San Vincenzo al Volturno: The Archaeology, Art and Territory of an Early Medieval Monastery 9780860543237, 9781407341187

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San Vincenzo al Volturno The Archaeology, Art and Territory of an Early Medieval Monastery

edited by

Richard Hodges and John Mitchell

BAR International Series 252

1985

.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS AR Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S252, 1985: 'San Vincenzo al Volturno' © The Individua l Authors, 1985

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543237 paperback ISBN 9781407341187 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543237 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

To the friends and students who have taken part in the San Vincenzo Project

.

� ·San

Vincenzo I al Volturno i

I

iii

Frontispiece: "The limbs of the priest Tamfrid may lie buried within this tomb. His spirit seeks the stars." Tombstone four.::l in the car­ tile of the monastery which probably belongs with a 10th century mausoleum inserted into the Carolingian-period entrance hall. iv

P REFACE T he S an V incenzo p roject h as b een i n e xistence f or f ive y ears n ow. D uring

t hese

y ears w e h ave b egun t o u ncover a nd u nderstand

t he s plendid

r uins a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, w ith a v iew t o c reating a m ajor a rchaeological p ark i n a l ittle k nown r egion o f I taly . T he p roject b egan i n 1 980 w ith t he i ntention o f s tudying a n i mportant e arly m ediev al m onastery a nd i ts r egion, b ut t he s cope o f t his r esearch h as g rown c onsiderably. T o b egin w ith t he r emains o f t he e arly m edieval s ite a re u nexpectedly w ell-preserved, a nd t he s cale o f t he 9 th c entury s ettlem ent f ar e xceeds o ur o riginal e xpectations. B esides t his i t h as b ecome a pparent t hat t he 8 th-llth c entury s ettlement s its o n t op o f, a nd i n p art r e-uses a l ate R oman ( 5th-6th c entury) v illa w hich w as a lso v ery l arge i n s ize a nd a s r ich i n m aterial c ulture. T his l ate R oman v illa, m oreover, i s t he l ast c lassical s ite i n a s equence o f t hree t hat w e h ave d iscovered h ere. T he l ate S amnite t o e arly R oman icus, t hought b y s ome s cholars t o b e t he e lusive S amnium, d warfs a ll t he l ater s ites, s uch w as

i ts

w as d ifferent T he

s cale.

w ealth

r ecorded

T he e arly i mperial v illa t hat s ucceeded t he v icus

i n f orm,

b ut n o l ess a mbitious i n s cale.

o f a rchaeological r emains w here v irtually

( before

1 980)

h as

t aken u s b y s urprise.

n one

w ere

T he r ange o f

p os-

s ibilities f or r e-examining t he c ourse o f t he f irst m illennium A D a re a lmost e ndless. Y et t he s mall s cale o f f unding n ow a vailable t o a rchaeological r esearch m akes i t n ecessary t o s tick r igidly t o o ne's r esearch d esign. f icult d ecisions,

F acing u p t o t his h as f orced u s t o m ake s ome d ift he p reliminary r esults o f w hich c an b e a ssessed i n

t his v olume. T his

v olume a mounts

e xception

t o a c ollection o f w orking p apers,

o f C hris W ickham's i mportant,

e xhaustive s tudy o f

w ith

t he

t he d ocu-

m entary h istory o f S an V incenzo's t erritory. T hese w orking p apers a im t o r eveal t he i mportance o f t his s ite a nd t o e ndorse t he g reat a mount o f e ffort i nvested i n i t d uring t he p ast f ive y ears. I t i s r are t o v irtually d iscover a g reat s ite i n t he 1 980s, e specially o f t he h ist oric p eriods, b ut a ll o f u s i nvolved i n t his r esearch b elieve t his t o t he c ase a t S an V incenzo. T his v olume t herefore, a ims t o a nnounce t his d iscovery, f orm a nd

w hile f uture r eports a nd s tudies w ill t ake a m ore i ntegrated t hereby b id t o d ocument a nd e xplain t he s ignificance o f S an

V incenzo. W e o perated M olise

o we i n

g reat

d ebts

t o m any

c ollaboration w ith t he

( Campobasso).

p eople.

F irst,

S oprintendenza

p roject

h as

A rcheologica

t he

d el

D espite b eing f airly s urprised b y t he m agnitude

o f o ur d iscoveries, a nd t he a dministrative a nd g reat c onservation p roblems t hese p resent, w e a re v ery p leased t o a cknowledge t he g reat s upport g iven t o u s b y t he s uccessive s uperintendents w ith w hom w e h ave w orked:

B runo

D 'Agostino a nd G abriella D 'Henry.

S imilarly,

w e a re

m uch o bliged t o P rofessor G iuseppe B asile f rom t he C entro d i R estauro i n R ome w ho h as l ed t he t eam w orking o n t he c onservation. T he p roject h as b een f unded n ot o nly b y t he S oprintendenza, b ut b y t he B ritish

A cademy,

t he

B ritish S chool a t R ome,

t he C raven

F und,

t he

I talian

I nstitute i n L ondon, t he L everhulme T rust, t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries a nd t he U niversity o f S heffield. I n p articular, w e s hould l ike t o e mphasize t he q uite t remendous s upport g iven t o u s b y t he B ritish S chool a t R ome o ver t he y ears. W ithout t hat h elp w e w ould h ave a chieved v ery m uch l ess. O ur p rincipal d ebt a t S an V incenzo i s t o A manda C laridge w ho h as a cted a s a ssistant d irector; h er e nergy a nd a dministrative s kills h ave p roved t o b e i nvaluable. H er w ork o n t he c lassical s ettlements a lso p romises t o b e v ery i mportant. M any, m any p eople h ave h elped u s t o e xcavate, t o c arry o ut s urveys a nd t o p rocess f inds, a nd i t w ould b e i mproper t o p ick o ut a ny n ames f rom t he s everal h undred. S uffice i t t o s ay t hat o n c ompletely i nadequate - t hat i s s cientifically u nacceptable l evels o f f unding - t hese f riends a nd s tudents h ave w orked f reely a nd c ontributed g reatly, W e

s hould

a lso

R iccardo F rancovich,

a nd

t o

t hem w e d edicate t his v olume.

l ike t o a cknowledge t he s upport g iven t o C olin R enfrew a nd D avid W hitehouse,

r esearch t o c ontinue a nd

t o b lossom.

b y

a g reat

d eal i s o wed t o

D ebbie H odges w ho h as b een a l ynch-pin i n e very s eason, u s t o p repare t hese p apers f or p ublication.

a nd h as h elped

R ichard H odges a nd J ohn M itchell

N ovember 1 984

17 4

F inally,

u s

e nabling t he

C ONTENTS P age V

P reface a nd a cknowledgements

v iii

L ist

o f

c ontributors

I .

R ichard H odges, E xcavations a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno: a r egional a nd i nternational c entre f rom A D 4 00-1100.

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

J ohn M oreland, A m onastic w orkshop a nd g lass p roduction a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, M olise, I taly. C atherine C outts a nd S teven M ithen,

7 .

T he l ate R oman a nd 6 1

H elen P atterson , T he l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval p ottery f rom M olise.

8 3

V alerie H iggins, A p reliminary a nalysis o f s ome o f

1 11

J ohn M itchell, T he p ainted d ecoration o f m edieval m onastery. J ohn M itchell, V incenzo.

A n e arly m edieval e namel

t he e arly 1 25 f rom S an 1 77

J ohn P atterson, A c ity c alled S amnium?

9 .

P eter P .

H ayes a nd D avid A .

h istory o f

J ones

t he R occhetta p lain:

a p reliminary r eport.

J ohn P atterson,

1 1.

C hris W ickham, T he t erra o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno i n t he 8 th t o 1 2th c enturies: t he

T he u pper V olturno i n R oman t imes.

f ramework.

R ichard H odges,

1 85

T he e nvironmental

1 0.

h istorical

t he

f rom S an V incenzo a l

8 .

1 2.

3 7

e arly m edieval c emeteries a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno.

e arly m edieval h uman s keletons V olturno. 6 .

1

2 01 2 13

2 27

S an V incenzo a l V olturno a nd i ts

r egion b etween t he 5 th a nd 1 1th c enturies.

v ii

2 59

List of Contributors

Cacherine Cout t s, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN Peter P. Hayes, Field Officer, Fenland Survey, Trust for Lincolnshire Archaeology, 28 Boston Road, Sleaford, Lincolnshire NG34 7EZ Valerie Higgins, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN Richard Hodges, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN David Jones, Borg, Maritani 25, 10040, Cumiana, Turin, Italy. John Mitchell, School of Fine Arts and Music, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ Steven Mithen, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN John Moreland, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN Helen Patterson, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN John Patterson, Magdalene College, Cambridge CB3 OAG Chris Wickham, School of History, University 363, Birmingham B15 2TT

viii

of Birmingham, P,O. Box

C hapter 1 :

E XCAVATIONS A T S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO:

A R EGIONAL A ND

I NTERNATIONAL C ENTRE F ROM c .AD400-1100 B y R ichard H odges

S an

V incenzo a l V olturno w as o ne o f

t eries o f e arly m edieval Europe. C hronicon V ulturnense, w ould h ave u s t he

e minent

m onasteries

t he g reat b enedictine

a t F arfa a nd M onte C assino

c entury ( Fig.1:1). I ndeed, i ts s ion o f a t hriving c ommunity,

m onas-

I ts 1 2th c entury h istory, t he b elieve t hat i t r anked a longside d uring

t he

9 th

c hronicler l eaves o ne w ith t he i mpresr ivalling p etty k ingdoms i n s cale a nd

Y et s ubject t o t he d omination o f a s equence o f s trong-willed a bbots. 1 w hen a sked w here t he m onastery i s, a nd w hether i t s till s urvives m ost a rchaeologists a nd h istorians i ts g reat

e xpress

t heir

e arly m edieval c ontemporaries,

s lipped i nto v irtual c hronicle, e dited i n c ontinued

U nlike m any o f S ar . V incenzo h as

o blivion. O nly i ts c olourful a nd d etailed t he ' twenties a nd ' thirties 1 1 F ederici, h as

t o e ngage h istorians

T his V olturno,

i gnorance.

t he a bbey o f

i nterest

i n t he p lace.

f amous m onastery l ies c lose t o t he s ource o f o n a p lateau ( known n ow a s t he R occhetta p lain)

t he r iver b elow t he

s outhern r ange o f t he A bruzzi m ountains. T oday i t i s t o b e f ound o ne o f t he n orthern-most p arts o f t he r egione o f M olise. I n f act, i s

o nly

a bout 3 0-40km a s

t he c row f lies

f rom M onte

C assino,

b ut

i n i t t he

m odern t raveller c oming f rom t he l atter a bbey h as t o c ross t he A pennine r idge and t hen w eave u p t he V olturno v alley r oad, b efore d iscovering S an V incenzo i solation i s P atterson o ccupied.

i n i ts p icturesque, m ountainous s etting. I ts m odern t o s ome e xtent d eceiving. I n p re-Roman t imes, a s J ohn

i llustrates e lsewhere i n t his v olume, t his r egion w as d ensely T he A bruzzi m ountains a t t hat t ime w ere a t t he e nd o f a

t ranshumance r oute w hich b egan i n A pulia a nd B asilicata. p lain p aused s ome m arked

T he R occhetta

i n c lassical t imes w as p robably a p oint w here t he s hepherds b efore t ackling t he f inal s teep c limb t o t he M ainarde r idge, 2 000m a bove

s ea l evel.

I n p ost-classical

t he b oundary b etween t he d ukedom a nd

t imes

t he s ame

r idge

l ater k ingdom o f B eneventum

a nd t he p apal s tates t o t he n orth. F or a s hort s pell t owards t he e nd o f t he 8 th a nd e arly i n t he 9 th c entury i t w as t he s outhern f rontier o f t he C arolingian E mpire. T he c ollapse o f t he E mpire a nd t he v olatile p olitical h istory o f c entral a nd s outhern I taly i nevitably m eant t hat t he a bbey's m ost

i mportant

f eature w as,

o nce a gain,

i ts

p roximity

t o

t he r ich s ummer p astures o f t he A bruzzi. I n t his c apacity t he v illages o f t he u pper V olturno h ave c ontinued t o f lourish i n c omparison t o t heir c ounterparts m uch s ince

o f t he

f urther s outh i n t he

t rue m ezzogiorno.

Y et i n c ommon w ith

t he S outh, t his r egion h as w itnessed e normous d epopulation 1 9th c entury. N owadays, i n t he w ake o f a g reat m igration t o

A merican a nd n orth E uropean c ities, t he r egion's m ain a sset i s i ts s cenery and t he p rospects f or s ome e xpansion o f t he t iny t ourist i ndust ry.

T his,

a s I s hall

o f

c ourse,

i s

o ne

r ationale

i llustrate b elow .

1

f or

t he S an V incenzo p roject,

T he

p recise l ocation o f

t he e arly m edieval m onastery h as r emained

u nknown u ntil r ecently. I ts m odern i solation h as d issuaded m any s chol ars f rom t aking a n i nterest i n t he p lace, a lthough i ts h istory a nd t he d iscovery o f a 9 th c entury p ainted c rypt h ere s hould h ave o pposite r eaction.

l ine

i nduced

T he h istory o f S an V incenzo i s f airly f amiliar, b ut a b rief i s n ecessary i n o rder t o p lace t he r esults o f t he f ive-year

t he

o utp ro-

j ect i n p erspective. T he C hronicon V ulternense i s t he p rincipal s ource o f t he a bbey's h istory f rom i ts f oundation u ntil t he e arly 1 2th c ent ury. T he c hronicler, J ohn, w as p robably d rawing u pon a n 8 th c entury s ource a s w ell a s m iscellaneous 9 th, 1 0th a nd 1 1th c entury d ocumentat ion. a vowed

E ven s o, t he c hronicle m ust b e t reated w ith c aution a s i ts a im w as t o p oint o ut h ow i mportant S an V incanzo h ad b een a t a

t ime w hen i ts f ortunes w ere b eginning t o d ecline. T he c entral s tory i s t hat t hree m onks f rom F arfa, P aldo, T ato a nd T aso f ounded t he a bbey e arly i n t he 8 th c entury i n aw ild, w ooded t errain. I n a ll l ikelihood t he m onks w ere g iven a r uinous e state o n t he n orthern f rontier o f t he n ewly e stablished D uchy o f B eneventum.

M oreover,

i t a ppears

t hat t hey

r efurbished a n e xisting c hurch, a n o ratory r eputedly b uilt i n C onstantinian e ra. T he f ounders, w e a re t old, l ater h elped t o

t he r e-

e stablish t he n eighbouring a bbey o f C assino, s ince i t h as b een b irthplace o f b enedictinism. T he d edication o f t he m onastery t o

t he S t.

V incent r emains s omething o f 4 m ystery. T he C hronicon i s n otable f or i ts s ilence o n t his m atter, a nd i t m ay b e t hat t he r elics o f t he m artyr m entioned i n a 1 0th c entury a ccount b elonged t o s ome n ow o bscure l ate R oman f rom c entral I taly r ather t han t he f amous S panish s aint. 4 T he a lthough

8 th

c entury

u nger

s criptorium. L ombards i n

m onastery w as e vidently s mall

t o

b egin

A bbot A to t he C odux B eneventanus w as p roduced

w ith, i n

i ts

W hen t he E mperor C harlemagne c onquered t he n orthern t he t hird q uarter o f t he 8 th c entury, S an V incenzo l ike

m any m onasteries b ecame t orn b etween l oyalty t o t he l ocal d ukes a nd t he p owerful c onqueror. B y t his d ate, a ccording t o t he c hronicler P aul t he D eacon, w riting a t M onte C assino, t pe a bbey a t t he s ource o f t he V olturno c ontained a l arge c ommunity. u A bbot P aul's d ecision d uring t he 7 80s d onations

t o s ide w ith t he C arolingian f action m ay h ave l ed t o f resh t o t he a bbey. B ut a ccording t o t he C hronicon i t w as w hen h is

s uccessor, J osua, w as i n o ffice, 7 92-817, t hat s upport f rom t he C aroli ngians c ame i n s ignificant f orm. T he C hronicon d escribes h ow J osua w as a ble t o c ompletely r ebuilt S an V incenzo w ith t he h elp o f h is b rother-in-law, L ouis t he P ious. A pparently, t he F rankish k ing o rgani zed t he d ismantling o f a R oman t emple a t C apua w hich w as t hen s ent p iece b y p iece u p t he V olturno v alley t o S an V incenzo. T he v eracity o f t his s tory r emains o pen t o d oubt, b ut t he l egend, i f t hat i s w hat i t i s, a t l east r eflects t he g erm o f a p owerful c onnection w ith t he C arolingian c hronicler.

c ourt

A fter J osua,

w hich w as g iven g reat s tatus b y

t he

1 2th

a bbots T alaricus a nd E piphanius c ontinued

c entury

t o d evelop

t he m onastery, b uilding m ore c hurches a nd o btaining m any d onations f rom B eneventans. B ut b y t he m iddle o f t he 9 th c entury t he a bbey's f ortunes h ad

r eached

i n 8 60 t he

t heir p eak a nd w ith t he a dvent o f a S aracen r aiding

f ortunes o f

S an V incenzo b egan t o d ecline.

O n

p arty

t his o ccasion

t he n orth A fricans w ere b ought o ff. B ut i n O ctober 8 81 a nother b and l ed b y S aradan a ttacked t he m onastery a nd a fter a p itched b attle w hich i s k nown t o a ll w ho l ive a round C astel S an V incenzo t oday, t he S aracens

2

E o

E 0

C t 1 3 1 3 1 ( 1 ) f • a l

i Z S 7 .

-2• •

•

2

a

8

61

2

3

•1 1 0

E

4 I t

1 13 . 4 -

+E

0

Al >r ,e `e

w

•

d s „ ,

• r 4

•

O f )

0

2 0 c j

' b p

•

2

3

s acked t he a bbey, l ooting i t o f i ts r iches a nd f orcing t he s urviving m onks t o f lee t o C apua. T he m onks r eturned i n 9 14-15 a nd a ppear t o h ave u sed S an S alvatore r ather t han t he r uined a bbey c hurch f or t he r est o f t he c entury. V ery l ittle n ew b uilding t ook p lace o ver t he n ext h undred y ears, a lthough, s ignificantly, t he m onastery b egan t o t ake a n a ctive i nterest i n t he m anagement o f i ts e states. F rom t he 9 40s o nwards a s eries o f v illage f oundation c harters s urvive, i ncluded i n t he C hronicon, e ach i llustrating t he d evelopment o f t he t erra o f S an V incenzo.

N ew

v illages

w ere c reated,

w hile

o ld

s ettlements

w ere

e vidently g iven f resh l eases; t he a im w as q uite p lainly t o p ut d own o n p aper t he p recise t ributary r elationship b etween c astello a nd a bbey, a nd a t t he s ame t ime e ncouragement w as g iven t o e ach c ommunity t o e xpand i ts a gricultural o utput b y c olonising t he w oodlands. I n a ll l ikelihood t he a bbey w as e ncouraging i ncastell eento, f ollowing t he p attern

e stablished b y F arfa a nd M onte C assino,

i n o rder t o f ind

t he

m eans t o m aintain a nd p erhaps r epair t he r uinous m onastery . C ertainly, a p eriod o f i mmense r ebuilding a t S an V incenzo f ollowed c lose o n t he g ranting o f t hese c harters. I n A bbot J ohn I V's t ime ( 998-1007) t he m other c hurch, w hich h ad b een a bandoned s ince 8 81, w as r estored. F oll owing t his, A bbot I larius ( 1011-45) b uilt a n ew b ell-tower, w hile J ohn V ( 1053-76) r elaid t he f loor i n t he g reat c hurch a nd c onstructed a n ew c loister. U nder A bbot G erard, a m onk w ho h ad p reviously b een a t M onte C assino w ith A bbot D esiderius, a r adical r econstruction o f t he m other c hurch w as m ade. T his b y a ll a ccounts w as a n i mitation o f D esiderius' f ine b asilica, a nd w as n ot c ompleted u ntil A bbot B enedict's t ime ( 11091 117) w hen t he m onk k nown a s J ohn w as a lready e ngaged i n w riting a h istory o f t he a bbey. 8 T his h istory m arks t he p oint a fter w hich S an V incenzo's f ortunes d eclined. I n t he 1 4th c entury i t w as s everely d amaged b y a n e arthquake,

a nd s ubsequently t he a bbey w as

o f m inor l ocal

i mportance u ntil i ts p roperty w as t aken o ver b y M onte C assino i n 1 699. A fter t his t he a bbey c hurch w as r estored a nd u sed b y t he C assinese a s a s ummer r etreat. K eppel C raven, t he V ictorian t raveller who v isited S an V incenzo i n 1 837, i gnored t he b uilding a nd w as s eemingly u naware o f i ts h istory. F urthermore, h e w as u naware o f t he r ecently d iscovered c rypt w ith s plendidly p reserved p aintings b elonging t o t he 9 th c entury. T his h ad k een f ound b y C assino's a rchivist, O ttavio F raja-Frangipane i n 1 832. 2 T hese p aintings d rew a rt h istorians t o S an V incenzo o ver t he f ollowing 1 50 y ears, b ut n one s ought t o p lace t hem i n t he c ontext o f t he a bbey's h istory. T he m uch r educed a bbey c hurch i tself w as d amaged d uring t he s econd w orld w ar, a nd l ike M onte C assino, w as r econstructed t o r esemble t he l lth-12th c entury a bbey k nown t o t he c hronicler. I n 1 972, s oon a fter H ans B elting's i pfluential s tudy o f t he p aintings i n t he c rypt b y t he r iver V olturno, 10 t he f armhouse a longside i t w as r eplaced b y a c urious c over. T he n ew c over a nd t he r estorations m ade a t t he t ime l ed t o a t ragic d eterioration o f t he p aintings, a nd a w orrying p roblem f or t he S uperintendent o f A rchaeology i n M olise. P rofessor B . D 'Agostino, S oprintendente i n 1 979, e xcavate t he z one a round t he c rypt t hen k nown l ocally a s a dvance

o f a f ull-scale

r estoration o f

i nvited u s t o S an L orenzo i n

t he p aintings u nder t he

d irec-

t ion o f P rofessor G iuseppe B asile f rom t he C entro d i R estauro i n F or r easons w hich h ave b een d escribed e lsewhere, 1 1 w e a sked t o n ot o nly t he c rypt,

b ut

t he m onastery a s a w hole,

W ickham's e xhaustive r eappraisal o f D el T reppo's

a nd

R ome. s tudy

f ollowing C hris

s tudy o f

t he t erra

o f

S an V incenzo, w e r equested p ermission t o c arry o ut a f ield s urvey a nd a ccompanying e xcavations o f r elated s ites i n t he r egion. O ur a im w as t o

u ndertake a n i ntegrated,

i nter-disciplinary p rogramme o f

4

r esearch

w hich

w ould

e nable

u s t o e valuate t he r ole o f

r egion b etween t he 8 th a nd t he 1 1th c enturies. h oped t o e valuate

t he m onastery

i n

I n p articular,

t he

i t w as

o btain e nough i nformation o n t he f orm o f t he m onastery t o t he s ignificance o f s uch p laces a s c entral p laces i n t he D ark

A ges. I t s hould b e e mphasized, h owever, t hat w e b egan w ith t hree p oints i n m ind w hich g overned t he s trategy w e d eveloped. F irst, t he c rypt c hurch w as c onsidered t o b e a n i solated c hapel s ome 4 00m f rom t he p resent, r econstructed a bbey. O ur a im w as t o e xcavate a n o pen a rea w hich w ould a ccurately d ocument t he c hurch a nd b uildings a round i t; t hese e xcavations w ere i ntended t o f orm t he m ajor p art o f a n a rchaeol ogical p ark i n w hich t he r estored c rypt w ould t ake p ride o f p lace. S econdly, w e h oped t o m ap t he e xtent o f t he e arly m edieval m onastery b y c arrying o ut s elective e xcavations a round t he p resent, r econstructed a bbey a s w ell a s w ithin t he z one b etween i t a nd t he c rypt c hurch. T his s ettlement, w e b elieved, s hould c over l ittle m ore t han a h ectare i n a rea ; w ere

c ontemporary e xcavations a t F arfa i n U mbria b y D avid W hitehouse t hen r evealing a C arolingian-period s ettlement s pread o ver a

h ectare o r s o,

w hile W alter H orn r ecently p ostulated t hat t he s chematic

S t. G all p lan w as e d esign f or a m onastery o f c .819 t hat c overed a bout a h ectare i n a rea. 12 T hirdly, t he a rhaeological i nvestigations o f t he t erra a imed t o l ocate s ettlements t hat e xisted d uring t he e arly l ifet ime o f t he m onastery. A s I h ave d escribed i n C hapter 1 2, s imple q uestions s uch a s t he d ensity o f s ettlements a nd t heir f orm n eeded t o b e r esolved b efore a ny a ttempt m ight b e m ade t o u se t hese d ata t o t est t he c onflicting m odels p ertaining t o t he e arly d evelopment o f t he m edieval e conomy.

T he k ey t o t he a rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he

t erra w ould h ave t o b e d iagnostic p ottery t ypes i n s tratified c ontexts w hich c ould b e r elated t o t he c rypt c hurch w ith i ts o wn c losely d ated p aintings. P revious r esearch o n m edieval p ottery i n n orthern A pulia b y D avid W hitehouse, a nd e xcavations b y U chard H odges a nd G raeme B arker i n t he B iferno v alley i n c entral M olise " ' m ade u s e xtremely o ptimistic t hat p ottery c ould b e f ound a nd u sed t o s erve o ur n eeds. T hus, w e u ndertook a f ive-season c ampaign b eginning i n 1 980, s upported s ince 1 981 b y

t he n ew s oprintendente,

D uring t he s econd s eason,

G abriella D 'Henry. i n A ugust 1 981,

w e a ppreciated

t hat t he

e arly m edieval s ite l ay t o t he s outh o f t he c rypt c hurch a longside t he r iver V olturno. T he p resent, r econstructed a bbey o ccupies t he s ite o f t he l ater 1 1th c entury m onastery, p robably t hat c onstructed u nder A bbot G erard's d irection. S ince 1 981 w e h ave u ncovered a v ery c omplex s equence o f b uildings b y t he V olturno, w hich i nclude s ome m agnificently w ell-preserved C arolingian-period r emains a s w ell a s r emains b elonging t o e arlier a nd l ater p eriods. M ost s urprisingly t he a rchaeological d ebris c overs a bout 5 ha, i ndicating t hat a t c ertain t imes t here w as e quivalent o f t he s mall t own h ere. W ith e xtremely s mall r esources o ur d isposal w e h ave o nly b een a ble

t he a t

t o g uage t he s ize a nd s equence o f a

l arge p art o f

t he s ite.

N onetheless,

o riginal a ims t o d escribe

t o t heir s atisfactory c onclusion. t he s equence o f m onastic p lans

w e h ave e ndeavoured t o p ursue o ur H ence, i t i s p ossible a longside t he r iver

V olturno, a nd t hus s ome a ssessment o f S an V incenzo a s a c entral-place c an b e m ade. T he s equence i s a s f ollows:

P hase 0 :a

:R epublican

R emains f ound

o f a l arge

l ater S amnite/early R epublican v icus h ave

b eneath t he c rypt c hurch a nd f ar

5

b een

t o t he s outh i n t rench F F ( Fig.

1 :2),

a s w ell a s o ver a l arge a rea o n t he o pposite s ide o f t he

r iver.

I n a ll t he a rchaeological d ebris b elonging t o t his p eriod a ppears t o c over a bout 1 0ha. E xcavations b eneath t he c rypt c hurch a nd i n t he s outh c hurch a rea ( trenches A a nd G ) h ave u ncovered t he s ubstantial f oundations o f p arallel w alls w hich a lmost c ertainly l inked t o e astw est w alls j utting o ut f rom t he r ock-face b ehind t hese t wo l ater c hurches ( at t he b ase o f t errace 1 : F ig.1:2). A b uilding o f s imilar s ize w as f ound i n a c hance h ole m ade t o t ake a n o live t ree o n t he o ther s ide o f t he r iver. T rial e xcavations b y A manda C laridge i n t he z one b etween t he l atter b uilding a nd t he r iver - i n a n a rea w here A ngelo P antoni r eports t he d iscovery o f a f ine c ollection o f b lack-glazed e arly R epublican w ares s ome y ears a go 14 - r evealed a c ompacted c ement s urface w ith s herds o f r epublican d ate u sed a s a ggregate i n t he m atrix a bove t he t ravertine n atural. T entatively i t a ppears a s t hough t his w as a n o pen y ard o r p iazza o f s ome k ind b etween t he c luster o f b uildi ngs

t o

t he e ast a nd t hose r anged a longside t he V olturno,

o n t he

w here t he m onastery w as l ater d eveloped. ( See J ohn P atterson's s ion o f t his s ite i n C hapters 8 a nd 1 0 o f t his v olume). P hase 0 :b

s pot

d iscus-

:E arly R oman ( 1st t o 4 th c entury A .D.)

A lmost

n o

f inds o f e arly R oman d ate h ave b een f ound

w ithin

t he

r epeatedly p loughed z one i n w hich a l arge p art o f t he R epublican v icus o ccurs. I nstead, p loughing h as r evealed i mmense q uantities o f m aterial o f t his p eriod f urther t o t he s outh, d irectly i n f ront o f t he l ater m edieval a bbey. T his s ite l ies i n b etween t wo i mmense r ock-cut d ikhes i solating t he z one b etween t he V olturno a nd t he c liff. A ngelo P antoni h as r eported t o u s t hat a n a erial p hotograph t aken i n t he e arly ' sixt ies s hows d istinctive t races o f a l arge r ectangular c omplex i n t his a rea. A t p resent i t s eems m ost p robable t hat t he s prawling v icus w ith i ts m onumental b uildings w as s ucigeded b y am ore c ompact v illa o f a s ize t hat i s w ell-known i n M olise. A n umber o f i nscriptions f ound i n t he r uins o f t he e arly m edieval m onastery p robably e manate f rom t he c emetery o f t he v illa, a nd a s P atterson i ndicates, e state c entre o f m odest p roportions. P hase 1 :

s how t hat i t w as a n

L ater R oman ( 5th t o e arly 6 th c entury A .D.)

T he

r ich

a rchaeological e vidence o f

f ully e xamined,

b ut

t his p eriod h as

y et

s ome p reliminery p oints c an b e m ade a bout i t.

t o

b e T his

v illa a ppears t o h ave s uperceded t he p hase 0 :b s ettlement e arly i n t he 5 th c entury t o j udge f rom t he c ollection o f b ronze c oins. T he v illa w as c onstructed a longside t he V olturno, i mmediately o ver t he w estern p art o f t he e arly R epublican v icus. a n i mportant s ite i n m any r espects.

T he r emains i ndicate t hat i t w as F irst, t he p resent b ri e o ver t he

r iver V olturno p robably d ates f rom t his o r a n e arlier d ate. I n t he e arly 5 th c entury i t l ed t o a c omplex o n t he r iverside w hich w as d ominated b y a t ower o n t he f irst t errace ( Fig.1:2). V isitors p robably w ent d irectly f rom t he b ridge t o e ither t he r ustic f unerary b asilica i n f ront, o r t o t he b asilican b uilding ( phase 1 o f t he c rypt c hurch) t o t he n orth,

o r

t o w hat w e p ostulate w as p hase 1 o f

i mmediately s outh o f

t he f unerary b asilica.

t he c ortile o r a trium

T he a rchaeology o f

t hese

b uildings t o t he n orth o f t he a trium i s c omplex, b ut n ow w ell s ubstant iated. T he f irst p hase o f t he c rypt c hurch w as a l ong b asilican b uilding e ither

w ith a s unken e ntrance h all t wo

w indow s till

( at

t he V olturno e nd),

f loors o r a r aised w est e nd w here r emains o f a s urvives

i n

t he a pse.

T he f unerary b asilica

6

a nd

w ith

h igh-placed

( south c hurch

7

p hase 1 ) w as a s imple a psidal b uilding i nto w hich t ile g raves w ere n eatly i nhumed. T he g raves, a s C atherine C outts a nd S teven M ithen d escribe e lsewhere i n t he v olume, w ere p robably f amily v aults. A n a rray o f s imple g rave-goods l eads u s t o p ostulate t hat t he w ealthier m embers o f t he c ommunity w ere b uried i n t his b uilding f rom t he e arly 5 th c entury o nwards. T he e xcavations c learly s howed t hat i t w as s imply a c overed c emetery, w ith n o f loor a nd n o s igns o f i nternal f ittings. T o

t he s outh o f t he c ortile t here a re c lear i ndications

9 th c entury c onstructed.

o f a p re-

r ange, o ver w hich t he g reat C arolingian r efectory w as A r ecent p ipe-trench c utting d eep i nto t he a rchaeological

d eposits h as r evealed a t l east o ne p hase p receeding t he r efectory, a nd t his t o j udge f rom t he m aterial u sed i n t he b uilding i s o f l ater R oman r ather t han 8 th c entury d ate.

t ile,

T here m ay h ave b een a r ange r unning n orth-south b eyond t he c orl inking t he c hurches t o t his s outh r ange. T he w all f oundations

b elonging t o t his e arly p hase, h owever, a re s o f ragmentary t hat i t i s u nlikely t o b e p roven b eyond d oubt. B eyond t his s eries o f p arallel w alls w e c an d emonstrate t hat t he h ill-slope w as t erraced i n a nd d uring l ater s lope 6 th

R oman t imes. O ver t his t erracing, r unning t he l ength o f t he ( even b ehind t he t wo c hurches), i s a r ich, o rganic m idden o f 5 thc entury

l arge

t ower T he

w ell

d ate. t hat

T he m idden r uns b eneath t he l ater p hases

s at

i n a d ominating p osition u pon t his

o f

t ower h as b een r obbed i n m edieval a nd R oman t imes t o a

b elow t he f irst

f loor.

H owever,

n early 2 m o f

t he

t errace. p oint

f oundations s till

s urvive: i t w as u ndoubtedly a v ery h igh b uilding i ndeed, a nd c ompara ble p erhaps w ith t he f ine e xample r ecently i nvestigated a t A nguillara i n L azio. 1 7 T he t ower m easures a bout 1 4m n orth-south b y 1 6m e ast-west; t here w as a l arge c entral g round f loor r oom, a nd t wo s maller l ong-rooms f lanking b egins

i t, a t

t o

t he n orth a nd t o t he s outh

t he b ase o f

( Fig.1:2).

T he

m idden

t he e ast-facing w all a nd l iterally c overed

t he

s lope b eneath i t. A fter s ome d ecades a p ortico w as a dded t o t he f ront, t hough t he e xact f orm o f t his e xtension h as y et t o b e f inalized. A ll w ith

s everal

f loors, a nd a ccommodation f or s everal f amilies t hat l ooked o ut c hurches t o o ne s ide, a y ard a nd a s outh r ange.

i n

o ver t wo

A l arge p art o f t he c emetery c overing t he h igher t erraces ( Fig.1:2) p robably d ates t o t his t ime. T he c emetery i s

o f t his l argely

h ill

a ll

w e

m ust

i magine a t ower o f N orman

d imensions

d ivided i nto s mall c ells e ach w ith a c ollection o f f our o r f ive g raves. T he a bsence o f d atable f inds, h owever, p revents u s f rom d istinguishing w hich t ombs b elong t o t his o r t o t he s ubsequent p hase 2 . T he o nly l ate a ntique f eature o f t his a rea i s a r ock-cut c ross t hat w as i ncised a t t he b ack o f a l arge n umber o f t he 3 rd a nd 7 th c enturies. O ne

o utlying

t ombs,

a nd m ight b e o f

c ottage w as a lso d iscovered b y

a ny p eriod b etween

w ithin

t he

g reat s catter o f a rchaeological d ebris o n t he e astern s ide o f V olturno t hat i s v irtually a ll S amnite/early r epublican i n d ate.

c hance

t he

T he c oin s equence i n t he e ntrance h all o f t he p hase 1 c rypt

c hurch

e nds i n t he e arly 6 th c entury. T he p ottery i n t he m idden c ontains n o d iagnostic 6 th o r 7 th c entury w ares. A ll t he e vidence i ndicates t hat t he v illa w as d eserted i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 6 th c entury, t hough t he p recise

d ate

o f

t he a bandonment m ust a wait a t horough e xamination 8

o f

t he 1 20 b ronze c oins b elonging t o T he

l ater

t his a nd t he f ollowing p hase.

R oman v illa a ppears

t o h ave b een a

t ightly

c lustered

e nsemble o f b uildings c overing a bout a h alf h ectare i n a rea. T he t wo c hurches a nd t he t ower a re t he p rincipal f eatures o f t he c omplex , b ut n ote s hould a lso b e m ade o f t he r ich a rray o f a rtefacts f ound i n t he g raves and m iddens. T he p ottery a ssemblage i s m ostly c omposed o f l ocal w ares; o nly e arly 5 th c entury A frican R ed S lip w ares o ccur i n t he m idden, a nd n o a mphora s herds h ave y et b een d iscovered ( see H elen P atterson's p aper o n t he p ottery i n t his v olume). A f ew f ragments o f a lpine s oapstone h ave b een f ound r elating t o l ong-distance t rade w ith n orthern I taly, a nd t he f ew g lazed p otsherds m ay o riginate f rom a pproxi mately t he s ame s ource. 18 A n i mportant a ssemblage o f g lassware h as b een f ound a ssociated w it h9 t he t wo c hurches. A p reliminary a ssessment 1 o f t hese b y D avid A ndrews i ndicates t he p redominance o f h anging-lamps a nd p hials i n t he c ollection. O f t he o ther f inds, t he m etalwork i s p erhaps t he m ost s triking d iscovery. S everal b urials w ere a ccompanied b y b ronze b racelets a nd s ilver w edding r ings. T he e vidence t entatively p oints

t o

s everal

d ozen p ersons

P hase 2 : T he c onsists

a f airly a ffluent, t hroughout

i f v ery p rovincial c ommunity

n umbering

t he 5 th c entury.

t he L ombardic p eriod ( later 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies) p recise d ates o f p hase 2 w ill n ever b e k nown. T his p hase o f s everal e lements. F irst, t he s outh c hurch ( funerary

b asilica) w as p robably e xtended d uring t his p eriod, a lthough t he e xtens ion c ould b elong t o t he l ater 5 th o r e arly 6 th c enturies w hen t he r esidential t ower w as s till o ccupied. T he f unerary b asilica, t o j udge f rom 7 th c entury e ar-rings i n o ne t omb a nd a t l east t wo c oins, c ontinued t o b e u sed b y a l ocal c ommunity. I ndeed,

6 th c entury t he b uilding

o f a n ew e ast e nd, i ncluding a n ew e ntrance, p oints t o t he e mbell ishment o f t he c hurch a t a t ime, a s w e s hall s ee, w hen e verything e lse w as m ore o r l ess a bandoned. t he c ontinued o ccupation o f

H ence, s econdly, w e h ave n o e vidence f or t he f irst p hase c rypt c hurch ( to t he n orth

o f t he f unerary b asilica), a nd n o r efuse f rom t he m iddens t o s uggest a s ettlement o f s ome k ind i n e ither t he s outh r ange o r t he t ower. I n f act , t he t ower w as m ost c learly d eserted d uring t his p eriod; t he l ater R oman g raves o f s ingle i nhumations h ave b een i nterred w ithin t he p ortico a s w ell a s w ithin t he l owest l evel o f t he m ain b uilding i tself. T he b uilding w as t ransformed i nto a s eries o f m ausolea, s imilar i n s ome r espects t o t he r ock-cut t ombs h igher u p t he h ill. S ome b odies w ere a ccompanied b y b racelets a nd n ecklaces, b ut u nfortunately m any w ere d isturbed i n t he s ubsequent, m onastic p eriod. T he

a rchaeology

c learly i ndicates

t he c ontinued u se o f

S an

V in-

c enzo a s a c emetery , b y a l ocal p opulation t hat p ractised a m odified c hristian f unerary r ite. A s C outts a nd M ithen s how i n C hapter 4 i ndiv idual A ccess

b urials r ather t han c ollective b urials o ccur a t t his t ime. t o f ine 7 th c entury j ewellery a s w ell a s t o a s mall n umber o f

b ronze m inims o f t his t ime i s s ome e vidence o f c ontinued r elations b etween t he e lite o f t he u pper V olturno a nd t heir c ounterparts e njoying a n

I ndian s ummer a t t he s outhern m outh o f t he r iver a round t he

l ine o f e vidence e conomy

C ampania. 20 E lsewhere w ithin t he u pper V olturno o f a d rastically r educed s tandard o f l iving a s t he l argely d isintegrated d uring

6 th c entury 21 f arms

t he p olitical

t urmoil o f

( see C hapter 1 2 o n t he s urvey a nd e xcavations o f

f ound i n i t).

9

c oastw e h ave r egional t he

m id

r elated

P hase 3 :

t he e arliest m onastery ( 8th c entury)

A t p resent, t he r emains o f t he m onastery f ounded b y P aldo, T ato a nd T aso i n a bout 7 03 c an o nly b e d ated b y r eference t o t he e arlier a nd l ater b uildings. T he s equence o f m onastic b uildings i s c omplicated, b ut t he m ain f eatures a re n ow c lear a nd c an b e o utlined a s f ollows: P hase 3 a: T here b asilica s imple,

a re

n o s igns o f a ny b reak b etween t he u se o f t he

f unerary

a s a c emetery a nd i ts f looring t o b e u sed a s a c hurch. T he t hick w hite m ortar f loor w as l aid o ver t he u neven g raveyard,

a nd g ently s loped u pwards t owards t he w est a psidal e nd. O n a r aised d ias w ithin t he a pse w ere f ound t he s hattered r emains o f a n a ltar. T he a ltar w as c onstructed o f b rick a nd t iles r udely c emented t ogether, a nd t hen p lastered a nd p ainted. J ohn M itchell h as s tudied t he p aintings a s w ell a s t he f orm o f t he a ltar; s uffice i t t o n ote h ere t ha i t w as b rightly p ainted w ith s imple p almette m otifs a t t he b ottom. L2 F rag— m ents o f t he s hattered f ront s howed t hat i t h ad b een d ecorated w ith a l arge p anelled c ross, w hile e laborate r osettes a nd m ore c rosses w ere p ainted u pon t he r ear f ace. T he w hole a ffair i s r ather r udimentary. B eaten

m ortar s urfaces e xisted o utside t he e ast

e nd,

a bove

t hose

b elonging t o t he l ate R oman p eriod. A part f rom t hese n o o ther r emains c an b e a ssigned t o t his t ime. H owever, i t i s l ikely t hat t he s outh r ange o f t he l ate R oman v illa m ay h ave b een r eoccupied b y t he m onks. A t rench c ut f or a w ater—pipe d uring t he 1 970s s liced i ts w ay t hrough t he 9 th c entury r efectory, r evealing a R oman b uilding i mmediately b elow. T he o utline o f t his e arlier r ange c an a lso b e i dentified i n t he u ndulating t ile f loor o f t he 9 th c entury r efectory. W ith s ome c aution, a s a r esult, w e m ight p ostulate t hat t he l ate R oman a trium/ c ortile r emained i n u se, a nd t hat t he b uildings d ue w est o f i t w hich l inked t he s outh c hurch t o t he s outh r ange, a lso r emained i n u se. T he c omplex, t herefore, a mounts t o a s mall q uadrangle o f r efurbished R oman b uildings a ll o n o ne l evel. T he 1 2th c entury a uthor o f a bbot

P aldo

t he C hronicon V ulturnense a sserts

a nd h is s mall b and m ade u se o f a n

e arlier

c hurch.

e xcavations o f t he S outh C hurch w ould s eem t o c onfirm t his, c autiously w e m ust d ebate w hether t his i s t he f irst S an V incenzo. c ase l ight

f or o f

t hat T he a nd T he

s uch a n i dentification n eeds t o b e f ully e valuated i n t he t he o ther m onastic p hases, a s w ell a s t he e vidence f rom

s imilar s ites g reater d etail

e lsewhere i n E urope. T his p oint w ill b e d iscussed t owards t he e nd o f t he p aper.

i n

P hase 3 b: A fter t he w hite m ortar f loor o f s outh c hurch 3 a h ad b een p atched s everal t imes, t he b uilding w as s ubjected t o c onsiderable a lterations. F irst, t he c hancel a rch w as c hopped b ack, n ecessitating t he r ebuilding o f n ot o nly t he a rch b ut p robably t he a pse i tself. D oors w ere t hen i nserted e ither s ide o f t he a rch, l eading i nto a s imple a mbulatory. T he a mbulatory p assage l ay b etween t he a pse a nd t he r ock—face, a w idth o f

j ust u nder 2 m.

I t

s eems

l ikely

t hat

t he 8 th c entury

p assage

w as

m odelled o n t he e arlier l ate R oman a mbulatory. T he s outh e nd o f t his p assage w as b locked o ff b y a s trikingly c rude w all, w hile r emains o f t he

n orth

b locking

w all h ave b een r emoved b y

1 0

l ater

b uilding.

T he

a bsence

o f

a

f loor i n t he a mbulatory i s f urther

i ndication

o f

t he

m akeshift m odification,

m ade p resumably t o m eet c hanging r itual n eeds.

T he s econd a lteration i s

j ust a s r udimentary,

a nd r ather m ore p erplex-

i ng. C lear e vidence o f a n o ccupation d eposit w as d iscovered w ithin t he e astern p art o f t he n ave. P otsherds, a nimal b one a nd a l ittle w orked b one w ere f ound i n t his l evel. W hether t he d ebris b elongs t o a d welling, s tore-room o r t o s ome r ebuilding a ctivity w ithin t he c hurch c annot n ow b e d etermined. I t i s p ossible, h owever, t hat a s izeable p ost-hole a nd a b eam s lot f ound w ithin t he p hase 4 b uilding e cho l ine o f a n e arlier p artition - a p hase 3 b p artition - w ithin

t he t he

c hurch. T his p hase i s a c urious

t ransition f rom a l arge n ave,

s uitable

f or

a ccommodating m any p eople, t o o ne i n w hich e mphasis i s p laced u pon t he r ites a round t he a ltar. T he c onstruction, n onetheless, i s v ery p rimit ive, a nd e xecuted w ith p oor, w orn b oulders.

c layey m ortar a nd r ubble i ncluding r iver-

P hase 3 c: U sing a s imilar c layey m ortar t he f irst m edieval c hurch w as

b uilt

u pon t he s ite o f c rypt c hurch 1 . I t a ppears t hat t he n ave o f t he l ater R oman b asilica h ad b een d emolished b y t his t ime, b ut t he a pse w as s till s tanding s everal m etres h igh. T he m onks s eem t o h ave h ewn o ut a c rypt b eneath t he a pse, a nd t o h ave i nserted a n ew a pse i nto t he r emains o f t he R oman b uilding. I n a ddition, a s mall n ave w as i nserted a t a s light a ngle s outh

i nto t he l ine o f t he p receeding R oman n ave. L ike t he a djacent c hurch 3 b, t his w as a r ather p rimitive e nterprise, t hough o ne

w ith s ome e laborate a rchitectural a spirations. T he a pse.

m ost i mpressive a chievement o f t hese b uilders w as t he u pper T he m onks f itted a t ricoran a pse w ithin t he s hell o f t he R oman

w est e nd. T he l obes o f t he t ricora w ere d efined a nd p robably b uilt o f b arrel v aults t hat h ad a lmost c ertainly b een r emoved f rom a l ocal R oman b uilding. B etween t he l ine o f t he l obes a nd t he o ld R oman a pse i s a f illing o f l oose r ubble a nd t hick l ayers o f y ellow m ortar. S teps m ust h ave l ed f rom t his h igh a ltar d own t o t he n ave n early 2 m b elow . T he m edieval

s urfaces w ithin t he n ave

i tself h ad b een r emoved b y

1 980,

s o

w e c an o nly e stimate t he h eight o f t he f loor f rom t he l ater p assages a nd d oorways. A t e ach o utside c orner a r e-used c ornice w as p laced, s imilar N o

t o o ne a t t he n orth-east c orner o f t he p hase 2 /3 s outh c hurch.

t races

o f a n a trium b eyond

t he e ast e nd w ere

f ound,

a lthough

a t

l east o ne d isturbed g rave b elonging t o t his p eriod w as d iscovered t ucked b etween t he f ar e nds o f t he c rypt a nd s outh c hurches. E ntry t o t he c rypt c hurch n ave m ust h ave b een t hrough t he s outh c hurch, p robably b etween t he p artitioned e ast e nd a nd T he

w ell-known

c rypt c ertainly d ates f rom t his t ime

j ust c onceivably b elong w as

t he s hortened p hase 3 b n ave.

t o

t he R oman b uilding).

a c entral s taircase d own t o

t he c rypt,

( but

c ould

I n t his p eriod

t here

f lanked p robably b y r ising

s taircases t hat l ed t o t he n orth a nd s outh u p t o t he h igh d ias. O rigin ally t he c rypt w as b elieved t o h ave b een c ut o ut o f t he r ock , b ut t he r emoval o f b lack c ement i n N ovember 1 983 i ndicated t hat i t w as b uilt o f r e-used s tone, r ubble a nd s ome t ile. T he t ricora a bove e choes t he i mperfectly e xecuted a s

t he

s uggests

l obes o f

t he c rypt b elow.

p osition o f t he n ew c hurch a s a n a nnexe t hat

t his w as a s hrine o f 1 1

s ome k ind,

t o

I ts t he

b uilt

f orm,

a s w ell

s outh

c hurch,

p erhaps

t o

h ouse

t ombs o r r elics b elonging t o t hree p ersons. T he d ate a nd p urpose o f

t his b uilding w ill b e r e-examined l ater i n

t he p aper. A t t his p oint i t n eeds t o b e e mphasized t hat t he c rypt c hurch b elongs t o t he e arliest m onastery, i f t he c onstruction i s u sed a s a n i ndex, a nd w as m odified i n a l ater p hase. L ike t he p rotoa mbulatory o f s outh c hurch p hase 3 b, t he t ricoran a pse o f t he c rypt c hurch r aises m any i ntriguing a rchitectural i ssues f urther r esearch. P hase 4 :

t he e arly 9 th c entury m onastery ( Fig.

w hich

w ill

n eed

1 :3)

U ntil t he l ater 8 th o r e arly 9 th c enturies t he m onastery s eems t o o ccupied a s mall a rea i n f ront o f t he R oman b ridge o n t he l ow-

h ave

l ying g round b eside t he r iver V olturno. A t s ome p oint t he c ommunity d ecided t o r eplace t his h alf h a. s ite w ith o ne t en t imes a s b ig. T he r esult i s e xtremely c omplex a nd c an o nly b e b riefly d escribed a t t his s tage; n onetheless a pparent.

t he m agnitude o f

t he t ransformation w ill b e r eadily

P hase 4 a: T he

n ew

p lan

e ssentially m ade u se o f

t he o ld

s outh

a nd

c rypt

c hurches a s f acilities a t t he e ntrance o f t he a bbey, a nd t o t heir s outh w as c onstructed a l arge n ew c laustral z one, b eyond w hich, i n a d ominati ng p osition, t he m ain a bbey c hurch S an V incenzo M ajor w as b uilt. F urther r anges t o t he s outh o f t he n ew a bbey, a s w ell a s o n t he t err aces o verlooking t he e ntrance a nd c loisters, w ere e rected a t t he s ame t ime. I n a ll t he r esult w as a s mall t own s erved b y a s eries o f i nterc onnecting p assages. T o u nderstand t he n ew l ay-out n ecessitates p laci ng o neself i n t he p osition o f a v isitor e ntering t he m onastery a t t his t ime. H aving c rossed t he b ridge o ne s werved s lightly l eftwards a nd t hrough s ome a s y et u nexcavated o uter e ntrance y ard t o a n i nner

t hen c or-

t ile. T his c ortile, i t h as b een s uggested a lready, d ated f rom l ater R oman t imes. W hether t his i s t rue o r n ot, i n t he 9 th c entury i t t ook a v ery c lassical f orm. T o b egin w ith o ne e ntered f luted c olumns, s ome o f w hich a re s till i n s itu.

t hrough a c ollonade o f N ext o ne p assed a long

t he r ight-hand s ide o f t he c ortile t owards t he e ntrance h all. c ortile i tself w as p robably a r oughly s quare g arden a t t his t ime,

T he w ith

e aves-drips a round e ach o f t he s ides, a nd w ith a s mall e dged b order f or p lants o r f lowers. T he s hattered r emains o f a l arge, e legantly s culpt ed

s tone v ase o f 2 nd

c entury d ate w as

f ound i n a l ater 1 0th/early 1 1th

c entury l evel h ereabouts, a nd m akes u s w onder i f t his o nce d ominated t he c entre o f t he c ortile l ike s mall f ountains o r w ells a re u sually f ound i n t he c entre o f m edieval c loisters. S tanding i n t he c entre o f t his c ortile o ne c ould h ave s een t he f ollowing t hings: t o t he n orth w as a l arge t wo s toreyed a ula ( the p hase 4 s outh c hurch); t o t he s outh, w as t he h igh w ell o f t he r efectory p erforated o nly b y s mall w indows h olding c oloured w indow g lass. I mmediately t o t he w est, i n f ront o f o ne, w as t he e arly e ntrance h all. I n s ome r espects t he h all w as t he k ey t o t he m onastery. O ne e ntered i t p robably b y c limbing u p a f light o f

s teps a longside

t he s outh c hurch,

a rriving a t a f irst

W e s hall n ever k now w hat f orm t his l anding t ook , c hoose o ne's r oute i nto t he m onastery. A p assage h ave

l ed n orthwards

t o t he f irst

f loor

l anding.

b ut h ere o ne h ad t o f rom t he l anding m ust

f loor o f t he a ula ( south c hurch p hase 1 2

4 :

s ee

b elow);

a

p assage c ertainly l ed d ownwards a nd

t hence

t o

a

v estibule w hich i n t urn l ed t o t he c loisters ( see b elow); a t hird, a nd m uch m ore s peculative p assage m ust h ave l ed w estwards, a t t he l evel o f t he l anding,

a nd t hence u p s ome s teps

t o a p oint i mmediately i n

f ront

o f t he f irst t errace, b efore t urning s outh, d escending a f light o f s tairs a nd c ontinuing a t a l evel a bove, b ut p arallel t o t he w est s ide o f t he c loisters. T his l ast p assage, a s I s hall d escribe i n am oment, t ook o ne t o t he m ajor c hurch f ar t o t he s outh.

s ite

N owhere w as t he n ew b uilding p rogramme m ore a mbitious t han o n t he o f t he s outh c hurch. T he n orth a nd s outh n ave w alls o f t he 8 th

c entury e astern

c hurch w ere d emolished t o g round f loor l evel, a s w as t he f ront o f t he b uilding. O nly t he a pse a nd a s hort s ection o f

t he n orth n ave w all w ere e mployed i n t he p hase 4 a s tructure. T he n ew b uilding w as a t wo-storey a ffair w ith a w ell-executed a pse f orming a n a mbulatory r ising o ver t he r ock-face b eyond t he e arlier w estern a pse. T he g round f loor w as a s f ollows: t he e astern p art o f t he n ew b uilding w as d ivided i nto t hree r ooms, w hich w ere s eparated b y a c orridor f rom t he much s hortened n ave a nd a pse o f t he p hase 3 b c hurch, b eyond w hich w as a m uch m ore s ophisticated a mbulatory. T he n orth w all o f t his b uilding e xtended u p t o t he c rypt c hurch a t t he w est e nd, a nd l eft o nly a t iny p assage a t t he e ast e nd o f t he c rypt c hurch. T he s outhern s ide o f t he

t he b uilding w as a lso e xtended o utwards f rom t he o ld s outh w all p hase 3 b uilding,

a nd e ncroached i nto

t he e arlier

a trium.

o f T his

p ermitted e nough s pace f or a p assage t o r un a long t he s outh s ide o f t he b uilding; a p assage w hich g ave a ccess t o o ne o f t he t hree g round f loor r ooms a s w ell a s t o t he g roundfloor c orridor r unning b etween t he s hortened

n ave a nd t he r ooms

t o

t he c rypt c hurch.

T he a rchaeology o f

t he t hree r ooms s uggests t he f ollowing: t he e astern a nd w estern r ooms ( trenches G III a nd G I r espectively) w ere u sed f or a nimal s talling o r s torage; t he c entral r oom ( GII) h ad a c obbled, c ambered s urface o f a k ind u sed i n a s table i n p hase 4 a, a nd a h ard m ortared s urface o ver t he t op o f i t i n p hase 4 b. T he e astern a nd c entral r ooms h ad d oors l eading o ut b eyond t he e ast e nd o f t he c rypt c hurch t o t he n orth. T he p ree xistence o f t he c rypt c hurch, d ating f rom p hase 3 c, m eant t hat t he w estern r oom h ad a s outh e ntrance a nd h ad t o b e r eached b y w alking a long t he s outh p assage. A s tone w all d ivided t he w estern c ell f rom t he c entral o ne, b ut i t s eems t hat t here w as a t imber p artition, p erhaps e choing t he l ine o f a p artition i n t he 3 b t he c entral r oom f rom t he e astern o ne. T he

f irst

f loor o f

t his b uilding

b uilding,

i s a m atter o f

p ure

d ividing

c onjecture.

H owever, o ne h ypothesis i s t hat i t r esembled a s tage b etween t he s imple p hase 3 b s tructure, a nd t he b etter p reserved p hase 5 b uilding w hich w ill b e d iscussed b elow . H ence, i t i s l ikely t hat t he s tables a nd s torerooms w ere b eneath a s imple, r eception h all, w hile a m uch m odified c hurch a isled, n ave.

r emained i n u se a t t he w est e nd. T he h all m ust h ave b een w ith t he n ave s itting m ore o r l ess o ver t he l ine o f t he p hase 3 O ne e ntrance t o i t, a t l east, m ust h ave b een f rom t he e ntrance

h all l ocated m id-way a long i ts s outh s ide. T he c hurch a t t he w est e nd r emains a p roblem . T here a re n o s igns o f a t wo-storey b uilding h ere, y et t he a mbulatory w all e vidently r ose h igh e nough t o m eet t he n ew h igh n orth a nd s outh w alls o f t he c omplex. O ne s olution i s t o p ropose t hat t he o riginal n ave w as r etained, a long w ith t he 8 th c entury a ltar. T here w as a l arge d oor i n t he s outh w all o f t he n ave a t t his d ate, a nd a m odification o n t he n orth s ide w hich c reated a s hort n orth a isle. I n k eeping w ith t he p eriod o ne m ust s peculate w hether a g allery r an a round 1 3

t he s ides o f t he n ave t o w hich v isitors r eceived i n t he r eception h all h ad d irect a ccess. I f s o w e m ust i magine a h igh-roofed c hurch e ntered b y m onks f rom t he g round f loor, a nd b y v isitors f rom t he f irst f loor r eception r ooms. T he a mbulatory s uggests i ncreased e mphasis w as b eing p laced u pon t he r elics h eld i n t he a ltar, a nd t hat g reat a ttention w as b eing p aid t o t his m uch v enerated s pot. T he

c rypt

c hurch s eems

t o h ave b een

i ncorporated,

l argely

u n-

a ltered i nto t his n ew s cheme.

w as

T o t he s outh o f t he e ntrance h all a l arge n ew c laustral c omplex c onstructed. T his i nvolved m aking a n orth-south p assage w hich

r eplaced t he r ange o r p assages w hich o nce l inked t he f unerary b asilica t o i ts s outh r ange. T his w ide c orridor n ow l ed f rom t he a ula ( and c rypt c hurch) a t g round f loor l evel i n t he d irection o f t he n ew a bbey c hurch t o t he s outh. B ut t he p assage w as c ut b ack i nto t he h illslope a s t hough t he w ide s pace m ight b e u sed a s a n a ssembly p oint a s w ell a s a t horoughfare. T he d ecoration o f t he l ower v ery s triking a nd p oints t o i ts d ual f unction.

c orridor/vestibule w as F rom h ere o ne e ntered

t he m uch e nlarged r efectory. T his r efectory i s j ust o ver 3 0m l ong a nd 1 4m w ide; i n t he c entre w as a n a rcade o n w hich t he t hrust o f t he r oof c ould b e s upported. B enches r un a long t he n orth a nd s outh w alls, a nd a long a s hort s tretch o f t he w est w all, a s w ell a s e ither s ide o f t he c entral a rcade. R emains o f a s imple p ainted p ulpit w ere f ound t o t he r ight ( south) o f t he e ntrance, a nd t he a bsence o f b enches t o t he l eft o f t he d oor ( north) m ay i ndicate t he o riginal p osition o f t he c upboards c ontaining t he c rockery. T he r efectory l ike t he p assages w as f loored w ith t iles, m any w ith t ilers m arks a s J ohn M itchell n otes i n h is p aper ( Chapter 6 ). T he n orth w all o f t he b uilding h as d eep f oundations w hile t he o thers a re e xtremely s hallow . I ndeed, t he c onstruction o f t he b uilding i s p oor,

a nd n ecessitated b uttresses a t r egular i ntervals.

A c orridor o r o utside p assage

( possibly a c loister w alk)

r an a long

t he s outh s ide o f t he r efectory, w hich l ed o ff d irectly a t r ight a ngles f rom t he l ower t horoughfare/vestibule. A t p resent, w e p ostulate t his w as t he c loister w alk w hich l ead a round t he i nside o f a q uadrangle f ormed b y t he r efectory o n t he n orth, a k itchen a nd s tore-room o n t he e ast s ide, a nd a d ormitory a bove t he w arming r oom o n t he s outh s ide. A r ough e stimate s uggests t his q uadrangle w ould h ave c overed t he l owl ying g round ( now l ittered w ith t ile f ragments a nd o ther d ebris) u p t o t he n orthern s ide o f t he m ajor c hurch i n t he m odern v ineyards ( see b elow). J ohn M itchell h as d escribed t he d ecoration o f t he l ower t horoughf are/vestibule i n C hapter 6 . S uffice i t t o n ote t hat t he m onks w ho h ad a ccess p arts

t o o f

t he p assageway c ould b ehold s ome f ine p aintings. t he t horoughfare w alls w ere p ainted w ith a

d esign

T he l ower i mitating

m arbling, w hile a l ine o f s aints a nd p rophets, j ust s hort o f l ife-size, f illed t he u pper a reas o f t he w alls. T he b enches t oo w ere p ainted, s ome w ith o verlapping h alf-circles,

s ome w ith s impler a nd c ruder o rna-

m entation. T he r efectory w as e ntered t hrough d oor l intels p lundered f rom a r epublican s anctuary; a f ine e arly R oman i nscription m arked t he w est e nd o f c olumns. s tone,

t he a rcade w hich, I n

c ut

i n f act,

t he c loister w alk t o

f or a l ocal

l ady,

w as

o f r e-used

R oman

t he s outh a f ine e arly R oman

w as c omposed

t omb-

f ound t o h ave b een s et

p athway.

1 4

i nto t he t iled

T he f rom

r efectory

w as u ndoubtedly a p oorly l it b uilding.

t he c ortile m ust h ave s uggested a n

a ustere

T he

s tructure,

v iew

p robably

v ery d ifferent f rom t he ( ?) a rcaded e xterior o f t he r eception h all t he n orth. T he m ain l ighting i n t he r efectory c ame f rom a l ine

t o o f

w indows o n t he n orth a nd s outh s ides. W indow p anes m easuring b etween 2 0 a nd 3 0cm s q w ere u sed, a nd m ust h ave m anufactured a k aleidoscopic v ariety o f c olours o n b right d ays i n t he d ining h all. T he g lass p anes a re o f b right b lue, g reen, l ilac a nd t inted c lear a s w ell a s s ome w ith s treaky r ed m arbling, c losely i mitating R oman w indow p anes. O nly t he m onks,

i t s hould b e e mphasized,

a re s upposed t o h ave h ad

a ccess t o t he c loisters; l ay v isitors w ould h ave t aken a d ifferent r oute t o t he m other c hurch. T his r oute i s d ifficult t o r econstruct a s i t w as m ostly a t t he h eight o f t he f irst f loor o f t he r eception h all. T races o f s tair s upports i ndicate a p assage w as c arried a cross a t f irst f loor h eight f rom t he e ntrance t o t he f irst t errace. T he d isused R oman t ower, a s I s hall d escribe i n a m oment, w as r econstructed a nd a d oor i nto t his b uilding c learly c ame f rom a p assage w hich n o l onger e xists. T his u pper p assage p robably t urned a long t he f ace o f t he p ortico o f t he R oman t ower, s upported b y a s ubstantial, a morphous l ump o f m asonry, a nd o n

s outhwards

t o a p oint d irectly b ehind ( and o f c ourse,

w ell

a bove)

t he m onks' t horoughfare j ust d escribed. H ere, r emains o f t ile s teps l eading d own a bout 2 m t o a w ide c orridor h ave b een d iscovered. R emains o f a f urther p assage a scending t he s lope o f t he h ill f rom t he b ase o f t his t ile s tairway a lso s urvives. T his w ould h ave t aken o ne t o t he r anges o n t he f irst a nd s econd t erraces w hich w ill b e d escribed b elow.

t he

T he u pper c orridor s ets o ff s outhwards f or t he l arge b uilding i n v ineyards 7 5m a way. P iles o f r ubble w ithin t he i ntervening z one,

a s w ell a s t he c utting o f t he r ock-face a t o ne p oint a ll i ndicate e xistence o f 9 th c entury r anges w hich w ere o nce h ere, a nd m ust s urvive o nly a s T he s urvive

t he n ow

f ootings.

r emains o f a l arge 9 th c entury b uilding m ost c onspicuously i n t he v ineyards, w hich a t p resent a re t erraced u p a bove t he

l ow-lying g round t o t he e ast ( on w hich t he r est o f t he c loisters a re b elieved t o l ie) a s w ell a s t o t he s outh ( the R occhetta p lain). A 2 6m l ong

f acade

o f a b uilding,

d ecorated w ith w ide p ilaster s trips

r oughly n orth-south a t t he e astern e nd o f t he v ineyards. n ing a long t he s outh s ide s till s tands t o a h eight o f 4 m,

r uns

A w all r una nd i ts l ine

c an b e t raced a s i t p rogreses w estwards, e nclosing a b uilding t hat w as b etween 3 0 a nd 4 0m l ong. L ocal f armers h ave r emoved m asonry w ith 9 th c entury p ainted p laster s till a dhering, a s w ell a s R oman c olumns f rom w ithin s mashed

t his a rea. M oreover, t he m ost w esterly v ineyard c ontains t he f ragments o f a g rand o pus s ectile f loor. T he c ombination o f

e vidence p oints t o t his b eing t he a bbey c hurch, S an V incenzo m aggiore. A ngelo P antoni d isagrees a nd m aintains t hat t he p resent a bbey h as a lways b een i n t he s ame p lace. I n i t, P antoni d iscovered, a re r emains o f t he g reat i nscription p laced b y A bot J osua a bove t he e ntrance o f t he n ew e arly 9 th c entury b asilica. H owever, t he f ragments o f t his i nscription l ike m any o ther p arts o f t he 9 th c entury m onastery a lmost c ertainly e mployed b y A bbot G erard w hen h e w as b uilding t he c entury c hurch. I ts r e-use d oes n ot p rove t hat t he p resent a bbey o n t op o f a s equence o f e arlier o nes. T he 1 980-84 e xcavations

w ere 1 1th l ies m ore

t han d emonstrate t he s cale o f t he s ettlement o n t he w estern s ide o f t he r iver, a nd i t s eems h ighly l ikely t hat t he m other c hurch w ould h ave b een a n i ntegral p art o f t his c omplex . A t p resent, i t a ppears t hat t he 1 5

n ew

a bbey w as c onstructed o n t he n orthern r im o f

m ost a ttention a s v isitors

( and o f c ourse,

t he p lain t o

t he S aracens

a ttract

i n 8 60 a nd 8 81)

a pproached f rom t he s outh. T his b uilding, i t s eems, s uperceded a n e arlier ' minor S an V incenzo, w hich i t i s s uggested a bove, w as n one o ther t han s outh c hurch 3 . C learly t his m atter w ill n ot b e r esolved u ntil q uite s tupendous e xcavations a re u ndertaken t o u ncover t he b uildi ng(s)

i n t he v ineyards.

T he u pper t horoughfare, l ike t he l ower o ne a nd t he c loisters a ll s eem p art o f a g reat, p lanned b uilding o peration, o f w hich t he v ineyard c hurch w as a lso a p art. T he u pper c orridor a ppears t o l ead d irectly t o t he e ast s ame a xis. w orkshop

f ront o f t he v ineyard c hurch w hich i s o n a pproximately t he I mmediately s outh o f t he v ineyard c hurch r emains o f a l arge c omplex ,

d ating t o t his p eriod,

h ave b een f ound.

T o b egin

w ith, a s J ohn M oreland d escribes i n C hapter 2 , t he w orkshops w ere d evoted t o g lass p roduction. H owever, l ater i n t he 9 th c entury p arts o f

t he c omplex w ere d evoted t o m aking f ine m etalwork,

i ncluding

s ome

w ith g lass i nlay. I t i s n ot y et c lear h ow m uch f urther t o t he s outh w as c overed b y b uildings i n t he 9 th c entury, a lthough t he a rchaeol ogical d ebris s ets o ut a cross I n f act,

i s t his o n t he g round f or a lmost a nother 1 00m t he R occhetta p lain.

a l arge p art o f

a s

o ne

t he 9 th c entury m onastery w as c onstructed

i n t iers r ising u p t he h illside b ehind t he u pper t horoughfare. A s I h ave a lready n oted, t here w as a m ajor b uilding p ositioned t owards t he f ront

o f

t he f irst t errace a t t his d ate.

A d oor l ed

f rom t he

r ising

s tairway i nto i t. S adly, n o r emains o f a ny c onsequence s urvive, b ut d ebris l ater s hovelled d own f rom h ere t entatively i ndicate t hat t his b uilding w as p art o f a c omplex w hich w as r ich i n m aterial c ulture a nd c lose t o a k itchen. T he s mashed g ilded b ronze a nd e namelled p iece d escribed b y J ohn M itchell i n C hapter 7 , f or e xample, p robably o rigin ated f rom a d eposit a ssociated w ith o r c lose t o t his b uilding. B eing s tationed h igh a bove t he c loisters, i mmediately b ehind ( with p robable a ccess t o) m ight h ave

t he r eception h all, a nd a t t he p oint w here h ad t o p ause b efore v eering l eft, t here i s

p roposing t hat

t his w as p art o f

l ay v isitors s ome s ense i n

t he a bbot's c omplex .

R emains o f a s econd b uilding, p ainted ( and p ossibly b uilt) i n p hase 5 o verlie t he b ack o f t he f irst t errace ( see b elow f or a f urther d escription), o n t he m ain r uins o f t he R oman t ower. T his b uilding w as e vidently e n r oute t o t he s econd t errace. E xcavations a t t wo p oints o n t errace 2d emonstrate t he e xistence o f a l arge r ange a nd a ccompanying c hurch d uring s ingle-period

t he 9 th c entury, c hurch d ominated

b ut

t heir p recise d ate

t he n orthern e nd o f

t he

i s n ot k nown. t errace.

A R e-

m ains o f t he p laster s etting f or a n o pus s ectile f loor w ere f ound i n t rench R , w hile t he b old p rojecting p rofile o f i ts e astern a psidal e nd c an b e d iscerned w ithin t he t hick v egetation o n t he h illslope. A s ingle t rench, i ndicates t hat t here w as e ither a t imber r ange w ith a p oor m ortared s urface o r a n o pen r ange w hich u sed t he c ut f ace o f t he b ack o f t he t errace a s a b ack w all. T his r ange l ed t o a nother c hurch a t t he c orner o f t he h ill. T his p articular c hurch m ust h ave b een b uilt u p f rom t he s pecially c ut f ace o f t he f irst t errace, a nd w ould h ave r isen h igh u p b ehind t he v ineyard c hurch o ver w hich i t l ooks. I t, t oo, a lso m ade t he e nd o f a r ange o f b uildings, b ut i n t his c ase s ubstantial w alls

s urvive

( yet

t o b e i nvestigated) o r

s ome t hirty

m etres.

T races

o f o ther b uildings o n t errace 3 , p arallel t o t he s econd t errace r ange, h ave a lso b een i dentified, b ut a re s o b adly r obbed t hat m apping t hem 1 6

w ill p rove d ifficult. F urther

u p t he h ill,

w ithin t he l ater R oman c emetery,

a re

m any

u nmarked s lab-built g raves w hich b elong t o t he m onastic p eriod. T hese i ndividual i nhumations a re o ften a ccompanied b y g reat b undles o f s kelet al m aterial, a s t hough e arlier m ultiple i nhumations w ere r udely s wept a side

t o

t ake

t he m onastic d ead.

T he i rregularity

o f

t his

e arly

m edieval g raveyard, a nd t he a bsence o f g rave-markers, s uggests t hat t hese a re t he t ombs o f t he l ay-workers w hose n umber i n t he 9 th c entury m ay h ave m atched t hat o f t he m onks. Y et

a nother c omplex c an b e

f ound o n t he v ery s ummit o f

t he

h ill.

T he s ummit a ppears t o h ave b een s carped a nd t erraced w ith w alls t hat i n s ome p laces s tand n early 6 m h igh. T races o f a l arge b uilding s urvive t owards t he w estern s ide o f t he h illtop, a nd w ithin i t a re t wo p romin ent

b lock-built

r emains

o f a t

t ombs.

N ext

t o

i t,

o n t he s outh f acing

f lank

a re

l east o ne s maller b uilding.

