luzern, Switzerland, 2000, Architectures Jean Nouvel 5 The perimeter walls of the chapel were formed from stacked gypsum fibreboards, whose projections and recesses form shelves and niches; the individual layers were CNC cut in the shop and joined and glued on site, Chapel of St. Elisabeth, Ravensburg, Germany, ARCASS freie Architekten, 2013 6 Milled relief for diffused sound reflection; Material: milled gypsum fibreboard, combination of 169 different amoeba species in three different thicknesses (12/18/25 mm), and unfilled negative recesses, Music and Concert Center, Aalborg, Denmark, 2014, Coop Himmelb(l)au. 4

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1 1 The acoustically effective shells in the domes of the apse have been executed as wire plaster (Rabitz) domes with concealed LED lighting. 2 Detailed section of dome St. Moritz, Augsburg, Germany, 2013, John Pawson, 2013

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a Existing roof structure b Existing vault c Reinforcement for existing vault, 14 cm concrete d Suspension with 340 quick-hangers per dome e Substructure of dome Level 1: rings of round steel, galvanised, d = 8 mm, 4 rings per dome Level 2: round steel reinforcement mesh, galvanised, d = 6 mm, laid diagonally crosswise, approx. 30 cm spacing Level 3: Rabitz mesh, galvanised Wire plastered dome, plaster thickness f total 25 mm 1st coat: fibrous gypsum-lime plaster, pressed into supporting metal grid 2nd coat: gypsum-lime plaster 3rd coat: finishing plaster, felted thin-coat lime render (fresco application) g Indirect lighting: two rows of LED modules, warm white and cool white, dimmable

Domes

a Supporting structure b Steel rods as supporting substructure c Base-shape and plaster base: rib mesh d Surface: gypsum e Prefabricated ornament: moulded gypsum f Light

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Traditional Rabitz dome 1 Detailed section 2 Substructure 3 Application of fibrous gypsum plaster 4 Timber mould 5 Completed dome with glued stucco ornaments

Domes can be built using traditional wet techniques or using dry techniques based on board materials. Wire Plaster Domes and Vaults (Rabitz) The technology of suspending lightweight, non-structural domes of gypsum plaster and wired support material from a differently shaped primary structure has been known since the mid-19th century and Germans named it after its inventor, the Berlin master bricklayer Karl Rabitz. First of all, flexible iron or steel bars are formed into the desired shape on site and are suspended from the load-bearing structure and braced by wires. This suspended substructure is lined with a flexible plaster base material, such as wire mesh. Finally, the surfaces are finished

with fibre-reinforced gypsum mortar. Rotating or moving timber moulds help to model the domes or vaults evenly. Domes and Vaults in Drywall Construction Today, the production of three-dimensional shapes using curved profiles and boards or, in the event of components with a small radius of curvature, panel strips are more common. Again, the smooth surface is the result of careful filling and levelling.

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Substructure of pre-bent profiles Board strips Preformed elements

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Dome, dry construction 6 Construction and layering of the dome 7 Axonometric view of the structure

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In dry construction methods, the material gypsum is mainly used in the form of boards. Plasterboards Plasterboards are a sandwich material made of a rapidly hardening stucco core and two sheaths of cardboard, which have been pressed and joined without any glue. These outer layers act as reinforcement, accepting the tensile forces. Due to the fibre direction within the cardboard, the boards are stronger longitudinally than in the transverse direction. Due to the production process, the longitudinal edges are covered with cardboard and the cut board ends are raw. Depending on their purpose, the plasterboards come in different types, sizes, and thicknesses. The type of processing and the types of additives in the gypsum core influence the fire resistance, water vapour permeability, flexural strength, impact resistance, and thermal resistance of the boards. These properties are stipulated in the norm DIN EN 520, but to some extent old terms from DIN 18180 are also still in use. Several properties can be combined in one plate (board), which is then labelled by combining all the corresponding designation letters — see designations below. The boards are manufactured in standardised thicknesses of 9.5–25 mm and a width of 600 or 1250 mm. The maximum length is 4000 mm. Various types of longitudinal edge forms are available, tailored to the type of fixing and the desired surface treatment. The boards are characterised by a broad range of applications and types of further processing possibilities, and also from a high strength at a low weight and low thermal conductivity. The processing techniques that can be applied to the boards include sawing, drilling, milling, cutting or breaking, fixing (attaching) by screws, stapling, nailing, gluing, or fixing with special cross battens.

Board Types Plasterboard Type A according to DIN EN 520 This plasterboard, also known as building panel, is suitable for all standard wall, ceiling, and independent wall linings that don’t have special finishing requirements. Due to their water absorption capacity of 30–50 per cent, the boards are very sensitive to moisture. Plasterboard Type D according to DIN EN 520 These plasterboards have a controlled density of at least 800 kg/m³ and offer improved performance for certain applications, such as for noise barriers or partitions between different units. Plasterboard Type E according to DIN EN 520 Gypsum boards of this type are particularly suitable for cladding of exterior walls. The board has reduced water absorption capacity and reduced vapour permeability, but is not suitable for permanent outdoor exposure. Plasterboard Type F according to DIN EN 520 Due to additional mineral fibres in the gypsum core, this gypsum board offers improved core adhesion at high temperatures. It is used in walls with fire protection requirements.

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Gypsum board production a Gypsum slurry b Cardboard c Hardening process d Cutting e Turning table f Drying g Trimming of the transverse edges h Packaging

Boards and Preformed Elements Plasterboard Type H according to DIN EN 520 Plasterboards of Type H are characterised by a reduced water absorption rate and are suitable for use in domestic wet rooms. Heavy-duty exposure to water in wet areas, such as swimming pools or public showers, is not possible. Depending on the water absorption capacity, the plates are categorised H1–H3. Plasterboard Type I according to DIN EN 520 These gypsum boards have increased surface hardness and are intended for applications with increased impact loads. Plasterboard Type P according to DIN EN 520 Plasterboard Type P has a primed visible side, suitable for plastering or gluing of other materials. Plasterboard Type R according to DIN EN 520 Plasterboards with enhanced strength lend themselves to applications requiring an increased breaking strength in both longitudinal and transverse direction. This mostly applies to gypsum fibreboard, a mixture of plaster and cellulose fibres recovered from waste paper. These provide greater stability as well as tensile and shear strength, and allow the production of sharp-edged, rectangular boards. They have a high density of 1000–1600 kg/m³. The properties of the Type R boards make them suitable for hollow floor systems. When used for walls, fastening of loads without further supporting frameworks can be achieved with cavity anchors, depending on the plate thickness.

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Reinforced Boards Fibre-reinforced Boards according to DIN EN 15283 The gypsum core is reinforced with mats of woven or fleecelike fibres. Depending on the further properties, the type designation GM can be combined with the previous designations. The boards are plane, rectangular, sharp-edged, and possess higher yield strength. This makes them suitable as a dry subflooring, backing material for veneers, or for areas with specific fire protection and soundproofing requirements. Additionally, cement-bonded boards made of cement, plastic or cellulose fibres, and water are available for applications with particularly high demands for water resistance. Based on the properties of cement, they are waterproof, weather-resistant, and non-combustible. However, due to their hardness they are more difficult to handle, requiring special tools for cutting and drilling.

Longitudinal edge forms a Tapered edge AK b Round edge RK c Half-round edge HRK d Square edge VK e Half-round tapered edge HARK

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Board types 1 Plasterboard type E Plasterboard with circumferential, tapered edge Plasterboard Type H (impregnated) Plasterboard type F (fire protection board) 2 Assembly of boards with tapered edges

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Processed gypsum boards come in various forms, fulfilling specific requirements. Special Boards Many further gypsum board types with specific physical properties are available on the market. Commonly used types are perforated or slit boards that serve as acoustic absorption panels. Depending on the specific requirements, additional fibre fleece or insulation layers can be applied to the back of the boards. There is a broad range of perforation patterns, the exact acoustic properties of which are described in the manufacturers’ specifications. Theoretically, the production of any perforation pattern is possible with CNC milling machines, but this requires more effort and is accordingly more expensive than standard products. Certain properties of the boards for specific uses can be significantly improved by factory lamination with films or thin metal layers; for example, a thin lead foil protects against X-rays, or aluminium foil acts as a vapour barrier. The addition of tiny plastic beads measuring 2–20 mcm, which contain waxes that act as a thermal storage medium, provide plasterboards with a thermal mass similar to that of solid components. Hence, the boards can respond to changes in temperature and act as latent heat storage. In warm weather, the thermal energy is stored by melting the beads, and when temperatures fall, the boards release the heat back to the environment. Temperature fluctuations over the course of day can thus be compensated for. The boards can be processed and used like conventional plasterboards. With a plate

thickness of 15 mm and a switching temperature of 23 or 26 °C, two layers of boarding correspond to the thermal mass of a concrete wall approximately 14 cm thick. Preformed Parts for Interior Space Creation For certain frequently recurring situations, such as ceiling panels or lighting coves, standardised elements with a limited selection of commonly used radii and diameters are produced. They usually consist of two thin, factory-bonded layers. For assembly, suitable bent fixing profiles for the supporting framework are available. Any other geometries can be produced with the following folding and bending techniques. Composites Boards with insulating layers and, optionally, with vapour barriers are available for use in independent wall linings and as finished screed elements. The type and properties of the insulation and the boards are matched to the respective requirements.

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1 Formteil Deckenrand 2 Detail Lichtvoute 3 Detail Deckensegel 4 Formteil Bogen 5 Formteil Welle

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Moulding of ceiling plane edge Moulding of two-layer wave Moulding of arch

Insulation In order to improve the physical properties of drywall elements, insulation materials are often installed in the cavities between the profiles of the substructure. The insulation is not firmly bonded, so as to ensure the recyclability of the entire construction. Insulation materials based on plastics are used for thermal insulation. Mineral wool, however, is used for sound insulation and for fire protection systems: it has a higher specific weight and a very high melting point of over 1000 °C. For interior insulation, vapour-permeable insulation materials, such as fibre-free insulation made of natural perlite or similar materials, are particularly suitable. Floors One or more layers of gypsum panels can be combined with impact or sound insulation to form screed components. In this case, expanded polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene foam (XPS), polyurethane foam (PUR), or phenol resin foam (PF) can be used. Protruding board or insulation edges facilitate interlocking of the panels.

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Mineral wool insulation Expanded polystyrol (EPS) insulation Gypsum perforated boards with laminated fleece, sound absorbent Perforated perimeter strips and ceiling recesses for lighting and air conditioning

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Tools Drywall structures can be cut, mounted, and worked by hand, using just a few simple tools.

1 Tools 1 Board knife 2 Cutter 3 Jigsaw 4 Board cutter 5 Plumb line device 6 Squeeze punch 7 Chamfer plane 8 Rasp plane 9 Socket drill bit 10 Spatula 11 Inside corner trowel 12 Trowel 13 Outside corner trowel 14 Spiked roller 15 Pilot wheel

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Cutting When a board is scored along a defined line with a cutter or board knife, it can be cleanly broken by hand. Alternatively, board or strip cutters may be used. The edges are smoothed with edge planes and then chamfered. The profiles of the supporting framework are cut with sheet metal cutters. Surface Preparation Spiked rollers are used to perforate the surface before producing curved surfaces. Special perforated pilot wheels can be used to produces holes in acoustic panels. All sorts of cutouts can be made with socket drill bits of different diameters or with a jigsaw.

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Aligning and Fixing Supporting frameworks and boards are aligned by means of battens, plumb line, and spirit level. The supporting framework is punched or screwed; then the boards are fixed (attached) with screws, nails, staples, or a suitable adhesive. This connection must be free of stress; hence, the board is fixed to the supporting framework starting from the centre. If multiple board layers are used, the joints must be usually staggered. Surface Treatment Filling and sanding tools of various shapes can be used to finish flat or plane surfaces, or shapes with complex geometries.

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Folded and Curved Boards Folding Techniques To produce sharp, three-dimensional shapes, boards that are 6.5–25 mm thick can be worked with a sheet milling machine to produce a V-shaped milled groove; the boards can then be ‘folded’ into the final form. This technique allows the production of sharp corners for complex geometries and for closing the edges of cornices and folded shapes, such as baffles or louvers. The milled grooves can be made at any angle between 30 and 150 degrees. The rear cardboard layer remains intact and serves as a ‘folded edge’. The edges are glued after folding in order to stabilise the form.

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Correlation between milling and folding angles

Milled groove 120° Folding angle 60°

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1 Cube of milled boards with 90° milled edge 2 Plate with 90° milled grooves 3 olded rectangular shape 4 Folding pattern with milled grooves 160°/30°/160° 5 Folded acute angle 6 Sheet milling machine

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Depending on the radius, linear curved plasterboard shapes can be bent either wet or dry. Curved Shapes In their dry state, gypsum boards can be bent only up to a radius of 1000 mm without breakage. Smaller radii down to 300 mm are bent wet. Due to their longitudinal edge forms and the direction of the fibres in the cardboard, the panels can only be bent in a longitudinal direction, and must be cut and added onto if geometrically required. Depending on the bending radius, both systems can be used in combination. To stabilise the form, two layers of boards with staggered joints should be used. The visible side can be located both inside and outside. So-called formable gypsum boards at a thickness of only 6.5 mm are particularly suitable.

are attached to a form and fixed. After drying, the panel retains its shape and can be mounted on the supporting framework. Changes in form can be achieved by repeating the process. Dry Bending For larger radii, dry boards can be fixed to a supporting framework of flexible or preformed profiles running in a transverse direction. For smaller bending radii, the panels must be prepared by being incised at close intervals. Careful subsequent filling and skimming creates a smooth surface.

Wet Bending This method involves the manufacturing of curved panels across a form prior to installation. The boards are first perforated on the side to be inside the radius with a needle roller, and then repeatedly wetted until the plate is saturated and excess water drains off. Following a short exposure time, the plates

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Schematic diagram for bending techniques 3 Wet bending Board 6.5 mm; r > 300 mm Board 9.5 mm; r > 500 mm Board 12.5 mm; r > 1000 mm 4 Dry bending with small radius For dry bending with large radius see picture 7 this page. Board 6.5 mm; r > 1000 mm Board 9.5 mm; r > 2000 mm Board 12.5 mm; r > 2750 mm

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Variations, Bending 1 Sinus profile as substructure for horizontally curved walls with additional straight, vertical studs 2 Curved profiles as substructure for vertically curved walls; to be combined with additional straight, horizontal profiles 5 Slit board is bent and fixed to substructure 6 Filling 7 Dry bending, large radius 8 Dry bending, dome shape

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UD section ceiling channel, edge profile, suspended ceiling UW section — wall channel, edge profile, walls and free spanning ceiling CW section — vertical stud in wall and support profile for free spanning ceiling MW section — vertical stud in wall with sound insulation requirements UA section — stiffening channel, reinforced edge profile, ceilings and room-in-room systems 50 × 40 UA Profile – stiffening channel, reinforced edge profile, ceilings and room-in-room systems 100 × 40 Profile — flexible sinus profile for curved walls

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The boards are fixed in a load-carrying way to a supporting framework’s timber, aluminium, or steel profiles by means of by screws or clips, thus creating walls and spatial constructions.

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Drywall constructions are based on a structurally effective system of supporting profiles and stiffening boards. Timber Profiles For walls and claddings without special requirements, profiles or slats from softwoods Grade 2 in accordance with DIN 4074 can be used. They must be dried prior to installation, until the residual moisture content is less than 20 per cent.

8 Profiles 9 Exposed UW wall profiles

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Profiles and Construction Grids Metal Profiles For constructions with fire protection, security, sound protection, or special precision requirements, metal profiles must be used. These are usually made of corrosion-protected galvanised steel or cold-formed aluminium. The thickness of the metal sheets is crucial for the load-bearing capacity of the profiles and must be no less than 0.6 mm. For use in wet environments, such as in swimming pools or outdoor areas, an increased thickness of the zinc coating is necessary. The name of the profile depends on the form (C, U, or L) and the application range (W for wall, D for ceiling, and for A for bracing). In the case of a wall, for example, vertical CW profiles are inserted into the horizontal UW profiles fixed to the floor and ceiling. For special requirements, there are custom profiles, such as flexible profiles for curved walls, or springsuspended profiles for acoustic decoupling. The shapes of the profiles are adapted to the respective situation, while the flanges of profiles for use on the ceiling are bent to accommodate hangers. Wall profiles have a pre-punched web to accommodate services in the wall cavity.

Loads By definition, lightweight constructions are reduced in weight and material. Thus, they are designed to carry only low additional loads besides their own weight. If heavier loads are to be attached to the structure, additional profiles or timber backing are required. Depending on the board thickness, board type, and dowel type, some loads can be attached directly to the surface. Accordingly, loads up to 55 kg for walls with two layers of boarding, and up to 6 kg for ceilings, can be mounted directly to the surface with special cavity anchors or folding pegs. Safety, Trimming, and Cover Studs Gypsum and gypsum boards are soft materials; hence, the installation of edge protection trims and corner protection profiles made of plastic or galvanised steel is advisable, especially in high traffic areas. These trims and profiles form precise edges and are invisible after sealing. Flexible corner protection profiles can be bent to form any angle. In high-traffic areas or areas with special requirements as regards dimensionally accurate inner corners, inside corner profiles can be used as well. Special profiles are also used for shadow gaps, flush-mounted skirting, and door frames, forming an exact edge after filling.

Wall assembly

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Direction of assembly according to direction of C Section

Stud spacing for plasterboards 12.5 mm: Centre distance = construction grid = 62.5 cm Stud spacing for gypsum plasterboards 10 mm: Centre distance = construction grid = 50 cm Screws, centre distances: Walls ≤ 25 cm Ceilings ≤ 17 cm

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Just a few basic design principles can produce a variety of spatial impressions.

Schematic sections illustrating space configurations: ceilings, floors, claddings, shells, and hybrid systems

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Elements of Interior Space

Just a few basic elements sharing the same structural system and forming a common modular design language can create diverse spatial configurations and geometries. They enter into an intense dialogue with the existing space, adding further functions or spatial qualities to it, or reshaping and changing it completely. Depending on the design and functional concept, the elements are applied individually, in combination with each other, or as hybrids. Shells, claddings, objects (spatial objects), envelopes, and sculptural volumes create space, while being extremely functional. Drywall systems provide numerous floor and ceiling structures, as well as a variety of three-dimensional elements and wall coverings for space creation. Their individual application in space opens up a broad range of design possibilities. In addition to the design aspects, the zoning of spaces by means of platforms, galleries, and furnishings is an essential feature for the use of space and its infrastructure.

The formation of niches or special floor levels, different ceiling heights, or detached volumes is essential for the perception of space. Whether components are regarded as separate or interrelated objects, how the proportions of a room appear and the way views are guided is an essential part of designing the surfaces that define space and must be articulated architecturally. Even simple, small rooms offer a range of possibilities for spatial differentiation. The respective design options and construction methods are presented below.

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The installation of interior cladding redefines the perceived outlines of a space and its visible surfaces.

Wall Cladding The cladding itself has no load-bearing function; however, as part of a refurbishment or other interior intervention it can improve or complement the performance of an existing structure in terms of light, air, thermal insulation, fire protection, and room acoustics. Depending on the requirements, the cladding can cover walls, floors, ceilings, or only parts of the space. As freestanding shells, wall claddings define the spatial contours independent of the existing structure while simultaneously creating usable spaces (voids) or cavities. Direct cladding of internal building surfaces such as walls is also known as dry lining. The properties of these systems are similar to those of wet plaster, but without the drying time and moisture. For planar tolerances up to 20 mm, the panels can be glued with dabs of mortar; larger tolerances must be compensated for with gypsum board strips, additional substructure, or similar treatments. Full-surface bonding with plaster can improve the fire rating of the wall. Behind the lining, the joints in the masonry or concrete must be thoroughly closed to prevent thermal and acoustic bridges.

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The spatial shell is formed independently of the primary structure. The spatial shell serves as installation and functional space. The furniture is integrated into the shell.

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Utility Rooms The clearance between cladding and existing structure can be efficiently used for the accommodation of technical infrastructure or utilities. In what is called pre-wall installation, all service ducts and pipes are attached to the supporting structure. The substructure of the facing boards allows the use of wall-mounted elements such as sanitary items. Depending on the cladding system, the wall lining may also provide sound protection, for example from noises from the sanitary pipes, or can be fire rated if necessary. In areas and rooms that are difficult to access, such as M&E risers, plasterboards may only be fixed to one side if the overall wall system fulfills all requirements. Flush-mounted access panels can be integrated into the surface to provide access to the services behind the cladding.

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Wall Finishes

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2 1 Relief as wall cladding: extruded volumes transform a hallway into a showroom with numerous presentation areas. Showroom Stella K, Paris, France, 2011, Pascal Grasso Architectures 2 View of the presentation areas 3 Altered spatial impression: light gaps and a strong black-and-white contrast visually blur the edges of the space; the dark planes seem to float in front of the walls. Emperor UA Cinema Sparks, Foshan, China, 2014, OFT Interieurs 4 Curtain made of plaster: elements moulded from fibreglass-reinforced gypsum copy the soft flow of a curtain in an area with high fire-resistance requirements (material class A1) and high demands on the material as regards durability. German Film Museum, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2011, Blocher Blocher Partners 5 Transparent layer: wooden slats create new spatial contours and simultaneously filter colour, views, and light. Bakery, Porto, Portugal, 2013, Paulo Merlini arquitectura

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Principles of Wall Cladding Fire Protection Fire protection claddings improve the quality of existing walls or boxed-out installation spaces with fire requirements. Proper installation and execution of connections, equipment, and penetrations on site is of paramount importance to ensure proper fire protection throughout. The fire rating of M&E equipment, penetrations, flaps, and doors must match the fire protection quality of the wall.

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Wall cladding diagrams in plan Wall cladding: simple dry lining 1 On dabs of mortar 2 On wooden battens 3 On metal sections Wall cladding: self-supporting with usable wall cavity 4 Self-supporting wooden studs 5 Self-supporting metal studs Wall cladding: insulated 6 Composite insulation panel 7 Mineral wool insulation and vapour barrier

Interior Insulation When refurbishing an existing building with protected facades, wall lining with interior insulation improves the thermal properties of the walls. In this case, the insulation layer must not form air pockets (cavities) with the existing wall, and metal profiles must be detached from the colder exterior wall. On the interior side of the insulation, a vapour barrier, such as a plastic sheet or a layer of hermetically sealed plasterboard, and careful taping of all penetrations and equipment is required to prevent condensation in the substructure caused by changes in temperature. Acoustics The sound insulation of walls can be increased by up to 18 dB for single-sided, acoustically detached linings and up to 27 dB for double-sided, fully insulated walls. The room surfaces affect the room acoustics. Cladding made of perforated or slotted boards will absorb sound; reliefs and smooth surfaces will reflect sound. The targeted arrangement of insulation behind the cladding can significantly improve the performance of the wall.

Wall cladding: acoustically effective for 8 Air-borne sound protection 9 Air-borne and structure-borne sound protection due to additional insulation layer

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10 Assembling insulated independent wall lining 11 Independent wall lining on apartment partition wall for improved sound protection; fibreboard backing and stronger UA-profiles (instead of the usual UW-profiles) at every other stud allow the fixing of cabinets, e.g., kitchen wall units.

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Simple, Free-standing Cladding Detail section I Simple cladding Dry lining

Detail section II Self-supporting cladding Functional wall, inner lining to conceal services

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Full-surface bonded dry lining Connection to suspended ceiling Dry lining on mortar dabs Dry lining on uneven surface Base junction with dry screed floor

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Detail section III Self-supporting cladding Fire-rated shaft wall

Ceiling bulkhead with services Niche and shelving, front wall installation of sanitary item Base detail inner lining to conceal services Connection to floating screed

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Ceiling connection shaft wall Access panel Floor connection shaft wall

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a Gypsum plasterboard (close up) b Smooth subsurface: boards full-surface bonded, 2 cm gap at top for drying c Subsurface with smaller tolerances: mounting with mortar dabs d Subsurface with tolerances > 20 mm: levelling with board strips e Dry screed with perimeter insulation strip f Suspended ceiling with integrated lighting g Sealed joint with separation strips to avoid cracks

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2 × fire-resistant board with increased gross density Mineral wool Substructure, metal Plasterboard with reduced water absorption rate Full surface waterproofing Plasterboard bracing panel Wall finish: tiles Niche with built-in shelving

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p 2 × 12.5 mm fire-resistant board or cladding as required in accordance with product specifications q Access flap with metal frame for plasterboard r Joint, tightly sealed with filler

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Insulated Cladding

Detail Section + Plan I Cladding, insulated with composite board 1 2 3

Ceiling detail of composite board insulation Plan detail of wall junction Base detail of composite board insulation

Section + Plan II Cladding, insulated with mineral wool 4 5 6

Ceiling detail of mineral wool insulation, self-supporting wall cladding Plan detail of wall junction Base detail of mineral wool insulation, self-supporting wall cladding

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a Composite panel: gypsum board with EPS foam insulation b Insulation wedge to reduce cold bridging on ceilings and load-bearing walls, which are connected to the exterior wall c Airtight, fully levelled layer d Mounting with mortar lumps; if required, panel strips to compensate tolerances e Perimeter insulation strip f Vapour barrier strip g Anchoring with cavity wall plugs h Partition seal i Suspended ceiling, gypsum plasterboard Gypsum plasterboard j k Mineral wool insulation l CW 50/CW 75/CW 100 wall studs, depending on situation m Thermal decoupling n Airtight layer, vapour barrier

Cladding allows the targeted and integrated improvement of thermal insulation, fire protection and building or room acoustics. 88

Acoustic Cladding

Detail section I Wall-mounted acoustic cladding 1 2 3

Detail section II Free-standing acoustic cladding

Head detail, connection to suspended ceiling with perforated boards Decoupled connection of substructure to wall Base detail of connection to dry screed floor

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Head detail, connection to suspended ceiling with perforated boards No connection of substructure to wall Base detail of connection to dry screed floor

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Gypsum plasterboard 2 × 12.5 mm Perforated gypsum plasterboard, 12.5 mm, fixed to plasterboard strip CW 50/CW 75/CW 100, depending on situation UW-Section matching vertical profiles CD-Section 60 × 27 Bracket for back fixing to structural wall Open-pored insulation, e.g., fibreglass, gross density approx. 15 kg/m³ Suspended ceiling with perforated gypsum plasterboards Floating cementitious screed Perimeter insulation strip

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Example of Functional Wall The empty floors of the historic warehouse building were converted into open-plan office space. All utility spaces such as WC (washrooms), server rooms, or kitchenettes, as well as built-in wardrobes/coat closets and building services, were accommodated in a new, fanned-out feature wall. All finishes are coated white, and the doors have been built in flush. Lighting gaps along the base and the ceiling make it seem as if the folded wall floats detached from the existing building fabric.

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Reconstruction and renovation of a historic office building, Hopfenburg, Hamburg, 2009, spine architects GmbH

a Soffit b Wall, gypsum plasterboard c Suspended ceiling in auxiliary rooms, plasterboards d Light fixture e Melamine-veneered timber panel f WC door with recessed grip in solid composite mineral surface (LG HIMACS®), milled; other doors, concealed Tipmatic door catch g Floor finish, glossy: PU coating on granulated rubber mat

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View into an unfurnished floor of offices with functional wall Toilet facilities as part of the functional wall Schematic plan Section of functional wall 1:20 Section of door, functional wall 1:20

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Functional walls create a calm spatial impression. 90

The edges of space are blurred in continuous wall-toceiling claddings. a Soffit b Acoustic insulation c Suspended acoustic ceiling: 100 mm mineral wool, elastic hangers reducing sound transmission, absorbent mass 6 kg/m2 between two layers of 12 mm gypsum plasterboard d Suspended ceiling with one layer of 12 mm gypsum plasterboard e Hangers for slats: steel tube 40 × 20 × 5 mm, threaded rod and cavity anchor f Wooden slat, coated white g Connection of slats: 8 × 40 mm wooden dowels, joint sealed with white silicone h LED strip on aluminium profile to prevent heat d evelopment i Ballast unit for LED Insulated ventilation duct, gypsum j plasterboard cladding k Light fixture 1 2 3 4

Example of Cladding with Wooden Slats The slatted cocoon defines individual sales and café areas in what seems like a ‘molten form’ derived from the icing or frosting of cakes. Due to its bright colour and lighting features, the large, continuous structure can also be seen through the windows from the outside, forming the focal point of the fit-out. The slatted structure of the shell allows the integration of technical elements and indirect lighting for the retail space and improves the room acoustics by refracting sound waves. An additional suspended ceiling structure acoustically separates the retail spaces from the apartments above.

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Detail, wall junction of slatted ceiling with lighting gap Detail section of slatted ceiling The slatted structure dominates the retail space. Detail of slatted ceiling with backlit base

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Bakery, Porto, Portugal, 2013, Paulo Merlini Arquitectura

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g Acrylic 5 mm l m MDF cladding, coated white n Bracing, 18 mm, MDF, painted white o Panel MDF, coated white, milled shadow gap p Substructure softwood q LED strips on aluminium profile to protect against heat development, with lens for focussing light Wall cladding composite panel, 50 mm, insulated r s Floor structure: elastic PVC finish on levelling compound with floating screed

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The shape, structure, and materiality of the ceiling determine the ambiance and sound of a space to a significant degree. Ceiling Claddings As it is largely undisturbed by fixtures and furnishings, the ceiling surface forms the largest contiguous area of a room. The integration of lighting and other technical installations is of fundamental importance because of their prominent appearance. With a high enough ceiling, it is possible to hide all installations in the void between the structural ceiling and the suspended ceiling. Suspended ceiling systems can vary in design and appearance from smooth simple elements to three-dimensional objects, folded patterns, or microstructures; they shape the space fundamentally. Depending on the type, the ceiling itself can provide fire protection, radiation protection, or soundproofing; it can also serve as a lighting element and improve acoustics. A distinction is made between ceiling claddings that are directly affixed to the soffit, suspended ceilings, and selfsupporting systems. The selection of the appropriate system follows geometric, design, and technical considerations. The substructure usually consists of a grid of crossed profiles or battens that are suspended from or mounted directly to the soffit. With low suspension height, the profiles of the substructure can be arranged at the same height level. Seamless Ceilings Seamless ceilings consist of a planked substructure with joints that are filled and smoothly skimmed. They either have a smooth surface or are pre-perforated to improve room acoustics. The folding and bending techniques described in the previous chapter make a virtually unlimited range of shapes possible. The use of boards with special characteristics allows the production of fire-rated or soundproof ceilings and ceilings

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Grid Ceilings Grid ceiling systems with individual removable ceiling panels placed in a substructure allow access to the ceiling void for maintenance purposes or for retrofitting. The latter is of particularly great importance in rooms with high technical requirements, such as offices and laboratories. In the simplest case, the substructure that the boards are laid into remains exposed as a grid. If only the joints between the panels are supposed to be visible, they are inserted with an overlap. Besides the common panel sizes of 60 × 60 cm or 62.5 × 62.5 cm, other grid dimensions can be produced. The specifications of the substructure and the panels depend on the vendor. In order to facilitate the adaptation of the grid to edges of a room or to irregular space geometries, it is possible to create solid borders or fringes around the perimeter. Ceilings tiles are often made of mineral fibre sheets, since they provide good sound absorbing properties. Another possibility is the incorporation of metal cassettes. These are more robust and ensure frequent maintenance and revision.

Ceiling as spatial shell Ceiling cornice Ceiling panel

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with radiation protection; they can also be used as thermal mass when the appropriate materials are incorporated. If the ceiling shell is supposed to trace the shape of the room, the substructure (battens or slats) is mounted directly to the soffit, in a fashion similar to the previously introduced wall linings. A ceiling design that describes a free form or a void calls for a suspended ceiling.

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Ceiling Finishes 1 The open ceiling made from individual sheets improves room acoustics, creates a concealed installation void, and provides indirect lighting through the gaps. Galerie des Galeries, Paris, France, 2007, Pascal Grasso Architectures 2 Cornice framing the historical ribbed ceiling, Offices Dancie Perugini Ware Public Relations, Houston, USA, 2015 MaRS 3 Formation of a light cove, Apartment Sabottka, Berlin, Germany, 2012, Thomas Kröger Architekt 4 LED backlit joints emphasize the geometry of triangular ceiling elements. Emperor UA Cinema Sparks, Foshan, China, 2014, OFT Interiors

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Principles of Ceiling Cladding 1

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Self-supporting Systems Self-supporting systems of plane (flat) ceilings can be used for free spans of up to 5 m; for grid ceilings the maximum free span may be less. Such systems are usually installed in corridors and rooms with a high density of service ducts, where there is no space for a ceiling suspension system.