T he p hase 4 a bbey w as a m ost i mpressive c omplex, r ising u p i n t iers a round t he h illside, a nd e vidently b eing e xtremely c onspicuous t o t ravellers a pproaching f rom t he s outh o r d escending f rom t he A bruzzi. T he n ew m onastery w as p robably d ivided i nto z ones, r oughly e quivalent, I t m ight b e s urmised, t o t he r anges a nd i ntegrated c omplexes j ust d escribed. T here w as a n e ntrance/reception z one, a c laustral z one, t he a bbot's c omplex, t he c omplex p ertaining t o t he m uch e nlarged m other c hurch, a nd a w orkshop z one. U sing t he S t. G all p lan a s a n a pproximate g uide w e m ight e xpect c omplexes f or n ovices, t he h ospital, f or t he f arm-workers, a nd s o o n. W ith m ore s tudy i t s hould b e p ossible t o p redict t he l ocation o f c ertain o f t hese z ones, t hough a d etailed p lan, w hilst t heoretically p ossible, w ould r equire a n e normous e xcavation p rogramme. T he i mplications, n onetheless, o f t he d iscoveries s o f ar m ake i t f easible t o t hrow n ew l ight o n C arolingian-period m onasteries, a nd s ome t entative r emarks a long t hese l ines w ill b e m ade l ater i n t he p aper. P hase 4 b: T his

p hase a mounts a t t he m oment

s outh c hurch.

N otably,

f irst,

t o s ome m inor c hanges w ithin t he

t he s table i n t he c entral r oom o n t he

g round f loor w as r eplaced b y a r oom w ith a h ard p lastered f loor. S econdly, t he s outh d oor l eading a t g round l evel i nto t he s hortened n ave

w as

b locked,

b ut

w hich d oor w as u sed

i n i ts

p lace

r emains

a

m ystery. P hase 5 :

A bbot E piphanius

w orks ( 824-42) a nd a fter

( Fig.

1 :3)

A bbot E piphanius a ppears i n o ne o f t he p aintings i n t he c rypt c hurch w ith a s quare n imbus i ndicating t hat h e w as a live w hen t he p ortrait w as m ade. T he e nsemble o f p aintings, a nd t he a lterations m ade t o t he c rypt c an b e d ated, a s a r esult t o t he p eriod w hen E piphanius w as

a bbot

d uring

h is

o f S an V incenzo:

8 24-42.

2 4

I t i s p ossible

t ime E piphanius e xecuted s ome f airly

t o

a mbitious

s how

t hat

r ebuilding

p rogrammes. P hase 5 a: T he c rypt

i tself w as

s ubstantially a ltered. 1 7

T he c entral s tairway

t o t he t hree c hambers w as b locked u p. A n ew s tairway w as c ut f rom t he s outh s ide o f t he n ave d own i nto t he s outhern l obe. A t omb w as t hen i nserted i nto t he f oot o f t he e arlier s tairs, a nd a c onfessio w indow w as s et w ithin t he b locked u p e arlier p assageway t o t hrow l ight u pon t he t omb. r emoved,

T his l eads u s t o s uppose t hat t he o ld t ombs o r r elics w ere a nd t hat t he p urpose o f t he c rypt h ad c hanged. T his s eems t o

b e c onfirmed b y t he e xcavations o f t he n ave a nd a trium. F irst, w e m ust i magine t hat t he p revious s tairs u p t o t he h igh a ltar, p robably e ither s ide o f t he d escent d own t o t he c rypt, w ould h ave b een m odified. N ext, t he e xcavations i ndicate t hat t he h itherto u nused a rea b eyond t he e ast e nd o f t he n ave w as t ransformed i nto a n a trium. V isitors c rossing t he R oman b ridge c ould v eer t o t he r ight, d escend s everal s teps i nto a s mall s unken a trium f illed w ith t ombs a nd t hen a scend a nother f light o f s teps ( beneath a c overed n arthex) t o t he e ast d oor o f t he n ave. T hese f ine g raves a re d escribed e lsewhere i n t his v olume, a nd s pecial n ote i s m ade o f t he i ndividual i nhumed b elow t he r ising s teps i mmediately i n f ront o f t he d oorway b ecause h is t omb w as f urnished w ith a s mall, f inely p ainted i nscription. C learly, i n E piphanius t ime t his c hurch w as o pened t o t he p ublic. O ne r eason f or t his b ecomes a pparent w hen w e e xamine t he r elated a lterations t o t he s outh c hurch. T he b uilding o f a s mall a trium a t t he e ast e nd o f

t he c rypt c hurch

n ecessitated t he b locking o f t he d oors l eading i nto t he g round f loor e astern a nd c entral r ooms u nderneath t he s outh c hurch. B ut a t a lmost c ertainly t he s ame t ime i t w as d ecided t o d evelop t he s outh c hurch i n a A t hird a pse w as c onstructed a t t he f airly a mbitious w ay ( Fig.1:4). mbulatory a nd j oining o nto a s outh w est e nd, r ising o ver t he p hase 4 a outh p ortico w all. T he p ortico r uns p orticus, a nd t hereafter a s turdy s nclose t he e ast e nd o f t he b uilding. a long t he s outh s ide a nd t urns t o e he g round f loor r ooms t o t ake v aultN ew w alls w ere c onstructed w ithin t i ng; t he r esult a t g round f loor i s a c urious m ixture o f r ooms. N ow o ne c ould e nter f rom t he b ridge a t g round f loor, c oming i nto a t iled p ass age i n f ront o f t he o ld e ast e nd w hich l ed t o a t iled s outh p assage i nside t he p ortico w all. A d oor l ed o ff t o t he e astern r oom, b ut t he c entral r oom w as n ow w alled i n. T he w estern r oom r emained m uch a s i t h ad b een, b ut a w ide, a ngled c orridor, r eplacing e arlier c orridors, w as i nserted b etween t his r oom a nd t he s hort g round f loor c hapel. T he 8 th c entury a ltar w as r eached f rom a c entral d oor i n t he w est w all o f t he c orridor, b ut t he d arkened c hamber c annot h ave n ow s eemed v ery i nviti ng. T he c orridor, o f c ourse, l ed t o t he s outh n ave d oor o f t he c rypt c hurch. g round T he

T races o f b arrel v aulting o r c orbelling o n t he t ops o f t he f loor w alls i ndicate t he p resence o f a l arge f irst f loor h all.

h all

m ust

h ave c overed t he e ntire s pace f rom t he e ast

w all

a nd

g round f loor e ntrance t o t he r ock f ace. T o r oof s uch a b uilding i t i s l ikely t o h ave b en c onstructed a s a n ave w ith f lanking a isles. I n a ll l ikelihood, e nd t here s imply p laster t hat

t he p hase 5 ( third) w as a s econd f loor,

a pse p rovides a c lue t hat a t t he w est p ossibly r ising t o a s mall d ias, o r

t o a g allery w ith e xits o nto t he f irst t errace. T he p ainted f ragments f ound i n t he e xcavations p ertaining t o t his h all s how

i t w as

e legantly d ecorated, m uch a s m ight h ave b een e xpected.

T he p rincipal e ntrance i nto t he h all w as,

a s b efore,

t hrough t he

s mall c ortile a nd v ia t he e ntrance h all f lanking t he s outh c hurch. B ut a t t his t ime, i n k eeping w ith t he g rand c hanges m ade t o t he s outh c hurch, t he e ntrance h all w as m uch a ltered. T he s imple l anding w as e xtended i nto t he c ortile, a nd n ow w as a w ide, l oggia-like a ffair. F rom t he c ortile t his m ust h ave a ppeared a n i mpressive b uilding b ecause 1 8

i t w as c onstructed o f t wo b lind a rcades ( taken f rom a n e arly c lassical m onument) a t g round f loor l evel, a nd t hree a rcades a t f irst f loor l evel -a t t he l evel o ne e ntered t he s outh c hurch. I ndeed, t he h all n ow b ore a p assing s imilarity t o t he w ell-known g atehouse a t L orsch, b ecoming a b uilding T he

i n i ts o wn r ight. c reation

o f am ajor r eception h all o f

t his k ind h as

s everal

i mplications. F irst, t he p hase 4 g round f loor s tables a nd s tores c ould n o l onger b e m aintained w ithin s o g rand a c omplex. Y et a s a rrangements f or v isitors w ere a n e ven g reater p riority, a s t he m onastery's f ame w as a t i ts h eight, m ore r ather t han l ess f acilities o f t his k ind w ere r equired c lose t o t he g ate. C onsequently, t he z one i mmediately n orth o f

t he c rypt c hurch h ad

t o b e d eveloped.

L imited e xcavations a t

t he

b ack o f t his a rea, u p a gainst t he f irst t errace, h ave b rought t o l ight a r ange t hat p robably d ates t o t his t ime. T he s imple t iled r oom i s p robably p art o f a c omplex w hich l ay w ithin i ts o wn p recinct w all, h ad s teps l eading t o t he f irst t errace b uildings d escribed w ell a s t he c hurch a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he s econd t errace.

a nd

a bove a s I n t hese

c ircumstances w e m ight h esitate a g uess t hat t he r emodelled c rypt c hurch w as s erving t he v isitors w ho w ere a ccommodated a longside, a nd r eceived

i n t he g reat h all.

B esides

t he

e nlargement o f

t he a ula,

t here a re s igns

t hat

t he

m onastery a s a w hole w as b eing o verhauled. F irst o f a ll i t s eems t hat t he r efectory w as e xtended a t t his t ime ( Fig.1:5). A r oom t hat m ay h ave existed b efore n ow b ecame p art o f t he d ining h all, w hich r eached v irtually t o t he r iverside. A f ragment o f p ainting - a d ado, s imilar t o t hose i n t he c rypt c hurch - s urvives o n t he t hick w all a t t he b ack o f t he f irst t errace. I t a ppears t hat t hese s trategically p laced b uildings w ere a lso m odified ( if n ot b uilt) d uring a bbot E piphanius' t ime. A nother n otable f eature t hat p ossibly b elongs t o t his p eriod i s t he f acade o f t he v ineyard c hurch w ith b lind a rcading t hat r ecalls a rcades o n t he f ront o f t he e ntrance h all.

w hich

t he

E piphanius, i t s eems, u ndertook s ome a mbitious r ebuilding s chemes g reatly e nhanced t he e xisting m ajor m onuments a t S an V incenzo.

I t i s p ossibly a l ittle i ronical t hat h e h as b een r emembered u ntil n ow f or o ne o f t he l esser b uildings o f h is p eriod i n o ffice, t he c rypt c hurch. N onetheless, t he d ating o f i ts p aintings a nd t he c hanges t o t he a rrangement o f t he c hurch p rovide u s w ith a c hronological f ixed p oint

t o w hich t he p receeding a nd s ubsequent p hases h ave t o b e r elated.

P hase 5 b: S everal

a lterations w ere m ade

t o

t he s outh c hurch a s w ell

a s

t o

o ther b uildings i n t he f our d ecades f ollowing t he d eath o f E piphanius. T he f inal p hase o f t he s outh c hurch a re t he m ost n oteworthy t hat w e h ave d iscovered s o f ar.

H ere t he g round f loor c hapel a t t he w est

e nd

w as b locked o ff, a nd r ubble w as t ipped i n u p t o f irst f loor h eight. T he o peration h as b een w ell d ocumented i n t he e xcavations. T he 8 th c entury a ltar w as p rised a part, a nd i ts c ontents w ere r emoved. T hen a d ry-stone w all w as b uilt f or a b arrow r un o ut a cross t he c entre o f t he n ave f rom t he c rypt c hurch. B arrow-loads o f r ubble c ontaining l arge q uantities o f e ither s ide o f t he

c orridor

e laborately

l ate R oman r efuse w ere t aken a long t he w all a nd t ipped i t. M eanwhile t he a rched d oorway i n t he w est w all o f w as b locked,

p ainted

t omb.

a nd l ater m ade i nto a n a rcosolium A

t hick p laster f loor w as 1 9

l aid

f or o n

a n t he

r ubble, i nto w hich s everal g raves w ere c ut. T he d ate o f t he g raves r emains u nknown a s a ll o f t hem h ad b een d isturbed, b ut t hese m ay i ndic ate f irst

s ome c ontinuity o f t he p hase 5 a g round f loor i n p hase 5 b. " 2 5

f loor c hapel n ow

T he d ate o f t his f airly m ajor a lteration i s u nknown, h ave b een n ecessary a fter t he i nfamous e arthquake o f 8 47.

o n

t he

b ut i t m ay I t i s q uite

c lear t hat t he b uilding a s a w hole s uffered a s evere e arthquake i n t he 9 th c entury. C racks a nd f issures i n t he g round f loor w alls w ere m ended a nd p atched, b ut t he b owing o f t he l ong i nner s outh w all o f t he b uildi ng c ould n ot b e d ealt w ith u nless t he e ntire h all w as d ismantled a nd t hen r estored. T he e arthquake m ay h ave d ealt a f inal b low t o t he l ast r elic o f t he t iny 8 th c entury m onastery, i ts f irst c hurch. W hatever, t he a pparent d isregard f or t he a ltar i s a s eminal d iscovery w hen e valuating e arly m edieval a ttitudes t o m onuments o f e arlier s ignific ance. I t i s a p oint w hich r eoccurs w hen t he e ntire s ettlement w as d ismantled. P hase 5 c: E vidence

o f

t he S aracen a ttack o f 8 81 h as b een d iscovered a t

t wo

p laces. T he m ost s pectacular s igns o f t he r aid w ere f ound i n t he w orkshop b eyond t he v ineyard c hurch. H ere i t a ppears t hat t he h eavy w orkshop d oors w ere l ocked w hen t he r aiders a rrived. T he g reat s pread o f

c harcoal

i nside

t he d oor c ontained n ot o nly

t he l ocks b ut a lso

c lusters o f h eavy a rrowheads f ired f rom c omposite b ows k nown i n l ater c enturies a s a c lassic A rab a rmament. s eems,

w as

t wo

o f a t ype b etter T he d oor, i t

s et a blaze b y t he a rrows a nd f ell i nwards,

c rashing

d own

u pon c upboards o r s helves o n w hich v arious u tensils w ere s itting. T he c hoice o f t his w orkshop f or a f ull-scale a ttack r aises s everal i mport ant p oints. D oes t he l ock i ndicate t hat a c ertain a mount o f t reasure w as s tored i n h ere? O r w as i t t he f irst m ajor o bstacle c onfronted b y t he r aiders a s t hey a imed f or t he v ineyard c hurch, a pproaching f rom t he R occhetta p lain? W hatever t he a nswers, t he m ajority o f t he b uilding w as u naffected b y t he r aid a nd r emained s tanding u ntil a m uch l ater d ate. T he s ame s eems t o b e t rue o f t he a ula. T races o f a f ire w ere f ound a t t he e ast e nd o f t he p assage t he g round f loor. T he d iscovery o f

r unning a long t he s outh s ide o f t wo a rrowheads i n a 1 0th c entury

d eposit i n t he w estern c ell t ends t o p oint t o a s ubsidiary a ttack m ade u pon t he e ntrance t o t he m onastery. T he s urprising s elves. H eavy a rrows

f eature o f t hese r aids a re t he a rrowheads t hemf ired f rom c omposite b ows a re t ypical o f t he 1 2th

c entury, b ut t hree c enturies e arlier t heir i mpact t errifying. C ontrary t o t he d ramatic s cenes d epicted i t t he

i s m uch m ore p robable t hat p lace w hich m inimized

i nhabitants P hase 6 :

t o

t he t he

m ust h ave b een i n t he C hronicon,

r aiders m ade c alculated a ttacks o n c onfrontation, y et i nduced t he

f lee.

t he 1 0th c entury m onastery

T he 1 0th c entury m onastery,

( Fig.1:3)

i t a ppears, w as a s ad, r uinous p lace, T h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e i s f ar j ust a s t he C hronicon i ntimates. 26 f rom c onclusive a bout t he f orm o f t he s ettlement a lthough s ome a spects a re c lear.

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P hase 6 a: I t a ppears t hat g reat a ttention w as p aid t o t he e ntrance a rea. T he p athway l eading a long t he n orth s ide o f t he c ortile w as r esurfaced a nd h alf-covered b y a p rojecting r oof s upported o n d oric c olumn b ases. T he e ntrance h all w as s till i n u se, b ut s everal p arts o f i t w ere d rastically a ltered. F irst, b eneath t he s tairway t hat l ed t o t he l anding w as a m ausoleum . V isitors w ishing t o s ee t he t omb h ad t o d escend t o t he g round f loor p assage a nd l ook t hrough a c rudely m ade w indow . I t w as f ound t o c ontain a t l east n ine a dult m ales, a ll d is a rticulated, a nd a n a rticulated f emale w ith a c hild. T he o ther g ound f loor c hambers o f t he e ntrance h all w ere a lso m ade i nto m ausolea. A l arge e arly R oman i nscription g uided o ne i nto t he n arrow c hambers. f ine s arcophagi f rom t he f irst r oom h ave l ong s ince d isappeared;

T he b ut

p lainer b lock-built t ombs h ave s urvived i n o ne o f t he s outhern g round f loor c hambers. M oreover, i t a ppears t hat t he a rea b ecame t he f ocus o f a s mall, i rregular c emetery. A t omb w as c ut i nto t he b ench o f t he r efectory i mmediately s outh o f t he e ntrance h all. T wo t ombs w ere h astily c ut i nto t he c orridor b eyond t he e ntrance h all, a nd g raves o f t his d ate c ut i nto t he b uilding a t t he f ront o f t he f irst f ound i n t rench F , c learly b elong t o t his e nsemble o f g raves.

t errace,

T he f inest t omb n ecessitated t he c omplete a bandonment o f e ntrance h all. T his l arge t omb w as i nserted i nto t he s pace w hich u p u ntil t hen h eld t he s tairs.

t he h ad

T his p oorly p ainted g rave, a s a r esult,

w as o ne o f t he f irst m onuments t o c onfront t he v isitor, w ho t hen h ad t o a scend o ne p oorly l aid s tep u p a nd t hrough a n o ld w indow ( now c onverted i nto a d oor) o f t he a ula. T he

o f

t he s outh p ortico a nd i nto

t he o ld s outh i nner c orridor

d epth o f o ccupation d eposit w ithin t he g round

t he a ula m als. A

f loor r ooms

o f

i ndicates t hat t hese w ere o nce a gain u sed f or s talling a nis mall f urnace i n t he w estern r oom m ay w ell h ave b een f or a

s mithy. T he i ncidence o f g lass f ragments, c hips o f p laster a nd o ther d ebris i n t hese d eposits i s a c lear e nough s ign t hat t he a bandoned r eception h all, l ike m ost o f t he o ther b uildings a long t he r iverside, w as

s lowly f alling

i nto d isrepair.

I t d oes a ppear, s ively r ebuilt a t

h owever,

t his

t ime.

t hat t he c rypt c hurch w as T he m ajor c hange w as t o

u sed a nd e xtent he a trium w hich

t o b egin w ith w as f ully c overed. T hen t he s unken a rea b etween t he s teps w as f illed i n, a nd f inally t he e ntire a rea b etween t he e ntrance i nto t he n ave a nd t he r oad l eading f rom t he b ridge w as l evelled u pw ards. T he f inal f orm o f t he n arthex i s a m ystery a s t he u ppermost l evels w ere r emoved b efore 1 980. T he s equence, n onetheless, t ends t o e mphasize t he s udden s ignificance o f t he c hurch s tationed a t t he f ront o f t he r uinous a bbey. A s mall a ddition t o t he p aintings i n t he c rypt, a nd f resh p aintings, n ow p oorly p reserved, i n t he a pse a bove b elong t o e ither t his o r

t he s ubsequent p hase 7 .

t he

I t i s l ikely t hat t he p ainted t omb s et i nto t he a rcosolium, w ithin c orridor l eading u nder t he s outh c hurch f rom t hey c rypt c hurch ,

a lso t his

d ates t o t his t ime. J ohn M itchell h as m ade a t horough s tudy o f t omb, p ointing o ut i ts n orth I talian a ffinities. I t i s m ore t han

l ikely

t hat

i t b elongs

t o

t he e nsemble o f

g raves g athered

a round

t he

e ntrance h all. T he g raves i n t he r efectory a nd i n t he b uilding a t t he f ront o f t he f irst t errace s how t hat t hese p arts o f t he m onastery w ere 2 2

n ot r e-occupied w hen t he m onks r eturned

t o S an V incenzo i n 9 14-16.

T he

a rchaeology s eems t o c onfirm t he c hronicler's s tory w hen h e t ells u s t hat a c hurch a t t he g ate o f t he m onastery a nd t he l arge 9 th c entury c hurch, S an S alvatore, w ere t he o nly m ajor b uildings u sed t hroughout t he 1 0th c entury. O ne m ust w onder - a nd a t s ome s tage a ttempt t o p rove - w hether

t he b uildings o n t he c rown o f

i ts o wn a ncillary r anges. d uring c hosen.

t he h ill a re S an S alvatore a nd

I n t he a ftermath o f

t he i nfamous a ttack,

a nd

t he e ra o f i ncastellamento, a f ortified s ite m ay h ave b een S an V incenzo i tself w as p ossibly l eft d eserted b ecause o f i ts

v ulnerability, o r s mall c ommunity.

p ossibly

b ecause i t w as f ar t oo g rand f or

s uch

a

T he 1 0th c entury m onastery, t herefore, w as a r ather m akeshift p lace. T he m ost s triking f eature m ust h ave b een t he t ombs c lose t o a nd i n t he e ntrance h all. O bviously, t his c ollection o f m ausolea w ere s ited

t o

a ttract t he a ttention o f v isitors,

a nd t o a

l esser

b ecause w e m ay i magine t hat t he m onks c emetery c lose t o S an w as n o l onger m aintained. S uch p rominently e xposed t ombs, w ith d eviations

l uring t he v isitor t o p ay h is

e xtent V incenzo h owever,

r espects m ust b e

a ccoun-

t ed f or. O ne a nswer t hat m erits f uture c onsideration i s t hat s ome o f t hese t ombs c ontained t he m artyrs o f t he S aracen a ttack i n 8 81. T he p athology o f t hese b urials w ill u ndoubtedly b e o f r eal i nterest. P hase 6 b: T he

d emolition

o f

t he m onastery w as s uch

a n

i mpressive

a ffair

t hat, a lthough f or t he m ost p art i t i s a ssociated w ith p hase 7 , i t i s i n a n a rchaeological s ense a m ost o bvious h orizon o f i ts o wn. I n f act, t here

a re

t wo s ub-phases t o b e c onsidered h ere.

t he f inal a ppearance o f s ystematic d estruction. E xcavations

o f

t he m onastery,

F irst,

b efore

t hen

t he c ortile c learly s how t hat

w e m ust n ote

d escribing

t he

t he t iled r ooves

t he s urrounding b uildings f ell i nto a s erious s tate o f d isrepair. s mall y ard w as f ound t o b e l ittered w ith s mashed t iles. S mashed a lso c overed t he u pper o ccupation d eposits w ithin t he w est ( GI) e astern ( GIII) r ooms b eneath t he r eception h all. T he f loor o f

o f

T he t iles a nd t he

• reception h all i tself m ust h ave b een r emoved b y t his s tage. T hin s preads o f t rampled d ebris w ithin t he t iled l ower t horoughfare/ v estib ule, i n p laces c overed b y t ile f ragments a gain s uggests a nimals w ere b eing k ept

i n t he p lace w hile

t he r oof b ecame

i ncreasingly u nsafe.

T he d emolition c annot b e d ated w ith a ny c ertainty,

b ut i t m ust b e

a ssociated w ith a r ebuilding p rogramme - i n a ll l ikelihood p hase 7 , t o b e d escribed b elow . I t i s t he s cale o f t he d emolition w hich i s m ost s taggering. E verything a bove t he f irst f loor w as t aken d own ; h ence t he s outh c hurch w as l evelled t o t he h eight o f t he g round f loor v aulting; t he f irst f loor l anding o f t he e ntrance h all, a nd e verything a bove i t w as

r emoved;

t he r efectory w alls w ere

l evelled

t o a p oint

j ust

a bove

t he b enches; t he f irst t errace b uildings w ere l evelled t o t heir f oundat ions, a s w ere t he b uildings o n t he s econd t errace a nd o nly t hose n orth o f t he l ower

c rypt c hurch, t horoughfare

t he c rypt c hurch i tself a nd t he b ack w all o f t he s urvived t o a ny h eight. I t s eems t hat t he m onks

b urnt u nnecessary t imber o n t he s pot, a nd r ipped o ut a ll t he l ead. T hey s eem t o h ave s aved a s m any t iles a s t hey c ould, a nd i n m any c ases t hey c hipped o ff t he p ainted p laster a nd r e-used t he c ut s tone e lsew here. T he c ortile i tself w as f ound t o b e a v ivid r elic o f t his 2 3

a wesome

t ask.

A

c orbelled a rch - a lmost c ertainly o ne o f

t he

t hree

a rches d ecorating t he u pper l evel o f t he e ntrance h all -h ad b een p ulled d ownwards, a nd w as u ncovered b eneath a h eap o f r ubble. F irec racked w indow p anes t hat e vidently h ad f allen f rom t he r efectory h ad a lso t umbled i nto t he c ortile. I n t he m iddle o f t he l ittle g arden w e d iscovered a g reat m ound o f c indered m aterial, t he w aste f rom l imem aking. T he m ortar-mixers, e astern

l ime, o ne

s ide o f

t he n ew y ards o f

i t s eems, w as b eing p repared f or t he s eries o f o n t op o f a nother, w hich h ave s urvived o n t he

t he c ortile.

T he m ortar w as p robably b eing m ade

f or

t he 1 1th c entury m onastery ( see p hase 7 ).

O nly t he c rypt c hurch a nd t he b uildings s outh o f c hurch i n t he w orkshop c omplex s eem t o h ave b een s pared. w all o f t he l ower t horoughfare/vestibule s urvived,

t he v ineyard T he h igh b ack i t m ight b e

i magined, b ecause i t a lso s erved a s a r etaining w all. S imilarly, r ange n orth o f t he c rypt c hurch w as d emolished t o t he p oint w here

t he t he

t errace w as s till r etained. T he d ebris i n t he g reat m idden h eaped w ithin t he c ortile i s a t elling i ndication o f 1 1th c entury d isregard f or t he o nce g reat a bbey. W ithin i t w ere f ragments o f t he e arly R oman v ase w hich o nce f ormed t he c entre o f t he c ortile, a r ange o f j ewellery, g lassware, t ombstones a nd d ecorated s tonework w hich a dmittedly b elonged t o a nother a ge, y et w ithin a c entury w ere b eing e steemed a s p art o f S an V incenzo's g reat h eritage b y i ts c hronicler. O f c ourse, b y q uarrying t he r uined b uildi ngs, t he m onks c ould f ind m ore t han e nough m aterials f or t he n ew a bbey, w hile r emoving a s orrowful r eminder o f t he m onastery's d ecline s ince 8 81 ( if n ot b efore t hat). I ronically, t he t horoughness o f t he d emolition

a s

a n

a rchaeological s ite, s ince t he p lan o f t he 9 th c entury a bbey s eems b e p reserved v irtually i ntact b eneath t he d estruction, a s w ell a s p hase 7 b uildings i n s ome p laces.

t o t he

P hase 7 :

t he

h as

e nsured

S an V incenzo's c ontinued e steem,

n ow

t he 1 1th c entury m onastery ( Fig.1:3)

I n t he m id 1 1th c entury, a fter I larius a nd J ohn I V h ad r estored r uinous S an V incenzo, A bbot J ohn V d ecided t o c onstruct a c om-

p letely n ew m onastery o n t he o ld s ite. T he c hronicler d escribes i n d etail J ohn's n ew s ettlement, b ut o mits t o t ell u s t hat h e r earranged t he m onastery's p lan. B efore d escribing t his n ew a rrangement i t s hould b e n oted t hat h itherto J ohn V 's m onastery w as b elieved t o b e o n t he s ite o f t he e sent o ne, R oman v illa. '

4 00m a way w ithin t he r ock-cut d itches o f

T he n ew m onastery w as a r eversal o f c rossing

t he e arlier s ettlement.

t he b ridge o ne c ould v isit s till t he

c rypt

c hurch ;

t he

A fter i ndeed,

s ome s mall p aintings i n t he a pse m ay b elong t o t his p eriod. H owever, o ver t he d emolished r anges a round t he e ntrance h all w as a l evelled a rea c apped w ith a t hick c ream c ement. A y ard n ow c overed t he e ntire a rea s outh o f t he s outh c hurch, u p t o t he b ack w all o f t he e arlier l ower t horoughfare. I t h as n ot b een p ossible t o e xcavate m uch o f t his y ard, b ut t he z one a gainst t he b ack o f t he t errace p rovides s ufficient c lues a s t o i ts u se. A p ottery k iln w ith a s ingle f lue ( Fig.1:6), c ons tructed o f r e-used t ile f ragments, a nd a n umber o f p ost-built t imber b uildings

o ccupied

b ack y ard o f

t his a rea.

S uch r emains p oint

t he m onastery.

2 4

t o

t his

b eing

t he

B y

c ontrast,

m assively

t hick

w alls

w ere

b uilt,

f orming

q uadrangle i mmediately s outh o f t he v ineyard c hurch. d estroyed w alls i n p art c ut t hrough t he e arlier w orkshops,

a

T hese b adly a nd i n p art

m ade u se o f t he C arolingian-period r ooms. S o l ittle o f t his q uadrangle r emains a s a r esult o f r ecent p loughing t hat a c onclusive i dentificat ion o f t his a rea i s u nlikely. Y et t he s ize o f t he l atest w alls, p ostdating t he S aracen a ttack, a re l arge e nough t o i ndicate m ajor r anges. A s t he n ew b ack y ards c over t he o ld c loisters, i t s eems r easonable t o p ropose t hat t he n ew c loisters w ere c onstructed w here t he e arlier b ackyard h ad b een. I n s hort, t he p lan o f t he m onastery w as r eversed, w ith S an V incenzo ( the v ineyard c hurch) r emaining t he p ivotal p oint i n t he s ettlement. T he i ncidence o f c olumn b ases, p ainted r ooms a nd f ragments o f o pus s ectile f loors i n t he p lough z one a t t his e nd o f t he R occhetta p lain i s m ore c onsistent w ith a m onastery's m ajor r anges t han w ith t he w orkshop a nd f arming c ommunity p ostulated i n t his b efore t he a ttack i n 8 81. I t

i s

p ottery

c lear t hat t he p hase 7 m onastery h ad a

k iln

w as f ired o nly a f ew t imes;

t he

s hort

a rea

l ife.

p ost-holes

T he

r elate

s ingle-period o ccupation; a nd t he f loors a ssociated w ith t he r anges s outh o f t he v ineyard c hurch s how l ittle w ear a nd t ear. a gain t here a re t hick d eposits r elating t o a p eriod d emolition p rior t o t he c omplete d esertion o f t he s ite. t erracing

h as

r uins, l eading b uried h ere. P hase 8 :

m uch o f

t he e arlier

o f s ystematic P ost-medieval

c onfigurations

o f

n o-one t o s uppose t he w ealth o f a rchaeological

t he

d ebris

t he l ater 1 1th t o m odern m onastery

L ots t lement

c oncealed

t o w ide O nce

o f m aterials w ere b rought f rom t he o ld s ite t o t he n ew

o n t he e dge o f

t he p lateau.

T his s ettlement w as

s et-

l ocated w ithin

t he r ock-cut d itches o f t he i mperial R oman v illa. F ragments o f i nscriptions a s w ell a s c olumns, c apitals a nd d ecorated s tonework w ere d iscovered i n A ngelo P antoni's e xcavations s ome t wenty y ears a go. I n a ddition, f reshly c ut, f inished s tone w as e vidently u sed t o f ace t he m ajor b uildings. T hese c onsisted o f a r eception r ange, n ow p reserved a s a p icturesque p ortico, a l arge s outh c loister. p avements

i n t he a bbey

a l arge a trium, t he a bbey a nd i ts t ower, a nd P antoni h as d rawn o ur a ttention t o t he f ine

i tself,

a nd e xcavations

i n 1 981 a long

t he p eri-

m eter o f t he c laustrum b rought t o l ight m any f ragments o f o ther f loors, a s w ell a s g old-leaf c overed t esserae b elonging t o w all m osaics o f t he r omanesque p eriod.

T he 1 981 e xcavations,

h owever,

s uggest

t he c ompact-

n ess o f t he b uildings w ithin t he p recinct. T here w ere n o b uildings o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he a bbey, a nd t o t he s outh o f i t w ere t races o f t he c loisters a nd n o o ther m ajor s tructures. T he c ombination o f e vid ence f rom v arious i nvestigations i ndicates a s maller s ettlement t han t he e arlier 1 1th c entury a bbey, a nd a r ather m odest p lace b y c omparison w ith t he 9 th c entury c hronicler's i magination.

S an

V incenzo

w hich

c learly

e ngaged

t he

D iscussion A

g reat

d eal

o f c omplex a rchaeological

s ummarized i n t hese p ages;

m uch o f

s tratigraphy

h as

i t w ill b e s crutinized s till

b een

f urther

b efore t he p recise f orm o f t he s equence o f s ettlements a t S an V incenzo I s c onclusively c omprehended. N evertheless, t he m ain o utlines o f S an V incenzo's h istory a s a s ettlement r ather t han a s a n i nstitution a re 2 5

c lear.

T he

f orm o f

t he f irst m onastery w as d etermined

b y t he

e arlier

R oman v illa, w hile t he C arolingian a nd 1 1th c entury m onasteries s how i nnovative a nd b old l eadership, a nd a ccess t o c onsiderable r esources. T he

e xcavations

h ave r evealed a s urprisingly

d etailed

h istory.

T he s amnite c onnection d escribed b y t he c hronicler, f or e xample, i s i n f act b orne o ut t o s ome e xtent b y t he e xistence o f t he R epublican-period v icus

h ere.

M any p arts o f

t hat e arly R oman s ettlement w ere

q uarried

f or m aterials b y t he 9 th c entury a rchitects. T he i mperial s ettlement w as m ore m odest b y c omparison w ith i ts p redecessor, t hough a s ubr egional c entre t o j udge f rom i ts r emains ( including i nscriptions) ( see J ohn P atterson's p aper, C hapter 1 0). T he l ate R oman v illa w as o f s imilar p roportions t o i ts i mperial p redecessor. U nlike i ts p redecess or,

t hough,

i t w as d esigned w ith d efence i n m ind,

w as g iven t o i ts r ole a s a n e cclesiastical c entre.

a nd g reat e mphasis T he p rominence

o f

t he c hurches l eads o ne t o c onsider w hether i t w as t he s eat o f a b ishopric. T his, h owever, s eems u nlikely i n v iew o f t he a rray o f c ultural d ebris, a nd a c emetery p opulation s imilar t o m any b elonging t o t his

p eriod f rom o ther p arts o f c entral a nd s outhern I taly.

F or

t he

t ime b eing w e m ust a ttribute t he v illa t o a l ocal l andlord o f r egional s tanding, w ho r einforced h is p osition b y m aintaining a c hurch a nd c emetery f or t he p opulation i n t his p art o f t he u pper V olturno v alley. T he d esertion o f t he v illa o ccurred a t a t ime w hen t he s tate c ould n o l onger h old a g rip o n m arginal d istricts w ithin I taly. T he B yzant ine i nvasion, t he O strogothic w ars a nd t he s udden c onquest o f n orthern a nd p arts o f c entral I taly b y t he L ombards a re a r eflection o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic d isintegration. 28 E ach g roup w as c ompelled t o r eact t o t he r uinous c ircumstances, t he c ollapse o f a c entralized s tate. f or

l arge

l and-owners,

a nd i nevitably h elped t o e scalate A s a r esult t here w as n o p lace

o nly m uch r educed h oldings

f ulfilling

l ocal

n eeds. H ence, w e w itness s ome c ontinuity i n S an V incenzo's p opulation a t t he c emetery c hurch. L ate R oman b urial c ustoms p ersisted u ndetered b y t he a rrival o f a n ew e thnic p olitical e lite i n t he r egion - t he L ombards, a nd i ndeed, t he w ealthier m embers o f t he d iminished c ommunity s cattered a round t he r egion c ould s till o btain s ilver e ar-rings o f c lassic l ate a ntique t ype t hrough l ong-distance e xchange. A s a t F arfa a nd M onte C assino, S an V incenzo a s

t he b asis o f

t he m onks c hose a c lassical s ite a t

t heir f irst m onastery.

I n f act,

i n e ach

c ase t he m onks m ay h ave s elected t he c entre o f a d efunct l ate a ntique e state w ith e vident e conomic p otential. T he l ocation o f s uch s ites, w ell-placed

t o a dminister h ighly d iffused c ommunities,

c ommended t hese p laces. p robably s till b eing u sed,

m ay a lso

h ave

B ut i n S an V incenzo's c ase t he c emetery w as a nd s o P aldo, T ato a nd T aso w ere e ssentially

t aking o ver a n o perating c entral-place. T he A to's o ne i ts

i nitial m onastery w as

C odex B eneventanus

s eemingly s mall a nd

a ppears a ll

p rimitive.

A bbot

t he g reater a n a chievement

w hen

f amiliarizes o neself w ith t he t iny w hite-washed p hase 3 c hurch a nd b rick-built a ltar. T he c ommunity m ust h ave b een v ery s mall i n

n umber, a nd d rawn f rom t he a bbey's p rovincial ( even i solated) s phere o f i nfluence. T he g reat e mphasis g iven t o b urials a t t he w est e nd o f t he a pse a s w ell a s w ithin t he s equence o f a mbulatories g ives r ise t hesis t hat t he S t. V incent, a fter w hom t he a bbey w as n amed, R oman f rom t his r egion. S uch r elics w ere u nlikely t o s upport a part f rom i n e xceptional c ircumstances. 2 6

g enerate

t o t he w as a g reat

C harlemagne's c onquest o f n orthern I taly a nd h is a lliance w ith s uccessive p opes p rovided t he e xceptional c ircumstances. P ositioned o n t he n orthern f rontier o f t he d uchy o f B eneventum, t he a bbey a chieved w hat must h ave b een u nimaginable s tatus a nd w ealth. T he b rief, p owerf ul s pread o f C arolingian i deology, v igorously s upporting t he a uthority o f t he p opes a s t he t rue a postles o f gRd d irected a t t he k ingdom o f B eneventum. L‚

o n e arth, w as p rincipally T he d uchy a nd l ater k ingdom

o f B eneventum w as a p olitically d ivided m arch b etween t he B yzantine a nd C arolingian e mpires, a nd b etween i ts t wo c hurches. T he C arolingians, p robably b ased i n t he n orthern L ombard a nd p apal c ourts, i nvested i n S an V incenzo a nd M onte C assino a s c entres w hich m ight c ome t o m anipul ate t he B eneventans. A n umber o f 9 th c entury B eneventan d onations r eveal t he t rue e xtent o f t he i nvestment. H ence, t he m assive e xpans ion, a llegedly c arried o ut w ith L ouis t he P ious a id, a nd m odelled o n a b lueprint t hat e ncapsulated t he C arolingian m ovement. T he

e xact d ate o f

c onfidence.

A bbot

t he p hase 4 a bbey c annot b e a sserted

J osua

w ith

a ny

a s

t he

m ay h ave b een t he c hief a rchitect,

c hronicler r ecords, b ut h is p redecessor, P aul, c ould h ave c arried o ut t he r ebuilding. T he o peration c learly l ies b etween p hase 3 b a nd t he E piphanian c rypt. P hase 3 b, h owever, i s w orth n oting; a p roto-ambulat ory a nd,

i n a ll p robability,

a t ricoran s haped a pse w ere c onstructed

a t t he s outh c hurch a nd c rypt c hurch r espectively. B oth f eatures w ere l ate a ntique a rchitectural i deas r evived d uring t he C arolingian p eriod t owards t he e nd o f t he 8 th c entury. 30 r ebuilding g ot u nderway, n orthern

I n o ther w ords, b efore t he m ain i nfluences w ere b eginning t o b e

a ssimilated b y t his s mall c ommunity. T he p lanned n ature o f t ion z one,

c loisters,

t he p hase 4 m onastery,

a n ew a bbey,

c omprising a

r ecep-

w orkshops a nd s o f orth s hould n ot b e

u nder-emphasized. L ike t he p lanned e mporia o f C arolingian E urope, i t a ppea m t o b e t he w ork o f s ome c entral a uthority w ith s everal p oints i n m ind. T he a rchitectural a chievement, i t s hould b e s tressed a t t his j uncture, G all p lan.

a lmost c ertainly p receeded t he d rawing-up o f t he f amous S t. I n f act, t he p lan a nd t he r ange o f f acilities i ncorporated

w ithin i t i ndicate t he e xistence o f tes o verall c oncept l ong b efore A bbot H aito p ut h is i deas o n p archment. T he c oncept w as d eveloped i n a l ocal f orm , b ut p aying g reat a ttention t o t he p rincipal t hemes o f t he r enovatio. T he l ate a ntique t heme, i n p articular, w as p revalent t hroughout t he m onastery. T he p aintings, t he f orm o f t he b uildings, t he c ollonades a nd a rcades, t he t ile a nd g lass p roduction a ll c losely f ollowed i deas a nd t echniques w hich h ad b een i n f ashion t hree t o f our h undred y ears b efore. I ndeed, S an V incenzo w as l argely c onstructed o f r e-used m aterials, d eployed t o i nstill a p owerful i mage o f a r enascent e mpire i n a ny v isitor. Y et o ne m ay i magine t hat t he t ier u pon t ier o f s ymbols a mounted t o a c onfusion o f i deas t hat t ook s econd p lace i n m ost l ay v isitors' o pinion t o t he i mpression o f s ize a nd e normity. N inth c entury S an V incenzo w as a t own b y a ny c ontemporary s tandards. T he m onks a nd l ay-brothers m ust t ogether h ave n umbered a t housand o r m ore; f ew o ther m onasteries a nd a lmost n o o ther c entres a t t hat t ime i n E urope w ould h ave b een l arger. T he s cope t o s pread t he b uildings o ver t he p lain, m ight s eem o ne r ationale f or t he s heer s ize o f t he p lace, t hough m ost r anges a ttributed t o p hases 4 a nd 5 s eem t o h ave c lung t o t he s lopes o f V incenzo, a s

t he h ill. E xcavations o f v illages i n t he t erra o f S an i n m ost p arts o f w estern E urope a t t his d ate, i ndicate

c ommunities n umbering r arely m ore t han f ifty p ersons. 33 A n a bbey w hich i n t he c ourse o f a g eneration d eveloped f rom r oughly t hese p roportions

F ig.

F ig.

1 :4 V iew o f

1 :5 V iew o f

t he s outh c hurch l ooking e astwards.

t he 9 th c entury r efectory l ooking w estwards.

2 8

t o o ne a t

l east

t wenty t imes a s b ig m ust h ave b en a wesome i ndeed.

L ike

a t own i t p robably c ontained a r ange o f a rtisans. T here i s e vidence o f a t ile f actory, a g lass w orkshop, s miths a nd a lmost c ertainly a t l east o ne p otter.

L eather-workers,

a s s cribes h eyday.

w ood-workers,

c arpenters,

m asons a s w ell

a nd p ainters m ust h ave b een l iving a t S an V incenzo i n

i ts

S an V incenzo's z enith w as p robably i n a bbot E piphanius t ime w hen, a s w e h ave s een , m any o f t he m ajor m onuments w ere e nhanced s till f urther. T he 8 20's a nd 8 30's w ere a n i mportant p eriod f or c hurch p oliticians w ho b riefly m anaged t o a ssert t heir a uthority a s c entrali zed s ecular p ower b egan t o d isintegrate. T heT h eC arolingian a bbots a nd b ishops a ttained t heir g reatest s tanding d uring t he C arolingian c ivil w ars o f

t he 8 30's,

b ut s uffered l ike a ll m embers o f

t he e lite w ith t he

e conomic r ecession o f t he f ollowing d ecades. W e m ust i magine E piphanius i n e xactly t hese c ircumstances i n t he m archer k ingdom. T he 8 30's w itnessed t he d emise o f c entralized g overnment i n t he k ingdom o f B eneventum,

a nd

t he i nception o f

f euding f actions.

B riefly,

d rawing

u pon i ts f ar-reaching c onnections, S an V incenzo m ust h ave f ared w ell, o nly t o s uffer a long w ith a ll t he m onasteries o f t he E mpire a s t he s tate's b enevolence d iminished d rastically. A t

t he

r esembled

t ime

o f

t he S aracen r aid

i n

8 81

S an

V incenzo

a c lassic e xpression o f t he C arolingian m ovement.

v ery d iffere9 m onument i n a rchitectural t erms t o S anta § 2phia,' i n B enevento o r i n h illtop v illages C ivita'" d iscussed i n C hapter 1 2. B ut i n 8 81 t he w as a lmost c ertainly w ell p ast. T he r epairs t o a n

s till

I t w as a

t hose, j udging b y l ike S anta M aria i n m onastery's z enith e arthquake i n p hase

5 b r eveal a r eturn t o e arlier l ess s killful m ethods. P erhaps f or t his r eason t he c hronicler t wo h undred a nd f ifty y ears l ater w as m ore t han h appy t o l ay t he b lame o n t he h eads o f t he d readed p agans. T he S aracens, n orth A frican r aiders f rom t he M aghreb, s upposedly s acked t he p lace, l eaving i t d evastated. O ur e xcavations p rovide a l ess c olourful i mpression o f t he i nfamous d ay i n O ctober o f t hat y ear. T he a ttacks s eem t o h ave b een l ocalized a t b oth e nds o f t he s ettlement, e arly m edieval e quivalent o f l ight a rtillery, c omposite b ows, t o s tart

i ntimidatory

a nd t he w ere u sed

f ires w hich w ere c ontained i n c omparatively s mall

a reas. W hile w e s hould n ot u nder-estimate t he p sychological i mpact o f t he r aid, i t s eems u nlikely t hat b uilding a fter b uilding w as d evastated. M oreover i t i s a t l east w orth n oting t hat t he m onastery's w orkshop

d oors w ere l ocked a nd p robably b arred;

t his

i tself

i s

s ome

I ndication o f t he c hanging s ocial a nd e conomic c ontext i n w hich t he m onastery f ound i tself. T he S aracens w ere e vidently n ot q uite a s u nexpected. T he

d ismally m akeshift 1 0th c entury

s ettlement,

d rawing

a lmost

u nseemly a ttention t o i ts d ead p laced a t t he e ntrance t o t he m onastery, i s a n u nexpected d iscovery i n t he a ge o f C luny. I t a ppears a s i f t he s kills h ave d isappeared w ith t he s tatus, a nd o nce m ore S an V incenzo w as a m odest r egional c entre. O f c ourse, S an V incenzo l ike m any a bbeys i n t his

p eriod c omplained o f

t heir h ardships, 37

a nd t he

c omparison

w ith

t he r uinous, s till s tanding b uildings m ust h ave p roved h umiliating t o m ore t han o ne a bbot. T his m ay h ave b een o ne s timulus t o t ake g reater i nterest i n t he a bbey's p roperty, l eading t o a b id t o e nlarge l ocal a gricultural p roduction. r ather s ad m onastery a nd g iving

r ise

O ne c annot a void t he c omparison b etween t he i ts i ncisive c ollection o f c learance c harters

t o i ncastellamento i n t he u pper V olturno v alley. 2 9

I ncreased r evenues a s w ell a s a n e cclesiastical t he

1 1th

c entury p ut

t he a bbey b riefly b ack i n t he

r esurgence

d uring

l imelight.

L ike

F arfa a nd M onte C assino, S an V incenzo u nderwent a p rogramme o f m assive r ebuilding. I n t he f irst o r s econd q uarters o f t he 1 1th c entury t he e ntire p lan o f

t he m onastery w as v irtually r eversed.

T o a ll w ho v isit

t he e xcavations t oday t he s cale o f t his r eplanning c omes a s a g reat s urprise. T he m agnitude o f t he d emolition w ork c onjures u p i mages o f t he S aracens, n ot s piritually e nergetic e arly r omanesque i deology . T he d estruction o f w himsical w ay

t he e arlier m onuments i s i n w hich t radition m ight

a s triking i llustration o f t he b e u sed i n o ne e ra a nd o bli-

t erated i n a nother. T o b uild a n ew c ompact c loister s outh o f S an V incenzo m eant b reaking w ith m uch o f t he e arlier h istory. E qually, t he m onastery o f s imilar d esign, c onstructed b y a bbot G erard, a m onk e arly i n h is c areer i n D esiderius c ommunity a t M onte C assino, p ut a c omplete e nd t o t he t radition. T he m ove f rom o ne s ide o f t he r iver, w here t he v iew a cross t he R occhetta p lain i s b est, t o a d omineering, f ortified p osition

o verlooking

t he V olturno g orge,

b est t ypifies

t he

c hanging

s pirit o f a n i mportant c entury. B y 1 100 G erard's c ommunity w as i n c ompetition w ith p etty N orman n obles, a nd i n t hese c ircumstances, o ff t he m ain t horoughfares o f c entral I taly, S an V incenzo's f ortunes w ere l ikely t o w ane. F aced w ith i ncreasing s ecular c ompetition a m onk ( or m onks)

a t S an

V incenzo, l ike m any i n a bbeys a ll o ver E urope, p roduced a v ivid a ccount o f t he m onastery's e arly h istory. T he d etailed n arrative a nd e vocative i llustrations d escribe a p ast t hat f or c enturies h as b een d ifficult t o p ut i nto p erspective. W as S an V incenzo r eally s o m agnificent? D id i t r eally f ollow a h istory t hat r esembles t hose o f n eighbouring M onte C assino o r t he g reat U mbrian a bbey o f F arfa? I n i ts i solated m ountain e nvironment,

i n t he f arthest r eaches o f M olise,

t his h as s eemed

l ess

t han c redible. F ive s easons o f a rchaeological i nvestigations h ave p ut t his c hronicle i n i ts p erspective, a ssuring S an V incenzo's ep .tus a s o ne o f

t he o utstanding s ites o f

t he p eriod i n w estern E urope.3°

F ig.

1 :6 V iew o f t he 1 1th c entury p ottery k iln o n t op o f t he w hite c ement s urface o f t he b ackyard a rea o f t he m onastery.

3 1

N otes 1 .

V . F ederici ( ed.), ( Rome, 1 925-38).

2 .

i bid.

3 .

P atrick J . M iddle A ges

C hronicon V ulturnense d el m onaco G iovanni

G eary, F urta S acra. ( Princeton, 1 978),

T hefts o f r elics i n t he c entral 1 66-67. I a m g rateful t o J ohn

P atterson f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t his r eference. 4 .

i bid.

5 .

D avid H . W right, T he C anon T ables o f t he C odex B eneventanus a nd r elated d ecoration', D umbarton O aks P apers 3 3 ( 1979), 1 35-56.

6 .

P aul

t he

F oulke 7 .

S ee

D eacon,

H istory o f t he L ombards,

( Philadelphia,

C hris

t ranslated

b y

W .D.

i mportant d iscussion i n C hapter 1 1

o f

t his

1 974),

W ickham's

2 83.

v olume. 8 .

A ngelo P antoni, L e c hiese e g li e difici d el m onastero d i S an V incenzo a l V olturno ( Montecassino, 1 980), 6 9-70. A ngelo P antoni b elieves t hat t he m onastery r emained i n t he s ame p lace t hroughout i ts h istory - w here i t i s t oday - a nd a ccordingly h e a ttributes t he c loisters o f t he n ew a bbey ( the p resent o ne) t o J ohn V ( p. 7 5-77) a nd s uggests t hat t he f inal p hase o f t he a bbey c hurch w as G erard's w ork.

9 .

P antoni, o p.

1 0.

H ans

c it., 9 1.

B elting,

S tudien z ur B eneventanischen M alerei

( Wiesbaden,

1 968). 1 1.

R ichard

H odges,

t urno, 4 83-86.

M olise:

1 2.

W .

H orn a nd E .

1 3.

D .B.

' Excavations a nd s urvey a t S an V incenzo a l 1 980 ,

B orn,

W hitehouse,

I taly',

A rchaeologia M edievale,

T he P lan o f S t. G all

' Medieval

( Berkeley,

V III

V ol-

( 1981),

1 979).

p ainted p ottery i n s outh a nd c entral

M edieval A rchaeology 1 0

( 1978),

3 0-44;

i dem.,

T he m edie-

v al p ottery o f R ome', i n H . M cK . B lake, T .W . P otter, a nd D . B . W hitehouse ( eds.), P apers i n I talian A rchaeology ( Oxford, 1 978), 4 75-505; R ichard H odges, G raeme B arker a nd K eith W ade, ' Excavations a t D 85 ( Santa M aria i n C ivitä): a n e arly m edieval h illtop s ettlement i n M olise', P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 4 8 1 4.

P antoni,

( 1980), o p.

7 0-124.

c it.,

1 33-40.

3 2

1 5.

S ee J ohn P atterson's p aper,

C hapter 1 0;

s ee a lso G raeme

B arker,

J ohn L loyd, a nd D errick W ebley, ' A c lassical l andscape i n M olise', P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 4 6 ( 1978), 3 5-51; w e a re i ndebted t o A ngelo P antoni f or d rawing o ur a ttention t o a n a ir p hotograph t aken o f t his a rea i n a bout 1 960 w hich s hows t he o utl ine o f a l arge r ectangular s tructure t hat m ay b e t he p rincipal w alls o f a n i mperial-period R oman v illa. 1 6.

P antoni,

1 7.

D avid W hitehouse, ( ed.), 1 11-12.

o p.

c it., 9 1;

F ig.56.

' Anguillara:

a n i ntroduction',

R oman V illas i n I taly ( London,

1 8.

S ee H elen P atterson's p aper,

1 9.

A n

u npublished

1 980),

K enneth P ainter

1 11-17,

C hapter 4 .

p aper b y D avid A ndrews c atalogues

t he 1 980-81 e xcavations;

e specially

t he g lass

I s hould l ike t o e xpress m y d ebt

f rom

t o D avid

A ndrews f or h elping u s t o e stablish t he S an V incenzo p roject a nd f or i nitiating t he r esearch o n t he l arge a ssemblage o f g lass v essels. 2 0.

P aolo

P eduto

v arious S alerno. 2 1.

S ee m y p aper, a l,

C aputaquis M edievale I I

e xcavations

o f

C hapter 1 2,

' Excavations

a t

( Naples,

1 984)

t he l ate r oman p eriod i n

i n t his v olume,

t he

d escribes r egion

a nd R ichard H odges e t

V acchereccia ( Rocchetta

a l

V olturno):

s eventh t o t welfth c entury s ettlement i n t he u pper V olturno l ey', P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 5 2 ( 1984). 2 2.

S ee J ohn M itchell's d iscussion o f

2 3.

P antoni,

o p.

c it.,

1 63-64;

2 4.

B elting,

o p.

c it.,

2 4-41;

2 5.

T his

o f

a v al-

t he a ltar i n C hapter 6 .

F igs.109,

1 10.

1 93-229.

p hase 5 a ula m ust h ave

r esembled t he 9 th c entury r oyal

h all

a t N aranco i n n orthern S pain, i n w hich a c hapel e xists: H . S chlunk ' Arte v isigodo, a rte a sturiaco', A rs H ispaniae I I ( 1947), 3 46-60. 2 6.

F ederici,

2 7.

C hronicon V ulturnense, t hese

t o

C hronicon V ulturnense ( note 1 ),

b e

I II,

t he c loisters

8 9; t o

I , 3 6-37.

P antoni,

t he s outh o f

o p.

c it., 7 5 b elieves

t he

p resent

a bbey,

b riefly r evealed b y d eep-ploughing i n 1 955. S ee a lso J ohn M orel and's C hapter w here h e b riefly d escribes t he c loister b uildings f ound i n T rench F F. 2 8.

R ichard H odges a nd D avid W hitehouse, t he O rigins o f E urope ( London, 1 983), o p.

c it.,

( see n ote 2 1).

3 3

M ohammed, C hapter 2 ;

C harlemagne a nd H odges e t a l.,

2 9.

W alter U llmann,

T he C arolingian r enaissance a nd t he i dea o f k ing-

s hip ( London, 1 969); R ichard H odges, J ohn M oreland a nd H elen P atterson, ' San V incenzo a l V olturno, t he k ingdom o f B enevento a nd t he C arolingians', i n C . M alone a nd S . S toddard ( eds.), P apers i n I talian A rchaeology 3 ( Oxford, 3 0.

B elting,

o p.

c it.,

d 'architecture i ngie

( Rome,

2 5-26;

1 985),

( in p ress).

C arol H eitz,

' More R omano.

e t l iturgie c arolingiennes 1 976),

2 7-37;

P roblames

i n R oma e l 'eta c arol-

a nd R ichard

K rautheimer's

s eminal

s tudy: ' The C arolingian r evival o f E arly C hristian a rchitecture', A rt B ulletin 2 4 ( 1942), 1 -38. 3 1.

R ichard

H odges,

' The

e volution o f g ateway

c ommunities:

t heir

s ocio-economic i mplications', i n C olin R enfrew a nd S tephen S hennan ( eds.), R anking r esource a nd e xchange ( Cambridge, 1 982), 1 17-23. 3 2.

B orn a nd H orn, t ler

o p.

c it.,

( note 1 2);

Ia m i ndebted t o A lfons Z et-

( Freiburg) w ho h as d iscussed t his m atter w ith

m e,

a nd

h as

s hared h is k nowledge o f t he h istory o f R eichenau ( West w here h e h as d iscovered a s imilar p re-St. G all l ay-out.

G ermany)

3 3.

H odges, B arker a nd W ade, E conomics ( London, 1 982),

D ark A ge

3 4.

U llmann, o p.

c it.,

3 5.

B elting,

c it., 4 2-53.

3 6.

H odges,

3 7.

C hronicon V ulturnense,

3 8.

I n w riting t his p aper I b egin t o a ppreciate t he e normous d ebt t hat

o p.

o p. c it., 1 32-35.

1 12;

R ichard H odges,

( note 2 9).

B arker a nd W ade, o p. I ,

c it.,

8 3-86;

F ig.9.

3 6-37.

I o we t o t he s upervisors a nd v olunteers w ho h ave V incenzo: D ebbie H odges a nd E . H ansen e xcavated

e xcavated a t S an t he c rypt c hurch;

S . M ithen a nd K . W ade s upervised t he s outh c hurch e xcavations; N . B aker, J . C lipson, L . E lmhirst, C . M offett a nd I . R iddler h ave v ariously s upervised

t he e xcavations o f t he l ower

t horoughfare a nd

r efectory ; J . C lipson a nd D . W ilkinson s upervised t he f irst t err ace e xcavations; J . M oreland d irected t he e xcavations i n t he a rea s outh o f t he v ineyards ( trenches F F, H H a nd J J); N . B aker, C . C outts,

E .

H ansen a nd J .

N owakowski s upervised e xcavations

o f

t he

c emetery ; D enys D ennehy a nd S imon P robert a cted a s s urveyors, w hile S imon P robert, J im S ymonds a nd T om L oader a cted a s w illing b ulldozers w herever t hey w ere n eeded . J udy S tevenson o rganized t he f inds' p rocessing. I n t his s urvey o f t he e xcavations, a s v arious t hreads a re d rawn t ogether, Ia m a lso c onscious o f t ant d iscussions o ver t he y ears w ith A manda C laridge,

3 4

i mporS heila

G ibson, A ngelo P antoni a nd, o f c ourse, J ohn M itchell. f riends a nd m any o thers I o we a g reat d eal.

3 5

T o t hese

C hapter 2 :

A M ONASTIC W ORKSHOP A ND G LASS P RODUCTION A T S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO, M OLISE, I TALY b y J ohn M oreland

I ntroduction

t ion

T he S an V incenzo p roject b egan i n 1 980, a nd a p rogramme o f e xcavaand f ield s urvey h as t aken p lace e very s eason s ince t hen i n t he

t erra ( the e states) o f t he n inth c entury m onastery o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno. T he a ims o f t he p roject w ere s everal a nd h ave b een s et o ut i n d etail e lsewhere. 1 I n b rief t hese w ere t o u nderstand t he t opography o f

a2 m onastery o f t his p eriod i n t he l ight o f r ecent w ork b y H orn

a nd

B orn, a nd t o d etermine t he n ature o f t he r elationship b etween t his ( and e arlier) c entral p lace a nd t he s ettlements i n t he s urrounding r egion. U ntil t he s tart o f t he 1 983 s eason, e xcavation i n t he m onastery h ad c oncentrated o n t wo c hurches ( the " South C hurch" a nd t he C rypt C hurch) a nd o n a l ong t horoughfare a nd p art o f t he m onastic r efectory t o t he s outh. A s c an b e s een f rom t he o ther p apers i n t his v olume a nd f rom t he p revious r eports, t he a mount o f i nformation o btained f rom t he e xcavations w as p henomenal, c learly i llustrating t he c hanging n aturi m edieval t imes.

o f t he s ettlement

f rom l ate R oman

t hrough

t o

e arly

I n 1 983 w e d ecided t o t ry t o l ocate a nd e xcavate f urther a reas o f t he m onastic s ettlement, s pecifically t he c loisters, i n o rder t o u nders tand t he s ite c omprehensively. H orn a nd B orn's w ork w ould s uggest t hat t he c loistral a rea l ies t o t he s outh o f t he m other c hurch o f t he m onastery.

A t S an V incenzo

t his

i s p robably a l arge,

w ell c onstructed

b uilding i n a v ineyard a bout 1 00m t o t he s outh o f t he p revious s easons e xcavations ( Fig.2:1). 4 F ield s urvey a nd l imited e xcavations i n 1 981 h ad s uggested t hat a l arge b uilding o r g roup o f b uildings c ould l ie i n t he f ields t o t he s outh o f t his c hurch. T wo p arallel n orth-south b reaks i n s lope h ad b een l ocated, s tretch o f u pstanding w all w hich,

a bout 1 50m a part, a long w ith a s hort w ith t he b reaks i n s lope, m ight f orm

t hree s ides o f a l arge r ectangular s tructure ( Fig.2:1). I n 1 980, f ield w alking t eams h ad f ound l arge q uantities o f t ile, p ainted w all p laster a nd s ome e arly m edieval p ottery i n a nd a round t his p roposed s tructure. T he f act t hat t here w as a s tructure o f s ome k ind h ere w as d emonstrated i n 1 981 w hen b uilding d ebris a nd a s mall a rea o f t iled f loor w ere f ound i n a t est t rench e xcavated c lose t o t he e astern b reak i n s lope. W e d ecided t o t est t he i dea t hat t his w as t he c loister o f t he 9 th c entury m onastery b y p utting t renches ( FF, G G, H H) a cross t he b reaks i n s lope a nd t he w all, a s a p relude t o a m ore e xtensive s eries o t e xcavations s hould t he r esults p rove e ncouraging. T he r esults w ere i ndeed e ncouraging, b ut n ot i n t he w ay w e e xpected. A lthough w alls w ere f ound i n a ll t hree t renches, i t s oon b ecame c lear t hat s ome o f t hese r elated n ot t o a c loistral a rea b ut t o a s eries o f w orkshops. T his w as a n i mportant d iscovery, s ince t he p roductive, a s o pposed t o t he r eligious, a spect o f m onastic l ife w as o ne w e h ad e ncountered o nly b riefly b efore 3 7

3 8 t h e p r o p o s e d

o f S a n V i n c e n z o

( in

t he

" South

C hurch"),

a nd

w as

a n a spect

w hich

n eeded

t o

b e

c omprehended i n o rder t o f ulfil t he a ims o f t he p roject. T here w as n ow a g ood o pportunity t o l ook a t t he m onastery a s a p roductive c entre w ithin t he r egion , a nd t o s tudy t he p roductive c entre o f t he m onastery i tself

i n r elation t o

t he o ther b uildings.

D escription o f t he a rchaeological s equence A s i n m any o ther p arts o f I taly, d eep p loughing o f f ormerly p astor al o r o nly l ightly p loughed l and h as s tarted r ecently i n M olise. T his h as r esulted i n t he d estruction o f a g reat m any a rchaeological s ites. T he e xtent o f t he d amage w as f orcefully b rought h ome t o u s d uring t he e xcavations i n t his p art o f t he m onastic c omplex. I n t renches G G a nd H H t he w alls u ncovered w ere b adly d amaged b y r ecent p loughing a nd t he a rchaeological d eposits w ere t horoughly c ontaminated. E arly R oman C ampanian w ares, e arly m edieval r ed-painted w ares a nd m odern p ottery w ere p resent t hroughout t he s equence. I t w as o nly i n t rench F F t hat t he d amage t o t he a rchaeological d eposits a nd s tructures w as m inimal. 5 I n f act t he f inds f rom F F w ere s o s pectacular t hat i t b ecame t he f ocus o f t wo s easons w ork , a nd p rovides t he b asis f or t he r est o f t his p aper. T he o riginal t rench w as e nlarged s everal t imes, b ut i n t he d escription t hat f ollows t he s equence o f e vents i n t he w hole e xcavated a rea w ill b e o utlined, a nd n ot e ach s eason's w ork s eparately. T his i s n ecessary a s t he f eatures u ncovered f orm p art o f a w orkshop c omplex a nd c an b est b e u nderstood A t

i n r elation t o e ach o ther.

t he b ase o f

t he a rchaeological s equence w as a t hick

l ayer

o f

g rey-green c lay w hich s howed s igns o f g leying a nd m ottling i n t he d eeper p arts. I t c ontained h undreds o f s mall, a braded s herds o f e arly R oman p ottery, m uch o f i t t he f ine C ampanian-type w ares. T his p ottery m ust h ave c ome f rom a n earby e arly R oman s ite. 6 T he c lay s tratum a ppears t o b e a w ater-lain d eposit b ut a s y et w e c an s ay l ittle a bout i ts p recise d ate a nd t he c ircumstances o f i ts f ormation. I t w as d irectly o n t op o f t his c lay t hat t he m onastic w orkshops w ere b uilt. T he w orkshop c omplex c an b e d ivided

i nto

t wo p arts,

b oth i n t erms

o f s tructure a nd f unction. 4 003 a nd 4 008 ( Fig.2:2).

T he f irst i s t hat c ontained b etween w alls T his w ill b e c alled " the w orkshop" i n t he

r est

i s

o f

t his

p aper s ince i t

i n t his b uilding t hat w e h ave

e vidence

f or s everal d ifferent c rafts t aking p lace. T he s econd a rea l ies t o t he w est a nd w as a lmost c ertainly t he c entre o f g lass p roduction i n t he m onastery. W e s hould, h owever, l ook u pon b oth a s b eing p art o f a w orkshop c omplex, t he p roducts p roduce t he f inished a rticles.

f rom e ach b eing b rought

t ogether

t o

T he W orkshop

i n

T here w ere s everal p hases o f b uilding, r ebuilding a nd d emolition t his w orkshop a rea. T he p hases a re r epresented o n F ig.2:7. T he

p hase

n umbers

a re

t hose d efined b y H odges

f or

t he m ain e xcavations

H odges, C hapter 1 ), a nd t heir a pplicaton h ere m ust b e r egarded p rovisional. T hey a re u sed i n a n a ttempt t o g ive g reater u nity t o

( see a s t he

o verall s ite d escription, a nd t o g ive a m ore p recise i mpression o f t he n ature o f t he m onastery t hrough t ime. T he d ates g iven w ith t hese p hase n umbers a re d erived f rom a s tudy o f t he w orkshop c omplex i tself.

3 9

t he s tratigraphy a nd a rtefacts

i n

T he p hase 4 a/b w orkshop ( Fig.2:7:1)

c onsisted o f

t wo

l ong p arallel

w alls ( 4003) a nd ( 4008), b etween w hich l ay a y ellow m ake-up l ayer f or t he a ctual w orking s urface, a nd t hat s urface i tself. I t w as i n a nd o n t his s urface t hat w e f ound m ost o f t he r ange o f a rtefacts a nd t hat m ake t his s ite s o r ich a nd p otentially i mportant.

f eatures

A t

s everal p oints o n t he s urface, c lose t o t he w orkshop w alls, w ere h eavily b urnt f eatures, e asily d istinguishable f rom t he

s urface o range,

i tself b y t heir c olour ( ranging f rom b lack , t hrough r ed a nd t o w hite) a nd c onsistency ( Fig.2:7:1). W e s uggest t hese w ere

t here

s mall h earths. W e h ad t ime t o e xcavate o nly o ne o f t hese ( 4058). I t c onsisted o f a s hallow d epression c ut i nto t he y ellow m ake-up l ayer, a nd t hen r efilled w ith t he u nderlying g rey-green c lay m entioned a bove. T his f ill e ven c ontained t wo s mall s herds o f e arly R oman s igillata. O n t op o f, a nd p artially s et i nto t his c lay w ere s ome l arge r ocks. T hese w ere i n t urn c overed w ith c he w orkshop s urface o n w hich t he b urning t ook p lace. A round t he e xcavated h earth ( the s outh-east o ne i n F ig.2:7:1) w ere m any m etal o bjects, i ncluding b ronze a nd i ron k eys, n ails, c ut l ead a nd s lag, a nd t en p ointed i ron o b . jects w hich h ave b een p rovisionally i dentified a s a rrowheads ( Fig.2:3). 1 B eside t he s outhw est h earth ( 4052) w ere s everal b urnt m ussel s hells a nd s ome c arbonized h azel n ut s hells. M ore s ignificantly t here w as a s mall c rucible, w ith a r esidue o f m etal s till i n i t, c lose t o a nother o f t hese h earths. V arious p ieces o f f inished a nd u nfinished m etal w ere f ound s cattered o n t he w orkshop s urface. T hese

" hearths"

w ere p robably s mall w ork f urnaces u sed i n

w orking i n t he w orkshop.

I t i s p robable,

h owever,

t hat

o ther

m etal c rafts

w ere b eing p racticed h ere t oo. B one m ay h ave b een w orked, t o j udge f rom a s mall n umber o f d ecorated p ieces f ound, a nd g lass a nd e namel m ay a lso h ave b een u sed s ince t here w ere s ome f ragments o f b oth on t he w orkshop f loor. T heophilus, a 1 2th c entury G erman m onk a nd a rtisan w ho w rote

a

t reatise o n t he c rafts o f

t he p eriod,

t ells u s

t hat

a ll

o f

t hese a ctivities t ook p lace i n t he w orkshops o f a m onastery . H e a lso d escribes t he l ayout o f a t ypical w orkshop, h ow i t s hould b e d ivided u p i nto s everal p arts e ach d evoted t o t he w orking o f s ome p articular m etal, a nd h ow t he h earths a nd w ork f urnaces f or e ach o f t hese s ectors s hould b e c onstructed. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he b asic c onstituent o f t hese

f urnaces s eems

t o h ave b een c lay.

8

A t s ome s tage a fter t he c onstruction o f t he w orkshop w alls, t he b uilding w as g iven a l arge, s outh-facing, d oor. T his d oor w as s upport ed b y t wo m arble d oor-jambs ( probably r eused p arts o f a R oman m onum ental t omb), t he i nsertion o f w hich n ecessitated t he c utting b ack o f w all 4 003. T he f act t hat t his w all h ad t o b e c ut s uggests t hat a d oor o f a p articular w idth w as r equired, a nd t herefore t hat s omething o f t hat w idth h ad t o e nter. A c art o r s ome s imilar v ehicle w as p erhaps o ccasionally d riven i nto t he f ront ( south) p art o f s ibly t o d eliver r aw m aterials s uch a s w ood, o r, a way

t he

f inished p roducts.

T o

t he s outh o f

t he w orkshop, l ess l ikely , t o

t he d oor-jambs w as a s mall

t rench l ike f eature ( the b eam-slot o n F ig.2:2). T his c ontained c harcoal a nd m ay h ave a t o ne t ime h eld a w ooden l intel t o f orm a t hreshold

f or v ehicles e ntering a nd l eaving

p ost ake m uch f irm

t he b uilding.

T he s mall s ize o f t he w ork f urnaces, a nd t he t iny c rucible c ont aining t he m etal r esidue, s uggest t hat m ainly s mall s cale, d etailed w ork w as c arried o ut h ere. T his i s a lso s uggested b y t he s mall n umber 4 0

L i .

p .1

4 1

B U R N T C L A Y ( H E A R T H S )

C H A R C O A L

M O R T A R F L O R

t h e e x c a v a t e d a r e a o f t h e g l a s p r o d u c t i o n a n d

o f

t iny b ronze d roplets f ound t rampled i nto

t he w orkshop

f loor.

T aking

a ll t his i nto c onsideration, a nd r ecognizing t he f act t hat t here w as a g lass p roduction c entre w ithin t he w orkshop c omplex, w e m ight w onder i f i t w as h ere t hat a f ragment o f a n e namelled r eliquary c over, f ound i n t he

c oursg

o f

t he

1 983

e xcavations

o f

t he

r efectory,

w as

m ade

( Fig.7:1). W e m ight g o f urther a nd s peculate a s t o w hether t his w as a w orkshop p roducing g oods p rimarily f or u se b y t he e cclesiastical c ommunity a t S an V incenzo. t he

g lass

c omplex ,

a nd

C hemical a nd p hysical a nalyses o f

e namel o bjects

f rom d ifferent p arts

c urrently b eing c arried o ut, m ay h elp u s

o f

s ome

t he

o f

m onastic

t o p rove t his.

1 0

T he G lass P roduction A rea T he V incenzo

s uggestion t hat t here m ight h ave b een g lass p roduction a t S an f irst a rose i n 1 983 w ith t he d iscovery, i n t he a rea i mmedi-

a tely t o t he s outh w est o f t he w orkshop, o f s ome s mall s herds o f w hat l ooked l ike h eavily g lazed p ottery. I nitially t hese w ere t hought t o b e s ome s trange k ind o f p ost-medieval w are, b ut i t q uickly b ecame a pparent t hat t his w as n ot t he c ase. 11 A s uggestion t hat t hey m ight b e g lassm elting

c rucibles

w as

s upported b y m any f inds o f

s lag a nd

p ieces

o f

g lass v essels. T he d iscovery, i n t he l ast f ew d ays o f t hat s eason , o f a f urnace s eemed c onclusive. I t l ay j ust t o t he w est o f w all 4 008 ( Fig.2:7;1). O riginally i t w as p robably i n a r oom o f w hich 4 306 w as t he s outhern w all. T he o ther w alls o f t his r oom, a nd i ndeed p arts o f t he f urnace i tself, w ere d estroyed e ither i n p hase f ive o r s even a nd w e c an o nly e stimate t heir p ositions. T he p rojected w alls i n F ig.2:7;1 a re b ased o n t he d imensions o f a r oom c ontaining f urnace a t C orinth ( see n ote 1 5). T he

f urnace

w as

t otally u nlike t he s mall w ork

a

s imilar

f urnaces

s ized

i n

t he

w orkshop i tself ( see a bove) a nd i ndeed u nlike a nything f ound e lsewhere a t S an V incenzo ( Fig.2:5). I t c onsisted o f a l arge h eavily f ired t ile, m easuring a bout o ne m etre b y o ne m etre, s et o n t op o f l ayers o f a sh a s w ell a s a b rick-earth-like d eposit. A s mall w all ( 4319), o f t iles a nd m ortar s ix c ourses h igh, r emained o n i ts e astern s ide. T his w as b uilt a gainst t he w est w all o f t he w orkshop a s w ell a s a l arge s quared r ock t o t he n orth ( X o n F ig.2:7;1). T he l atter h ad t wo c ircular h oles c ut i nto i ts s ide. I t i s p ossible t hat t ogether, t his l ow w all a nd t he l arge r ock f ormed t he b ase f rom w hich t he a rch o f t he d ome o f t he f urnace w ould h ave s prung. 1 2 T he l arge t ile w as s urrounded b y s maller b roken, r eused t iles, m ost o f w hich h ad m akers m arks s imilar t o t hose f ound i n o ther p arts o f t he m onastery. T he w estern s ide o f t he f urnace h ad b een d estroyed i n t he 1 1th c entury b y t he c onstruction o f a l arge w all

( see a bove a nd F ig.2:2). E xcavation

o nly

v ery

r emembered, g reatly

o f

t he f urnace p roved d isappointing,

f ew f ragments o f p ottery,

u pon

w hich p art o f

h owever,

t hat

w hat p art t he

t he

a s

b one a nd g lass.

c ontents o f

c ontained s hould

t he f urnace w ould

i t p layed i n t he p roductive

f urnace w e h ad u ncovered.

i t I t

p rocess,

T heophilus

b e

d epend a nd

d escribes

o n t he

c onstruction o f t hree k inds o f f urnace, e ach o f w hich h ad h ad a d ifferent r ole i n g lass p roduction, a s w ell a s a nother f urnace i n w hich p ainted g lass w as f ired. 13 H e d escribes t he " kiln f or w orking g lass" a s h aving

t wo h earths,

a l ower o ne t o h old t he f ire,

a nd a n u pper o ne S ince t he

o n w hich t he c rucibles c ontaining t he g lass m ix w ere s et. 14 S an V incenzo f urnace w as d amaged a nd p artially d estroyed, p ossible

t o

s ay w hich,

i f a ny,

o f 4 2

t he

f urnace

t ypes

i t

i s

d escribed

n ot b y

T heophilus

i t w as,

o r e ven w hich p art o f

t he f urnace w e h ad f ound.

I t

a lso p roved d ifficult t o r econstruct t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f urnace, s omething t hat m ight h ave h elped u s e stablish i ts f unction. T his p roblem h as b een e ncountered b y o thers w ho h ave e xcavated g lass f urnaces o f t his p eriod, a nd s o t here a re f ew, i f a ny, p ublished r econstructions t o h elp u s. 15 D ocuments a re n ot h elpful e ither a s c ontemporary i llustrations d o n ot e xist, a nd t he b est k nown l ater o ne ( in an 1 1th c entury m anuscript f rom M onte C assino) i s c ontroversial. T he i llustration s hows a t hree-storied f urnace w ith f lames c oming t hrough t he w indows i n i ts s ides. T he a rgument c oncerns t he n ature o f t he g round p lan. S ome a uthorities a rgue f or a n o val g round p lan a nd s uggest t hat t he s hape o f t he w indows i s m eant t o s how c urvature o f t he f urnace w alls. O thers a rgue f or a s quare p lan o n t he b asis o f t he a pparently s quare n ature o f t he f urnace i llustrated. W hatever t he s hape o f t he g round p lan t his f urnace d iffers f rom t hose d escribed b y T heophilus i n t hat s everal o f t he s tages o f g lass w orking w ere c arried o ut i n o ne f urnace ( see n ote 1 3). The g lass p roduction c entre,

h owever,

c onsisted o f m ore t han j ust

t his f urnace, a nd i s i mportant b ecause w e a ppear t o h ave e vidence f or a r ange o f a ctivities i n w hich g lass w as u sed. W e h ave f ound a nd e xcavated a nother f urnace ( Fig.2:7;1), d ifferent i n c onstruction, s ize a nd p resumably f unction f rom t he o ne d escribed a bove. I t w as s maller a nd r ather m ore e phemeral, c onsisting o f t wo c lay b ased h ollows c ut i n t he o rangey-brown w orking s urface, a nd f illed w ith b urnt a nd h eavily f ired material. T he h ollows w ere a bout 8 0cm l ong, 5 0cm w ide, a nd 5 1 0cm d eep. T hey w ere s eparated b y a h eavily f ired r idge o f t he o rangeb rown c lay. A gain i t s eems u nlikely t hat w e w ill b e a ble t o s ay p recisely w orking. d eal o f

w hat p art U nlike t he

t his f urnace p layed i n g lass p roduction a nd f irst f urnace, h owever, i t d id c ontain a g reat

e vidence f or g lass a nd g lass-working.

One o f t he m ost c onvincing f inds i n t his r espect w as t he b ase o f a f airly l arge -p ot" s haped c rucible, w ith a bout 2 cms o f d eep b lue g lass r emaining f ragments

i nside ( Fig.2:4). T here w ere a lso m any c rucible f ragments, o f d ecorated a nd p lain v essel g lass, m any s mall f iligree

g lass r ods, a nd s ome c oloured g lass t esserae. S imilar f inds w ere m ade t hroughout t he g lass-working a rea, b ut e specially c oncentrated a round t his f urnace a nd a nother h eavily b urnt, t hough l ess w ell d efined f eature ( 4402) t o t he e ast ( Fig.2:7;1 a nd 2 :5). E ven t hough w e d o n ot k now t he f unction o f e ach f urnace o r o f t he s urrounding w orking a reas w e c an a ssert w ith s ome c onfidence, o n t he b asis o f t hese f inds, t hat a r ange o f g lass w orking a ctivities t ook p lace i n t his p art o f t he m onastery. T hese r anged f rom t he a ctual p roduction o f g lass a nd i ts w orking i n t he

i nto v arious s hapes, t o i ts i ncorporation w ith o ther m aterials w orkshop p roper t o p roduce l uxury e cclesiastical g oods ( see

b elow). F or t his r eason a lone t he f inds a t S an V incenzo a re s ignificant, a nd t heir i mportance f or a dding t o o ur k nowledge o f e arly m edieval g lass S ome g lass l ayers

t ime

p roduction i n g eneral w ill b e d iscussed b elow . i n t he c ourse i n t he 9 th c entury

f actory ( the s quare o ne) o f

t iles a nd

p laster,

t he m ain f urnace

c eased p roduction. w ith a f inal

t ile

i n t he

I t w as c overed f loor

( 4034)

o n

b y t op

( Fig.2:7;2). T he w est f ace o f w all 4 008 w as p lastered a nd c overed w ith p ainted d esigns i n r ed, b lue, a nd w hite. W e f ound o nly f ragments o f t his p laster, t hough t here w as e nough t o s uggest t hat t he b uilding w as n ow d ecorated i n am anner m ore a kin t o t hat f ound i n t he r est o f t he 4 3

m onastery,

a nd

v ery

d ifferent

f rom t he s imple w hite

w alls

o f

t he

w orkshop. I n t he d estruction l ayers o f t his b uilding ( see b elow) t here w ere t iles d ecorated w ith i nscribed c urves a nd s mall s pirals, i ntended t o c reate t he i mpression o f s mall c apitals. T hese m ay h ave c ome f rom a c ornice a t t he t op o f t he w all, u nder t he e aves, a long t he f ront o f t he b uilding. T he n ature o f t hese f inds s uggests a v ery d ifferent f unction f or t his b uilding. I t m ay h ave b een t he r esidential q uarter f or t he a rtisans i nvolved i n p roducing g lass a nd o ther p roducts i n t he w orkshop t o t he w est a nd

t his

t he r est o f

t he g lass w orks

t o t he s outh

( Fig.2:7;2).

T here i s g ood e vidence, p articularly f rom t he w orkshop , t hat a ll a ctivity c eased a bruptly w ith t he d estruction o f t he c omplex b y

f ire.

T he

e ntire

w orking s urface w as c overed w ith a t hick l ayer

o f

c harcoal. A s eries o f p osts a long t he i nside o f t he w orkshop w alls, a nd t he l intel i n f ront o f t he d oor, h ad a lso b een r educed t o c harcoal. T his d estruction l ayer w as c onsiderably t hicker i n t he a rea b etween t he t wo d oorjambs a nd c ontained s everal p lank-shaped p ieces, a s w ell a s p art o f t he l ock m echanism o f t he d oor, m ore a rrowheads ( see a bove), a nd a l ance h ead ( Fig.2:3;7). 1 6 O n t op o f, a nd p artially m ixed i n w ith t his l ayer n ear t he w estern d oorjamb w ere h undreds o f s herds o f p ottery w hich h ave s ince b een r econstructed t o f orm s everal c omplete v essels. M ost

w ere

t he r elatively f ine 9 th c entury r ed-painted w ares,

l east o ne w as o f a c oarser t ype. p ietra l ikely

I n t he s ame l evel a n a lmoi

b ut

a t

c omplete

o llare v essel w as f ound c lose t o t he e astern w all. I t i s t hat a ll t hese v essels w ere d estroyed a t t he s ame t ime a s t he

c omplex w as b urned d own. T he d estruction l ayers f rom t his c onflagrat ion c overed a ll t he e xcavated p arts o f t he w orkshop a nd t he p hase 5 a/b b uilding t o t he w est. T here w ere t races o f b urning i n t he g lass-producing a rea t o t he s outh b ut t his w as v ery s light. e vidence p oints t o a n i ntense b ut p aper b y H odges, t his v olume).

l imited

f ire

( see

t he

r emaining A ll t he p receeding

T he r eal q uestion m ust b e " how d id t he f ire s tart?" T he f act t hat t he w orkshop c ontained s everal o pen f urnaces a nd t hat t here w ere o thers i n t he a rea t o t he w est, m ust r aise t he p ossibility t hat t he d estruct ion w as c aused a ccidently.

I t w ould b e i mpossible t o f ind e vidence t o

p rove t his. A lternatively, t he d estruction c ould h ave b een d eliberate , a nd i n t his c ontext w e m ust c onsider a n e ntry f or t he y ear 8 81 A .D. i n t he C hronicon V ulturnense, t he 1 2th c entury c hronicle o f H ere t he c hronicler d escribes h ow, o n t he m orning o f O ctober o f t hat y ear, t he m onastery o f s acked b y a b and o f S aracens:

S an V incenzo w as

t he m onastery. t he 1 0th o f a ttacked

a nd

" i nito f edere, m ali e rgo a ccepta, e t s ponsione d ominis i llorum m alorum d uces e ffecti, ars m axima p ugnato r um n escientibus, v erso i tinere p s acrum m onasterium s ubito e x a dverso s uper c ircumdantes i gnibus i rruerunt, e umque u ndique c ombuserunt,

s anctos

eniores, e ciam s

q uos

i bidem

i nvenerunt, g ladiis n ecaverunt. ..extat i gitur s anctorum s anguis m onachorum p ro C hristo e ffusus, e videncia i ndicia h odieque d emonstrans, i llitis v el a spersis e iusdem e cclesie p arietum a c p avimentorum s axis e t T he d own

t he

l apidibus." 1 8

m onastery r iver

w as p illaged b y t he S aracens a nd

V olturno,

t o

C apua. 4 4

t he

I t i s p ossible

m onks t hat

f led, i n

t he

w orkshops, a nd i ndeed i n o ther p arts o f t he m onastery, w e h ave a rchaeological e vidence f or t his h istorically d ocumented e vent. B ut i s t here l ikely t o b e a ny b asis f or t his i nterpretation, o r i s i t m erely r omantic t hinking o n o ur p art? H ere w e m ust r eturn t o t he a rrow- a nd l ance-heads f ound i n t he d estruction l ayer a nd d escribed a bove ( Fig.2:3). A ccording t o D r. C laude B lair i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t hey a re " arrowheads d esigned t o b e f ired f rom t he o rdinary S aracenic c omposite

b ow."

T he

l ancelot

o ne

w ith

t he

s ocket

c ertainly

i s

( Fig.2:3;7) a nd t he o thers l ook l ike a rmour p iercers o f a k ind o f w hii4 e xamples h ave b een f ound, f or e xample, i n R ussia, f rom M ongol s ites." T his i s h ardly a bsolute p roof t hat w e h ave f ound a rchaeological e vidence f or t he A rab a ttack o n t he m onastery, b ut i t i s s ufficient t o e stablish a w orking h ypothesis w hich m ay b e t ested b y f urther r esearch. O n

t he

b asis o f

t his h ypothesis i t w ould b e p ossible t o d ate p recisely

a ll t he p ottery f ound i n t he w orkshop t o t he l ate 9 th c entury, i ndeed t o t he y ear 8 81 A .D.. T his w ould b e o f g reat v alue f or d ating t his p eriod i n t he r est o f t he m onastery, a nd i ndeed i n t he r est o f t he r egion. I t w ould p rovide t he f ixed p oint w hich c eramic s tudies o f t he p eriod i n s outh-central I taly s o b adly n eed, a nd w ould a llow a n ew a nd m ore s ecure c eramic t ypology t o b e c onstructed. The C hronicon r ecords t hat t he m onks r eturned t o 9 13/914 A .D., a nd l ater r ebuilt p arts o f t he m onastery,

t he s ite i n i ncluding t he

m other c hurch a nd t he c loisters. I n t he w orkshop a rea t here i s e vidence f or a p hase o f o ccupation p ost-dating t he 8 81 d estruction ( Fig.2:7;3). T here a re t wo b road w alls a bout s ix m etres a part, r unning n orth-south t hrough t he e xcavated a rea a nd p resumably b eyond. W all 4 033 w as b uilt a gainst t he e ast s ide o f 4 003. H owever, a s m entioned a bove, 4 056 c ut t hrough t he e arly 9 th c entury g lass f urnace, t he l ate 9 th c entury l evels a bove i t, a nd t he s outh w all o f t he o ld f urnace r oom ( 4306) ( Fig.2:2). T his l atter w all w as i ncorporated i nto a s eries o f r ooms r unning o ff w all 4 056. T he a rea t o t he n orth o f w all 4 306 w as n ow s ub-divided b y t he c onstruction o f w all 4 305 a nd a w attle a nd d aub p artition 4 310 ( Fig.2:7;3). E ntrance t o t he r ooms i n t his n ew a rrangem ent w as b y w ay o f a d oor c ut i n w all 4 306, l eading i nto a p assage c reated

b y

w all 4 305 a nd

t he p artition.

T his p assage

w as

s lightly

r aised a bove t he l evel o f t he c obble a nd p laster f loor i n t he r oom t o t he e ast. E xcavation s howed t hat t he m aterial u sed t o r aise t he l evel o f t he c entury o f t he s imilar

p assage p robably c ame f rom t he d estruction o f t he ( phase 5 a/b) r esidential c omplex o n t he s ame s ite.

l ater 9 th T he f loor

p assage c onsisted o f l ayers o f m ortar a nd p ainted p laster t o t hat f ound c lose t o w all 4 008 i n t he 9 th c entury l evels ( see

a bove). T o t he s outh o f t he r oom, a p laster s urface w as l aid o n t op o f t he o ld g lass-working a rea, a nd a gainst w all 4 306. B oth o n t his s urface, a nd o n t he s urfaces i nside t he r oom t here w ere d estruction l ayers - a t hick d eposit o f c harcoal, o ver w hich w as a l ayer o f b roken t iles v arying i n d epth f rom 2 -3cm t o 3 0-40cm. t he b uilding, w e f ound a w ood a xe/adze, w reck o f i n t he

t he Y assi A da, 7 th c entury.

B etween t hese l ayers, i nside s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t he

a B yzantine s hip l ost o ff t he c oast o f T urkey I n t he e xcavation r eport i t i s s uggested t hat

t hese t ools c ould h ave b een u sed f or c utting a nd c hopping a s w ell a s f or p ickaxing. 20 A part f rom t his o bject, f inds f rom t his a rea w ere r are, i n c omplete c ontrast t o t he a bundance o f m aterial f rom t he e arlier

p eriod. 4 5

F ig.

2 :3

S ome

" Saracenic"

a rrowheads

f rom t he d estruction l ayers

i n

t he w orkshops.

I I I l l a I I I I I l I I l I I l I l I l I I l I l I I I

F ig.

2 :4

P hotograph o f a c rucible b ase f rom t he g lass I t c ontains a bout 2 cm o f d eep b lue g lass.

4 6

p roduction a rea.

V I N C E N Z O A L V O L T U R N O

2 :5

P hotograph o f

t he s quare-shaped g lass f urnace.

E D . H O D G E S

F ig.

B A R I N T S E R I E S 2 5

in 11 11 i mi s I I I I S F ig.

2 :6

A s election o f g lass p roduction d ebris i ncluding c oloured a nd w aste.

t esserae,

4 7

f rom f eature 4 402,

f iligree r ods,

v essel

f ragments

W e h ave l ies

f ew c lues

t o t he s outh o f

t o w hat

t his b uilding w as u sed

t he p resumed m other c hurch,

f or b ut,

s ince i t

w e m ight r eturn t o o ur

o riginal t heory, a nd s peculate a s t o w hether i t m ight b e p art o f t he e leventh c entury c loisters ( phase 7 ). T he t wo t hick w alls 4 056 a nd 4 003 ( Fig.2:7;3) c ould b e t he f oundations f or s ome o f t he m ajor w alls o f t he c loisters, a nd t he r ooms f ound t o t he w est o f w all 4 056 m ight b e s ome s tore-rooms w ithin t he c loistral c omplex. T his w ould a ccord w ith t he r ange o f b uildings w e w ould e xpect t o f ind i n t he e ast r ange o f t he I n t he l ate 1 1th c entury t he m onks s hifted c loisters a t t his t ime. 21 t he s ite o f t he m onastery a cross t he r iver V olturno, a nd t he C hronicon r ecords t hat l arge p arts o f t he o ld m onastery w ere s ystematically d emolished t o p rovide b uilding m aterials f or t he n ew s ite. T he d estruction l ayers, a nd i ndeed i ndicators o f t his e vent. A s

w ith

t he

r est

o f

t he a dze,

t he

a re p ossible a rchaeological

m onastery,

h owever,

w e

h ave

m ost

i nformation f rom t he 9 th c entury p hases. T his w as t he p eriod w hen t he m onastery r eached i ts z enith, t hrough i ts l inks w ith t he o u Hide w orld, a nd i n l arge m easure a s a r esult o f C arolingian p atronage. I n m any w ays t he f inds w e h ave m ade, e specially t hose r elating t o g lass p roduction r eflect t he w ider E uropean d imension o f t he C arolingianp eriod w ithin

m onastery. W e a " world-view",

m ust n ow a ttempt t o p lace w hat w e h ave a nd e xamine s ome o f t he q uestions o f

f ound g lass

p roduction i n e arly m edieval E urope. A E uropean P erspective F urnace s hape a nd t he u se o f n atron A s m entioned a bove,

f ew g lass w ork nops o f

t his p eriod a re k nown,

a nd f ewer f urnaces h ave b een e xcavated. N evertheless a c ontroversy h as d eveloped o ver t he f orm t aken b y n orth a nd s outh E uropean f urnaces a t t his t ime. I n t he R oman p eriod t he m ethods f or m aking g lass a re t hought t o h ave b een s tandardized t hroughout E urope. A ccording R .J. C harleston, h owever, " with t he b reakdown o f t he E mpire ..

t o a

c leavage s eems t o h ave d eveloped b etween t he p ractice i n t he n orth a nd t hat o f t he s outh, p erhaps c aused b y t he d ifficulty, e xperienced i n t he n orth, o f o btaining s oda-ash w hich w as a M editerranean s pecial ty, a nd 4 T his a c onsequent r eliance o n t he a shes o f i ndigenous p lants .2 c leavage i s b elieved t o b e r eflected i n t he f orm o f t he f urnaces i n t he r espective a reas; a r ectangular g roundplan w as p redominantly u sed i n t he n orth, a nd a n o val o r r ound o ne i n t he s outh. T his d ivision i s n ot u niversally r ecognized, a nd n ew e vidence f rom r ecent e xcavations i s b eginning t o c hallenge i ts v alidity. A nalyses o f t he g lass d ebris f rom M iddle S axon c ontexts a t C oppergate, Y ork , h ave s hown n atron w as p robably u sed. I ndeed s ome n atron, i n i ts r aw f orm, w as f ound i n t he T he u se o f n atron i n g lass i n p ost-Roman c ourse o f t he e xcavations. 25 E urope h as b een f urther d emonstrated b y t he e nergy d ispersive, x -ray f luorescence a nalysis o f g lass f rom v arious s ites i n B ritain, b y a t eam T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat a " reliance b ased a t B radford U niversity. 26 o n t he a shes o f i ndigenous p lants" b ecame g reater i n n orth-west E urope t owards t he e nd o f t he f irst m illennium, b ut t he r esearch c ited a bove s hows t hat n atron w as s till a vailable a nd u sed u p u ntil a t l east t he 9 th c entury a nd p ossibly b eyond. T his h as a f ar-reaching s ignificance i n

t erms o f 9 th c entury t rade a nd c ultural c onnections

b etween B ritain

a nd t he r est o f E urope. T he n ature o f t he e conomy a t t he t ime p robably m eant t hat g enerally o nly s mall l uxury p roducts w ere c arried o ver l ong 4 8

d istances.

T his

l uxury

c ategory

s hould f it n atron w ell

g iven

i ts

i mportance i n g lass p roduction a nd t he l ong d istances o ver w hich i t h ad t o b e c arried. I t h as n ow b een d emonstrated t hat p roducts l ike t his c ertainly r eached t he n orthern p arts o f E urope b y w ay o f a n e xtensive t rading n etwork l inking t hese a reas w ith t he e ast M editerranean a nd t he N ear E ast, e en i ntermediaries. 4 1 T he

a nalysis

a dvanced f or u s c ontribute t o

t he

o f

B altic

a nd

S lavic

p eoples

w ere

t he g lass f rom S an V incenzo i s n ot

a cting

f ar

a s

e nough

t o a dd t o t he d ebate o n t he u se o f n atron, b ut w e c an t he a llied q uestion o f f urnace s hape. S an V incenzo,

l ying a s i t d oes i n s outh-central I taly s hould f all f irmly i nto t he r ound/oval" t radition o f g roundplan. W hat r emains o f t he m ain f urnace s uggests, h owever, t hat t he o riginal s tructure w as s quare o r r ectangul ar, e ven A .D.

p erhaps s imilar t o s ome d escribed b y T heophilus. A f urnace f ound f urther s outh, i n C orinth, t hough d ating f rom t he 1 2th c entury i s

a lso s quare.

T his

a ll s uggests

t hat

t he n orth/south d ivision i n f urnace

s hape

m ight b e a m yth b ased o n t he s tudy, o r a vailability, o f t oo l ittle m aterial. I ndeed w e m ust a sk w hy t here s hould b e s uch a d ivision, a nd w hy s hould i t b e l inked t o t he l ack o f s oda-ash i n t he n orth o f E urope? I n t his r espect i t i s a ppropriate t o e xamine a p oint m ade b y D ekowna w ho h as a rgued t hat e thnographic p arallels s hould b e s tudied t o a g reater e xtent f or i nformation o n t he o rganization o f g lass p roduction, p roduction m ethods t hemselves, a nd d istribution n etworks. E xperimental a rchaeology c ould a lso h ave a r ole t o p lay i n p roviding n ew i nformat ion, e specially o n t he a dvantages o f c ertain g grnace s hapes a nd r elationship o f t hese t o t he r aw m aterials u sed.

t he

T he f iligree g lass r ods T hese f iligree r ods ( otherwise k nown a s n etwork/lace/reticelli c anes) w ere f ormed o f y ellow o r w hite o paque t hreads s piralled a round a s lender c olumn o f c olourless g lass b etween o ne a nd t hree m illimetres t hick . T he r ods w ere r arely m ore t han t hree c entimetres l ong, t hough m ost o f t hem w ere b roken o r m elted a t t he e nds ( Fig.2:6). T his t ype o f r od w as f irst d eveloped s omewhere i n t he e ast M editerranean i n t he H ellenistic a ge, p ossibly i n t he 2 nd o r 3 rd c entury B .C. G lass v essels w ere p roduced f rom t hem b y l aying t he r ods i n s piralling r ows m ould t o f orm t he b ody o f t he v essel. ..Once t he c anes w ere

i n a f used

t ogether b y t he h eat o f t he f urnace, t he r esulting v essel e xhibited a ' lacy e ffect w ith d elicate w hite o r y ellow t hreads i nterspersed i n a c olourless m atrix. . 29 T his m ethod w as a dopted l ater a nd a dapted b y a rtisans i n I taly. I t i s g enerally t hought t hat g lass-production o n a l arge s cale w as i ntroduced t o I taly i n t he m id- t o l ate i st c entury I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat o ne B .C. b y A lexandrians a nd S yrians. 30 o f t he s ites c hosen b y t hese i ncoming g lass w orkers w as a t t he m outh o f t he r iver V olturno. I ndeed i n h is " Natural H istory" t he E lder P liny m akes s pecial V olturno ( and)

m ention o f " the w hite s and w hich f orms i n t he r iver i s f ound a long s ix m iles o f t he s eashore b etween C uma

a nd L iterno. m ortar o r m ill.

W herever i t i s s oftest i t i s t aken t o b e g round i n a T hen i t i s m ixed w ith t hree p arts o f s oda, e ither b y

w eight o r b y m easure, a nd a fter b eing f used i s t aken i n i ts m olten s tate t o o ther f urnaces. T here i t f orms a l ump k nown t o t he G reeks a s " soda s and". T his i s a gain m elte4 a nd f orms p ure g lass, a nd i s i ndeed J a l ump o f p ure c olourless g lass". l I t i s p ossible t hat t hese s ands 4 9

w ere

u sed

i n t he 9 th c entury a t

S an V incenzo,

a nd m ay h ave b een

m ain r eason f or t he e stablishment a g lass i ndustry h ere a t t hat I t

i s a lso p ossible t hat w orkshops u sing V olturno

t he

t ime.

s ands m ade

s ome

o f t he b eautiful " network g lass" b ow 4k nown f rom e arly R oman s ites i n I taly a nd p arts o f n orth-west E urope. T he s ubsequent h istory o f t his t ype o f v essel i s h azy, a nd u se o f t he f iligree g lass r ods a ppears a gain

o nly t he 6 th c entury a nd t hen o nly i n p eripheral

c ontexts.

I n

E ngland i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies, a nd i n I reland i n t he 8 th a nd 9 th f or e xample, f iligree r ods w ere g enerally u sed t o m ake p endants a nd b eads.

I ndeed

3 3

t he

r ods u sed o n t he o rn eental p lates

f rom

W hitby

s eem v ery l ike t hose f ound a t S an V incenzo. 4 "S imilar f inds a lso o ccur i n S candinavia f rom a bout t his t ime. A t K aupang, a l ate 8 th t o e arly 1 0th c entury t rading s ite i n s outh e ast N orway, " the m ost t ypical o f t he o rnamental i tems a re f iligree b eakers w ith a s imple t hread p attern a nd w i g lass". D ecorated

i nlaid r ods s pun a bout w ith t hin t hreads o f w hite a nd y ellow F iligree r ods t hemselves w ere f ound a t K aupang a s w ell. v essel f ragments a re k nown f rom H elgö, V als Orde, B irka,

R ibe, a nd A arhus a s w ell a s S outhampton , and W hitby. T he r ods t hemselves a ppear t o h ave b een a bsent h owever.'° I t i s w orth p ointing o ut h ere t hat t he f iligree r ods a nd v essel f ragments f ound o n t he s ites m entioned a bove a nd a t S an V incenzo s how t hat a d ifferent t echnique w as b eing u sed t o m anufacture v essels i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod. T he r ods w ere a lso b eing u sed i n a d ifferent w ay. V essels m ade c ompletely o f t wisted g lass r ods w ere n o l onger p roduced; t he r ods w ere b eing u sed t o d ecorate o nly t he s ides a nd t ops o f p lain g lass v essels. H olmqvist a rgues t hat t he e xistence o f a m anufacturing

S candinavian f inds n eed n ot i ndicate t he

s ite

i n t he B altic r egion.

T he f act

t hat

a ll t he s ites m entioned a bove w ere i nvolved i n a t rading n etwork t hat e ncompassed m ost o f E urope a nd p arts o f t he N ear E ast a s w ell, a nd w ere t he h is

h omes o f s ome t rading a nd r aiding V ikings, g ives s ome s upport t o a rgument. H e s uggests i nstead t hat t he p roduction c entre f or t he

v essels, a nd p resumably f or t he r ods t oo, C ontinental E urope, p ossibly B elgium, F rance,

m ust l ie s omewhere i n o r, l ess l ikely, E ngland.

A m ajor p roblem , h owever, i s t hat t here h ave b een fe d, f inds o f t hese v essels a nd r ods i n C arolingian E urope. v essel

f ragments a re k nown f rom D orestad,

s ites,

t his

w as

i f a ny, r ecorded S ome d ecorated

b ut a s w ith t he

a t rading c omplex i nvolved

i n

t he

S candinavian

i mportation

a nd

e xportation o f g oods t o a nd f rom t he h eart o f t he C arolingian E mpire. W e r eally n eed t o f ind e xamples o f t hese v essels o r t he f iligree r ods, a nd m ferably t heir p roduction s ites, i n w estern E urope t o p rove t his i dea. H owever, w e s hould n ot d iscount t he i nfluence o f t he I slamic g lass i ndustry w hich w as p roducing f iligree g lass p roducts a t t his 3 8 t ime. T he

r arity o f

t his t ype o f

f ind

i n E urope m akes

t he d iscoveries a t

S an V incenzo i mportant. I t i s p robably e ven m ore s ignificant t hat t he r ods a nd d ecorated v essel f ragments w ere f ound i n t he s ame c ontexts, a nd t hat

t hey b oth h ad t he

s ame p attern.

I t

i s p ossible t hat t he r ods

a nd v essels w ere c ollected a s s crap g lass f or r ecycling a t S an c enzo. T his i s a w ell d ocumented p henomenon i n o ther a reas.

V inT he

c ollected g lass w as a dded t o n ew k etches o f r aw m aterial a s a f lux, l ower t he m elting t emperature.' T his h owever, i s p robably n ot

t o a

s atisfactory e xplanation f or t he g lass f inds a t S an V incenzo. T he f act t hat t he r ods w ere a ctually u sed i s s hown b y s ome o f t hem h aving m elted e nds,

a nd, m oreover,

i t

i s a lso

i mportant t o n ote t hat

5 0

t hey w ere f ound

i n a p lace w here t he t echnology,

i n t he f orm o f

t he f urnaces,

n ecessary

f or t he p roduction o f t he v essels a nd f or t heir d ecoration, w as r eadily a vailable. T he n ature o f t he g lass w orking i s a s ubject t hat w ill b e r eturned I n

t o b elow . v iew o f

t he e xtreme r arity o f

t his

t echnique i n E urope

i n

t he

e arly m edieval p eriod, w e m ust a sk , w here d id t he g lass m akers a t S an V incenzo c ome f rom, o r f rom w hom d id t hey l earn t heir c raft? T hree p ossibilities p resent t hemselves. T hese w ill o nly b e o utlined h ere s ince t heir f urther d iscussion w ould r equire a g reat d eal m ore r esearch a nd e vidence. F irstly, i t i s p ossible t hat s ome t radition o f g lass w orking p ersisted i n t he l ower V olturno v alley f rom R oman t imes, a nd t hat t his w as a dopted a nd d eveloped w ith t he a ggrandizement m onastery a t t he s ource o f t he r iver i n t he e arly 9 th c entury.

o f t he I ndeed

i t h as b een p ointed o ut e lsewhere t hat t he C hurch p layed a n i mportant p art i n e ncouraging h e r edevelopment o f t he g lass i ndustry i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod. '0 T he s econd p ossibility i s, t hat l ike m uch e lse a t S an V incenzo, t he t echnique w as i ntroduced f rom p roductionc entres a t t he h eart o f t he C arolingian E mpire, o r R ome, i mitating a nd d eveloping R oman m ethods. 41 A gain w e c onfront t he p roblem o f t he l ack o f r ecorded f inds i n t he s upposed p roduction a reas. F inally w e s hould, l ike H olmqvist, n ot I slamic c onnection.

t otally d ismiss

t he p ossibility o f

s ome k ind

o f

G lass making o r g lass m elting? I n

1 981 L undström p ointed o ut

t hat t here w ere t wo t ypes o f

g lass

w orkshop: A .

W orkshops w here g lass m etal w as m ade.

B .

W orkshops w hich b ased t heir p roduction o n m elting r aw m aterial ( scrap g lass) o btained f rom e lsewhere, a nd o thers w hich b ased t heir p roduction o n s emi-manufactured r ods) f rom o ther w orkshops."

H er

m aterial

( e.g.

g lass

r esearch l ed h er t o c onclude t hat o nly t ype B w orkshops e xisted i n

S candinavia t hat g lass

i n t he p ost R oman/early M edieval p eriod. S he s uggested w as n ot a ctually m ade i n t he r egion, a nd t hat t he l ocal

i ndustries d epended u pon o utside p roducers f or s upplies o f f inished a nd s econdary m aterials. L undström a lso o utlines t he f eatures i n t he a rchaeolo Acal r ecord m ost l ikely t o i ndicate t he e xistence o f a g lass w orkshop. T hese a re a s f ollows: 1 .Remains o f f urnaces, 2 .Crucibles, 3 .Tools, 4 .Primary r aw m aterial, 5 .Secondary r aw m aterial, 6 .Glass m etal f rom d ifferent p hases o f t he p rocess o f m elting, 7 .Unfinished p roducts, 8 .Wasters, a nd 9 .Finished p roducts. M any o f t hese c an b e f ound o n b oth t ype A a nd t ype B w orkshops, b ut s ome a re h ighly d iagnostic o f o nly g lass m aking s ites. U sing t hese c riteria w e c an s ay s omething

a bout t he " status"

o f

t he s ite a t S an V incenzo.

T hus

" the

r emains o f f urnaces s hould p resuppose t he m anufacture o f g lass m etal" a nd " crucibles w ith a ttached g lass m etal a re... t he b est p roof f or t he m anufacture o f g lass o n s ite". 43 T hese a re b oth f eatures w ell d ocumented t hat

i n t he w orkshop c omplex ,

g lass

w as

a ctually

a nd f urther s upport

m ade h ere c omes

i n t he f orm

f or t he o f

t he

i dea l arge

n umbers o f p ieces o f g lass s lag, w aste, a nd f rit f ound i n t he e xcavat ions ( Fig.2:6). T he a cquisition o f t he r aw m aterials f or p roducing t he g lass

s hould h ave p resented f ew p roblems. 5 1

T he h igh q uality o f t he

5 2

V olturno

s ands

f or g lass m aking h as a lready b een n oted,

a nd i t

w ould

h ave t aken t he e xistence o f o nly m inimal t rading c onnections t o s oda-ash f rom t he e ast M editerranean, ( see a bove a nd n ote 2 7).

b ring T he

p ossibility

s till

e xists,

t hat s crap g lass w as

h owever,

s imply m elted o n a l arge s cale

a nd g lass m aking i s n ot p roven.

T he d iscovery o f a g lass w orkshop a t S an V incenzo r einforces a n o bservation m ade b y L undström w ith r espect t o S candinavian a nd e ast E uropean g lass w orkshops t hat t his i s a n i ndustry c losely w ith n ucleated s ites, w ith t he c entral p laces o f a r egion.

a ssociated ( This t he

m onastery m ost c ertainly w as). S he c ontends t hat t his i s b ecause t he c raftsmen w ere d rawn t o t hese s ites b y t he e xistence o f a n a lready d eveloped d istribution s ystem. T his m ay h ave b een t he c ase a t S an V incenzo a s w ell, b ut l imited n egative e vidence f rom e xcavations a t C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia n earby s uggests t hat p roduction h ere w as m ainly f or t he m onastery i tself, a nd t hat t he e xistence o f t he i ndustry w as a n a spect o f t he p ower a nd p atronage o f t he C hurch t han

t t lx

n etwork.

e xistence

o f

a

r egional

o r

i nternational

r ather

d istribution

4

C onclusions T he m ost

s tartling f eature o f

t he e xcavations a t S an V incenzo

h as

b een t he v ast a rray o f a rtefacts a nd s tructures f ound. A part f rom s ome t rading s ites o n t he n orth E uropean l ittoral, t he r ichness o f t his s ite i s m ost u nparalleled i n e arly M edieval E urope. A s a r esult o f t his w e h ave b een a ble t o d ocument c learly t he c hanging n ature o f t he s ite a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno i tself f rom t he e arly R oman t hrough t o t he m edieval p eriods. B ut t o u nderstand h ow t he s ite f unctioned, t o s ee h ow a nd w hy i t d eveloped i n t he w ay i t d id, w e h ave t o p lace t he s ite i n a b roader p erspective.

W e h ave

t o l ook a t e xtra-regional i nfluences

( in t his c ase t he i nfluence o f C arolingian p atronage), r egional ( Beneventan) c ontext. I n

t he l atter r espect i t

o n r egional a nd s ite l evels. a nd

a nd a lso

i s m ost i mportant t o l ook a t T he f ield s urvey,

t he d ocumentary s tudy h ave e nabled u s

t he

p roduction

g eomorphological w ork,

t o m ake s ome s uggestions

o n

t he n ature o f a gricultural p roduction f rom t he l ate R oman p eriod o nwards. B ut u ntil 1 983 i t h ad n ot b een p ossible t o l ook a t p roductive a ctivities w ithin a ny o f

t he s ites

i n t he a rea.

T he e xcavations o f

t he

g lass-works a nd w orkshop c omplex h as c hanged t his a nd e nabled u s t o l ook a t c raft/industrial p roduction w ithin t he m onastic a rea, a nd t o e xamine t he r elationship b etween t his a spect o f p roduction a nd r egional a grarian p roduction. T his s uggests

p reliminary t hat

c rafts

s tudy o f

t he m aterial f rom t he

l ike t his w ere r estricted

t o

g lass r egional

w orkshop c entral

p laces l ike t he m onastery i n t he 9 th c entury. H ere t here w as a m arket, m aterials, a nd p atronage f or t he g lass w orkers. T he s ame a lso m ay h ave b een w as

t rue o f

o ther

s uch a c raft

" prestige" c rafts.

i s w ell k nown.

T hat g lass m aking a nd

w orking

I n t he m edieval p eriod i t w as a v ery

s ecretive i ndustry, w ith k nowledge o f p roduction t echniques b eing r estricted t o a s mall n umber o f p eople. 45 P erhaps t he n eed t o c ontrol t he i ndustry w as a s m uch a r eason f or m onastic p atronage a nd c entralp lace l ocation a s

t he d esire

t o p romote p roduction.

5 3

T he s mall s ize o f t he f urnaces a nd c rucibles l ends s upport t o t he i dea n oted a bove t hat o nly s mall-scale, i ntricate w ork w as c arried o ut h ere, a nd t hat r eliquary p iece, m ight

w ell

b e

p roduction w as p rimarily o f l iturgical g oods. T he d escribed b y J ohn M itchell e lsewhere i n t his v olume, a

t ypical p roduct o f

t he

w orkshop

c omplex,

t hough

c roziers, t huribles, c halices a nd a ll t he o ther p araphernalia n ecessary i n r eligious i nstitutions, a lso m ight h ave b een m ade o r d ecorated h ere. T his f rom

g ives t he i mpression o f a m onastery a t l east p artially i ts r egion. T hus m any o f t he g oods p roduced i n t he

w orkshops

w ere p robably n ot u sed t o r eciprocate t he f low

o f

i solated m onastic a grarian

g oods a nd p easant l abour i nto t he r eligious c omplex. T he m onastic o f t his r eciprocal e xchange w ould h ave b een p rovided b y p rayers

s ide a nd

i ntercessions w ith t he A lmighty. S ome w ould a rgue t hat t he e xchange w as h ardly r eciprocal, y et t he g oods m ade i n t he w orkshop w ere r egarded a s v ital

f or

T he r egional a re

t his

i ntercession.

w orkshop f inds a ppear t o s how c loser a ffinities w ith e xtraa reas. T he f iligree r ods a nd t he d ecorated g lass f ragments

f ound

w idely

o n t rading s ites

i n t he

m ost

n ortherly

p arts

o f

E urope, a nd t he p roduction s ites, a s y et u nknown, m ay l ie i n t he C arolingian h eartlands. I ndeed t he u se o f R oman t echniques o f g lass d ecoration a t S an V incenzo a ppears t o e cho t he r e-use o f R oman d esigns, m arbles, e tc. i n t he C arolingian-period m onastery, a nd m ay b e a f urther r eflection l egitimize

o f t he a ttempt t heir a uthority

b y t he e lite o f t he t ime t o f urther b y h arking b ack t o a p revious p eriod o f

I mperial g randeur. T he r esults o f

t he w ork a t S an V incenzo h ave

s hown,

e ven i n t hese

e arly s tages o f a nalysis, t hat i t i s a bsolutely n ecessary t o h ave a m ulti-disciplinary p roject b efore v alid a ssertions a bout t he p ast b ased o n a rchaeological w ork c an b e m ade. T he s tudy o f a s ingle s ite i s a ll v ery w ell i n i tself, b ut i t h as t o b e p ut i n i ts p roductive, d istribut ional,

a nd

i deological c ontexts b efore t he r esults h ave a ny m eaning.

T he a bility t o d o j ust t his i s p erhaps t he m ost s ingular a spect o f t he S an V incenzo P roject, a nd d epends o n t he e xcavations o f a reas l ike t he w orkshop c omplex.

5 4

N otes 1 .

T he

t hree

m ain

a ims o f

t he p roject a re d etailed

i n

R .

H odges,

E xcavations a nd s urvey a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, M olise, 1 981, A rcheologia M edievale I X ( 1982), 2 99-310. T he p roject h as n ow b een i n p rogress f or f ive y ears a nd o bviously f urther a ims a nd o bjectives h ave b een f ormulated p roject i ncreased. T he m ajor a ims, H orn a nd E .

a s t he s ize a nd s cope o f h owever, r emain t he s ame.

2 .

S ee W .

3 .

I nterim r eports a re p ublished a nnually i n A rcheologia M edievale. T hus, s ee R . H odges, ' Excavations a nd s urvey a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, 1 980 , H odges, o p. c it.

B orn, T he P lan o f S t.

G all,

A rcheologia M edievale V III n ote 1 ; R . H odges a nd J .

B erkeley,

t he

( 1981), 4 83-92; R . M itchell, T he S an

V incenzo p roject 1 982: T he t hird i nterim r eport. A rt - T erritory', A rcheologia M edievale X ( 1983), H odges, ' Excavations ( Molise): a f ourth

a nd s urvey a t i nterim r eport',

1 979.

A rchaeology 3 63-380; R .

S an V incenzo a l V olturno A rcheologia M edievale X I

( 1984), ( in p ress). T his l ast i nterim c ontains a s hort a ccount o f t he f inds i n t he w orkshop a rea i n t he 1 983 s eason o nly. D etailed p apers o n e lsewhere.

s pecific S ee R .

a spects o f t he p roject h ave b een p ublished H odges e t a l, ' Excavations a t V acchereccia

entury s ettlement i n t he ( Rocchetta N uova): a s eventh t o t welfth c ritish S chool a t R ome 5 2 V olturno v alley , M olise', P apers o f t he B ( 1984), ( in p ress); a nd R . H odges a nd H . P atterson, ' Pottery f rom t he 5 th t o 1 0th p roduction a nd d istribution i n M olise c enturies A .D.', i n P . A rthur a nd D . W hitehouse d ell'Italia M eridionale: P roduzione e M ercato ( Florence, 4 .

W .

i n p ress).

H orn a nd E .

c hell,

( eds.), L a C eramica t ra V e X s ecolo

o p.

B orn,

c it:

o p.

F ig.2:2

c it,

n ote 2 .

S ee R .

H odges a nd J .

M it-

roposed c loistral f or a d iagram o f t he p

a rea. 5 .

D amage w as s light h ere p robably b ecause t he m odern f ield w all, c lose t o w hich t he t rench w as l ocated, p revented t he p loughs f rom e ncroaching o n t he s ite. d amage d one. p loughmarks, a rea.

6 .

S ee J .

T he a rea h ad b een p loughed,

h owever,

a nd

S ome o f t he w alls, e specially 4 306, w ere s cratched b y a s w ere s ome o f t he s urfaces i n t he g lass p roducing

P atterson's

p aper i n t his v olume,

f or a d iscussion o f

t he

e arly R oman s ettlement e vidence i n t he u pper V olturno v alley. 7 .

T hese w ere

i dentified a s s uch b y D r.

A lbert M useum , 8 .

T heophilus,

B lair o f

t he V ictoria a nd

L ondon. D e D iversis A rtibus.

" The V arious A rts, 9 .

C .

L ondon,

1 961,

T ranslated

b y

C .R.

D odwell,

3 6ff.

F or a n e laboration o f t his i dea a nd a d etailed d escription o f r eliquary p iece s ee J . M itchell's p aper i n t his v olume.

5 5

t he

1 0.

S pecial

t hanks

a rranged

m ust

h ere b e o ffered t o

f or t he w ork t o b e d one a t

D r.

D .

W hitehouse

t he C orning M useum

o f

w ho

G lass,

C orning, N .Y., a nd t o D r. B rill w ho w ill c arry o ut t he a nalyses. P reliminary a dvice o n t he m aterial w as g iven b y M r. J . S medley a nd D r. M . C able a t t he D ept. o f C eramics, G lasses a nd P olymers, U niversity o f S heffield. 1 1.

S imilar s herds w ere f ound d uring t he e xcavations Y ork . H ere t oo t hey w ere t hought t o b e " medieval, o r e ven m odern". D ig

1 2.

( London,

T his s eems

S ee R .

1 984),

H all,

a t C oppergate, p ost-medieval,

T he E xcavations a t Y ork :

T he V iking

4 3-45.

t o h ave b een t he f unction o f

s imilar t ile w alls

f ound i n

a 1 3th c entury t ile k iln i n E ast A nglia. A lthough t he p roduct, t he l ocation a nd t he p eriod a re a ll f ar r emoved f rom 9 th c entury I taly, i t i s t he f unction o f t hese w alls w ithin t he f urnace s tructure t hat i s i mportant. S ee J . S mallwood, ' A m edieval t ile k iln a t A bbey F arm , S houldham', E ast A nglian A rchaeology 8 ( 1978), 4 5-54. 1 3.

T heophilus, d escribes

o p.c it. n ote 8 , 3 8-39 a nd 5 1-53. A lthough T heophilus t hree d ifferent f urnaces f or t he v arious a spects o f g lass

p roduction, i t i s e qually p ossible t hat a ll t he f unctions w ere i ncorporated i n o ne f urnace c omplex. T hus t here i s a 9 th c entury d escription o f a S yrian g lass f urnace w ith t hree s tories. T he l ower

o ne h eld t he f ire,

t he c entral o ne t he c rucibles c ontaining

t he g lass m ix, a nd t he u pper o ne w as f or a nnealing t he v essels a fter m anufacture. A s imilar t hree s toried f urnace i s i llustrated i n a n 1 1th c entury m anuscript f rom M onte C assino, o nly 4 0km f rom S an V incenzo. B oth e xamples a re r eferred t o b y R .J. C harleston, ' Glass f urnaces t hrough t he a ges', J ournal o f G lass S tudies 2 0 ( 1978), 1 0-11. 1 4.

T heophilus,

1 5.

F or r eports o n t he e xcavation o f s ee J . r eport', G .R.

o p.

c it.

n ote 1 3,

3 8. s ome e arly m edieval g lass

B ayley, ' Glass-working o n C oppergate, Y ork: I nterim 9 (1) ( 1983), 2 7-29; C harleston, o p.

D avidson,

' A

m edieval g lass

f actory

a t

f urnaces

a n i nterin c it., 9 -34;

C orinth',

A merican

J ournal o f A rchaeology 4 4 ( 1940), 2 97-324; L . L eciejewicz, E . T abaczynska, a nd S . T abaczynska, T orcello. S cavi 1 961-62. ( Roma, I nstituto N azionale d 'Archeologia e S toria d ell'Arte, M onographie 3 , 1 977); D .B. H arden a nd C .A.R. R adford, T he e xcavations o f G lastonbury A bbey', S omerset a nd D orset N otes a nd Q ueries X XVII ( 1955), 1 6.

1 -6.

S imilar

l ock

o f

t he

p eriod.

A t

f rom

S an

V incenzo, G regor,

t hough t hey w ould h ave w orked i n t he s ame w ay: A . A nglo-Scandinavian F inds f rom L loyds B ank, P avement,

M ca nd

o ther s ites 1 7.

m echanisms

h ave b een f ound o n s everal

Y ork t he e xamples a re s maller

( London,

1 982),

8 0-83.

S ee t he p aper b y H elen P atterson i n t his v olume.

5 6

s ites

t han t he o ne

1 8.

C hronicon V ulturnense d el m onaco G iovani

- e d.

V .

F ederici,

1 ,

R oma, 1 925, 3 64. T he f ollowing t ranslation o f t he p assage q uoted w as s upplied b y D r. J . M olyneux, D ept. o f C lassical S tudies, U niversity o f S heffield " After

t he p ledge h ad b een a ccepted

a nd

t he

p act e ntered i nto, e vil m en a ssumed t he l eadership o f m en a s e vil a s t hemselves, w ithout t he k nowledge o f t heir m asters; c onstituting a s t hey d id t he m ajority o f t he w arriors t hey a ltered t heir r oute a nd s uddenly a ttacked t he s acred m onastery i n a f rontal a ssualt, a nd s urrounding i t o n a ll s ides t hey s et i t o n f ire, a nd t hey a lso p ut t o t he s word t he h oly e lders t hey f ound t here.. . and s o t he b lood o f t he h oly m onks w hich w as s hed f or C hrist i s s till t here, p roviding c lear e vidence e ven t oday, a s t he r ocks a nd s tones o f t he c hurch t here w ere s meared o r s pattered w ith i t." 1 9. 2 0.

S ee a bove,

n ote 7 .

F or a d etailed r eport o n t he e xcavation o f

t his w reck,

a nd a

f ull

d escription o f t he a xes f ound s ee G .F. B ass a nd F .H. v an D oorninck J r., Y assi A da: A S eventh C entury B yzantine S hipwreck ( Austin, T exas 1 982),

2 38-240.

2 1. T he c loisters a t C luny I I, i n t he 1 1th c entury, r oughly t he s ame s ize a nd i n t he s ame l ocation a s V incenzo i n t he s ame p eriod. T he e astern r ange o f s ters

a ppear t o b e t hose a t S an t he C luny c loi-

c ontained b uildings o f a s trictly f unctional,

a s o pposed t o

s piritual, n ature - t he p antry, t he l ay a nd m onastic k itchens, t he c ellar, a nd a " porters r oom". S ee N . H urst, C luny u nder S t. H ugh 1 049-1109 ( London, 1 967) p late V III. 2 2.

T he

n ature o f t he r elationship b etween t he m onastery a t

c enzo a nd H odges, J .

S an

V in-

t he C arolingian c ore a rea i s d iscussed i n d etail i n R . M oreland a nd H . P atterson, " San V incenzo a l V olturno,

t he K ingdom o f B enevento a nd t he C arolingians" i n C . M alone a nd S . S toddard, ( eds.) P apers i n I talian A rchaeology 3 , ( Oxford, 1 984), ( in p ress). 2 3.

S ee a bove,

2 4.

C harleston,

o p.

2 5.

B ayley,

c it.,

2 6.

S ee

o p.

n ote 1 5.

D .C.W.

c it.,

1 0.

2 9.

S anderson,

J .R.

H unter

a nd

S .E.

W arren,

' Energy

d ispersive x -ray f lourescence a nalysis o f f irst m illennium g lasses f rom B ritain', J ournal o f A rchaeological S ciepce ( 1984),

5 3-69.

5 7

A .D. 2 (1)

2 7.

F or a d escription o f

t he f unctioning a nd e xtent o f

t his n etwork s ee

R . H odges a nd D . W hitehouse, M ohammed, C harlemagne a nd t he O rigins o f E urope ( London, 1 983); a nd R . H odges, D ark A ge E conomics, ( London, 2 8.

M .

1 982).

D ekowna,

d 'ateliers

' Au d e

s ujet

d e l 'existence ä l 'gpoque h aut m oyen

t ransformation

d u v erres d ans

l es

p ays

a ge

s laves',

A rchaeologia P ologna X V ( 1974), 3 06ff. T his i s q uoted i n A . L und ström, ' Summary o f t he g lass f rom H elgö', i n A . L undström a nd H . C larke, ( eds.), E xcavations a t H elgö V II: G lass-Iron-Clay, ( Stockh olm, 2 9.

T he o f

1 981),

d evelopment a nd u se o f t he f ormation o f

f ormation o f 3 0.

S ee

R .J.

1 957), 3 1.

T his

i s q uoted f rom t he E lder P liny's N atural H istory E icholz)

( London,

1 962),

A n a ttempt H olmqvist,

5

( London,

( translated

1 92-194. o p. c it.,

n ote

t o t race t he h istory o f t hese r ods w as m ade b y S ummary c oncerning g lass i n W . H olmqvist a nd ( eds.),

E xcavations a t H elgö I I

F or d escription a nd

i llustrations s ee C .

( Stockholm,

1 964),

P eers a nd C .A .R .

A rchaeologia X XXIX,

1 943,

7 2:

W . B .

2 54.

R adford,

F ig.22:6-7.

A s w as n oted a bove t his i s a n a lmost p erfect d escription o f t he m aterial f ound a t S an V incenzo. S ee E -K. H augen, ' Glassmaterialet

S ee L undström, 2 8,

3 7.

T he

( 1983), 4 2.

4 2.

f ra K aupang', V iking 3 2-33 3 6.

c ontext

G rose,

S tudies i n A ncient T echnology V ol.

T he m onastery a t W hitby, 3 5.

i n t he D .

t he R oman g lass i ndustry', A rchaeology 3 6 F orbes,

A rrhenius, 3 4.

b y

F or i llustrations a nd f urther r eferences s ee G rose, 2 9,

3 3.

t hese r ods i s d iscussed

t he R oman g lass i ndustry

1 66.

b y D .E. 3 2.

2 2.

2 ,

S ee C . v an E s

c it.

n ote 2 8,

o p.

c it.

1 19-137.

2 ,

a nd H olmqvist,

o p.

c it.

n ote

n ote 3 3, 2 51.

I sings, ' Glass f inds f rom D orestad, H oogstraat l ', i n W .A. a nd W .J.H. V erwers, ( eds), E xcavations a t D orestad 1 ,

A mersfoort, 3 8.

H olmqvist,

3 9.

T his c it. o p.

o p.

a nd H olmqvist,

( 1968-69),

1 980), o p.

2 25-237.

c it.,

n ote 3 3,

2 55.

i s m entioned a nd d iscussed i n m any w orks b ut s ee F orbes, o p. n ote 3 0, 1 79; H olmqvist, o p. c it. n ote 3 3, 2 59; L undström, c it.

n ote

2 8,

2 7,

p uzzle"

A rchaeology 3 7

4 0.

F orbes,

o p.

4 1.

S ee H odges,

4 2.

S ee L undström,

c it.

a nd G .F.

( 1984)

n ote 3 0,

M oreland, o p.

" The m illion p iece g lass

1 94.

a nd P atterson,

c it.

B ass,

4 2-47.

n ote 2 8,

5 8

2 2.

o p.

c it.

n ote 2 2.

4 3.

S ee Lundström,

o p.

c it.

n ote 4 2.

4 4.

S ee L undström, o p.

c it.

n ote 2 8,

4 5.

S ee D ekowna,

o p.

c it.

n ote 2 8.

5 9

2 6.

A cknowledgements I t he

w ould

l ike

w orkshop

F ilippucci, F rancoise

t o e xpress m y

e xcavations who

l e N y,

d id

t hanks

o ver

much

o f

K athrin T ritt,

t he

t o a ll t hose w ho t wo

y ears,

t he w ork i n

b oth

p articipated i n

e specially s easons,

a nd

P aola a lso

C atherine C outts a nd A lex W est.

J im S medley a nd D r.M . C able, i n t he D epartment o f C eramics, G lasses a nd P olymers, U niversity o f S heffield d iscussed t he g lass d ebris w ith m e a nd w ere m ost h elpful. b y Justine M itchell,

B ayley, P .W.M .

B ritain w as

D r.J.

F reeman ,

f unded

b y

R eferences

f or f urther

C ampbell,

D r.C.

a nd

B lair.

D r.C .

t he D epartment o f

AC I

W ickham,

r esearch w ere g iven H odges,

J ohn

T he r esearch i n I taly

D r.R.

a nd

E ducation f or N orthern I reland.

C hapter 3 :

T HE L ATE R OMAN A ND E ARLY M EDIEVAL C EMETERIES A T S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO: a n e valuation o f t he m ortuary d ata b y C atherine C outts a nd S teven M ithen

I ntroduction I nvestigations

o f

c emeteries a nd m ortuary p ractices h ave

a lways

p layed a m ajor r ole i n a rchaeology, i f o nly b ecause s o m uch o f t he a rchaeological l andscape i s d evoted t o v isible m ausolea. T he S an V incenzo p roject w as n ot o riginally i ntended t o b e o rientated i n t his d irection, b ut t he n ature o f t he d ata m ade i t i nevitable t hat t he e xcavation a nd i nterpretation o f b urials w as a rchaeology.

t o d ominate m uch

o f

t he

S ome o f t he m ost i mportant r esults o f t he e xcavations i n a nd a round t his C arolingian-period m onastery w ere t hose t hat s hed l ight o n t he w ays o f l ife a nd d eath o f i ts f ormer i nhabitants. T he l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval p eriods a t S an V incenzo p rovide a s pectacular a nd i nformative s eries o f g raves, w hich, w hen f ully a nalysed, w ill m ake a c onsiderable c ontribution t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he f unerary p ract ices a nd s ocial o rganisation o f

a nd

t he t wo p eriods.

D eath i s o ne o f t he f ew t ransformations t hat e veryone u ndergoes, i t i s p erhaps t he m ost d ramatic a nd e xplicit m anifestation o f t he

s hift f rom a d ynamic, l iving s ystem , t o a s tatic e quilibrium . H owever, t his s hift d oes n ot s imply c omprise t he c hange i n d isposition f rom a l iving p erson t o a c orpse; t he r emoval o f a p erson f rom s ociety e nables t he c ommunity t o e ngage i n m ultivariate r ituals, w hich s erve t o s olidate a uthority a nd o bscure w eaknesses i n t he s ocial s tructure.

c onT he

d isposal o f t he d ead w ill c onform t o a s et o f s ocial r ules a nd r egulat ions w hich a re a dapted t o t he d eceased i n t erms o f h is o r h er r ole i n s ociety.

A p erson's

r ole,

o r p erhaps

t he s tereotype o f

t his r ole,

c an

b e s een t o b e e ffectively c rystallized a t t he m oment o f d eath, a nd b ecause o f t his t he a rchaeologist m ay b e a ble t o d iscern a n a ctive e xpression o f t he n ature o f t hat s ociety. 1 B oth a rchaeologists a nd a nthropologists t herefore c oncentrate u pon t he s ocially s ignificant a spects o f t he p erson - t heir s tatus, e xploits, a nd p ersonal r elations. B ecause a ll o f t hese t hings a re i nteraction-dependent, t he i ndividual w ill b e c ompared a nd r elated t o o ther m embers o f t he d ead c ommunity. A t S an V incenzo w e h ave t he o pportunity t o t ake t he n ext s tep, a nd e xamine

c hanges i n s tatus-relations a nd s ocial

o rganisation,

t hrough

t ime. A lthough

m ortuary

r emains

y ield i nformation

a bout

t he

l iving

s ociety, t he c haracter o f t hat i nformation i s a ltered b y t he r ituals w hich m ark t he t ransition b etween l ife a nd d eath.' T hus t he p atterning f ound i n t he m ortuary d ata m ay n ot b e a r ealistic r eflection o f 6 1

c orresponding v ariation i n l ife;

i ndeed i t m ay d iffer m arkedly f rom t he

p icture w e h ave o f t he s ociety w hen d educed f rom o ther d ata ( eg. h ist orical o r s ettlement). T he s ituation i s f urther c omplicated b y t he s uggestion t hat t he v isible e lements o f m ortuary p ractice, s uch a s g rave s ize a nd e laboration, r elate t o s ociety's c oncept o f w hat i s a ppropriate t o t he i ndividuel's r ole, a nd d o n ot d irectly r efer t o t he d eceased's s tatus i n l ife. M any f ormal a ttributes o f b urial s uch a s t he

p osition

o f

t he

s keleton(s)

a nd g rave o rientation h ave b een

u sed

w holesale b y a rchaeologists, w ith l ittle c onsideration o f w hat t hese f ormal d ifferences r elate t o i n t erms o f s tructural v ariations w ithin t he s ociety. O r, t hese a ttributes h ave b een r elated o n a g eneral l evel t o i nter a nd i ntra-societal g roupings - t he " west-east g rave o rientat ion e quals c hristian" s tatement i s a w idespread e xample o f t his. S o, a t S an V incenzo, w e s eem t o h ave l ittle c onformity t o a s ingle m ode o f g rave o rientation a t a ny t ime o r p lace w ithin t he c emeteries. A lthough m ost o f t he g raves a re o rientated e ither W -E o r N -S ( with t he s kull t o t he w est, o r n orth), N W-SE, E -W, N NE-SSW, t his

t here a re a lso n umerous e xamples o f S -N, S W-NE, a nd N NW-SSE o rientation . I n t he h illtop c emetery

m ay b e a ccounted f or b y t he o ptimal u tilization o f

t he r ock , a nd i n t he c emetery c hurch i t s eems t o r elate z ation o f s pace.

t he ' grain' o f t o t he e conomi-

T he e xcavation T he

S an V incenzo p roject s tarted i n 1 980 w ith t he

t he a pse o f

t he

" south c hurch",

e xcavation

o f

c ontinuing i n 1 981 w ith e xcavations i n

t he e arly m edieval c rypt c hurch, a nd f urther e xcavations i n t he s outh c hurch. I n a ddition, t wo a reas o n t he h illside b ehind t hese e xcavat ions w ere i nvestigated ( Trenches S a nd T ); t he f ormer w as t hought t o b e a c hurch, a nd t he l atter a s eries o f m onks c ells. I t w as q uickly d iscovered t hat n one o f t hese a reas w ere q uite w hat t hey h ad a t f irst a ppeared. T he c rypt c hurch - k nown t o b e e arly m edieval i n d ate b ec ause o f i ts f amous w all p aintings - w as f ound t o o verlie a l ater R oman b asilican b uilding, a nd t he s outh c hurch. T renches S a nd T t urned w hich t he s urvey ( carried o ut i n h ill o f C olle d ella T orre. T hese l ica c hurch, t ery,

c hurch o verlay a l ate R oman c emetery o ut t o b e p art o f a l arge c emetery, 1 981) s uggested c overed m ost o f t he t hree a reas - t he c rypt c hurch/basi-

t he s outh c hurch/cemetery c hurch ,

c ontain

t he m ajority o f

a nd t he h ill-top c eme-

t he b urials a nd m ortuary e vidence

f rom

S an V incenzo a l V olturno. I n 1 983 t ation s o e xcavation

t he h ill-top c emetery w as

s ystematically c leared o f

v ege-

t hat f urther e xcavation c ould t ake p lace. T he u nits o f w ere c hosen b y w ay o f a s ampling s trategy ( devised b y E ric

H ansen) f rom t he s outh f acing f lank o f t he h ill a nd t he t hird t errace. A s ystematic s earch w as c onducted f or g raves w hich a ppeared t o b e u ndisturbed a nd a ccessible ( the c uts f or m ost o f t he g raves h ad b een u sed b y f armers f or o live a nd o ak t rees). O f t he 6 4 g raves a nd g raveg roups

( cells),

8 w ere

I n a ddition t o

f ully e xcavated.

t hese g raves,

w e e xcavated a n a rea m easuring 7 m b y

3 m, o n t he f ar w est o f t he s outh f acing t errace ( see T rench U o n m ain s ite p lan i llustrating H odges' c hapter 1 ). T his a ppeared t o h ave b een a p urposefully l evelled r ock p latform , a nd w e h oped t o f ind a s eries o f g raves c ut

i nto

t he b edrock.

C uts i nto t he h igh r ock f ace

t he w alls o n t he n orth a nd w est s ides o f t his a rea, b ench)

a t

t he e astern s ide,

s uggested 6 2

t hat

t hat

f orms

a nd a c ut s helf

i t h ad o nce

b een u sed

( or a s

p art o f t he c emetery. E xcavation, b een c ut i nto t he b edrock h ere.

h owever, s howed t hat n o g raves h ad T he a rea h ad s imply b een l evelled

i n p reparation f or t he c utting o f g raves. T his ' non-use T rench U l ay o n t he p eriphery o f t he h ill-top c emetery.

s uggests

t hat

I n 1 983 a nd 1 984 e xcavations o n t he m ain s ite u ncovered a s eries o f f ine m ausolea i n t he a rea b etween t he s outh c hurch a nd t he r efect ory, a nd a l arge n umber o f g raves o n t he f irst t errace. T hese a reas w ill n ow b e d iscussed c hronologically. T he l ate R oman a nd L ombardic-period c emeteries: F orty-five

l ate R oman a nd L ombardic-period g raves h ave b een e xca-

v ated f rom t he m ain s ite, c ontaining a t l east 1 00 s keletons. I n a ddit ion t o t his i t i s h ighly l ikely t hat m any, i f n ot a ll, o f t he g raves e xcavated T he

i n t he h ill-top c emetery a re l ate R oman i n d ate. c emetery c hurch o f

t he l ate R oman v illa w as

f ound b eneath ( and

p artly r eused i n) t he 9 th c entury a ula a t t he n orth e nd o f t he g reat C arolingian m onastery ( see H odges, t his v olume, f or a f uller d escript ion o f t he l ayout o f t he s ite). T he c emetery c hurch w as p rimarily u sed f rom t he e arly 5 th t o t he e arly/mid 6 th c entury ( Phase 1 ), f or t he b urial o f

f amily g roups f rom t he R oman s ettlements.

I t w as c onstructed

i n t he 5 th c entury a s a s imple b asilican b uilding w ith a s mall a pse a t i ts w est e nd, a nd a n e ntrance i n t he e ast w all l eading i nto a n arrow n arthex ( ?) a rea. T he n arthex ( ?) c ontained t wo p articularly i mpress ive w all w all

t ile g raves, w ith o ther g raves d ensely p acked b eyond t he c rossa nd i nto t he a pse a rea ( Fig. 1 ). I n t he 6 th c entury t his e ast w as r emodelled a nd a n e laborate f acade w as b uilt. T he b uilding

m ay h ave b een d ivided i nternally w ith p ainted w alls a nd p lain g lass w indows, a nd w ould h ave b een l it b y g lass o il-lamps. T he f loor o f t he c hurch s eems t o h ave b een s imply t rodden e arth , w ith t he t ombs c ut i nto i t. T he e xcavations s how t hat a fter t wo h undred y ears o r m ore o f u se, t he

g round

w ithin t he b uilding w as a m ixture o f a shes a nd

t he

t hick

c layey e arth f ound c lose t o t he r iver V olturno. W e a ssume t hat u pright t iles ( see b elow) p laced a t t he h ead o f e ach g rave w ould h ave p rotruded t hrough t he d isturbed s urface t o i ndicate w here e ach t omb w as t o b e f ound. A ll i n a ll, t his f unerary b asilica m ust h ave b een a v ery r ustic a ffair,

a nd p rimitive b y c omparison t o

t he g reat e arly C hristian c eme-

t ery c hurches a long t he m ajor r oads l eading i nto R ome. g T he g raves i n t his b uilding c an b e d ivided o n s tructural g rounds i nto t hree t ypes. T he f irst c onsisted s imply o f l arge s tone b locks a nd p ieces o f b roken r oofing t ile s urrounding t he i nterred b ody. t igraphically t his i s t he e arliest o f t he t hree t ypes. T he

S tral ater

g raves i n t he b uilding w ere c omplex t ombs b uilt o f l arge c eramic t iles, s ome c onstructed i n a t ent-like ( cappuccina) a rrangement, w ith t iles b locking e ither e nd a nd s emi-circular r idge t iles a long T here w ere a lso b ox-like t ombs m ade o f t iles w ith v ertical

t he a pex. s ides a nd

f lat a rea

t he R höne b ut t here

t iles l aid a cross t he t op. I t h as b een s uggested f or t hat t he b ox t ype i s e arlier t han t he c appuccina t omb,

i s n othipg V incenzo.'

i t

t o

s uggest

t hat

t he t wo t ypes a re n ot

c ontemporary

a t

S an

T he s keletal e vidence s uggests t hat t he t ombs w ere f or f amilies; a ppears t hat t hey w ere f requently o pened t o r eceive a dditional

i ndividuals.

T his

r esulted

i n

m ultiple 6 3

i nhumation,

w ith

s everal

F igure 3 :1. P lan s howing t he e xcavated g raves i n t rench G ( the c emetery c hurch).

6 4

s keletons

l ying o n t op o f e ach o ther,

o r o ne a rticulated s keleton l ying

n ext t o a j umble o f b ones. T he e xceptions t o t his w ere t he e arlier s tone-built t ombs w hich c ontained i ndividual b urials, a nd a f ew s mall g raves e ach c ontaining j ust o ne y oung c hild. M ost o f t he g raves, h owe ver, c ontained n umerous i ndividuals. M ales a nd f emales w ere p resent i n a pproximately t he s ame n umbers, w ith t he f ormer r arely b eing o lder t han 4 0 y ears o f a ge a nd t he l atter r arely m ore t han 3 0. ch ildren a ll a ges w ere f ound, i ncluding t he b ones o f s everal b abies. I t i n

i s e vident f rom t he t ombs

t he

b urials.

I n s ome,

t hat a d egree o f

r itual w as

a nimal a nd b ird b ones w ere

o f

i nvolved

d iscovered

-

p ossibly t he d ebris o f f uneral m eals w hich a re t hought t o h ave b een c ommon i n t he 5 th a nd 6 th c enturies. 7 A lthough s acrifices w ere u nlawf ul f or C hristians, t he o ffering o f f ood a t t he g raves o f b oth " martyrs a nd o rdinary m ortals" w as a llowed, t hough n ot e ncouraged, b y t he C hurch. v ersions

T he f uneral m eals a t S an V incenzo m ay h ave b een s mall-scale o f t hose d escribed f or e lite b urials w ithin t he g rander b asi-

l icas o f

R ome. 8

I n o ther

t ombs

t he h uman b ones h ad b een a rranged

i n a n

u nusual m anner, t hree s kulls n estling i n t he p elvis o f a nother, f or e xample, o r c ertain s keletal e lements a bsent f rom s ome g raves, t o t urn u p m anifold i n a nother. T here w as a lso e vidence o f b urning, e ncount ered i n c onsiderable q uantities i n a nd a round t he t ombs - o ften o n t he b ones a reas

t hemselves - a nd o n t he f loor o f t he c hurch t here o f g rey a sh. I t i s l ikely t hat t his b urning w as

s mall g raves

f uneral p yres o r r itual f ires - t hR a ssociation o f b urning o f t his p eriod i s v ery w idespread.'

T he

w ere s everal t he r esult o f w ith

t ombs c ontained a v aluable s ample o f t he m aterial c ulture

o f

t he r ural u pper c lasses o f t he l ate R oman p eriod. J ewellery w as f ound a ssociated w ith b oth a dults a nd c hildren, t he q uantity v arying c ons iderably f rom g rave t o g rave, i ndeed 8 3% o f t he g raves c ontained n o j ewellery . T he i tems r anged f rom s imple i ron b uckles a nd p lain b ronze r ings, t o i ntricate s ilver w edding r ings a nd e arrings, a nd e legant b ronze b racelets. O ne t omb c ontained m any s mall b lue b eads f rom a n ecklace. O ther f inds f rom b oth w ithin a nd a round t he t ombs i ncluded e xtremely f ine g lass f rom o il-lamps, a nd p ottery f ragments, o ne o f w hich w as d ecorated w ith a s tylised w oman's f ace. M any s mall b ronze c oins w ere f ound, w hich w ere o f a ssistance i n d ating t he g raves t o t he 5 th a nd 6 th c enturies. A ltogether ( this p laced T he

i ncludes w ithin

2 9 g raves h ave b een e xcavated f rom t he c emetery c hurch b oth t renches A a nd G ). S everal h ad b een c arefully t he a mbulatory b eyond t he w estern a pse o f t he c hurch.

m ost i nteresting f ind h ere w as a s mall t ile b ox,

4 0cm b y 4 0cm, m ents, b one f inely c urving

m easuring

a bout

w hich c ontained a f ew h uman b ones, s everal b ronze f ragt rial c ut-outs a nd a b roken i vory o bject t hat h ad b een

c arved i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. T he i vory l ooks l ike s tem o f a l ong l iturgical s poon o r f an. T he c ontents o f

t he t he

b ox s uggest a t oken m emorial t o a c raftsman, p erhaps a b one a nd i vory w orker, o r a c ollection o f r elics a ssociated w ith a l ocally v enerated s aint. P hase 2 : A

s ingle

c oin

o f J ustin I I a ttests

t he c ontinuing

c emetery c hurch i n t he l atter h alf o f t he 6 th c entury. t he f loor o f t he c hurch w ould h ave b een a lmost t otally 6 5

u se

o f

t he

B y t his t ime, c overed w ith

t ombs, w hich w ould h ave b een p eriodically r eopened f or t he b urial o f a dditional f amily m embers. I t i s l ikely t hat t his p ractice c ontinued f or s ome t ime d uring t he 7 th c entury; o ne o f t he e arly r ich g raves w as r eopened a t t his t ime, t o i nter a n i ndividual w ith d istinctive s ilver f iligree e arrings,

s uggesting t hat t here w as a t l east

s ome s poradic u se

i n t he L ombardic p eriod. A t t he s ame t ime, s everal g raves w ere c ut i nto t he p ortico a nd g round f loor o f t he l arge R oman t ower, w hich s tood o n t he t errace o verlooking t he c emetery c hurch. S ix g raves h ave b een e xcavated w ithin t he b uilding, t wo o f w hich c ontained f ine p ieces o f b ronze j ewellery. 10 O ne o f t hese a lso c ontained a s tring o f p ears haped b eads t hat c an b e p aralleled b y b eads f rom a l ate R oman c emetery n ear B ari. 11 T o t he n orth o f t hese t ombs l ies a s tone g rave s imilar t o t he e arly o nes f rom t he c emetery c hurch, a nd t wo m ore t ile g raves. I n t he u ppermost l evels o f t he a trium o f t he l ate R oman b asilican c hurch a nd b ehind

i ts a pse,

s ingle L ombardic g raves w ere d iscovered,

b ut

i n a

v ery d isturbed c ondition. I t m ay b e i mportant t o n ote t hat i n c ontrast t o t hose c ontained w ithin t he c emetery c hurch, t hese l ater g raves w ere p rimarily s ingle i nhumations. T his a pparent s hift f rom c ollective t o i ndividual b urial m ay r eflect a b reak w ith t he R oman t radition o f m ultiple b urial, i n f avour o f L ombard-influenced s ingle T he i mplications o f t his w ill b e d iscussed l ater.

i nhumations.