Schematic section Structural principles of ceiling cladding 1 Dry lining 2 On wooden battens 3 On metal section 4 Suspended ceiling 5 Self-supporting ceiling

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Modular Grid Ceilings Following the interior fit-out grid, visible profile caps are installed, which simultaneously serve as supports for the ceiling panels and as a junction profile for partition walls. In the event of additional acoustic measures such as acoustic partitions in the ceiling void or mineral wool strips, the caps allow easy retrofitting of wall partitions below the ceiling. Ceiling grid dimensions follow the facade and office fit-out grid and usually range between 120 and 250 cm. Open Ceiling Systems If the ceiling cladding does not have to meet any fire- or soundproofing requirements, open systems can be installed, such as honeycomb ceilings with different geometries, lattice ceilings, pyramid ceilings, or ceilings consisting of linear profiles. Special Requirements If ceilings are subject to higher load/stress factors or extreme climatic conditions, such as in outdoor areas, the choice of panels and substructure must take this into account. In exterior situations, corrosion-resistant grids and moisture-resistant boards are used. In areas with special mechanical stress, such as sports facilities, the installed ceilings must be impact resistant for safety, as they may be struck by a ball, for instance.

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Assembly of suspended ceiling with Nonius hangers Ceiling spanning the space between two walls Perimeter lighting cornice Ceiling sail with upstand 7

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Closed ceilings 1 Stretched ceiling 2 Closed ceiling Grid ceilings 3 Grid ceiling with visible profiles 4 Grid ceiling with concealed profiles

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Open ceilings 5 Lattice ceiling 6 Louvres 7 Perimeter cornice

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Substructure of roof slope cladding Smooth homogeneous roof cladding (roof fit-out) Private house, Rato, Portugal, 2014, CHP Arquitectos

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Hanger types 10 Wire hanger 11 Quick hanger 12 Nonius hanger 13 Universal bracket with acoustic decoupling 14 Universal bracket and flush substructure

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Closed ceilings may expose selected areas of the existing ceiling. Detail section II Ceiling cladding with universal brackets, low ceiling void

Detail section I Simple ceiling cladding Dry lining 1 2

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Substructure of wooden battens Universal bracket

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Wall connection without joint, no fire rating Wall connection with shadow gap, no fire rating

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a Soffit b Substructure of timber, laths, and bearings 50 × 30 mm, directly fixed to soffit c Gypsum plasterboard d Framing metal, fixed directly to soffit with clips

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a Soffit b Framing metal, base profile/support profile CD 60/27, directly fixed to soffit with universal brackets c Plasterboard d Perimeter profile for easy assembly e Shadow gap profile

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a Soffit b Substructure metal, base profile/support profile CD 60/27, Nonius hangers c Plasterboard d Perimeter profile CD 60/27, fixed with angle bracket e Board strips, 100 mm minimum f Perimeter profile UD 28/27 g Edge trim Deliberately positioned, lighted cut-outs in the smooth suspended ceiling provide views of the soffit above; the suspended ceiling contains downlights, plus an air-conditioning and installation void. Artis Capital Management, San Francisco, USA, 2009, Rottet Studio

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Metal-coffered ceiling Foyer, Silver Tower, Frankfurt, Germany, 2011, Schneider + Schumacher

Detail section I Coffered ceiling, visible profiles Universal bracket Quick hanger Metal ceiling panels laid on framing

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Detail section II Coffered ceiling, concealed profiles

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Tile ceilings and grid ceilings offer easy access to the ceiling void. 97

Lattice ceilings form a continuous but permeable ceiling plane. They allow the arrangement of luminaries and air conditioning within the ceiling void. Detailed sections, lattice ceilings 1 2

Open lattice ceiling, visible grid profile Open lattice ceiling, concealed fixing

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Lattice ceiling with integrated LED lighting Subway concourse, Munich central station, Germany, 2014, Auer Weber

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1 Reflective, individually up-lit sails make the services and structural members above visually disappear against the black background of the soffit; no additional suspended ceiling reduces the full ceiling height. Darmstadt Staatstheater, Germany, 2006, Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei

2 Schematic section of ceiling sails, Staatstheater 3 Ceiling sails as framed, prefabricated elements with perforation and insulation pads for improved acoustic performance, Dance school Donaueschingen, Germany, 2015, Knauf 4 Top view of ceiling sail with steel rope suspension for three-dimensional adjustability

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Ceiling sails control the reflection of light and sound with geometrical precision. 5

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a Soffit b Curved, concave gypsum plasterboard, two layers, with upstand for stabilization c Curved, convex gypsum plasterboard, two layers, with upstand for stabilization d Ribs, fixed to soffit by angled brackets e Section CD 60/27 f Light fixture g Wooden composite board

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1 Assembly of prefabricated elements for lighting cove below of ceiling void housing services Residential tower Sternenhimmel, Munich, Germany, 2013, Albert Blaumoser 2 Light gaps separate the individual surfaces defining the space. Showroom Studio Bernhardt, Chicago, USA, 2008, Rottet Studio 3 Light panel integrated into ceiling Residential tower Sternenhimmel, Munich, Germany, 2013, Albert Blaumoser 1

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a Soffit b Universal bracket for low ceiling void c Nonius hangers for large ceiling void d Framing CD section 60 × 27 e Framing UD section 28 × 27 f Gypsum plasterboard, perforated to improve sound absorption g Gypsum plasterboard h Slats (width 25 mm) from folded plasterboard Plasterboard strips for fixing of slats i j Section CW 50 or universal bracket, depending on geometry k Gypsum plasterboard, milled and folded l Curved mould, quarter arch, two gypsum plasterboard layers 2 × 6 mm m Angled fixing bracket, e.g., edged sheet metal 0.6 mm n Panel joints, backed with flexible edge trim o Light fixture

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Cornices and coves emphasise edges, differences in height, or gaps, and create plasticity. 100

Baffles enlarge the acoustically active ceiling area and reduce reverberation time. Baffles, detail sections

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1 Narrow baffles from milled and folded gypsum plasterboard, directly fixed to ceiling 2 Wide baffles from milled and folded plasterboard, ceiling folded from one sheet 3 Baffles with custom framing for larger formats

a Soffit b Universal bracket for low ceiling void c Framing section CD 60 × 27 d Gypsum plasterboard, perforated to improve sound absorption e Gypsum plasterboard f Baffles (width 25 mm) from folded gypsum plasterboards strips, directly fixed to support profile g Baffles and ceiling surface folded from one single sheet h Prefabricated and post-fixed gypsum plasterboard baffles, sections UD 28 × 27, depending on baffle height < 150 mm: only top UD section > 150 to 300 mm: top and lower UD section > 300 to 600 mm: additional vertical profiles

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6 Acoustic ceiling from prefabricated fins with perforated strips in between 4 5 6

Prefabricated fins from milled, folded sheets and profiles View of ceiling with slats and perforated plates Aluminium profiles as substructure in the prefabricated slats

Chamber of Commerce Innovation Campus, Hamburg, Germany, 2014, Johann von Mansberg Architekten and Hörter + Trautmann Architects 5

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Folded ceilings form highlights of a space, and their playful geometry improves the acoustics of the room.

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Example of Folded Ceiling A folded ceiling sculpture forms the main focal point in an otherwise minimalist space. An upside-down mountain-scape grows from a geometric grid and is extended into an imagined infinity by a mirror behind the bar. Four shades constitute a gradient from blue to red, creating a very different ambiance in the main space and by the bar. The coloured surfaces emphasise the three-dimensional shape. It consists of inverted pyramids made of colour-coated lightweight foam-core panels. The substructure is a metal frame. This material was chosen because of the temporary character of the ceiling installation. Quartz sand panels were fixed (attached) to the soffit to provide a sound barrier or sound insulation for the apartments above the bar. The ceiling shell primarily follows interior architectural and space-creating considerations, but the differently inclined surfaces also diffuse sound and reduce reverberation. Bar: If dogs run free, Vienna, Austria, 2012, Tzou Lubroth Architekten

1 Reflected ceiling plan: panels, folding, and colour 2 Ceiling-scape 3 Axonometric diagram of substructure and cladding 4 Cutting pattern of cladding

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a Concrete soffit, painted black b Lattice frame of galvanized steel profiles, painted black c Circular elements: base plate and welded rim made of aluminium sheet, various diameters 40 to 170 cm, white powder-coated and reflective finish, 3800 items, suspended with threaded rods d Sprinkler in ceiling void e Technical equipment (smoke alarm)

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Detail section of ceiling 1:25 with integrated smoke alarm Continuous, smooth ceiling Detail of reflected ceiling plan 1:25

Example of Open Ceiling The refurbishment of an underground passage dating from the 1970s included a new ceiling which, as a result of densely arranged, similar circular elements, appears as one large continuous area. All technical equipment, such as lighting (including emergency lighting), speakers, cameras, signage, smoke detectors, and sprinklers, has been integrated into the gaps. Inspired by the roundabout on the square above, the circular ceiling elements create a non-hierarchical overall system without any visual clashes, which successfully deals with the various passenger directions and geometries on the concourse below. Variable circle sizes in a seemingly random ceiling arrangement flexibly adapt to all requirements. The individual circles are finished white with highly reflective powder-coated aluminium, making the otherwise low space seem higher despite the room left for technical installations above. The latter services visually disappear in the black-painted ceiling void. Stachus Passagen, Munich, Germany, 2011, Allmann, Sattler, Wappner Architekten

The numerous open joints allow the integration of technical equipment into a visually homogeneous surface. 103

The floor is the only directly accessible surface of a room and, therefore, it has a tactile dimension. Floor Finishes In contrast to the ceiling, the floor has a tactile quality, since it is directly accessible: is the surface hard or soft; is the ground solid or does it give at every step; does the floor’s surface or finish generate sounds when walking or does it dampen any sounds? The determining factors for all of this are the material used to finish the floor, the degree of absorption, and the floor build-up. The intended use of the floor, the anticipated moisture level, and the expected loads in terms of dead weight and type of load (static or dynamic) have to be considered when specifying the floor build-up and finish, since the floor is subject to higher loads than other room surfaces. As with the previously introduced cladding types, the floor build-up can improve the physical properties of the construction. This is especially true for impact sounds, which can be significantly reduced by multi-layered, so-called ‘floating’ floor constructions, in which the floor build-up is detached from the building shell by a layer of soft insulation. Screws or other fixings must not penetrate the insulation layer, and vertical components must be detached throughout in order to keep structure-borne noise from transmitting through the top layer of the floor. Interior Floor Installation Following the Raw Ceiling Slab In the structurally simplest case, the floor follows the geometry of the slab and tolerances in height can be compensated for with levelling granules or filler. The levelling can be loose if only static loads are expected, but for dynamic loads a bonded material must be used. Dry screed floors consist of frictionfitted boards that form a solid, load-bearing base floating on an insulation or levelling layer. The build-up usually has a height of 28–84 mm. Special panels with cut-outs for heating loops on top of the insulation layer or in the board allow the integration of

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under-floor heating. Because of their lower heat generation, hot water systems should be preferred over electric heating coils. Interior Raised Floor Systems Raised floor systems allow the integration of services within the floor cavity. Floor tanks with integrated sockets provide power connections for FF&E components (furniture, fixtures, and equipment) distributed over the floor area. A distinction is made between raised-access floor systems and hollow floor systems. Raised floor systems consist of floor panels supported at all four corners on adjustable-height supports, usually laid in a 600 × 600 mm grid. Hollow floors are continuous, loadbearing elevated floors of firmly bonded or bolted floor panels. The cavity is accessible only in selected areas, through access panels or linear floor channels. Depending on the conditions, different materials can be used; wood-based products with laminated finish, metal plates, steel with mineral filling, or mineral-fibre products. Interior Fit-out with Free Floor Geometry Self-supporting flooring systems based on gypsum fibreboards or wood based boards can be used for free-form geometries, terracing, seating elements, ramps, and platforms. Depending on the usage and resulting loads, single panels of 25 or 28 mm or for high loads two layers (32 + 18 mm) are placed on a substructure made of wood, steel, trapezoidal sheet, or lightweight profiles. The spans vary between 300 and 1200 mm, depending on the assigned payload.

Floor as installation void The floor becomes a rostrum Floor as furniture

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Floor Build-up 1 Floor and furniture elements form one uniform element within the existing building fabric. House in a former grainloft, Echandens, Switzerland, 2010, 2b architectes 2 The floor evolves into three-dimensional space, forming stairs, tiered seating, and stage. Prada Epicenter, New York, USA, 2001, OMA 3 Use of the steps during events 4 The floor slopes upwards in the form of a climbing wall. Ama’r Children’s Culture House, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2013, Dorte Arkitekter Mandrup

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Principles of Floor Build-up Floor Finishes The selection of the floor finish depends on design criteria, user requirements, and the planned space conditions. A change of materials or colours can be used to define zones in the room. Among other situations, this effect is used for the barrierfree demarcation of fire-escape routes on large retail or office floors. Graphic designs on corridor flooring can reduce or increase the perceived length of the space. A continuous floor can merge different spaces to form a cohesive unit. It is advisable to match the floor finish to the appropriate material in the underlying base; tiles and ceramic coverings are preferably laid on gypsum fibreboards; wood based products are suitable as a base for parquet flooring. In humid areas, a moisture barrier must be installed between the finish and dry floor base; in areas with a higher exposure to moisture, waterresistant cement fibreboards must be installed. Before thin coverings such as carpet or linoleum are laid on a base made of boards, the joints should be filled with a smoothing compound. Whatever the choice of floor finish may be, access for revision and maintenance must be provided; coverings that are pieced and not firmly bonded, such as carpet tiles, can be removed easily. Other thin coverings, such as linoleum or stone tiles, must be permanently bonded to their base and should reflect the construction grid. Again, the joints of the boards should be previously filled with a smoothing compound before applying the thin floor covering.

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5 Schematic sections floor finishes Simple floor 1 Dry screed 2 Insulated dry screed Raised floor with installation void 3 Hollow floor with limited number of access panels 4 Raised access floor Self-supporting floor 5 Rostrum/steps

Ramps and Stairs Ramps, steps, or stairs open up the chance to explore and perceive different levels of space. Depending on the expected use and location, standards and guidelines that may apply for good usability and safety must be observed.

6 The material of the wooden implant creates a stark contrast with the existing building fabric; walls, floor, and ceiling have been lined with wood. House in a former hayloft, Echandens, Switzerland, 2010, 2b architectes 7 Carpet flooring 8 Linoleum with typographic pattern in a hallway, Elementary School, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2012, Kant & Dorte Mandrup Arkitekter

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Dry Screed Floors Detail section, dry screed I

Detail section, dry screed II

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Prefab screed, stud wall connection Dry screed, underfloor heating Recessed piping, installation on granulated levelling to compensate for tolerances

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Prefab screed in wet area, finish: tiles Dry screed, underfloor heating Piping recessed in insulation layer, movement joint

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Prefab screed on granulated levelling to compensate for tolerances, e.g., timber-beamed ceiling in historic buildings

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a Finish b Prefab composite board screed Gypsum fibreboard 18 mm, veneered wood fibre insulation 10 mm for better impact sound protection c Perimeter insulation strip, mineral wool d PE–foil, as necessary e Slab

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a Floor finish, tiles b All-surface sealing c Gypsum fibreboard 18 mm d Granulated levelling e Perimeter insulation strip, mineral wool f PE–foil g Soffit h Corner: ceiling tape and silicone joint

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Floor finish Gypsum fibreboards 2 × 12.5 mm Impact sound insulation, mineral wool 10 mm Cover 9.5 mm min., plasterboard or wooden composite board Granulated levelling Trickle protection Perimeter insulation strip, mineral wool Timber-beamed ceiling

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Installation of prefab screed on insulation in the attic Installation of prefab composite screed

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Floor finish Gypsum fibreboard prefab floor boards with milled recesses for heating pipes, width 25–38 mm, according to load Granulated levelling Piping within granulated levelling, pipes still to be fixed Slab

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Floor finish Prefab screed of two layers gypsum fibreboard Insulation with milled recesses for heating pipes Cover 9.5 mm minimum, plasterboard or wooden composite board Granulated levelling Soffit Permanently elastic expansion joint in finish and screed

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Raised Access Floor Versus Hollow Floor Detail sections, floors with installation void 1 2 3 4

Raised access floor Raised access floor with perforated floor tiles Hollow floor with installation void Hollow floor with underfloor heating, raised or self-supporting 1

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a Floor finish b Gypsum fibreboard 25–32 mm, depending on load and application. Raised access floor with access panels throughout, straight-edged boards c Hollow floor: panels connected with tongue and groove; option: perforated for displacement ventilation d Adjustable supports e Primer, e.g., screed primer f PE–foil sheet, as necessary g Slab h Edge insulation strips

a Floor finish b Prefab gypsum fibreboard screed with milled recesses for heating pipes d = 18 mm c Load-bearing layer: gypsum fibreboard 25–32 mm, depending on load and application d Adjustable supports e Timber framing; steel for self-supporting systems f Slab

Assembling raised floor Gypsum fibreboard with milled recesses for heating pipes

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Self-supporting Floor Self-supporting floor 1 2

Self-supporting floor on steel profiles Self-supporting floor on trapezoidal metal sheet

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a Floor finish b Gypsum fibreboard 25–32 mm, depending on loading and application c Insulation strip at bearing d Trapezoidal metal sheet e Suspended gypsum plasterboard ceiling f Stud wall, two layers of boarding

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a Gypsum fibreboard 25–32 mm, depending on load and application b Insulation strip at bearing c Supporting profile d Perimeter insulation strip

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Detail sections, stepped tiers and ramps 3 Diagram of steps and ramps 4 Substructure of timber or gypsum fibreboard, cut to fit 5 Ramp, adjustable supports as in raised floors, wedge bars to create gradient 6 Tiered steps of lecture hall, substructure: connected lightweight steel sections

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Gypsum fibreboard 25–32 mm, depending on loading and application Cavity floor supports Adjustable metal pedestrals Sloped raw ceiling a c b

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Schematic section Workstations recessed into floor Schematic plan

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Existing primary steel structure Substructure steel Form defining plywood cladding: skimmed and painted finish Parquet floor finish Suspended ceiling — horizontal areas: gypsum plasterboard with integrated downlights Cavity floor for installation with integrated up-lights

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The floor becomes a functional element and pulls together the desktops and furniture of a workplace. Example of Floor Area as a Functional Element The installation of a new ceiling on the level of the existing loadbearing trusses turns this former factory into a two-storey space, creating ample floor area, although ceiling heights are low. Seating troughs for the workstations have been recessed into the double floor between the existing steel trusses, turning the entire floor surface into one continuous desktop. One of these recesses forms an organically curved staircase connecting the two floors. The recessed elements have been emphasised in the colour red, which runs continuously over all the surfaces. Architectural firm, Shanghai, China, 2010, Taranta Creations

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The superimposition of colour and form, warped space, and pixelated camouflage changes the perception of space by means of a sense of reinforced perspective. Example of Folded Cladding of All Surfaces of a Space A temporary showroom for tiles is interpreted as a spatial installation that creates a spatial illusion using the exhibited product. The inserted cladding changes the original geometry of the store. All surfaces are covered with the same format of tiles in a herringbone pattern, with a carefully planned gradient in four shades of grey. Hence, the spatial shell simultaneously narrows the space and creates the impression of a pulsating wave, which draws the visitors into the indeterminable depth of the space.