T he h ill-top c emetery: h ill-top c emetery i s s ituated p rimarily o n t he t hird

t errace

a nd t he s outh-facing f lank o f t he h ill o f C olle d ella T orre. l ikely t o h ave b een u sed b oth i n t he R oman a nd e arly m edieval

T he

I t i s p eriods,

i n a ssociation w ith t he s ettlements b elow . T he g raves i n t his c emetery c an b e d ivided i nto t hree g roups i n t erms o f t heir p osition o n t he h ill, a nd t heir s tructures. 1 :

T he a rcosolia a nd

2 :

T he g raves o n t he s outhern h alf o f t he

t he g raves n earby.

3 :

T he g raves o n t he s outh-facing f lank o f

D ominating t he t hird t errace a re i nto a s hort s tretch o f t he r ock-face.

t errace. t he h ill.

t wo a rcosolia ( Fig. 3 :2), c ut T hese n iches s tand s ide b y s ide

a nd a re o ver 2 m h igh, w ith s ingle g raves c ut a cross t heir f loors. C uts i n t he s urrounding r ock-face s uggest t hat t here w as o nce s ome k ind o f s tructure o r f acade h ere, 12 a nd t here a re s mall r ecesses o n t he b ack w alls o f A rcosolia

t he t ombs w hich m ay h ave h eld i mages o f t he d eceased. ( arched t omb r ecesses) a re f ound a ll o ver t he M editerranean,

a nd b elong t o t he m ainstream o f R oman f unerary a rchitecture. T hey a re u sually l ocated w ithin t he w alls o f a t omb c hamber, w ithin f ree s tanding m eusolea, w ithin r ock-cut c hambers o r i n t he c ubiculae o f c atacombs. 1 A rcosolia a re i nfrequently f ound c ut i ndividually i nto r ock

f ace ,

u nassociated w ith a l arger c hamber,

V incenzo. 14 O n s mall r ecesses,

a s

t hey a re

a t

S an

t he r ock-face t o t he s outh o f t he a rcosolia a re f ovr p ossibly f or f lowers, l amps o r v otive o fferings. i 5

H owever, o ne o f t he m ost e nigmatic f eatures o f t he s ite c ross, c arved o nto t he r ock-face ( see F ig. 2 ). T he

i s t he M altese c ross s eems t o

s uggest s ome f orm o f v eneration o r s anctification o f t his p art o f t he c emetery, urhaps a p alaeochristian m artyr f ocus f or t he l ater R oman p opulation. ' T he a rcosolia m ay h ave b een t he e arliest p art o f t he c emet Ny,

w ith t he a rresting r ock-face a cting a s a n ucleus

m ent.

6 6

f or d evelop-

F igure 3 :2. E levation o f t he r ock-cut n iches ( arcosolia ) i n t he h ill-top c emetery.

F igure

3 :3. P lan o f t he g raves a round t he a rcosolia ( trench S ) 6 7

T welve g raves w ere e xcavated i n t his a rea. M ost h ad b een c ut i nto t he b edrock i n a n e lliptical o r c offin s hape, t o a d epth o f a round 4 0cm ( Fig. 3 :3). H owever f ive o f t he g raves w ere p artially c onstructed f rom l imestone

s labs,

a s

a

c onsequence o f

t he

f riable c ondition

o f

t he

b edrock i n t he i mmediate v icinity. I t i s l ikely t hat m ost o f t he g raves w ere o riginally c overed b y l arge l imestone c apstones, f orming a l evel p avement o ver t he a rea. p lastered o n t heir i nner s urfaces,

A t l east f ive o f t he g raves w ere a nd i n t hree, t races o f r ed-painted

p laster w ere f ound. O n t he m ain s ite b elow, p ainted g raves a re a f eature o f t he e arly m edieval p eriod, s o w e s uggest t hat t hese g raves w ere e ither c onstructed, o r r eused, a t t his t ime. U nfortunately t he g raves h ave s uffered f rom c onsiderable d isturbance, p ossibly a s m uch b y r elic s eekers a s b y g rave r obbers, a nd a s a r esult, n ot a s ingle t omb f rom

t he a rcosolia a rea p roduced a ny g rave g oods.

t his

W e w ill r eturn

t o

p roblem l ater.

S preading s outh a nd e ast f rom t he a rcosolia, m any g raves c an b e s een c ut i nto t he o utcropping b edrock . W e e xcavated f ive g raves i n t his a rea, i n l ine w ith t he 1 0% s ampling s trategy, f our o f w hich w ere r ock-cut, c apstones

u ncapped a nd u nplastered. T he o ther w as s lab-built a nd h ad i n s itu, h eavily m ortared i nto p lace. A ll c ontained m ultiple

i nhumations. O n

t he

e xcavated, i n

s outh-facing f lank o f

d istinct u nits o f

o ne,

t he h ill f ourteen g raves h ave

b een

d iffering f rom t he o nes m entioned e arlier i n t hat t hey

w ere r ock-cut.

b etween t wo a nd M ost o f

s ix.

A ll o f

t hese

t hem w ere p laster-lined,

g raves,

l ie b ar

d isplayed e vi-

d ence o f c apping, a nd h ad b een s everly d isturbed. T he o nly t wo u ndist urbed g raves c ontained s ingle a dult i nhumations, o ne f emale, o ne m ale, a nd

w ere

l ocated o n t he m ost e xtreme e dges o f

t he

h illside

i nvesti-

g ated. T hese s ingle i nhumations c ontrasted w ith t he o ther g raves i n t his a rea a nd t he r est o f t he h ill-top c emetery, w here m ultiple b urial a ppears t o h ave b een t he n orm . I n t he c entre o f t his a rea a g roup o f n ine g raves ( trench T ) w as i nvestigated. T hese w ere d ivided b y a l ow c ut w all i nto t wo ' cells o f t hree ( in t he w est) a nd s ix ( in t he e ast) ( Fig. 3 :4). O ne o f t he w estern g raves l ay j ust b elow t he s ubsoil i n a s hallow c ut i n t he l imestone, i t w as c ut a t a d ifferent a ngle a nd m uch h igher u p t han t he o ther g raves - s uggesting t hat i t w as o f a l ater d ate t han t he r est o f t he ' cell'. T he s keleton i nterred w as u nusual, l acking b oth i ts s kull a nd h alf o f i ts f emurs, t he l atter h aving b een r emoved b efore t he d eath o f t he i ndividual. T he s lab-built g rave w as a lso n oteworthy i n t hat o ne o f i ts c apstones s howed t races o f p ainted p laster o n i ts u nderside - a s b efore, t his p ossibly s uggests a m edieval d ate. I n a ll, t hirty t ombs f rom t he h ill-top c emetery h ave b een e xcav ated, c ontaining a m inimum o f f orty-eight b odies. T hree o f t he g raves w ere e mpty.

C hild b urials a ppear t o h ave b een r are,

t hough a n i nfant

s keleton w as f ound i n a g rave n ear t o t he a rcosolia, a nd t he s keleton o f a c hild w as i ncluded i n a f amily g rave f urther t o t he s outh-east. W e h ave y et t o u ncover a c hild-size r ock-cut o r s lab-built c omparable t o t he c hildren's t ile g raves i n t he c emetery c hurch, t his

m ay s uggest

t omb

w as

n ot

t hat

t omb a nd

t he e xpenditure o f e nergy o n a m inature r ock-cut

c onsidered

t o b e w orthwhile

t o

t hose p eople

w ho

b uried

m embers o f t heir f amilies i n t he h ill-top c emetery. T his c ould b e t he r esult o f h igh i nfant m ortality a mongst t he p oorer p opulation, w ho a re 6 8

F igure 3 :4. P lan o f t he c entral ' cells o n t he s outh-facing f lank o f C olle d ella T orre ( trench T )

6 9

a rguably

b uried i n t his a rea.

O n t he o ther h and i t i s p ossible

t hat

t he s ector o f t he c ommunity b uried h ere t reated c hild-death i n a d ifferent m anner f rom a dult d eath, w ith c hildren b eing d isposed o f i n a n a lternative a rea o f t he c emetery, o r p erhaps b uried n ear t o t he h ome. 1 8 T he v ariation i n t omb s tructure i n t he h ill-top c emetery m ay b e a r eflection o f c hronological c hange - f rom r ock-cut t o s lab-built g raves - b ut i t m ay b e a n e xpression o f t he d iffering s ocial s tatus f amilies a nd i ndividuals i nterred. T he a bsence o f j ewellery

o f i n

t he t he

g raves o f t his a rea h as a lready g iven r ise t o s ome s peculation a bout t he c omparative s tatus o f t he c emetery c hurch a nd h ill-top c emetery p opulation, a nd i t w as s uggested t hat p oorer s ocial s trata m ight b e b uried i n r eflection

t he o f

l atter a rea. H owever i t c ould j ust a s e asily 1 400 y ears o r s o o f o pen a ccess, r esulting i n

g rave r obbing. d uring

i ts

B y c ontrast,

l ifetime,

t he c emetery c hurch w as a c losed s tructure

a nd i n t he 9 th c entury t he g ravig

s ealed u nder t he f loors o f

b e a s evere

t hemselves w ere

t he m edieval s outh c hurch.

T he e arly m edieval g raves: A lthough

w e h ave o nly t entative i dentification o f

e arly

m edieval

t ombs w ithin t he h ill-top c emetery, i t i s v ery l ikely t hat s ome o f t he g raves ( or t heir o ccupants) d ate t o t his p eriod. W ithin t he m onastic b uildings t here i s n o q uestion a bout t his. g raphy, p aintings a nd a rtefactual e vidence,

O n t he b asis o f s tratie arly m edieval t ombs h ave

b een i dentified i n t he c rypt c hurch ( on t he s ame s ite a s t he b asilican b uilding) a nd i n t he u pper l evels o f t he s outh c hurch.

f ormer T here

a re a lso i mpressive t ombs i n t he c orridor a nd t horoughfare b etween t he s outh c hurch a nd t he r efectory ( see t he s ite p lan i n H odges p aper, C hapter 1 ). S ome o f t he t ombs i n t he c rypt c hurch a re e xtremely w ellb uilt, a nd a re s imilar i n c onstruction t o t he s lab-built g raves i n t he h ill-top c emetery. T his s imilarity i n c onstruction l ends s upport t o t he s uggestion m ade e arlier t hat t he l atter a re m edieval. M ost o f t he e arly m edieval t ombs i n t he m ain s ite c ontained m ultiple i nhumations, u sually o f a dults, b ut s ome a lso c ontained t he b ones o f j uveniles. T he m ajority o f

t he s keletons

i dentified

t o s ex w ere m ale ( 60%)

-a s

i s

t o

b e e xpected i n a m onastery. I t s eems u nlikely t hat a ny o f t hese i ndiv iduals w ere o lder t han t hirty-five, o r t hat t he f emales p resent w ere a bove t hirty. H owever, t hese f igures m ay b e d e2eptive, g iven t he d ifficulties i n a ccurately a geing a dult s keletons. 2 ' F our o f t he t ombs w ere c ompletely e mpty. T he p resence o f w omen i n t his m onastic c hurch r aises s ome i nteresting q uestions c oncerning t heir r ole i n t he s ociety, a nd t his i s n ot t he f irst i nstance i n w hich t he r elationship b etween w omen a nd t he C hurch a t S an V incenzo h as b een c onsidered. 2 1 I t i s l ikely t hat t he w omen b uried h ere w ere o f a s pecial s tatus - p erhaps b enefactresses o f

t he c hurch o r

t he m onastery .

P hase 5 : T he e arliest m edieval t ombs a re 9 th c entury i n d ate. t hese, a n a xially a ligned g rave a t t he t hreshold o f t he c rypt i s p lastered a nd h as a p ainted i nscription a round t he h ead g rave. 22

I t

i s

f easible

O ne o f c hurch , o f t he

t hat t he y oung m an b uried h ere w as t he d eacon

w ho m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t he p aintings i n t he c rypt, a nd i s p ictured t here, k neeling a t t he f eet o f M aria R egina. 23 A nother f ine t omb,

a lso

o f 9 th c entury d ate,

i s 7 0

s ituated

i n a n a rcosolium i n

t he

w est w all o f t he c orridor w hich l inks t he c rypt c hurch t o t he l ower t horoughfare. 24 T his e laborate t omb, p robably d ating t o s ome t ime o riginally c ontained b efore 8 81, a nd s et i n a n orth-south a lignment, f our s keletons. 25 laborate, w ith d isT he p aintings a re p articularly e t inctive c rosses o n a ll f our w alls, s crolling p lant t rails o n t he l ong s ides, a nd a n i nscription a t t he h ead. 26 I n a ddition t o t hese u nd oubtedly e lite g raves, s everal o ther e arly m edieval t ombs h ave b een e xcavated. I n t he f inal 9 th c entury p hase ( phase 5 b) o f t he s outh c hurch, t hree h ighly d isturbed m ultiple g raves w ere c ut d irectly i nto t he f loor o f t he c hurch's u pper a pse. T he g raves l ay i mmediately i nside t he c urving a pse w all. O ne i n t he c entre ( in t he f ar w est) a nd t he o thers t o t he n orth a nd s outh. T he s ymmetrical p ositioning o f t hese g raves s uggests t hat t hey w ere c ontemporary, o r c lose i n d ate. A l ittle l ater, p robably i n t he l ate 9 th o r e arly 1 0th c entury, t wo i ndividuals, o ne o f t hem a y oung b oy, w ere h astily b uried i n m akeshift g raves b eneath t he t ile f loor o f t he t horoughfare ( see H iggins a nalys es o f r eflect

t hese b urials i n C hapter 5 ). T hese r udimentary b urials m ay t he p olitical i nstability o f t his e ra i n S an V incenzo's h is-

t ory. P hase 6 : W hen t he m onks

r eturned

t o

t he M onastery i n 9 14-915,

t he e ntrance

a rea w as s ubstantially a ltered, a nd a s eries o f m ausolea i nserted i nto t he r ooms a nd p assageway u nder t he m ain s tairs o r t he e ntrance h all w hich l ed t o a l anding a bove. 27 T wo l arge m ausolea a re s ituated i n t he b locked p assageway t hat h ad o nce l ed t o t he d iverging s tairways. I t a ppears t hat t his p assage w as b locked a nd a w indow c onstructed o n t he l ower t horoughfare s ide. N iches h ave b een c ut i nto t he w all, p resuma bly f or

l amps,

a nd t he w alls h ave b een p lastered.

V isitors w ould h ave

b een d irected t o g lance a t t he g raves b y t he e rection o f a l arge, r eused, R oman i nscription i n f ront o f t he p assage. W hen t he s olidly m ortared c apstones w ere r emoved f rom t he w estern g rave, i t w as f ound t o c ontain t he s keletons o f n ine a dult m ales a t t he f oot o f a n a rticulated f emale s keleton w ith a c hild ( see H iggins' d escription o f t hese i n C hapter 5 ). I n c ontrast, t he e astern g rave c ontained a s ingle a rticul ated s keleton. T his w as a f inely b uilt t omb w ith a t iled b ase, s ome o f t he t iles b eing i nscribed i n t he s ame m anner a s t hose i n t he r efect ory. F ragments o f p ainted p laster a dhering t o t he s tone s ides a nd t ile f loor o f t he t omb s uggest t hat t he g rave m ay o riginally h ave b een d ecorated i n t he s ame f ashion a s t he p ainted t ombs i n t he c orridor a rcosolium a nd I n s outh

t he c rypt c hurch.

t he s mall, n arrow r oom b eneath t he s tairs, i mmediately t o t he o f t he t wo m ausolea d escribed a bove, l ie t wo o ther t ombs ( Fig.

5 ). T he t wo f ine

r oom h as b een b isected b y a c rude w all, r unning e ast-west, a nd g raves h ave b een c onstructed i n t he s outhern h alf. T he h eight

o f t he g raves s uggests t hat t he a rea b elow h as b een f illed, s o t hat t he t ombs w ould l ie a t a v isible l evel w hen v iewed f rom t he c ortile. T he w estern w all h as b een c onsiderably m odified t o a llow f or t he i nsertion o f t he g raves. A h ead-niche h as b een c arefully c ut i nto t he w all i n t he n orthern g rave, a nd t he w all i tself h as b een c hopped b ack u ntil o nly t he f acing s tones r emain i n t he s outhern g rave. T he r esultant h ole

w as

t hen p atched w ith t iles

t o

f orm a s helf a t

t he

g rave-head.

T he t wo g raves w ere s eparated b y a ' wall' m ade u p o f l ong, n arrow b locks; a nd c overed b y l arge s labs. T he n orthern g rave c ontained t hree s keletons ( one a rticulated a nd t he b ones o f t he o ther t wo a rranged w ith 7 1

s ome c are a nd s ymmetry o n e ither s ide), l ying o n e ight f ine t iles, e ach w ith f our s loping h oles d rilled t hrough t hem - g iving t he a ppearance o f f our e xtra-large d ominoes ( Fig. 3 :5). s keletons, l ying o n l arge r oof t iles,

T he s outhern g rave c ontained t wo s imilar t o s ome o f t hose f ound o n

t he r efectory f loor. A nother

g rave

l ies

t o

t he s outh o f

t he m ausolea d escribed

a bove,

c ut i nto t he b ench o f t he n orthern r efectory w all, a nd c overed w ith l arge, c rudely m ortared c apstones. T he b ench a nd f ootrest h ave b een d ismantled f or a d istance o f a round 2 m , a nd p art o f t he w all c ut a way, t he f ootrest h as b een r eplaced b y a r ow o f u nworked s tones, b uilt u p t o f orm a l ow w all o n w hich t he c apstones r ested. T he a rticulated s kelet on o f a t oothless o ld m an w as f ound i n t his c rude g rave, l ying o n a g ravelly f loor. I n

t he

1 0th

t o e arly 1 1th c entury s even

c onstructed n ear t o t he ' deacon's t hese w ere b adly d isturbed. T wo o f

a dditional

t ombs

w ere

t omb i n t he c rypt c hurch ; a ll o f t hese w ere b uilt i n t he s ame s tyle

a s t he f ormer t omb - s olid s tone b locks, n eatly f ashioned, w ith s tone m otared i nto p lace. A nother b lock-built g rave a ppears t o

c aph ave

b een c onstructed f rom w indow b locks, s o t hat t he h ead o f t he g rave i s s emi-circular. T his c ontained a m ultiple i nhumation. T wo o f t he g raves w ere e mpty, a nd t he o thers c ontained e ither s ingle o r multiple i nhumations. T hese l atter g raves w ere s imply c ut i nto t he e xisting g round s urface, a nd o ne w as g iven a t ile b ase s imilar t o t hose i n t he m ausolea t o t he s outh. S imilar t ile b ased g raves, a lso d ating t o t his p eriod,

w ere

f ound o n t he f irst t errace,

w ithin t he p ortico

o f

t he

R oman t ower. D iscussion T he 9 th c entury m onastery w as i n m any w ays a s tatus s ymbol d irect ed t owards t he n on-Carolingian B enevento, i n t he s outh. 28 T he i mposing g raves m entioned a bove ( along w ith t he o ther a rchitectural a nd a rtistic e lements i n t his ' frontier z one' m onastery) w ould n ot s imply h ave b een i mpressive

t o v isitors,

t hey w ould h ave b een

a we-inspiring.

A s

a n

o vert e xpression o f i deological a nd s ocial s uperiority, t hey w ould h ave s erved t o a ctively e nhance a nd l egitimise t he a uthority o f t he r uling g roup.

T he

r itual a ctivities w hich s urround d eath a nd b urial

f orm a n

i mportant p art o f t he " social c onstruction o f r eality" a nd a s s uch t hey m ay b e c onsidered e s p art o f t he i deological l egitimation o f t he d omin ant

s ocial o rder.

t ion

H owever, t he c onnection b etween f unerary r ites/cemetery o uanisaa nd s ocial o rganisation i s b y n o m eans s traightforward.' u T he

z 9

I deology i s

t hus e mbedded

i n s ocial a ction.

f act i s t hat m ortuary p ractices d o n ot o nly r eflect t he s tatus q uo, t hey c an a lso d istort i t, m aking i t a ppear c ontrary t o r eality. T his i s f requently a m ore p owerful m eans o f r eproducing a nd l egitimating t he s ocial

o rder

t han t he g enuine r epresentation o f a p erson

w ithin

t he

d ead c ommunity. 31 I n v iew o f t his, o ur i nterpretation o f t he s tatus o f g raves ( and t heir o ccupants) a t S an V incenzo, m ust b e c onsidered s pecul ative, a nd n ot i ncontrovertible. W e h ave b ased o ur i dentification o f h igh s tatus t ombs o n t heir s cale a nd e mbellishment, t he n ature a nd q uantity o f t heir g rave g ooes, a nd t he l ocation o f t he g raves w ithin t he c emetery a nd l andscape. J2 W e a cknowledge t hat t hese m ight n ot b e f oolproof i ndices o f s tatus, b ut t heir t esting i n c ontemporary s ociet ies h as

i ndicated a r elatively h igh m easure o f a ccuracy. 7 2

t h e m a u s o l e a

i n t h e n t r a n c e a r e a

4 0

4 3

7 3

T he i ndices m entioned a bove a re n ot m erely u seful a s s ignposts f or s tatus. T here a re i deological i mplications i nvolved i n, f or e xample, g rave-painting a nd g rave l ocation. T he e arly C hristians s ought t o b e b uried c lose t o t hose b asilicas w here t he b ones o f a s aint r esided; t he p recise d estination o f t heir b ones w as n ot o f a ny g reat c oncern, s o l ong a s t hey r emained n ear t o t he s aints b ones, o r i n t he c hurch ( which i nci 4qtally, i ncluded a ll c emetery a reas e xternal t o t he c hurch b uildI n t his w ay, a f orm o f o rder i s b uilt u p, w ith t he d ead b eing t ransformed i nto a n e ternal a nd t ranscending f orce. T his i s p articul arly i mportant w hen s een i n t erms o f t he s aints a nd m artyrs o f t he e arly C hristian e ra;

t he a uthority o f

t he C hurch ( and i ts h ierarchy)

i s

l egitimised b y i ts r elationship w ith t radition a nd t he ' forefathers o f t he f aith. T hus t he e arly C hristian c hurches a nd c emeteries w ere f oci o f e normous s piritual, a nd t herefore s ecular, p ower. A s t he C hristian C hurch w as c ontrolled

s een a s t he c aretaker o f s ouls, s o s ociety w as c ohesively " not j ust b y p olitical p ower, b ut b y s ome o f t he d eepest 3 4 b eliefs a nd f ears o f p eople e verywhere"

e motions, I n

t erms

i ndividual

o f

S an V incenzo,

b urials,

t he c hange f rom

t o c ollective

f amily

( primarily a dult)

b urials,

b urials,

t o

c an

b e

s een a s a g enerous r eflection o f t he c hanges i n i deology , a nd i ncreasing p ower o f t he C hurch, t hrough t he l ate R oman, L ombardic,

t he a nd

m onastic p hases o f t he s ite. A s a r esult o f t he b reakdown o f t he R oman e conomy, t he f amily b ecame t he m ost i mportant u nit, b oth s ocially a nd i n t erms o f e conomic p roduction . M ost f amilies w ould h ave p aid t ribute o f s ome k ind t o t he o wner o f t he v illa e state, w ho w as i n e ffect t heir o verlord. U nder L ombard i nfluence, t he i mportance o f t he i ndividual g ained i n c onsequence, b ut f amily t ies w ere s till s ignificant. B y t he 8 th c entury, w ith S an V incenzo a m onastic d omain, c ollective b urial a ppears t o h ave b een t he n orm. T he d ominant u nit h ad c hanged, f rom t he f amilies o n t he v illa e states, t he s urrounding v illages.

t he t he

t o a c entral C hurch a uthority ,

t ithing

I n t erms o f h igh s tatus o bjects, i t s eems t hat f ocus s hifts f rom k in-group i n t he l ate R oman a nd L ombard p eriods, t o t he C hurch i n 9 th a nd 1 0th c enturies. I n t he f ormer p eriods g rave g oods w ere

c ommon, i ndicating t hat p ersonal d isplay ( in d eath) w as a v ehicle b y w hich s tatus w as a sserted. I n t he m onastic p eriod, i t a ppears t hat t here w as a s hift f rom p ersonal d isplay a s am eans o f s ecuring s tatus, t o t he g iving o f p restigious o bjects t o t he C hurch, i n d oing s o g aining b oth s tatus a nd t he p romise o f a p assage t o h eaven. e xpect t o f ind m onastic g raves.

T here

w ere

p restige

T hus w e s hould n ot

i tems o f a p ersonal n ature i n

p robably e xceptions

t o

t his;

i n

m ost

p articular,

o f

t he

h igh-

r anking m embers o f t he C hurch m ay h ave b een b uried i n f ull e cclesiast ical r aiment, a ccompanied b y t heir t ools o f o ffice. H owever, w e f ind n o e vidence o f

t his a t S an V incenzo.

T he l ack o f g rave g oods d oes

n ot

i ndicate t hat e veryone w as p oor, o r t hat s ociety w as e galitarian, b ut i t c ould i ndicate t hat a n ' ideology o f p overty a nd e quality" w as b eing n ominally s ubscribed t o, i n b latant c ontrast t o t he h ierarchy a nd w ealth o f

t he C hurch.

T he l ack o f g rave g oods m ay h ave b een a d elibe-

r ate a ttempt a t ' social l evelling' - t he p rocess b y w hich p eople w ith i nequal s tatus a re m ade t o a ppear e galitarian - a nd t his s tatus i s r epresented

b y

o ther f actors,

t he p osition a nd s ize o f 7 4

t he t omb.

f or

e xample. T he m edieval t ombs e xcavated f rom t he m ain s ite a re a lmost c ertainly a ll o f h igh s tatus. T he q uestion w e m ust n ow a sk i s, w here w ere t he o rdinary m onks a nd l ay-brothers b uried? W e w ill d iscuss t his p roblem i n t he f ollowing s ection. T he g rave s tones a nd t heir c ontext: G iven t he n umber o f g raves a nd s keletons

f ound a t S an V incenzo,

i t

i s s urprising t hat s o f ew t ombstones h ave c ome t o l ight, e specially i n c omparison t o t he n umber f ound a t n earby M onte C assino. 35 H owever, a f ine, c omplete e xample o f a m onk's g ravestone, a nd f ragments o f o thers h ave

b een r ecovered f rom t he w orkshop a rea ( trenches F F a nd

H H),

a nd

s ome o ther f ragments w ere f ound i n t he s outh c hurch. T he c omplete g ravestone, w hich m easures 2 4cm b y 2 5cm i s i nscribed w ith t he w ords H IC R EQVIESCIT I N P ACE E RMECAUSUS I NDIGNUS M ONACHUS D EPRECOR V OS O MNES V T O RETIS P (RO) M E ( Here l ies i n p eace E rmecausus, a n u nworthy m onk. I b eseech y ou a ll t o p ray f or m e). T he w orkshop a rea r uns t o t he s outh o f a n e xtremely l arge a nd e laborate b uilding ( to j udge f rom t he s urface r emains), w hich i s

a lmost c ertainly t he m other c hurch o f

t he m onastery.

W e t herefore

s uggest t hat t he a rea n orth a nd n orth-west o f t he w orkshops i s l ikely t o b e t he g round w here t he m onks w ere b uried. I f t his i s s o, a p arall el c an b e d rawn w ith t he m onastery a t C luny, w here t he m onks c emetery i s j uxtaposed t o t he w orkshops a nd t he m other c hurch. 36 I t w ould b e i n k eeping w ith t he w idespread a doption o f c hurchyard b urial t he 8 th c entury o nwards, a nd t he c orresponding a bandonment o f c emeteries s uch a s t he h ill-top c emetery. 37 A t t his t ime

a lso f rom o pen n on-

c hurchyard c emeteries w ere e stablished i n s ome a reas o f E urope a nd N orth A frica, p rimarily f or t he u se o f " those m embers o f t he c ommunity w ho h ad n ot t he qsources t o p rovide f or t heir o wn o r t heir f amilies' f itting b urial".' H owever a t S an V incenzo t here a lready e xisted a s erviceable c emetery ( that i s, t he h ill-top c emetery), c omplete w ith r eusable s tone g raves, w hich c ould c onceivably h ave b een u tilised b y t he p oorer m embers o f t he e arly m edieval c ommunity. T he a rea m ay h ave b een i n c onstant u se f rom t he l ate R oman t o t he e arly m edieval p eriod, p erhaps f or t he b urial o f l ay-monks i n t he l atter p eriod, a s w ell a s p easant

g roups i n b oth a reas.

G rave-robbing a nd r euse:

d ata.

T here a re s till s ome m ajor p roblems w ith t he S an V incenzo m ortuary P erhaps t he m ajor o ne i s t he l ack o f a n a bsolute c hronology f or

t he

h ill-top c emetery,

a s ituation e xacerbated b y s evere

d isturbance

a nd g rave-robbing. E ven i f w e c an d ate t he t ombs t hemselves, t he s keletons i nside m ay b e l ater o r b elong t o v arious p eriods, a s s uggest ed

e arlier.

T here i s n othing t o s uggest t hat

t he h ill-top

c emetery

w as n ot u sed a fter t he 1 1th c entury, a nd i t c ertaj .nly a ppears t hat r obbing o r d isturbance c ontinued t o t he p resent ' day. A r ock-fall i n f ront o f t he a rcosolia s eems t o h ave s ealed t he g raves i n t he m edieval p eriod, ( a f ragment o f p roto-maiolica w as f ound i n o ne o f t he l ayers) i ndicating t hat t he s evere d isturbance w hich w as a pparent i n t hese g raves w as i n p rogress w hile t he c emetery w as s till i n u se. I t h as b een s uggested t hat f or t he r ich e arly m edieval g raves t o h ave a c hance t o r emain i ntact, i t w as e ssential f or t here t o h ave b een n o v isible 7 5

g rave m arker. 39 I n t he h ill-top c emetery t he v ast m ajority o f t he g raves w ould h ave b een v isible b ecause o f t he c uts i n t he o utcropping r ock, a nd s o t omb-robbers a nd r elic s eekers ( as w ell a s f armers) would h ave b een a ble

t o d isturb t he g raves a t t heir e ase.

T he d isturbance c ertainly s eems t o i ndicate t hat t here w as o nce s omething w orth d igging u p h ere, p ossibly g rave g oods, b ut i t i s i mposs ible t o s ay f or c ertain i f t his w as t he c ase, T he t otal a bsence o f g rave g oods f rom t he h ill-top c emetery m ay i ndicate t hat t hey w ere g enerally n ot d eposited i n t he g raves h ere , o r i t m ay m erely c onfirm t heir s usceptibility t o r obbing a nd r euse. C onclusion T he c hange f rom R oman t o e arly m edieval b urial p ractices i s w ell d ocumented i n t he l arge t owns a nd c ities. H owever, i n r ural a reas, w here t he m ass o f

t he p eople l ived,

t here h as b een m uch

l ess

a rchaeo-

l ogical i gvestigation, a nd t he l iterary e vidence i s f requently i nsubs tantial.'w F or S an V incenzo t here i s t he C hronicon V ulternense, a nd a n e xtensive p rogramme o f e xcavation . T he l atter s erves b oth t o t est t he a ccuracy o f t he C hronicon, a nd t o s upplement i t b y r evealing t he m ass o f d etail o f e veryday l ife o f t hese e arly C hristian p eoples. M ultiple b urials a ppear t o h ave b een t he n orm i n b oth t he l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval p eriods, a nd i ndeed i t w as a c ommon p ractice a ll o ver E urope i n t he i st m illennium A D. 41 S uch b urials c ould i ndic ate e ither a b elief i n l ack o f i ndividuality i n a nd a fter l ife, o r t he p reservation o f s trong f amily t ies. I n t he c ase o f t he m onastery s omething a long t he l ines o f t he f ormer i s m ore l ikely, w ith t he a ddl .4 t ional e lement o f m artyrs a nd r elics a cting a s a " loci o f h oliness". 2 T here a re h owever a s mall n umber o f s ingle i nhumations w hich b elong p rimarily

t o

i nfluence t hat t he

m ay h ave b een f elt a t S an V incenzo. I t h as b een s uggested i deology o f t he L ombards i ncreased t he t endancy t oware t he

p resevation o f

y et

t he

l ate 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies - a

i ndividuality i n d eath,

t ime

w hen

L ombard

t o a m uch g reater e xtent.

E vidence f or s ocial a nd i deological c hange h as b een d iscussed, a nd i t s eems t hat w e h ave s ome e vidence f or t he e ndurance o f m ortuary

h abits o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime. " R epetition o f b urial p atterns a nd t he r euse o f g raves a ppear t o b e f undamental c omponents o f b oth l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval b urial p ractices. T he e vident i ndifference t o g rave o rientation w hich i s a pparent i n 5 th c entury s outhern E urope, c arries o n t hroughout S an V incenzo's e arly m edieval p eriod. 45 m any o f t he e lements o f m ortuary p ractice w hich a ppear i n

A lthough t he l ate

R oman p eriod c ontinue t hrough t he e arly m edieval p eriod, w e h ave a ble t o s uggest r easons f or t he c hanges i n h abits, i n t erms o f c hanging s tructure o f s ociety. T he a nalysis o f t he

h istories

o f

t he c ontents o f

t he

t he t ombs,

t he s keletal d ata,

c emeteries a t S an V incenzo

i s o nly

j ust

b een t he

a nd

b egin-

n ing, b ut i t i s a lready a pparent t hat t he g rave-yards w ill b e o f c ons iderable i mportance. T hey a re o ffering u s a r are i nsight i nto s everal a spects o f t he l ife a nd d eath o f t he r ural p opulation i n l ate R oman t imes, a nd g ive u s c onsiderable i nformation a bout t he i nhabitants o f t he e arly m edieval m onastery. T he v ariations i n m ortuary p ractice w hich a re r evealed i n t he d ifferent g rave t ypes, g rave c ontents a nd o ccupants o f t ombs, w ill a id u s i n o ur a ttempts t o u nderstand t he 7 6

s ocial

o rganisation

s ignificant b etween t he

o f

c ontribution t wo.

l ate R oman a nd m onastic e states, t o

o ur

k nowledge

c oncerning

a nd

m ake

t he

c hanges

a

A cknowledgements: O ur r esearch s cholarships f rom

i n I taly w as f unded b y P etrie W atson t ravelling t he U niversity o f S heffield. W e w ould l ike t o

a cknowledge t he c ontributions o f N igel B aker, C ameron M offett a nd J aqueline N owakowski t hrough t heir s upervision o f T renches S a nd T i n 1 981,

a nd t o V alerie H iggins f or h er a nalysis o f

t he s keletal r emains.

T hanks a re a lso d ue t o J ohn C lipson, E ric H ansen, D eborah H odges, S usan O rton , a nd I an R iddler f or t heir g reat e fforts a nd h elpful s uggestions d uring t he e xcavations o f t he c emeteries. W e s hould a lso l ike t o t hank J ohn M oreland a nd S usan O rton f or t heir h elp i n p reparing t his p aper.

7 7

N otes 1 .

S ee L .

B inford,

' Mortuary p ractices:

t heir s tudy a nd p otential',

i n J .A. B rown ( ed.), A pproaches t o t he S ocial D imensions o f M ort uary P ractice ( Memoirs o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology 2 5, 1 971), 6 - 2 9; a nd A .A. S axe's u npublished P h.D. t hesis - S ocial D imensions o f M ortuary P ractices ( University o f M ichegan, 1 971). 2 .

T his

a lteration c an b e c onsidered o ne o f M .

f orms". 3 .

S ee

E .J.

P ader,

S ymbolism,

t ion o f M ortuary R emains. 4 .

S chiffer's

S ee h is B ehavioural A rchaeology ( New Y ork,

T hese g reat

" C

t rans-

1 976).

S ocial R elations a nd t he I nterpreta-

( Oxford,

1 982).

c hurches a re d iscussed a nd d escribed

i n R .

K rautheimer,

' Mensa-Coemeterium - M artyrium', C ahiers A rchgologiques I X ( 1960), 1 5-40, ( reprinted i n S tudies i n E arly C hristian, M edieval, a nd R enaissance A rt 5 .

S .

G agniare

( New Y ork ,

s uggests

t hat

a nd L ondon,

1 971),

3 5-58).

f lat r oofed

t ile g raves w ere b uilt

f rom

a round 2 50-400 A D, a nd c appuccina g raves f rom t he 5 th t o t he 7 th c enturies. S ee h er ' Les S gpultres a i nhumation d u 1 11e a u X IIIe

6 .

7 .

s iecle d e n otre a re d ans l a B asse V alle c hronologie t ypologique', C ahier R hodaniens

d e R höne: e ssai ( 1965), 1 08-10.

S ee V . H iggins, c hapter 5 i n t his v olume, o f t he s keletal e vidence.

f or a n analysis

D .

B ullough,

w est',

i n

' Burial,

P .

c ommunity a nd b elief

W ormald,

w ith D .

8 .

C ollins

K rautheimer,

B .K.

( eds.), ( Oxford,

1 88.

s tudies, 9 .

s ome

i n t he e arly m edieval

B ullough a nd R .

I deal a nd R eality i n F rankish a nd Anglo-Saxon S ociety, 1 983),

o f

d e

M ensa

- C oemeterium

- M artyrium

( note

4 ),

3 3

( =

4 7)

Y oung

s uggests

t hat

t his m ay

i n f act

b e

t he r esult o f

c remation o r o f a f orm o f c harcoal p urification.

S ee t he

p artial s ection

o n r itual f ires i n h is T he M erovingian F uneral R ites a nd t he Evolut ion o f C hristianity: a s tudy i n t he H istorical I nterpretation o f A rchaeological M aterial, o f P ennsylvania, 1 975) A rbor, 1 0.

L ondon),

1 18-131.

T hese g raves c an b e p aralleled a t D yson,

1 1.

( unpublished P h.D d issertation , U niversity ( University M icrofilms I nternational, A nn

F rom

S an N icola,

T he R oman V illas o f B uccino a

c emetery

a ltomedievale

a t R utiliagno

( Oxford, - M .

i n a gro d i R utiliagno

1 2.

F acades m ent o f b e

o f

1 44.

S alvatore,

' Un

( Bari),

R ivista d i A rcheologia C ristiana L VII

( 1981),

S ee

s tuccoed o r p ainted

( see J .

a nd p assim ; c hamber

a nd i n t he c arved t ombs

l ike

s epolcreto

1 27-160.

w here a f acade

S tevenson, ( London,

t reatc ould

T he C atacombs: 1 978),)

f acades o f E truscan a nd

t hose d escribed b y A . 7 8

S .L.

P reliminari,'

t his k ind c an b e p aralleled i n t he c lassicizing

R ediscovered M onuments o f E arly C hristianity R ock-cut

N otizie

i ndividual a rcosolia i n t he c atacombs,

r ock-cut,

8 ,26

B uccino.

1 983),

F igs. R oman

B oethius a nd J .B.

W ard-Perkins i n E truscan a nd E arly R oman A rchitecture ( Harmondsw orth, 1 978), a nd J . C assels i n T he c emeteries o f C yrene', P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 2 3 ( 1955), 1 -43, o r i n t he p illasters a nd p ediments b uilt i nto t he w alls a round t he e ntrance a rches o f t he e xedra s epulchral n iches o n t he S treet o f T ombs a t P ompeii ( London, 1 3.

F or

- J .M .C. T oynbee, 1 971), 1 22-23.

D eath a nd B urial i n t he R oman W orld

f ree-standing m ausolea s ee T oynbee,

1 38-143;

f or c atacombs s ee S tevenson ,

D eath a nd B urial ( note 1 2), T he C atacombs

1 9; f or r ock-cut c hambers s ee C assels, ( note 1 2), 2 1. 1 4. A s ite a t A krai,

n ear S yracuse,

( note 1 2),

h ad i ndividual a rcosolia a nd l oculi

c ut d irectly i nto t he f ace o f a n a bandoned q uarry. ' Akrai ( Syracusa): R icherche n el t erritorio', A ntichitä S er 2 4, ( 1970), 4 36-523. 1 5. e .g.

C assels,

1 8-

T he C emeteries o f C yrene'

S ee G . C urcio, N otizie S cavi

T he c emeteries o f C yrene ( note 1 3).

1 6. T he f orm o f t he c ross o ffers f ew c lues a s t o w hen i t w as c ut; b ut t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat i t d ates f rom t he E arly C hristian p eriod, w hen t he t ype o f c ross w ith f laring a rms w as n ot u ncommon. 1 7. E .

J ames

d iscusses

t he d evelopment o f 6 th c entury F rankish

c eme-

t eries n ucleating a round t he e arliest g raves i n h is ' Cemeteries a nd t he p roblem o f F rankish s ettlement i n G aul', i n P .H. S awyer ( ed.), W ords, N ames, a nd G raves: E arly M edieval S ettlement ( Leeds, 1 979), 8 3. 1 8. T he

d ifferential d isposal o f c hild c orpses i s w ell

d ocumented

i n

t ombs a nd

o f

a nthropolgy. 1 9. T he

p roblems o f

g rave-robbing

t he a rchaeological i nterpretation o f

a re e loquently d iscussed i n E .

g ian A rchaeology o f S outh W est G aul 2 0. 2 1.

S ee V .

H iggins,

( Oxford,

J ames, 1 977),

1 63.

c hapter 5 i n t his v olume.

T he u se o f m atronymic s urnames a s a n i ndicator o f b een p roposed b y D . n ental

T he M erovin-

H erlihy.

E urope 7 01-1200 ,

I n ' Land,

i n S .M.

f emale s tatus h as

f amily a nd w omen i n C onti-

S tuard ( ed.)

W oman i n M edieval

S ociety ( Philadelphia, 1 976), 2 0, h e t ells u s t hat " in a d ocument o f 8 74, l isting e leven s erfs o f t he m onastery o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno, n o l ess t han f our b ear a m atronymic, p erhaps i ndicating i llegitimate b irth, b ut m ore l ikely r eflecting t he f act t hat t he m onastery's 2 2.

S ee

t itle o ver t hem c ame t hrough t he m other".

t he p aper b y J .

m edieval m onastery', 2 3.

H .

B elting,

F ig.

M itchell,

T he p ainted d ecoration o f

t he e arly

i n t his v olume.

S tudien z ur b eneventanischen M alerei

( Wiesbaden,

1 968),

2 3.

2 4. J . O sbourne d iscusses e arly m edieval a rcosolium t ombs i n T he t omb o f A lfanus i n S . M aria i n C osmedin, R ome, a nd i t's p lace i n t he t radition o f R oman f unerary m onuments', P apers o f t he B ritish 7 9

S chool a t R ome 5 3 2 5.

2 40-48.

T his t omb w as e xcavated b y t he S printendenza A rcheologica d el M olise i n 1 971. I t h as b een p ublished b y A . P antoni, L e c hiese e g li e difici d el m onastero d i S an V incenzo a l V olturno ( Montec assino,

2 6.

( 1983),

1 980),

M itchell,

1 17-121.

T he p ainted d ecoration o f

t he e arly m edieval

m onastery,

t his v olume. 2 7.

2 8.

S ee t he p aper b y R . H odges, c hapter 1 i n t his v olume, f or a m ore d etailed d escription o f t he a rchitecture a nd l ayout o f t his a rea. T he

r elationship b etween S an V incenzo a nd B enenvento i s

d iscussed

i n d etail i n R . H odges, J . M oreland a nd H . P atterson, ' San V incenzo a l V olturno, t he K ingdom o f B enevento, a nd t he C arolingians', i n C . M alone a nd S . ( Oxford, 1 984), 2 9.

S ee M .

S toddart ( eds.), ( in p ress).

S hanks a nd C .

c ommunication :

a

T illey,

A s

I an

H odder s hows

t eries:

' Ideology,

p ower a nd

i n h is p aper:

' Social

i n P .

A nglo-Saxon C emeteries 1 979 a rt.

r itual

T .

( Oxford,

a nd

c eme-

1 980).

S hanks a nd T illey,

3 2.

T he u se o f t hese i ndices w as s uggested b y C .R. O rton a nd H odson i n ' Rank a nd c lass: i nterpreting t he e vidence f rom

( London, 3 3.

P .

1 981),

A ri s

1 52.

M .

1 03.

d iscusses

B loch a nd J .

e dited

F .R . p re-

i n S .C. H umpreys a nd H . K ing ( eds.), M ortat he A nthropology a nd A rchaeology o f D eath

t his

i n

W estern A ttitudes t owards D eath f rom

t he M iddle A ges t o t he P resent 3 4.

( Cam-

D ickinson a nd L .

3 1.

h istoric c emeteries', l ity a nd I mmortality:

c it.,

s tructure

R ahtz,

3

p racti-

S ymbolic a nd S tructural A rchaeology

a c ritical a ppraisal',

W atts ( eds.),

s ymbolic

r einterpretation o f N eolithic m ortuary

c es', i n I . H odder ( ed.), b ridge, 1 983), 1 30. 3 0.

P apers i n I talian A rchaeology

v olume,

( London,

P arry e mphasise t his

1 976),

1 6,

2 2.

i n t he i ntroduction t o

D eath a nd t he R egeneration o f L ife

t heir

( Cambridge,

1 982), 4 1. 3 5.

A .

P antoni,

a

M ontecassino n ell'alto m edievo',

' Documenti E pigraphici

s ulla p resenza d i

S ettentrionali

B enedictina X II ( Rome),

1 958,

2 05-232. 3 6.

K .J.Conant, 1 968),

I ,

C luny.

p 1.4

L es g glises e t l a m aison d u c hef d 'Ordre

( c.1050),

p 1.5

3 7.

B ullough,

3 8.

B ullough, a rt,

c it.,

1 86-7.

3 9.

B ullough,

a rt,

c it.,

1 94.

4 0.

B ullough,

a rt,

c it.,

1 80-81.

( c.1088),

' Burial c ommunity a nd b elief

8 0

p 1.6

( c.1157),

( note 7 ),

1 85.

p 1.7

( Macon, ( c.1200).

4 1.

B urial

r ites o f

t his p eriod a re d iscussed b y

g ian F uneral R ites 4 2.

B ullough,

4 3.

Y oung,

4 4.

T his w as

4 5.

B ullough,

a rt.

( note 9 )

c it.,

Y oung,

T he M erovin-

p assim .

1 82.

T he M erovingian F uneral R ites, s uggested b y B inford,

9 1.

' Mortuary P ractices

' Burial c ommunity a nd b elief',

8 1

1 90.

( note 1 ),

1 1.

C hapter 4 :

T HE L ATE R OMAN A ND E ARLY M EDIEVAL P OTTERY F ROM M OLISE b y H elen P atterson

I ntroduction

a nd

O ur k nowledge o f p ottery p roduction a nd d istribution i n c entral s outhern I taly f rom A D 4 00-1000 h as i ncreased e normously i n r ecent

y ears. p ania, R uoti,

T he w ork o f W hitehouse i n a nd a round R ome, o f A rthur i n C amo f S alvatore i n B asilicata, a nd o f F reed a t S an G iovanni d i d eserve

s pecial m ention,

a nd n ow t he e xcavations a nd s urvey w ork

b y t he U niversity o f S heffield i n M olise a re m aking a n i mportant c ont ribution t o o ur u nderstanding o f t his p eriod. H owever, i t i s s till a v ery p atchy p icture, a nd t he l ittle w e n ow k now s imply h ighlights t he m assive a mount o f w ork b oth i n t he f ield a nd t he l aboratory, t hat s till n eeds t o b e d one. I n t his c ontext, r egional s urveys s uch a s t hose u ndertaken i n t he v alleys o f t he B iferno a nd t he V olturno i n M olise ( Fig.4:1) m ust b e s een a s b eing o f t he g reatest v alue; i t i s o nly b y t racing d evelopments t hrough t ime o n a r egional s cale t hat w e c an h ope t o r each s ome u nderstanding o f t he c omplex n ature o f s ociety a nd e conomy i n a ll i ts a spects I t

i n t his p eriod.

m ust b e s aid t hat r esearch h as c oncentrated o n t he p eriod A D

7 00. a bout

4 00-

T he e vidence i s s uch t hat w e c an n ow m ake s ome v alid s tatements t he n ature o f c eramic p roduction a nd d istribution i n c entrel a nd

s outhern I taly d uring

t his p eriod o f p olitical a nd s ocial c hange.

T he

s ame c annot b e s aid f or t he p eriod A D 7 00-1000 f or w hich o ur e vidence i s s everely l imited. T he s tandard r ange o f w ares p roduced i n s outhern c entral a nd s outhern I taly i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod; d omestic w ares i n a l imited r ange o f f orms a ccompanied b y r ed p ainted v essels, i s w ell k nown. g lazed w ares). o f

T he e vidence w ould n ow s uggest t hat,

a t l east i n s ome

a reas,

w ares w ere a lso a vailable ( see b elow i n s ection o n g lazed H owever, o f t he d evelopment o f t he f orms o f t hese w ares, a nd

t heir p roduction a nd m arketing,

w e c an s ay l ittle.

O ne f undamental p roblem i s t hat o f d ating. N o e xcavation i n s outhern c entral o r s outhern I taly h as y et p roduced a c onvincing d atea ble t ypological s equence f or w ares o f t his p eriod. T here a re t wo m ain r easons; s econdly,

f irstly, f ew s ites o f t his p eriod h ave b een e xcavated, f ollowing t he p roduction o f d ateable r ed s lip w ares a nd p rior

t o t he a ppearance o f d ateable g lazed w ares, t here i s l ittle o r n o m eans o f d ating, c oin f inds a re f ew a nd e ven d ocumentary e vidence i s o f l imited u se. I ronically, t his i s t he v ery r eason w hy d ateable t ypolog ies a re s o n ecessary, o ften e nough t hese w ares a re o ur o nly m eans o f d ating a s ite. E ven a t N aples, w here a s eries o f e xcavations d irected b y P aul A rthur h ave p roduced a p ottery s equence s tretching f rom t he R oman

p eriod

t hrough t o

t he p ost m edieval p eriod,

t he

s ame

p roblem

o ccurs. T here i s w ell d ated m aterial u p t o t he 7 th c entury A D a nd a gain f rom t he 1 2th c entury A D o nwards w ith t he a ppearance o f t he f irst m aiolica, b ut m aterial f rom t he 7 th t o t he 1 2th c entury A D c annot, a s 8 3

y et,

b e d ated w ith a ny c ertainty.

2

O n-going w ork a t R ome p romises e xcavations

t o b e a n i mportant e xception.

T he

a t t he C rypta B albi h ave r evealed a v ast q uantity o f

p ot-

t ery o f e arly m edieval d ate. A w ell d efined s tratigraphy a nd g ood c oin e vidence i s e nabling a d ateable t ypological s equence o f w ares t o b e c onstructed. A lthough l evels p rior t o t he 9 th c entury h ave n ot y et b een e xcavated, t he 9 th, i n

t h3

c lear d ifferences a re n ow e merging b etween m aterials o f

1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies. l ight

T hese d ifferences a re n ot o nly s een

s urfaced w ares a nd g lazed w ares,

b ut a lso i n t he k itchen

w ares. H ow r epresentative t hese r esults a re f or t he n ature a nd s cale o f p ottery p roduction a nd d istribution e lsewhere i n c entral a nd s outhern

I taly

r emains

t o b e s een.

T he p ottery a ssemblage f rom

t he

C rypta B albi m ust b e c onsidered i n i ts c ontext a s r eflecting d evelopm ents i n a m ajor c entre. T he p icture d erived f rom t his e vidence m ay w ell p rove, t o b e t he e xception r ather t han t he r ule. O ne c lear c haracteristic o f t his p eriod i s t he e mphasis o n l ocal r egional p roduction, r ather t han i nter-regional ( long d istance)

a nd

t rade. M uch o f t his p aper a ims t o e xamine r egional a nd s ub-regional p roduction-distribution s ystems u sing t he w ell-stratified m aterial f rom S an V incenzo i n t he l ater R oman a nd e arly m edieval p eriods. I t s hould b e

e mphasized,

a dvance o f

n evertheless,

t hat

t he f inal p rocessing o f

t his i s a p reliminary s ummary

t he f inds f rom t he 1 980-84

i n

s easons.

W hen t his p rocessing h as b een c ompleted t here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he p ottery a ssemblage f rom S an V incenzo w ill r ank a s o ne o f t he m ost i nteresting o f i ts p eriod i n I taly. T he L ater R oman P ottery T he

e vidence

f or t he l ater R oman p ottery i n t he

B iferno

c onsists

o f

m aterial M atrice,

f rom t he l ater l evels o f t he e xcavations o f o ccupied b etween t he i st t o t he 4 th o r 5 th

T hese

a re

a n umber o f s mall a ssemblages f rom s urvey

s till b eing s tudied,

b ut

w ork

v alley a nd

t he

t he v illa o f c enturies A D.

s ome p reliminary c oncluzions

h ave

b een m ade o n t he i mported f ine w ares a nd r ed p ainted w ares. I n t he V olturno v alley, e xcavations o f t he l ate R oman v illa a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno h ave r evealed a l arge c ollection o f p ottery w hich i s c urrently b eing p rocessed. T he l ate R oman p ottery o f b oth a reas i s c haracterized b y i ts q uality a nd w ide r ange o f

f orms.

T he B iferno V alley F or t he l ocal w ares, i t m ust s uffice t o s ay t hat t hey a re a ll o f c haracteristic l ate R oman f orm . I mported w ares c omprise A frican R ed S lip a nd a f ew f inds o f P hocaean a nd C ypriot w are. A t M atrice, 6 1B,

t he l atest i mported f ine w are i s A frican R ed S lip

t he p roduction o f w hich h ad c eased b y A D 4 50 a t

t he l atest.

f orm DI n

t he s urvey o f t he B iferno V alley b y G .W.W . B arker ( 1974-78) t he l atest A frican R ed S lip t o b e f ound i s f orm 6 1B, b ut P hocaean a nd C ypriot w are w ere

r ecovered f rom f our s ites.

T he P hocaean a nd C ypriot f orms

f ound

w ere p roduced u ntil t he f irst h alf o f t he 6 th c entury A D, b ut L loyd b elieves t hat t hey c ould w ell b elong t o t he f irst p roductions o f t heir f orm m aking t hem m ore o r l ess c ontemporary w ith t he l atest A frican

R ed

S lip. T his s uggestion i s s upported b y s herds o f P hocaean w are d isc overed e lsewhere i n t he B iferno V alley, f our o ut o f f ive r ims o f H ayes 8 4

8 5 l o c a t i o n o f

t h e s i t e s m e n t i o n e d i n

f orm 3 a re e arly v arieties d ated e arly t o m id 5 th c entury f ore

L loyd

t he l atest A

A D.

s uggests a l ate 4 th t o m id 5 th c entury d ate r ange f ine w are

T heref or

a ll

f rom b oth t he s urvey a nd t he e xcavation e vidence. 6

l arge a mount o f r ed p ainted w are h as b een f ound i n t he

t ions o f t he v illa a t M atrice a nd d uring t he s urvey o f v alley. T he m ost c ommon f orms a re s mall a mphorae a nd

e xcava-

t he B iferno w ide-mouthed

j ars.; t hese a re t wo o f t he t hree m ain f orms d istinguished b y F reed i n h er a nalysis o f t he r ed p ainted w are f rom t he l ate 4 th t o m ifd 6 th c entury A D o ccupation a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti ( Basilicata).' T he p ainted d ecoration i s o f t wo m ain t ypes; a r egular l inear p attern o f b ands o f r ed p aint u p t o l cm i n w idth a nd a m ore h aphazard b road l ine d ecoration s imilar t o t hat f ound o n v essels a t C alle d i T ricarico. O ther

v essels

s imply h ave d ribbles o r s plashes o f p ainted

d ecoration.

S ome v essels h ave f ine r illing, s triations, a nd c ombed h oEizontal a nd w avy l ines, a gain s een o n v essels a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti. ° T he l ate R oman m aterial i n t he B iferno v alley i s t echnically 9 th c entury 5 th c entury t he e vidence

t he f irst h alf o f T he F reed f inds,

s tylistically a nd

d ifferent t o t he r ed p ainted w are f ound a t t he 6 th/7th t o A D s ite o f S anta M aria i n C ivitä a nd r ather c loser t o t he A D d evelopments a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti. T his f act a nd o f a ssociated f ine w ares h as s uggested t o L loyd a d ate i n

l ocation

t he 5 th c entury A D f or o f

t hese w ares.

t he k ilns p roducing t hese w ares

i s

n ot

k nown.

o n t he b asis o f t he d istribution o f l ate R oman a nd m edieval h as s uggested gne c entral p roduction a rea i n n orth A pulia o r

n orth-east B asilicata.' H owever, t he w idespread o ccurrence o f t hese w ares o ver s outhern I taly i n t he l ater R oman p eriod a nd t he f act t hat c ertain d ecorative m otifs a re p articular t o c ertain a reas, 1° w ould s uggest

t hat t hey a re t he p roducts o f s everal c entres.

T his i s

s up-

p orted b y t he e vidence f rom t he B iferno v alley w here f our f abric g roups h ave b een i dentified, i ndicating t hat m ore t han o ne w orkshop w as s upp lying t his a rea. A lthough t he v essels c ould w ell b e i mports f rom s outhern I taly, t he p ossibility o f t heir p roduction i n M olise i tself s hould n ot b e r uled o ut. D etailed p etrological a nalysis w ould b e o f g reat v alue i n a ssessing t he p roduction a nd d istribution z ones o f

t hese

w ares. T he

l ate R oman v illa a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno h as p roduced

a n

i nteresting r ange o f l ate R oman w ares. F ine i mported w ares c onsist s olely o f A frican R ed S lip. N o E ast M editerranean i mports h ave b een f ound, a nd a s i n t he B iferno v alley t he l atest f orm i s H ayes f orm 6 1B, i ndicating a t erminal d ate o f a round A D 4 25 t o 4 50 f or A frican

i mports

t o t his p art o f I taly. R ed-painted

w ares o f

l ate R oman d ate a re l ess c ommon i n t he

V ol-

t urno v alley. A r elatively s mall n umber o f f ragments h ave b een r ec overed f rom t he l ate R oman l evels o f t he e xcavations o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno. O ne v ery d istinctive t ype p redominates. T hese c onsist o f c losed v essels, i ncluding t wo j ugs, w ith a b urnished e xterior a nd t hin l ined

r ed p ainted d ecoration i n a v ariety o f m otifs.

l arge

a mount

o f

b urnished r ed-painted w ares h ave b een

l ate

R oman d eposits i n t he R oman t heatre.

b een

r ecovered

f rom e xcavations o f

A t

T he s ame w ares

t he R oman t heatre a t

V enafro,

d iscovered h ave

S aepinum.

a i n

a lso A t

S aepinum , t he v essels c omprised b oth j ugs a nd l arge b owls, a nd w ere a ssociated w ith A frica R ed S lip o f 5 th a nd 6 th c enturies A D d ate. 8 6

1

2

5 4

6 3

-

8

v 1 3

1 0

1 5

1 6

l o cm

F ig.

4 :2

A s election o f

t he

l at . .

V olturno.

8 7

R oman w ares

f rom S an V incenzo a l

N either

a ssemblage

h as

y et b een p ublished.

R ecent

e xcavations

a t

N aples h ave r evealed t wo f ragments w ith s imilar d ecoration a gain i n a ssociation w ith A frican R ed S lip o f 5 th ad 6 th c enturies d ate. A rthur b elieves t hese a re p robably i mports. 1 1 T he f abrics o f t hese v arious a ssemblages o f b urnished r ed p ainted w are a re y et t o b e c omp ared a nd a nalyzed. e xamples i llustrated

T wo f ragments o f a r ed p ainted w are i dentical t o b y F reed h ave a lso b een f ound a t S an V incenzo a l

V olturno. I n a f ine b uff f abric, t hey h ave e laborated i ncised d ecorat ion a pplied b efore f iring a nd a r ed s lip o n t he e xterior ( Fig.4:2,11). T his v ariant i s d ated a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti t o t he l ate 4 th t o e arly 5 th c enturies A D. S everal

f ragments

o f

f ound. F inds o f s oapstone I taly, e specfilly o f l ate c onnections. O nly o ne t o a n e xample f ound i n w here T his

s oapstone ( pietra o llare)

a lso

h ave

b een

o f t his d ate a re r are a s f ar s outh a s t his i n R oman d ate, a nd t hey c learly i ndicate A lpine a mphora f ragment h as b een i dentified, s imilar t he e xcavations a t S chola P raeconum i n R ome

t he d eposits a re d ated t o t he e arly t o m id 5 th c entury A D) i s n ot u nusual; a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti a s imilar a bsence o f

a mphorae h as b een n oted. 15 E vidently t he i nhabitants r elied o n l ocal w ine a nd o il p roduction, o r a lternatively w ooden c ontainers w ere u sed. T he b ulk o f t he l ate R oman p ottery f rom S an V incenzo a l V olturno c onsists o f d omestic w ares. T hey a re i n o ne p redominant f abric a nd a re c haracterized b y t heir h igh q uality, s tandardization a nd w ide r ange o f f orms. T he m ajority o f t he v essels a re j ars, o f v arying s ize, s ome w ith s harpened, p roto-collars) ( Fig.4:2,5-7). p alette

a ngular a nd s quared r ims ( which i n s ome b ecome a lmost ( Fig.4:2,1-4) a nd s ome w ith t hickened, e verted r ims T hey h ave s traight-sided b odies w ith d istinctive

c utting m arks.

S ome o f

t he c oarser j ars a re s corched e xtern-

a lly a nd m ay h ave b een u sed f or c ooking. u pright r ims a nd t hick w alled f lat

A f ew l arge s torage j ars w ith b ases h ave a lso b een f ound

( Fig.4:2,8-10); n ormally t hese h ave n o b ody d ecoration. H andles a re o f t he n arrow s trap t ype, s ome h ave a s hallow b road g roove, a nd j oin t he v essel b elow t he r im ( Fig.4:2,12). B ases a re f lat a nd c heese-wired, a nd t hickened i n s ome c ases, b ut i n a n umber o f i nstances t he b ase r ing h as b een f ettled t o e xaggerate t he p rofile. A f ew l id f ragments h ave b een f ound, t he m ajority h ave s quared e dges a nd w irecut k nobs ( Fig.4:2,14). O pen v essels a re r are i n t his f abric, b ut a s mall n umber o f b owls a re r epresented. T hey o ften h ave a c oncentric g roove o r a s mall f lange b elow a p lain, u pright, o r s lightly i ncurving r im ( Fig.4:2,13,15). r ims w ere

T here a re a lso a f ew l arger b owls w ith t hick f langed

( Fig.4:2,16). P etrological a nalysis h as s hown t hat t hese w ares n ot p roduced l ocally, a nd a p roduction c entre i n C ampania h as b een

p ostulated.

1 6

S ummary T he

p resence

o f

A frican R ed S lip i ndicates

t hat

t rade n etworks w ere s till o perating i n M olise u ntil a t

l ong

d istance

l east A D 4 25 a nd

i n t he c ase o f t he B iferno v alley w ith i ts e vidence f or P hocaean a nd C ypriot w are, p ossibly u ntil t he 6 th c entury A D a lthough t his s eems u nlikely ( see a bove). M ore s ignificant i s t he p resence i n b oth o f a l arge a mount o f h igh q uality, s tandardized d omestic w are.

a reas T hese

r eflect, f irstly, t he c ontinuing o peration o f p ottery c entres p roducing a w ide r ange o f w ares, o n a l arge s cale a nd t o a h igh t echnological l evel: a p roduction m ode t ermed b y s ome a rchaeologists ' industrial , 1 7 8 8

a nd

s econdly,

t he c ontinuing e xistence o f

r egional d istribution

n et-

w orks w hich s upplied t he e veryday g oods n ecessary t o b asic s ubsistence. T he w ares t hemselves a re c ompatable w ith R athje's i deas o n c ost c ontrol a nd m arket s ystems. T he t hird a nd m ost d eveloped p hase o f h is p roduct ion m odel t echniques,

i s o ne o f m odified

s tandardized m ass p roduction a nd d istribution t o m eet i ncreasingly s pecialized l ocal r equire-

m ents r esulting i n a n i ncrease i n t he v ariety o f s pecific p roducts. 18 T hus t he e conomy s eems s till t o h ave b een b ased u pon c lassic m arketing p rinciples,

a lthough

i t

m ay

h ave b een o rientated

t owards

o r

e ven

i ncreasingly o rganized b y t he d emands o f l arge e states a s t he m ore c entralized s ettlement p attern i mplies ( see C onclusion i n t he s ection o n t he L ater R oman p eriod f or d iscussion o f H ow

l ong

d id

t his

t his d evelopment).

s ituation c ontinue?

d istance t rade i n f ine t able w ares,

T he b reakdown

t hough s ignificant,

o f

l ong

w ould n ot

b y

I tself h ave h ad a d rastic e ffect o n t he e conomy; t he g oods i t s upplied w ere n ot a n ecessary p art o f t he e conomic b asis o f t he s ettlements. H owever, t he b reakdown o f l ocal t rading m echanisms s upplying e veryday g oods f or b asic c onsumption, w ould h ave h ad a t raumatic e ffect n ecess itating

a

m assive r e-organization o f

t he e conomy o f

t he

s ettlements

f or t hem t o s urvive. U nfortunately, a t M atice i n t he B iferno v alley, t he m eans o f d ating t he s ite e nds w ith t he d isappearance o f t he i mport ed f ine w ares. T his i ndicates e ither a b reakdown o f d istribution m echanisms o r t he a bandonment o f s ettlement. H owever, e vidence f rom t he B iferno

V alley s urvey i ndicates t hat a long t he A driatic

c oast,

t hese

r egional d istribution n etworks m ay h ave p ersisted u ntil t he E arly 7 th c entury. A t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, 6 th c entury c oins i ndicate t hat a lthough l ong d istance t rade n etworks h ad c eased b y, a t l atest, A D 4 25 t o 4 50, t he r egional n etwork s ystem s upplying t he d omestic w ares t o t he c entre c ontinued u ntil t his p oint i n t ime. a bandoned a round t he m id 6 th c entury A D.

T he v illa w e b elieve,

w as

T he P roblems o f T ransition T he

c eramic e vidence f or t he e arly m edieval p ottery o f b oth a reas

r eflects

a d ramatic c hange i n t he i ndustries a nd b y

e conomy a t

t he e nd o f

i mplication,

t he

t he l ate R oman p eriod.

T he V olturno V alley T he b reak i s m ore o bvious a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno,

w here

t here

i s a s triking c ontrast b etween t he l ate R oman w ares a nd t he 8 th a nd 9 th c entury a ssemblage. F irstly, t he d omestic w ares a re n ow e ntirely d ifferent p etrologically a nd t ypologically t o t hose o f t he l ate R oman p eriod; m ade f rom l ocal c lays a nd s et f irmly i n a m edieval t radition. S econdly, b road l ine r ed p ainted w ares n ow o ccur i n l arge q uantities. P ottery b elonging t o t he t ransition b etween t he l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval p eriod i s n ot r epresented a t t he m onastery s ite. T he v illa w as d eserted ( although i ts c hurch w as s till i n u se), a nd a t t his t ime w e b elieve h illside l ocations i n t he r egion w ere f irst o ccupied. T wo s uch s ites h ave b een i dentified; e xcavations a t b oth o t t hem, C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia h ave s hed s ome l ight o n t he o bscure 6 th t o 8 th c enturies A D.

d ate f ound

1 9

T he p ottery f rom t hese v illages i s m ainly o f 8 th t o 9 th c entury a nd c omprises t he c haracteristic r ed p ainted a nd c oarse w ares a t

t he m onastic

c omplex.

D omestic w ares a re n ow p redominantly o f 8 9

' CD

"

cf

1 2

1 4 1 7

1 5

1 8

1 6

F ig.

4 :3

T he l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval w ares f rom S anta M aria C ivitä.

9 0

i n

l ocal

c lay;

p etrological

a nalysis

h as s hown t he

w ares

t o

c ontain

n umerous l imestone i nclusions, c ompatable w ith t he g eology o f t he a rea. H owever a t b oth s ites, i n a ddition t o t he s tandard e arly m edieval f orms, a l arge n umber o f c oarse, u nevenly f ired, h andmade v essels h ave b een r ims,

f ound w ith s uch l ate R oman f eatures a s f ootring b ases, f langed a nd n arrow s trap h andles. I t m ust b e s aid t hat t he e vidence i s

t enuous, f or w ithout g ood g roups f rom S an V incenzo i tself, i s l ess t han s ecure. B ut, i t w ould s eem l ikely t hat v essels i n l ocal c lay r epresent a ttempts t o i mitate l ater a nd a re a s triking r eflection o f t he c ollapse o f r egional n etwo «s t ion. '

i n

t he 6 th c entury A D a nd a r eversion t o

t he s equence t hese c rude R oman f orms d istribution

h ousehold

p roduc-

T he w ares t hemselves c ontrast s harply w ith t he l ate R oman p rod ucts. T hey a re c haracterized b y t heir l imited r ange o f f unctional t ypes, p oor q uality a nd s trictly l ocal d istribution. B y t he 8 th a nd 9 th c enturies a t C olle C astellano, V acchereccia a nd t he m onastery a lthough w e f ind a n i mprovement i n t he s tandard o f t hese w ares, i t w as n ever t o m arketing

r each t he s cale a nd q uality o f R oman p ottery p roduction a nd s een, f or e xample, i n t he 4 th t o 6 th c entury A D a ssemblage a t

t he v illa. T hus, d espite t hese i nitial a ttempts t o i mitate R oman f orms, t his p henomenon w as s hortlived. T hese 6 th t o 7 th c enturies A D a ssemblages m ust b e r egarded a s r epresenting t he b eginning o f a l ocal m edieval p ottery t radition w hich b y t he 8 th a nd 9 th c enturies A D l ittle r esemblance t o t hat o f t he R oman p eriod.

b ore

T he B iferno V alley A t ransition p eriod o f t his k ind h as n ot b een i dentified i n t he B iferno v alley, a nd a c ertain c ontinuity s eems t o o ccur i n t he e arly m edieval c eramics o f t his a rea f rom t hose o f t he l ate R oman p eriod. A t S anta M aria i n C ivitä, o ccupied f rom t he 6 th o r 7 th c enturies t o t he 9 th c enturies A D, r ed p ainted w are i s s till p resent i n l arge q uantit ies, a lthough i t i s p etrologically a nd t ypologically d istinct f rom t hat o f l ate R oman d ate ( Fig.4:3,1-2). 21 C oarse w ares e volve t ypol ogically, b ut t he f abric i s e xactly t he s ame a s t hat u sed f or t he l ate R oman w ares,

o nly l ess r efined.

T he E arly M edieval P ottery

f rom

L arge a ssemblages o f e arly m edieval p ottery h ave b een r ecovered b oth a reas. I n t he B iferno v alley, t he e xcavations i n 1 978 a t

S anta M aria i n C ivitä f ound p ottery o f 6 th o r 7 th t o 9 th c entury d ate, w hile i n t he V olturno v alley, b oth S an V incenzo a l V olturno, V accher eccia a nd C olle C astellano h ave p roduced l arge a mounts o f e arly m edieval w ares. T he w ell-dated 9 th a nd 1 0th c entury p ottery s equence f rom S an V incenzo a l V olturno i s p erhaps o ne o f t he m ost i mportant a spects o f t he S an V incenzo p roject. T he g roup f ound i n t he g lass w orkshop i n t he d estruction d eposit a rising f rom t he S aracen a ttack i n 8 81 A .D., i s o f s pecial i nterest ( Fig.4:6). T here a re t hree c haract eristics o f t he e arly m edieval p ottery a ssemblages o f b oth a reas: ( i) t he r ange o f f abrics i s r estricted; ( ii) r ed p ainted w ares a nd c oarse w ares o ccur i n r oughly e qual a mounts e ven o n t he s mall r ural s ites o f V acchereccia a nd C olle C astellano r ed p ainted w ares c omprise a bout 4 0% o f t he a ssemblage; ( iii) t he r ange o f t he f orms o f t hese w ares i s r estricted. W e s hall a lso d iscuss t he d iscovery o f s ome f ragments o f g reen g lazed w ares, m ainly f rom t he V olturno v alley. T heir d ate i s 9 1

u ncertain,

b ut

t hey a re p robably e arly m edieval.

R ed P ainted W ares F rom

t he B iferno v alley t he e arly m edieval b road

l ine r ed p ainted

w ares c omprise o ne f abric g roup w hich i s p etrologically a nd t ypologica lly d istinct f rom t hose o f t he l ate R oman p eriod. T he f abric i s n ow f iner, h arder a nd s moother. T he m ajority o f t he v essels f ound w ere p itchers w ith ( Fig.4:3,3-5).

s trap o r r od h andles a nd, u sually u pright r ims A ll t he b ases f ound i n t he e xcavations w ere f lat a nd m ost h ad s ome p ainted d ecoration ( Fig.4:3,6). T wo t ubular s pouts w ere a lso f ound ( Fig.4:3,8-9). S ome v essels a lso h ad d eep n arrow s paced w avy l ine d ecoration ( Fig.4:3,7) a nd t here w as o ne e xample w ith d eeply i ncised p arallel l ines. O ther f orms i ncluded l arge a nd s mall b owls w ith f lattened o r e verted r ims ( Fig.4:3,10-12), a nd o ne f ragment o f a l arge

l id.

I t w as n oticeable t hat t he q uality o f t he w ares

d uring t his p eriod, a nd t ended t o b e b etter a nd h igher t heir w all t hicknesses b ecame t hinner.

i mproved

f ired

w hile

T he s ource o f t he v essels i s u ncertain , b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t his a rea l ay w ithin t he d istribution z one o f t he h ypothesized A pulian r ed p ainted w are p roduction c entres 22 ( see a lso a bove, i n t he s ection o n t he R oman r ed p ainted w ares f rom t he B iferno v alley). A lternatively w e m ight s eek a s ource i n B enevento, t he c entre o f t his r egion a t t his t ime. U nfortunately, p etrological a nalysis h as f ailed t o r eveal a ny d istinctive c lay s ource; t he i nclusions i n t he f abric c ould h ave c ome a s e asily f rom M olise a s f rom m any a reas w ithin n orthern A pulia o r s outh-east C ampania. H owever, s everal s herds h ad h oles p ierced i n t hem a fter f iring, e vidence t hat a fter b reakage t hey w ere r epaired, o r a t l east r eused, a nd n ot d iscarded. T his w ould i mply t hat t he v essels w ere n ot r eadily a vailable a nd a re u nlikely t o b e l ocal p roducts.

2 3

I n t he V olturno v alley, r ed p ainted w ares d o n ot a ppear i n a ny q uantity u ntil t his p eriod, w hen t hey c omprise a bout 4 0% o f t he a ssemblage a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, a nd a bout t he s ame a mount a t C olle f ound

C astellano a nd a t V acchereccia,

V acchereccia. 24 F ew d iagnostic e xamples w ere b ut C olle C astellano p rovided a b etter s ample

( Fig.4:5, 2 1-27). W ith t he e xception o f t he r arity o f o pen v essels, t he f orms s eem s imilar t o t hose f rom t he m onastic c omplex. T hese a re a s f ollows: T he m ajority o f t he v essels a re a gain j ugs a nd p itchers, i n a v ariety o f s izes, b ut i dentical i n f orm. R ims a re u sually t all, a nd u pright o r s lightly e verted ( Fig.4:4, 1 -4), a lthough t here a re o ccasional r olled e xamples. H andles a re s ometimes j ust a s imple b road s trap,

b ut

t he m ajority h ave a s lightly t riangular c ore a nd j oin

v essel j ust b elow t he r im. N o r od h andles w ere f ound. f rom s agging t o f lat, a nd h ave t hick o r t hin a ngle j oints,

t he

B ases r ange t hey a re n ot

c heese-wired. T he b odies a re b oth u pright a nd g lobular. S ome d ecorated f ragments h ave b een f ound; t hey a re s imilar t o t hose o f t he B iferno v alley w ith n arrow s paced w avy l ine d ecoration b eing t he m ost c ommon. A f ew b owls w ith f lattened, e verted a s w ell a s r olled r ims h ave b een f ound ( Fig.4:4, 6 -7). T he p ainted d ecoration i s a ll o f t he b road l ine t ype ( see F ig .4:6, t he 8 81 A .D. l evel). P etrological

a nalysis

1 -5 f or r ed-painted w are v essels

h as i dentified s everal

f abrics.

f ound i n

M ost

o f

t hese a re h ard f ired, b ut b y f ar t he m ost p redominant t ype r anges f rom s oft f ired, s lightly c oarse e xamples t o a h arder f ired, m ore r efined 9 2

f abric.

T he

s ame

f abric

t ype h as b een i dentified

a t

V acchereccia,

w here a s imilar p henomenon h as b een n oted, a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat i t r epresents a n i mprovement i n t he q uality o f t he w ares t hrough t ime. T he v ariety o f t he f abrics d oes i mply t hat u nlike t he B iferno v alley, t his a rea, a t s ome s tage a t f rom s everal s ources.

l east,

w as o btaining i ts r ed p ainted w are

G lazed W ares F rom t he B iferno v alley, o ne f ragment w ith a h ard d ark g reen g laze a nd a f ine p ink f abric w as f ound a t S anta M aria i n C ivitä.' 5 I t i s d ecorated w ith t wo s ets o f p arallel b ars. T he f abric i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he e arly m edieval r ed p ainted w are o f t he a rea. U ntil f urther w ork i s d one t o i ncrease o ur k nowledge o f e arly g lazed w ares f rom t his a rea,

a l ate R oman o r e arly m edieval d ate i s e qually f easible. I n

d uced

t he

V olturno v alley t he e xcavations a nd s urvey h ave n ow

s everal e xamples o f g reen g lazed w are.

A n umber

o f

p ro-

f ragments

h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he e arly m edieval l evels a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, a nd a r elatively l arge n umber f rom t he e xcavations a t C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia. P etrological a nalysis h as d istinguished t hree m ain f abric g roups a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno; t hese c an b e d ivided i nto t wo m ain t ypes o f w ares. T he s maller u sually h as b een f ired a t a l ow t emperature i n o xidizing c onditions, a nd h as a t hin g reen e xternal g laze. T he v essels a re s mall a nd t hin w alled. T he s econd g roup h as b een h arder f ired i n a r educing a tmosphere, a nd s hows a n oticeable i mprovement i n t he q uality o f t he g laze a nd d ecoration. V essels m ainly j ugs a re l arger a nd t hicker w alled w ith s trap h andles, t hey i nclude t wo t ubular s pouts o ne o f w hich h as a n a pplied s nake, d ecorated w ith c ircular i mpressions t wisting u p t he o utside ( Fig.4:4,16). I t i s w orth n oting t he a quamanile d ecorated w ith a pplied s nakes ( and t here i s a lso a d etached s nake t hat c omes f rom a nother v essel) i n t he M useo C ommunale a t T odi, i n U mbria. T hese c ome f rom T odi o r t he i mmediate v icinity a nd t he f act t hat t hey w ere f ound w ith s parse g lazed v essels, s uggests a n e arly m edieval o r m edieval d ate. 26 T he m ost c haracteristic d ecoration o n t his g roup o f g lazed v essels f rom S an V incenzo a l V olturno i s g rooves a nd i ncised w avy l ines. S imilar e xamples h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he e xcavations a t C olle C astellano, w here

t he g lazed w ares

f ound w ere a ll o f

t he s econd

t ype,

h arder

f ired

a nd r educed. A t V acchereccia, i dentical f abrics t o t hose o f t he m onast ery h ave b een r ecovered, b ut t he v essels a re m ainly o f t he f irst t ype, s mall a nd t hin w alled. A n umber o f p lain f lat b ases h ave b een f ound a nd t wo m edium s ized s trap h andles, o ne a ttached b elow t he r im o f t he v essel. T he g lase i s o f p oor q uality, s ometimes h aving a y ellowish t one a nd s everal v essels a re g lazed i nternally. S ome a re d ecorated w ith r oughly e xecuted i ncised, o r l ess f requently, i ncluding o ne h andle w ith r ough s tab m arks a nd d ecoration. A ny a ssumptions a s t o f rom t he v ariety o f f abrics

i mpressed m otifs, c ogwheel i mpressed

t he p rovenance o f t hese w ares, w hich s eem t o b e t he p roducts o f m ore t han o ne p roduc-

t ion c entre, m ust a wait d etailed p etrological a nalysis. r essemble t he o ne e xample f rom t he B iferno v alley a nd d ifferent c hetta m ainly

t o

t he f abrics

o f

t he r ed p ainted w ares.

T hey d o n ot a re e ntirely

T he p lain o f R oc-

o n w hich t he m onastic c omplex s tands, i s a p lateau c omposed o f t ravertine, a f orm o f c alcite ( see H ayes a nd J ones p aper:

c hapter 9 ).

O ne o f

t he f abrics d oes c ontain s ome l imestone i nclusions, 9 3

44

1 4

2

1 61

1 7r 2

)

1 81

3 1 9

4

2 0 5

7

8

I 2 -2N

1 2 4 1

2 3

1 0 7

2 6

\

2 5 1 0c m . 2 7

F ig.

4 :4

A s election o f

c oarse a nd r ed p ainted w ares

C astellano.

9 4

f rom C olle

a nd

s o

i t i s p ossible

t hat s ome o f

t he v essels w ere

p roduced

w ithin

t his r egion. T heir d ate i s u ncertain. I t m ay w ell b e t hat t he o xidized t ypes a re t hemselves c hronologically s eparate. b ility

t hat

c annot

b e i gnored,

l ater

s ome

o f

t he w ares a re r esidual a nd o f

r educed a nd T he p ossi-

l ate

R oman

d ate

w e m ust k eep i n m ind t he g rowing i nformation a bout

R oman g lazed w ares

i n n orth a nd c entral I taly.

2 7

H owever

t heir

a ppearance i n t he e arly m edieval l evels a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno w ould s uggest a n e arly m edieval d ate, a s w ould t he r elatively l arge n umber f ound a t V acchereccia a nd C olle C astellano. C ertainly t he s econd g roup o f g lazed w ares i s s trikingly s imilar t o t he l arge q uantit ies

o f

g lazed w are

( ceramica c on v etrina p esante),

c urrently

b eing

f ound i n e arly m edieval c ontexts o n s everal e xcavations i n R ome. E xcav ations a t t he C rypta B albi, S anta M aria i n A ntigua, a nd S an C lemente, h ave a ll p roduced l arge a mounts o f t his w are. D espite D avid W hiteh ouse's r ecent r edating o f t his w are ( termed b y D avid W hitehouse ' Forum w are') f ound

t o t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D, 28 t he v ast a mount o f m aterial a t t he C rypta B albi i s o f 9 th t o m id 1 2th c entury A D d ate, w hen

p roduction

c eases.

H owever,

a t 4e C rypta B albi p re-9th c entury

A D

l evels h ave n ot y et b een e xcavated. 4 I t m ay b e t hat g lazed w ares w ere a vailable, a t l east i n R ome, f rom t he 6 th/7th c enturies t hrough t o t he 1 0th c enturies A D, b ut u ntil f urther e xcavation w e c annot s ay . ( A 5 th c entury A D l evel e xcavated a t t he C rypta B albi d id n ot p roduce a ny F orum w are). E vidence

f or

g lazed w ares o f

t his d ate f urther s outh

i s

s mall.

E xcavations a t C appacchio V ecchio h ave p roduced s ome p ottery w ith v etrina p esante i n l ate 9 th t o 1 2th c entury A D l evels. T he f irst p hase o f t he s ite, l ate 9 th t o 1 0th c entury A D, i s c haracterized b y t his t ype o f g lazed w are. T he m aterial i s f ragmentary a nd h as o nly r evealed o ne p artially r econstructed v essel, b ut s eems t o c onsist o nly o f c losed v essels; t hin w alled, s mall j ugs w ith r od h andles a nd s ome t hicker w alled l arger v essels w ith s trap h andles. T hree m ain d ecorative m otifs h ave b een n oted o n f ragments o f t he f irst g roup; i ncised l ines, a pplied p etals a nd a pplied v ertical p laits o f c lay. T he f irst t wo m otifs a re e xtremely c ommon o n F orum w are f ound i n R ome. T he l atter m otif d oes n ot s eem t o o ccur o n t he R ome e xamples ( it h as n ot b een r ecorded i n t he m aterial f rom t he C rypta B albi), b ut h as b een n oted o n t wo f ragments f rom t he e xcavations o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno, w here p etal d ecorat ion i s t otally l acking. I t i s p ossible t hat f urther e vidence w ill r eveal r egional d istinctions. A s r egards e vidence o f w are w ith v etrina p esante e lsewhere i n s outhern I taly, S alvatore, a s w ell a s r eferring t o t he f ind o f a g lazed j ug o f p ossible 7 th c entury A D d ate ( see n ote 2 7), m entions f inds o f a f ew f ragments o f ' Forum w are f rom L ucera a nd O tranto. A t L ucera, o ne f ragment o f ' Forum w are' w as f ound w ith b road l ine r ed p ainted w are a ssociated w ith c oins o f t he l ate 9 th a nd 1 0th c entury A D. H owever s he s ays t he s mall n umber o f s uch f inds s uggests t hey a re i mports. 31 T o s ummarize, a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno i t o f t he w ares a re r esidual a nd o f l ate R oman d ate.

i s p ossible t hat s ome H owever, s ome g reen

g lazed w are w as a vailable i n t he 1 0th c entury A D ( 10th c entury l evels h ave p roduced s everal f ragments), a nd i n t he l ate 9 th c entury A D, t hough p robably t o a l esser e xtent ( two f ragments h ave b een r ecovered f rom a l ate 9 th c entury l evel). T hus t he e vidence f rom S an V incenzo a l V olturno w ould i ndicate a l ater 9 th/lOth c entury A D r ather t han a n 9 5

e arlier 6 th/7th c entury A D d ate f or p ottery w ith v etrina t his a rea o f I taly.

p esante

i n

S oapstone A s mall b ut i nteresting a mount o f s oapstone h as b een f ound i n 9 th c entury l evels a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, i ndicating r enewed A lpine c onnections. S oapstone v essels h ad a w ide d istribution i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod b ut w ere p rincipally a n orth I talian p henomenon, a nd i t i s

u nusual

o f

t he v essels

t o

f ind t hese v essels

i n s uch q uantity s o f ar s outh. 32

f ound i n t he g lass w orkshop h ad b een r epaired

O ne

u sing

a

m etal c lamp ( Fig.4:6,6), d emonstrating t he v alue o f t hese v essels. W e m ust a ssume t hat t heir a ppearance r eflects t he m onastery's C arolingian c onnections. C oarse W ares i n b oth t he V olturno a nd B iferno v alleys

t he

e arly m edieval c oarse w ares a re s trikingly d ifferent t o t hose o f l ate R oman p eriod. F rom t he B iferno v alley o nly o ne f abric g roup

A s m entioned a bove,

t he w as

i dentified a t S anta M aria i n C ivitä; a nd o ften s corched o n t he e xterior.

a c oarse f abric, u nevenly f ired T he m ajority o f t he v essels a re

c ooking p ots w ith t all e verted r ims, o r p itchers t hat h ave b road s trap h andles e xtending f rom t he r ims ( Fig.4:3,13-16). B owls a re a lso f ound w ith p lain u pright r ims o f g reatly v arying s izes ( Fig.4:3,17-18). A l id w as a lso

f ound.

B ases a re m ainly o f

t he s agging t ype b ut t here a re

a lso s everal e xamples o f b ases w ith r ing f eet. D espite t he c hange i n f orms a nd t he p oorer q uality o f t he w ares, t he f abric i s i dentical t o t hat u sed f or t he d omestic w ares o f t he l ater R oman p eriod. T hus, i n t he B iferno v alley w e c an s ee s ome c ontinuity, p erhaps n ot o f p roduct ion c entre, g iven t he i nferior t echnology t hese w ares r eflect, b ut c ertainly o f c lay s ource. I n

t he

V olturno v alley,

f rom S an V incenzo a l

V olturno

s everal

f abrics h ave b een i dentified, b ut a s a t V acchereccia a nd C olle C astell ano ( Fig.4:5,1-13), o ne i n p articular p redominates. A ll t he v essels a re c oarse, u nevenly f ired a nd o ften s corched. V essel f orms a re t he s ame i rrespective o f f abric, a nd a lmost i dentical t o t hose f ound a t S anta M aria i n C ivitä; r estricted t o c ooking p ots a nd p itchers w ith t all, t hickened o r p lain, e verted o r o ccasionally u pright ( Fig.4:4,8-10). T he p itchers h ave b road s trap h andles e xtending

r ims f rom

t he r im ( Fig.4:4,8). T here a re a n umber o f o pen v essels, t hese c an b e d ivided i nto p ans a nd b owls, b oth f orms u sually h ave l arge d iameters o f a round 2 5 t o 3 0cm. T he b owls c haracteristically h ave p lain u pright r ims

w hich

a re s ometimes

t hickened

( Fig.4:4,11-12).

T he

p ans

d istinguished b y t heir f lared w alls, t hey o ften h ave f lattened r ims ( Fig.4:4,14), a lthough s ome e xamples h ave s mall ( Fig.4:4,13).

B ases a re m ainly o f

t he s agging

a re

a ngular f langes

t ype a lthough t here a re

s ome f lat e xamples. T he l atter a re n ot c heese-wired. P etrologically, a s h as b een n oted a t V acchereccia a nd C olle C astellano, t he e arly m edieval

c oarse w ares o f

t his a rea a re e ntirely d ifferent

t o t hose

o f

t he l ate R oman p eriod. A c hange w hich s eems t o h ave o ccurred i n t he 6 th o r 7 th c enturies A D o n t he e vidence f rom V acchereccia a nd C olle C astellano ( see a bove, P eriod o f T ransition). P etrological a nalysis h as

i dentified c alcite a s t he m ost a bundant i nclusion i n a ll b ut o ne o f

t he

f abrics.

I t s eems c ertain,

t he c oarse w ares o f

i n v iew o f t he g eology o f

t he e arly m edieval p eriod a re o f l ocal 9 6

t he a rea t hat p roduction.

1 0cm .

F ig.

4 :5

T he p ottery a ssemblage f rom t he g lass w orkshop a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno a ttrib

9 7

ed

t o A .D- 8 81.

T he e vidence w ould i ndicate, b earing R athje's c ost-control m odel i n m ind, s ome k ind o f p rimi nve l ocal p roduction s ystem w hich w as s trictly l imited i n d istribution. JJ A lthough t here a re n o h and-made w ares a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, t he c oarse w ares d o c hange f rom s oft-fired v essels p roduced o n a s low w heel t o h arder f ired, h igher q uality w ares p roduced o n a f ast w heel. T his d evelopment i s s omething t hat n eeds t o b e s tudied m ore t horoughly, b ut i t w ould s eem l ikely t hat a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno ( the s ame p henomenon c an a lso b e s een a t C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia) w e a re w itnessing a m arked i mprovement i n p roduction t echniques. T he u se o f a f ast w heel a nd h arder f ired v essels r equiring h igher f iring t emperatures

a nd

i mproved

f iring f acilities

i ndicates

a

s ignificant

c hange i n p roduction a nd h as i mplications f or t he e conomy a s a whole. T he c ost o utlay n ecessary f or t he t echnological i mprovements s uggested b y t hese w ares w ould i ndicate p roduction o n a l arger s cale a nd f or a w ider m arket. I t i mplies t hat t he h ousehold p roduction(s) p roposed f or t he l ate 6 th o r 7 th c entury A D p hase, w as r eplaced a t s ome s tage d uring t he 8 th o r 9 th c enturies A D b y a l arger s cale a nd m ore c entralized p roduction, p otters.

s es t hey t rial

s till

p robably

o f

w orkshop

t ype

b ut

w ith

s pecialist

I n P eacock's c lassification o f p ottery p roduction m odes, h e s trest hat a lthough t hey r ange f rom s imple t o m ore c omplex o rganization c annot b e s een a s s tages o f a n e volutionary s ystem, f or i ndusa rrangements s imply r eflect s ocial a nd e conomic o rganization'.

H owever F irstly,

t wo p oints i nvestment

d o e merge f rom h is r ecent e thnographic w ork. i n e quipment i s a lways i ndicative o f t he g reater

i mportance o f t he i ndustry i n t he e conomy. S econdly, ( although t he r everse i s n ot a lways t rue), w hen t echnological i nnovation d oes o ccur i t i s u sually i ndicative o f a g reater i nterest i n m arketing. 34 T he p art p layed b y t he m onastery o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno t owards s uch a d evelopment i s s omething w e h ope t o s tudy. H istorical e vidence s ugg ests t hat m onasteries p layed a n a ctive r ole i n t he d evelopment o f t he e conomy, b e i t c onsciously, a s c ertainly w as t he c ase d uring t he p eriods o f m assive l and c learances, o r u nconsciously, b y t heir v ery p resence a s l arge p ermanent c onsumer c entres. I t i s p ossible t hat t he m onastery

p roduced

i ts

o wn p ottery ( see s ection

o n

L ater

M edieval

P eriod f or e vidence o f p ottery p roduction w ithin t he m onastery). H odges f rom t he e vidence f or p ottery p roduction i n F rance, s tates t hat T he s maller a nd w idely s cattered p otteries i n F rance w hich e vidently c ontinued f rom t he M erovingian p eriod t o t he l ater m edieval p eriod i n m any c ases m ay h ave b een i n t he p ossession o f e qually s mall a nd s ecular m onasteries c oncerned w ith s upplying t heir i ndividual c ommunities w ith a cceptable a rtefacts . 35

E ven i f

t his w as

t he c ase,

g iven t he c eramic

e vidence f rom V acchereccia, w hich s eems t o s how t he s ame d evelopment, i t w ould a ppear t hat c onsumption o f t his p roduction w as n ot l imited t o t he m onastic c ommunity. t urno

H owever,

i n t he c ase o f

S an V incenzo a l V ol-

w e m ust a cknowledge b ut n ot e xaggerate i ts r ole a s

a n

e conomic

s timulator. L and c learance w as n ot c arried o ut b y t he m onastery u ntil t he 1 0th c entury A D, a nd b efore t his p eriod t he e vidence t ends t o s uggest5 t hat t ivity. 3 6

t he m onastery's w ealth w as n ot b ased u pon i ts o wn p roduc -

T he L ater M edieval P ottery U nfortunately,

w ork

i s o nly j ust b eginning o n t he l ate 9 8

m edieval

p ottery

f rom t he V olturno v alley,

a nd i t

i s i mpossible a s y et

t o

d raw

a ny r eal c onclusions a bout t he d evelopment o f t he p ottery i ndustry i n t his p eriod. H owever, o ne i mportant d iscovery i s a n 1 1th c entury A l ) p ottery k iln f ound d uring t he e xcavations o f t he m onastery a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno. I t i s a s mall, m ore o r l ess c ircular s ingle-flue p edestal k iln. T his t imes. T he p edestal

t ype w as c ommon i n b oth R oman a nd p ost R oman i s i n t he f orm o f a c entral t ongue l ike c olumn

p rojecting f rom t he b ack o f

t he

f urnace,

o pposite t he f lue

( Fig.4:7).

P eacock s ummarizing t he e vidence f or p ottery k ilns o f R oman d ate l ists f our m ain t ypes, o ne o f w hich i s c haracterized b y a p rojecting t ongue p edestal. H owever, i n t he R oman p eriod, t his t ype t hough c ommon i n t he n orth and w est p arts o f t he E mpire, w as r are i n I taly i tself a nd r estricted m ainly t o c ertain e arlier G reek a nd P unic c olonies i n t he s outh. O ur k nowledge o f m edieval k ilns i n t he I talian p eninsula i s s adly l acking, b ut s everal k iln s ites o f M erovingian a nd C arolingian d ate h ave b een e xcavated i n F rance, G ermany a nd t o a l esser e xtent, B elgium. I t w ould s eem t hat i n t hese a reas t ongue p edestal k ilns r emained c ommon i n t he m edieval p eriod. E xcavations a t S aran ( Loiret), F rance s how t hat t his f orm w as t he m ost c ommon i n k ilns o f G allo-Roman d ate a nd c ontinued t o b e u sed i n t wo k ilns o f 8 th a nd 9 th c enturies d ate.

T ongue

r ecorded

p edestal k ilns o f 7 th a nd 8 th c enturies d ate h ave

a t B atta ( Huy),

i n B elgium,

a nd t hey a re t he d ominant

b een t ype

a mongst t he k ilns o f 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies d ate e xcavated a t K atterb ach ( Rhein-Berg), G ermany. H owever, g iven t he c ontrast b etween k iln t ypes

o f

R oman d ate,

i t i s i mpossible

t o s ay w hether t he m edieval k iln

f ound a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno i s a t a ll t ypical o f k ilns o f m edieval p eriod e lsewhere i n I taly. U nfortunately, n o t race o f

t he t he

o ven f loor r emained. S imilarly, t he s uperstructure o f t he k iln c annot b e a scertained. T he t ile b uilt w alls o f t he k iln s urvived t o o nly 1 m etre i n h eight, t he k iln m ay h ave h ad a p ermanent r oof, b ut a s B ryant h as s hown, a t emporary c overing o f t urf, c lay, o r p ot s herds i s j ust a s e ffective, a nd m ore p ractical.J 7 A part f rom t his, o ur e vidence f or t he 1 0th

c entury A D o nwards c omes

d ifficult

f rom V acchereccia,

t o i solate r esidual m aterial,

w here i t p roved v ery

a nd f rom t he c ollection

t he p recinct o f t he 1th c entury A D a bbey c omplex, w ork h as b een d one.

f rom

o n w hich v ery l ittle

F rom t he B iferno v alley, t he s urvey o f t he s ite o f V etrana, a d eserted m edieval v illage o ccupied p robably f rom t he 1 0th u ntil t he 1 2th

c entury

A D h as p roduced a l arge a mount o f m aterial. 38

I t

s hows

s ome c hanges a s w ell a s s ome c ontinuity f rom t he p receding p eriod; b ut i s c haracterized b y t he e mphasis o n l ocal p roduction. T he m ost s triki ng c ontrast i s s een w ith t he e arly m edieval a ssemblages o f t his a rea. T he b road l ine r ed p ainted w are f or w hich a n o rigin i n A pulia h as b een p ostulated, i s n o l onger r epresented; o nly t hree f ragments h ave b een f ound a nd t hey m ust b e r egarded a s r esidual. N o n arrow l ine r ed p ainted w ares w ere i dentified. I nstead t he 1 0th a nd 1 2th c enturies a ssemblage c omprises t he p roducts o f t wo l ocal f abrics w hich t ogether s upply r ange

a w ide r ange o f f orms, a v ivid c ontrast t o t he v ery l imited f ound i n t he l ocal f abric i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod. B oth

f abric t ypes a re c ommon o n o ther l ater m edieval s ites i n t he l ower p art o f t he v alley. O ne i s a c ontinuation o f t he l ocal f abric f ound a t S anta M aria i n C ivitä b ut n ow i n f orms i mitating t hose o f t he e arly m edieval r ed p ainted w are f ound t here. T he s econd i s am ore r efined f abric, i t w as n ot f ound a t S anta M aria i n C ivitä a nd t he m ajority o f t he v essels a re j ugs a nd c ooking p ots. T he a ppearance o f t his n ew f abric

t ype

c oincides

w ith

t he 9 9

a bsence

o f

s outhern

i mports

a nd

S ec t ion A -A

0

P l an ( a f te r r emova lo ft i l es )

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0cm .

2

B

: / -

F ig.

4 :6

P lan a nd s ection o f f ound i n t rench D .

S ec t ion B -B

S tokeho les c . 60mm .d eep C l ay l i n ing c . 30mm .th ick ( 4 64 )

t he 1 1th c entury s ingle—flue p ottery k iln

1 00

i ndicates t he g ap

a c onscious a ttempt b y l ocal p ottery i ndustries t o e xploit l eft i n t he m arket b y t he f alling o ff o f t his t rade. T he

e vidence f rom V etrana c ould s uggest t hat c ost c ontrol m echanisms R athje's s ense a re c oming i nto o peration i n t his p eriod. 39

i n

C onclusion H aving s urveys c ontext

d escribed

t he p ottery e vidence f rom t he

e xcavations

a nd

i n M olise o ver t he p ast d ecade, I n ow w ish t o d iscuss i ts i n t he l ight o f e vidence f rom e lsewhere i n c entral a nd s outhern

I taly. T he L ater R oman P eriod T he e vidence s uggests t hat a n e conomy o rganized o n c lassical m arketing p rinciples p ersisted i n I taly u ntil t he l ate 4 th o r e arly 5 th c enturies A D. w ere

C entres p roduced h igh q uality,

d istributed

s tandardized w ares

b y b oth l ong d istance a nd r egional n etwork

t hat

s ystems.

W hether t his t rade w as d eclining, s table o r a ltering a t a ll, i s a t t he m oment h ard t o j udge , b ut b y t he e arly 5 th c entury A D w e s ee a d ecrease i n t he e ffectiveness o f t he s ystem. A rchaeologically, t he c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern f rom t he c lassical s ystem o f d ispersed s ites t o o ne o f e mphasis

s mall n umbers o f e state c entres, d oes s uggest a n i ncreased o n a dministration i n C hristaller's t erms a nd l ess o n c lassical

m arketing

p rinciples. 40 W hittaker u sing m ainly d ocumentary e vidence h as s uggested t hat b y t he 5 th c entury A D a t rue m arket e conomy i n t he s ense o f a s elf-regulating s ystem o f p rice m aking m arkets w ithin a s ociety n o l onger e xisted. I t w as r eplaced b y a ' decommercialized s ystem

w ith

t he g rowth o f ' internal'

s upply a nd

r ecipro

W

e xchange

b etween t he e state c entres o f t he d eveloping r ural e lite ' . 4I C ontrary t o s ome h istorians, 42 h e d oes n ot s ee t he l ate R oman p eriod a s o ne o f e conomic d ecline; b ut r ather a s o ne u ndergoing a p rocess o f ' decommerc ialization' r esulting f rom t he r eorganization o f s ocial r elations. A rguing f rom t he e vidence f or t he g rowth o f l arge v illa e states, t he m ultiple o wnership o f e states, a nd t he i ncreasing r ole o f t he ' tied t rader'

a t t he e xpense o f

t he i ndependent e ntrepreneur,

h e d escribes a

s ituation w here a s ubstantial a mount o f s urplus p roduce w as i ncreasi ngly d irected a way f rom t he m arket p lace a nd l istributed b y m eans o f i nternal s upply a nd e xchange b etween e states. 43 T hough h e d oes n ot d eny t hat m ar I cet a ctivity c ontinued, i t m ust h ave b een o n a m uch r educed s cale. 44 I n t he V olturno v alley t he p ottery e vidence s uggests t hat t his p rocess o f d ecommercialization , t rading s ystems, a nd t he f ragmentatlon o f b y s ome

t he c ollapse o f l ong d istance r egional s ystems w as c omplete

t ime i n t he 6 th c entury A D. 45

A frican

R ed S lip w ares c ontinued

t o b e i mported o n a f airly l arge

s cale u ntil t he e arly 5 th c entury A D. H owever, l ong d istance t rade c ontacts w ere m aintained a fter t his d ate. T he g ap i n t he m arket l eft b y

t he A frican w ares w as

w ares,

t o s ome e xtent

c arrying c ommodities

t ransported

r eplaced b y E ast M editerranean i n a mphorae,

a s w ell a s

f ine

t able w ares, b ut t hese o nly r eached c ertain a reas. O n m any s ites, u sually i n m ore m arginal l ocations, e vidence f or l ong d istance t rade c eases w ith t he d ecline i n A frican R ed S lip w are w hich t he B ritish e xcavations a t C arthage h ave s hown t o h ave b egun s ometime b efore A D 4 25. 46 T he e state c entre a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno i n i ts i solated p osition i n t he U pper V olturno v alley, a lways a m arginal a rea, i s i tself

a g ood r eflection o f

t his. 1 01

N o E ast M editerranean i mports w ere

f ound

t here.

r eflection F ig.4:1). O n

T heir a ppearance i n t he B iferno v alley c an b e s een a s o f

a

i ts

g reater

m ore l ocal

l evel,

a ccessibility

t o

A driatic

t rade

a

( see

t he p roduction a nd d istribution o f

h igh

q uality d omestic w ares d id c ontinue u ntil t he 4 th a nd e arly 5 th c ent uries A D, a nd i n s ome c ases t he e vidence s uggests t hat i t w ent o n t hrough t o t he 6 th c entury A D. T his i s d emonstrated b y a ssemblages f rom S an G iovanni d i R uoti, p ossibly s upplied b y t he k ilns a t C alle d i T ricarico,

f rom t he v illas a t B uccino a nd G rumentum i n B asilicata,

E gnazia i n A pulia, v illa,

f rom s everal s ites i n C ampania i n 3uding t he

F rancolise a nd C ascano,

a nd f rom o ther p laces. 4

f rom P osto

I n t he B iferno

v alley, o n t he e vidence f rom M atrice, l arge s cale p roduction o f h igh q uality d omestic w ares c ertainly c ontinued u ntil t he a bandonment o f t he s ite i n t he e arly 5 th c entury A D a nd i n t he a rea a long t he A driatic c oast, v alley

p ossibly u ntil t he e arly 7 th c entury. W hile i n t he V olturno i t h as b een s uggested t hat s upplies o f g ood d omestic w are w ere

s till r eaching t he e state c entre u ntil s ome p oint i n t he 6 th c entury A D. H owever, i t i s d ifficult t o j udge t he n ature o f t he m arket s upplied b y t hese k iln c entres. W hether i t w as s ocially a nd/or g eog raphically r estricted, o r o perating p rinciples r emains t o b e d emonstrated. T he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D: T he e merging

a ccording

t o

t rue

m arket

C ontinuity o r C hange?

g radual d ecommercialization o f t he e conomy t hat s eemed t o b e i n t he l ate R oman p eriod i s m uch m ore e vident b y t he 6 th

c entury A D. T he a rchaeological e vidence f or t his p eriod i s r elatively p oor, b ut t he e vidence f rom t he V olturno v alley s hows t hat i n t his a rea b y t he 7 th c entury A D a t t he l atest, t he s tate s ystem h ad c ollapsed a nd w ith i t t he s tate o rganized s ystem o f p roduction a nd d istribution. R egionalization

w as c omplete.

T his d evelopment i s r eflected b oth

b y

t he s ettlement p attern a nd t he r eversion t o a n e conomic s ystem p roduci ng p rimarily f or l ocal n eeds. W e b elieve t he e state c entre w as a band oned a round t he m id 6 th c entury A D. T he 6 th/7th c entury A D s ettlement a t

V acchereccia

a ppears t o h ave b een p laced s o t hat

t he

i nhabitants

c ould r eadily e xploit a s mall, r ich a nd d iverse e cological n iche a nd a ccordingly p rovide a lmost e verything t hey n eeded. T his i mplies t hat t he d emand a nd o utlet f or l arge a gricultural s urplus h ad c eased a nd t hat t he i nput o f l abour n eeded f or t he c ultivation o f v ines a nd o lives w as n o l onger c ost-effective. 48 T he c rude, l ocally h andmade p ottery f rom t he s ite c ontrasts s harply w ith t he q uality d omestic w are o f t he l ate R oman p eriod a nd e mphasizes

t he c ollapse o f

r egional

d istribution

s ystems. E lsewhere i n c entral a nd s outhern I taly,

i n s ome a reas l ong

d is-

t ance t rade c ontacts w ere m aintained a nd t he p roduction a nd d istrib ution o f c ertain t ypes o f p ottery c ontinued, a lthough o n a m ore l imited s cale. I n o ther a reas w e f ind a c omplete b reak i n b oth a nd a r eversion t o a n a lmost p re-Roman e conomy. T his i s v ery s imilar t o t he s ituation i n n orth I taly d escribed b y M annoni o n t he e vidence f rom L iguria. 49 T herefore 6 th a nd 7 th c entury e conomic d evelopments i n c entral a nd s outhern I taly m ust b e s een i n r egional a nd l ocal t erms, a s t he p ottery e vidence i llustrates. T he l atest A frican w ares, I taly

d ate

t o a round A D 6 00.

f ine t able w are a nd a mphorae, T he A frican R ed S lip 1 02

w are

f ound i n i ndustries

a fter

a n

i nitial d ecline f rom a round A D 4 25

s ometime

t o

4 75,

d uring t he l ate 5 th a nd t he f irst h alf o f

d id

r e-emerge

t he 6 th c entury A D,

b ut, a s m entioned a bove, f inds o f t his p eriod a re m ore r are i n I taly a nd r estricted m ainly t o l arge c entres a nd p orts s uch a s N aples. A t S an G iovanni d i R uoti a n i ncreasing r eliance o n r egional r esources i s s uggested b y t he g radual r eplacement o f A frican R ed S lip v essels b y r ed p ainted v essels o f s outhern I talian p roduction, f rom a round A D 4 50. R ed p ainted w are i mitations o f A frican R ed S lip v essels h ave n ow b een i dentified a t s everal s ites i n s outhern I taly ( see b elow). F reed b elieves o n t he e vidence f rom S an G iovanni d i R uoti,

t hat

t his w as n ot

b ecause A frican R ed S lip w as n o l onger d esirable. S he s ees t he g eneral f orms o f b owls i n l ate R oman r ed p ainted w are a s f ollowing t he d ictates o f A frican R ed S lip f ashion, a nd t he i mplication i s t hat A frican R ed S lip f rom

w ares w ere n o l onger s o a vailable. 50 T o j udge f rom t he e vidence r ecent e xcavations i n N aples, w here p erhaps t he g reatest o ppor-

t unity t o s tudy l ate a ntique t raded w ares i n s outhern I taly e xists, e ast M editerranean i mports f inally c eased a round t he e arly 7 th c entury. A s w e h ave s een, V olturno v alley.

t his

t rade n ever r eached m arginal a reas

l ike t he u pper

6 th

T he e vidence f or p ottery p roduction w ithin s outhern I taly i n t he a nd 7 th c enturies A D c omes m ainly f rom E arly C hristian c emeteries,

a nd

r esearch h as

t ended

t o c oncentrate o n f inds o f

r ed

p ainted

w are.

R ed p ainted p ottery i s a c haracteristic t ype o f t he m edieval p eriod i n s outhern I taly. P roduction b egan i n t he l ate R oman p eriod; a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti f or i nstance, i t i s d ocumented a s b eginning i n t he l ate 4 th c entury A D a nd i s f ound i n i ncreasing a mounts u ntil t he s ite w as a bandoned i n t he m id 6 th c entury A D. F reed n otes t hat t he m arket f or t hese w ares c overed B asilicata, n orthern A pulia, a nd p erhaps e ven M olise. 52 A s w e h ave s een, t he e vidence f rom M olise n ow s hows r ed p ainted w are o f l ate R oman d ate t o h ave b een q uite c ommon i n t he B iferno v alley. H owever, i n t he V olturno v alley, o nly a s mall n umber o f

f ragments

w ere

f ound a t

t he e state c entre.

T his

d isparity

m ust

a gain b e a r eflection o f t he d ifferent d istribution n etworks a ffecting t he t wo v alleys. P roduction o f r ed p ainted w ares c ontinued t hrougho A t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D, a s f inds i n t he c emeteries d emonstrate,'" a nd t he e vidence f rom S anta M aria i n C ivitä i n t he B iferno v alley r evealed a r ed p ainted w are s equence f rom a pproximately t he 6 th t o

t he

9 th c entury A D. I t l east

i s o n t he e vidence o f r ed p ainted w are t hat t he a rgument f or a t o ne f orm o f ' industrial p roduction c ontinuing f rom t he l ate

R oman t o

t he e arly m edieval p eriod h as b een b ased. 55

H owever,

o ne m ust

n ot e xaggerate t he s cale o f p roduction a nd m arketing t hat t hese w ares s uggest. I n t he l ate R oman p eriod t he r ed p ainted w ares f ound a t S an G iovanni d i R uoti a nd e lsewhere d o s how , c ertainly u p u ntil t he f irst h alf o f t he 6 th c entury A D, h ighly p roficient p otting. T he p otters s upplying S an G iovanni d i R uoti p roduced v ery c ompetent i mitations o f c ontemporary A frican R ed S lip v essels f rom t he m id 5 th u ntil t he f irst h alf

o f

t he 6 th c entury A D,

t echnically S imilar

m ore d ifficult

i mitations

o ther s ites o f

a nd t he f orms o f

t o a chieve

t hese

i mitations

t han e arlier A frican

o f A frican R ed S lip w ares h ave n ow b een

t his d ate,

w ere

v essels. n oted

5 6

a t

i ncluding t he S an N icola v illa a t B uccino i n

B asilicata, S anta M aria C apua V etere, C asanova d i C arinola ( where a n i mitation o f l ate 6 th o r e arly 7 th c entury A D d a4e h as b een i dentified) a nd

t he P osto v illa a t F rancolise i n C ampania.

s tates

o f

5 1

H owever,

t he 6 th t o 7 th c enturies A D r ed p ainted w ares 1 03

f ound

S alvatore i n

t he

E arly

C hristian

s elves t rial

c emeteries i n s outhern I taly t hat t he

v essels

t hem-

s uggest t hat a t s ome s tage d uring t he 6 th c entury A D ' indusp roduction w as j oined a nd p robably g radually r eplaced b y m ore

w orkshop p roduction w ith s emi-professional p otters. D espite t his, s he s ays v essels s ometimes r eached a c omparatively h igh s tandard. 58 Y et t hese w ares d o n ot s eem t o r eflect t he l evel o f p roduction a ttained b y t he e arlier r ed p ainted w ares. F urthermore, t his i s a d istinctive p ottery t ype t hat d oes n ot s eem t o h ave c overed a ll t he n egds o f t he c onsumer. i ng b y i ts

I t d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een u sed f or c ooking, 5 9 a nd j udgi mitation o f A frican R ed S lip f orms, s eems t o h ave s erved a s

a r elatively f ine t able w are. T his w ould i mply t hat a t l east i n t he 5 th a nd f irst h alf o f t he 6 th c enturies A D t hese w ares h ad a c ertain p restige v alue. t hat o nly

I t

i s a lso i nteresting t o n ote S alvatore's s uggestion

t he r ed p ainted w ares o f m edieval d ate f rom A pulia a nd B asilicata b ecame r are a t t he t ime w hen g lazed p ottery s tarted t o b e a vail-

a ble. 60 T his s uggests m odity o f s ome v alue.

t hese

t hat r ed p ainted w are c ontinued

t o b e

I n b oth t he l ate R oman a nd e arly m edieval p eriods i t p roducts w ere n ot d istributed t o a ll p arts o f

a

c om-

i s c lear t hat c entral a nd

s outhern I taly a nd d id n ot m eet a ll t he n eeds o f t he c onsumers. 61 T he p ossibility t hat i n t he l ate R oman p eriod t he e conomy w as i ncreasingly o rientated t owards o r i ncreasingly o rganized b y t he l arge e states, h as a lready T his

m ay

b een n oted

( see t he s ection a bove o n t he L ater R oman

b e i ndicated b y t he d istribution o f

t he r ed

p eriod).

p ainted

w ares,

w hose m arket m ay h ave b een s ocially a s w ell a s g eographically r estrict ed. T he p ottery e vidence s eems t o s uggest t hat b y t he 6 th o r 7 th c enturies A D t he p rocess o f d ecommercialization h ad g one o ne s tage f urther. E vidence f rom t he 6 th o r 7 th c entury l evels a t C apua s howed t hat p ottery p roduction a nd d istribution o n a n ' industrial' s cale w as s upplemented b y a s emi-professional w orkshop o r d omestic p roduction s upplying c oarse, u nevenly f ired v essels p roduced o n a s low w heel. 62 T he r ed p ainted w ares t hemselves, h owever, d enote c ontinued p roduction o f q uite a h igh s tandard. S alvatore m ainly o n t he b asis o f t he f inds f rom E arly C hristian c emeteries, n otes t hat b y t he m id 6 th c entury A D t hey a re a ccompanied b y d omestic w ares w ith a c oarse f abric, u nevenly f ired. T he m ajority o f t he p ieces, s he p oints o ut, w ere p roduced o n a s low w heel i n a r estricted r ange o f f orms, i ndicating p oor t echnology a nd a s emi-professional

f orm o f p roduction f or a l ocal m arket. "

A ll t he e vidence s uggests t hat f rom a round t he 5 th c entury A D i ncreasing e mphasis w as g iven t o l ocal a nd r egional r esources. W hat e vidence t here i s f or m ore l arge-scale p roduction a nd m arketing i ndic ates t hat i t w as r estricted t o c ertain t ypes o f w ares a nd a vailable o nly t o c ertain a reas o r p eople. T he e vidence f rom M olise a mply r eflects t hese t rends. A lthough c ertain c ommon e conomic d evelopments c an b e s een w hich i s n ot s urprisi ng, g iven t heir r elative p roximity t o e ach o ther, t he e vidence f rom t he B iferno a nd V olturno v alleys c ontrasts s trikingly w ith o ne a nother i n c ertain a spects. I n t he B iferno v alley r ed p ainted w ares w ere a vailable f rom t he l ate R oman t hrough t o t he e arly m edieval p eriod. T he d omestic w ares a lthough c hanging t ypologically, w ere s till p roduced u sing t he s ame c lay s ource a nd p ossibly a t t he s ame p roduction c entre, i ndicating a c ertain d egree o f c ontinuity. I t s hould b e n oted, h owe ver, t hat t he d omestic w ares a ssociated w ith t he r ed p ainted v essels ( as

S alvatore

p oints o ut

f or t he e vidence 1 04

f rom f urther s outh)

s how

a

s ubstantial d eterioration i n p roduction t echniques. T he V olturno v all ey , o n t he o ther h and i s a n ear-perfect i llustration o f t he e ffects o f s tate c ollapse o n a m ore m arginal a rea. I t i s h ighly l ikely t hat l arge amounts o f r ed p ainted w ares w ere n ot a vailable i n t his p art o f M olise u ntil t he 8 th c entury A D. T he c eramic e vidence f rom S an V incenzo a l V olturno, a nd V acchereccia a nd C olle C astellano d emonstrates a c omplete b reak i n p roduction a nd/or d istribution b etween t he l ate R oman a nd e arly M edieval p eriods.

T he e vidence f or t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D

a t V acchereccia r eveals a c ommunity r elying l ocal w ares, p robably m ade i n t heir h omes.

t otally o n p oorly

p roduced

T he M edieval P eriod T he e vidence f rom t he B iferno a nd V olturno v alleys f or p ottery p roduction f rom t he 8 th t o t he 1 0th c enturies A D o nward r eveals a s imilar

p icture

t o t hat n ow f ound e lsewhere i n c entral

a nd

s outhern

I taly. T he c haracteristic p ottery a ssemblages f ound o n t he s ites t his p eriod c onsists o f r ed p ainted w ares a nd c oarse d omestic w ares

o f i n

a l imited r ange o f f orms a nd u sually m ade l ocally. T his s eems t o c ontinue t he s ituation f irst n oted i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D; b ut w ith i ncreased e mphasis o n r egionalization. W hitehouse h as p ointed o ut w ares

f ound

i n

E arly

t he s imilarity b etween t he r ed

C hristian c emeteries a nd t he

b road

p ainted l ine

r ed

p ainted w ares f ound a t L ucera, w here t here a re a ssociated w ith c oins o f t he 1 0tb c entury A D, a t C appachio V ecchia ( near S alerno), a nd a t O tranto. b4 A t S anta M aria i n C ivitä a s w e h ave s een, b road l ine r ed p ainted t hrough

w ares s eem t o h ave b een i n u se f rom t he 6 th o r 7 th c enturies t o t he 9 th c entury A D. A g radual i mprovement i n t he q uality o f

t he w ares a t S anta M aria i n C ivitä h as b een n oted, a nd t he c oarse w ares s eem t o s how a s imilar i mprovement i n p roduction t echniques t hrough t ime. T he d evelopment o f d omestic o r s mall w orkshop p roduction w ith s emi-professional p otters f rom t he p attern s uggested f or m any a reas o f c entral a nd s outhern I taly i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D ( see a bove), t o w orkshop i ndustries u sing b etter t echnology w ith s pecialist f ullt ime p otters h as b een p roposed a s a r esult o f s tudying t he a ssemblages a t V acchereccia a nd S an V incenzo a l V olturno. I t s eems h ighly l ikely t hat s imilar d evelopments c an b e t raced e lsewhere. H owever, d espite t he g radual i mprovement i n t echniques s hown b y t he r ed p ainted a nd d omestic w ares, a l imited r ange o f f orms w as p roduced a nd t he p ottery i ndustry s hows

l ittle

s igns o f

t echnical

i nnovation.

I t s eems t hat t his s ituation c ontinued u ntil a bout t he 1 0th c entury A D w hen t here i s s ome e vidence t o s uggest r enewed v igour i n t he i ndustry. A lthough t he m edieval c eramic t radition s eems t o h ave r em ained l argely a l ocal d evelopment, h arder f ired v essels p roduced o n a f ast

w heel

p otters

t o

V etrana, r eflects

b ecame t he r ule, i ntroduce

a nd s ome e vidence e xists o f a ttempts

a w ider r ange

o f

f orms.

T he

e vidence

b y f rom

f or e xample, o ccupied f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 1 2th c enturies A D, s uch a ttempts a t i nnovation b y t he l ocal p otters i n t he p ro-

d uction o f n ew f orms, s ome i mitating r ed p ainted w ares w hich w ere n o l onger a vailable. W hile a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, p ottery f rom 1 1th c entury

l evels

s uggests

t hat a w ider r ange o f v essels w as b eing

p ro-

d uced. T hus t he p ottery i tself h ints a t t he e mergence i n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies A D o f a m ore c onfident a nd s table c eramic i ndustry i n t hese a reas. W hether s imilar d evelopments c an b e d iscovered e lsewhere i n

c entral a nd s outhern I taly i s a q uestion t hat w ill o nly b e a nswered

b y f urther

r esearch. 1 05

N otes 1 .

S ee P . n ale:

A rthur a nd D . W hitehouse, ' La c eramica d ell'Italia m eridiop roduzione e m ercato t ra V e X s ecolo', A rcheologia M edie-

v ale I X ( 1982), 3 9-46. I n t he s ame v olume s ee M . S alvatore, ' La C eramica a ltomedievale n ell'Italia m eridionale: S tato e P rospett ive d ella r icerca', 4 7-56. 2 .

I w ould l ike t o t hank P aul A rthur f or t his i nformation s howing m e t he m aterial f rom h is e xcavations i n N aples.

a nd

f or

3 .

F or t his i nformation I a m i ndebted t o L idia P aroli, w ho w as k ind e nough t o s how m e t he m aterial f rom t he e xcavations a t t he C rypta B albi.

4 .

J . L loyd a nd S . C ann, ' Late R oman a nd E arly M edieval P ottery f rom M olis8, A rcheologia M edievale, X I ( 1984) ( in p ress).

5 .

U nless o therwise s tated, a ll A frican R ed S lip w are a nd e ast M edit erranean t ableware f orm n umbers a nd p roduction d ates u sed r efer t o t he

t ypology

a nd

c hronology e stablished b y

L ate R oman P ottery ( London, t ery ( London, 1 980). 6 .

7 .

L loyd

a nd

l ise',

( note 4 ).

J .

F reed,

C ann,

J .W.

' Late R oman a nd E arly M edieval

' Pottery

H ayes

i n

h is

1 972) a nd S upplement t o L ate R oman P ot-

f rom t he L ate M iddens a t

p ottery f rom

S an

M o-

G iovanni',

M .

G ualtieri, M . S alvatore, a nd A . S mall ( eds.), L o S cavo d i S an G iov anni e d i l p eriodo t ardo a ntico i n B asilicata, P ubblicazione d el C entro A ccademico C anadese 8 .

9 . 1 0.

1 983), 9 1-106,

L loyd

a nd

l ise',

( note 4 ).

F reed,

' Pottery f rom t he L ate M iddens a t

S alvatore,

C ann,

( Bari,

' La

P .

A rthur,

1 2.

F reed,

1 3.

T .

p ers.

1 00.

' Late R oman a nd E arly M edieval P ottery f rom

c eramica

a ltomedievale

S tato e P rospettive d ella r icerca', 1 1.

e sp.

S an G iovanni', n ell'Italia

( note 1 )

( note 7 ). m eridionale:

4 9.

c omm.

' Pottery f rom t he L ate M iddens a t S an G iovanni',

M annoni

M o-

a nd B .

M essiga,

' La P roduzione e l a

r ecipienti d i p ietra o llare n ell'alto m edievo', g resso I nternazionale d e S tudi s ull'Alto M edioevo

( note 7 ).

d iffusione

d ei

A tti d el 6 C on( Spoleto, 1 980),

5 01-513. 1 4.

D . W hitehouse, ' The P ottery' i n D . W hitehouse e t a l. ' The S chola P raeconum I : t he c oins, p ottery, l amps a nd f auna', P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome L ( 1982)

1 5.

F reed,

5 3-101.

' Pottery f rom t he L ate M iddens a t S an G iovanni',

9 9.

1 06

( note 7 ),

1 6.

R . H odges a nd H . P atterson, ' Pottery P roduction a nd D istribution i n M olise A D 4 00-1000: a p reliminary a ssessment o f t he e vidence', A rthur

1 7.

1 8.

a nd

W hitehouse ( eds.),

A rthur a nd W hitehouse, 1 ), 3 9. W .

R athje,

i n p reparation.

' La C eramica d ell'Italia m eridionale',

' The L ast T ango

i n M ayapan:

a t entative

( note

t rajectory o f

p roduction a nd d istribution s ystems', i n J . S abloff a nd C .C. L amb erg-Karlovsky ( eds.), A ncient C ivilizations a nd T rade ( Albuquerq ue, 1 975), 4 14-415. 1 9.

R . H odges e t a l, ' Excavations a t V acchereccia ( Rocchetta N uova) - a l ate R oman a nd M edieval S ettlement i n t he U pper V olturno V alley', P apers o f

2 0.

t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 5 2

S ee D .P.S.

P eacock,

l ogical a pproach

2 1.

R .

H odges,

G .

i n C ivitä), o f

1 982)

f or

a n e thnoarchaeo-

h is a nalysis

o f

m odes

B arker,

a nd K .

W ade,

t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 4 8

I bid., 9 0.

2 3.

I bid.,

2 4.

H . P atterson, V acchereccia',

o f

i n p articular 8 -11. ' Excavations a t D 85

( Santa M aria

a n E arly M edieval H illtop S ettlement i n M olise'

2 2.

( 1980)

P apers

8 7.

9 0.

2 5. H odges, C ivitä)', 2 6.

( in p ress).

P ottery i n t he R oman W orld:

( London,

p ottery p roduction,

( 1984)

' The P ottery', ( note 1 9).

B arker

a nd

( note 2 1)

W ade,

i n H odges e t a l,

' Excavations

a t D 85

' Excavations

( Santa

M aria

a t

i n

8 9.

I a m g rateful t o D r. D avid W hitehouse f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t hese e xamples. F or t he d ating o f s parse g lazed w are s ee D . W hiteh ouse ' Medieval P ottery f rom S outh E truria', i n D . A ndrews, J . O sborne, a nd D . W hitehouse ( eds.) M edieval L azio. S tudies i n A rchit ecture, p ainting a nd c eramics, P apers i n I talian A rchaeology I II, ( B.A.R . I nternational S eries. 1 25) ( 1982) 3 30-333.

2 7.

F or a s ummary o f l ate R oman g lazed w ares i n n orthern I taly s ee H . B lake, ' Ceramica P aleo-Italiana S tudio i n O nore d i G uiseppe L iverani', F aenza ( 1981), 2 0-52. A s mall j ug w ith o range g laze a nd d ecorated w ith a pplied s cales w as r ecovered f rom a n e arly C hristian c emetery a t P onte S . G iuliano, B radano, ( Basilicata). S alvatore r emarks t hat i ts f orm s uggests a d ate a round t he b eginning o f t he 7 th c entury A D; S alvatore, ' La C eramica a ltomedievale n ell'Italia m eridionale:

2 8.

D .

S tato

W hitehouse,

eP rospettive d ella r icerca',

' Forum W are A gain',

L idia P aroli,

p ers.

c omm.

( or n ote 3 ).

1 07

5 3-54.

M edieval C eramics 4 ( 1981),

1 6. 2 9.

( note 1 ),

1 3-

3 0.

F or M .A .

s ummary o f I annelli,

C rdwoyn e t a l,

t he p ottery f rom C appachio V ecchia s ee A . I acoe, G . M aetzke, ' Discussion i n A . B uko, R . D 'Andria, C aputaquis M edievale I I ( Salerno,

1 984) e sp.

2 07-

2 11. F or d rawing o f g lazed v essel d ecorated w ith v ertical p laits o f c lay s imilar t o t hat f ound a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, s ee A . L acoe, M .A . L annelli ' Cappachio V ecchia' i n I l M edievo S cavato, m ostra d el m ateriali a rcheologici d ella C ampania M edievale, E xhibit ion C atalogue, 3 1.

S alvatore,

( 12-22 G uigno,

' La

C eramica

1 980).

a ltomedievale

n ell'Italia

m eridionale:

S tato e P rospettive d ella r icerca', ( note 1 ), 5 3-54. D . W hiteh ouse, ' Le C eramiche m edievale d al C astello d i L ucera', i n A tti X I C onvegno I nternazionale d ella C eramica ( Albisola, 1 -4 Guigno, 1 978). 3 2. M annoni a nd M essiga,

3 3.

' La P roduzione e l a d iffusione d el r ecipienti

d i p ietra o llare n ell'alto m edioevo'

( note 1 3)

R athje,

a t entative

T he L ast T ango

i n M ayapan:

d uction-distribution s ystems', 3 4. P eacock, p roach', 3 5.

t rajectory o f

p ro-

( note 1 8), 4 14-415.

' Pottery i n t he R oman W orld: ( note 2 0) 1 7 a nd 5 0.

a n e thnoarchaeological a p-

R . H odges, T he H amwih P ottery: t he l ocal a nd i mported w ares f rom 3 0 y ears e xcavation a t M iddle S axon S outhampton, t heir E uropean c ont ext, r ep.

3 6.

5 06.

R .

( Southampton A rch. 3 7

( London,

H odges,

1 981)

R esearch C ommittee,

R eport 2 ,

C BA.

R es.

9 4.

J . M oreland,

a nd H .

P atterson,

' San V incenzo a l Volturno

t he K ingdom o f B enevento, a nd t he C arolingians', i n C . M alone a nd S . S toddart ( eds.), T he t hird I talian c onference ( B.A .R., O xford, 1 984), 3 7.

( in p ress).

S ee P eacock, a pproach',

' Pottery i n t he R oman W orld:

( note 2 0),

7 0,

a n e thnoarchaeological

f or a s ummary o f m ain k iln t ypes o f R oman

d ate a nd t heir d istribution. A lso p .72 w here h e d iscusses t he e vidence f or k iln s uperstructures, f avouring t he r esults s hown b y B ryant's e xperimental k iln f iring. A d etailed a ccount o f B ryant's w ork

i s g iven i n G .F.

F irings,

i n A .

B ryant,

D etsicas

( ed.),

' Experimental R omano-British

K iln

C urrent R esearch i n R omano-British

C oarse P ottery, ( CBA . R es. R ep. 1 0, L ondon, 1 973), 1 49-160. F or S aran, s ee J . C hapelot, ' L'Atelier C eramique C arolingien d e S aran', B ulletin d e l a S ociete A rcheologique e t H istorique d e l 'Orleanais, N ouv. S er. V I, n o. 4 3 ( 1970), 5 8-62. F or B atta s ee J . W illems, ' Le Q uartier A rtisinal G allo-Romain e t M erovingien d e ' Batta - a H uy, A rchaeologia B elgica 1 48, ( Bruxelles, 1 973), 1 8-41. F or K atterbach s ee V on W alter L ung, t ung 3 8.

R .

' Mitteralterliche T opferofen

H odges a nd C .

W ickham,

' Vetrana:

u n v illagio a bbondonato

m edievale p resso G uglionese n ella v alle d el A rcheologia M edievale V III ( 1981), 4 92-502. 3 9.

u nd E isenverhut-

i n K atterbach'.

B iferno

a lto-

( Molise),

R athje, T he L ast T ango i n M ayapan : a t entative t rajectory p roduction-distribution s ystems', ( note 1 8), 4 14-415.

1 08

o f

4 0.

S ee R

P aynter,

M odels o f S patial I nequality:

i n H istorical A rchaeology ( London,

1 982),

S ettlement P atterns

1 35-141,

f or a d iscussion

o f t he v arious m odes o f C ristaller's C entral P lace T heory. T he r elevance o f t his m odel f or t he e vidence f rom t he V olturno V alley h as a lready b een d iscussed i n H odges, M oreland, a nd P atterson, ' San V incenzo a l V olturno, g ians' ( note 3 2). 4 1.

C .R.

W hittaker,

H opkins

a nd

( London,

1 983),

4 2.

I bid. 1 74 M .I. F inley.

4 3.

I bid,

t he K ingdom o f B enevento,

' Late R oman T rade a nd T raders' i n P .

C .R .

W hittaker

( eds.)

C arolin-

G arnsey, K .

T rade i n t he A ncient E conomy

1 63-80.

W hen W hittaker m entions

1 76-177,

a nd t he

t he v iews o f A .H.M .

f or a n e xplanation o f

J ones a nd

t he s uccess o f A frican i mports

i n t he w estern M editerranean a s b eing b ased o n i nternal t rade f rom R oman e states i n N orth A frica r ather t han o n ' the d evelopment o f n ew f orms o f p roduction a nd e conomies o f s cale'. 4 4.

S ee

a lso

S .J.

K eay,

L ate A mphorae i n t he W estern M editerranean

( B.A.R . I nternat. S eries 1 96, O xford, a s imilar v iew t o t hat o f W hittaker.

1 984), V ol. I I, e sp. 4 34, f or D iscussing t he d istribution

o f l ate a mphorae b efore t he m id-5th c entury A D h e s ees t his p rocess o f d ecommercialization a s b eginning i n t he e arly 4 th c entury A D ' it w ould s eem a m istake t o t alk o f a n i nstitutionalized t rade i n f ormalist s ense g iven t he t ied s tatus o f t raders d uring

t he t he

l ate E mpire a nd t he c ontrol o f t he S tate o ver c ommodities s uch a s o live o il, t here s eems t o h ave b een l ittle s cope f or m ajor p rofit b y t raders o r c entury A D.' 4 5.

H odges,

M oreland,

K ingdom o f 4 6.

M .

F or

F ulford,

S an

a nd P atterson,

B enevento,

A D 4 00-700 , 4 7.

c onsumers o f e xchange c ommodities

t he

3 rd

' San V incenzo a l V olturno,

t he

a nd t he C arolingians',

' Carthage:

a fter

( note 3 2).

O verseas t rade a nd t he p olitical e conomy,

R eading M edieval S tudies 6 ( 1980),

G iovanni d i R uoti s ee J .

F reed,

6 8-80.

' Pottery f rom t he

L ate

M iddens a t S an G iovanni' ( note 7 ) 9 1-106. F or t he B uccino v illas s ee S .L. D yson T he R oman V illas o f B uccino ( B.A.R. I nternational S eries 1 87, O xford, 1 983). F or G rumentum s ee L . G iardino, R . R estaino, G rumentum: l a r icerca a rcheologica i n u n c entro a ntico. M ostra d ocumentaria ( Galatina, 1 981). F or E gnazia s ee F . D 'Andria, ' Osservazione s ulle c eramiche i n P uglia t ra t ardo a ntico e a lto m edievale', A nnali d ella S cuola N ormale S uperiore d i P isa V II/L ( 1977), 7 5-89. F or t he P osto v illa s ee M .A. C otton, T he L ate R epublican V illa a t P osto, F rancolise, ( Supplement t o t he P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome, L ondon, 1 979). F or C ascano s ee

A rthur a nd W hitehouse,

p roduzione e m ercato 4 8. 4 9.

P . T .

H ayes a nd D . M annoni,

J ones

' La C eramica d ell'Italia

t ra V e X s ecolo', ( chapter 9 )

m eridionale:

( note 1 ), 4 2-43.

i n t his v olume.

L a C eramica M edievale a G enova e n ella L iguria

d ighera e G enova,

1 975),

1 63-172.

1 09

( Bor-

5 0. J . F reed, 1 03. 5 1. P .

' Pottery f rom t he L ate M iddens a t S an G iovanni'

A rthur,

R elazione 3 87-392. 5 2.

5 3.

' Le T erme R omane d i V ia C arminiello a i M annesi, p reliminare d i s cavo',

J .

F reed,

7 ),

9 1-106.

M .

S alvatore,

A rcheologia M edievale X

H odges,

5 6.

( 1983),

B arker,

a nd

A rthur a nd W hitehouse,

W ade,

( note 1 ),

4 7-56.

' Excavations a t D 85 ( Santa

M aria

t ra V e X s ecolo',

F reed,

f rom t he L ate M iddens a t S an G iovanni'

i n

( note 2 1).

' La C eramica d ell'Italia m eridionale:

d uzione e m ercato ' Pottery

( note

' La C eramica a ltomedievale n ell'Italia m eridionale:

C ivitä) a n E arly M edieval H illtop S ettlement i n M olise', 5 5.

N apoli:

' Pottery f rom t he L ate M iddens a t S an G iovanni',

S tato e P rospettive d ella r icerca', 5 4.

( note 7 ),

p ro-

( note 1 ). ( note

7 ),

1 03. 5 7.

F or B uccino s ee D yson, ' The R oman V illas o f B uccino', ( note 4 3), 1 59. F or S anta M aria C apua V etere a nd C asanova d i C arinola s ee A rthur a nd W hitehouse, ' La C eramica d ell'Italia m eridionale: p rod uzione e m ercato t ra V e X s ecolo', ( note L ) 4 2-43. F or P osto v illa s ee M .A. C otton, T he L ate R epublican V illa a t P osto, F rancol ise'

5 8.

( note 4 3)

S alvatore,

' La

1 82. C eramica

a ltomedievale

S tato e P rospettive d ella r icerca',

n ell'Italia

( note 1 ),

m eridionale:

5 1.

5 9.

I bid, 4 9.

6 0.

S alvatore, ' Ceramiche m edievali d al C astello d i B ari', A tti d ell' X I C onvegno I nternazionale d ella c eramica ( Albisola 1 -4, G iugno 1 978), 8 6.

6 1.

A rthur a nd W hitehouse, ' La C eramica d ell'Italia m eridionale: d uzione e m ercato t ra V e X s ecolo', ( note 1 ), 4 3.

6 2.

I bid, 4 9.

6 3.

S alvatore,

' La

C eramica

a ltomedievale

S tato e P rospettive d ella r icerca', 6 4.

n ell'Italia

( note 1 ),

m eridionale:

5 1.

A rthur a nd W hitehouse, ' La C eramica d ell'Italia m eridionale: d uzione e m ercato t ra V e X s ecolo', ( note 1 ), 4 4-45.

1 10

p ro-

p ro-

C hapter 5 :

A P RELIMINARY A NALYSIS O F S OME O F T HE E ARLY M EDIEVAL H UMAN S KELETONS F ROM S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO b y V alerie H iggins

T he f or

b urials a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno a re u nusual n ot

t heir q uantity a s

f or t heir d iversity o f

f orm.

s o

m uch

I n a ll t here

a re

a pproximately 2 50-300 s keletons e xcavated s o f ar a nd f ragments o f m any o thers a re s cattered t hroughout t he l ayers. T he e xact n umber o f s kelet ons i s n ot c lear b ecause m any o f t he m ultiple g raves h ave n ot y et b een a nalysed, a nd t he n umber o f i ndividuals h as o nly b een e stimated. A lt hough o verall t here i s n ot a p articularly l arge n umber o f s keletons p resent c rypt

t here c hurch

a re a t

l east f ive d ifferent t ypes o f

a ll t he b urials a re

b urial.

I n

s ingle i nhumations i n b lock

t he

t ombs,

e xcept f or t ombs 1 0 a nd 1 1, w hich b oth h ave t hree i ndividuals. T he p osition o f a ll t hese b urials a nd t he f act t hat o ne o f t hem h ad a p lastered t omb w ith a n i nscription s uggests t hat t hese w ere r espected p eople w ho m erited a p rime p lace f or t heir b urial. T he b odies w ere c overed i n l iquid m ud, p robably a s a r esult o f a lluviation a fter h eavy r ain. T his m ade e xcavation v ery d ifficult, b ut l ed t o v ery g ood p res ervation. T hese g raves h ave b een d ated t o t he 9 th c entury, a part f rom t omb 1 a nd

t omb 1 0, w hich a re 1 0/11th c entury.

I n t he s outh c hurch t here a re t hree d ifferent t ypes o f t ombs w ithin t he p hase 1 f unerary b asilica. I n t he a pse o f t he b asilica t here

a re

t ile

i mportant a s c hurch. O ne

g raves,

p resumably f rom p eople w ho

w ere

c onsidered

t hey w ere b uried i n t he m ost p restigious p lace i n t he g rave i n p articular ( context 4 0) s eems t o h ave b een v ery

s ignificant a nd m ay h ave c ontained

( or w as b elieved t o h ave

c ontained)

t he r emains o f a m artyr, o r s aint o r p articularly r evered p erson. A ll t he g raves t hat h ave b een e xcavated a re h ighly d isturbed; c ontext 4 0 c ontained t he s parse r emains o f n o f ewer t han s ix i ndividuals. F urther e ast f rom t his g roup t here i s a n a rea p acked w ith L ate R oman c appuccino g raves ( see c hapter 3 ). E ach o f t hem c ontained s everal s keletons w hich w ere h ighly f ragmented, p resumably b ecause t he g raves h ad b een d isturbed w hen t he o ther b odies w ere i nterred. T here w as e vidence t hat c harcoal w ere p ut

h ad b een t hrown i n o n t he o ld b odies b efore t he n ew b odies i n. A l ot o f c harcoal w as f ound d uring e xcavation, a nd d uring

a nalysis o f t he b ones c harcoal s tains w ere f ound a ll o ver t he t ons, a nd a lso o n t he i nside o f s kull f ragments. T o C hapter

t he 1 )

s outh

o f

e xcavations

t he S outh C hurch,

i n t he

e ntrance

i n 1 984 h ave r evealed a 1 0th c entury

A mongst t hese a re s everal m ausolea, t hat c ontained n ine i ndividuals.

s kele-

h all

( see

c emetery.

i ncluding o ne e xcavated i n

1 983

O n t he h illside a bove t he m ain s ite l ies a l arge c emetery c ont aining r ock-cut g raves e ach w ith s everal s keletons w hich a re h ighly f ragmented, b ut d o n ot h ave a ny e vidence o f c harcoal ( see c hapter 3 ).

T hese

p eople w ere p resumably n ot c onsidered t o b e 1 11

s uitable

f or

b urial w ere

i n t he c hurch,

a nd

t herefore i t m ight b e p ostulated

t hat

t hey

l ess w ell r espected. F aced

w ith a n a ssemblage a s d iverse a s t his

t he o bvious

a pproach

i s t o t est f or d ifferences i n m ortality, m orbidity a nd n utritional s tatus. I f t hese g roups c orrespond t o s ocial d ivisions, a s t hey a ppear t o, t his w ould p rovide u s w ith a n i nsight i nto t he w ay t heir s ociety f unctioned. T his t ype o f a ssessment h as b een v ery p opular r ecently, e specially i n t he U nited S tates o f A merica w here t he d evelopment o f n ew t echniques h as o pened u p t remendous p ossibilities i n t his f ield. 1 M ortality, m orbidity a nd n utritional s tatus a re i nter-related t o s uch a n e xtent

t hat i t

i s n ot

p ossible t o s tudy o ne i n i solation;

i n p racti-

c al t erms i t i s d ifficult t o s eparate t hem . F or e xample, h igh l evels o f d isease w ill l ead t o a n e arlier d eath r ate, a nd c an a lso a lter t he b ody's r equirement f or n utrients, e ither b ecause o f m alabsorption o r b ecause c ertain c onditions r esult i n i ncreased d emand. S imilarly a l ack o f n utrition w ill u ndermine t he i mmune d efence s ystem a nd p red ispose a n i ndividual t o d isease; y oung c hildren a re p articularly v ulnerable t o t his. T hey s hould n ot b e v iewed a s t hree s eparate c riteria, b ut a s d ifferent a nd c onnected f acets o f t he s ame p roblem.

o f

O ne o f t he f irst l ines o f i nvestigation i s a d etailed a ssessment t he p athological l esions p resent. A s C alvin W ells 2 s o a ptly w rote,

T he p attern o f d isease o r i njury t hat a ffects a ny g roup o f p eople i s n ever a m atter o f c hance. I t i s i nvariably t he e xpression o f s tresses a nd s trains t o w hich t hey w ere e xposed, a r esponse t o e verything i n t heir e nvironment a nd b ehaviour. F ew w ould a rgue t hat t he t ypes o f l esions p resent c an b e v ery r evealing a bout t he l ife-style w hich t hat p erson l ed. I t h as l ong b een r ecognised t hat c ertain c onditions, p art icularly d egenerative j oint c onditions a nd t rauma, c an b e i ndicative o f a n a ctive o r e ven a rduous l ifestyle. A n e xample o f t he p otential i n t his f ield h as b een d emonstrated i n a r ecent p lAlication o n a ctivityi nduced p athology a mongst a n I nuit p opulation.' I n t his i nstance t he p athology c ould b e c ompared w ith t he a ccounts o f a c ontemporary w itn ess,

e ven t o

t he e xtent o f

r ecognising s pecific

l esions

i n r elation t o

c ertain t asks. W ithout t he b enefit o f p recise i nformation o n d ay-tod ay l ife i t w ould b e i mpossible t o p roduce w ork o f a s imilar s tandard, b ut i t i s p ossible t o c onstruct h ypotheses a bout t he t ype a nd p ossible d uration o f c ertain s orts o f a ctivities. I t i s l ikely t hat i n a c ult ural s ystem t hat h ad m arked s ocial d ivisions, t he i ncidence o f l esions w ill d iffer s ocially a nd p robably a lso s exually.

t he

s uch

O ther c onditions i ndicate s pecific d ietary d eficiencies. O ne o f m ost i mportant t o c ome t o l ight i n r ecent y ears i s t he r ecognition

t hat a s eries o f s mall " pepper-pot" l esions i n t he r oof o f t he o rbit, c alled c ribra o rbitalia, i s c aused b y a naemia. T he e xact o f a naemia c annot b e d etermined;

t here a re m any t ypes,

e ye s ort

s ome h ereditary

a nd s ome a cquired, t he m ost c ommon b eing i ron-deficiency a naemia. T his h as a v ery h igh i ncidence i n m any p opulations a nd c an b e d ue t o n utrit ional w hich I ndeed,

d eficiency, i mpair

i ron

o r c an b e s econdary t o a n umber o f a bsorption o r i ncrease i ron d emand

i t o ften a ccompanies

o ther

t ypes o f a naemias.

o ther i n

d iseases t he

b ody.