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Pulsate — Installation for Capitol Designer Studio and Marazzi’s SistemN tiles, London, Great Britain, 2013, Lily Jencks with Nathanael Dorent

a Existing primary structure b Substructure timber sections 10 × 5 cm c Plywood cladding d Herringbone tiling, Marazzi SistemN, 10 × 60 cm

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1 Detail section, shell 2 View of the optically distorted room 3 Shell structure 4 Schematic section 5 Axonometric substructure

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Wall planes can be freely positioned anywhere in a room, forming autonomous cells, closed spatial sequences, or reciprocally flowing spaces. Wall Planes The wall plane is an essential element for the structuring of space. As defined by their geometry, walls are only stable when they form an angle. The fixed-end bearing at the base of free-standing wall planes is of particular importance. Flowing Space Free-standing wall planes or walls, which are fixed on no more than three sides, organise space and create flowing spatial sequences. Glimpses into rooms, accesses, and passages can be controlled. The absence of lockable doors creates a primarily visual separation of spaces.

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Cells Uniform cell structures subdivide larger floor areas into smaller compartments, which are usually laid out in a standardised grid. This may result either in single rooms with individually lockable doors, for example, individual offices or hotel rooms, or open areas such as niches. The height of the perimeter walls essentially defines the degree of seclusion of the respective units. A visual, acoustic, and fire-protected separation of the cells is possible.

Free-standing planes form flowing space Free-standing planes form cells, which open towards the corridor Free-standing planes, half-height wall planes admit light through skylight

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Wall Planes and Cells

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1 Free-standing planes define space. Fondazione Sandretto Re Rebaudengo, Turin, Italy, 2002, Claudio Silvestrin 2 Stacked wall planes create space.          Exhibition stand, Euroshop 2014, Dusseldorf, Germany, 2014, D’art Design Group 3 Sequenced free-standing planes create thematic threads in the exhibition. Exhibition Architecture, Audi Urban Future Award, Venice, Italy, 2010 Raumlabor

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Principles of Wall Construction 1

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Timber post Metal stud Doubled acoustic stud creating additional wall cavity for services

Applications of interior, non-load bearing partitions Depending on the use and room types, wall requirements vary. DIN 4103-1 defines the following applications:

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Wall Constructions Drywalls usually consist of profiles and at least single-layer cladding; usually, however, double-layer cladding is used for design reasons or due to building physical requirements. Doubling the substructure creates wall cavities for mechanical installation or for the improvement of sound properties by means of detached, decoupled profiles and sound insulation. Fire and Sound Protection The properties of walls with respect to sound insulation and fire protection depend on the board type, the number of board layers, the insulation type, and the substructure. It is particularly important to ensure that the connections to floor or ceiling coverings are of the same quality or that the walls connect directly to the building shell. Free-Standing Wall Ends Additional profiles for stiffening and additional anchoring are required if free-standing walls are not connected to the base-build structure on all four sides or if they are not braced with angled corners.

Applications, type 1: Walls in rooms for smaller crowds, such as apartments, hotels, offices, and hospitals, including corridors   Applications, type 2: Walls in rooms for larger crowds, such as meeting rooms and classrooms, auditoriums, exhibition and sales rooms, and walls in rooms with floor level differences ≤ 1 m (fall protection)

For permissible wall heights in dry construction, see Merkblatt 8, Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e.V. (leaflet 8, Federal Association of the Gypsum Industry): Wall with gypsum plasterboard, one layer of boarding Sections CW 50, max. height 3.20 m (only allowed for applications, type 1) Sections CW 75, max. height 4.00 m Sections CW 100, max. height 5.10 m Wall with gypsum plasterboard, two layers of boarding Sections CW 50, max. height 4.00 m Sections CW 75, max. height 5.05 m Sections CW 100, max. height 7.20 m Closer spacing of sections, thicker boarding or wider walls allow for a greater installation heights. Loads on lightweight partition walls Light loads, e.g., pictures: 0.4 kN/m wall length, 15 kg given low eccentricity (max. 50 mm); with two layers of boarding fixing with suitable picture hooks directly to the panels possible; with two layers of boarding only lower loads permitted (check as required) Medium loads: 0.4–0.7 kN/m wall length, max. 30 cm projection Fixing with plasterboard plugs directly to gypsum boarding, 18 mm minimum Heavy loads, e.g., hanging cabinets, wall-mounted WC Upgrading of substructure or boarding necessary, e.g., reinforcement, trusses, or additional board layers

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Wall before sanding: filled panel joints and screw holes are visible.

Wall Qualities 1

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1 Drywall, one layer of gypsum plasterboard, Sections CW 50, width 7.5 cm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 42 dB, F0 2 Drywall, one layer of gypsum plasterboard, Sections CW 75, width 10 cm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 45 dB, F0 3 Drywall, two layers of gypsum plasterboard, Sections CW 50, width 10 cm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 52 dB, F30 F90 with fire-resistant boards 4 Drywall, two layers of gypsum plasterboard, Sections CW 75, width 12.5 cm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 53 dB, F30 F90 with fire-resistant boards 5 Installation wall with doubled studs, two layers of gypsum plasterboard, Wall finish: tiles Sections 2 × CW 50, width > 15.5 cm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 52 dB, F30

6 Compartment wall, two layers fire-resistant board 15 mm and Board with controlled density and improved core adhesion, 20 mm Profile CW 50, width 16.1 cm Steel sheet between boards 0.5 mm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 55 dB, EI-90-M 7 Compartment wall, double-layer fire-resistant board 15 mm Sectionse CW 50, width 11.1 cm Steel sheet between boards 0.5 mm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 55 dB, EI-90-M 8 Sound-absorbing wall, double-layer face 1: perforated gypsum plasterboard, single-layer face 2: board with controlled density 2 × 15 mm Sections CW 75 + 20 mm top profile for acoustic boards, width 13.25 cm With insulation: sound insulation and absorption depend on perforations.

9 Acoustic wall, decoupled profiles two layers of gypsum plasterboard with controlled density Sections MW 75, width 12.5 cm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 60 dB 10 Acoustic wall, acoustic decoupling: doubled studs, two layers of fire-resistant board or board with controlled density Sections 2 × CW 50, width 15.5 cm Two layers of insulation sound insulation value Rw = up to 71 dB, F90

13 Anti-burglary wall, class WK3 Sections CW 75, Width 15.2 cm three layers of boards with controlled density between the layers: steel sheet 0.5 mm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 67 dB, F90 14 Anti-radiation wall Sections CW 50, Width 12.5 cm three layers of special anti-radiation boards With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 69 dB, F90

11 Bullet-resistant wall Sections CW 100, width 15 cm two layers of boards with controlled density in cavity: 2 × 28 mm high density gypsum fibreboard With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 53 dB, F90 12 Anti-burglary wall, class WK3 Sections CW 100, width 15.2 cm two layers of boards with controlled density between the layers: 2 × steel sheet 0.5 mm With insulation: sound insulation value Rw = 66 dB, F90

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Folded spatial modules define the exhibition space; the existing building fabric such as columns and embrasures have been deliberately emphasized via wide joints and coloured lighting. LebenAusGestorben, exhibition for the 100th anniversary, Waldfriedhof Darmstadt, Germany, 2014 Implementation: Jule Bierlein, Frank Jochem, Yordanka Malinova, h_da in cooperation with Theater Transit

Detail plan I Drywall connection 1 2 3

With fire rating Without fire rating Unsupported wall end

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Section CW 50 Gypsum plasterboards, two layers Interior corner profile or flexible corner profile Mineral wool

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Detail plan II Corner detail 4 5

Corner detail 90° Corner detail 120°

Detail section 6 Unsupported upper wall end

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Acoustic or fire-resistant insulation Corner trim Flexible corner trim Cover strip

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Ceiling Connections of Walls

Detail section I Wall connection to suspended ceiling Low acoustic protection

Detail section II Wall connection to suspended ceiling High acoustic protection

1 Connection to suspended gypsum plasterboard ceiling without acoustic requirements 2 Minimal acoustic requirements: one layer of mineral wool above wall connection below; an additional insulation layer of at least 80 mm depth improves normalized level difference by 6 dB; option suitable for retrofitting the wall

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High acoustic protection: Wall connection to soffit Sound insulation value according to wall rating Moderate acoustic protection: mineral wool bulkhead in the ceiling void (absorber bulkhead): a depth of at least 400 mm improves normalized level difference by 12 dB option; suitable for retrofitting the wall

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Suspended ceiling Nonius suspension Two layers of gypsum plasterboard Wall fixed from below to suspended ceiling

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Suspended ceiling, one layer of gypsum plasterboard Flush ceiling grid with Nonius suspension Wall fixed to soffit from below

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Suspended ceiling, single-layer plasterboard Nonius suspension Ceiling joint above wall connection Wall fixed from below to suspended ceiling Mineral wool, depth 80 mm

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a Suspended ceiling, one layer of gypsum plasterboard Nonius suspension b Ceiling joint above wall connection c Wall fixed from below to suspended ceiling d Mineral wool absorber bulkhead, minimum depth 400 mm

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The intersection of floor and wall surface can be designed in various ways, for instance by introducing skirting boards. Lower Wall Junction Walls and spatial objects are usually fixed (attached) to the ground. This junction should be planned with particular care. Depending on the design intent, the wall and floor finishes may merge or may be sharply separated to be perceived as separate geometric entities. Direct fixing of a wall to the base-built floor slab — interrupting the floating screed — ensures good soundproofing between rooms, but the position of the wall in the floor plan is then fixed. Walls that are positioned on top of the floating screed, however, can be adapted more easily to changing requirements. In the latter case, a separation joint must be introduced to the floor build-up to prevent the transmission of structure-borne noise. In an open floor plan this is less critical, but in a layout with separate office cells, noise transmission can be a nuisance.

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Skirting The base of a wall may be part of the floor finish or the wall finish or form a frame or a completely separate component. This depends on the choice of material, colour, and geometry. The height of the skirting, or baseboard, affects the perceived height of the wall. Shadow and light gaps detach the wall surface from the floor without a visible base. Elastic flooring may receive an upstand; parquet flooring or tiles can be continued as a plinth on the wall, visually merging wall skirting and floor surface. Flush recessed skirting, matched in colour and material to the wall, make the base a part of the wall. A base made of a different material can be useful if the designer wishes to emphasise the transition from wall to skirting or to achieve special protection of the wall against mechanical damage.

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a Two layers of gypsum plasterboard b Insulation c Substructure d Floating screed e Perimeter insulation strip f Surface mounted skirting g Impregnated plasterboard h All-surface sealing i Wall tiles j Corners prepared with sealing tape k Backfill cord l Silicone joint m Floor tiles

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1 Drywall on slab Floating screed connected with separation strip for good sound protection 2 Surface mounted timber skirting 3 Wall and floor in wet area, tile finish 4 Skirting and door frame separated, surface-mounted carpet skirting 5 Skirting and door frame joined, surface-mounted aluminium skirting

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Floor Connections to Walls a Two layers of gypsum plasterboard b Insulation c Substructure d Floating screed e Plasterboard strip for fire-rated wall f Black shadow gap

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1 Detail of section, skirting with shadow gap 2 A shadow gap separates floor and wall finish. Private house, Mühltal, Germany, 2004, Architekten Treiber/Liquid 3 Drywall stands on floating screed; sound insulation is provided by a parting joint; flush mounted wooden skirting, shadow gap and shadow gap profile accentuate skirting; at this point, the fire protection level of the wall is weakened if no further backing is provided. 4 The skirting is made of flush-mounted aluminium, forming one plane with the wall. 5 If the flush skirting is backed with plasterboard, the wall retains its fire protection level. 6 The flush aluminium skirting forms hollow fillet for upstand of floor finish; the transmission of structure-borne sound is possible, if no separa tion joint is provided between wall and screed. a

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a Two layers of gypsum plasterboard b Insulation c Framing d Floating screed e Separation joint f Perimeter insulation strip g Flush skirting h Shadow gap profile i Flush aluminium profile j Gypsum plasterboard strip for fire-rated wall k Aluminium profile with hollow fillet l Floor finish upstand a

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Flush skirting with shadow gap Flush aluminium skirting

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Wall systems are industrially prefabricated individual modules that can be combined flexibly at any time to form new layout configurations. Wall Systems Walls systems are designed for quick assembly and dismantling with no plaster dust. Thanks to prefabrication, the elements can be produced very precisely and accurately. Adjustment work on site is reduced to a minimum, and later modifications are easy to do within the prescribed grid. This advantage, however, results in a significantly higher price than for conventional lightweight wall types. The individual modules can be solid, can consist completely or partially of glass, and can contain doors. Corner components, connectors, and filler elements complement the system at the edges. There are essentially three main types of wall systems: semi-prefabricated partitions, fully prefabricated partitions, and glass partitions.

ricated and assembled on site in post-and-mullion construction. This construction method is distinguished from gypsum drywall construction by the material that is used and the accurately prefabricated components, which cannot be altered on site. Fully Prefabricated Partitions The components of fully prefabricated partitions, including substructure and cladding, are prefabricated and just fixed (attached) on site to the load-bearing structure, or screwed to the other components of the interior fit-out. If the basebuild structure and the fit-out grid are matched, the individual wall elements can be easily reconfigured repeatedly to adapt to changing user requirements. Glass Partitions All-glass partitions provide a physical barrier with full visual transparency. Floor and ceiling surfaces remain virtually undisturbed. Vertical profiles are replaced with silicone joints between panes, and doors are fixed with minimal patches. However, these walls provide little soundproofing and no fire resistance.

Semi-prefabricated Partitions Semi-fabricated partitions come closest to conventional partitions. Fire ratings of F30, F60, or F90 are possible and the soundproofing properties depend on the material, the number of board layers, and the substructure. To this end, floor and ceiling connections have to be consistent in quality or the wall must connect directly to the base-build structure. The individual planked modules or glazing segments are prefab1

2

1 Transparent wall with integrated furniture, Future Workspace, TU Brauschweig, Germany, 2009, Gatermann + Schossig Architekten 2 Combined solid and glass elements, S. Oliver Headquar ter, Rottendorf, Germany, 2008, KSP Jürgen Engel Architekten

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Wall Systems

Detail plan I Semi-prefabricated partition 1 Solid element 2 Glazed element: options with centred and flush glazing 3 Door element with wooden door

Detail plan II Fully prefabricated partition 4 Glazed door element 5 Glazed element

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a Substructure b Insulation c Shell d Framed glazing e Glazing f Wooden door element

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a Connectors b Monoblock element with door c Door jamb d Glazed monoblock e lement

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Detail plan III Glass partition 6 Glass partition 7 Glass partition with glass door 8 Solid element

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a Glazing: toughened glass (ESG)/ laminated safety glass (VSG) b Vertical silicone joint c Door jamb d Glazed door e Wooden composite p anel f Insulation g Wooden post

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9 10 11 12 13 14

Semi-prefabricated glazed partition element Semi-prefabricated partition. Diagrammatic sketch by Strähle System 2000 Fully prefabricated monoblock wall by Clestra Synchrome detail connector Assembly of monoblock wall Glass partition by Clestra Plenair, vertical joint Fully glazed office partition, Dorma head office, Ennepetal, Germany, 2004, KSP Jürgen Engel Architekten

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Room-in-room systems as free-standing elements provide functional differentiation while creating new spaces.

Spatial Objects Deliberate positioning of three-dimensional objects supplements the existing functional program and subdivides spaces. Such volumes can accommodate numerous functions that have different spatial or technical requirements than the surrounding areas. This may include, for example, compartmentalised soundproofed or fire protected rooms within a larger volume, spatial features such as kitchens or sanitary rooms within a loft, or architectural implants in an existing structure that provide new circulation routes between the levels via stairs. Smaller volumes can be created with manufacturer-certified systems. For larger bodies and more complex geometries, separate structural calculations may be required. The substructure of drywall or timber profiles may need to be reinforced with steel profiles in order to accommodate the additional loads. Dimensioning depends on the size of the spatial object, its function, and the physical requirements in terms of fire protection, thermal insulation, and soundproofing.

Free Forms In dry construction, spatial volume can be produced in any possible form. Objects with surfaces bent at an angle are constructed from standard profiles and clad with precision-cut sheets. The corners are precisely defined by the incorporation of flexible corner profiles. Sharp folding lines can be achieved through chamfering and milling. Linear bent shapes can be constructed with pre-punched UW-profiles and can be manufactured with a radius of > 300 mm when using the corresponding bending technology. Smaller curves, as well as three-dimensionally curved shapes, must be prefabricated as a moulding. Free forms can also be manufactured as ‘solid’ structures made of layered materials. However, this involves a very high materials cost, which must be considered carefully. Room-in-room Room-in-room systems complement spaces with open structures providing spaces with special conditions. For the construction of simple rectangular objects, prefabricated, firetested, soundproof, structurally certified systems are readily available.

1 Different functions are integrated within the cube: kitchenette, adjoining rooms, storage space and shelving space; the ceiling serves as an eleva ted retreat or eyrie. 2 Spatial elements create different levels in the room. 3 Free-form volume in a room.

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Room-in-room Systems

1 Reflecting objects accommodate surprising ambiences and change the perceived room size through optical illusion. Exhibition stand for magazine Eigen Huis & Inte rieur, RAI Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2015, i29 interior architects 2 Spatial elements create retreats in an open residential plan. Private house, Toyokawa-City, Aichi prefecture, Japan, 2013, mA-style architects 3 The new stair becomes a sculptural object in space. Private house, Budapest, Hungary, 2012, ZSK Architects 4 Folded spatial plywood objects create intimate showrooms for small-scale items of artist Georg Hornemann. Georg Hornemann – Objets d‘Art, Lehmbruck-Museum Duisburg, Germany, 2012, Thomas Kröger Architekt

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Individual spatial objects can subdivide rooms, while providing highly functional space.

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Schematic axonometric view of room-in-room system Room-in-room setting as exhibition architecture Exhibition ‘Der Schatten der Avantgarde’, Folkwang Museum, Essen, Germany, 2015, Hermann Czech

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Example of Spatial Object Colours, smooth and rough surfaces, and built-in booths and counters combine to form a complex, multifunctional, and exciting object. Praxis Dr. B, Filderstadt, Germany, 2010, AMUNT Architekten Martenson und Nagel Theissen

1 2

1

Differentiated elaboration of spatial object Schematic plan

2

A free-standing spatial object on a vacant office floor accommodates all functions of a medical practice in one large structure. Detail sections

a Drywall with gypsum plasterboard b Flush timber skirting c Floating cementitious screed (installed after walls) d Perimeter insulation strip e Skylight glazing 10 mm, toughened glass or laminated safety glass

Parapet with skylight Sliding door with skylight Door in wall with rough surface Recessed seating area

3 4 5 6

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L-Section aluminium 12 × 65 × 2 mm L-Section aluminium 30 × 40 × 2 mm Glass fixing L-Profile 20 × 80 × 2 mm Sprayed plaster, acoustic rough finish Sliding door fixing: L-Profile steel 60 × 60 × 5 mm

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k Guide rail for sliding door Door leaf of sliding door l m Sound insulation door, timber n Steel slim line door frame without face o 42 mm multiplex as substructure for seating p 12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard q 9 mm gypsum plasterboard

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Three-dimensionally curved bodies of any shape can be produced from prefabricated elements or components bent in situ. b

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Detail sections of curved wall 1 2

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Curved wall constructed of sinus profile and dry-bent gypsum plasterboard Curved wall constructed of prefabricated elements

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a Sinus profile — flexible floor/ceiling connection profile for curved walls b Vertical UW-sections c Gypsum Plasterboard lining, vertically and horizontally staggered joints used with double-layer boards d Wooden composite ribs, CNC-milled e Four layers of plasterboard, 6.5 mm

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3 Wall structure with curved profiles before plasterboard is applied 4 Prefab, three dimensionally cur- ved elements

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This curved architectural sculpture contrasts with the existing building fabric, creating rooms and interspaces of different qualities. Example of Curved Architectural Sculpture This free-form sculpture accommodates the reception, lounge, and coffee bar areas and is the focal point of the SYZYGY Office in Frankfurt. Openings and perforated elements provide a variety of views in and out. The three-dimensionally curved shape has been composed of prefabricated sandwich panels. They consist of a ribbed wooden substructure, which was clad in the factory on both sides with precise, CNC (Computer Numerical Control)-cut plasterboard. These puzzle pieces were assembled on site and then smoothed, plastered, and painted white to create the appearance of a homogeneous body.

1 2 3

Architectural sculpture, view into lounge area Interaction of architectural sculpture with the existing building Joining of prefabricated elements and in-situ bent walls on the construction site

SYZYGY Office, Frankfurt, Germany, 2012, 3deluxe

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Example of Functional Elements Three bodies of different sizes have been placed into the space and separated from floor and ceiling by light gaps. They accommodate the reception, the waiting room, and the change-rooms. Radiology practice FR32, Kinderzentrum Friedrichstadt hospital, Dresden, Germany, 2009, STELLWERK architekten 1 2 3 4

Architectural objects in the space Schematic plan Detail section, spatial object with cabinet 1:25 Detail section, spatial object with counter 1:25

In the foyer of a medical practice, each of the three curved elements carries a different function. h

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d j i

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b c a Drywall with two layers of gypsum plasterboard b Body: base formed from aluminium profiles with double-layer plasterboard c Independent wall lining foms light gap at base and top, depth 10 cm d LED light strip e Built-in cabinet f MDF facing for cabinet doors, colour-coated g Maritime pine backing for securing the cabinets h Suspended ceiling with one layer of gypsum plasterboard i Wall connects with shadow gap j Downlight k MDF counter, colour-coated l Recessed skirting

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Example of Folded Architectural Sculpture The shape of the stand has been derived from a folded ribbon. It forms a covered workshop area and evolves into a tunnellike space which provides exhibition areas for material samples and work pieces. The exhibition stand shows drywall construction from the raw skeleton to completion. Here, the raw and unfinished is on an equal footing with high precision and accurate detailing. Exhibition stand Phantasiewelten, FAF Köln, Germany, 2013, Hochschule Darmstadt and Plasterer Master Class in Heilbronn, Planning: Vera Burbulla, Isabel Völker, Katrin Walter

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Schematic plan Exhibition stand with work counter and exhibition tunnel Assembling exhibition stand Schematic drawing of light gap below counter Schematic drawing of indirect lighting for exhibition area Schematic drawing, base of inclined wall

6

A precisely folded ribbon becomes a spatial walk-in structure. 129

Suspended boxes in the space hold private retreats. Example of Spatial Body During the renovation of this warehouse of an old winery, the new program has been introduced into the spacious existing building envelope as clearly identifiable architectural units. The private spaces, such as bedrooms, bathrooms, and studio, have been freely placed in the space as inhabitable volumes, hovering in the void above the main living area. The volume of the existing building remains fully recognizable from the floor up to the roof, while the suspended cubes contoured by side-lighting restructure the space. This opens up totally new visual relationships and views. New stairs are hidden in the thickness of a newly built wall which does double duty as a bearing support for the floor slabs of the floating cubes. The walls have been built in light construction with steel substructure. Private house, Azeitao, Portugal, 2006, Aires Mateus & Associados

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The front view gives an idea of the suspended volumes inside Schematic section The surfaces of the volumes, shown with light and shadow Schematic plan

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Example of Floating Object Two curved, floating objects create a clearly defined, calm space in the midst of the exhibition halls. Inside the body are intimate cabinets for the presentation of the small jewellery works of Georg Hornemann. The volume’s envelope consists of thin, bendable MDF boards over the form of a timber substructure. It is stiffened by a roof slab made of chipboard, which is connected to the display cubes in the centre. The entire volume is suspended from the ceiling by steel cables. Creatures — Exhibition stand for Georg Hornemann, Cologne Fine Art & Antiques, Cologne, Germany, 2012, Thomas Kröger Architekt

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Apparently floating, the curved spatial object forms an intimate space for the presentation of art works.

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The exhibition stand is closed off from the areas surrounding it. Schematic plan Exhibition visitors behind the floating shell Section of the floating shell

131

The manner in which surfaces or materials are joined together makes them appear either as one spatial unit or as separate elements. A continuous light gap separates wall and ceiling surfaces, Wine store, São Paulo, Brazil, 2012, Studio Arthur Casas

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Joining, Connecting, and Dividing

Strategies and construction methods for the joining, connecting, and dividing of spaces and areas complement the elements of space creation featured in the previous chapter. Doors and other openings regulate access, views in and out, natural light, and fresh air supply. At the same time, these elements either interrupt the free flow of space, or they strengthen the connection of spaces — depending on the design of the frames and thresholds. A threshold clearly separates two spaces by means of a change in material or level. If designers deliberately decide to avoid having visible thresholds, the spaces tend to merge with each other. Special use of materials can emphasise functional zoning. Along with material, light, finish, and colour, the positioning of apertures in a space significantly influences the spatial impression. Elements such as revolving, sliding, or folding doors can flexibly transform spaces. As convertible elements, they change the proportions of rooms and allow usable floor areas to be expanded or decreased as required. Thus, spatial sequences can be produced, or large rooms can be divided into small-scale individual rooms.

Joints are another factor in the flow of space. They are not only part of the design, but also a structural necessity. Various kinds of panelling in drywall construction do not allow seamless finishes in equal measure. While gypsum boards allow for smooth, homogeneous skimming, many finishes necessitate structural joints, which in turn need to be carefully designed. Strategically placed or concealed lighting supports the separation of surfaces or volumes, and thus the creation of space.

133

Openings connect spaces or interior and exterior by creating vantage points.

Doors Doors are the interface between identical, similar, or different rooms as regards to use or design. A door and door frame can emphasize an access, or conceal it, as with secret doors. A threshold marks a transition and defines the necessary sound insulation and fire protection requirements. Doorways without thresholds create free-flowing space. Doors and passageways should be placed in such a way that opened doors do not disrupt the room and that there is enough space to place furniture. Door handles and doors can have a certain tactile quality, giving a foretaste of the room beyond or establishing a contrast. The touch of the material, along with the weight and sound of the door, provides a direct sensation.

Interrelations of door position and perception of space

134

Door Requirements Doors belong to the overall system of a wall. Depending on the wall rating in terms of technical and physical requirements, the door itself, the frame, and the fittings must all be designed to suit the conditions. The construction, shape, and material chosen for a door will depend on the use and requirements of the spaces — in particular, in terms of sound insulation, fire protection, smoke protection, burglary protection, and thermal insulation. Additional elements such as overhead door closers or seals may be required. Around the edge of door and window openings, the construction has to be made extra stable, for example by introducing additional transoms or mullion, which serve as stop for the door frames. Door Types and Dimensions A key distinction is made between swing doors, double-action doors, sliding doors, and centre fold doors. When choosing door types, formal aspects need to be considered just as much as good operability. The sizes and dimensions of doors and door frames are standardised. The dimensions are derived from masonry construction, but also apply to drywall construction.

Openings and Doors

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Numerous openings in this volume, which was inserted into the building envelope, emphasise the mutual connections and the usable space between the interior and the actual exterior wall. Ant House, Shizuoka, Japan, 2012 mA-style architects The passage as a design motif, Office space, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2008, i29 interior architects Perspective and passage Interplay of opening and volume; spatial bodies in a loft, Three Small Rooms, Brooklyn, USA, 2013 Studio Cadena Transparent walls, Dental practice weissraum, Munich, Germany, 2010, Ippolito Fleitz Group Movable elements create a flexible layout

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Principles of Swing Doors Swing Doors and Double-action Doors According to the Eurpoean DIN standard, swing doors are classified by their opening direction — right-handed or lefthanded. In many English speaking countries the definition may be based on hinge and swing direction – for example a door is definded as right hinge, if the door is swinging away from user with hinge on right side. Planners must be aware that this can be opposed the DIN specification. There are doors designed to meet practically any technical requirements. Double-action doors only provide visual screening, and allow hands-free passage from both sides. The choice of material for the door depends on the design criteria and the requirements for fire protection, sound-proofing, and heat insulation. Climatic conditions, humidity, attrition, and the location of the door within the layout also have to be considered. When choosing the passage width, architectural and geometric conditions must be considered just as much as user needs. For barrier-free accessibility, a clearance of at least 90 cm in width and 210 cm in height is required.

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Double doors 5 Swing door, symmetrical 6 Swing door, asymmetrical Pivoted doors 7 Revolving doors 8 Asymmetrical, pivoted door

Clear opening dimension Frame rebate dimension

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Barrier-free passage according to DIN 18040 measurements, swing door in plan Nominal door dimensions in plan Nominal door dimensions in section

Rebate facing

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Nominal dimension, width of wall opening Coordinating dimension (CD)

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Single doors 1 Swing door, right- handed (DIN left) 2 Double-action swing door, right-handed (DIN left) 3 Swing door, left- handed (DIN right) 4 Double-action door, left-handed (DIN right)

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Door Frames A deep reveal emphasises the thickness of the wall; a flush door reads as part of the wall surface. While wrap-around frames form a frame on both faces, corner frames leave the opposite side of the door opening unframed. Block frames allow flush mounting of the door or precise positioning of the door in relation to the wall thickness. Frames are usually made of wood, aluminium, or steel.

Door diagram Axonometric view and plan

Wall thickness

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Coordinating dim. (CD) Nominal dimension – height of wall opening

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min. 120

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min. 150

OKFF OKRF 11

Frames and thresholds define either smooth transitions or clear contrasts. 1

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20 cm: flat radiator

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1 Steel wrap-around frame 2 Steel wrap-around frame, assembly with shadow groove 3 Steel wall-flush frame with circumferential shadow groove 4 Block frame, steel 5 Corner frame, steel 6 Fine-line frame, steel 7 Wooden wrap-around frame, rebated 8 Wooden wrap-around frame 9 Wooden block frame 10 Wooden block frame with shadow groove 11 Solid wooden frame 12 Solid wooden frame, mounted on wall surface mounted

60 cm: furniture

13 Standard distances from door to wall, opening angle = 100°

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Standard steel and wooden frames Coordinating dimension (CD)

Add/to/deduct from approx. CD

Width

Toilets

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Clear opening (COD)

Rebated

Flush closing

Door leaf, rebated (DLOD)

Door leaf, flush (DLOD)

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Height

Width

Height

Width

Height

Width

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-64

-32

-15

-15

-41

-28

2125

635

2130

561

2093

610

2110

584

2097

Secondary rooms

750

2125

760

2130

686

2093

735

2110

709

2097

Common living spaces

875

2125

885

2130

811

2093

860

2110

834

2097

Entrance doors

1000

2125

1010

2130

936

2093

985

2110

959

2097

Central division

Double doors 14

Height

Central division

1250

2125

1260

2130

1186

2093

621.5

2110

608.5

2097

1500

2125

1510

1436

2093

746.5

2110

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2097

1750

2125

1760

2130 2130

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2093

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2110

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Principles of Folding and Sliding Doors

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Diagram, sliding doors Axonometric view and plan

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Deep wall embrasure On wall surface In wall cavity Double door in wall cavity

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Sliding Doors Sliding doors are most often used when there is not enough room for a door to swing or if large wall surfaces need to be opened. They do not interfere with the functionality of a room even when open, but there has to be sufficient space for the door to move within a wall cavity, within custom furniture, or across the face of the wall (barn door style). This may require doubling-up of the wall. Emphasis and framing of the opening can be achieved through the choice of frame. The framing can be concealed completely if the reveal around the opening is made from folded gypsum plasterboard. If the upper guide rail is mounted flush to the ceiling, no frame will be visible when the door is open. Folding Partitions and Centre Fold Doors Folding partitions consist of individual, movable elements suspended from integrated ceiling rails. They are divided into narrow segments that can be folded and parked or stored in wall recesses. Large spaces can be divided in this way without additional lintels or embrasures. The wall storage pockets for the panels have to be well designed and the top and bottom rails must be recessed in the ceiling and floor construction to achieve a consistent, uninterrupted, spatial impression when the doors are open. For walls with acoustic requirements, acoustic sealing can be achieved at the bottom and laterally between the elements with sealing profiles and contact pressure. However, sliding wall systems will under no circumstances achieve the acoustic values of a solid wall. An electric drive with integrated control system is useful for moving larger systems. Depending on the system, for centre fold doors or partitions the folded segments can be stored within the embrasure of the wall or flush with a wall surface.