T he r ecognition

o f i ron-deficiency a naemia h as a p articular s ignificance f or a rchaeol ogy b ecause o f i ts r elationship t o t he a doption o f a griculture. N ot o nly d oes t he s ubstitution o f c ereal f or m eat r educe i ron i ntake, t he p resence o f p hytete i n t he c ereal i nteracts w ith t he i ron r educes i ts a bsorption.' T his c an l ead t o i ron-deficiency a naemia. 1 12

b ut a nd I t

c an

a lso

n ancies

b e c aused b y h eavy i ron l osses d ue t o

o r p arasitic i nfection.

H owever,

l arge n umbers

i n t he c ase o f

o f

p reg-

t he f ormer i t

i s d ebateable t hat t his w ould r esult i n c ribra o rbitalia a s t his l esion i s u sually a ssociated w ith a naemia i n c hildhood. R ecent r esearch i n Y ork h as s uggested t hat p arasitic i nfection i ncreased s teadily i n u rba l p e nvironments o ver t ime t o a q uite r emarkable a nd r evolting d egree.' C onsequently, o ne m ight e xpect t he i ncidence o f c ribra o rbitalia t o b e h igher

i n t owns.

A l ack o f v itamin C m ay r esult

i n s curvy w hich c auses h aemorrhages

w ithin t he b ones p articularly i n t he r ibs w here a l ine o f h aemorrhages c an o ccur a t t he c ostochondral j unction, a nd r esult i n a l ine o f l umps o ften l ikened t o a r osary. I t c an a lso l ead t o a w eakening o f t he b one s tructure a round t he t eeth a nd e ncourage p eriodontal d isease. A l ack o f v itamin D c auses t he b ones t o f ail t o o ssify, a nd t his m ay c ause b owed l egs c haracteristic o f r ickets a nd o steomalacia ( basically t he s ame a s r ickets o nly o ccurring i n a dulthood, a fter t he b ones h ave c eased

t o g row).

I t c an a lso

l ead t o a bnormal s kull s hape a nd s colio-

s is o f t he s pine. T o r ecord t he p resence o f v itamin d eficiency i n a p opulation w ould b e h ighly s ignificant, b ut o r ecord i ts a bsence m eans n othing. T his i s b ecause v itamin d eficiency w ould h ave t o b e v ery e xtreme t o c ause n oticeable b one l esions. T herefore, o ne c annot s ay t hat b ecause n o d eficiencies w ere o bvious t he p opulation m ust h ave h ad a b alanced d iet. I t i s u nfortunate f or t he p alaeopathologist t hat b ones a re, f or t he m ost p art, v ery p oor r ecorders o f m ost d iseases. U nless t he c ohdition h as b ecome v ery s evere a nd h as l asted a l ong t ime i t w ill u sually n ot b e r ecorded i n t he b ones. M ost a cute c onditions d o n ot m anifest t hemselves. A lthough w e m ight b e a ble t o d etect a p oor i ntake o f v itamins o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime, w e c annot d etect a s udden p eriod o f O ne

o f

s tarvation t hat

r esulted

t he a reas o f r esearch t hat

i n d eath.

s hows m ost p otential i s t hat o f

t he a nalysis o f n on-specific i ndicators o f s tress. T hese a re, a s t he n ame s uggests, l esions t hat w ere c reated w hen t he b ody w as e xperiencing s trains c an b e

o n i ts r eserves, b ut a re n ot u nique t o a ny o ne c ondition. T hey d ue t o a w ide v ariety o f c auses, u nlike t he l esions d escribed

a bove.

I n t he p ast t heir u se h as

i ncurred s ome c riticism,

e specially

f rom m edical s cientists, b ut t his w as l argely d ue t o a r ather s implist ic u se o f t he t echniques e mployed i n t heir a nalysis, a nd a r ather p oor u nderstanding o f t heir l imitations. T hey a re o f l ittle u se i n t he a nalysis

o f

i ndividual

s keletons,

t heir r eal p otential

l ies

i n

t he

f ield o f a nalysis a nd c omparison o f p opulations, u sing n ot j ust o ne o r t wo i ndicators, b ut t aking a r ange o f s everal a nd u sing a m ore s ophist icated, s tatistical a pproach. I n t his r espect t hey a re a p articularly u seful t ool f or a rchaeologists a nd a nthropologists w ho w ish t o c ompare p opulations, r ather t han f or m edical s cientists w ho a re t racing t he e volution i ndicator

o f o f

s pecific d iseases. P erhaps t he b est k nown n on-specific s tress i s t he l ines o f r adio-opacity s een o n X -rays o f

l ong b ones a nd k nown a s H arris L ines. T hese a re m arks o f i ncreased m ineral d ensity c aused b y t emporarily a rrested g rowth i n c hildhood. T he c ause o f t his m ay b e d isease o r m alnutrition o r b oth. T his i s t he e xception t o t he r ule s tated a bove t hat c hronic d iseases s how u p b est i n b ones. T hese l ines a re c learer w hen t he p eriod o f a rrested g rowth i s f ollowed b y a p eriod o f g ood h ealth r esulting i n n ormal g rowth o f b one,

a nd

t hese

a re m ost o bvious

i n p opulations

t hat h ave

a cute s pells o f m alnutrition f ollowed b y p eriods o f n ormality, n ot s how u p a s w ell i n p opulations t hat s uffer f rom 1 13

f requent, a nd w ill c hronic

m alnutrition. H owever, t here a re a lso d rawbacks t o u sing H arris L ines. F irstly, t here w ill b e c onsiderable d ifferences b etween i ndividuals i n t he s everity o f i llness o r m alnutrition r equired t o c ause t hem t o d evelop. T his i s w hy t hey h ave l imited u se i n t he a nalysis o f i ndivid ual s keletons. S econdly, t here a re s exual d ifferences i n t heir o ccurr ence; m ales t end t o d evelop t hem m ore r eadily t han f emales. F inally, t hey a re r esorbed i n l ater l ife t o v arying e xtents a nd t his a lso d iffers s exually a s w ell a s i ndividually - f emales t end t o r etain t hem l onger t han m ales. T here h ypoplasia

i s

a

w hich

s imilar p rocess i n t he t eeth s hows

u p a s

c alled

l ines o r p its o n t he

d ental s urface

e namel o f

t he

t ooth. D ental a ssymetry, o vercrowding o f t eeth, a nd t eeth o ut o f l ine a re a il s ignificantly h igher i n p opulations o f l ow s ocio-economic s tatus. u M easurement o f h eight i s a lso a n i ndicator o f s tress s uffered d uring l ife. A lthough t he p otential h eight a n i ndividual c an r each i s g enetically d etermined, h is/her a bility t o r each t hat p otential i s d etermined b y e nvironmental a nd h ealth f actors. T his h as r esulted i n a d iscrepancy o f h eight b etween d ifferent s ocial c lasses i n m any t ies. I t h as a lso b een s uggested t hat s ocieties e xperiencing t ional

s tress w ill h ave

s ocien utri-

l ess s exual d isparity i n h eight 7 b ecause

m ales

a ppear t o b e m ore a ffected b y m alnutrition t han f emales. A nother l ine o f i nquiry w ill b e t o e xamine t he q uality o f t he d iet. I t i s p roposed t o u se a tomic a bsorption s pectrophotometry t o a scertain t he r elative d ifferences i n m eat c onsumption b etween t he g roups o f b urials. A tomic a bsorption s pectrophotometry m easures t he q uantity o f t race e lements i n t he s ample w hich a re s tored i n d ifferent c oncentration i n p lants a nd a nimals. S trontium h as b een t he m ost f requently u sed e lement i n t his w ork b ecause t he a mount o f s trontium l eft i n t he b ones i s a d irect p roportion o f t he a mount o f s trontium i ngested,

a lthough m ost w ill h ave b een e xcreted.

T he h ighest l evels o f

s trontium w ill b e f ound i n t hose a nimals o r p eople w ho e at o nly v eget ables: t he l owest w ill b e i n m eat e aters; o bviously o mnivores w ill f all i n b etween t he t wo. B y u sing t his m ethod i t m ay b e p ossible t o t est w hether d ifferent g roups h ad a ccess t o d ifferent f ood r esources. H owever, i n o rder t o a chieve a ny m eaningful i nterpretation i t w ill b e n ecessary t o u tilise t he r esults f rom r elated e nvironmental a nalysis a nd

d ocumentary r esearch.

s eparated

i n t heir a nalysis

H uman b ones h ave t ended t o b ecome s omewhat f rom o ther b iological r emains,

w hich

a re

u sually g rouped t ogether u nder t he u mbrella o f e nvironmental a rchaeol ogy. T here i s a n eed t o r eturn t o a nalysing h uman r emains w ithin t he f ramework o f o ther e nvironmental e vidence, a nd n owhere i s t his m ore a pparent t han i n t his t ype o f a nalysis. W e c an s uggest t hat d ifferent g roups m ay h ave h ad d ifferent d iets, b ut w e c annot g ive a ny d etails o f t his, o r s uggest w hy i t h appened f rom t he s keletal e vidence. S imilarl y, i n a nalysing s tress w e c an s uggest t hat a c ertain g roup e xperienced e pisodes o f s tress, b ut w e c annot i nfer a ny o f t he d etail o f t his. F or i nstance, w e c annot d etermine f rom t he b ones t hemselves w hether t his w as t he r esult o f a b ad h arvest, o r a s udden r ise i n d isease d ue t o t he i nsanitary c onditions o f t he u rban l ifestyle, a s m entioned a bove. t ype o f e vidence c an o nly c ome f rom o ther d isciplines. A ll p ractice?

T his

t his s eems s ound i n t heory, b ut h ow w ell w ill i t w ork i n T his p aper w ill c oncentrate o n a s mall g roup o f e arly

m edieval g raves a nd w ill e xamine

t he p otential p itfalls t hat o ccur w hen 1 14

o ne t ries t o u se a r esearch p lan s uch a s t his. c emetery a round t he e ntrance h all a nd i n t he C hurch,

a nd

a ppear t o b e

t he r emains o f

T he b urials a re i n t he a trium o f t he C rypt

p eople o f h igh s ocio-economic

s tatus. T his i s i ndicated b oth b y t he p osition o f t heir t ombs a nd b ecause t his g roup c ontained o ne o f t he t wo t ombs w ith a p ainted i nscription e ncountered o n t his s ite. A s s uch t hey f orm a b ase l ine a gainst w hich o ther g oups w ill b e c ompared. T he s ample i s l imited, o nly 2 8 s keletons i n a ll ( unfortunately f ive w ere r obbed i n a ntiquity); t he s keletal e vidence f or t hese g raves i s s ummarised i n T able 1 . T his i mmediately b rings u s u p a gainst t he f irst m ajor p roblems: i t i s i nevitable t hat t here w ill b e a d isparity i n t he s ize o f t he s amples f rom t he d ifferent s ocio-economic g roups; t here w ill b e m any m ore s keletons i n t he l ower e conomic g roups. T hus i n t he g roup i t w ill o nly t ake a f ew i ndividuals w ith u nusual a ssume g reat s tatistical i mportance. Not a pparent

o nly

i s

t he

s ample

s mall b ut i t

i s

a lso

h igher s tatus c omplaints t o

b iased.

f rom a c ursory g lance a t T able 1 t hat t hese s keletons

w ay r epresent a n ated b y a dult d oubts c ast o ver w as d etermined

I t

i s

i n

n o

c ross-section o f t he c ommunity. T he s ample i s d omim ales w ith o nly f our f emales, a nd t here m ust b e s ome t wo o f t hese a s t he p elves h ad d isintegrated, a nd s ex b y t he s kull a lone. C hildren a re a lso u nder-repre-

s ented. T hree a re p resent, 1 0.7% o f t he w hole p opulation, b ut t hey a re a ll o lder t han 6 /7 y ears. T here a re n o n eonatal o r i nfant d eaths, b elonging t o t he m ost v ulnerable p eriod o f l ife w hen t he h ighest m ortal ity g ood, T his h ave

w ould b e e xpected. O verall t he p reservation a nd r ecovery w as a nd i f t hese s keletons h ad b een p resent t hey w ould h ave s urvived. l eads u s t o t he n ext p itfall. I f t hese t rends c ontinue w e s hall v ery l ittle i nformation f rom w omen o r c hildren, w ho a re t he

s ectors

o f

t he

p opulation m ost

l ikely t o e xhibit

s igns

o f

s tress.

I nfants u nder f ive h ave i ncreased m ortality b ecause o f t he i mmaturity o f t heir i mmune d efence s ystem, a nd t he l arge d emands m ade o n t heir b ody b y t heir g rowth. T hey c an b ecome p articularly d eficient i n i ron a s t heir b odies n eed a l ot i n o rder t o g row . M ilk b oth f rom a nimals a s w ell a s f rom t heir m others, c ontains n o i ron, s o u nless t heir d iet i s s upplemented b y o ther f oods b efore t hey a re w eaned, t he s tores o f i ron w ith w hich t hey w ere b orn b ecome i ncreasingly d epleted. W omen o f c hild-bearing d emands m ade

a ge a lso s uffer f rom t his t endency. T he t remendous o n a p regnant w oman c an b e a ppreciated b y c omparing h er

i ron r equirements w ith t hat o f a n a dult m an. H e w ill n eed t o a bsorb 1 2 mg o f i ron a d ay t o b alance h is l oss s o i n t hree m onths h e w ill n eed a bout 9 0mg.

H owever a w oman i n t he f inal t rimester o f p regnancy

w ill

n eed i n a ddition t o h er o wn n eeds a nother 5 00-600mg 8 f or t he f oetus, t hus s he w ill r equire s ix t o s even t imes t he a mount o f i ron a m an o f c omparable a ge w ould n eed. I n s ocieties w here p regnancies a re n ot c ontrolled a nd a w oman m ay s uffer s everal p regnancies w ithin a c omparat ively s hort s pace o f t ime h er b odily r eserves w ill b ecome v ery d eplet ed, making h er v ulnerable t o d isease a nd i nfection. W omen w ho m arry y oung, w hile s till i n t heir e arly t eens, w ill b e p articularly a t r isk b ecause o f t he s trains a lready m ade o n t heir r eserves d uring p uberty. Another

g roup

v ulnerable

t o n utritional s tress a re t he

e lderly,

b ut c onventional m ethods o f a geing d o n ot a llow u s t o i solate t his g roup. I t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly a pparent t hat c onventional a geing t echniques w hilst t hey m ay b e a dequate f or a ssessing t he a ge o f y ounger p eople a re c onsiderably l ess s atisfactory f or o lder a ge g roups. T he u sual

c riteria

f or

d etermining

a ge 1 15

a re

t ooth

e ruption

a nd

w ear

T able 1

T he E arly M edieval B urials f rom t he C rypt C hurch a nd E ntrance h all c emetery

C rypt C hurch T omb N o. C ontext N os. 1 19/123

1

D ate 1 0/11th C

2 1 36

3

1 0/11th C

C ontents

D escription

S ingle m ale

B lock b uilt t omb

S ingle m ale

B lock b uilt t omb

S ingle s uba dult

5 1 0

2 06

1 0/11th C

S ingle a dult

B lock b uilt t omb

G roup o f 3 :

B lock b uilt

1m ale, 1 f emale,

t omb

1 2

2 37

9 th C

1c hild S ingle a dult

1 3

2 38

9 th C

S ingle m ale

B lock b uilt t omb

1 4

2 39

9 th C

S ingle f emale

B lock b uilt t omb

1 5

2 46

9 th C

S ingle m ale

B lock b uilt t omb w ith p ainted i nscription

1 6

2 58

9 th C

S ingle m ale

B lock b uilt t omb

1 8

2 65

9 th C

S ingle a dult

B lock b uilt t omb

1 9

G rave v ery d isturbed

S ingle a dult

E ntrance h all

c emetery

C ontext N os.

C ontents

D ate l ate 9 th-llth C

4 95 & 5 01

A d ouble g rave

c ontaining o ne

m ale a nd o ne c hild 4 96,

4 97,

4 99

l ate 9 th-llth C

O ne f emale s lightly d istanced. A t ightly p acked m ixture o f b ones c ontaining a t l east s even m ales a nd o ne c hild

p atterns, t he d egree t o w hich b ones a re f used, t hat i s f ully g rown, a nd t he p atterns o f w ear o n t he p ubic s ymphysis. T he u se o f c ranial s utures f or a geing i s n ow d iscredited, e xcept p erhaps i n c ases w here t here i s n othing e lse a nd t hey c an g ive a b road d escription o f a ge r ather t han a p recise f igure. T here h ave b een a ttempts a t a n umber o f h istological a geing t echniques, b ut t heir u se i s n ot c ommon, a nd t hey t end t o b e t ime c onsuming. T he c oncepts a re n ot n ew o nes, b eing s uggested a t t he t urn o f t he c entury. I n t he l ast t wo d ecades a t 116

f irst l east

f our

v ariations o f

t he

t echniques h ave b een drised b ut

a ble t o r eplicate t he f indings o f T hus h ave

t o

i n

f ew h ave

b een

t he a uthors.

e xamining n utritional s tress b etween s ocial

c ontend w ith a m ajor p roblem.

c lasses

w e

T he h igher s ocial c lasses h ave

f ew w omen, i nfants o r n eonates w ho a re t he m ost v ulnerable g roups, a nd a re d ominated b y a dult m ales w ho a re t he s ection o f t he p opulation l east l ikely t o e xhibit s tress. P reliminary w ork o n t he m ain c emetery o n t he h illside a nd t he 5 th-6th c entury c appuccino g raves i n t he s outh c hurch c ontain s imply

( phases 1 -2) s uggests t hat t hese m ay b e f amily g roups a nd a m ore r epresentative s ample o f t he p opulation. I f o ne w ere t o c ompare t he d egree o f n utritional

s tress

s uffered

t hen,

t he

h igher s tatus g roup w ould a utomatically a ppear t o f are b etter. A p ossible w ay a round t his w ould b e t o c ompare o nly m ales, b ut a part f rom t he o bvious d rawback o f e liminating m ore t han h alf o f t he p opulation f rom a nalysis, t his w ould a lso r aise t he t hreshold a t w hich w e c ould d etermine n utritional s tress. W ith t he m ost v ulnerable s ectors o f t he c ommunity e liminated, o ur b ase l ine w ould b e f ar h igher. A s a rchaeolog ists w e n eed t o s tudy t he e veryday o rdinary i nteraction o f t he c omm unity, n ot j ust t he m oments o f c risis. T he e limination o f w omen a nd c hildren f rom t he s ample m akes U sing

c onventional

t his

a geing

t ask m ore d ifficult.

t echniques,

t he a verage

a ge

o f

t he

s ample w as 2 5.8 y ears. T his f igure i s n ot p articularly u seful i n i tself, e specially g iven t he s ize o f t he s ample, b ut t he e xtremes o f t he a ge r ange a re m ore i nteresting. T he y oungest a re 6 /7 y ears ( cont ext 2 22) a nd 7 /8 ( context 5 01) a nd t wo o f t he a dult s keletons w ere o f y oung m en, p ossibly s till t eenagers a t t he t ime o f t heir d eath. A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s cale t he g raves i n t he e ntrance h all c emetery c ontain t he o ldest s keletons y et e ncountered a nywhere o n t he s ite, t wo b eing o ver 4 5 y ears a nd o ne 4 0-45 y ears u sing t ooth w ear a nalysis. 1° A n a djacent g rave ( context 4 95) c ontained a m ale s keleton w hich i t w as n ot p ossible t o a ge a ccurately, b ut i t m ay b e i nferred t hat t his p erson w as a lso q uite o ld a s t he c ostal c artilages h ad b ecome o ssified c ranial s utures o bliterated. T he

a verage m ale h eight w as c alculated t o b e 1 .7m

a nd

t he

( 5 7.5").

I n

p hysique m ost w ere d eveloped. T he b ones w ere g enerally r obust, a nd a t l east f our h ad s trong m uscle a ttachments i n t he u pper a rm s uggesting t hat t hey w ere u sed t o h ard p hysical w ork. T wo o f t he s keletons s howed s trong muscle a ttachments i n t he f emur, a nd c alcaneal s purs, t hat i s e xtra b one g rowth o n o ne o f t he a nkle b ones. T he l atter c ondition i s u sually f ound i n v ery a ctive o r s porty p eople, b ut d oes n ot n ecessarily r elate t o h eavy w ork- a m odern e xample h as b een w itnessed i n a d ancer f rom a b allet c ompany. 1 1 I t c an a lso b e f ound i n R eiters s yndrome, a c ondition i nvolving i nflammation o f t he u rinary t ract, e ye a nd j oints. H owever, s uggest

t here t hat

M ost o f

w as

n o

e vidence o f a rthroses

i n t hese

s keletons

t o

t his h ad b een t he c ause. t he p athological

l esions p resent a re t hose t hat h ave

b een

t raditionally r elated t o m echanical s tress a nd t hey a re p articularly p lentiful i n t he s pine. F our s keletons h ad S chmorls n odes a nd i n o ne ( context 1 23) t his a ffected n o l ess t han n ine v ertebrae. T here a re d iffering o pinions r egarding t he a etiology o f t his c ondition. C alvin W ells

b efore

r egarded i t a s b eing c aused b y s train i n e arly a dolescence, t he v ertebrae h ave f ully h ardened, r esulting i n h erniation o f

t he i ntervertebral d iscs.

O thers h ave c laimed i t t o b e a c ondition o f 117

o ld a ge c aused b y d isc d egeneration.

T here i s,

h owever,

a c onsensus o f

o pinion t hat i t i s r elated t o p erforming h eavy w ork ; t he e xplanation i s e ither l ifting o r c arrying h eavy w eights.

f avourite V ertebral

c ompression f ractures w ere f ound i n t wo s keletons. T his i s c aused b y t he v ertebrae c ollapsing i n o n i tself t o f orm a w edge s hape, a nd i s o ften a s i n t his c ase, a ssociated w ith o steophytic g rowth. T here h ave b een m any t heories a dvanced r egarding t he a etiglogy o f t his t ype o f f racture, s ome o f t hem q uite u nusual. M erbs ") h as s uggested t hat i n h is p opulation o f S addlermiuts i t m ight b e c aused b y e xcessive t obogann ing, b ut s urely t he m ost i maginative t heory w as t hat p ostulated b y C alvin W ells 1 4 w ho s uggested t hat i t m ight b e d ue t o a b uilding c oll apsing o n t he u nfortunate v ictims h ead!

A lthough t here a re o nly

t wo

e xamples o f t his c ondition i n t his s ample, o verall i t i s n ot a n u nusual d iscovery a t S an V incenzo. U nless t he b uildings w ere e xtremely u nstable i t d oes n ot s eem a v ery l ikely e xplanation i n t his i nstance ! R egrettably, w e m ust a lso r eject t he t heory o f f renzied t oboganning a s a p robable c ause i n t his t errain, a nd a ssume t hat t hese i njuries w ere t he r esult o f m undane w ear a nd t ear, p ossibly e xacerbated b y a f all o r j ump. V ertebral o steophytosis,

t hat i s e xtra b one g rowth a t t he m argins

o f t he b ody o f t he v ertebrae, w as f ound o n f ive o f t he s kPletons ( cont ext n os. 1 23, 2 22, 2 46, 4 95, 4 96). I n m odern p opulations t his i s a c ommon c ondition p resent i n m ost p eople o ver 6 0 y ears a lly m ales. I t c an b e f ound o n a ny o f t he v ertebrae, c ommon

i n

t he

t horacic a nd l umbar r egions,

o f a ge, b ut i t

t he p art

o f

e specii s m ost

t he

s pine

s ubject t o t he m ost s train. 15 T here i s o nly o ne d efinite c ase o f o steoarthritis a nd t hat i s f rom a l eft t ibia a nd f emur f rom a 1 0th c entury g rave i n t he e ntrance h all c emetery. I n t his c ase o steophyte f ormation i s a ccompanied b y a n e burnation o f t he a rticular s urface. T he

s ignificance o f

t his

i ncidence o f

t raumatic

p athologies

c an

o nly b e a ssessed a fter s keletons f rom t he o ther g roups o f b urials h ave b een r ecorded. H owever, i n a nalysing t his t ype o f c ondition w e c ome a cross a nother p otential p itfall. W ith t hese c onditions t he a ge o f t he i ndividual i s a ll i mportant; w hat m ay b e c onsidered n ormal f or a m an o f 6 0+ w ill n ot b e n ormal f or a m an i n h is f orties. B one b ecomes m ore b rittle a s t he c ollagen a nd e lastic f ibres w ithin t he b one a ge a nd l ose s ome e lasticity. T he n ormal s tresses o f b ipedal m otion w ill e ventually c ause m any o f t hese c onditions t o d evelop i n t his b rittle b one. H owe ver, s omeone w ho h as l ed a n a rduous l ife d oing a l ot o f h eavy w ork w ill u sually d evelop t hese c onditions e arlier. Y et r elying s olely o n c onventional a geing t echniques w e c annot p ick o ut t hese g roups w ith a ny c onfidence. T he

p athology

f rom t he m ultiple

b urial i n t omb 1 0

( context

m erits a s pecial m ention b ecause i t i s p articularly u nusual. t he s kulls h as e vidence o f t rauma p robably c aused b y a s word.

2 06) O ne o f O n t he

l eft p arietal b one t here i s a s uperficial, n arrow i ncision a nd o n t he r ight p arietal b one t here i s a d eeper, w ider i ncision a cross t he r ounded e dge o f

t he s kull w hich m ay h ave b een c aused b y q g lancing b low

w ith a s word, m ost p robably s truck f rom b ehind. T he w ound w as q uite d eep, e xposing t he d ipl cA ( the s oft s pongy b one i nside t he t wo l ayers o f h ard, c ompact b one o n t he i nside a nd o utside o f t he s kull v ault). N either w ounds s how a ny e vidence o f h ealing, a nd t herefore, i t m ust b e a ssumed

t hat

t his m an d ied

s oon a fter r eceiving

118

t hese

i njuries.

A nother s kull i n t he s ame g rave w as g rossly d eformed ( Fig.5:1), a nd t his i ndividual m ust h ave b een c onsiderably d isfigured d uring l ife. A ll t he u pper t eeth w ere l ost, a nd t he a lveolar p rocess w as c ompletely e roded s o t hat t he f ace l evelled o ff a t t he b ase o f t he n ose. I n a ddition t he d istance b etween t he c heek b one a nd t he b ase o f t he n ose i s v ery s hort; a s w ell a s h aving a n u gly a ppearance t his d eformity m ust h ave m ade i t d ifficult t o m asticate f ood. I t i s d oubtful w hether s uch a n i ndividual c ould h ave e aten n ormally; h e w ould p robably h ave h ad t o c onsume a s emi-liquid d iet, w hich m ay w ell h ave u ndermined h is h ealth. T his c ondition i s v ery u nusual. W ear p atterns o n t he m andibular t eeth i ndicate t hat t he u pper t eeth h ad b een g rinding a gainst t he l ower t eeth a t s ome s tage, a nd t herefore, t he c ondition c annot b e d ue t o a c ongenit al a bsence. T he m ost l ikely e xplanation i s t hat g ross p eriodontal d isease c aused a ll t he t eeth i n t he u pper j aw t o f all o ut, s o t hat t he m andible a way. l b

w ould t hen b e m asticating a gainst t he b one c ausing i t t o w ear I n v iew o f t he p oor c ondition o f t he m andibular t eeth t his i s

a v ery p lausible e xplanation. I n

t omb 1 ( contexts 1 19 a nd 1 23)

i n a ddition t o

t he h uman

s kele-

t on , a c ow a stragalus w as f ound. A nimal r emains a ssociated w ith g raves a re m ore c ommon o n t his s ite i n t he l ate R oman p eriod, a nd t his i s t he o nly example f rom a m edieval c ontext. T he p ractice o f a ssociating a nimals w ith h uman b urials h as a l ong h istory. D uring t he R oman e ra f ood o fferings w ere l eft i n t he t omb, s ometimes l ibations w ere p oured o nto

t he

h eld,

b urials,

a nd o n o ccasions

t hroughout

t he y ear

f easts

w ere

a nd f o94 a nd d rink p assed d irectly o nto t he b urial b y m eans o f a

h ole o r G erman

p ipe."" F ood o fferings h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he b urials o f t ribes a nd c ontemporary 5 th c entury R omano-Frankish p easants i n

G aul, a lthough t his p ractice h ad b ecome l ess c ommon b y t he t ime o f C lovis. N ot a ll a nimal b ones a ssociated w ith g raves w ere n ecessarily f ood

o fferings,

s ome

m ay h ave b een t he r esult

o f

a nimal

s acrifice.

I nhumations o f h orses i n h uman g raves o r s ometimes j ust t he s kulls o f h orses a ppear t o h ave p articular s ignificance. T he s kull o f a h orse w as a ssociated w ith t he g rave o f C hilderic, a nd t here h ave b een o ther e xamples, o ften i n t he g raves o f c hiefs o r i mportant m en. p ractice o f M üller-Wille

m any T he

h orse b urial a nd h orse s acrifice h as b een r eviewed b y a nd V ierck w ho c ite e xamples a s f ar w est a s S omerset,

B ritain, a nd a s f ar e ast a s H ungary. 18 T his p ractice m ay h ave a p articular r eligi rs s ignificance, o r m ay s ymbolise t he d ead p erson's s ocial a nimal

s tanding. W e s hould n ot a ssume a t S an V incenzo t hat p utting b ones i n t ombs i s n ot t he r emnant o f a p agan p ractice s imply

b ecause o f i ts c hristian s etting. S uch h abits o ften s urvived l ong a fter c hristianity h ad b ecome e stablished, e specially i n r ural a reas, a s M üller-Wille s hows.

T he p ractice o f p lacing a c oin i n t he m outh o f

t he d ead, o riginally t o p ay C haron t o c ross t he S tyx, ms w itnessed i n F rance e ven a s r ecently a s t he t ime o f N apolean I II. T he c hurch i tself d id n ot f orbid a ll p agan r ites. A lthough s acrifices w ere f orb idden, t here i s t he

H owever, r itual m eals a nd l ibations o ver t he t omb w ere n ot. 21 n o e vidence i n t his t omb ( No. 1 ) o f o ther f ood o fferings, a nd

p resence o f a s ingle a nimal b one,

e specially a n a stragalus,

d oes

n ot i n i tself s uggest t hat f ood w as p resent, a nd o f c ourse a s olitary b one d oes n ot s uggest a s acrifice. P erhaps t he m ost l ikely e xplanation i s t hat i t s ymbolised s ome a spect o f h is l ife f or w hich h e w as p articul arly w ell-known, o r d enoted a c ertain s tatus. T his i s a s ubject w hich w ill

b e

m ore f ully e xplored i n a l ater p aper o n t he s ubject

R oman t ombs a t S an V incenzo.

119

o f

l ate

F ig.

5 :1

T he g rossly d eformed s kull

1 20

f rom T omb 1 0

( context 2 06).

C onclusion I n p ursuing t his

l ine o f

r esearch o ne i s l ooking

t o

s ee h ow i mpor-

t ant s tatus w as i n p ractical t erms, a nd h ow s ocial d ivisions w ere m anifest i n e veryday l ife. O bviously, w ith a s ample a s l imited a s t his o ne c annot d raw a ny f irm c onclusions; o ne c an o nly l ook f or p ossible p oints o f i nterest t hat m ight b e w orth i nvestigating i n t he f uture. P erhaps t he m ost s urprising o utcome i s t he l evel o f m echanical o n t hese s keletons. W e h ave a ssumed t his g roup t o b e t he m ore

s tress a dvan-

t aged s ection o f t he s ociety s o o ne m ight e xpect t hat t hey w ould n ot b e s ubject t o t hose s trains l ikely t o c ause s uch l esions. W hether t hese l esions a re t he r esult o f m anual l abour o r o ther e xertions i s n ot k nown a t p resent; t hey m ay w ell r elate t o w arfare o r s ome s ocial T he f ull i mportance o f t his c an o nly b e a ssessed w hen t hese

a ctivity. s keletons

a re c ompared w ith t he m any o ther b odies f rom t he m ultiple b urials. T he f act t hat t his g roup c ontained s everal c omparatively e lderly s keletons I s

a lso

i nteresting.

I t

r emains

t o b e s een w hether t his

t rend

w ill

c ontinue. I f s ocial d ivisions a lso r eflect e conomic d ivisions, a nd a s a r esult o ne g roup b ecomes s eriously d isadvantaged, a d ifference i n a ge s tructure i s

l ikely t o b e o ne o f

t he f irst i ndications o f t his.

A lthough t here h ave b een n o c oncrete r esults

f rom t his p reliminary

a nalysis i t h as s erved t o h ighlight s ome p roblem a reas t hat w ill t o b e r esolved b efore t he d ata c an b e m eaningfully i nterpreted.

h ave T he

m ost f undamental p roblem i s t he i nequality o f t he s ample. N ot o nly i s t he h igher s tatus s ample s mall, b ut i t i s a b iased g roup n ot r epresent ative o f t he p opulation. F or t he p urposes o f t his t ype o f r esearch i t l acks t he v ery g roups w e m ost w ant i nformation o n. T he v irtual a bsence o f w omen, n eonates a nd i nfants w ill i nevitably m ake t his s ample a ppear s puriously w ell o ff i n c omparison w ith g roups o f a l ower s ocio-economic s tatus. P ossibly

t he b est w ay f orward

i n t his

t he v ulnerable g roups a nd t o a ttempt

t o

i solate

t o g rade t hem i n s ome w ay

t ype o f w ork i s

a ccord-

i ng t o t heir v ulnerability. O ne c ould t hen a ssess t he d egree o f s tress b y r egistering t he l evels w ithin e ach g roup a nd c omparing t hem. T he i nequality o f t his s ample w ill m ake t his v ery d ifficult. A b etter u nderstanding o f t he r eligious a nd r itual a spects o f t he b urials w ill a lso b e v ery i mportant. T his m ay w ell a ffect t he p osition o f t he

b urial,

a nd d etermine

i nterred t here. I t w ill b urials i nto s tatus g roups.

t he s ex,

s ocial s tatus e tc.,

a lso a ffect

t he

i nitial

o f t he p erson

d ivision

o f

t he

n s ome A lthough h uman b one r esearch h as b enefited f rom p rogress i v irtually o f a nalysis, i n o ther a reas t echniques h ave r emained f w ork m uch u nchanged f or d ecades. I n o rder t o c arry o ut t his t ype o m ethods a re m ore a ttention s hould b e p aid t o a geing. C onventional t ypes

eed t o b e r efined f or o lder s keletons, a nd a ge g roups a lso n t h e m a x im u m b e nefit y o u n g e r s k e l e t on s . I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e f or s ome r e l ated a n d s t r e s s evelopments i n t he f ield o f n utritional f rom t he d t o i m p r o v e o u r b asic a n d p a l a e o p a t h o l o g y i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y r esearch m om e n t a b l in d t r ial s i m i l a r l e v e l o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . A t t h e d ata t o a u n d erd i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f h i s t o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s i s b e in g c omparing i s S heffield w ith t he i ntention o f f inding t he m ethod t hat t aken a t i nadequate

c ost-effective. m ost t ological t echniques

T his w ill a ttempt a nd

d evise

t o c ompare t he d ifferent h is-

a w ay o f

1 21

c ombining

t his

t ype

o f

a nalysis w ith c onventional t echniques t o r educe i nvolved i n t his s ort o f l aboratory w ork . I talian c emeteries o f

t he

a mount

o f

t his p eriod h ave b een e xcavated b efore,

t ime

b ut

f ew h ave b een p ublished, a nd f ewer s till h ave h ad a ccess t o d ocumentary o r e nvironmental s ources. A lthough t he d ata b ase a t S an V incenzo i s, a t f irst s ight u npromising, w ith s o m any o f t he s keletons b adly f ragm ented, w e w ill a im t o s how w hat c an b e a chieved i f o ne h as a ccess t o t his d ata,

a nd i s i n a p osition t o m ake u se o f n ew t echniques.

A cknowledgements T his

r esearch

R esearch C ouncil

h as

b een f unded b y

t he

t o w hom I a m m ost o bliged.

1 22

S cience

a nd

E ngineering

N otes 1 .

F or e xample:

A .

B rown,

' Bone S trontium C ontent a s

a D ietary I ndi-

c ator i n H uman S keletal P opulations', u npublished P h.D. t hesis, U niversity o f M ichigan ; M .J. S choeninger, 1 979; ' Diet a nd S tatus a t C halcatzingo: S ome E mpirical a nd T echnical A spects o f S trontium A nalysis', A merican J ournal o f P hysical A nthropology 5 1, ( 1979), 2 95-310; D .C. C ook a nd J .E. B uikstra, ' Health a nd D ifferential S urvival i n P rehistoric P opulations: P renatal D ental D efects', A merican J ournal o f P hysical A nthropology 5 1, ( 1979), 6 49-664; T .R. B lack, T he B iological a nd S ocial A nalysis o f M ississippian C emet ery f rom S outh-East M issouri ( Anthropological P apers N o. 6 8. M useum o f A nthropology, 2 . 3 .

C alvin W ells, C harles F .

B ones,

U niversity o f M ichigan,

B odies a nd D isease

5 .

C ecil's T extbook o f M edicine,

1 5th E dition,

M cDermoth a nd J .B. W yngaard,

1 979.

W .

A ndrew

J ones' p aper e ntitled ' The d istribution o f

E dited b y P .B.

p age 1 744. f aecal

d eposits

V iking a nd M edieval Y ork' g iven a t t he 5 th E uropean M eeting

t he P aleopathology A ssociation,

S iena,

o f

3 -4th S eptember 1 984.

D .R. Y esner, ' Nutrition a nd C ultural E volution i n N utritional A nthropology e dited b y N .W. J erome, R .F. K andel a nd G .H . P elto, ( London,

7 .

1 7.

1 983).

B eeson,

i n

6 .

1 964),

M erbs, P attern's o f A ctivity-Induced P athology i n a

C anadian I nuit P opulation ( Ottawa, 4 .

( London,

1 979).

1 980), V olume 1 , 8 5-116.

A nn G raher p aper e ntitled ' Multiple i ndicators o f s tress i n p alaeop athology' g iven a t t he 5 th E uropean M eeting o f A ssociation. S iena, 3 -4th S eptember 1 984.

t he P aleopathology

8 .

E . F itzsimons a nd A . J acobs. " Iron D eficiency A naemia" i n M edic ine: t he m onthly a dd-on j ournal. i st S eries V ol. 1 N o. 2 5. 1 153.

9 .

T he f irst C anaux d e

a ttempts w ere b y B althazard a nd L ebrun i n 1 911 ( 'Les H aves d e l 'Os H umain a ux D ifferents A ges', A nnales

H ygiene P ublique e t d e M edicine L egale). n ew

m ethod i n 1 963

E .R.

K erley p ublished a

( 'The M icroscope D etermination o f A ge i n

H uman

B one', A merican J ournal o f P hysical A nthropology, 2 1). T his w as m odified b y J . A hlqvist a nd O . D amsten ( Journal o f F orensic S cienc es, 1 4 ( 1969), 2 05-212. E .R. K erley a nd D .H. U belaker t hen r efined K erley's o riginal t echnique a ltering t he f ield s ize

( American J our-

n al o f P hysical A nthropology, 4 9 ( 1978), 5 45-546). D .D. T hompson d eveloped a t echnique b ased o n c oring i nto t he b one r ather t han t aking a c ross-section: a nd B one M ineralisation C onnecticut,

1 978),

A ge R elated C hanges i n O steon R emodelling ( Unpublished P h.D. T hesis, U niversity o f

a nd ' The C ore T echnique

i n t he D etermination o f

A ge a t D eath i n S keletons', J ournal o f F orensic S cienzes, 2 4 ( 1978) 9 02-915). T he m ost r ecent w ork c ompleted h as b een t hat o f C . S amson ( The D etermination o f A ge a t D eath b y H istological A nalysis o f H uman B one ( Unpublished P h.D. T hesis, 1 983)).

1 23

1 0.

A nalysis

b ased o n c lassification f rom D .R.

B rothwell,

B ones 3 rd e d. ( British M useum ( Natural H istory), P ress, 1 981), 7 2. 1 1.

P ersonal

c ommunication

f rom

D r.

K .

D igging U p

O xford U niversity

M anchester,

U niversity

o f

L .Viner a nd

C .

B radford. 1 2.

C alvin W ells,

T he H uman B urials

i n A .

W ells, C irencester E xcavations 1 1. C irencester ( Cirencester, 1 982). 1 3.

M erbs,

o p.

c it.,

1 4.

C alvin W ells, P ark, 1 967-72 ,

1 5.

R .

1 71. T he H uman B ones', i n ' Excavations a t N orth E ast A nglian A rchaeology ( 1980).

T ed S teinbock,

( London,

1 976),

M cWhirr,

R omano-British C emeteries a t

E lmham

P alaeopathological D iagnosis a nd I nterpretation

2 87.

1 6.

Ia m p articularly g rateful t o D r. G .T. C raig o f t he D epartment o f O ral P athology, U niversity o f S heffield, f or h is o pinion o n t his s pecimen.

1 7.

J .M.C.

T oynbee,

D eath a nd B urial i n t he R oman W orld

( London,

1 971),

5 1. 1 8.

M .

M üller-Wille,

' Pferdegrab u nd P ferdeopfer i m F rühen

M ittelal-

t er', w ith a s ection b y H . V ierck ' Pferdegraber i m a ngelsächsischen E ngland', B erichten R OB 1 970-71. 1 9.

B .

Y oung,

' Paganisme,

c hristianisation e t r ites

g iens', A rchgologie M gdigvale V II ( 1977),

f uneraires M erovin-

5 -81 e specially p ages 4 9-

8 1. 2 0.

B .

2 1.

D .

Y oung,

i bid., 4 1.

B ullough,

' Burial,

C ommunity a nd B elief

i n t he E arly M edieval

W est', i n P . W ormald ( ed.), I deal a nd R eality i n F rankish a nd A nglo-Saxon S ociety ( Oxford, 1 983), 1 77-201.

1 24

C hapter 6 :

T HE P AINTED D ECORATION O F T HE E ARLY M EDIEVAL M ONASTERY b y J ohn M itchell

T he

m onastery

o f

S an V incenzo a l V olturno o wes i ts f ame

p rinci-

p ally t o t wo t hings: t o i ts C hronicle 4 w hich i s o ne o f t he g reat m onastic r ecords o f e arly m edieval I taly; a nd t o t he p aintings i n t he c rypt a nd

o f o ne o f i ts

i ts c hurches.

p air Ongs

T he c rypt w as d iscovered i n t he 1 830s,

h ave b een p ublished a nd w ell-known

f or

t he

p ast

h undred y ears. 4 T heir f ame i s j ustified. T he s cheme o f d ecoration i s b oth e xtensive a nd r elatively w ell p reserved. I t c an a lso b e f irmly d ated f rom i nternal e vidence, s ince E piphanius, w ho w as t he a bbot o f t he c ommunity b etween 8 24 a nd 8 42, i s p ortrayed, w ith t he s quare h alo o f t he l iving, k neeling a t t he f oot o f t he C ross o n w hich C hrist i s c rucified. 3 T he s ubject-matter o f t he p aintings i s o f c onsiderable i nterest, a nd i n p art q uite e laborate, a pparently i nspired w ritings o f t he m onastery's m ost r enown l a bbot, t he l ate 8 th

b y t he c entury

F rankish t heologian, A mbrosius A utpert. T he w ork i s o f f ine q uality, a nd a mong t he s cenes t here a re s ome e xtremely b eautiful p assages o f p ainting. t o s urvive

a nd

A ll i n a ll, t hese a re s ome o f t he m ost r emarkable p aintings f rom t he 9 th c entury, a nywhere i n E urope.

T his c rypt s erved o ne o f t he s maller c hurches o f t he m onastery; i ts s eems l ikely t hat t he o ther f ive c hurches, b uilt i n t he l ate

8 th c entury a nd i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 9 th w ould h ave b een e qually, i f n ot m ore, m agnificently e mbellished.' I n f act, t he c urrent e xcavat ions h ave s hown t hat a lmost e very r oom i n t he 9 th c entury m onastery w as p lastered a nd p ainted. W all p aintings h ave b een f ound i n t he g reat r efectory, i n t he l ong h all o n t he t horoughfare l ying a longside t he r efectory, a nd i n v arious n earby r ooms a nd c orridors; t hey h ave b een f ound i n a s eries o f c hambers w hich f ormed a r ange r unning a long t he s ide o f t he h ill a bove t he r efectory, a nd a lso i n w hat a ppears t o h ave b een t he i ndustrial a rea o f t he m onastery, t owards t he s outhern e nd o f t he c omplex. I ndeed, e ven t he t ombs o f t he d ead a t S an V incenzo w ere s ometimes g iven a p ainted d ecoration. T here i s m ore t han a g rain o f t ruth t o a r emark m ade q uary o f M ontecassino,

b y D on A ngelo P antoni, t he a rchitect a nd a ntiw hen h e v isited t he s ite t hree y ears a go " It i s

a m onastic P ompeii!" F rom

w hat h as b een e xcavated s o

f ar,

i t i s a lmost i mpossible

t o

t ell h ow t he c hurches a nd t he o ther b uildings w ere d ecorated d uring t he f irst c entury o f t he m onastery's e xistence. T he r eason f or t his i s, t o a l arge e xtent, t he t horoughgoing p rogramme o f r ebuilding a nd e xpansion w hich, i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 9 th c entury, m ust h ave c ompletely t ransformed T he

i ts s hape a nd i ts n ature. 6

o ne

p oint w here 8 th c entury p ainting h as b een f ound

i s

i n t he

a pse o f t he S outh C hurch. T his 8 th c entury c hurch h ad a r aised a psidal p resbytery w ith a p lastered f loor p ainted d eep r ed, a nd, o n t he c hord o f

t he a pse,

a n a ltar c onstructed o f t ile a nd m ortar a nd p lastered a nd 1 25

p ainted.

T he a ltar w as d iscovered i n a b roken s tate,

p ossible

t o r econ

Tuct i ts o riginal a ppearance,

b ut

i t h as

p roved

w ith s ome d egree

o f

a ccuracy ( Fig.6:1). I t r ose f rom a l ow b ase t o a h eight o f a bout o ne m etre. I ts f ront w as p ierced b y a v aulted t unnel w hich r an t hrough i t t o w ithin 2 5 c m. o f i ts r ear f ace. L ike m any o ther e arly m edieval a ltars, t his o ne m ay h ave i ncorporated a c onfessio, a nd i t m ust h ave b een b uilt o ver o r n ear t he b ody o f a v enerated s aint ( perhaps S t. V incent h imself, a s R ichard H odges h as p roposed e lsewhere i n t his v olume). 8 T he o pening i n i t f ront a nd t he t unnel m ay h ave a fforded s ome k ind o f a ccess t o r elics.' E ach o f

t he f our s ides o f

t he a ltar c arried a b old d esign.

S mall

j ewelled c rosses a nd g aily-coloured r osettes w ere s et a bout t he f enestella o n t he f ront. T he t wo l ateral f aces e ach c arried a l arge d isc,

d ivided i nto e ight e qual c onverging s ectors,

c oloured b lue,

r ed,

p ink a nd w hite, o pposite s ectors b eing o f t he s ame c olour. A nd o n t he b ack t here w as o ne l arge g rey p anelleled c ross, w ith t wo m otifs i n i ts p earl-framed c ompartments - o val o range g em-stones, a nd d elicate r ed i nternal f rames w ith i nward-turning p rojections a t t he m id-points o f e ach s ide. T he a ltar p robably d ates f rom t he m iddle o f t he 8 th c ent ury, w hen t he m onastery w as s till a r elatively s mall e stablishment, s erved b y t wo o r t hree c hurches o f s imple p lastered f loors a nd s imple f urniture.

c onstruction,

w ith

p lain

D uring t he 8 th c entury S an V incenzo e njoyed a m odest p rosperity a nd e xpanded s lowly, t o j udge f rom t he e vidence o f t he C hronicle. I t w as t owards t he e nd o f t he c entury t hat i ts f ortunes b egan t o c hange d ramatically. B etween 7 83 a nd 8 42 s ix n ew c hurches w ere c onstructed w ithin t he m onastic p recinct, a nd t he m ain a bbey c hurch o f S an V incenzo w as c yepletely r ebuilt a s a c olumnar b asilica, o n a m agnificent s cale. T he o ld m onastic b uildings w ere l argely r econstructed, a nd m any n ew o nes w ere l aid o ut. I t i s a bundantly c lear f rom t he c urrent e xcavations t hat t he m onastery g rew g reatly i n s ize d uring t his p eriod, a nd t he n umber o f m onks m ust h ave i ncreased s everal-fold. Il T he b uildi ngs o f t his p hase s eem t o h ave b een g rander t han t heir p redecessors s polia f rom a ncient

t emples a nd

m ausolea,

c olumns,

c apitals,

a rchi-

t ectural s culpture a nd c arved i nscriptions w ere i ncorporated i nto t he n ew s tructures; a nd t hese w ere p rovided w ith p avements o f c ut m arble i n o pus a lexandrinum o r f loors o f c uriously i nscribed t iles. I nvariably t heir w alls w ere c overed w ith b right p ainting. P assages

o f p ainted d ado h ave b een f ound i n a r ange o f

r ooms

o n

t he f irst t errace l ooking d own o ver t he r efectory; 1 2 a nd t here w as a s imple s cheme o f d ecoration o n t he w alls o f a w orkshop a nd a n a djacent r oom d own o n t he p lain, t owards t he s outhern e nd o f t he s ite. 13 B ut t he m ost e xtensive p assages o f w all p ainting h ave c ome t o l ight i n t he a rea w here t he g reatest e xcavation h as t aken p lace: t hat i s, i n t he c omplex o f b uildings l ying c lose t o t he r iver a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he m onastery. T o d escribe t hese p aintings i t w ill b e b est t o p roceed a s i f w e h ad j ust c rossed t he r iver V olturno b y t he P onte d ella Z ingara, t o p rogress a long t he p assage w hich c rossed t he S outh C hurch, t hen w estwards d own t he c orridor s kirting

f ront o f t he t hat c hurch's

n orthern f lank, a nd a t i ts e nd t o t urn l eft, t owards t he s outh, u p t hree s teps, t o e nter t he r ooms o n t he m ain t horoughfare w hich r uns a cross

t he

O nly

t op o f t he r efectory ( Figs.6:2. a f ew s craps o f

a nd 6 :3.).

p ainted p laster r emain o n t he 1 26

f ront w all

o f

d 3 1 13

7 i

P l an

RECONSTRUCTED ALTAR I N S OUTH CHURCH S AN VI NC E NZO

1

( > 1 z 2I

0 , 5

1 .0 m e tr e

, I I

% N e s t F ace

S ou th F ace

r

r ' : i ; ' \ V ‘ f i v er

F ig.

6 :1

. 4 f

P ainted

4 1 r i Y9 i t v e s i*

a ltar

R econstruction

V wee m

f rom a pse o f ( Drawing

1 27

b y

S outh C hurch

( phase

B arry V incent).

3 ).

F ig.

6 :2

P lan o f

t he m ain e xcavated a rea,

R efectory a nd L ower T horoughfare.

1 28

s howing S outh C hurch,

t he

S outh C hurch,

b ut

t hey a re s ufficient t o s how t hat t he s cheme

o f

d ecoration w as a c ontinuation o f t he o ne e mployed i n t he l ong c orridor w hich r uns t he l ength o f t he c hurch o n i ts s outh s ide. T his c onsisted o f a d ado o f l arge f ields p ainted t o i mitate c rustae, i nlaid p anels o f c oloured m arbles. T he d esigns o f t hese p anels d o n ot s eem t o f ollow a ny c oherent s cheme. S ome h ave l arge c entral r ectangles, b lue-grey, p inkish o range, o r y ellow, e nclosed w ithin f rameworks o f t hick b lack b ands, w ith d iagonal l ines i ssuing f rom t he f our c orers o f e ach t o s uggest t he s light p erspectival r ecession o r a dvance o f t he c oloured f ields. A nother h as a b lue-grey r ectangular f ield s et w ithin a w ide p ink b order v eined w ith r ed; a nd a f urther p anel s eems t o h ave c ons isted o f a b lue f ield b earing a l arge y ellow l ozenge, w hich , i n i ts t urn,

e nclosed

a

p ink d isc.

T his p ainting s urvives o nly i n a

f ragmentary s tate; a nd u nfortunately n othing r emains o f o f t he u pper s urfaces o f t hese w alls, a bove t he d ado. A s

h e a dvanced d own t his l ong c orridor b eside t he

v ery

t he d ecoration

S outh

C hurch,

t he v isitor's e ye w ould h ave b een c aught b y a g reat m ulti-coloured d isc, n early t wo m etres i n d iameter, w hich f illed t he l ower p art o f t he e nd w all ( Fig.6:4.). T he d isc w as a pparently d ivided i nto r adial s ectors, o ver w hich s econdary, c urvilinear, p atterns p layed; a nd i t w as s et w ithin a s quare o f l ines s napped i nto t he w et p laster w ith a r eddened c ord. S inuous t riangular m otifs a t t he f our c orners h eld i t i nto i ts f rame. T oo l ittle s urvives f or t he d esign t o b e f ully r econs tructed, b ut i t m ust h ave b een a b rilliant a nd s triking d evice, w ith, a mong i ts c olours, s trong r ed, r ich y ellow, a nd d ark a nd l ight b lueg rey. H ere a gain, t he u pper p arts o f t he w all a nd i ts p ainted s urface h ave g one. I mmediately t o t he s outh o f t his d isc, r ising u p o n t he w alls o n b oth s ides o f t he s teps w hich l ead u p i nto t he r oom i mmediately t o t he s outh, a re t he r emains o f p anels o f n arrow v ertical w hite s tripes, c ontained b y t wo b road v ertical g rey b ands, a ll p ainted a gainst t he p lain w hite p laster ( Fig.6:4.). T his m ust h ave f ormed a n e ffective r ising t ransition s ucceeding r ooms. T he

b etween

f ollowing s pace,

t he c orridor a nd t he h igher

l evel

o f

t he

w hich p robably s erved a s a k ind o f v estibule

o n t he m ain l ower t horoughfare,

h as a n i rregular s hape

( Figs.6:2.

a nd

6 :5.). L eading a way f rom t he s teps u p f rom t he c orridor i s a s lanting w all w hich w ould h ave c hannelled i ndividuals d irectly t owards t he l ong h all t his

l ying b eyond t o t he s outh. O n t he l ower p arts o f t he w alls o f r oom a d ado r ises t o a h eight o f a bout o ne m etre a bove t he t iled

p avement. I t i s p ainted i n i mitation o f p anels o f m arble, s o c ut a nd s et t hat t heir u ndulating v eins f orm a s equence o f u pright a nd i nverted c hevrons ( Figs.6:6. a nd 6 :7.). T he p anels a lternate i n t he c olours o f t heir v eining: o n o ne, r ed a nd y ellow; o n t he n ext, s trong g rey-blue a nd p ale s ky-blue. T he v eins a re o f t wo w idths, b road a nd t hin, a rranged i n s trictly r epeating s equence. T he p anels a re b ound o ne t o t he n ext, a t r egular i ntervals, b y w hat a ppear t o b e s chematic r epres entations o f m etal c lamps. T his d ado

i mitates

1 4

t he m agnificent m arble

r evetments f ound

i n l ate

a ntique a nd e arly m edieval c hurches, w here t he n atural v eining i n s tone f orms s ymmetrical p atterns o f c hevrons a nd l ozenges o ver l ower o f

s urfaces o f

t his

k ind

t he w alls a nd p iers.

S plendid m arble

c an s till b e s een i n H agia S ophia i n 1 29

t he t he

i ncrustations

I stanbul,

i n

S .

1 30 V i e w t o s o u t h , a l o n g t h e L o w e r T h o r o u g h f a r e .

• S 1 C . )

C r )

C e

( 1 3 3 3 4 1 0 0 " C 3

0 C i 3 1 0 0 1 4 4

a ) 1 . 3 4 4 0 1 : 3

4 )

. 0

1 1 11 1 1 113 1 1 1 Mmz u mmm o ur i .

1 31

V itale

a t R avenna,

M ount S inai,

a ll o f

a nd i n t he a pse o f t he 6 th c entury;

w hich w as r evetted w ith m a t he c athedral o n T orcello. T he p ractice

We

t he c hurch o f

S .

i n t he a pse o f S .

i n t he e arly 8 20s;

a nd,

C atherine

o n

C ecilia i n R ome, m uch l ater,

i n

i mitation i n p aint o f v eined m arble r evetment w as n ot a c ommon i n t he e arly m iddle a ges.

I t w as m ore u sual

f or d ados

t o b e

p ainted t o r esemble e ither c rustae, t hat i s c ut s quares, t riangles, l ozenges a nd c ircles o f c oloured m arble, a rtfully a rranged t o f orm e laborate r epeating p atterns, o r e lse a s kirting o f h anging c urtains. H owever, c hevron-veined m arbled d ados a re o ccasionally f ound i n b uildi ngs o f t his p eriod i n I taly: i n t he s outh, i n t he C hapel o f t he F orty M artyrs a t S . M aria A ntigua i n R ome, 1 6 i n S . m outh o f t he G arigliano i n s outhern C ampania, 1 7 S .

M ichele o n t he G argano;

1 8

a nd,

M arco d i C ellole a t t he a nd i n t he s anctuary o f

i n t he n orth,

i n t he u pper r oom i n

t he g reat t ower a t T orba o n t he O lona j ust b elow C astelseprio, 1 9 a nd i n a r ather s ummary f orm , i n t he a bbey c hurch o f S t. J ohn a t M istair, a nd, a t a l ater d ate,

a t

i n t he c rypt o f

S .

E usebio i n P avia. 21

I t s o h appens t hat t here i s o ne r ecurring d etail i n t he m arbling S an V incenzo w hich d istinguishes t hese d ados f rom n early a ll o ther

s urviving i nstances o f t he k ind, a nd w hich i s o f g reat v alue f or e stabl ishing a d ate f or t he p ainting i n t his p art o f t he m onastery. T his i s a t hin, s traight, d iagonal v ein, i nterrupted a t r egular i ntervals a long i ts

l ength b y s eismographic

s hakes

( Fig.6:7.).

I t i s

e mployed

i n a ll

t he m arbled d ados s o f ar d iscovered o n t he s ite, a nd c an b e p aralleled i n o nly t wo o ther p laces: a t S an V incenzo i tself, i n E piphanius' c rypt, w here i t o ccurs i n a c olumnar s trip o f f ictive m arbling b eneath t he r epresentation o f t he N ativity ( Fig.6:8.); a nd i n t he d ados o n t he w alls o f i n w hat ( Fig.6:9. 8 30, a nd

t he m onastery c hurch a t M istair, t o t he f ar n orth o f B olzano, i s n ow S witzerland, j ust o ver t he p resent b order o f I taly a nd S t.

6 :10.). T he c rypt w as c onstructed a nd d ecorated a bout J ohn a t M üstair w as f ounded a round 8 00. 22 I t i s v ery

l ikely t hat t he m arbled d ados i n t he r ooms o f t he m onastery a t S an V incenzo, a nd t he s chemes o f d ecoration o f w hich t hey f orm p art, w ere a lso p ainted i n t he f irst h alf o f

t he 9 th c entury.

T he f irst f igurative p ainting d iscovered d uring t he c urrent e xcav ations c omes f rom t his v estibule. B ut i t w as n ot f ound o n t he w alls. I t h as b een r econstructed f rom a mong t he t housands o f b roken f ragments o f p laster w hich f ell t o t he f loor s ometime i n t he 1 0th o r 1 1th c ent ury, a nd w ere b uried a fter t he b uilding w as a bandoned a nd h ad l ost i ts r oof.

T wo s aints h olding h eavily-jewelled b ooks,

i n f ields o f w aving

r ed

f lowers,

t heir

f eet a pparently

s tood o n t he t wo w alls w hich m eet

i n

t he n orth-west c orner o f t he r oom. S o f ar t he h ead a nd t he u pper h alf o f o ne o f t hese f igures, a y oung b eardless s aint, h ave b een r eassembled ( Figs.6:1., 6 :12. a nd 6 :13.). H e s tands s omewhat u nder l ife-size, a nd h alf t urns t o t he l eft. H is h ead i s s urrounded b y a l arge y ellow h alo. T his w as f lanked b y h is t itle a nd n ame; b ut t he f ew f ragmentary l etters t hat s urvive a re n ot s ufficient t o i dentify h im. T his i s a s triking p iece o f p ainting. T he s aint's r ed e yes f lash o ut b eneath s teeply a rched b rows, a nd t he n ose a nd m outh a re c oncisely d efined w ith l ine a nd b road s hading. T he w hole f ace i s m odelled w ith a s oft p urplishb rown, a nd t he l ighted s urfaces a re w orked u p w ith t hick l oaded b rushs trokes t o f orm a b rilliant i mpasto. H e w ears a b lue a nd w hite s triped t unic, a nd o ver i t a p ale o chre p allium b anded w ith w hite a nd p urplishb rown. I n h is l eft h and h e h olds a l arge b ook w hose c over c arries f ive 1 32

1 33

F ig.

6 :6

V estibule,

n orth w all.

1 34

M arbled d ado.

F ig.

6 :7

V estibule,

n orth w all.

1 35

M arbled d ado

( detail).

F ig.

6 :8

S an V incenzo a l V olturno,

C rypt.

M arbling b eneath t he N ativity.

1 36

F ig. 6 :9

M üstair,

F ig. 6 :10 ' L üsLair,

S t.

J ohn.

S t. J ohn.

1 37

M arbled d ado.

' ; ar lded d ado.

F ig. 6 :11

S aint

f rom V estibule o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 38

f .

F ig.

6 :12

S aint

f rom V estibule

o n L ower T horoughfare

1 39

( detail).

1 40

1 41

F i e , . 6 : 1 4 V i e w t o n o r t h w e s t a c r o s H a l o n L o w e r T h o r o u g h f a r e .

F ig.

F ig.

L . :J .5

6 .16

N all o n L ower T horoughfare.

H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 42

B ench.

B ench.

g reat

j ewels

g esture

i n p earled s ettings;

a nd h e r aises h is r ight h and

i n

a

o f s peech.

I n

t ype,

h is

e gg-shaped h ead w ith i ts s calloped c ap o f h air

d istantly r elated t o R oman p ainting o f t he 9 th c entury. P rosper, i n t he l ower c hurch o f S . C lemente, i n R ome,

i s

A n i mage o f S . d ating f rom t he

t ime o f P ope L eo I V ( 847-855), a ffords c omparison, n ot o nly i n t he o verall f orm o f t he h ead, b ut a lso i n t he c ut o f t he h air, a nd t he m anner i n w hich t he m outh, t he n ose, t he e yes, a nd t he p rominently y oked e ye-brows a re s haped. 23 A nd v arious p oints o f s imilarity c an b e f ound

i n

o ther 9 th c entury p aintings

i n t he C ity:

i n

t wo

s tanding

f igures o f S s. J ohn a nd P aul f rom t he l ower c hurch o f S . M aria i n V ia L ata; i n t he p aintings o n t he w alls o f S . M aria E giziaca, t he a ncient t emple n ext t o t he o ld F orum B oarium w hich w as t ransformed i nto a c hurch i n t he t ime o f P ope J ohn V III ( 872-882); C hrist h arrowing h ell, o ver t he t e o f S . C yril,

a nd i n t he i mage o f a t t he w estern e nd o f

t he l ower c hurch a t S . C lemente. B ut t he h eavy w hite i mpasto, w hich l ends s uch b rilliance t o t he s urface o f t he f ace, i s n ot f ound i n c ontemporary p ainting i n R ome; a nd i n c ertain d etails o ur s aint i s b est c ompared w ith t he p aintings d ating f rom t he t ime o f a bbot E piphanius ( 824-842) i n t he c rypt a t S an V incenzo. T he f laring y oked e ye-brows, t he h eavy c ircling s hadows b eneath t he e yes, t he f ine r ed l ine w hich d escribes t he b ottom o f t he n ose, t he t hin m outh w ith i ts s mall a nd f ull l ower l ip, a nd r ounded b utterfly p leats i n t he l ower h em o f s aint's l ong t unic, c an a ll b e f ound i n t he c rypt; a nd, e xcept

t he f or

t he b utterfly f old, t hey a ll f igure p rominently i n t he c ontemporary p aintings e xcavated f rom t he l ong h all o n t he m ain t horoughfare t o t he w est o f

t he r efectory,

w hich a re d escribed b elow.

W e n ow p ass f rom t his v estibule i nto t he l ong h all w hich e xtends a cross t he t op o f t he g reat r efectory ( Figs.6:5. a nd 6 :14.), a nd i t i s h ere t hat t he l argest q uantities o f w all-painting h ave b een f ound. T he h all m ust h ave s erved a s a n a nte-room w here t he m onks c ould c ongregate b efore g oing i nto t he r efectory t o d ine. A t i ts s outhern e nd, w hich s till l ies u nder t he e arth, t here a re p robably d oors l eading d own i nto a l arge c loister b eyond t he r efectory, a nd o n f urther s outhwards i nto t he h eart o f

t he m onastic c omplex.

B enches, c onstructed o f t iles a nd m ortar, a nd p ainted w ith t wo d ifferent d esigns, a re b uilt a gainst a ll o f t he w alls o f t his h all. O ne o f t hese d esigns i s m ade u p o f a s eries o f e quilateral t riangles, i n a r ange o f c olours, s o a rranged a s t o f orm a d ominant p attern o f l arge s egmented l ozenges ( Figs.6:15.). T he o ther i mitates a n i mbricat ion o f p arti-coloured o verlapping s emi-circular t iles, r unning i n f our h orizontal r ows, e ach r ow b eing d istinguished b y i ts c olours: d eep y ellow/pale y ellow i n t he t op r ow, s trong r ed/pink i n t he s econd, b lue i n t he t hird, a nd p ink/strong r ed a gain a t t he b ottom ( Fig.6:16.). T his p attern o f o verlapping p arti-coloured t iles w as e mployed q uite c ommonly i n a ntiquity, b oth i n w all-paintings a nd i n f loor-mosaics. 2 6 H owever, t here, t iles o f t he s ame c olour a re n early a lways l aid o n d iagonal

a xes,

a nd n ot

i n t he h orizontal s equence s een o n t he b enches

a t S an V incenzo. D espite i ts p opularity i n a ntiquity, t his i mbricated m otif a ppears t o h ave b een a lmost u nknown t o a rtists i n t he e arly m iddle a ges. T here i s j ust o ne o ther e xtant i nstance o f i ts u se i n I taly d uring t he p eriod: a s mall f ragment o f p ainted d 9do i n t he c rypt a t t he w estern e nd o f t he f irst a bbey-church a t F arfa. 2 T his c rypt i s p robably

p art o f

t he n ew w est

f ront o f 1 43

t he o ld c hurch,

c onstructed

i n

t he

8 30s u nder a bbot S ichardus. 28

o ne w onders

p laces w ere n ot c onsciously r eviving a n a ntique A bove

t he b enches

i f

t he anists

i n

b oth

f ormula. 47

r uns a c ontinuous m arbled d ado,

v ery l ike t hat

i n t he p receding r oom, b ut w ith m inor d ifferences i n t he c olouring. H owever, t he t echnique o f t he p ainting h ere d iffers f rom t hat e mployed i n t he v estibule.

H ere,

i n t he h all,

t he v ertical d ivisions b etween

t he p anels o f m arbling h ave a ll b een s napped w ith a c ord i nto t he w et p laster, a nd t he p aint s eems t o h ave b een a pplied w hile t he s urface w as s till d amp, s o t hat i t i s f ully b onded w ith t he l ime i n t he p laster t he t echnique e mployed w as s omething l ike b uon f resco. I n t he v estibule, o n t he o ther h and, t he d ivisions b etween t he p anels w ere s imply d rawn o nto t he d ry p laster w ith a b rush d ipped i n b lack p aint. E verywhere t he s urface h as

f ractured a nd i s f laking.

H ere t he p ainting

w as c learly d one o n p laster t hat h ad a lready s et, a nd w as p erhaps a lready a f ew y ears o ld. T here i s e vidence t hat i t my b e a l ittle l ater i n d ate t han t he w ork i n t he l ong h all n ext d oor. 3v N othing o f t he w alls a bove

t he m ain d ecorative s cheme o f t he h all s till a dheres t o t he d ado. H owever, a h uge q uantity o f p ainted p laster

h as b een e xcavated, i n b roken f ragments, f rom t he f loor o f t he r oom, w here i t h ad f allen o n t op o f t he c harred b eams a nd t he b urnt t iles o f t he c ollapsed r oof. B y f ar t he g reatest c oncentration o f t his f allen p laster w as r ecovered f rom t he f oot o f t he l ong w est w all ( Fig.6:14.). T he p rocess o f r eassembling t hese m any t housands o f b roken f ragments h as b egun. I t w ill n ot b e p ossible t o p ut t ogether a ll o f t he p ainti ngs w hich o nce c overed t hese w alls, o r e ven a ll o f t hose f rom t he w est w all - t oo m uch h as b een l ost. B ut w e s hould b e a ble t o r ecompose l arge a reas, a nd t o r econstruct t he o verall s cheme o f t he d ecoration. T he r econstruction h as p roceeded f ar e nough t o s how t hat t he m ain s cheme o n t he w est w all c onsisted o f a r ow o f s tanding P rophets, a l ittle u nder l ife-size, f lanked b y l ong s crolls i nscribed w ith t exts f rom t heir w ritings, w hich t hey m ay h ave h eld i n t heir h ands. T hey s tood b eneath a n a rcade, w hose g aily c oloured a rches w ere m ade u p o f c oncentric u ndulating b ands o f r ed, g rey, w hite, ( Fig.6:17.). T he t itles a nd n ames o f t he f igures

p ink w ere

d isplayed

c apital

o n

e ither

s ide o f

t heir h eads

i n

w hite

a nd l ilac o riginally l etters

a gainst s ky-blue b ackgrounds. S everal o f t he t itles ' PROPHETA', w hich l ay t o t he r ight o f e ach h ead h ave b een r eassembled, b ut s o f ar n ot o ne o f t he i ndividuals i n t he s ame s cript, o f t he A postles t hemselves, p arts r ight

n ames ( Fig.6:18.). T he n ame [ P]HILIPP[VS], w ritten f rom a nother p art o f t he h all, s uggests t hat i mages s tood o n o ne o f o f s even h eads,

f oot h ave e merged.

s tages,

a nd m uch r emains

t he o ther w alls). O f t he f igures s ome d rapery a nd a f ew h ands a nd a

T heir r econstruction i s s till i n i ts

T he m ost c omplete f igure c omes f rom a bout r ight-hand s ide o f t he w est w all, a nd p rovides p ainting

t o

h ave

e arly

t o b e d one.

c ome o ut o f

t he m id-point o f t he f inest p assage

t he p resent e xcavations:

m ost

o f

t he o f t he

h ead, t ogether w ith p art o f t he u pper b ody o f a m agnificent, b earded a nd b ewhiskered, l ong-haired a nd w ild-eyed p rophet ( Figs.6:19. a nd 6 :20.). H e w ears a l oose, i vory-hued t unic, w hich i s h eightened w ith b rilliant w hite l ights, a nd s haded w ith s almon p ink a nd l ilac i n t he f olds. T hree s houlder, a nd h is

r ight

n arrow p arallel r ed c lavi d escend f rom o ver h is r ight t he g arment s omehow t erminates i n a d eft l ittle k not o n

b reast.

O riginally h is 1 44

l eft a rm e xtended

t o

l ift

u p

t he

1 45 6 : 1 8 T i t l e : H a l o n L o w e r T h o r u g h f a r e .

•

F ig.

6 :19 P rophet f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 46

F ig.

6 :20 P rophet

f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare

( detail).

1 47

F ig.

6 :21

K .ad o f P rophet

f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 48

b rown c loak w hich h angs

t ered

f rom h is s houlder.