Diagram, folding sliding doors Axonometric view and plan

min. 50

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Barrier- free passage according to DIN 18040 Plan, measurements for sliding door

min. 90

min. 50

min. 120

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min. 120

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Two dining rooms can be combined to make one large common space. House for two families in Hanekita, Japan, 2014, Katsutoshi Sasaki + Associates Sliding doors divide room into two separate rooms. Full height, barrier-free sliding doors provide a free-flowing space, yet allowing for rooms to be closed off if required. House H, Kortrijk, Belgium, Daskal Laperre Interior Architects

Folding and sliding doors achieve the flexible connection and division of spaces.

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Sliding Doors

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Detailed sliding door options Sections 1 2 3 4

Wall- mounted track with aluminium cornice Wooden frame Steel frame No frame, milled and folded plasterboard 5

Plans 5 6 7 8

Wall- mounted track with aluminium cornice Wooden frame Steel frame No frame, milled and folded plasterboard

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Sliding doors that are made of the same material as the wall create a homogeneous surface when closed. Villa V, Bloemendaal, Netherlands, 2011, Paul de Ruiter Architects

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Folding Partitions

Folding wall diagram

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Single-track sus- pension, parking position in central axis Double-track suspension, offset parking position

Geometric conditions of sliding doors Element widths: 0.60–1.20 m Element heights, depending on material: 2.0–14.50 m Element depths: 0.10–0.12 m Fire rating: F30/F60 Sound protection (glass): up to Rw 50 dB Sound protection (solid): up to Rw 55 dB Details, sliding wall 3 4

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Sliding wall, vertical section Sliding wall, horizontal section

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’Dancing Walls‘, Appartement Maisons Laffitte, France, 2010, Cut Architectures 5 Movable walls allow the a free subdivision of rooms; light filters sifts in through holes in the panels; the separation of rooms is purely visual and does not entail special technical requirements. 6 View into the open room

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The connection of the elements that define a space determines whether they appear three-dimensional or as a two-dimensional plane. Structural Joining If surfaces are clearly separated by joints, they appear as two-dimensional surfaces (planes). Whether the joints are designed with bright backlighting or as dark gaps influences the perceived weight of the materials; executing the surfaces without visible joints will create a homogeneous, monolithic impression. There is a distinction to be made between joints that have been placed for creative reasons, such as shadow gaps, light gaps, or open joints, and structurally required joints, such as expansion joints. Expansion Joints Expansion joints are required where materials with different setting properties meet, where flexible or vibrating parts meet rigid elements, or where thermal expansion and contraction must be considered. They help to prevent uncontrolled cracking. In addition, all expansion joints from the load-bearing structure must be carried over into the drywall structure at the place where they occur.

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Interiors without Visible Joints Building without joints is only possible if the criteria for expansion joints described above do not apply. Since the surface of lightweight structures is usually made of panels, the joints must be carefully filled and sanded; joint tape is required to avoid cracks. Shadow Gaps Shadow gaps deliberately separate converging surfaces. They can be formed by the edges of the materials themselves or by using flush shadow gap profiles. A dark coating of the joint supports the separating effect, since the joint thus assumes an indeterminable depth. Light Gaps Light gaps isolate bodies or finishes from their immediate context. They can be formed by small, prefabricated LED profiles, which are integrated directly into the panels, or by suitable recesses within the structure.

Floor and ceiling are separated from the wall by a shadow gap. Wall cladding with visible, open joints Ceiling cladding with visible, backed joints

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Joints, Joining, and Connections

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Light gaps and colour finishes interconnect the walls and ceiling of this space. K64 dental practice, Berlin, Germany, 2005, Graft Smooth surfaces without joints form a sculptural object without scale. The Changing Room, Venice, 2008, UNStudio Flush mounted lighting strips structure the hallway. lights by Panzeri

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Principles of Joints 1

3 Detailed plans of expansion joints

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Expansion joint in dry lining Expansion joint in wall cladding, fixed with mounting clips Expansion joint in non-fire-rated wall Expansion joint in self-supporting wall facing Expansion joint in wall, with fire protection backing Section of expansion joint in suspended ceiling, with fire protection backing

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Diagram of Joints 1 2 3 4 5

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Expansion joint with backing Abutting joint in wall cladding Joint in wall cladding with backing (shadow gap) Joint in wall cladding with shadow gap profile Light gap (indirect lighting)

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l k i a Gypsum board b Base-build wall with smaller tolerances: mounting with mortar dabs c Board strip, only on one side inserted into mortar d Edge trim e Board strip as backing, screwed/glued only on one side f Mounting clips g Insulation h CW 50 metal studs i CW 75 metal studs j Universal mounting brackets k Building shell l Expansion joint in the building shell

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e d Wine store, São Paulo, Brazil, 2012, Studio Arthur Casas 12 Joining of Materials with varied different textures and surface smoothness are joined. 13 The joints between the wall slats are used as presentation areas.

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Connections to other components are an essential part of the structural principles in space creation. Connections Interior space creation involves the joining of different construction methods and different materials with different properties as regards material-specific thermal expansion and setting. Hence, all connections have to able to accommodate the resulting minimal movements; these connections are called floating connections. Shadow gaps or trowel cuts can prevent uncontrolled cracking, since they represent predetermined breaking points.

When components of different geometries are joined, the introduction of connecting elements or intermediate parts may be necessary. This is often required when drywalls meet with significantly leaner facade profiles. It should be noted that the physical properties of the overall wall always correspond to its weakest point. In order not to compromise the fire rating, sound insulation, or thermal insulation properties of the wall, it may be necessary to use materials with higher quality in the wall breaks.

Detailed plans Connection to base-build wall 1 2

Connection without joint Connection with shadow gap and fire protection backing

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Profile CW 50 Double-layered plasterboard Profile CW 75 Plasterboard strips for floating connection, not fixed to top plasterboard layer Mineral wool

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Double-layered plasterboard, 2 × 12.5 mm Substructure UW-profile Substructure CW-profile Insulation for fire and acoustic p rotection Separation strip Plasterboard strip without fixing to vertical substructure Permanent elastic sealing Edge trim

Detailed sections Ceiling connection e

3 Ceiling connection to soffit: fire and acoustic protection to match overall wall 4 Sliding ceiling connection to soffit with shadow gap: accepts minimal deflections; in case of fire requirements, additional plasterboard backing required behind joint

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Facade Connections

f Detailed plans of facade connections

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Facade connection materials must match the properties of the partition wall. 1 2 3

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b

c

Wall break with soundproofing properties by planking Wall break with fire by using fire protection boards Wall break with glass fin as a transparent transition to the facade without any special characteristics 1

a b c d e f g

Acoustic drywall, width 150 mm MW-100 profiles CW-50 profiles Double-panelled connecting wall, width 100 mm, CW 50 profiles, mineral wool Insulation strip Acceptance of minimal deflections by sliding connection Connection with shadow gap, full plasterboard backing

h i j k l m

Fire protection drywall, width 125 mm Connecting wall, width 48 mm: single panel 15 mm fireboard, 2 mm galvanised steel sheet, 12 mm mineral wool Facade connection with metal sheet Facade connection with U-profile 18/30/08 mm Wall connection with steel angle bracket 13/30/08 mm Mineral wool

n o p q r s t

Double-panelled drywall, width 100 mm CW 50 profile Wall connection: toughened or laminated, satin-finish glass Glass connection with 15/5 angle Plasterboard cladding Coated steel angle Permanent elastic joint

m j

k

i

h

l

2

q t r

p

s q

n o

t

3

Glass connection between facade and wall

146

Light gaps make surfaces stand out against their background, or they act as graphic elements. 1

2

a b d f

a

3

b

c d

e

c d

i e

g

h

a Soffit b Mounting clips for low ceiling voids c Nonius hangers for higher ceiling voids d Substructure CD 60 × 27 support profile e Perforated plasterboard for better sound absorption f Plasterboard g Milled and folded plasterboard h Plasterboard strip i Light

4

a Soffit b Mounting brackets for low ceiling voids c Substructure CD 60 × 27 support profile d Plasterboard e LED light in metal channel for flush skimming

1 Standard detailed section of cove lighting with acoustic ceiling 2 Detailed section of flush light gap in plasterboard 3 Integrated profile for light gap, indirect lighting by Panzeri 4 Open joints let light shine through Boys get skulls, girls get butterflies – Jewelry and art exhibition by Georg Hornemann, MAKK Cologne, 2013, Thomas Kröger Architekt

147

148

Appendix

149

Definitions, Measurements Annex chapter ‘Room Conditions’ Comfort DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Analytical determination and interpretation by calculating the PMV and PPD indices and local, thermal comfort criteria. The approach of DIN EN ISO 7730 to define comfort parameters is based on an analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort, based on two values:

Structural soundproofing requirements DIN 4109, sound insulation in buildings, defines required sound insulation as a protection against sound transmission from an external living area or working space as minimum standard and for increased requirements.

PMV-Index (Predicted Mean Vote) Expected average sensation of users

Ceilings Apartment separation ceilings, ceilings between different occupancy areas, hotel rooms, hospital rooms: L’n,w TSM  54 dB Walls under a bathroom/WC: L’n,w TSM > 53 dB, R’w  53 dB Walls of stairways and common corridors: R’w > 52 dB Walls between hotel rooms, hospital rooms: R’w > 47 dB Walls between class rooms: R’w 47 dB Walls between class rooms and stairways: R’w 52 dB

Warm White  5000 K suitable for offices, studios, and museums, is perceived as cool Color rendering index (Ra) The color rendering index quantifies, how good the color rendering of a light source is when compared to a reference light source with the same color reproduction. The optimal value is 100; down the scale is not limited to zero, negative values are possible. Illuminance (in lux) Illuminance is a value for the amount of luminous flux that hits an area of 1 square meter of an illuminated body or an illuminated surface. Example values 130000 lx Sun at zenith, no clouds 19000 lx Sun at zenith, cloudy sky 750 lx Sun just below the horizon, twilight 10000 lx Surgery room 500 lx Offices 100 lx Circulation areas 50–300 lx Bedroom/living room 1 lx Candle

Annex chapter ‘Material’ Standardization of gypsum boards Since September 2005, the reference types of plasterboard are defined in the European Standard EN 520; however, the terms of DIN 18180 are still in common use. German manufacturers mark their boards usually with both designations: Board types DIN EN 520 Typ A – Standard gypsum board Typ D – Gypsum board with defined density Typ E – Gypsum board for paneling of exterior walls Typ F – Gypsum board with improved structural bonding at high tempratures Typ H – Gypsum board with reduced water absorption capacity (H1, H2, and H3) Typ I – Gypsum board with increased surface hardness Typ P – Plaster base board Typ R – Gypsum board with improved flexural strength Source: Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (ed.) IGG Data sheet 7 Comparison of board types per DIN 18180 and DIN EN 520 DIN EN 520 Designation DIN 18180 Building boards GKB Typ A Fire boards GKF Typ DF Impregnated building boards GKBI Typ H2 Impregnated fire boards GKFI Typ DFH2 Source: Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (ed.): IGG Data sheet 7 Gypsum board dimensions Width 1250 mm Length 2000, 2500, 3000 mm Thickness 9,5 mm as bent surfaces, plaster base 12,5 mm standard 15 mm as fire board, high density Dimensions of dry floor elements Dry subfloor without cavity, floating or on leveling: Gypsum-based floor elements: d = 25 mm, tongue-and-groove connection at the long side, shiplap at front side Composite elements with laminated insulation: d = 25 mm + 30 mm, tongue-and-groove connection at the long side, shiplap at front side Gypsum fiber floor elements: d = 2 × 12,5 mm or 2 × 10 mm, factory-glued layers, tongue-and-groove connection at the long side, shiplap at front side GKB-chipboard: d = 20 mm with shiplap Cement bonded particle board or chipboard: d = mind. 19 mm or 25 mm floating installation Composite board types Composite panels PS Composite of 9,5 mm and 12,5 mm gypsum board and EPS (polystyrene foam) or PUR (polyurethane rigid foam) insulation

Profile dimensions Composite panels Min F Composite of gypsum board and mineral insulation, application: upgrading of thermal insulation and soundproofing, higher density Layer thicknesses for gypsum composite elements according to DIN 18184 Plasterboard 6,5 mm: insulation 20 mm Plasterboard 9,5 mm: insulation 20 mm oder 30 mm Plasterboard ≥ 12,5 mm: insulation 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 60 mm, 80 mm Options for prefabricated curved moulds 90° = quarter circle 180° = semi-circle Radius > 300 mm -> length max. 900 mm Radius 100–300 mm -> length max. 2000 mm Thickness: 2 × 6,5 mm oder 3 × 6,5 mm Correlation of bending radius and board thickness Dry bending Board 6,5 mm r > 1000 mm Board 9,5 mm r > 2000 mm Board 12,5 mm r > 2750 mm Wet bending Board 6,5 mm r > 300 mm Board 9,5 mm r > 500 mm Board 12,5 mm r > 1000 mm Planning conditions System Cubo Sound protection: up to 81 dB with suitable profiles Fire rating: F30, F90, as compartment wall with additional 0,5 mm steel sheet Center grid system, non accessible < 4,00 m Center distance system posts < 0,50 m Center distance ceiling grid Span < 5,00 m with substructure 2 × CW 150 Span < 7,50 m with substructure 2 × UA 150 Live load up to 2,0 kN/m² in non-public areas Center distance system posts < 2,50 m Center distance ceiling grid < 0,40 m Span < 3,60 m with substructure 2 × UA 150 Live load up to 2,0 kN/m² in non-public areas Additional transversal bracing, ceiling with 22 mm wooden composite board Room heights: 2,00 –3,7 m Doors DIN 107 Building construction; identification of right and left side DIN 107 determines the specification of the door according to swing direction resp. viewpoint: DIN Left = hinge left DIN Right = hinge right Viewpoint in room.