T he p rophet's f ace i s e xtremely i mpressive, a nd d espite t he b atc ondition o f t he p laster, o ne's a ttention i s c aught b y t he

i ntense t hem. b eard,

r ed e yes w hich g aze o ut f om t he d eep s hadows

t hat c url b eneath

H is h ead n arrows f rom a b road a rched b row t o a c urly s calloped w ispy a t t he e dges a nd s treaked w ith w hite. T he h air i s a m ass

o f w hite h ighlights a nd f alls r ound h is t emples i nto w hich s weep o ver h is s houlders. T he f ace i s, a t b ase,

g reat p igtails p ink , d ramatic-

a lly m odelled w ith a d arker m ixture o f t he s ame c olour a nd b rilliant w hites. T hese h ighlights r un o ver t he b row a nd

l it w ith d own t he

r idge o f t he n ose; t hey e nfold t he e yes, a nd s pread o ut i n s pectacular c ombs o f f ine r ays b eneath t he d eep s hadows w hich c ircle b elow t he l ower e ye-lids. R eddish-brown p aint f rom a f ine b rush d efines t he n ostrils, t he m outh, t he e ars, s ome a ccents o n t he c heeks, a nd o utlines a nd a rticulates t he h air, b eard a nd m oustache. T he i mage i s d ominated b y s triking c onfigurations o f d arks a nd l ights, w hich f latten t he f ace a nd g ive i t c onsiderable i conic p ower. T he d ramatic w arm t ones o f t he a rtist's p alette, t he s trong s hadows, a nd t he s cintillating o verlay o f h ighlights i mpart a n i ntense l ife a nd a s pirit o f a fflatus t o t he o ld m an. A ll t he c haracteristics o f t his h ead a re s hared b y a s mall f ragm ent o f a s econd o ne f rom t he f ar n orth e nd o f t he w est w all. A t hird h ead, f rom t he s outhern h alf o f t he w all, a gain h as m any o f t he s tylist ic a nd

f ormal p eculiarities o f

t he f irst p rophet,

b ut i t i s

s omewhat

m ore b roadly p ainted ( Fig.6:21.). T he a reas o f l ight a nd s hade a re, i f a nything, m ore p rominent, a nd t he w hite c ombs o f l ight b eneath t he e yes a re l ess f inely d elineated. t apers s moothly t o t wo p oints. T wo

f urther

T he m an's b eard i s n ot

f ragmentary h eads

w all s how a s imilar s tyle

( Figs.6:22.

s calloped,

f rom t he n orthern s ection a nd 6 :23.);

b ut h ere,

b ut

o f

t he

i n p lace o f

t he e laborate o verlay o f w hite h ighlights w hich p lay o ver t he s urfaces o f t he f irst t hree h eads, t here i s a h eavy p atterning o f d ull g reen s hadows w hich m ark a nd d efine t he b row, t he e yes, t he n ose, t he c heeks a nd t he

c hin.

n umber.

F rom

r ight-hand m anner, w hether

T he h ighlights a re s till s trong, n ear

t he

c entre p oint o f

s ide o f a f urther h ead,

o f

w hich i s p ainted i n m uch t he

t he s ame

b ut w ithout t he g reen s hadows. I t i s n ot e asy t o d ecide t hese a re t he w ork o f a d ifferent a rtist f rom t he o ne r espon-

s ible f or t he f irst t wo p rophets, h as v aried h is p ictorial f ormulae.

h ead,

b ut t hey a re r educed i n

t he w all c omes p art

o r i f t hey a re b y t he s ame m an,

w ho

T he s ame k ind o f s trong g rey-green s hadows a re f ound o n a s ixth f rom n ear t he m iddle o f t he w all ( Fig.6:24.). A lthough t he

s urface i s r ather a braded, i t i s c lear t hat t he s ystem o f h ighlighting e mployed h ere w as v ery l ike t hat o f t he t wo g reen-shaded h eads. T he p ainting i s s omewhat b roader t han o n t he f irst p rophet d escribed a bove ( Fig.6:20.) - t he d ifference i s p articularly a pparent i n t he b eard, a n e xtraordinary s calloped a ffair, a lmost h eraldic i n i ts a bstraction , t hickly p ainted, a nd b luntly o utlined w ith a p rominent w hite c ontour. M any f ragments o f f rom t he s ame d eposit a t t hese

p ainted i nscription h ave a lso b een r ecovered t he f oot o f t he w est w all. F or t he m ost p art,

a re w ritten i n a lternating l ines o f

o n p ainted

r ed a nd b lack c apital

s crolls s et a gainst a b ackground o f d rapery. 1 49

l etters

I t l ooks a s

i f

e ach

o f

t he

s tanding f igures o n t his w all m ay h ave h eld o ut

o ne

o f

t hese s crolls i nscribed w ith v erses f rom h s w ritings. T he o ne s croll t hat, s o f ar, h as b een r eassembled t o s omething a pproaching c ompleten ess, c omes f rom a s catter o f f allen p laster a t t he n orth e nd o f t he w all,

a nd

c arries

a v ariant o f

t he u sual r eading o f

a

p assage

f rom

M icah : " IN D IE [ ILL] A D ICIT D (OMI)N(V)S C ONG [ RE] G [ A] B O C [ LA ] V D [ I] C ANTEM E T [ E] A M Q VAM E IECERAM C ONGREGAB[ ] " ( Micah i v. 6 : " In d ie i lla, d icit D ominus, c ongregabo c laudicantem, e t e ar n q uam e ieceram, c olligam, w ill I a ssemble h er

e t q uam a fflixeram" - " In t hat d ay, s aith t he L ord, t hat h alteth, a nd I w ill g ather h er t hat i s d riven

o ut, a nd h er t hat I h ave a fflicted") - a v erse f rom a c hapter f oretells t he f uture v ictory a nd g lory o f t he C hurch ( Fig.6:25.).

t hat T he

f irst

t ext

f igure a t

t he n orth e nd o f

t he w all,

w ho m ay h ave h eld

t his

i n h is l eft h and, m ust h ave b een t he p rophet M icah. A s ubstantial p art o f a s econd i nscription, w ritten o n a s croll w hich h ung o n t he s lant a gainst a p assage o f f lamboyany d rapery, i ts s tylish c apitals c limbing u p g ently i nclined l ines, w as f ound a t t he m id-point o f t he w all. T he t ext h as n ot y et b een i dentified. T he r emains o f f urther i nscriptions w ere r ecovered T hese q uite

f rom o ther p oints a long t he f oot o f

i nscriptions

t he w est w all.

a re w ritten i n e legant w ell-formed

n arrow a nd t all i n p roportion a nd s et c lose

f orms o f A a nd E a re u sed,

c apitals,

t ogether.

f or t he s ake o f v ariety a nd

fr

V ariant d ecorative

e ffect - A w ith b oth s traight a nd b roken b ar, a nd E b oth s quare r ounded. I n t he s loping i nscription, f rom t he m iddle o f t he wall, p ainter h as e mployed l itterae i nscriptae,

s mall l etters

t ucked

a nd t he

i n a mong

t he l arger c apitals, a gain p robably f or v isual e ffect, r ather t han t o s ave s pace. T he l etters o f t hese i nscriptions a re p erhaps b est c omp ared w ith c apitals i n m anuscripts o f t he p eriod. T hey a ppear t o f ollow s cribal p rac fce, c olours o f t he l ines. T he

s tanding

b oth

p rophets a nd

i n t heir f orms

t he s cript o f

a nd

t hese

t he

a lternating

p ainted

i nscrip-

t ions, w hich c an b e p aralleled i n e arly m edieval I talian w all p aintings a nd m anuscripts, c onfirm t he d ate t hat t he v eined m arbling o f t he d ados s uggested f or t he w hole s cheme o f d ecoration i n t his p art o f t he m onast ery: t he f irst h alf o f t he 9 th c entury. T he f igures f rom t he w est w all o f t he h all d o h ave a p lace i n t he c ontext o f 9 th c entury p ainting i n I taly; b ut i t i s i n t he n orth, i n L ombardy, r ather t han i n l ocal s outh I talian w ork, t hat t he c losest a ffiliations a re t o b e t raced. L ocal p arallels t here c ertainly a re. T he p articular s ystems o f h ighlighting a nd s hading o n t he b rows a nd n oses, a nd a round t he e yes o f t he p rophets c an b e f ound, n ot s urprisingly, a t S an V incenzo i tself, i n s ome o f A ngel

t he f igures i n t he c rypt o f a bbot E piphanius.

T he h eads

o f t he

G abriel a nd o f M ary

i n t he A nnunciation, i n t he c rypt, p rovide A nd t his m anner o f r endering a f ace t elling c omparisons ( Fig.6:26.). 32 w as n ot c onfined, i n s outhern I taly, t o S an V incenzo: t here i s i n t he a pse o f t he L ombard c hurch o f S . M aria d ell A nnunziata a t P rata, i n C ampania, a b attered h ead o f a n a ngel, p robably d ating f rom t he e arly 9 th c entury, t he c ostume

A lso, o ne d etail o f i n a q uite c learly r elated s tyle. 33 o f t he f irst o f t he p rophets d escribed a bove s eems t o

b elong t o a s outhern I talian t radition. T his i s t he r ather s ketchily r epresented t hree-banded c lavus o n h is t unic, w hich r uns f rom h is r ight s houlder c lusters

d own o ver h is b reast ( Fig.6:19.). T hree-banded c lavi a nd o f t hree p arallel r unning f olds a re a c haracteristic f eature

o f 9 th a nd 1 0th c entury p ainting i n C ampania. 1 50

3 4

F ig. 6 :22 H ead o f P rophet

f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 51

F ig.

6 :23 H ead o f P rophet

f rom w est w all

o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 52

F ig.

6 :24 H ead o f P rophet

f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 53

F ig. 6 :25

I nscription ( Micah i v.6) f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

1 54

H owever,

t here a re o ther f orces a t p lay i n t he n ewly-found p aint-

i ngs a t S an V incenzo. S ome y ears a go H ans B elting d rew o ur a ttention t o c ertain s imilarities w hich e xist b etween t he h eads i n t he c rypt o f E piphanius, w hich w e h ave j ust r efered t o, a nd o nes i n t he e arly 9 th c entury p aintings o n t he w alls o f t he n ave o f S . S alvatore i n B rescia, a nd h e i ndicated a n umber o f f urther c ontacts b etween p ainting i u t he n orthern a nd s outhern L ombard s pheres i n t he d ecades a round 8 00. 35 T o a ccount f ully w e m ust l ook. p articular a round 8 00,

f or t he p rophets i n t he l ong h all i t i s t o t he n orth t hat S ome o f t he p aintings i n S . S alvatore i n B rescia, a nd i n

t hose i n t he c hurch o f S t. J ohn a t p rovide i nstructive c omparisons.

M üstair,

d ating

I n t he b est p reserved o f t he s urviving h eads o f s aints t ondi b etween t he a rches o f t he n ave a rcade i n S . S alvatore,

f rom

s et i n B rescia,

o ne c an s ee a v ery s imilar s ystem o f h ighlighting a nd s hading, w ith d eep c urling s hadows b eneath t he e yes a nd a s platter o f w hite l ights s preading o ut o ver t he c heek ; a nd t he n ostrils a nd t he t ip o f t he n ose a re d elicately o utlined i n j ust t he s ame w ay a s a t S an V incenzo. 36 T he h eads o f t he s tanding s aints o n t he w alls o f t he l ittle c hapel o f S . M aria i n V alle a t C ividale, w hose d ate i s d isputed b etween t he t hird q uarter o f t he 8 th a nd t he e arly 9 th c entury, a re a lso p ainted i n a r elated m anner. 37 H owever, s ome o f t he m ost s triking c omparisons a re t o b e f ound i n S . J ohn a t M üstair. T hese p aintings s eem t o b elong t o t he o riginal d ecosgtion o f t he c hurch, w hich w as p robably c onstructed j ust b efore 8 00. I f t he f irst o f o ur p rophets f rom S an V incenzo ( Fig.6:20.) i s c ompared w ith o ne o f t he a postles o f t he L ast J udgement o n t he w est w all a t M üstair, t he p oints o f s imilarity a re i mmediately o bvious ( Fig.6:27.): 39 t he l ow a nd b roadly a rched b row, t he r ed e yes c ontained b y b rilliant w hite c orneas, w ith d eep c urling s hadows b eneath a nd a c omb o f w hite h ighlights f anning d own, a nd t hen t he d epression o f t he c heek d efined b y a s eries o f d ark b rush-strokes. L ike t he p rophet a t S an V incenzo, t his a postle a lso h as a b eard w ith s calloped e dges. S imilar d etails a re t o b e s een i n a s econd h ead i n t hree-quarter p rof ile f rom ü stair, t hat o f o ne o f t he a postles i n t he A scension ( Fig.6:28.). 40

t heir

C haracteristic o f m any o f t he f igures a t M üstair i s t he w ay t hat b eards a re o utlined w ith w hite. S ometimes t his i s d one t o v ery

d ramatic e ffect, a s i n t he r epresentation o f C hrist h ealing t he d eafmute ( Fig.6:29.), 41 w here t he b lunt w hite c ontour o f C hrist's b eard o ffers a r emarkable c omparison f or t he b eard o f t he p rophet f rom t he m id-point o f t he w est w all a t S an V incenzo ( Fig.6:24.). a ureole w hich s urrounds C hrist i n t he L ast J udgement i s

A t M üstair t he s omewhat s imi-

l ar i n d esign t o t he s triking m ulti-coloured a rches o f u ndulating b ands w hich e nclosed o ur p rophets ( Figs.6:30. a nd 6 :31.). 42 A nd, a f inal, a nd d ecisive, p oint o f c omparison, M üstair i s, a pparently, t he o nly p lace, a part f rom S an V incenzo, w here m arbled d ados w ere p ainted w ith t he p eculiar s eismographic s hakes o n t he s traight v eins, w hich w e h ave d iscussed a bove

o f

( Fig.6:6. - 6 :10.).

T he t radition o f d ramatic c hiaroscuro m odelling f ound o n t he f aces t he p rophets a t S an V incenzo, a nd i n t he p aintings a t B rescia a nd

M üstair,

c ontinued

f or

c enturies

i n L ombardy

i n t he n orth

( whereas i n t he s outh i t h ad v irtually n o a fter-life). I t t raced i n t he i mages o f C hrist e nd s aints i n t he G rotto d i S . S . N azzaro a t V ero , o f 9 96; 43 a t S . V incenzo i n G alliano, e arly 1 1th c entury; "

a nd e ven l ater i n S . 1 55

o f

I taly c an b e C elso e i n t he

P ietro a l M onte a t C ivate. 45

W ) a

9 1

r s )

•

1 56

F ig.

6 :29 M üstair, S t. J ohn. H ead o f C hrist h eali ng t he d eaf r aute ( Eidg. A rchiv f ür D enkmalpflege B ern).

F ig. 6 :30 M üstair,

S t.

J ohn.

C hrist f rom L ast J udgement

f ür D enkmalpflege B ern).

1 57

( Eidg.

A rchiv

T here

i s a nother a spect o f

t he 9 th c entury p hase o f

t he m onastery

o f S an V incenzo w hich s eems t o o we m uch t o n orth I talian u sage. T his i s t he h abit o f p lastering a nd p ainting t he i nsides o f t ombs. A n umber o f p ainted t ombs h ave b een f ound d uring t he c urrent e xcavations; a nd t wo o f t hem c all f or p articular m ention. T he f irst i s a b lock-built t omb, l ying i mmediately i n f ront o f t he t hreshold o f t he C rypt C hurch, w hich c ontained t he b ody o f a y oung m an o f

a bout

t ionally

t wenty y ears o f a ge. p oor

q uality,

T he p laster o n i ts s ides i s o f

a nd h as f or t he m ost p art

d ecayed;

e xcepb ut

t he

r emains o f a n i nscription, w ritten o n t he s urfaces f lanking t he n iche f or t he h ead o f t he d ead m an, c ould s till b e m ade o ut ( Fig.6:32). T he t ext, w hich c oncludes w ith t he f ormula " ET V ITAM E TERNAM", a nd h as y et t o b e i dentified, w as w ritten i n a n e legant a nd w ell-formed r ed c apital s cript. T he s econd b eneath a n a rch,

p ainted t omb i s a m ore e laborate a ffair. " I t l ies a n a rcosolium , s et a t t he m id-point o f t he c orridor

w hich p asses u nder t he S outh C hurch,

a nd s eems

t o d ate f rom e ither t he

t hird e arter o f t he 9 th o r f rom t he 1 0th c entury 6 :34.). I ts o riginal o ccupant w as c learly a m an o f t he c ommunity, p robably a n a bbot. O n e ach o f p ink

c ross,

e ach o f

t he f our i nterior w alls o f

t his

( Figs.6:33. a nd s ome s tanding i n

t omb i s

p ainted a l arge

a nd v ine-scolls w ith l arge r ed b lossoms s pread o ut

i ts l onger s ides.

T he c ross a t

t he h ead o f

b y t he w ords o f a p rotective i nscription: - " The C ross o f C hrist - t he C onfusion o f

a long

t he t omb i s f lanked

" CRVX X PI C ONFVSIO D IABOLI" t he D evil" ( Fig.6:34.).

N ow , t he f orm o f t he f our c rosses i s m ost p eculiar. L ong b ars r un a cross t he e nds o f t he f our a rms o f e ach c ross, a nd f rom t he e nds o f t hese o ther

b ars e xtraordinary t riangular s erifs p roject i nwards. A ll t he i nstances o f t his m ost u nusual k ind o f c ross a re t o b e f ound i n

M ilan a nd t he s urrounding c ountry. T he t ype w as u sed, i n a n a lmost i dentical f ashion, i n a n umber o f p ainted t ombs i n t he 9 th-llth c entury c emetery w hich l ay i mmediately t o t he e ast o f t he s outh t ransept o f t he o ld c athedral o f M ilan, S . T ecla ( Fig.6:35.). 48 A lso i n M ilan, a p ainted c ross o f t his f orm f ills o ne o f t he l ittle a psidioles i n e rchb ishop A nspert's c hapel, o f t he l ate 9 th c entury, a t S . S atiro; 49 a nd a nother s imilar o ne f orms p art o f t he 8 th/9th c entury d ecoration o f t he l ower r oom i n t he g reat t ower a t T orba, j ust b elow C astelseprio, t o t he n orth w as

o f M ilan.

5 0

e mployed a lso

I t i s s ignificant

t hat t his M ilanese

i n a nother m edium a t S an V incenzo.

t ype o f

I t

i s

b roken g rave-marker, w hich i s o f 9 th o r 1 0th c entury d ate. l ower a rm o f t he c ross s uryives, f lanked b y t he l egend: ( Iesu C hristi) I t l inks t ombs

i s n ot

( Fig.6:36.).

o nly t he p resence o f

t ombs M ilan

5 4

O nly t he " IHV X PI"

5 1

t his t ype o f

c ross

w ith n orthern I taly. T he p ractice o f p ainting i s r are i n t he c gntral a nd s outhern p arts o f t he

t he e arly m iddle a ges.

c ross

f ound o n a

I t

i s

i n t he n orth,

t hat

i ndicates

t he i nsides p eninsular

i n L ombardy,

o f i n

t hat p ainted

a re f ound i n s pie c oncentration: i n V erona, M antua, B rescia, a nd e lsewhere. T here a re, f or i nstance, t hree r ather f ine

p ainted 9 th c entury t ombs i n t he n ave o f S . S alvatore i n B rescia ; i n M ilan a c onsiderable p roportion o f t he g raves o utside t he

a nd s outh

5 4

t ransepp o f S . T ecla w ere d ecorated w ith c rosses a nd p ainted i nscript ions.'" I ndeed, i n M ilan, t he t radition o f p ainting t ombs c an b e 1 58

F ig.

6 :31 F ragment o f p ainted a rch f rom w est w all o f H all o n L ower T horoughfare.

F ig.

6 :32

I n t,. cription i n t omb a t

t hreshold o f C rypt C hurch ( phase 4 ).

1 59

1 60

mu .

C D

1 61

F ig.

6 :35 M ilan,

S anta T ecla.

P ainted t omb

o f M aginfredus. C ross ( Sopr. A rcheologica d i M ilano).

F ig.

6 :36 F ragment o f

f unerary i nscription,

1 62

w ith c ross.

F ig.

F ig. 6 :38

6 :37

T he R efectory.

P ainted p ulpit

1 63

i n t he R efectory.

F ig.

6 :39

" Marbled" t ile f rom t he p avement o f t he R efectory.

1 64

t raced b ack t o E arly C hristian t imes

( A p ainted t omb o f

was e xcavated i n S . G iovanni i n C once. i n t he M useo d el C astello S forzesco). 56

t he 6 th c entury

I ts r emains a re n ow d isplayed

A fter t his d igression i nto t he b urial p ractices o f t he m onks, w e o ught n ow t o r eturn t o t he l ong h all a t S an V incenzo, a nd w alk d own i nto t he l ast b uilding w hose d ecoration w e m ust c onsider. T his i s t he l arge r efectory, w hich l ies i mmediately t o t he e ast ( Fig.6:37.): a l arge b uilding, d ivided i nto t wo p arallel h alls b y a l ow c entral s pine a nd a l ine o f c olumns w hich r ose u p t o s upport t he r oof. I ts f loor i s l aid w ith i nscribed t iles o f j ust t he s ame t ype a s t hose i n t he p ainted h all n ext d oor; a nd i t i s c lear t hat b oth o f t hese s tructures w ere b uilt a nd d ecorated a t a bout t he s ame t ime. I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he w alls o f t he r efectory h ave n ot s urvived t o a ny g reat h eight, a nd t hat, i n p laces, t heir s urfaces w ere s corched b y f ire w hen t he b uilding w as d estroyed. H owever, t he b enches w hich r un r ound t hem s till c arry t he s ame p attern o f b right s ectioned l ozenges t hat i s f ound o n t he b enches i n t he l ong h all t o t he w est, a nd t here a re f aint t races o f m arbled d ado o n t he l ower p arts o f t he w alls. T his m arbling, w ith i ts d iagonally-slanting v eins, m ust h ave b een o ne o f t he p ervading v isual c haracteristics o f t he e ntire m onastery, a s i t w as

r ebuilt

a nd r efurbished i n t he e arly 9 th c entury.

I t w as

u sed

o n t he w alls o f a lmost a ll o f t he m onastic r ooms w e h ave s o f ar e xcav ated, i t s erved a s a p rincipal e lement o f t he d ecoration o f t he p ainted p ulpit, b uilt o f s tone a nd m ortar, w hich s tands i n t he s outhw est c orner o f t he r efectory ( Figs.6:14. 6 :37. a nd 6 :38.), a nd i t s eems t hat

i t

e ven i nspired s ome o f

a nd v arious d esigns O ne

o f

t he

r eflection o f

t he c raftsmen w ho s cratched t heir

i nto t he t iles o f m ost

t he p avement

i ntriguing a spects o f t he

n ames

( Figs.6:39.). e xcavations

n orthern I talian p ractice t hat i s s o c learly

i s

t he

d iscernible

i n t he s tanding f igures i n t he l ong h all, a nd i n t he d ecorated t ombs. I t l ooks a s i f t he c ommunity w as i n c ontact w ith o ne o f t he g reat c entres o f t he n orth , l ike M ilan, P avia o r B rescia. T he e xplanation o f t his p henomenon m ay l ie i n t he C arolingian p resence i n s outhern I taly, a nd i n t he i nterest t hat C harlemagne a nd h is s uccessors t ook i n t he a bbey o f S an V incenzo a l V olturno. A fter C harlemagne's v ictorious c ampaign a gainst t he L ombards i n t he n orth, i n 7 73-774, n early a ll o f I taly, d own a s f ar a s t he D uchy o f B enevento, w as i ncorporated i nto t he F rankish r ealm. T he m onastery o f S an V incenzo, h owever, r emained i n L ombard t erritory, q uite c lose t o t he

b order

b etween t he

t wo k ingdoms,

a nd

i t c ontinued

t o

e njoy

t he

b enificent s upport o f t he d ukes a nd p rinces o f B enevento r ight t hrough t he 9 th c entury ( as i s t estified b y a s eries o f d iplomas a nd c harters i n f avour o f t he m onastery, w hich a re p reserved i n t he 1 2th c entury C hronicle). T his w as o nly n atural: S an V incenzo h ad b een f ounded i n t he f irst y ears o f t he 8 th c entury b y t hree y oung B eneventan n obles; i t o wned p roperty

i n B eneventan t erritory a nd i n B enevento

i tself,

a nd h ad

j urisdiction o ver t wo i mportant B eneventan c onvents, S . P ietro, j ust o utside t he c ity, a nd S . S alvatore i n A life, b oth f oundations o f D uke A rechis I I ( 758-787); 5 7 c onsiderable p roportion L ombard

b y

b irth. 5 1 6

a nd t hroughout t he 8 th a nd 9 th c enturies a o f t he m onks, p robably t he m ajority, w ere

H owever,

i t i s s ignificant

t hat

t here

i s

n o

e vidence t hat t he L ombard d ukes t ook a ny d irect i nterest i n t he l ife o f t he m onastery o r i ntervened i n i ts a ffairs d uring t his p eriod. 1 65

W ith

C harlemagne t he c ase i s d ifferent.

A lthough

t he

F rankish

k ing c onferred f ew d irect g ifts o n t he a bbey, h e c learly t ook i t u nder h is p rotection. I n a d iploma o f 7 87 h e c onfirmed i ts p ossessions, g ranted i t i mmunity f rom l ay i nterference, a nd a llowed i t t he p rivilege o f e lecting i ts o wn a bbot. 59 T hese r ights w ere c onfirmed b y C harlem agne's s on, L ouis, a nd b y t he l ater C arolingian e mperors L othair a nd L ouis I I i n t he 9 th c entury. I ndeed,

w e k now t hat o n o ne o ccasion a t l east,

C harlemagne

t ook a

d irect i nterest i n t he a ffairs o f t he m onastery. I n t he l ate 7 70s a nd t he 7 80s t here w as a lready a s trong F rankish f action a mong t he m onks, a nd f or a b rief p eriod t he a bbot w as a F rank , t he d istinguished t heol ogian, A mbrosius a utpert. I n 7 83, t he a bbot P oto, a L ombard, w as a ccused b y o ne o f t he F rankish f action o f r efusing, o ne d ay , t o j oin t he c ommunity i n p raying f or t he s afety a nd h ealth o f t he C arolingian k ing, a s w as t he c ustom , a nd o f r efering t o C harlemagne w ith d isr espectful, e ven t reasonable w ords. W hen t he n ews o f t his w as b rought t o C harlemagne, h e i mmediately c ommanded t hat P oto b e r emoved f rom h is p ost, s ummoned t o R ome, a nd e xamined b y a p apal c ourt, t o f ind o ut t he t ruth o f t he m atter. T he e nquiry r evealed s ome s trong a ntagonisms w ithin t he c ommunity a t S an V incenzo; b ut, a t t he e nd o f i t a ll, t he P ope a cquitted t he a bbot o f t he a ccusation a nd r einstated h im . I t i s c lear f rom h is p rompt i ntervention t hat C harlemagne w as d eep U c erned t o p reserve h is d ignity a nd h is r eputation a t t he a bbey .

c on-

T he m onk J ohn, w ho c omposed t he C hronicle o f t he a bbey i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he 1 2th c entury, m isses n o o pportunity o f t elling o f t he l ove a nd i nterest t hat C harlemagne a nd h is s uccessors b ore t owards t he m onastery. H e r ecords h ow J osue ( 792-817), t he a bbot w ho r ebuilt t he a bbey c hurch p f S an V incenzo, w as o f r oyal b lood a nd h ad b een e ducated a t c ourt; a nda n df urther, h e s tate2 t hat J osue's s ister b ecame t he f irst w ife o f C harlemagne's s on, L ouis. '2 A ccording t o J ohn, L ouis l avished t imes. 63 p resented

e xtensive

f rom a n a ncient V incenzo. 64 W e

g ifts o n t he m onastery a nd v isited

i t a n umber

o f

H e t ook g reat i nterest i n t he r ebuilding o f t he a bbey, a nd J osue w ith t hirty-two c olumns a nd o ther b uilding m aterial

m ust

R oman t emple

i n C apua,

n ot b elieve a ll t hat

f or t he n ew

c hurch

t he c hronicler t ells u s.

o f

M uch

w hat h e s ays a bout L ouis a nd h is v isits t o s outh I taly i s c ontradicted b y w hat w e k now o f h is m ovements i n t he r elevant a nd t here i s n o w ay o f d emonstrating t hat L ouis g arde, w as t he s ister o f a bbot J osue. I ndeed,

S an

o f

f latly y ears;

f irst w ife, I rmeno ne m ust b e e xtremely

s ceptical o f e verything t hat J ohn s ays c oncerning C harlemagne's a nd L ouis' i nvolvement w ith S an V incenzo, s ince i t h as b een s hown t hat h e f orged a n umber o f d iplomas c onfirming p ossessions a nd b estowing p rivil eges a nd g ifts o n t he m onastery, w hich p urport t o h ave b een i ssued b y t he C arolingian k ing a nd h is s on. 65 H owever, t he v ery f act t hat J ohn f orged t hese d iplomas a nd w ent t o t he t rouble o f d evising e laborate a ccounts o f C arolingian b enefactions a nd r oyal v isits s uggests t hat, i n t he e arly 1 2th c entury, t here m ay h ave b een a v ivid t radition a mong t he m onks o f a s ubstantial C arolingian i ntervention i n t he a ffairs o f t he m onastery d uring

t he h alf c entury f ollowing 7 74.

I t i s p ossible t o u nderstand t he s urge o f b uilding a ctivity a t V incenzo, a nd t he d ramatic i ncrease i n t he s ize o f t he m onastery, t he

l ast q uarter o f

t he 8 th c entury a nd 1 66

i n t he f irst h alf o f t he

S an i n 9 th ,

w hen s ix n ew c hurches w ere c onstructed, a s t he r esult o f e xtensive C arolingian i nterest a nd p atronage. T his p rogramme o f r enewal a nd e xpansion, w hich b egan u nder a bbot P aul i n t he l ater 7 80s, m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f a c onscious p olicy o n t he p art o f C harlemagne t o e stablish t he a bbey a s a b astion o f C arolingian p resence i n t he s outh , a nd p erhaps, t o s ome e xtent, a s a s how-place o f C arolingian c ulture j ust b eyond t he s outhern c onfines o f h is t erritory i n I taly, s till d ependent L ombard k ingdom o f B enevento. S uch

w ithin t he

a n e xplanation c ould g o s ome w ay t owards a ccounting f or

n orth I talian p ainted t ombs

e lement i n t he n ewly-discovered p aintings a nd a t S an V incenzo. T he a rtists w ho d ecorated

i n t he

t he t he n ew

b uildings h ere w ere, w hether b y d esign o r f rom t raining a nd h abit, e mploying a d istinctively n orth I talian i diom i n t heir w ork. T heir a rt h ad i ts

o rigins

i n t he

s plendid n ew a rt b eing p racticed u nder C aroling-

i an p atronage i n t he o ld L ombard c entres i n t he n orth, w hich, s ince t he m id 7 70s, h ad b een t he s eats o f C arolingian a dministration i n I taly P avia,

B rescia,

e xamples

o f

M ilan,

V erona,

C ividale a nd t he r est.

t his n ew " Carolingian" a rt i n n orthern

T he s urviving

L ongobardia

B rescia, C astelseprio, M üstair, a nd S . M artino d i S erravalle, p erhaps a lso a t C ividale - a F9 a ll r elated t o t he p aintings a t V incenzo i n o ne w ay o r a nother. u°

- a t a nd S an

T he p ainted d ecoration o f t he m onastery o f S an V incenzo a l V olt urno r eveals, i n i ts e xtent a nd i ts q uality, t he p rosperity a nd t he a mbition o f t he c ommunity i n t he e arly 9 th c entury. A nd t he n orthern f eatures,

w hich

a re e vident h ere a nd t here,

o n t he w alls a nd i n

t ombs o f t he a bbey, p rovide i ntriguing e vidence o f t he C arolingian r ulers o f I taly.

1 67

t he

i ts r elations w ith

N otes 1 .

R ome,

V at.

B arb.

L at.

2 724.

T here i s a n e xcellent m odern e dition :

V . F ederici ( ed.), C hronicon V olturnense d el M onaco G iovanni, 3 v ols. ( Rome, 1 925-38) - I stituto S torico I talian°, F onti p er l a S toria d 'Italia, 2 .

T he b asic d 'arte

N . 5 8-60.

l iterature o n t he p ainted c rypt i s:

d ella B adia d i S .

P .

T oesca, ' Reliquie

V incenzo a l V olturno',

B ullettino d ell'

I stituto S torico I taliano e A rchivio M uratoriano 2 5 ( 1904), 1 -84; a nd H . B elting, S tudien z ur b eneventanischen M alerei ( Wiesbaden, 1 968). T here a re e xcellent i llustrations o f t he p aintings i n c olour i n S an V incenzo a l V olturno e l a c ripta d ell a bate E pifanio ( Montecassino, 1 970). S ee a lso: F . d e'Maffei, ' Roma, B enevento, S an V incenzo a l V olturno e l 'Italia s ettentrionale', C ommentari 2 4 ( 1973), 2 55-84; A . P antoni, L e c hiese e g li e difici d el m onastero d i S an V incenzo a l V olturno ( Montecassino, 1 980), 9 8-115 ; V . P ace, ' Outline o f t he h istory o f a rt f rom t he m iddle a ges t o o ur t imes', i n : S . G attei e t a l., M olise ( Banca N azionale d el L avoro, 1 980), 5 5-74; F . d e'Maffei, ' Arte v olturnense', U na g rande a bbazia a ltom edievale n el M olise: S an V incenzo a l V olturno. A tti d el 10 c onv egno d i s tudi s ul m edioevo m eridionale, V enafro - S t. V incenzo a l V olturno 1 9 - 2 2 M aggio 1 982 3 . 4 .

B elting,

S tudien,

S ee B elting,

( Montecassino,

1 985)

i n p ress.

F igs.41-2.

S tudien,

3 2,

2 18-19;

a nd d e'Maffei,

' Arte v oltur-

n ense'. 5 .

T he s ix c hurches b uilt o r r ebuilt w ithin t he m onastic p recinct, d uring t his p eriod w ere: S . M aria i uxta f lumen, u nder P aul I , 7 839 2 ( Chron. V ult. I , 2 04); S . V incenzo, u nder J osue, 7 92-817 ( Chron. V ult. I , T alaricus, 8 17-23

2 20-21); S . ( Chron. V ult.

L orenzo i n a lia i nsula,

S alvatore a nd S . M ichele, u nder I , 2 87); S . M aria i n i nsula a nd S .

u nder E piphanius,

8 24-42

( Chron. Vult.

I ,

' Excavations

a t

2 88). 6 .

O n t he e xpansion o f

t he m onastery s ee R .

S an V incenzo a l V olturno: c . 7 .

J .

A .D. 4 00-1100', M itchell,

H odges,

a r egional a nd i nternational c entre f rom

i n t his v olume.

' The

p aintings f rom t he 1 980-81 e xcavations a t

S an

V incenzo a l V olturno: a n i nterim n ote', A rcheologia M edievale I X ( 1982), 3 11-12; R . H odges a nd J . M itchell, ' The S an V incenzo P roj ect, t ory',

1 982.

' Excavations' 8 . 9 .

H odges,

T he t hird i nterim r eport.

A rcheologia M edievale

( 1983),

J .

B raun,

3 75.

S ee a lso

H odges,

t his

( note 6 ).

t ype,

s ee

g eschichtliche E ntwicklung I ( Munich, 1 0.

A rchaeology - A rt - T erri-

( note 6 ).

' Excavations'

F or a ltars o f

X

S ee n ote 5 .

1 68

D er c hristliche A ltar i n

1 924),

1 92ff,

2 24.

1 1.

T he

s udden g rowth o f

t he m onastery d uring t he l ast d ecades b y

t he

8 th c entury a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he 9 th i s d escribed b y H odges, ' Excavations ( note 6 ), p assim. B y t he l ast t wo d ecades o f t he 8 th c entury t he n umber o f m onks a t S an V incenzo m ust h ave b een c ons iderable: P ope H adrian I , i n a l etter t o C harlemagne o f 7 84, r efers t o t he c ommunity a s ' Tam m agnam c ongregationem' ( Codex C arolinus, M onumenta G ermaniae H istorica, E pistolae I II, 5 94); a nd P aul t he D eacon , w riting h is H istory o f t he L ongobards a t M ontecass ino p robably i n t he 7 90s, c ongregatione r efulget" ( Lib. t orica, D eacon, 1 907, 1 2.

s ays t hat t he m onastery " nunc m agna V I, c h. 4 0. M onumenta G ermaniae H is-

S criptores r er. l ang. e t i tal. s aec. V I-IX, 1 79; P aul t he H istory o f t he L ombard, t rans. W .D. F oulke ( Philadelphia,

n ew e dition,

P hiladelphia,

1 974),

2 83).

T he d esign o n t hese i s v ery s imilar t o t hat o n o ne o f t he s ections o f p ainted d ado i n E piphanius' c rypt, a nd t hey m ust b e o f a pproxim ately t he s ame d ate.

1 3.

F or

t he p ainted p laster o n t he w alls o f

M oreland, 1 4.

T o

m y

t hese t wo r ooms,

s ee:

J .

C hapter 2 .

k nowledge

t here i s n o i nstance o f

s uch c lamps

h aving

b een

u sed o n a ny s urviving w all-revetment o f r eal m arble. 1 5. H . K ähler, H agia S ophia ( London, 1 967), p ls. 4 6, 5 0, 5 5 ( Haghia S ophia); F .W. D eichmann, F rühchristliche B auten u nd M osaiken v on R avenna ( Baden-Baden, 1 958), p ls. 2 89, 2 91, 3 03 ( St. V itale); G .H. F orsyth,

K .

W eitzmann,

T he M onastery o f S aint C atherine a t M ount

S inai. T he C hurch a nd F ortress o f J ustinian ( Ann A rbor, n .d.), p ls. L XXXIX, C III ( St. C atherine's); R . K rautheimer, C orpus B asilic arum C hristianarum R omae, I ( Vatican C ity, 1 935), F ig. 6 5, G . M atthiae, S t. C ecilia ( Rome, 1 970 - L e C hiese d i R oma I llustrate, 1 13), F ig.33 ( St. C ecilia); H . S chrade, L a p einture r omane ( Cologne, 1 6. J .

1 966),

W ilpert,

p l.

1 15

( Torcello).

D ie r ömischen M osaiken u nd M alereien d er k irchlichen

B auten v om I V b is X III J ahrhundert, I I ( Freiburg, 1 916), p l. 1 99, f or a c oloured r eproduction; P .J. N ordhagen, ' St. M aria A ntigua: T he F rescoes o f t he S eventh C entury', A cta a d a rchaeologiam p ertinentia

( Instltutum R omanum N orvegiae) V III ( 1978),

1 35,

p l.

L X. 1 7.

C . B ertelli, ' San B enedetto e l e a rti i n R oma: p ittura', A tti d el 7 0 C ongresso i nternazionale d i s tudi s ull'alto m edioevo, N orcia S ubiaco - C assino - M ontecassino, ( Spoleto,

1 8.

1 982) I ,

2 76,

2 80,

2 9 S ettembre

-

5O ttobre

1 980

F igs.1,5.

C . d ' A ngela, ' Gli s cavi n el s antuario, i n: C . C arletti a nd G . O tranto ( ed.), I l s antuario d i S . M ichele s ul G argano d al V I a l I X s ecolo. C ontributo a lla s toria d ella L ongobardia m eridionale. A tti d el c onvegno t enuto a M onte S ant'Angelo i l 9 -10 ( Bari,

1 980),

3 70-71,

F ig.36.

1 69

d icembre 1 978

1 9.

C .

B ertelli,

' Relazione

t oriche a T orba', s ull' a lto m edioevo, 2 0.

p reliminare s ulle r ecenti s coperte

p it-

A tti d el 6° C ongresso i nternazionale d i s tudi M ilano 2 1-25 O ttobre 1 978 ( Spoleto, 1 980), 2 09.

T he m arbled d ados a t M üstair a re b est p reserved a t o f t he n orth a isle. T he p ractice o f p ainting d ados

t he e astern e nd i n i mitation o f

d iagonally-veined m arble r evetment s eems t o h ave t aken r oot i n t his a rea - w hat i s n ow t he S outh T yrol - a nd r e-emerges i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies. A ppiano, a nd i n

I t i s f ound a round 1 200 i n t he c hapel a t C astel S . M argerita a t L ana n ear M erano ( Castel Appiano:

E .W. A nthony, F igs.198, 2 04;

R omanesque F rescoes ( Princeton, N .J., 1 951), O . D emus, R omanesque M ural P ainting ( New Y ork,

1 970), p l. 8 5. S . M argerita a t L ana: A nthony, o p. c it., F ig.210); a nd a f ew y ears l ater i n t he u pper g allery i n S . G iovanni i n T ubre ( E. T heil, S t. J ohann i n T aufers ( Bolzano, 1 970 - K leiner L aurinK unstführer N r. 2 1. M . 2 2.

B rozzi,

C .

1 2),

F igs. 8 ,9).

C alderini,

e t a l., L ongobardi

( Milan,

1 980),

1 14-15.

T he e arliest r eference t o t he m onastery a t M üstair i s a n e ntry i n t he L iber C onfraternitatis o f R eichenau, d ating t o t he f irst q uart er o f t he 9 th c entury. I t i s u sually b elieved t o h ave b een f ound ed s ometime i n t he l ast t wo d ecades o f t he 8 th c entury o r a t t he v ery b eginning o f t he 9 th. T he p aintings a re a pparently o n t he f irst 8 00.

l ayer o f p laster o n t he w alls, a nd p robably d ate t o a round R ecently J .S. C wi h as a rgued t hat t he D avid c ycle a t M üstair

r eflects

C arolingian p olemical w ritings o n t he s tate o f d issension

b etween p roposed

t he e mperor L ouis t he P ious a nd h is s ons, a nd s he h as a d ate a round 8 35 f or t he w hole p rogramme o f d ecoration

( 'A S t.

s tudy i n C arolingian p olitical t heology: J ohn, M üstair', i n : A .A . S chmid ( ed.),

t he D avid c ycle a t R iforma r eligiosa e

a rti n ell' e poca c arolingia ( Bologna, 1 983), 1 17-27). l iterature o n t he m onastery a nd t he p aintings i s: J . D urrer,

' Das K loster S t.

The b asic Z emp a nd R .

J ohann s u M ünster i n G raubünden',

l ungen d er s chweizerischen G esellschaft z ur E rhaltung

M ittei-

h istorischer

K unstdenkmäler N .S. V -VII ( Geneva, 1 906-10); L . B irchler, ' Zur k arolingischen A rchitektur u nd M alerei i n M ünster-Müstair', F rühmittelalterliche K unst i n d en A lpenländern. A kten z um I II i nternationalen K ongress f ür F rühmittelalterforschung, 1 951 ( Olten a nd L ausanne, d ella c hiesa

1 954), 1 67-252; G .de F rancovich, d i S an G iovanni a M ünster ( Müstair)

c iclo p ittorico n ei G rigioni',

A rte L ombarda I I ( 1956), 2 8-50; M . S ennhauser-Girard, D ie karolingi sche A usmalung d er K losterkirche v on M üstair i n G raubünden ( unpubl ished P h.D. d issertation, B asel, 1 958); B . B renk, T radition u nd N euerung i n d er c hristlichen K unst d es e rsten J ahrtausends ( Vienna, 1 966) - W einer b yzantinische S tudien I II; L . W üthrich, W andgemälde v on M üstair b is H odler. K atalog d er S ammlung d er s chweizerischen L andesmuseum, Z ürich ( Zurich, s tudy o f t he m onastery i s M üstair

( 2nd e d.,

D isentis,

1 980), c at. I . M üller, 1 978),

1 -21. T he m ost r ecent G eschichte d es K losters

w ho d iscusses

t he d ate o f i ts

f oundation o n p p.12-15. 2 3.

W ilpert,

D ie M osaiken u nd M alereien ( note 1 6),

1 70

p l.

2 08,1.

2 4.

S .

M aria

i n V ia L ata:

W ilpert,

D ie M osaiken u nd M alereien ,

p l.

2 18, 2 , 3 ; P . T oesca, I i M edioevo ( reprint, T urin , 1 965) I , F ig.243. S . M aria E giziaca: J . L afontaine, P eintures m adi6vales d ans l e t emple d it d e l a F ortune V irile a R ome ( Brussels a nd R ome, 1 959), p ls. I t, I II, V , V II, I X, X , X III, X VIII; G . M atthiae, P ittura r omana d el m edioevo ( Rome, 1 965) I , F igs. 1 51, 1 52; M . T rimarchi, ' Per u na r evisione i conografica d el c iclo d i a ffreschi n el T empio d ella " Fortuna V irile"'Studi M edievali, 3 s er., X IX, i i ( 1978), 6 53-79, p ls. I II, V II. S . C lemente: M atthiae, P ittura r omana I , F ig.163; J . O sborne, ' The p ainting o f t he A nastasis i n t he l ower c hurch o f S an C lemente, R ome: a r e-examination o f t he e vidence f or t he l ocation o f t he t omb o f S t. C yril', B yzantion L I ( 1981), 2 55-287. 2 5.

F or

t he

f eatures o f

t he f aces,

c ompare t he h eads

f rom t he

c rypt

r eproduced b y B elting, S tudien ( note 2 ), p l.XXX. T wo f ragments o f p laster w ith b utterfly f olds, w hich c learly b elong t o t he f igure o f t he y oung s aint, b ut h ave n ot y et b een j oined t o t he l ower p arts o f h is t unic, h ave s imilar c onfigurations t o t hose w hich e nliven t he s kirts o f t he t unics o f m any o f t he f igures i n t he c rypt S tudien, F igs.13, 2 1, 4 1, 4 3, 4 6-50). 2 6.

T here a re n umerous c ases o f

t he u se o f

( Belting,

t his m otif i n a ntiquity;

f or

i nstance: a p anel o f d ecorative r evetment o n t he b arrier-wall o f t he r ing i n t he a mphitheatre a t P ompeii, a s r econstructed b y F austo N iccolini ( R . B rilliant, Y ork, 1 979), F ig . o n p .77);

P ompeii: t he T reasure o f D iscovery ( New t he b order o f a m agnificent f loor f ound

i n R ome o n t he Q uirinal i n 1 878,

n ow r elaid i n t he S ala d ella L upa

i n t he P alazzo d el C onservatori ( M . B lake, T he P avements o f t he R oman B uildings o f t he R epublic a nd E arly E mpire = M emoirs o f t he A merican A cademy i n R ome 8 ( 1930), 7 2-76, d ates i t t o t he 1 st c entury B .C.; w hile K . P arlasca, D ie r ömischen M osaiken i n D eutschl and ( Berlin, 1 959), 1 21, a , b , a nd i dem , i n W . H elbig, F ührer d urch d ie ö ffentlichen S ammlungen k lassischer A ltertümer i n R om, 4 th e d.,

e d.

H .

S peier,

v ol.

I I ( Tübingen,

1 966),

n o.

1 456,

p .285,

p roposes a d ate i n t he 3 rd c entury A .D.); a nd t he p avement o f t he e ntrance c ourt o f t he l ate-antique p alatial v illa a t P iazza A rmer ina i n S icily. M arion B lake r efers t o a f ew o ther e xamples, i n a p re-Roman h ouse o n D elos, i n A lexandria, a nd a t P ompeii ( op. c it., 7 4, 8 5), a nd P arlasca d iscusses o thers a t T rier ( Die r ömischen M osaiken i n D eutschland, w as s ometimes s et a c entral p oint.

9 ,

p l.

1 ,1;

5 8ff.,

p 1.57,3).

t he p avement o f t he 5 th c entury b asilica a t T errassa, ( X. B arral i A ltet, E l m osaics d e p aviment ( Barcelona, 1 979), F ig.13). 2 7.

C .B.

F or a t

S ichardus F arfa,

s ee:

1 978),

p robable a dditions

5 9,

t o

s eems

i n C atalonia

m edievels a C atalunya

M cClendon, T he m edieval a bbey c hurch a t F arfa

t ion, N ew Y ork U niversity, a s " porphyry d iscs". 2 8.

T his m otif

i n r adiating s equence, i n a c ircular s cheme a bout A l ate-antique i nstance o f t his i s t o b e s een i n

( Ph.D.

d isserta-

t o r efer t o t his m otif

t he w estern e nd o f

t he c hurch

M cClendon, T he m edieval a bbey c hurch a t F arfa,

9 7.

171

2 1,

2 9.

T here

i s a nother f eature o f

t he 8 th-9th c entury m onastery

o f

S an

V incenzo a l V olturno w hich a ppears t o h ave b een i n c onscious i mitat ion o f a ntique u sage: t he l arge i nscription i n f oot-high g iltc opper

l etters w hich a bbot J osue

( 792-817)

s et u p o n t he f acade o f

t he b asilica o f S an V incenzo, w hen h e r ebuilt i t t o a m agnificent n ew s pecification s hortly a fter 8 00 ( published b y A . P antoni, L e c hiese e g li e difici d el m onastero d i S an V incenzo a l V olturno ( note 2 ), 1 63-65). T his w as c learly i nspired b y t he g ilt-bronze i nscriptions w hich w ere t o b e s een o n a ncient R oman t emples, m onum ental a rches a nd p ublic b uildings t hroughout I taly. N ot o nly i s t he u se o f g ilt-metal l etters a t S an V incenzo u nique i n E uropean a rchitectural p ractice b etween t he 4 th c entury a nd t he R enaissance; b ut

a lso t he i dea o f

a cross

s etting a m onumental i nscription o f a ny

k ind

t he f acade o f a b uilding i s a lmost w ithout p arallel i n

e arly M iddle A ges. f orthcoming a rticle. I f

J osue's

i nscription w ill b e d iscussed

t he s o-called C odex B eneventanus

( London,

t he i n

a

B ritish L ibrary

A dd. M s. 5 463) r eally w as m ade a t S an V incenzo, t here w ould b e s trong g rounds f or s upposing t hat t here w as a lso a r evival o f l atea ntique f ashion i n t he s criptorium o f t he m onastery i n t he m id-8th c entury. I n i ts s cript, l ay-out a nd d ecoration t his g ospel-book l ooks

t horoughly

o ld-fashioned a nd s trongly r ecalls

p ractice ( C. N ordenfalk, 1 938), 1 77-78, p ls.52-57;

6 th

c entury

D ie s pätantiken K anontafeln ( Göteborg, D .H. W right, T he C anon T ables o f t he

C odex B eneventanus a nd r elated d ecoration', D umbarton O aks P apers 3 3 ( 1979), 1 35-55. W right h as a rgued t hat t he c anon t ables i n t he C odex B eneventanus a re, i n f act, a n o ld a nd i ncomplete s et w hich w ere T his

i ncorporated i nto t he b ook , w hen i t w as w ritten a round 7 50. t hesis r equires c areful e xamination a nd t esting. T he d ating

a nd t he a scription o f e vidence: h as t he

t he b ook t o S an V incenzo r ests o n t wo b its o f

o n t he p resence i n t he c olophon o f

t he n ame A to,

w hich

b een i dentified w ith a bbot A to o f S an V incenzo ( 739-60); a nd d emonstrable p resence o f t he m anuscript, i n t he 1 0th c entury,

i n a h ouse s ubject t o S an V incenzo, t he c onvent o f S t. P ietro a t B enevento. I f t he m anuscript w as m ade a t t he m onastery w e a re f aced w ith f airly c lear e vidence o f a s trong s urvival o r r evival o f l ate-antique m ethods o f b ook-production a nd a n i nterest c entury s chemes o f d ecoration a t S an V incenzo i n t he c entury, I taly. 3 0.

T he

a

q uarter o f

s lanting

i n 6 th m id-8th

a c entury b efore C harlemagne's i nvasion

w all i n t he n orth-west c orner o f

t he v estibule

o f

c uts

o ff a n o riginally r ectangular c orner. C learly i t w as a l ater r efinement, a n a lteration m ade d uring t he c ourse o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 9 th c entury. T he v estibule w as a pparently r edecorated w hen t his h appened, p erhaps a d ecade o r s o a fter t he c ompletion o f t he h all n ext d oor. 3 1.

H odges a nd M itchell,

T he S an V incenzo P roject,

1 982.

( note 7 ),

3 72. 3 2.

B elting,

S tudien ( note 2 ),

3 3.

B elting,

S tudien F ig.72.

c olour i n B rozzi,

F igs.52,

C alderini,

5 4.

T he h ead o f L ongobardi, 1 72

t his a ngel ( note 2 1),

i s

r eproduced i n

2 14.

3 4.

F or e xamples,

s ee:

B elting,

V incenzo a l V olturno,

S tudien,

F igs.13,

c rypt o f E piphanius,

2 2-26,

8 24-42);

2 8-30

F ig.63

( San

( Bene-

v ento, S anta S ofia); F ig.76 ( Capua, S s. R ufo e C arponio, l ate 9 th c entury ? ); F igs.147-150 ( Florence, B ibl. L aur. M s. L XXIII. 4 1, i llustrations o f c auterization o f a bout 9 00 i n a m edical m isc ellany); F igs. 1 51, 1 53-157, 1 60 ( Monte C assino, M s. 3 , i llustrat ions t o B ede's L ibellus D e S ignis C aeli, 8 79); F igs.179-190 ( Rome, B ibl. C asanatense, M s. 7 24 I , P ontifical, 9 57-69). 3 5.

H . B elting, ' Probleme d er K unstgeschichte I taliens i m F rühmittela lter', F rühmittelalterliche S tudien I ( 1967), 1 10, 1 24-125; 1 13, 1 30, 1 31.

3 6. G .

P anazza,

d i

S .

' Gli s cavi,

S alvatore i n

l 'architettura e g li a ffreschi d ella c hiesa

B rescia',

A tti d el'ottavo c ongresso d i s tudi

s ull a rte d ell'alto m edioevo I I ( Milan, 1 962), F ig.101; J . H ubert, J . P orcher, W .F. V olbach, E urope o f t he I nvasions ( New Y ork , 1 969, F ig.136. 3 7.

T he c onnections b etween t he p aintings a t C ividale a nd B rescia h ave b een r ecognized s ince t he t ime o f t he d iscovery o f t he l atter i n t he 1 950s. T here i s s till n o g eneral a greement a s t o t he d ate o f t he s cheme o f d ecoration i n t he c hapel a t C ividale. H . L 'Orange a nd H .

T orp,

p ropose

i n t heir r ecent m agisterial p ublication o n t he c hapel

a d ate a round

t he m iddle o f

t he 8 th c entury ( 'Il T empietto

L ongobardo d i C ividale', A cta a d a rchaeologiam .. p ertinentia ( Institutum R omanum N orvegiae) V II, 2 ( Rome, 1 977), 1 33-41. 3 8.

S ee n ote 2 2.

3 9.

T here i s G rabar C .

a g ood i llustration o f t he h ead o f t his A postle i n A . N ordenfalk , E arly M edieval P ainting ( Geneva, 1 959), p l.

o n p .55. 4 0. W üthrich,

W andgemälde v on M üstair b is H odler

( note

2 2),

c at.

F ig.2. 4 1.

W ell

r eproduced

( note 3 9), 4 2.

4 3.

p l.

i n G rabar a nd N ordenfalk,

E arly M edieval p ainting

o n p .56.

R eproduced i n J . H ubert, J . P orcher, R enaissance ( New Y ork, 1 970), F ig.23. T oesca,

1)

I l M edioevo

( note 2 4),

4 20,

W .F. V olbach,

F ig.249;

e l a m iniatura n ella L ombardia ( reprint,

P .

T urin,

T he C arolingian

T oesca, 1 966),

L a p ittura 2 5-26,

F ig.

2 2. 4 4.

4 5.

G . d e F rancovich, ' Il p roblema c ronologico d egli s tucchi d i S . M aria i n V alle a C ividale', S tucchi e m osaici a lto m edioevali. A tti d ell'ottavo C ongresso d i s tudi s ull'arte d ell'alto m edioevo I ( Milan,

1 962), 6 5-85,

I bid.,

F ig.10.;

F ig.9.

D emus,

R omanesque M ural P ainting

173

( note 2 0),

p ls.

4 6.

T his

t omb

w as

f irst

S oprintendenza

e xcavated s ome f ourteen y ears

A rcheologica d el M olise,

b y P antoni,

L e c hiese e g li e difici

4 7.

S ee H odges,

' Excavations'

4 8.

A . d e C apitani d 'Arzago, ( Milan, 1 952), 1 35-38, o ne

o f

t hese

t ombs,

G .

C hierici,

b y

t he

( note 2 ),

1 17-21.

( note 6 ). L a " Chiesa M aggiore" d i M ilano S anta T ecla p l. X I, F igs.43-49. T wo p ainted s ides o f

t hat o f a c ertain " Maginfredus

c ardine", h ave b een p reserved, C astello S forzesco ( Fig.6.35). 4 9.

a go

a nd i t h as b een p ublished

L a c hiesa d i S .

a nd a re d isplayed

S atiro a M ilano

e t a l., T he C arolingian R enaissance ' Relazione p reliminare'

( Milan,

( note 4 2),

( note 1 9),

p resbiter

d e

i n t he M useo d el

1 942);

H ubert

F ig.9.

5 0.

B ertelli,

5 1.

T his b roken f unerary i nscription w as f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f a s ubstantial s tone w all ( trench H H) i n t he f ields, a bout 3 0 m etres t o t he s outh o f t he w orkshops.

5 2. A mong t he f ew t hat h ave c ome t o l ight a re:

2 14,

F igs.5,6.

t he t omb o f G aidefrida

a t T roia, p erhaps o f t he 8 th-9th c enturies ( C. d 'Angela, ' Una s coperta a ltomedievale n ella c attedrale d i C anosa', T aras I , 2 ( 1982), 2 66); a t omb o f t he e arly 9 th c entury, e xcavated i n t he c athedral a t C anosa i n 1 904 ( ibid., p assim. Ia m m ost g rateful t o P rof. M arina C astelfranchi F alla f rom b ringing t his t omb a nd d ' A ngela's a rticle t o m y a ttention); a nd t he s o-called T omba d el C rociato o f R ainus, o f t he 9 th o r 1 0th g Ccentury, i n t he s anctuary o f S t. M ichele o n t he G argano ( d'Angela, ' Gil s cavi n el s antuario' ( note 1 8), 5 3. A

3 62-64,

F igs.10-12).

p aper o n e arly m edieval p ainted

t ombs i n n orthern I taly w as

r ead

b y D ott. C inzia F iorio T edone a t t he c ongress M ilano e i m ilanesi p rima d el m u le ( VIII-X s ecolo), h eld i n M ilan i n 1 983, a nd i t w ill b e p ublished i n t he f orthcoming a cts o f t hat c ongress. I a m v ery g rateful t o D ott. F iorio T edone f or i nformation a nd c omment o n t his s ubject. 5 4. P anazza, i n

1 978), 5 5.

5 6.

' Gli

s cavi

( note 3 6),

S an S alvatore d i B rescia. 1 10,

c at.

n o. V 2 4,

C apitani d ' A rzago,

F igs.

1 0, 5 6,

F ig.

p l. X I,

F igs.43-49.

A .

F rova,

' Pitture d i

5 7;

F igs.1-3;

L .

C rema,

F or S . P ietro, s ee C hron. V ult. C hron. V ult. I , 1 35, 3 48-49.

1 35-

B ollettino

' Recenti

n ella c hiesa m ilanese d i S . G iovanni i n C onca', i n a lterliche K unst i n d en A lpenländern ( note 2 2), 7 7-81. 5 7.

P anazza, ( Brescia,

( note 4 8),

t omba p aleocristiana a M ilano',

5 0-54,

G . I

o n p .111.

L a " Chiesa M aggiore" d i M ilano

3 8,

d 'Arte X XXVI ( 1951),

6 3,

M ateriali p er u n M useo

s coperte

F rühmittel-

I , 1 70; f or S . S alvatore i n A life, S ee a lso B elting, S tudien ( note 2 ),

2 27.

174

5 8.

O n

t he

L ombard

e lement

a t S an

V incenzo,

s ee

M .

d el

T reppo,

' Longobardi F ranci e P apato i n d ue s ecoli d i s toria v ulternese', A rchivio s torico p er l e P rovincie N apoletane N .S. X XXIV ( 1955), 5 Off. 5 9. 6 0.

C hron. V ult. T his

I , 2 12-15.

e pisode

i s

r eported i n t wo l etters

f rom

P ope

H adrian

t o

C harlemagne, w hich a re p reserved i n t he C odex C arolinus, M onumenta G ermaniae H istorica, E pistolae I II, n os. 6 6, 6 7, p p.593-97. S ee a lso d el T reppo, ' Longobardi F ranci e P apato ( note 5 8), 5 0-54; O . B ertolini, ' Carlomagno e B enevento', i n H . B eumann ( ed.), K arl d er G rosse I . P ersönlichkeit u nd G eschichte ( Düsseldorf, 1 965), 6 25-31; B elting,

S tudien ( note 2 ),

6 1.

C hron. V ult.

6 2.

I bid.

6 3.

I bid.,

2 19ff.

6 4.

I bid.,

2 20.

6 5.

S ee

N o

2 19.

F ederici's n otes o n t he r elevant d iplomas a nd c harters

e dition o f 6 6.

I ,

2 26-27.

c oncensus h as y et b een r eached a s

o n t he w alls o f s cavi'

i n

h is

t he C hronicon ( note 1 ).

t he n ave o f S .

( note 3 6),

b elieves

t o

t he d ate o f

S alvatore i n B rescia.

t he

p aintings

P anazza,

' Gli

t hey w ere e xecuted i n t he e arly y ears o f

t he 9 th c entury. B . B . A nderson, T he F rescoes o f S an S alvatore i n B rescia ( Ph.D. d issertation, U niversity o f C alifornia, B erkeley, 1 976), A nn A rbor, 1 976, m istakenly i dentifies t wo l ayers o f e arly p ainted d ecoration i n t he c hurch, t he f irst f rom e arly i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he 8 th c entury, t he s econd f rom t he e arly 9 th. A . W eis, D ie l angobardische K önigsbasilika v on B rescia ( Sigmaringen, 1 977), a rgues f or a d ate a round 7 70. A . P eroni, ' Problemi d ella d ecorazione p ittorica d el S . S alvatore d i B rescia', i n S eminario i nternazionale s ulla d ecorazione p ittorica d el S an S alvatore d i B resica, B rescia 1 9-20 G iugno 1 981 ( Pavia, 1 983), 3 3-39, p uts t hem e arly i n t he 9 th c entury. O n b alance, a d ate i n t he e arly 9 th c ent ury s eems m ost l ikely. S cholars a lso c ontinue t o d ebate t he d ate o f t he p aintings a t C astelseprio. H owever, a d ate a round 8 00 i s s uggested b y f ormal c onnections b etween v arious d etails a t C astelseprio a nd d etails i n t he w all p aintings a t M üstair, S . S alvatore i n B rescia, a nd i n t he c rypt o f E piphanius a t S . V incenzo a l V olturno, a nd i n t he l ater m anuscripts a ssocated w ith t he s o-called C ourt S chool o f C harlem agne. I t i s g enerally a greed t hat t he e arly p ainted d ecoration a t M üstair w as e xecuted i n t he l ast y ears o f t he 8 th o r t he f irst y ears o f

t he 9 th c entury ( see n ote 2 2).

1 75

T he r ecently e xcavated p aintings

f rom S .

M artino d i

S erravalle

h ave b een a ssigned t o t he e arly 9 th c entury b y P rof. C arlo B ertelli, i n a p aper r ead a t t he c onference M ilano e i m ilanesi p rima d el m ille ( VIII-X s ecolo), h eld i n M ilan i n S eptember 1 983. T he d ate o f t he p aintings i n d ispute. S ee n ote 3 7.

i n S t.

1 76

M aria i n V alle a t C ividale

i s

C hapter 7 :

A N E ARLY M EDIEVAL E NAMEL F ROM S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO b y J ohn M itchell

A mong t he m ore s pectacular f inds o f t he 1 983 s eason w as a l arge f ragment o f a o nce s plendid p iece o f g ilded a nd e namelled m etalwork ( Figs.7:1-3). I t a ppears t o b e p art o f a n i con o r t he l id o f a r eliquary, a nd t o d ate f rom t he 9 th c entury. T he o bject i s o f c ons iderable a ntiquarian i nterest; b ut i ts p rimary s ignificance, i n t he c ontext o f t he c urrent e xcavations, l ies i n t he f act t hat i t m ay b e a ssociated w ith e xcavated e vidence f or t he p roduction o f f ine w ork i n metal a nd g lass i n t he m onastery's o wn w orkshops.

W hat

T he n ewly-discovered p iece h as b een t orn o n t wo o f i ts s ides. s urvives i s a b uckled r ectangle m easuring 1 6 x 1 0.5 c m., a nd i s

p robably a bout a t hird o f t he o riginal. 1 T he r ight h alf o f t he p laque h as b een b roken o ff, a nd a s trip i s m issing f rom t he b ottom . T he f ragment t hat r emains c onsists o f a c opper b ack-plate, r ound w hose e dges a s econdary p late i s r ivetted, t o f orm a s tiffening f rame a nd g ive s ome s trength a nd r igidity t o t he s tructure. 2 T he s econdary p late, i n t urn, c arries t he l ow d ouble w alls o f p artitions, w hich c lasp t iny s unken c hains o f b eaded w ire, a nd d ivide t he s urface o f t he o bject i nto a s eries o f v ariously-shaped c ells. T he c ells r ound t he p eriphery h eld

i mages

a nd d evices

i n f ull c loisonn6 e namel,

s et i n

t heir

o wn

l ittle t rays; a nd t hey m ust o nce h ave e ncircled a s equence o f l arger a nd m ore e laborately-shaped t rays o f e namel i n t he c entral f iel 4 - a ll a re n ow l ost - w hich c arried a l arge f igurative c omposition. o uter e dges o f t he p iece a re f ramed w ith a r unning s tring o f b eads,

T he i n

f act a t hick b eaded w ire; a nd t he o ne s urviving c orner d oes n ot t urn a t a r ight a ngle, b ut i s b evelled o ff a t 4 5 d egrees. T he b eaded c resting o n t his b evel h as b een f iled d own, a s i f t o a ccomodate a n a ngle o rnam ent, o r, m ore l ikely, s ome k ind o f f ixture w hich h eld t he f rame a t t his p oint, p erhaps t o s ecure i t t o a n u nderlying w ooden s upport. O ne s urviving n ail a nd a n umber o f n ail-holes i n t he b ack-plate s how t hat t he p laque w as, i ndeed, o nce a ttached t o w ood. T he m aterial t hroughout i s a c opper a lloy, a nd a ll t he o uter a nd u pper s urfaces - t he b eaded f rame a nd

t he

t ops o f

t he p artition w alls - a re g ilded. 4

T he o ne e namelled f ield t hat a d eep

r emains

a zure g round a n e xotic f lower,

l ies

i n t he c orner.

l ike a g reat d aisy ,

A gainst

r ises o n

a

t urquoise s tem f rom a t urquoise p ollarded t runk. T he h ead o f t he f lower i s r emarkable f or i ts c hromatic s ymmetry, i ts r ed, y ellow, w hite a nd g reen p etals b eing l aterally o pposed a bout

i ts c entre.

T he

m otif

i s f ashioned o f t hin c loisons w ith g ilded t ops. F or t he m ost p art t he e namel i s o paque a nd u neven i n t exture, a nd l ong e xposure t o t he e arth h as l eft

i t b roken a nd

f issured.

I t w ill p robably n ot b e p ossible t o r econstruct l ost

p artition-walls

s cheme o f d ecoration.

o f

t he i nterior,

H owever,

i t

o r

l ooks a s

1 77

t he p attern o f

t he s hape o f i f

t he

t he

o riginal

t he m ain s ubject o f

t he

F ig.

F ig.

7 :1

F ragment o f g ilded c opper p laque w ith e namel.

7 :2

F ragment o f g ilded c opper p laque w ith e namel s ection ( Drawn b y B arry V incent). 1 78

( face)

a nd

s urviving f ragment w as a n umbed f igure f acing t o t he r ight. T he o utl ine o f a h alo i s c learly d iscernible, a nd i ts s ilhouette c ontinues i n undulating c urves, w hich m ust h ave d escribed t he c omposition a s i t d eveloped t o t he r ight. T he s hape o f t he f ragment a nd t he d isposition o f t he p artition-walls s uggest t hat t he f igure w as o riginally b alanced b y a s econd o ne, o r b y a s mall g roup, o n t he l ost r ight h alf o f p laque. P ossible c andidates f or s uch a t wo-part c omposition a re:

t he t he

Annunciation, t he P resentation o f t he i nfant C hrist i n t he T emple, a nd t he t hree M agi b efore t he V irgin a nd C hild. B ut t he e xisting c ontour d oes n ot c orrespond e xactly w ith t he k nown i conography o f a ny o f t hese s cenes. T his f igural g roup w as v ery p robably i n f ull c loisonné e namel, a nd i t must h ave b een s urrounded o n a ll s ides b y d ecorative m otifs i n b right e namelled c ells. T he s urviving f lower w as d oubtless p aired b y a s imilar p lant, i n e xact r everse, i n t he u pper r ight-hand c orner. B ut b eyond

t his o ne c annot g o.

T he

f ragment w as

f ound i n t he m ain t horoughfare o f

t he m onastery,

i n t he v estibule t o t he l ong h all, j ust o utside t he n orth-west c orner o f t he 9 th c entury r efectory. T he c ontext o f t he f ind w as a f ill o f e arth a nd r ubble, d eposited i n t he r oom p robably i n t he 1 1th c entury. T he s ource o f t his d eposit w as p robably t he t errace l ying i mmediately u p t o w hich

t he w est, o verlooking t he t horoughfare a nd t he r efectory, o n r ose a r ange o f b uildings t entatively i dentified a s t he a bbot's

c omplex. 5 T his e namelled a nd g ilded p laque, t herefore, m ay w ell h ave b een i n t he p ossession o f t he m onastery i n t he p eriod o f i ts g reatest a ffluence,

t he 9 th c entury.

A nd i t w as p robably i n t hat c entury t hat

i t w as m anufactured. I n i ts o riginal s tate i t m ust h ave l ooked r ather l ike

t wo

s urviv-

i ng o bjects f rom t he e arly 9 th c entury, t he w ell-known c ross-reliquary o f P ope P aschal I , i n t he M useg S acro a t t he V atican, a nd t he F ieschiM organ s taurothek i n N ew Y ork. w ith t rays o f c loisonné e namel, t he

l ife o f C hrist,

B oth o f t hese a re c ompletely c overed c arrying, i n t he o ne c ase, s cenes f rom

a nd i n t he o ther,

t he C rucifixion s urrounded

b y

i mages o f s aints. D ouble c ell-walls w ith s unken b eading, l ike t hose o n t he p laque f rom S an V incenzo, a re u sed i n j ust t he s ame w ay o n t hese t wo

s taur9theks,

a nd

o n o ther e namelled o bjects o f

t he 9 th a nd

1 0th

c enturies. T he g ilded b eading o f t he o uter f rame, b est p aralleled i n C arolingian w ork o f t he 9 th c entury, a nd t he o paque g lass o f t he e namel, c onfirm t his d ating. Only a h andful o f p ieces o f e cclesiastical m etal-work s et w ith e namels, o f I talian p rovenance, s urvives f rom t he e arly m iddle a ges t here i s l ittle a part f rom P aschal's c ross r eliquary i n t he V atican, t he magnificent 9 th c entury a ltar o f V volvinus i n S ant A mbrogio, i n M ilan,

a nd

p ectoral I talian

a

h anging

c ross, e namels

v otive c ross g nd p erhaps

t he

B eresford

H ope

b oth n ow i n L ondon. T o t his t iny c orpus o f e arly t he n ew f ragment f rom S an V incenzo i s a s ubstantial

a ddition. I mperfections i n t he e namelling a nd a c ertain r oughness a bout t he c onstruction o f t he g ilded f rame m ay m ean t hat t he p laque w as m ade b y a c raftsman

w orking i n a p rovincial a telier,

r ather t han i n o ne o f

t he

g reat I talian c entres o f a rtistic p roduction o f t he t ime, l ike R ome o r M ilan. I ndeed, t here i s a v ery r eal p ossibility t hat i t w as m ade a t S an

V incenzo

c omplex

w as

i tself.

D uring

t he 1 983 a nd 1 984 s easons

e xcavated o n t he p lain, 1 79

t owards

a

t he s outhern e nd

w orkshop o f

t he

1 80 F r a g m e n t o f g i l d e d c o p e r p l a q u e w i t h e n a m e l ( b a c k ) .

m onastery.

W ithin

t hem,

i n 9 th c entury l evels,

a t ile

c onstructed

f urnace a nd s everal o pen h earths c ame t o l ight, t ogether w ith f ragments o f c rucibles, g lass w aste, a nd t he d ebris o f s pecialized m etal-working. T his m ay h ave b een t he p lace w here t he m onastery's e nameller d id h is w ork.' T he

o nce r esplendent o bject - i con o r r eliquary - i s n ow a r agged

a nd b uckled f ragment. b roken

f ine-metal-smith a nd

i nto

p ieces

I t

l ooks a s

i f i t m ust h ave b een

a nd c ast a side,

w ithin a c entury o r

i ntentionally t wo

o f

i ts

m anufacture. A p ossible e xplanation f or t his i s t hat i t c ame i nto t he h ands o f s ome p redator, w ho t ore i t a part, e ither b ecause o f h is a ntip athy t owards i t a s a n o bject o f C hristian d evotion, o r, m aybe, i n o rder t o r emove i ts m ore v aluable p arts, g old o r p recious s tones w hich m ay h ave b een w orked i nto i ts d ecoration. I nevitably o ne w onders w hether t he a gent o f t his a ct o f s acrilege a nd d estruction w as n ot o ne o f t he b and o f m arauding S aracens w ho, e arly i n O ctober o f 8 81, r ode u p t he v alley o f s acked

t he V olturno,

t he m onastery,

p ut t he m onks o f

a nd l ooted i ts

1 81

S an V incenzo t o

t reasures.

1 0

t he s word,

1 82

N otes 1 .

W hen

d iscovered,

a

s ection o f

t he b ack-plate w as

b ent

b ack

o n

i tself ( Fig.3). T his h as s ince b een s traightened o ut b y m embers o f t he s taff o f t he I stituto C entrale d i R estauro i n R ome, w here t he o bject h as b een c onserved. J ulie J ones i n M olise. 2 .

I nitial c onservation w as c arried o ut b y

F rom a s uperficial i nspection i t h as n ot b een p ossible t o d etermine f or c ertain w hether t he s urviving s econdary p late c onsists o f o ne o r m ore s ections. H owever, i t i s l ikely t hat i t i s a ll o f o ne p iece.

3 .

T he p ositions o f t he r ivet h oles i n t he b ack-plate s how t hat o rigin ally s econdary p lates r an a ll r ound t he e dges o f t he p laque, s upporting t he s mall p eripheral t rays o f e namel. T here i s n o e vidence t hat a s econdary p late w as e ver l aid i n t he l arge c entral f ield.