Timber sections Posts: 60 × 60 mm; 60 × 80 mm; 60 × 120 mm Laths: 24 × 48 mm; 30 × 50 mm; 40 × 60 mm Metal sections Wall The CW-profiles are inserted into the UW-profiles; their dimensions are accordingly slightly smaller than the nominal dimensions. CW 30: 28,8 × 35 mm CW 50: 48,8 × 50 mm CW 60: 58,8 × 50 mm CW 75: 73,8 × 50 mm CW 100: 98,8 × 50 mm CW 150: 148,8 × 50 mm UW 30: 30 × 30 mm UW 50: 50 × 40 mm UW 60: 60 × 40 mm UW 75: 75 × 40 mm UW 100: 100 × 40 mm UW 150: 150 × 40 mm Ceiling CD 48: 48 × 27 mm CD 60: 60 × 27 mm UD 28: 25 × 27 mm Bracing The UA-profiles are inserted into the UW-profiles; their dimensions are accordingly slightly smaller than the nominal dimensions. UA 50: 48,8 × 40 mm UA 60: 58,8 × 40 mm UA 75: 73,8 × 40 mm UA 100: 98,8 × 40 mm UA 150: 148,8 × 40 mm Labeling of sheet thickness 0,4 mm – red 0,5 mm – white 0,6 mm – blue 0,7 mm – yellow 1,0 mm – green 2,0 mm – black Raised floor systems Load-bearing capacities of raised floors in accordance with DIN EN 12825 Class 1 – point load max. 3 kN: offices, telephone switchboards, design offices, lecture halls, classrooms, treatment rooms Class 2 – point load max. 4 kN: IT rooms Class 3 – point load max. 5 kN: IT rooms with higher requirements, printer rooms, light duty industrial floors, storage rooms, workshops with low floor loading, clean rooms Class 4 – point load > 5 kN: structural proof of single loads required, forklift trucks, industrial floors, workshops, strongrooms

151

Standards and Guidelines

General

Building Acoustic and Sound Insulation

Room Acoustic

DIN 18202 Tolerances in building construction – Buildings

DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings

DIN 4172 Modular coordination in building construction

DIN EN 12354 Building acoustics

DIN 18041 Acoustic quality in rooms – Specifications and instructions for the room acoustic design

Fire Protection

DIN EN 16703 Acoustics – Test code for drywall systems of plasterboard with steel studs – Airborne sound insulation

DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components ISO/TR 11925 Reaction to fire tests – Ignitability of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame – Part 1: Guidance on ignitability ISO 11925 Reaction to fire tests – Ignitability of products subjected to direct impingement of flame – Part 2: Single-flame source test DIN EN 13501 Fire classification of construction products and building elements Comfort DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings DIN EN 15251 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria

152

ISO 717 Acoustics – Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building VDI-guideline 3755 Sound insulation and sound absorption of suspended ceilings

ISO 1996-1 Acoustics – Description, measurement and assessment of environmental noise – Part 1: Basic quantities and assessment procedures ISO 11654 Acoustics – Sound absorbers for use in buildings – Rating of sound absorption ISO 11690 Acoustics – Recommended practice for the design of low-noise workplaces containing

VDI-guideline 4100 Sound insulation between rooms in buildings

DIN EN ISO 17624 Acoustics – Guidelines for noise control in offices and workrooms by means of acoustical screens

VDI-guideline 2058 Assessment of noise in the working area

Light and Lighting

VDI-guideline 2569 Sound protection and acoustic design in offices

DIN 5034 Daylight in interiors

VDI-guideline 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary equipment

DIN 5035 Artificial lighting

DEGA-recommendation 101 Acoustic waves and fields DEGA-recommendation 103 Sound insulation for buildings

DIN EN 1838 Emergency lighting DIN EN 12464-1 Light and lighting – Lighting of work places – Part 1: Indoor work places DIN EN 12665 Light and lighting – Basic terms and criteria for specifying lighting requirements

Material

Floors

DIN 4074-1 Strength grading of wood – Part 1: Coniferous sawn timber

DIN EN 13950 Gypsum board thermal/acoustic insulation composite panels – Definitions, requirements, and test methods

DIN 18180 Gypsum plasterboards – Types and requirements

DIN EN 13963 Jointing materials for gypsum boards – Definitions, requirements, and test methods

DIN 18181 Gypsum plasterboards for building construction – Application DIN 18182 Accessories for use with gypsum boards DIN 18184 Gypsum plaster boards with polystyrene or polyurethane rigid foam as insulating material DIN 18550 Design, preparation, and application of external rendering and internal plastering DIN EN 520 Gypsum plasterboards – Definitions, requirements, and test methods DIN EN 622 Fibreboards – Specifications DIN EN 12859 Gypsum blocks – Definitions, requirements, and test methods DIN EN 12860 Gypsum based adhesives for gypsum blocks – Definitions, requirements, and test methods DIN EN 13162 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory made mineral wool (MW) products – Specification DIN EN 13163 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory made expanded polystyrene (EPS) products – Specification DIN EN 13164 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory made extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) products DIN EN 13165 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory made rigid polyurethane foam (PU) products – Specification DIN EN 13279 Gypsum binders and gypsum plasters DIN EN 13915 Prefabricated gypsum plasterboard panels with a cellular paperboard core – Definitions, requirements, and test methods

DIN EN 14190 Gypsum board products from reprocessing – Definitions, requirements, and test methods DIN EN 14195 Metal framing components for gypsum board systems – Definitions, requirements, and test methods

DIN EN 12825 Raised access floors DIN EN 13213 Hollow floors VDI-Richtlinie 3762 Sound insulation by means of raised access floors and hollow floors Draft DIN 18195 Waterproofing of buildings Accessibility

DIN EN 15283 Gypsum boards with fibrous reinforcement – Definitions, requirements, and test methods

DIN 18040 Construction of accessible buildings – Design principles

DIN EN 15318 Design and application of gypsum blocks

ISO 21542 Building construction – Accessibility and usability of the built environment

Draft DIN EN 14353 Metal beads and feature profiles for use with gypsum plasterboards – Definitions, requirements, and test methods Draft DIN EN 14566 Mechanical fasteners for gypsum board systems – Definitions, requirements, and test methods Walls and linings DIN 4103 Internal non-loadbearing partitions

Doors DIN 107 Building construction; identification of right and left side DIN 18100 Doors; wall openings for doors DIN 18101 Doors for buildings – Sizes of door leaves, position of hinges and lock – Interdependence of dimensions

DIN 18183-1 Partitions and wall linings with gypsum boards on metal framing – Part 1: Cladding with gypsum plasterboards

DIN 18111 Door frames – Steel door frames

Ceilings DIN 18168 Ceiling linings and suspended ceilings with gypsum plasterboards

DIN EN 1634-1 Fire resistance and smoke control tests for door and shutter assemblies, openable windows and elements of building hardware – Part 1: Fire resistance test for door and shutter assemblies and openable windows

DIN EN 13964 Suspended ceilings – Requirements and test methods

DraftDIN EN 12519 Windows and pedestrian doors – Terminology

DIN 68706 Interior doors made from wood and wood-based panels

DIN EN 14246 Gypsum elements for suspended ceilings – Definitions, requirements, and test methods Draft DIN 4121 Hanging wire-plaster ceilings – Plaster ceilings with plaster-bearing steel-inserts, rabitz ceilings

153

Bibliography Selection Amstutz, Sibylla; Schwehr, Peter Human Office Zurich 2014. Auch-Schwelk, Volker u.a. Construction Materials Manual Basle, Munich 2005. Brammann, Helmut u.a. Trockenbau kompakt. Mit Kennziffern, Regeln, Richtwerten, Prinzipdarstellungen und Übersichten Cologne 2010.

Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten Interiors Construction Manual: Integrated Planning, Finishings and Fitting-Out, Technical Services Munich 2010.

Pfau, Jochen; Tichelmann, Karsten Trockenbau-Atlas. Grundlagen, Einsatzbereiche, Konstruktionen, Details 4. Aufl., Cologne 2014.

Hegger, Manfred Energy Manual: Sustainable Architecture Basle 2008.

Pfundstein, Margit Insulating Materials: Principles, Materials and Applications Basle, Munich 2007.

Hegger, Manfred; Reichel, Alexander SCALE: Heat | Cool – Energy Concepts, Principles, Installations Basle 2010.

Plagaro Cowee, Natalie; Schwehr, Peter The Typology of Adaptability in Building Construction Lucerne 2008.

Brandi, Ulrike Lighting Design: Principles, Implementation, Case Studies Munich 2006.

Heilmeyer, Florian; Petzet, Muck (Hrsg.) Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Rethink Architecture. German Pavilion 2012, Ostfildern 2012.

Pottgiesser, Uta; Wiewiorra, Carsten Raumbildender Ausbau. Handbuch und Planungshilfe Berlin 2013.

Bundesarbeitskreis Altbauerneuerung (Hrsg.) Kompetenz Bauen im Bestand. Almanach, 3. Aufl., Cologne 2014.

Herrmann, Eva-Maria u.a. Furnishing – Zoning: Spaces, Materials, Fit-Out, Basle 2014.

Tichelmann, Karsten Entwicklungswandel Wohnungsbau. Neue Gebäudekonzepte in Trocken- und Leichtbauweise Brunswick 2000.

Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V.(Hrsg.) Gipsdatenbuch Berlin 2013. Deplazes, Andrea Constructing Architecture: Materials, Processes, Structures Basle 2013.

Hestermann, Ulf; Rongen, Ludwig Frick/Knöll Baukonstruktionslehre 1 36. Aufl., Wiesbaden 2015. Hestermann, Ulf; Rongen, Ludwig Frick/Knöll Baukonstruktionslehre 2 34. Aufl., Wiesbaden 2013.

Fachin, Uwe u.a. Gipstrockenbau. Planung und Ausführung Winterthur, Mägenwil 2005.

Keller, Bruno u.a. Key Facts + Figures for Sustainable Buildings Zurich 2011.

Frössel, Frank Lexikon der Putz- und Stucktechnik Stuttgart 1999.

Leixner, Siegfried; Raddatz, Adolf Putz, Stuck, Trockenbau. Materialien, Techniken, Schadensbildung und Sanierung. Handbuch für den Stuckateur. Munich 2004. Leydecker, Sylvia Designing Interior Architecture: Concept, Typology, Material, Construction Basle 2013. Maier, Josef Putz und Stuck. Materialien, Anwendungstechniken, Restaurierung Stuttgart 2007. Mommertz, Eckard Acoustics and Sound Insulation Munich 2008. Müller, Siegfried; Wricke, Günter Handbuch Trockenbau. Planen, Konstruieren, Ausführen 2. Aufl., Haan 2014.

154

Tichelmann, Karsten; Pfau, Jochen Dry Construction: Principles, Details, Examples Munich 2007. Vierl, Peter Putz und Stuck. Herstellen, Restaurieren 2. Aufl., Munich 1987.

Addresses Associations Bundesverband Ausbau und Fassade Zentralverband Deutsches Baugewerbe Kronenstraße 55–58 10117 Berlin www.zdb.de Bundesverband Baustoffe – Steine und Erden e. V. Kochstraße 6–7 10969 Berlin www.baustoffindustrie.de Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. Kochstraße 6–7 10969 Berlin www.gips.de Bundesverband Farbe Gestaltung Bautenschutz Gräfstraße 79 60486 Frankfurt a. M. Deutschland www.farbe.de Bundesverband in den Gewerken Trockenbau und Ausbau e. V. Olivaer Platz 16 10707 Berlin www.big-trockenbau.de BVS Bundesverband Systemböden e. V. Leostraße 22 40545 Düsseldorf www.systemboden.de

Helpful links Deutsche Gesellschaft für Akustik e.V. (DEGA) Voltastraße 5 13355 Berlin Eurogypsum Verband der europäischen Gipsindustrien Rue de la presse 4 1000 Brüssel Belgien www.eurogypsum.org

www.baunetzwissen.de Information on acoustics, old building, building physics, fire protection, insulation, etc. www.cen.eu European Commitee for Standardization www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/designm Buiding for the handicapped

European Acoustics Association Calle Serrano 144 28006 Madrid Spanien euracoustics.org Forschungsvereinigung der Gipsindustrie e. V. Kochstraße 6–7 10969 Berlin www.gips.de Gypsum Association 6525 Belcrest Road Suite 480 Hyattsville, MD 20782 USA www.gypsum.org RAL Gütegemeinschaft Trockenbau e. V. Annastraße 18 64285 Darmstadt www.trockenbau-ral.de TAIM e. V. – Verband Industrieller Metalldeckenhersteller Leostraße 22 40545 Düsseldorf www.taim.info Versuchsanstalt für Holz- und Trockenbau Annastraße 18 64285 Darmstadt www.vht-darmstadt.de

155

Brochures and Fact Sheets Selection Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) GIPS-Datenbuch (Gypsum data book) Berlin 2013. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 1: Baustellenbedingungen für Trockenbauarbeiten mit Gipsplatten-Systemen. (Data Sheet 1: Site Conditions for Drywall Construction Works with Gypsum Board Systems) Berlin 2011. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 2: Verspachtelung von Gipsplatten – Oberflächengüten Q1 bis Q4. (Data Sheet 2: Skim Coating of Gypsum Board – Surface Qualities Q1 to Q4) Berlin 2011. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 2.1: Verspachtelung von Gipsfaserplatten – Oberflächengüten Q1. (Data sheet 2.1: Skim Coating of Gypsum Board – Surface Qualities Q1) Berlin 2010. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 3: Fugen und Anschlüsse bei Gipsplatten- und Gipsfaserplattenkonstruktionen. (Data sheet 3: Joints and Connections for Gypsum and Gypsum Fiber Board Construction Works) Berlin 2013. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 4 und 4.1 Anhang: Regeldetails zum Wärmeschutz gemäß EnEV 2009 Modernisierung mit Trockenbausystemen. (Data Sheets 4 and 4.1 Annex: Standard Details for Thermal Protection according to German Norm EnEV 2009, Renovation with Drywall Systems) Berlin 2010.

Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 5: Bäder und Feuchträume im Holzund Trockenbau. (Data sheet 5: Bathrooms and Wet Rooms in Timber and Drywall Construction) Berlin 2014. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 6: Vorbehandlung von Trockenbauflächen aus Gipsplatten zur weitergehenden Oberflächenbeschichtung bzw. -bekleidung. (Data Sheet 6: Priming Dry Gypsum Surfaces for further Finishing or Cladding) Berlin 2011. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 7: CE-Kennzeichnung von Gipsplatten. (Data Sheet 7: CE Labeling of Gypsum Board) Berlin 2011. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 8: Wandhöhen leichter Trennwände. (Data Sheet 8: Wall Heights of Lightweight Partitions) Berlin 2011. Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt 9: Oberbeläge für Fertigteilestriche. (Data Sheet 9: Floor Finishes for Prefinished Screed) Berlin 2013. Bundesverband Farbe Gestaltung Bautenschutz (Hrsg.) Merkblatt Nr. 12 Oberflächenbehandlung von Gipsplatten (Gipskartonplatten) und Gipsfaserplatten. (Data Sheet no.12: Surface Treatment of Gypsum Board (Plasterboard) and Gypsum Fire Board) Frankfurt 2007. Eurogypsum Drywall Jointing & Finishing, Surface Quality Level Classifications Brussels 2010. Eurogypsum Fact Sheet: What is Gypsum? Brussels 2007. Eurogypsum Fact Sheet: Fire and the Construction Products Directive – Why are Gypsum Products so effective in Fire? Brussels 2008. Eurogypsum Fact Sheet: FGD Gypsum – Quality Criteria and Analysis Methods Brussels 2012.

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Gütegemeinschaft Trockenbau e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt Nr. 1 Verwendbarkeitsnachweise und Kennzeichnungen im Trockenbau. (Data Sheet no.1: Suitability Certifications and Labeling in Drywall Construction) Darmstadt 2013. Gütegemeinschaft Trockenbau e. V. (Hrsg.) Merkblatt Nr. 2: „Genormte Konstruktionen“ und „geprüfte Systeme“ im Trockenbau. (Data sheet no.2: ‘Standardized Structures’ and ‘Certified Systems’ in Drywall Construction) Darmstadt, 2014. TAIM e. V. – Verband Industrieller Metalldeckenhersteller (Hrsg.) Technisches Merkblatt Nr. 02: EN 13964 Unterdecken. Anforderungen – Prüfverfahren – Kennzeichnung. (Technical Data Sheet no.2: EN 13964 False Ceilings. Requirements – Test methods – Labeling) Düsseldorf 2007. TAIM e. V. – Verband Industrieller Metalldeckenhersteller (Hrsg.) Technisches Merkblatt Nr. 04: Metalldecken und Korrosionsschutz. (Technical Data Sheet no.4: Metal Ceilings and Corrosion Protection) Düsseldorf 2008. TAIM e. V. – Verband Industrieller Metalldeckenhersteller (Hrsg.) Technisches Merkblatt Nr. 05: Metalldecken als Heiz– und Kühldecken. (Technical Data Sheet no. 5: Metal Ceilings as heated and chilled Ceilings) Düsseldorf 2009. TAIM e. V. – Verband Industrieller Metalldeckenhersteller (Hrsg.) Technisches Merkblatt Nr. 07: Metalldecken in Sporthallen. (Technical Data Sheet no.7: Metal Ceilings in Gymnasiums). Düsseldorf 2013. TAIM e. V. – Verband Industrieller Metalldeckenhersteller (Hrsg.) Technisches Merkblatt Nr. 08: Deckensegel aus Metall und Metallverbundstoffe. (Technical Data Sheet no.8: Metal and Metalcomposite Ceiling Sails) Düsseldorf 2013.

Index

A Absorber 46, 86, 117, 150,152 Absorber Bulkhead 117 Absorption 15, 40, 42, 74, 100, 104, 115, 150 60, 87, 104 Access Panel Accessibility 136, 138, 153 Acoustic 13, 29, 35, 36, 40, 88, 63, 65, 76, 84 , 99, 102, 115, 147, 150, 152 Addition 12, 21, 27 Airborne Sound 40, 150 Application Area 88, 89, 114 Architectural Acoustics 40, 88, 150,152 Artificial Light 19, 50, 54 B Baffle Base Base-Built Floor Basic Filling Bending Block Frame Board Types Boarding Bracing Building Material

46, 77, 95, 101 67, 106 104, 118 67 78, 81, 151 136 72, 151 37, 41, 60, 72, 74, 84, 114, 146, 151 23, 80, 87, 91, 114, 116, 145, 151 11, 40, 63, 64, 104, 152

C Cavity 9, 40, 46, 60, 75, 86, 92, 124, 138 Ceiling 40, 51, 61, 82, 150 38, 117, 145 Ceiling Connection Ceiling Panel 44, 57, 74, 94, 99 Cell 12, 22, 32, 112, 118 Cement-Bounded Board 63, 73, 151 Chilled Ceiling 60 Cladding 9, 58, 67, 80, 83, 114, 142, 144, 151 97 Clip-In System Closed Ceiling 95 Coating 15, 67, 142 97 Coffered Ceiling Colour 14, 18, 51, 55, 67, 106, 118, 133, 150 Colour Rendering 50, 54, 150 Comfort 10, 36, 50,63,150 12, 35, 40, 86, 145 Component Properties 74, 151, 153 Composity Connection 38, 78, 80, 86, 96, 104, 107, 114, 126, 145 Corner Detail 107, 116 Corner Frame 136 Cornice 61, 68, 77, 92, 95, 100 Cove 74, 94, 100, 147 Cover Studs 81 Curved Forms 78, 127 Cutting 76

D 73 Damp Room Board Daylight 19, 50, 54,133, 151, 152 Design 14, 20, 25, 44, 60, 92, 106, 118, 133 Differences In Height 100, 133 Diffuse Light 50, 54, 66 Direct Light 19, 51 Dome 42, 68, 70, 79 Door 86, 112, 120, 133, 136, 151, 154 81, 118, 121, 134, 154 Door Frame Double-Action Door 134, 136 Double Stud 114 Dowel 73, 81, 114 Dry Bending 78, 151 Dry Lining 84, 86, 94, 144 Dry Screed 87, 106 E Edge Edges Of Space Existing Building Expansion Joint

14, 19, 53, 68, 72, 76, 81, 142 19, 53, 84, 91, 94 12, 20, 22, 24, 35, 38, 52, 86, 96, 127, 130 107, 142, 144

F 146 Facade Connection 67, 104 Filler Filling 67, 71, 78, 81, 88, 133 Fine-Line Frame 137 Finish 9, 11, 13, 15, 19, 36, 44, 50, 54, 60, 66, 76 Fire Protection Board 73, 87, 115, 146 9, 11, 32, 60, 65, 72, 81, 92, 112, 118, 122, 134, Fire Protection 144, 151, 152 Fire Resistance 84, 115, 120 10, 12, 20, 22, 61, 83 Fit-Out/Space Creation 37, 40, 72, 73, 81, 94, 104, 144, 53 Fixing/Attaching 13, 83, 92 Fixtures Flat/Apartment 10, 72, 114, 137, 150 Flexibility 10, 22 Floor Connection/Skirting 81, 90, 118, 125, 128 Floor Finish 46, 104, 106, 118 Floor/Flooring 75, 104, 138 112 Flowing Space Folding Ankle 77 Folding Wall 141 Folding/Folding Technique 77 Frame With 137 Circumferential Shadow Groove Free Form 9, 31, 64, 122 Frequency 43, 45, 49, 60, 150 13, 26, 60, 87, 90 Functional Wall 28, 31, 39, 40 Functional Area 22, 26, 110, 128 Functional Element G Gap 13, 84,93, 103, 127, 135 120 Glass Partition Grid 11, 32, 81, 92, 104, 112 92, 94 Grid Ceiling Gypsum 11, 64 Gypsum Board Production 72 Gypsum Fibreboard 67, 69, 73, 106

157

Index

H Hanger Heating Hollow Fillet Hollow Floor System

70, 81, 89, 91, 94, 95, 117, 144, 147, 153 36, 39, 60, 104, 108 119 73, 104, 108

I Identity 10, 14 Impact Sound 75, 104, 107, 150, 152 12, 23, 31, 122 Implant Independent Wall Lining 72, 74, 86, 144 19, 51, 57 Indirect Light 86, 96, 100, 106, 114 Installation Space Insulation 37 Insulation Against Humidity 87, 107, 118, 153 Insulation Material 9, 38, 40, 63, 75, 86, 152 Integration 11 42, 46 Intelligibility Of Speech Interior Insulation 34, 37, 75, 86 25 Interpenetration Joint 67, 81, 84, 92, 106, 118, 120, 142 L 94, 98 Lattice Ceiling Layering 15, 69 Levelling 104, 107 Light Colour 50, 54 Light Filter 52 27, 53, 56, 59, 85, 90, 118, 128, 142, 144, 147 Light Gap Lighting 34, 36, 50, 150, 152 11, 23, 72, 81, 104, 114, 122, 151 Load 151 Load-Bearing Capacities Loudspeaker 60 17, 49, 51, 77, 85, 91, 101, 144 Louvers 51, 57 Luminous Ceiling M Metal Cassettes Metal Section Milling Mineral Wool Modular Grid Ceiling Modular Grid Partition Monoblock Partition Movement Joint

92, 97 80, 86, 94, 151 9, 62, 67, 77 37, 41, 46, 75, 86, 94, 153 94, 97 120 120 107, 142

N Nonius Hangers

94, 117, 147

O Office Opening Opening Angle Ornament

11, 92, 94, 106, 112, 114, 150, 151, 152 134, 138, 153 137 9, 14, 43, 68

158

P Perception Of Space Perforated Plate Plasterboard Platform Prefab Screed Prefabrication Preformed Element Preservation Pre-Wall Installation Profiles Program

13, 83, 111, 134 15, 46, 75, 89, 101, 115 9, 65, 72, 81, 86, 114, 126, 133, 144, 151, 159 83, 104, 106 104, 107 11, 101, 120 73, 100, 122, 151 21, 35, 37 84, 87 40, 71, 76, 80, 86, 94, 104, 114, 142, 151 10, 24, 130

Q Quality Level 67 Quality Of Stay 36 Quick-Hanger 70, 95, 97, 98 R 71 Rabitz Radiation Protection 92, 115 Raised Access Floor System 104, 151, 153 Ramp 104, 109 Rea-Gypsum 64 Recycling 11, 64 Reflection 15, 19, 40, 50, 63, 99, 150 15, 19, 43, 68, 86 Relief Reverberation/Reverberation Time 29, 42, 46, 49, 101, 150 136 Revolving Door Room Acoustic 13, 29, 36, 40, 42, 150, 152 34, 64, 136, 152 Room Climate Room Comfort 34, 64, 136, 152 13, 41, 80, 122 Room-In-Room

S Sail 28, 44, 47, 50, 57, 74, 94, 99 Sandwich Panels 127 Sanitary Room 60, 84, 87, 122 64, 74, 104, 106, 118 Screed Seamless Ceiling 92 Secret Door 28, 134 Self-Supporting 14, 24, 31, 41, 122 Self-Supporting Floor 109 Separation 40, 49, 81, 88, 104, 114, 119 Shadow 15, 19, 50, 54, 66 27, 68, 81, 91, 96, 119, 128, 142, 144 Shadow Gap 84, 87 Shaft/Shaft Wall Shell/Wall Lining 13, 23, 28, 35, 40, 48, 52, 84, 92, 144 Side-Light 19, 51, 54, 66 Sinus Profile 79, 126 Skeleton Construction 23 Skirting 81, 90, 118, 125, 128 Skylight 18, 50, 112, 125 25, 134, 138, 140 Sliding Door Sliding Wall 140 Solid Construction 23, 37 Solid Wooden Frame 137 Sound Insulation 40, 75, 86, 115, 116,120, 138, 145, 150, 152 15, 34, 40, 99 Sound Soundproofing 32, 40, 72, 80, 84, 92, 94, 102, 114, 117, 120, 122, 134, 138, 145, 150 Space Condition 9, 26, 29, 35, 106 Spatial Concepts 21 15, 34, 123 Spatial Condition 27, 40, 54, 82, 138 Spatial Impression 8, 22, 26, 30, 122, 127, 129, 135 Spatial Object 21 Spatial Strategies Special Boards 74, 115 Speed 9, 11, 45 67 Standard Filling Storage Medium 36, 38, 41, 46, 58, 74, 92 Structure/Building Structure 21, 23, 24, 26, 31, Structure-Borne Sound 40, 104, 118 Stucco 17, 64, 68 Stud 80, 86, 114, 146, 152 Superimposition 10, 21, 23, 26, 111 9, 40, 63, 71, 76, 80, 92, 106, 114, 120, 127, Supporting Framework/ Substructure 151,153 Supporting Structure 11, 21, 37, 71 Surface Heating System 36, 60 Surface Quality 67 90, 91, 92, 109, 110, 117, 128, 144, 153 Suspended Ceiling Sustainability 9, 11 Swing Door 33, 136

U Under-Floor Heating Usage Utility Room

60, 104 10, 36, 38, 40, 42, 60, 104, 106, 114, 122, 134, 136 26, 84

V Vapour Proof 37 Vault 42, 71 Volume 35, 38, 40, 68, 122, 133, 150 W Wall Connection Wall Opening Wall Plane Wall Systems Wall Weight Wet Bending Wood Based Board Wood-Beamed Ceiling Wooden Wrap-Around Frame Wrap-Around Frame

116, 145 136, 154 12, 22, 32, 93, 112, 114, 131, 141 120 11, 23, 32, 37, 40, 60, 72, 80, 112, 138, 150 9, 11, 40, 46, 72, 75, 81, 104, 134 78, 151 106, 123, 151 107 137 136

T Technical Equipment 9, 23, 38, 60, 103 Temperature 36, 60, 66, 72, 74, 86, 150, 151 Texture 15, 43, 50, 63, 68 Thermal Insulation 9, 35, 37, 75, 84, 86, 88, 122, 134, 136, 151 38 Thermal Mass Threshold 106, 134, 137, 139 Timber Profile 80, 151 Tools 76

159

Photo Credits

Amoretti, Aldo: p. 98/3 3deluxe: p. 16/2, p. 127/1+2 3GATTI: p. 17/6, p. 58/3 Anger, Julia & Minits, Katariina: p. 43/4 Architectures Jean Nouvel/Fessey, Georges: p. 43/1+5, p. 69/4 Architectures Jean Nouvel/Ruault, Philippe: p. 51/6 Assemble: p. 48/5 Ateliers Jean Nouvel/Ruault, Philippe: p. 13/2 Bach, Claus: p. 12/2 Becker Architekten: p. 18/1 beierle.görlich: p. 24/1+2 Bitter, Jan: p. 13/1 BMW Group Archiv: p. 9/1 Brandsma, Dennis & Huibers, Ewout: p. 19/1, p. 123/2 Braun, Zooey: p. 25/1+4, p. 47/3, p. 56/2, p. 60/5, p. 135/4 Bredt, Marcus: p. 12/3 Bucher, Kirsten: p. 97/1 Bujnovszky, Tamás: p. 123/3 Bundesverband Gips © VG-ORTH MultiGips: p. 64/1, p. 68/3+4 Carpet Concept: p. 106/7 Claudio Silovestrin Architects: p. 53/4, p. 113/1 Clestra GmbH: p. 121/11+12+13 Construir Habitar Pensar – Arquitectos: p. 95/9 D‘art Design Gruppe: p. 113/2 Di Loreto, Francesco/F38F: p. 14/3 DLW Flooring/Nielsen David Allan: p. 106/8 do mal o menos – Nascimento, Eduardo/Fôja, João: p. 23/9 Dorval-Bory, Nicolas: p. 11/1, p. 85/1+2 Drändle 70|30: p. 8/1, p. 14/1 Ebener, Marcus: p. 57/3 Eskerod, Torben: p. 105/4 Fenzhe, Jin: p. 58/1+2 Foessel, David: p. 141/5+6 Frahm, Klaus: p. 18/3, p. 32/1+3 GATERMANN+SCHOSSIG Architekten/Ortmeyer, Klemens: p. 120/1 Gonzales, Brigida: p. 29/2+3, 31/1+3, p. 61/5, p. 103/2, p. 125/1

160

Guerra, Fernando/FG+SG: p. 11/2, p. 59/1+2, p. 132/1, p. 144/12+13 Halbe, Roland: p. 27/1+4, p. 99/1 Heimann, Thomas: p. 52/3, p. 93/3, p. 147/4 Hein, Tobias: p. 16/3, p. 56/1, p. 62/8 Heinrich, Michael: p. 50/1 Heissner, Oliver: p. 90/1+2 Hiepler Brunier: p. 143/1 Hufton + Crow: p. 111/2 i29 interior architects: p. 54/1, p. 135/2 Jencks, Lily: p. 111/3 Katsutoshi Sasaki + Associates: p. 139/1+2+3 Keller, Milo: p. 26/1+2, p. 105/1, p. 106/6 Knauf Chile/Pontificia Universidad Cátolica: p. 48/6+7 Knauf Gips KG: p. 37/4+5+6+7, p. 45/8, p. 61/3+4, p. 62/5, p. 65/4+5, p. 67/2+3+6, p. 69/6, p. 73/2, p. 74/1, p. 79/7+8, p. 86/7, p. 94/6, p. 95/8+10+11+12+13+14, p. 101/5+6, p. 107/6+7, p. 108/7, p. 109/7+8, p. 126/3 Knauf Gips KG/Averwerser, Jann: p. 41/4 Knauf Gips KG/Bilger, Florian: p. 99/3+4 Knauf Gips KG/Brückner, Benjamin: p. 16/1, p. 69/5 Knauf Gips KG/Ducke, Bernd: p. 41/2, p. 68/2, p. 86/10, p. 100/1+3 Knauf Gips KG/Halama: p. 47/8, p. 61/6, p. 101/4 Knauf Gips KG/Linden, Fabian: p. 34/1, p. 39/3 Knauf Gips KG/Schwarz: p. 61/7 Koliusis, Nikolaus: p. 85/4 Krause, Marc/Courtesy of the Artist and LambdaLambdaLambda: p. 55/1+2+3+4 Kreidler, Volker: p. 14/2, p. 128/1 Küffner, Rheinstetten: p. 118/4+5, p. 119/7+8 Kyyrö Quinn, Anne: p. 47/6+7 Laignel, Eric: p. 93/2 Lammer, Dominik/Syzygy: p. 126/4, p. 127/3 Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei: p. 18/2 Lemp, Kristof: p. 44/1, p. 47/9, p. 54/2, p. 55/5, p. 62/9+10+11+12, p. 66/1, p. 68/1, p. 75/4, p. 77/1, p. 81/9, p. 116/1, p. 129/2 Leong, Edmon: p. 85/3, p. 93/4 Malhão, Daniel – DMF – FOTOGRAFIA: p. 13/3, p. 130/1+5

Mayer, Thomas: p. 53/2 McCarragher, Gilbert: p. 70/1 Mezuli, Maris: p. 12/1 Miguletz, Norbert: p. 28/1+4 Morgado, Joao: p. 17/7, p. 85/5, p. 91/4 Mork, Adam: p. 57/2 Nakamura, Kai: p. 123/1, p. 135/1 OMA: p. 105/3 Ortlepp Stuckateur: p. 71/2+3+4+5 Ota, Takumi; p. 10/1 Panzeri: p. 143/3, p. 147/3 Pascal Grasso Architectures: p. 93/1 Raumlabor: p. 33/1+2, p. 113/3 Rijkenberg, Frederica: p. 15/1 Rottet Studio: p. 96/7, p. 100/2 Schemata Architects: p. 10/2 Schilling, Stefan: p. 121/14, p. 124/2 Spaceworkers/Guerra, Fernando ©: p. 20/1 Strähle Raum-System GmbH: p. 121/9+10 Studio Cadena: p. 22/6+7, p. 135/3 Taranta Creations: p. 110/2 Thomas Kröger Architekt: p. 53/3, p. 123/4, p. 131/1+3 TzouLubroth Architekten: p. 102/3 UNStudio ©: p. 30/2 UNStudio © Moran, Michael/OTTO: title UNStudio © Richters, Christian: p. 30/1+3, p. 143/2 Unulaunu: p. 53/1 Valentin, Jean-Luc: p. 120/2 Van de Velde, Tim: p. 140/9 Walti, Ruedi: p. 52/2 Werner, Ralf: p. 17/1+2+3 Zenzmaier, Stefan: p. 102/2

Copyright of the images by the featured photographers, architects and design practices. Not credited images by the authors.