4 .

M ore

t han

o ne a lloy o f c opper s eems

c onstruction o f t he p laque. s oft a nd p liable, b ut w hat s tiffer a lloy. 5 .

S ee: R . r egional

t o h ave b een e mployed i n

T he c opper o f

t he

t he b ack-plate i s f airly

t he s econdary p late a ppears

t o b e o f

a s ome-

H odges, ' Excavations a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno: a a nd i nternational c entre f rom c . A D 4 00-1100 , t his

v olume. 6 .

Y .

H ackenbroch,

1 938),

I talienisches E mail d es f rühen M ittelalters

F igs.1 a nd 5 ;

K .

b is 1 3. J ahrhundert ( Recklinghausen, 1 967), G authier, E maux d u m oyen a ge o ccidental ( 2nd. c at.

1 3;

K .

W eitzmann,

( Basel,

W essel, D ie b yzantinische E mailkunst v om 5 .

e d.,

c at. 7a nd 5 ; M .-M. e d., F ribourg, 1 972),

A ge o f S pirituality.

L ate A ntique a nd

E arly C hristian A rt, T hird t o S eventh C entury ( The M useum o f A rt, N ew Y ork, 1 979), c at. 5 74.

M etropolitan

T he r eliquary i n t he V atican, w hich i s d ated b y a n i nscription t o t he r eign o f P ope P aschal I ( 817-824), i s b est i llustrated i n: L .von M att, G . D altrop, A . P randi, A rt T reasures o f t he V atican L ibrary

( New Y ork,

n .d.),

p ls.75-77.

T he F ieschi-Morgan r eliquary h as u sually b een d ated

t o t he 7 th

o r e arly 8 th c entury ; b ut r ecently c onvincing a rguments h ave p ut f orward f or a d ate i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 9 th c entury:

b een A .D.

K artsonis, A nastasis: t he M aking o f a n I mage ( Ph.D. d issertation, N ew Y ork U niversity, 1 981), 1 10-128. T he b est i llustration i s t o b e f ound i n : K . W eitzmann, M . F razer, A ge o f S pirituality. L ate A ntique a nd E arly C hristian A rt, p olitan M useum o f A rt, 7 .

1 977),

T hird t o S eventh C entury

c at.

( Metro-

8 5.

T o j udge f rom t he s mall n umber o f e arly m edieval e namelled o bjects t hat s urvive, t his p articular t echnique s eems t o h ave b een m ore c ommonly e mployed i n t he B yzantine e astern M editerranean t han i n t he W est: f or i nstance, o n t he t wo g old p erikarpia, o f a round 9 00, i n t he a rchaeological m useum a t T hessaloniki W essel,

D ie b yzantin-

i sche E mailkunst ( note 6 ), F ig.14); a nd o n t wo B yzantine c halices o f s ardonyx, s et w ith s mall e namels, o ne o f a bout 9 50, a nd t he 1 83

o ther o f ( A .

a bout

G rabar,

1 000,

b oth

i n H .R.

I l T esoro e i i Museo c at. 8 .

4 3,

p ls.

X LIV,

( Florence,

e d.,

1 971),

S t.

M arco i n

I l T esoro d i c at.

4 2,

p ls.

V enice

S an M arco,

I I,

X LIV,

a nd

X LV,

X LV).

F or t he r eliquary o f P ope P aschal I , s ee n ote 6 . F or t he a ltar o f V volvinus: H ackenbroch, I talienisches E mail ( note 6 ), 1 8-21, F igs.9-11; V .H. ( Bonn, 1 952); J . R enaissance m oyen a ge

E lbern, D er k arolingische G oldaltar v on M ailand H ubert, J . P orcher, W .F. V olbach, T he C arolingian

( New Y ork,

( note 6 ),

F igs.46-48. M itchell,

1 970),

c at.

F or t he A n e namel

1 0;

c at.

9 .

F or

E mailkunst S ee:

F igs.220-224;

( 1917),

1 22-131;

t he B eresford H ope c ross:

( note 6 ),

c at.

J ohn M oreland,

G authier,

a nd L asko, A rs S acra

E maux d u

( note 7 ),

h anging v otive c ross i n f rom t he C arolingian p eriod

A rchaeological J ournal 7 4

9 .

i n t he T reasury o f

H ahnloser,

a nd G authier,

W essel,

5 0-55,

L ondon: H .P. f rom V enice', o p.

c it.,

D ie b yzantinische

8 .

T he m onastic w orkshops:

a n i nterim r eport',

i n t his v olume. 1 0.

C hronicon V olturnense d el m onaco G iovanni, ( Rome,

1 925)

3 62-365.

l ocated a nd d ug u p t he h ad

h urriedly

l eader, h imself

e d.

V .

F ederici,

c hronicler t ells h ow

t reasure o f

c oncealed;

S augdan, c ensed

T he

t he m onastery,

a nd h e d escribes h ow

t he

w hich t he t heir

d rank f rom t he h oly c halices o f

f rom S an V incenzo's g olden t huribles

I

S aracens m onks

a bominable

t he M ass a nd h ad ( ibid.,

3 65).

A cknowledgements F or

i nformation,

p reparation B asile,

o f

P rof.

A nuradha D ey, F iorentino, H odges, M oreland,

B eat D ott.

D r.

J ulie

i deas,

t his n ote, B renk,

l ike

F razer,

P rof.

V ictoria P arry,

t o

P rof. P rof.

C atherine V .H.

M .-M.

E rnst K itzinger,

I an R iddler,

R osalia V aroli.

1 84

D ott.

a ll

t hank :

D avid B uckton,

A nna D onadoni,

M argaret J ones,

c omment a nd h elp o f

I w ould

D r.

k inds,

i n

D ott.

C outts,

E lbern, G authier,

D ott.

D ott. D r.

P aola

R ichard

C harles L ittle,

F ranco Valente,

t he

G iuseppe

J ohn

a nd D ott.

C hapter 8 :

A C ITY C ALLED S AMNIUM?

b y J .R .

W as

t here

d iscussed o nwards; t ed, o nce

e ver

P atterson

a c ity c alled S amnium?

T he q uestion

h as

b een

r epeatedly i n h istories o f c entral I taly f rom t he R enaissance s ome h ave d oubted t hat s uch a c ity c ould p ossibly h ave e xis-

o thers h ave i dentified i t w ith a v ariety o f s ites w ithin t he a rea i nhabited b y t he a ncient S amnites. P ossible c ontenders i nclude

B enevento,

I sernia, V enticano

( in t he m odern p rovincia o f A vellino)

a nd

t he s ite o f t he R oman L igures B aebiani, n ear C ircello ( provincia o f B enevento). 1 T he d ebate h as r ecently b een r evived b y a p air o f a rticles w ritten b y D omenico P etroccia, w ho r estated t he c ase f or t he e xistence o f t he c ity , a nd s uggested t hat i t m ight h ave b een l ocated i n t he u pper V olturno v alley. 2 T he q uestion i s c learly o ne o f s ome i mport ance,

n ot o nly i n t erms o f

t he

t opography o f

t he V olturno v alley,

a nd

i n t he m ore g eneral c ontext o f t he h istory o f a ncient s ettlement i n S amnium; b ut a lso f or t he l ight i t c asts o n t he e xtent t o w hich R oman i nstitutions a nd c oncepts w ere r emembered i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod. T here a re

s everal r elated p roblems

t o b e c onsidered.

F irstly,

w as

t here a ' Samnite c ity o f S amnium i n L ate I ron A ge c entral I taly? P etroccia's c ase i s b ased p rimarily o n a p assage i n t he H istoria L angob ardorum o f P aul t he D eacon;

b ut

t he c lassical

t exts

t aken t o r efer t o

s uch a c ity o f S amnium s eem a t b est a mbiguous. W hat i s c ertain i s t hat t here w as a s ettlement c alled C astellum S amnie i n t he 1 0th c entury A D, l ocated i n t he V olturno v alley. I t i s t he p urpose o f t his p aper t o r econsider t he e vidence f or t he ' city o f S amnium', a ncient a nd m ediev al;

t o

i nvestigate h ow t he n ame o f a p eople a nd a r egion c ame

t o

b e

a pplied t o a d iocese, a s ettlement a nd t hen a c astellum; a nd t o d iscuss t he i dentification o f t hese s ites. T he v arious p ieces o f e vidence w hich h ave b een a dduced i n s upport o f t he c ity's e xistence a re d iscuss ed i n m ore-or-less c hronological o rder; a nd f or t he c onvenience o f t he r eader,

t hey a re c ollected

i n a n a ppendix.

T he e logium o f S cipio B arbatus

t he

( No.

1i n a ppendix)

T he f amily t omb o f t he S cipio f amily w as d iscovered i n 1 780 o ff V ia A ppia, j ust o utside R ome's P orta C apena. I nside w ere f ound

s arcophagi a nd m emorial i nscriptions. T he e arliest m ember o f t he f amily c ommemorated w as L . C ornelius S cipio B arbatus, c onsul i n 2 98 B C, w hose r emains w ere d eposited i n a m onolithic p eperino s arcophagus. O n t he s ide

o f

t he s arcophagus,

c ommemorative

n ow i n t he V atican m useum ,

e pitaph o r e logium,

d escribing h ow S cipio

i s

i nscribed a B arbatus,

a

w ise a nd b rave m an, c ensor, c onsul a nd a edile, ' Taurasia C isauna S amnio c epit' a nd s ubdued a ll o f L ucania, t aking a way h ostages. T he i nterpret ation o f t his p art o f t he t ext i s n ot a ltogether e asy. I t h as b een t aken t o m ean ( taking S amnio T aurasia,

' Barbatus c aptured T aurasia a nd C isauna i n a s a n a blative) o r a lternatively ' Barbatus

C isauna

a nd S amnium'

( taking S amnio t o b e 1 85

a n

S amnium' c aptured

a ccusative).

T he ' d

s upporters o f t he l atter v iew p oint o ut t hat S amnio h as u nlike G naivod i n t he f irst l ine o f t he i nscription,

n o f inal w hich i s

c learly a n a blative. I t w ould b e r idiculous, t hey a rgue, f or t he a uthor o f t he e logium t o m ention t he r egion o f S amnium i mmediately a fter

t wo

t owns,

w ithout s pecifically p ointing o ut

t hat

t his

w as

a

r egion r ather t han a t own ; h ence t he e logium m ust b e r eferring t o t he m ysterious c ity o f S amnium . I s t he a rgument a s trong o ne? W e m ust f irst l ook a t t he h istorical c ontext, t he e vents o f t he t hird S amnite W ar. T here a re t hree m ajor p ieces o f e vidence f or t he c ampaigns o f y ear 2 98 B C; L ivy's H istory, t he F asti T riumphales f rom t he R egia

t he i n

t he R oman F orum, a nd t he e logium i tself. U nfortunately t here a re c onflicts b etween t hese v arious s ources. L ivy's a ccount s tates t hat t he m ilitary c ommands i n t he y ear 2 98 B C w ere d ivided b etween t he c onsuls: S cipio t ook t he c ommand a gainst t he E truscans, a nd C n. F ulv ius C entumalus t hat a gainst t he S amnites. 3 S cipio, a ccording t o L ivy, f ought a n i nconclusive b attle n ear V olaterrae, a nd t hen l aid w aste t he A ger F aliscus; w hile F ulvius d efeated t he S amnites n ear B ovianum , a ttacked t hat t own, o n t he o ther h and,

a nd t hen c aptured A uf i dena. T he F asti T riumphales, r ecord t hat F ulvius w as a warded a t riumph o ver t he

S amnites a nd E truscans i n t hat y ear, w hile t he e logium d oe: . n ot m ention E truria a t a ll. W orse i s t o c ome; t he F asti r ecord a t riumph o f F ulvius P aetinus o ver t he N equini a nd S amnites i n 2 99 B C, w hereas L ivy m akes n o m ention o f t he S amnites i n t his y ear. B esides, L ivy's a ccount o f t he c ampaigns i n 2 98 B C s eems o ddly w eighted; m uch m ore a ttention i s d evoted t o t he i nconclusive c ampaigns i n E truria t han t o t he ' famous b attle' a nd ' clear v ictory' o f F ulvius o ver t he S amnites. W e s hould h ave n o d ifficulty i n a ccepting t he v ersion o f t he e logium, e vidently t he o ldest, a s t he m ost a ccurate, w ere i t n ot f or d oubts r aised b y t he f act t hat t he e logium w as c learly i nscribed o n t he s arcophagus a c ons iderable

t ime

a fter

t he d eath

o f

B arbatus.

T he

s arcophagus

i s

o riginal - t he s equence o f s tyles a nd m aterials u sed f or t he m onuments i n t he t omb s uggests a s m uch,' a s w ell a s i ts p osition i n t he c entral n iche o f t he b ack w all o f t he t omb - b ut t he i nscription w as c learly c arved much l ater. T he s tyle o f t he l etters u sed s eems t o b e l ater t han t hat o f t he i nscription c ommemorating S cipio B arbatus' s on, c onsul i n

2 59

B C5 - a nd o ne-and-a-half l ines o f a p revious

i nscription

h ave

b een c hiselled a way. T he s equence o f l etter-forms f ound i n t he t omb, o n i ts v arious m onuments, w ould s uggest a d ate i n t he e arly p art o f t he s econd c entury B C f or t he s urviving i nscription r ecording B arbatus. 6 B ut i s t he t ruthfulness o f t he i nscription l ikely t o h ave s uffered? I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he c ontent o f t he e logium m ight w ell h ave b een e xaggerated, i n o rder t o b uild u p S cipio B arbatus' r eputation p osthum ously, p erhaps i n r esponse t o p olitical d ifficulties f or l ater S cipios. T he m ost e xtreme e xample o f t his v iew w as e xpressed b y E .W. F ay i n 1 920, 7 w ho s aw t he e logium o f B arbatus a s a n a ntiquarian f orgery o f t he m id i st c entury B C W e m ight w ell w onder w hether i t w ould h ave b een w orth f alsifying a r ecord o f t his t ype, t hough; t he s arcophagus w as a fter a ll w ithin t he t omb, a nd w ould p robably h ave b een s een o nly b y I f

m embers o f t he S cipio f amily, a nd p erhaps a f ew c lose a ssociates. t he t omb w as t o b e u sed a s ' political p ropaganda' i t w as m uch m ore

s ensible

t o u se

t he e xterior o f

t he s epulchre

f or

t his

p urpose - a s

i n

f act o ccurred l ater i n t he s econd c entury B C, w hen a m onumental f acade w ith s tatues w as b uilt o n. 8 I t t hus s eems i mplausible t hat d eliberate f alsification t ook p lace; a nd s erious e rror s eems u nlikely, t oo, s ince i t w ould s eem t hat t he i nscription w as c ompiled f rom a c elebratory o de 1 86

- n ote

t he S aturnian m etre - a nd t his w as f ollowed w ith s uch

t hat t he

s econd p erson f orm o f a ddress o f

t he o de,

a ccuracy

g iven p resumably t o

t he R oman p eople, w as p reserved i n t he t ext i nscribRd o n t he m onument n ote t he ' vos i n t he t hird l ine o f t he e pitaph.' F urthermore, i t w ould h ave b een q uite o bvious t o t he a udience l istening t o t he o de c ommemorating B arbatus i n, s ay, 2 80 B C t hat h e h ad n ot i n f act c onq uered t he w hole o f S amnium ; b ut t hey c ould h ardly h ave b een e xpected t o i dentify t he S amnium m entioned a s a s mall t own i n t he r egion o f S amnium w ithout b eing t old a s m uch. S urely i f t he c hief t own o f t he S amnites, a fter w hich t he w hole r ace w as n amed, h ad b een c aptured b y B arbatus, w e w ould e xpect t o h ear m uch m ore a bout i t, i n L ivy o r t he F asti; s uch a f eat w ould h ave b een g lorious i ndeed! I n t erms o f l iterary c omposition, t oo, t he i dentification o f S amnio a s a t own r aises d ifficulties. I t s eems a wkward t o d escribe t he c apture o f t hree t owns, a nd t hen g o o n t o t he s ubjection o f a r egion w ithout a ny f urther e xplanations. T o s ay t hat t wo t owns i n S amnium w ere

c aptured,

a nd t hen t he w hole o f L ucania,

w ould h ave a v ery m uch

m ore c onvincing r ing t o i t - e ven i f t he l ast w as o nly a " diplomatic" t riumph - a nd w ould p rovide a s atisfying d ramatic b uild-up t o t he f inal l ine. T he l inguistic a rgument i s s omewhat w eakened, t oo, b y t he a ssert ion o f P ulgram t hat i t w ould n ot b e i mpossible t o h ave t he t wo t ypeA o f a blative, w ith a nd w ithout t he f inal ' d', i n t he s ame i nscription. lv I ndeed, i t m ight p lausibly b e a rgued t hat a rchaic f orms a re m ore l ikely t o h ave n ymic.

p rove

s urvived i n s et p hrases

j ust

l ike t his,

g iving n ame a nd p atro-

I t m ust b e c oncluded t hat, a lthough i t i s p robably i mpossible t o c onclusively t hat t he S amnio o f t he e logium r efers t o t he r egion

r ather

t han a c ity o f t hat n ame,

t he c ontext, u nknown c ity. F lorus

( No.

a nd

t he r egion m akes m uch b etter s ense

t he e logium a lone i s p oor e vidence

f or a n

i n

o therwise

2 i n a ppendix)

W ritten b y o ne F lorus ( even h is n omen i s u ncertain) a round t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury A D, t he E pitome d e T ito L ivio b ellorum o mnium annorum D CC

c onsists

o f b rief a ccounts o f w ars

f ought

b y

t he

R oman p eople u nder t he R epublic, a nd e nds w ith t he c losing o f t he T emple o f J anus b y A ugustus. 1 1 T he c onclusion t o t he c hapter o n t he S amnite w ars i s a s f ollows; i n f ifty y ears, h owever, u nder t he l eaders hip o f t wo g enerations o f t he F abii a nd P apirii, t he R omans s o t horoughly s ubdued a nd c onquered t he p eople a nd s o d emolished t he

v ery

r uins o f t heir c ities, t hat t oday o ne l ooks r ound t o s ee w here S amnium i s i n S amnite t erritory, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o i magine h ow t here c an h ave T his

b een m aterial f or t wenty-four t riumphs o ver t hem' ( Loeb t rans.). h as b een t aken t o m ean t hat S amnium w as o ne o f t he c ities d es-

t royed b y t he R omans d uring t he c ourse o f t he S amnite w ars. o ne o f t he m ost s triking f eatures o f F lorus' s tyle i s h is f or r hetorical t hese;

t he

p hrases

t hought i s

a nd

p urple p assages,

a nd

t aken f rom T hucydides,

t his

s eems

w ho c omments

H owever, p roclivity

t o i f

b e o ne o f t he c ity

o f S parta w ere t o b e d eserted a nd n othing w ere l eft b ut t he t emples a nd t he f oundations o f o ther b uildings, I t hink i t v ery l ikely t hat p ost erity w ould f ind i t h ard t o b elieve t hat t heir p ower w as a s g reat t heir g lory w ould s uggest' .1 2 T here a re s imilar a ccounts o f o bscurity i nto w hich R ome's e nemies h ave s unk e lsewhere ' Such w as V eii i n t hose d ays. W ho n ow e ver r emembers 1 87

a s t he

i n F lorus: i ts f ormer

e xistence? W hat r emains o r t races o f i t a re l eft? O ur t rust i n o ur a nnale h as a d ifficult t ask t o m ake u s b elieve t hat V eil e ver e xist ed 1 3 ' .T here i s n o r eason, t hen, t o t ake t he p assage o n S amnium a s a nything b ut a r hetorical e xaggeration, a nd i t t herefore p rovides e vidence f or t he e xistence o f t he C ity o f S amnium. F estus

( No.

n o

3 i n a ppendix)

W riting p robably i n t he l ate s econd c entury A D, S extus P ompeius F estus c omposed a n e pitome o f t he D e s ignificatu v erborum, c ompiled b y V errius F laccus u nder A ugustus; 14 h is w ork w as s ubsequently e pitomised i n t urn b y P aul t he D eacon i n t he e ighth c entury . O rganised a s a n e ncyclopaedic d ictionary, t he w ork e xplains t he o rigin a nd m eaning o f w ords, a nd c ontains m uch i ntriguing i nformation. T he e ntry o n S amnium i s i nteresting p recisely b ecause i t d oes n ot m ention a c ity o f S amnium a t a ll. F estus i nstead p rovides t wo a lternative e xplanations o f t he n ame ' Samnites'; o ne d erivation f rom t he G reek s aynia ' spears ( this r eappears i n t he a ccount o f P aul t he D eacon), t he o ther l inked w ith t he t radition t hat t he S abines n orth o f R ome w ere o nce i nduced b y a f amine t o s end o ut a g roup o f y oung m en t o f ound a c olony ; t he g roup f ollowed a b ull, a nd w here i t l ay d own, a n ew c ity w as f ounded, i n t he r egion l ater t o b e c alled S amnium. F estus s uggests t hat t he h ill w here t hese S abines s ettled w as c alled S amnium - h ence t he n ame o f t he n ew r egion. T he p oint o f t his p articular e tymology s eems t o b e t o e xplain t he r elation b etween t he S amnites a nd t he S abines - b oth " Sabellic' p eoples. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t his e tymology i s v ery m uch t he m ost p opular a mong t he a ncient a uthors - S trabo g ives t he f ullest a ccount o f t his v er s acrum i n h is G eography, a nd t he t radition i s k nown a lso t o V arro,

G ellius a nd S isenna.

I 5

T he C ouncil o f P ope S ymmachus

f or

( No.

4 i n a ppendix)

I n t he L ate R oman/early m edieval p eriod, m ore c onvincing e vidence a s ettlement c alled S amnium b egins t o a ppear. A l ist o f b ishops

p articipating a t a c ouncil u nder P ope S ymmachus, d ated t o 6 th N ovember 5 02, c ontains a m ention o f o ne M arcus S amninus. T his c an h ardly r efer t o t he r egion o f S amnium - a ll t he o ther b ishops o n t he l ist a re i dentified b y t heir s eat, ' Laurentius B oianensis',

i n e ach c ase a t own , a nd o ne o f t hese b ishop o f a d iocese i n t he m iddle o f

i s t he

r egion o f S amnium. S amnium m ust i n t his c ase b e a t own. B ut w hich o ne? M arcus' p osition o n t he l ist, b etween t he b ishops o f V ulturnum a nd N uceria, w ould s uggest s omewhere i n c entral I taly. V arious p ropos als h ave b een m ade. D uchesne t hought i t w as t he a ncient L igures B aebiani ( near m odern C ircello) b ut d oes n ot e xplain h is c hoice; 1 6 C rivellucci s uggested a t i t m ight b e B eneventum - t hat t he d iocese w as

t emporarily r enamed. P etroccia i s

s ceptical o f

t he i dentification w ith B eneventum,

w ishes t o i dentify t he d iocese o f S amnium w ith t he r ecorded b y G eorgius C yprius ( of w hich m ore b elow). e pitaphs S amnites

o f , 18

o f 1 9

c oncluded d iocese o f

a nd

c entury

t he d ukes o f B enevento r efer t o t he p eople o f B enevento a s w hich w ould s eem t o s upport C rivellucci's t hesis; t hough

t hese m ay b e r eferring t o p rovince i nvasion,

K dc -r poy N inth

t he d uchy a s a w hole,

s ince w e k now t hat

t he

S amnium s urvived a s a p olitical e ntity u ntil t he L ombard a nd t hereafter a s a g eographical d escription. 20 I t m ust b e

t hat w e c annot i dentify w ith a ny p recision t he s ite o f t he S amnium, b ut t he f act t hat w e h ear n othing o f i t a fterwards 1 88

p erhaps n ame,

i mplies

t hat w e a re h ere d ealing w ith a t emporary

c hange

o f

r ather t han a n i ndependent s ettlement.

G eorgius C yprius;

t he K daTpov a l l ivuov

( No.

T he G eography o f G eorgius C yprius,

5 i n a ppendix)

a pparently c ompiled

i n t he l ate

6 th/early 7 th c entury A D, Z1 c onsists o f a s eries o f l ists o f t owns i n v arious p arts o f t he R oman E mpire; i ncluded i n t he I talian l ist i s o ne K daTpov a lpvuoy. T his w ould s eem t o b e c lear e vidence f or t he e xiste nce i n t he 6 th c entury o f a s ettlement w ith t his n ame, b ut u nfort unately i t i s d ifficult t o i dentify w here t his K do -r pov m ay h ave b een s ituated, m ent o f

s ince t here i s l ittle a greement o n t he g eographical a rrangeG eorgius l ists. T he a ccepted v iew i s t hat t hey a re q uite

c haotic; t he d esignation E napxCa K apnav i 'as, f or i nstance, i s f ollowed b y t oponyms c onventionally i dentified w ith O derzo a nd G rado, i n n ort hern I taly. M ore r ecent w ork b y P ier M aria C onti, h owever, h as s ought t o f ind a m ore r ational g eographical a rrangement i n t he w ork; s he r eidentifies s everal o f t he s ettlements n amed C ampania. I n C onti's a nalysis, t he K o loTpov L igures B aebiani, n ear C ircello; s he l inks i t n ium' m entioned b y P aul t he D eacon, d educing

w ith s ites i n o r n ear E äpvuoy i s t he s ite o f w ith t he ' city o f S amf rom t he g eographical

p rogression i n P aul's a ccount t hn t he s ite o f S amnium m ust h ave b een b etween I sernia a nd B enevento. " L eaving a side t he f act t hat P aul s eems t o b e r eferring t o a n a ncient c ity o f S amnium, n ot a c ontemporary o ne, t he n umber o f p ossible a lternative s ites b etween I sernia a nd B enevento m akes i t d ifficult t o a ccept t his s pecific i dentification. B ut i t w ould s eem c lear t hat a K c iGTpov E dpvuov d id e xist i n t he 6 th c entury . T he

n ame

w ould

s uggest

t hat

i t w as s ituated i n

C entral

I taly,

t hough t here i s a lways t he p ossibility t hat i t i s a c orruption ' Scamnum', t he n ame o f a c ity r ecorded i n t he S alentine p eninsula P liny a nd o thers. 23

I t w ould b e t empting t o a ssociate

t he

o f b y

K c io -r pov w ith

t he d iocese o f S amnium r ecorded i n 5 02, b ut t he i nsecure g eographical l ocation o f t he K c ic r -r pov a nd t he i mpermanence o f t he d iocese o f S amnium m ake c ertainty

i mpossible

S tephanus o f B yzantium

a

i n t his m atter.

( No.

6 i n a ppendix)

I ncluded i n t he E thnicon o f S tephanus o f B yzantium, a n e pitome o f l arger w ork c ompiled i n t he 6 th c entury A D, l isting p lacenames a nd

g iving o ther r elated i nformation, a re t wo e ntries r elevant h ere; o ne r ecording a c ity c alled S amnion, t he o ther e xplaining t he n ame S aunitae. T he l atter a re c learly t he S amnites o f C entral I taly, a s t hey a re s aid t o b e n eighbours o f t he I apygians, i .e. t he A pulians. T hat t he G reeks c alled t he S amnites S aunitae i s c lear f rom t he e tymol ogies o f S trabo ( see n ote 1 5) a nd F estus. B ut w hat o f t he c ity S amnion? T his i s s aid t o b e a " Wy o f P retania'; a nd P retania i s g enerally u sed i sland

a t

S amnitai', B rittany.

t he

t o r efer m outh

t o B ritain, o f

t he L oire

b ut S trabo g ives a n a ccount o f a n i nhabited b y

t he

' women

o f

t he

w hom w e m ust a ssume i nhabited t he c oastal p art o f S outhern D ionysius i n h is O rbis D escriptio, a w ork o f t he s econd

c entury A D, p laces t he i slands w here t he ' women o f t he m ighty A mnitae' - e vidently t he s ame a s t he S amnitae - c elebrate r ites i n h onour o f B acchus n ear t he ö Lc ioco ' v f laou ß pETav i 'öcs, LJ i .e. B ritain a nd I reland. S trabo a nd D ionysius s eem t o b e r eferring t o t he s ame i slands. 1 89

i t w ould

t hus l ook a s

i f

t he

c ity S amnion m entioned b y

S tephanus

h as n othing t o d o w ith c entral I taly a t a ll. H owever, t here i s a p os s ibility t hat ' Pretania h ere i s a c orruption o f ' Frentania', a nd r ew ho a re m entioned e lsef ers t o t he t erritory o f t he S amnite F rentani, t m ight b e t he K daTpoy w here i n S tephanus' E thnicon 26 - i n t his c ase i E dpvuov

t hat

i s m eant.

P aul t he D eacon

a mong

( No.

7 i n a ppendix)

P aul t he D eacon, w riting i n t he l ate 8 th c entury A D, o ther w orks, a n e pitome o f t he l exicographer F estus,

p roduced, a R oman

H istory a nd a H istory o f t he L ombards i n s ix b ooks, w hich h e s eems t o h ave c omposed f airly l ate i n h is c areer. 27 T he l ast w ork b egins w ith a g eneral h istory o f t he L ombards b efore t heir i nvasion o f I taly, a nd a n a ccount o f t heir a dvance i nto t he V eneto i n 5 68 A D ; a t w hich p oint P aul p rovides a n e xcursus o n t he p rovinces o f I taly a s t hey t hen w ere. H e c omments t hat t he f ourteenth p rovince, S amnium , c ontained t he t owns T eate ( i.e. C hieti), A ufidena, I sernia a nd ' antiquitate c onsumpta S amn ium' a fter w hich t he p rovince w as n amed. S ubsequently , h e p rovides a n a lternative e tymology f or t he n ame ' Samnites', l inking i t w ith t he G reek s aynia,

w hich m eans ' spears'.

T he w hole c atalogue s eems

t o h ave

b een c ompiled i n t his w ay, w ih# 1 b asic i nformation a bout t he p rovinces o btained f rom p rovincial l ists, ' a nd f urther d etail, p articularly o n t he e tymologies o f t he n ames i ncluded i n t hose l ists, c ollected f rom o ther s ources, i ncluding A urelius V ictor, I sidorus a nd F estus - w hose w ork P aul h imself e dited. I t h as t o b e l ogies d o n ot i nspire c onfidence. Z9 I t

s aid t hat m any o f

s eems c lear t hat w e h ere h ave a r eference t o

o f S amnium : ' antiquitate

t he c ity c onsumpta',

K daTpov Z dpvuov i n t otal d estruction.

t hese e tymo-

t he ' Samnite' c ity

i s s pecifically s aid b y P aul t o h ave b een a nd t his c ould h ardly h ave b een s aid o f t he

t he 8 th c entury , s ince t he w ord c onsumo H owever, d espite t he a pparent c larity

i mplies o f t he

a ccount, i t i s o bviously w orrying t hat t he c learest p iece o f e vidence f or t he ' Samnite c ity o f S amnium' c omes f rom a t ext o f t he 8 th c entury. T he C hronicon V ulturnense O ne o f w ords

u sed

t he m ain p oints

( No.

8 i n a ppendix)

i n P etroccia's a rgument i s

i n t he i ntroductions

t hat

t he f orm o f

t o m any o f t he c harters p reserved

i n

t he C hronicon s uggest t hat t here w as a s pecific l ocality c alled S amn ium, i n t he v icinity o f t he m onastery o f S an V incenzo a l plturno: t he d ocuments t end t o r efer t o a l ocus o r p artes o f S amnium. A D oes t he e vidence s upport t his c onclusion?

i n

A nalysis o f t he v arious f ormulaic i ntroductions t he C hronicon p roduces s ome i nteresting r esults.

t o

t he d ocuments T o b egin w ith,

t here i s s ome v ariation i n t he ' address' u sed t o i dentify t he p osition o f t he m onastery: t he t hree f eatures w hich n ormally a ppear a re, i ts p osition

a t

t he s ource o f

t he

V olturno,

' super

V ulturnis

f luminis

f ontem' o r ' iuxta V ulturno f lumine', i ts p osition i n t he t erritory o f t he D uchy o f B enevento ' in t erritorio B eneventano' o r i n f inibus B eneventanis', a nd i ts p osition i n S amnium, m ost i nterestingly, i n S amnii p artibus', i n f inibus S amnie' o r i n l ocum u bi S amnia v ocatur'. T here i s l ittle t o c omment o n a s r egards t he f irst t wo s ets o f a lternat ives,

b ut

t he

v ariations o f

t he

t hird c an b e

w ith t he d ates a nd p laces o f o rigin o f 1 90

l inked f airly

t he d ocuments

c losely

i n q uestion.

T he

e arlier

d ocuments o n t he w hole r efer t o

t he

f ines S amnii.

F rom

t he

l ate e ighth c entury o n, t he f ormula p artes S amnii b ecomes m ore c ommon, a nd c omes t o p redominate i n t he d ocuments o f t he 9 th a nd 1 0th c enturies - e xcept i n t he c ase o f d ocuments f rom B enevento, w here f ines S amnii s eems a lmost i nvariably t o b e u sed. P resumably t his i s e xplicable i n t erms o f a s trong t radition o f t he r egion o f S amnium s urviving a t t he L ombard c ourt a nd i n t he o ffice r esponsible f or t he p roduction o f t he d ocuments - i n a ctual f act t he r egion o f S amnium h ad o fficially d isapp eared w ith t he a dvent o f t he L ombards i n t he 6 th c entury. T he e xpress ion f ines s eems t o i mply a c learer k nowledge o f t he r egion o f S amnium t han t he

r ather m ore v ague p artes.

P erhaps

t he m ost i nteresting d ocuments a re t hose w hich r efer t o

l ocus u bi S amnie v ocatur,

b y

T he f irst o f t hese d ocuments w as c omposed a t C apua i n 7 87, t he e mperor C harlemagne o f p roperty i n t he B enevento a rea

a bbey

o f

S an V incenzo,

a

o r w hich u se a s imilar f ormula.

w hich i s r eferred

t o

a s

a g rant t o t he

' monasterio

S ancti

V incencii m artin s, q uod e st c onstructum i n l oco q ui d icitur S amnii, s uper f luvium V ulturnum'. T his d ocument i s e xceptional i n t he s ense t hat i t i s c onsiderably e arlier t han t he o thers m entioning t he l ocus. Another c harter o f C harlemagne, a gain f rom C apua, i n t he s .me y ear, h as t he m ore u sual ' Sancti V incencii m onasterii, s itum i n t erritorio B eneventano p artibus S amnie A p air o f r elated d ocuments c oncerns t he l easing o f l and b y t he m onastery t o t wo b rothers, G rifo a nd L eo, r esidents i n t he t erritory o f t he M arsi, i vely . M arsi',

a nd

t o

t heir d escendents;

t hey d ate t o 8 94 a nd 9 36 r espect-

T he f irst d ocument i s d rafted b y t he b rothers, ' actum i n t he s econd b y t he a bbot R ambaldo o f S an V incenzo, b ut a gain ' in

M arsi'. W e m ight w ell w onder w hether b oth o f t hese d ocuments w ere i n f act c omposed b y l ocal s cribes, w ho w ere c omparatively i gnorant o f t he t radition v ocatur',

o f S amnium - t he f irst d ocument r efers t he s econd t o ' ubi S amnia v ocatur'.

T he

n ext

t o ' locum u bi

S amnia

t ext a ttesting t he l ocus S amnie i s a d ocument d ated

t o

2 9th A ugust 9 68, a j udgement b y P andolfo, p rince o f B enevento, i n a d ispute b etween t he a bbeys o f S an V incenzo a nd S . M aria i n A pinianici. T his, t oo, w as c omposed i n t erritorio M arsicano', a nd s o p rovides f urther e vidence f or t he i ndependent t radition i n d ocuments f rom t he M arsic A

r egion. w hole

s eries

o f

d ocuments p lacing t he a bbey

i n

l ocum

q ui

n ominatur S amnie c omes f rom t he A bruzzi - m ore s pecifically P enne, C hieti, a nd V alva. T hese d ate f rom 9 82 - 1 004, a nd s eem t o r eflect t he s ituation i n t he t erritory o f t he M arsi, w here t he t raditional w ays o f r eferring

t o

t he a bbey,

i n t erms o f

t he r egion o f

S amnium,

h ad

b een

c orrupted. I n S amnie.

t he

l ate 1 0th c entury,

T his

a n ew t oponym a ppears;

t he

c astellum

i s a ttested i n a s eries o f d ocuments r ecording l eases o f

l and o n t he p art o f t he a bbots J ohns a nd R offredo, b eginning i n 9 82. I nterestingly, l and-tenure a ll o ver t he u pper V olturno v alley, a round S capoli, C olli, V accherecchia, a nd ' ad F icum', w as d efined b y t hese c ontracts, w hich w ere a ll d rawn u p a t t he c astellum S amnie. T he c astellum i tself.

m ust,

t herefore,

h ave

C hris W ickham i dentifies

b een q uite n ear t he

a bbey

c omplex

i t w ith t he s ite o f m odern C astel S an 1 91

V incenzo,

a bove

T he

t he a bbey.

3 1

c astellum S amnie

H ilarius,

r eappears

i n

( hence b etween 1 011 a nd 1 045),

a

d ocument

o f

t he

a bbot

i n a ctu S ancti V incencii,

i n

c astello S ampnie'. T he t ext c oncerns t he l easing o f l and t o t he i nh abitants o f F orli d el S annio, a nd i s h ence i n t he s ame t radition a s t he e arlier t exts. I t i s c ontains a d escription o f f orm ; l ocus,

s triking, t hough, t hat t he d ocument a lso t he a bbey o f S an V incenzo i n t he f ollowing

' qui s itum e st i n p artibus B eneventanis, s uper f luvium V ulturni u bi S amnia v ocatur'. I t w ould a ppear t hat t hings h ave c ome f ull

c ircle. I n t he e arliest y ears o f t he m onastery, i ts s ite w as i dentif ied b y r eference t o t he a ncient p rovince o f S amnium , w hich a lthough i t h ad o fficially b een d efunct f or s ome h undred a nd f ifty y ears w hen a bbey w as f ounded, s till s urvived i n t he t raditions o f t he a rea.

t he A s

t ime p assed, t he m emory o f S amnium b egan t o f ade, e xcept i n B enevento; t he f ormulaic i ntroductions t o d ocuments b ecame m ore v ague, a nd S amnium c ame t o b e r egarded a s a l ocus, r ather t han a r egion, e specially, f or s ome r eason, i n t he d ioceses o f t he A bruzzi. S ubsequently t he n ame c astellum S amnie w as c hosen f or o ne o f t he f ortified c entres w hich g rew u p a s p art o f t he p rocess k nown a s i ncastellamento, p resumably a s a r esult

o f a v ague r ecollection o f

t he n ame o f

S amnium.

T he

c orrupt

f orm ' locus u bi S amnia v ocatur t hen a ppeared e ven a t S an V incenzo, w ith n ew p oint, s ince t he c astellum S amnie w as v ery c lose t o

n ow t he

m onastery . C onclusions I t

i s v ery h ard

t o a ccept

t hat t here w as i n t he l ate I ron

c ity o f S amnium i n c entral I taly. 8 th c entury A D; t he e vidence e xistence,

F estus

o f

A ge

a

I t i s f irst c learly a ttested i n t he t he e logium d oes n ot s upport i ts

d oes n ot m ention i t,

a nd t he p assage o f F lorus

i s

r hetorical a nd a mbiguous. F urthermore, t he s ilence o f t he p rincipal s ources f or t he S amnite W ars a nd t he s ubsequent g eographical h istory o f c entral I taly - n otably L ivy a nd S trabo - a rgues s trongly a gainst i ts e xistence. T he S amnites, i t i s w ell k nown, l ived i n s cattered p agi a nd v ici, n ot c ities; t hey w ere g rouped l oosely i nto t ribes, t he P entri, F rentani, C araceni a nd s o o n, w hich w ould s eem t o m ake t he e xistence o f a s ingle t own n aming t he w hole p eople i mplausible. T he e xplanation o f t he

t radition o f s uch a t own i s p robably

t o b e

f ound i n a s trong l ocal

p ride r ecalling t he d ays o f S amnite g lory; b ut a lso p erhaps i n a m isi nterpretation o f t he d iscussed p assage o f F lorus, b y P aul t he D eacon h imself o r b y o ne o f h is

s ources.

T he a rchaeological f inds i n t he V alle P orcina P etroccia w ith t he c ity o f S amnium 32 a re p robably n aturally i n t erms o f s cattered v illas a nd f arms,

a rea l inked b y e xplicable m ost w ith a ssociated

c emeteries. N o s ign o f a n ucleated s ettlement w as f ound i n t hose a reas o f t he V alle P orcina i nvestigated d uring t he c ourse o f t he f ield-survey i n 1 980 a nd 1 981. s ubstantial

H owever,

n ucleated

i t

l ooks a s

s ettlement

i f t here m ay w ell h ave b een a

i n t he u pper p art

o f

t he

V olturno

v alley, o n t he s ite w here t he m edieval a bbey w as l ater b uilt. T he d iscovery o f s ubstantial R epublican f oundations a nd a r ich s urface s catter o f b lack-glaze p ottery s uggests t hat h ere t here w as a s ettlem ent

a

o f

s ome s ize,

p erhaps a v icus w ith a ssociated s anctuary.

3 3

T o t he R omans o f t he f irst c entury A D, S amnium m eant e ssentially r egion. T his u sage s urvived o fficially u ntil t he L ombard i nvasion, 1 92

a nd

e ven

a fterwards t he t oponym w as u sed t o

i dentify

t he

t erritory

o ccupied b y t he L ombard D uchy o f B enevento. A d iocese w as n amed a fter t he r egion, a nd a lso a K daTpov w hich m ay e ven b e i dentifiable w ith t he t own S amnion m entioned b y S tephanus o f B yzantium , i f t hat w as 1 60a , e peyTav t 'ag. H owever, n one o f t hese c an b e i dentified c ertainty; a nd t he f act t hat n either t he C hronicon n or t he L ongobardorum o f P aul t he D eacon 34 m ake a ny m ention o f t he

i ndeed a w ith a ny H istoria c ity o f

S amnium i n t heir a ccounts o f t he f ounding o f t he a bbey o f S an t ells a gainst i ts i dentification w ith t he s ite i n t he u pper

V incenzo V olturno

v alley . D uring t he n inth a nd t enth c enturies t he s ite o f t he a bbey b ecame k nown, i n t he m onastic c entres o f t he A bruzzi a nd e lsewhere, a s l ocus S amnie ( quite e rroneously); b ut i t w as o nly w ith t he f oundation o f t he c astellum S amnie t hat t he s ite o f S an V incenzo c ould b e c alled S amnium i n a ny m eaningful s ense. P erhaps

t he m ost

s triking a spect o f

t he w hole

q uestion,

t hough,

w as t he way i n w hich t he t radition o f S amnite g lory s urvived c enturies o f R oman a nd L ombard d omination. E ven t oday, t he t radition r emains. O ne r ecent a uthor w rites o f ' Una g ente f iera e i ndomita c he d a s ecoli r emotissimi a bitava l 'antico S amnium, g ente f atta d i p astori c he s ui m onti i nnevati, c he, a l p iano l 'ulivo

p ascolavano l e g reggi e d i c ontadini b ruciati d al s ole s eminavano i l g rano, i ngestavano l a v ite, c uravano

c on a rte a ppresa d ai p atri

1 93

N otes I

a m p articularly g rateful t o M ichael C rawford a nd C hris

f or t heir c omments o n a n e arlier d raft o f 1 .

W ickham

t his p aper.

B enevento a nd I sernia: G . C iarlanti, M emorie i storiche d el S annio ( Campobasso, 1 823), 2 0-21. V enticano: S . B ella-Bona, R aguagli d ella c itta d 'Avellino ( Trani, 1 656),7. L igures B aebiani ( Circello): E . H onigmann, L e s ynekdamos d 'Higroklas e t l 'opuscule g gographique G eorges d e C hypre ( Brussels, 1 939), 5 2.

2 .

3 .

D . P etroccia, c ontinued i n,

' 11 p roblema d i S amnia', S amnium L III ( 1980), S amnium L IV ( 1981), 2 9-61.

L ivy X ,

3 -9.

s ee: 6 1.

1 2.

E .T.

F or a d iscussion o f t he c ampaigns

S almon,

C oarelli,

S amnium a nd t he S amnites

1 60-85;

o f t his y ear,

( Cambridge,

1 1 s epolcro d egli S cipioni', D d'A V I

d e

1 967),

2 60-

4 .

F .

5 .

C IL 12 , 8 -9 = I LS 3 .

6 .

C oarelli,

7 .

E .W. F ay, ' Scipionic F orgeries', C lassical Q uarterly X IV ( 1920), 1 62-171. C ompare t he r eply b y T . F rank, T he S cipionic i nscript ions' C lassical Q uarterly X V ( 1921), 1 69-71.

8 .

C oarelli,

9 .

A .La R egina,

1 0.

E . P ulgram, 1 978), 1 84.

1 1 s epolcro

( 1972), 4 3ff.

( note 4 ), 8 9-90.

1 1 s epolcro'

( note 4 ), 6 2ff.

' L'elogio d e S cipione B arbato', D d'A I I

( 1968),

1 75ff.

I talic, L atin, I talian, 6 00 B C - A D 1 260 ( Heidelberg, H e d oes a dmit t he p ossibility t hat w e m ay h ere b e

d ealing w ith a n a ccusative. 1 1.

F lorus,

1 2.

T hucydides,

1 3.

F lorus,

1 4.

O n V errius F laccus a nd F estus, s ee: M . S chanz a nd C . H osius, G eschichte d er r ömischen L iteratur I I ( Munich, 1 935), 3 61-66.

1 5.

S trabo, G eog. V , 4 .12; D e L ingua L atina V II, 2 9;

1 6.

E pitome I I, I ,

9 9

( ed.

L .

D uchesne,

A .

V arro, G ellius,

D e R e R ustica I II, N octes A tticae X I,

1 6.29; V arro, 1 .5 ; S isenna ,

' Les e vechgs d 'Italie e t

l 'invasion l ombarde',

M EFR

1 04.

C rivellucci,

I talia',

6 .11.

P eter)

X XIII ( 1903), 1 7.

1 0.2.

E pitome I ,

f r.

3 4.64.

' Le

S tudi s torici

c hiese c attoliche e i l ongobardi ( Pisa) V I ( 1897), 1 94

1 12 n .6.

a riani

i n

1 8.

C hronicon S alernitanum, e d. U . W esterbergh ( Acta U niversitatis S tockholmiensis: S tudia L atina S tockholmiensea I II, 1 956), 3 2: t he e pitaph o f G rimoald I II ( d. 8 06), l ines 1 3-14: i n t erris p ollens n imium p ulcherrimus a nnis, s pes i am S amnitis c erta s alutis e rat'. F . U ghelli, I talia S acra V III ( Venice, 1 721), c ol. 3 9: e pit aph o f S ico ( d. 8 32), l ines 3 9-42: ' obsidione q uatit R omanas s aepe c atervas, u rbis P arthenope, f alsidicosque v iros, q ui D ominis s olita l unt'.

S amnitum f raude r ebelles p ellere B ardorum f ortia i ussa v oT his i dentification o f B enevento w ith S amnium m ay w ell b e

a ssociated w ith t he c oncept o f R omanitas w hich a cquired i mportance i n t he ' Carolingian R enaissance'. S ee: W . U llmann, T he C arolingian R enaissance a nd t he I dea o f K ingship 1 9.

( London,

1 969),

e sp.

1 36ff.

O n t he R oman p rovince o f S amnium: R . T homsen, T he I talic R egions ( Copenhagen, 1 947), e sp. 2 51 ( on L ate R oman S amnium); a nd I talia P ontificia, e d. P .F. K ehr, I X ( Samnium - A pulia - L ucania), B erlin, 1 962,

1 .

2 0.

G regory t he G reat, f or i nstance, E pistolae I I, 3 8 , w ritten i n 5 92 A D.

r efers

t o

a

i udex S amnii

i n

2 1.

H onigmann, L e s ynekdamos ( note 1 ), 4 9; b ut c ompare A .H.M. J ones, C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces ( 2nd e d., O xford, 1 971), 5 142 1.

2 2. P .

C onti,

' L'Italia

b izantina n ella

" descriptio o rbis R omani"

d i

G iorgio C iprio', M emorie d ella A ccademia L unigianese d i S cienze " G. C apellini" X L ( 1970), 3 -137 ( 64-5 o n t he . ). 2 3.

P liny, N at.

H ist.

I II,

P inder a nd G . P arthey,

1 00;

R avennatis a nonymi c osmographia ( ed.

A alen,

1 962),

K . M iller, S tuttgart, 1 916), 3 43. S amnia ( 1981 - n ote 2 ), 4 1-42. 2 4. 2 5.

I .A .

R ichmond,

S trabo,

G eog.

i n: I V,

P .-W.

2 83;

S ee:

T abula P eutingeriana P etroccia,

X XII 2 ( Stuttgart,

4 .6;

D ionysius,

1 954),

' II p roblema d i

c ol.

O rbis D escriptio,

1 839. 5 70ff.,

G eographi G reci M inores ( ed. C . M üller), I I ( Paris, 1 882), J .B. K eune, i n: P .-W. I A ( Stuttgart, 1 920), c ol. 2 132-34. 2 6.

e pevTavdv.

n c iAus

TÖ

g evux ( iy r b pevTuvo t . :.

M .

( ed.

i n: 1 40;

E Tpc ißwv na ln u

( Stephanus o f B yzantium, E thnicorum q uae s upersunt e x r ecensione Augusti M einekii ( Berlin, 1 849, r eprinted G raz, 1 958) 6 71. 1 8-19. 2 7.

S ee: E . D iacono',

S estan, ' La s toriografia d ell' I talia L ongobarda; P aolo S ettimane d i s tudio d el c entro i taliano d i s tudi s ull'

a lto m edioevo X VII ( 1970), 2 8.

Thomsen,

T he I talic R egions

3 58. ( note 1 9),

1 95

2 52-60.

2 9.

F or e xample:

H ist.

L ong.

I I,

1 6:

' Umbria

a utem d icta e st,

q uod i mbribus s uperfuerit ( from I sidorus, E tymologiae X IV, 4 .21); H ist. L ong. I I, 1 7: ' Lucania, q uae n omen a q uodam l uco a ccepit' ( from F estus, D e V erborum S ignificatu, 1 06 L ); H ist. L ong. I I, 1 9: ( Picenum) ' huius h abitatores c um a S avinis i lluc p roperarent, i n e orum v exillo p icus c onsedit, a tque h ac e x c ausa P icenus n omen a ccepit' ( from F estus, D e V erborum S ignificatu. 2 35 L ); H ist. L ong. I I, 2 2: ' porro C orsica a d uce s uo C orso, S ardinia a S arde, H erculis f ilio, n ominatur'. 3 0.

P etroccia,

3 1.

C .J.

1 1 p roblema d i S amnia'

W ickham ,

1 2th c enturies:

" The T erra o f S .

( 1980 - n ote 2 ),

1 69ff.

V incenzo a l V olturno i n t he 8 th t o

t he h istorical f ramework",

i n t his v olume,

c hapter

1 1. 3 2.

P etroccia,

3 3.

S ee: J .R . P atterson, t his v olume.

3 4.

C hronicon V ulturnense, H ist.

3 5.

1 1 p roblema d i S amnia'

R .

L ong.

C ostanzo,

( 1980 - n ote 2 ),

1 75ff.

T he U pper V olturno V alley i n R oman t imes',

e d.

V .

F ederici,

I ( Rome,

1 925),

i n

1 11-114,

V I, 4 0. i ntroduction t o A .

G entile,

v iaggiatori I taliani e s tranieri

B enevento n ei r icordi d el

( Benevento,1982),

•n 4

v .

A PPENDIX 1 .

T he 6 -7

f uneral e logium o f S cipio B arbatus = I LS 1 )

G naivod

p atre

p rognatus

( early 2 nd c .

B C ? )

( CIL 12

) C ornelius L ucius S cipio B arbatus f ortus v ir s apiensque - q uibus f orma

v irtute p arisuma f uit - c onsol c ensor a idilis q uei f uit a pud v os T aurasia C isauna S amnio c epit - s ubigit o mne L oucanam o psidesque a bdoucit. T here

i s a l arge b ibliography o n t he e logium

l ated p roblems.

,

t he t omb a nd

r e-

S ee r ecently:

A . L a R egina, ' L'elogio d i S cipione B arbato D d'A I I ( 1968), 1 731 90; F . Z evi, ' Considerazioni s ull'elogio d e S cipione B arbato', S tudi m iscellanei X V ( 1969-1970), 6 5-73; V . S aladino, D er S arkophag d es L ucius C ornelius S cipio B arbatus ( Würzburg, 1 970); F . C oarelli, 1 1 s epolcro d egli S cipioni', 1 06. 2 .

D d'A V I ( 1972),

F lorus E pitome 1 ,11.8 ( mid 2 nd c . A D?) ' hos t ar nen q uinquaginta h nnis p er F abios a c P apirios p atresque e orumque l iberos s ubegit a c d omuit, i ta r uinas i psas u rbium d iruit, u t h odie S amnium i n i pso S amnio r equiratur a ppareat m ateria q uattuor e t v iginti t riumphorum.'

3 .

F estus D e v erborum s ignificatu 4 36-437 L ( Late 2 nd c . ' Samnites a b h astis a ppellati s unt, q uas G raeci h as e nim f uere a dsueti e rant; a dventantes c onsederunt'

4 .

3 6-

n ec

f acile

A D?) a ppellant;

s ive a c olle S amnio u bi e x S abinis

C ouncil o f P ope S ymmachus ( 6th N ovember 5 02) ( J. M ansi, S acrum c onciliorum n ova e t a mplissima c ollectio, V III ( Florence,

1 762,

r eprinted P aris & L eipzig,

1 901),

c ol.

2 69.

L aurentius B oianensis F ortunatus A nagninus P aschesius V ulturnensis M arcus S amninus A prilis N ucerinus 5 .

G eorgius

C yprius

5 54

K AMHANIA

5 55

N ednoXus

( from :

H onigmann,

L e s ynekdamos

' Enapx ( "a K apuc ev i 'as N ednoXug

6

( BPETTANIA)

B pETTav(x l

7

( HANN2NIA)

H avywvi .a

8

( KAAABPIA)

K aXaBp ( "c t

9

( BENETIA)

ß cve n "a

1 97

( note 1 ),

5 2).

M ua i iva

M na i 'va

1

ß umoßapCa

ß uxoßap t 'va

2

T avpdva ( ?)

T avpdua

3

( AHOYAIA)

' Anov U t 'a

4

K daTpov

K daTpov

5 60

5 65

K d cupov E dpvuov

K d cupov E dpvuov

K doTpov

EOL IO LGU

7

K doTpov

' P r iyuov

8

( KdaTpov T a l ipaTa

K d cupov T adoaTa)

9

K d cupov E uyv ag

K o la-I -p ay E uy i 'ag

K daTpov F pc idov

K d cupov F pdbwv

1

K doTpov H aTp n iag

K d cupov H aTpuxt 'as

2

K daTpov E xuXdkuov

K daTpov E xuXdkuov

3

K daTpov M apTo l . ipuov

K daTpov M a c ru ipuov

K d cupov ü üp f 3 agTepa

K do-r pov O ü aößepa

5 74

(?)

K o l cupov E puaCag K daTpov

' Pr iyuov

S tephanus o f B yzantium , E thnicorum ( note 2 6). 5 53.7

Z dpvuov. MUL

5 58.8

n dÄug H pETavi .ag.

EUII VLTLM Ö£

ZUL M :T aL.

x a ‘ u

7 .

' OnuTepß uov

6

5 70

6 .

' OnuTgpyuov

TO

T)\ )

EeVLH Ö V

7 , 0 11 IVL O g

m ast ,E apv t 7Tn .

HZT I - L( ÖV.

'

MTT ITUH ÖV

P aul t he D eacon,

TÖ

IM ISyW V

ö popou.

HU I,

TO

e nAumov L auvETug,

EaUVUTLM Ög.

H istoria L angobardorum I I,

2 0 ( late 8 th C .

A D).

q uarta d ecima i nter C ampaniam e t m are A driaticum A puliamque, a P iscaria i ncipiens, h abetur. i n h ac s unt u rbes T heate, A ufidena, H isernia e t a ntiquitate c onsumpta S amnium , a q ua t ota p rovincia n ominatur, e t i psa h arum p rovinciarum c aput d itissima B eneventus. p orro S amnites n omen a ccepere o h m a b h astis, q uas f erre s olebant q uasque G reci s aynia a ppellant'

1 98

8 .

T he C hronicon V ulturnense e d. I II ( Rome, 1 938).

V .

F ederici,

I&I I ( Rome,

1 925),

V ol. I , d ocument 2 7, p 2 13 ( line 8 ff). C apua, 7 87 A D ' ...Vincenc ii m artin s, ( quod e st c onstructum i n l oco q ui d icitur) S amnii, s uper f luvium V ulturnum'. V ol.

I I,

d ocument 7 5,

p1 0

( line 1 9ff).

' in M arsi', 8 94 A D ' ...

e x

m onasterio S ancti V incencii, q uod s itum e st i n p artibus B eneventi, s uper f luvium V ulturnum , i n l ocum u bi S amnia v ocatur' V ol.

1 1,

d ocument 8 9,

p5 2

( line 1 3ff).

i n M arsi', 9 36 A D ' ...

m onasterio S ancti V incencii, q uod s itum e st S amnia v ocatur, s uper f luvium V ulturnum...'

i n f ine B eneventi,

e x u bi

V ol. I I, d ocument 1 20, p1 47 ( line 8 ff). i n F isege, t erritorio M arsicano', 9 68 A D ' ...monasterio S ancti V incencii, s itus s upra V ulturni f ontes, l oco S amnie, t erritorio B eneventano...' T he A bruzzi d ocuments: V ol.

I I,

V ol.III,

d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc. d oc.

1 53, p 2 78 1 54, p 2 79 1 55, p 2 82 1 56, p 2 84 1 57, p 2 87 1 61, p 2 92 1 62, p 2 95 1 73, p 3 28 1 81, p 3 52 1 92, p 4 0

( Penne, 9 82) ( Chieti, 1 004) ( Valva, 9 97) ( Valva, 9 84) ( ?Valva a rea, 9 98) ( Penne, 9 82) ( Penne, 9 82) ( Capua, 9 84; n b.'libellum d e P inne') ( Valva, 9 97) ( Bagnoli, 1 029)

T he C astellum S amnie d ocuments: V ol .

I I,

V ol.III,

d oc. 1 42, p d oc. 1 64, p d oc. 1 65, p d oc. 1 66, p d oc. 2 02, p

2 42 3 04 3 07 3 10 8 4

( 982) ( 988) ( 985) ( 995) ( 1011-45)

1 99

C hapter 9 :

T HE E NVIRONMENTAL H ISTORY O F T HE R OCCHETTA P LAIN: A P RELIMINARY R EPORT b y P eter P . H ayes a nd D avid A .

S an

V incenzo

R occhetta i mportant

a l

V olturno

J ones

l ies n ear t he n orthern

e dge

o f

t he

p lain. A lthough s mall, t his p lateau m ust h ave p layed a n p art i n s upporting t he s equence o f c lassical a nd m edieval

s ettlements. C onsequently, t he a rchaeology a nd e nvironmental h istory o f t he p lain, b y p utting t hese s ettlements i n t heir c ontext, p rovide a n i mportant d imension t o t he f ull a nalysis o f t he l ater R oman v illa a nd t he s uccession o f m onasteries. T he p lain i tself ( Fig.9:1.) i s b ounded o n t he w est b y a h igh r idge w hich e xtends f rom C astel S an V incenso t o R occhetta a l V olturno. T he c rest o f t he r idge ( 972m a bove s ea l evel) i s k nown a s M onte d ella R occhetta. T he p lain l ies a t a n a ltitude o f a bout 5 50m a nd o n i ts e ast s ide t he l and f alls s harply i nto t he R occhetta g orge, t hrough w hich t he r iver V olturno f lows s outh t owards V enafro a nd, u ltimately, N aples. T he s ource o f t he V olturno o ccurs h alf w ay u p t he s ide o f M onte d ella R occhetta, b ut t he c onsiderable v olume a nd e nergy o f t he w ater a re n ow c ontrolled b y a d am a nd t he E NEL p lant, p roducing b oth d rinking w ater a nd e lectricity. T he

r esults

o f

t he 1 980-81

f ield s urvey l o f t he t erra

o r

l ands

b elonging t o t he m onastery i n t he e arly m iddle a ges s uggested t hat t he n atural e nvironment o f t he a rea h ad c hanged c onsiderably s ince p rehist oric t imes. I t b ecame c lear t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence c ould n ot b e e valuated o r p roperly u nderstood u nless m ore w as k nown a bout t he n atural a nd m an-induced p rocesses w hich h ad a cted u pon, r eshaped, t he l andscape w hich w e s ee t oday.

a nd i n p laces

S ince t he a rchaeological e vidence h ad v aried, a lmost p redictably, w ith t he d ifferent s orts o f s oil w hich h ad b een s urveyed, i t w as e ssent ial n ot o nly t o d escribe t hose s oils m ore p recisely, b ut a lso t o u nderstand t he w ay i n w hich t hey h ad d eveloped. p art o f t he s ame p roblem, i t w as n ecessary t o

S imilarly, a nd c learly i nvestigate t he e rosion

w hich had r esulted i n t he m ovement o f c onsiderable v olumes o f r ock d own t he h illsides a nd o nto t he f latter a reas b elow.

w as

T he t he

s oil

a nd

R occhetta p lain w as c hosen f or t he e nvironmental s urvey a s i t m ost i mportant a rea a rchaeologically, b eing t he i mmediate

c atchment o f o f m anageable

t he m edieval m onastery.

I t w as a lso a s elf-contained u nit

s ize.

T he e nvironmental s urvey M ethods I n a ny i nterpretation o f p ast e nvironments i t i s e ssential t o u nderstand l andscape p rocesses, s o t he R occhetta p lain w as f irst d ivided

i nto

i ts m orphological u nits. 2 01

T hese u nits w ere d escribed

i n a

2 02 T h e m a j o r g e o m r p h o l g i c a l u n i t s :

t h e R o c h e t a p l a i n .

f ield

n otebook,

c omplexity

o f

a nd t he

t heir b oundaries w ere r ecorded o n u nits a nd t he m ap w as

t hen

r educed

a

m ap.

b y

T he

g rouping

s imilar u nits t ogether, s trictly a ccording t o t heir r ecorded g eomorphol ogical a ttributes. T he m ajor u nits t hus p roduced a re s hown i n F ig.9:1., a nd a re d escribed i n t he k ey t o t hat F igure. T he

f actors w hich w ere u sed t o d efine t he u nits w ere t he s teepness

o f s lope ( estimated u sing a c linometer), t he e xtent t o w hich b edrock w as v isible, r elative h eight, a nd e vidence o f s urface w aterlogging. O f t hese, s lope i s t he m ost i mportant a s t he s teepness o f t he l and g overns b oth h uman l and-use a nd t he r ate a t w hich m aterial i s e roded f rom t he s urface. O n s teeper s lopes s oils m ay b e t hin o r n on-existent, a nd a ny s oil o n s uch s lopes m ay b e e asily e roded. O n g entler s lopes, h owever, s oils a re u sually, b ut n ot i nvariably, d eeper a nd l ess s usceptible t o e rosion. T he d epth o f t he s oil, t he e xtent o f w aterlogging, a nd t he h eight l imit

( both r elative a nd a bsolute) o f t he l and, a re a lso f actors w hich t he u ses t o w hich l and m ay b y p ut, a nd w hich m ust b e t aken i nto

a ccount

i n c onsidering e vidence o f p ast h uman a ctivity.

H aving e stablished t he g eomorphological u nits,

t he n ext s tep

w as

t o e xamine t he s oils w ithin t hem. T his w as d one m ainly b y d igging s oil p its a nd e xamining t he s oil s ections t hey r evealed, b ut a dvantage w as t aken o f s uitable s ections e xposed b y a gricultural, e ngineering a nd e ven

a rchaeological

a ctivities i n t he a rea.

T he p ositioning o f

t he

p its a nd s ections w as g overned b y s everal f actors, b ut e ssentially w e a imed t o e xamine s oils i n e ach o f t he m ajor m orphological u nits, p aying s pecial a ttention t o t he e dges o f t he u nits, a nd t o e xamine a reas o f p articular i nterest o r d ifficulty i n t he l ight o f t he r esults o f t he 1 980-81 a rchaeological s urvey. T he l ocations o f t he s oil p its a nd s ections T he

a re s hown n umbered o n F ig.9:2.. d etailed e xamination o f

e ach s oil p rofile

e ntailed

d ividing

i nto u nits i ts h orizons, o r v isibly d ifferent l evels. E ach h orizon w as t hen e xamined, a nd a n ote w as m ade o f t he m ain s oil c onstituents ( clay, s ilt a nd s and), t he o rganic c ontent, s oil s tructure, a nd s oil c olour u sing t he M unsell C olour S cheme. A ny i nclusions w ere n oted, a nd i n t he c ase o f s tones, t heir c oncentration a nd a ngle o f r est w ere e stimated. S pecial c are w as t aken t o r ecord t he p osition a nd n ature o f a ny a rtef acts, p articularly p ottery, t ile a nd w orked f lint, f ound i n t he s ect ions o r w hen d igging t he p its. T hese w ere l ater e xamined b y R ichard H odges, C athy C outts a nd H elen P atterson, t o w hom w e a re i ndebted. E ach s oil p rofile w as t hen d rawn, a nd i n m any c ases p hotographed s ampled f or l aboratory a nalysis, b efore f illing i n t he h ole.

a nd

R esults J udged v isible

o n

b y t he a rtefacts t he

f ound d uring

t he s urvey

s urface o ccur o n t he m ajor

t he o ldest

g eomorphological

s oils u nit

F

( Fig.9:1.), t he t ravertine p lateau. S oil p it 1 r evealed a t ypical t erra r ossa 2 , f ormed i n o ne o f s everal d iscontinuous h ollows f ound o n t he p lateau.

A w orked f lint w as

f ound a t

t he j unction o f

t he t extured

i lluvial h orizon ( Bt) a nd u nderlying i ron-enriched c lay ( Bir/C). A lthough t he f lints f ound i n t his a nd t he a rchaeological s urvey h ave n ot b een f ully a nalysed t his f lint a ppears c onsistegt w ith a n umber o f a pparently m iddle p aleolithic f lints f ound n earby. H igher i n t he B t h orizon t here w as a p iece o f l ater p rehistoric p ottery, a nd i n t he m odern p loughsoil ( Ap) t here w ere p ieces o f R oman t ile a nd p ottery. 2 03

S ection 2 ( Fig.9:1.) w as

t ypical o f

t he s oil c overing m ost o f

u nit

F , a t hin b ut w ell-developed r endsina. T he A h orizon o f S ection 2 c ontained a p iece o f l ater p rehistoric p ot, a nd e arly R oman p ot a nd t ile w ere f ound o n a nd i n t he r endsina s oil e lsewhere o n t he p lateau . F rom t heir p rofile c haracteristics t he r endsina a nd t erra r ossa s oils a ppear t o b e m ature a nd s table. A lthough s ome l ocal e rosion h as t aken p lace, a nd e xposed b edrock i s c ommon, t he p lateau i s r emarkably l evel a nd m ay n ot h ave s uffered s evere e rosion i n t he H olocene. S ince i t i s n ot b ordered b y h igher l and i t h as a lso n ot b een c overed b y c olluvium. T he e nvironmental e vidence, s o f ar a s i t g oes, t hus s upports t he i nfere nce f rom t he a rchaeological m aterial t hat u nit F i s l ikely t o t he o ldest v isible s oils, t hough a t a m ore d etailed l evel t his m ent w ould r equire M uch

o f

c ontain s tate-

s ome q ualification.

t he r emainder o f

t he R occhetta p lain w as,

i n e arly

p re-

h istoric t imes, a m arsh, w ith a reas o f s tanding a nd s lowly m oving w ater. T he e vidence f or t his c omes f rom S ections 3 ,4,5,6,20,27,28 a nd 2 9 ( Fig.9:1.). A ll o f t hese c ontain s ilty , w ater-lain, s ediments a t t heir b ase. I t s eems p robably t hat t he m arsh i nitially o ccupied t he w hole o f t he m ain p art o f u nit D ( Fig.9:1.). A bove

t he

w ater-lain

d eposits

b ecoming p rogressively d rier. h ave g radually r aised i ts l evel,

t here i s e vidence f or

t he

p lain

S ediment w ashing i nto t he m arsh w ould a nd t he c limate m ay a lso h ave b ecome

d rier. I n a ll t he s ections r eferred t o a bove, t he s ilty l ayers a re c overed b y d eposits c ontaining m ore c lay, a nd t he u pper l evels a re l oamy. I n s ection 2 0 t he u pper l evels o f t he m arsh d eposit ( silty l ayer) c ontain t he m ollusc C ecilioides a cicula ( Muller). T hese s nails l ive o n d rier g rassland a nd w ould h ave b urrowed d own t o t his l evel w hen t he f ormer m arsh h ad c hanged t o p asture. T he p resent l and-use i s m ainly a rable,

w ith s ome s hort-term p asture.

A lthough t he p recise c hronology r emains u ncertain, b roadly p arallel d evelopment o n t he s lopes a round t he

t here m arsh.

i s

a T he

p rocesses o f s oil f ormation, p erhaps i nvolving a c hange t o a d rier c limate, p roduced a d ark, h umus-rich, l oamy s oil. B uried r emnants o f t his o ld s oil w ere s een i n s ections 7 a nd 2 2, a nd a lso i n 1 7, a s ection r evealed b y r oadworks o n t he V olturno r iver t erraces.

A lthough a

f ew

m ore e xamples a re p erhaps n eeded, i t s eems p robable t hat t hese s ections a re t ypical, a nd i t i s s triking t hat t hey a ll p roduced B ronze A ge o r e arly I ron A ge p ottery, d ating ( very a pproximately) t o 1 500-800 b c. s eems l ikely, t herefore, t hat t he r ich s oils w hich h ad d eveloped o n s lopes

a nd r iver

t erraces a round

t he R occhetta p lain o ver a

I t t he

c onsider-

a ble p eriod o f t ime w ere b eing e xtensively u sed d uring t he l ater p art o f t he s econd m illenium b c. I t i s p ossible t hat e rosion m ay t hen h ave s tarted

t o

a ffect

t he s teeper s lopes,

o f e xtensive e rosion b efore

a t

b ut o ur

s urvey

f ound n o e vidence

t he R oman p eriod.

S ection 6 ( Fig.9:1. a nd F ig.9:2.) w as a t t he e dge o f t he b ase o f a s lope n ow u sed f or g rowing o live t rees

t he m arsh a nd a nd l imited

a rable a griculture. T he s ection c learly s hows t he l aminated s ilts a t i ts b ase, a nd a bove t his a s ilty c lay a lluvium d eposited i n d rier c onditions A bove t his t here i s a l ayer c ontaining m ore c lay a nd m uch l ess s ilt. T he t op h alf o f t his i s l oamier i n t exture, a nd t he h orizon c ontains

f ossil c racks.

T hese

f illed-in c racks

2 04

i ndicate

t hat

b y,

o r

P loughed A ( Ap ) S tony c lay Co l luv ium ( B t ) — 2

C rumb ly , s andy c lay l oam . B locky , c lay e nr iched c o l luv ium .

A ngu la r s tones

Weak ly c o lumnar a l luv ium C lay

c on ta in ing f oss i l c racks .

a l luv ium

C o lumnar a l luv iu m ,

S i l ty c lay a l luv ium

r e l ic g ley ing .

L am ina ted

P la ty c ompac t s i l ts ,

s i l ts

r e l ic g ley ing .

— 5

I NCLUS IONS 1 . Ab raded

R oman c oa rsewa re

( 1s t c en tury BC t o 3 rd c en tury AD)

2 . A b raded

R oman t i le

3 . A braded p reh is tor ic r im s herd 4 . Charcoa l 5 . C ha rcc ia l 0

0 .5

me t res

F ig. 9 .2

S chematic d iagram o f s ection 6 .

205

s oon a fter, t he e nd o f t he p eriod o f a lluviation t he s oil w as d rying o ut t horoughly i n s ummer, c ausing t he c racking w hich i s c haracteristic o f

c lay s oils

i n t hose c onditions.

l ayer o f a ngular s tones, c olluvium, o r h illwash, u pper p art o f

t he s lope,

l owest

i s a c olluvial T he t he

p roducing a m ass d ownslope m ovement o f s tones,

f ollowed b y a s lower r ate o f b ut w ith m ore c lay. T he

A bove t his h orizon

a nd a bove t hat a s tony c lay c olluvium . s uggests a n i nitally i ntense e rosion o f e rosion,

t wo h orizons o f

s till s ending d own s ome

S ection 6 w ere

g leyed.

s tones

G leying

i s

s ho l b y g rey a nd y ellow o r r eddish m ottling c aused b y p eriodic s aturat ion . I n t his c ase, g leying w as m ost p ronounced i n t he s ilty c lay a lluvium , a nd d id n ot o ccur a bove t hat h orizon. A d istinction m ay t herefore b e d rawn b etween, o n t he o ne h and, s ections 6 a nd 2 0, w here t he g leyed h orizons a re s eparated f rom t he p loughsoil ( Ap) b y a n u ng leyed l ayer o f c olluvium, a nd, o n t he o ther h and, s ections 3 ,4, a nd 5 , w here t he g leyed h orizons l ie i mmediately b eneath t he p loughsoil. S ections 3 ,4 a nd 5 , t hus a ppear t o s how a ctive o r v ery r ecent g leying, s ections 6 a nd 2 0 s how p ossible r elict g leying, a nd s ections 2 7, 2 8 a nd 2 9

( the r emaining s ections c ontaining s ilty, w ater-lain s ediments)

s how

n o e vidence o f g leying.

m arsh w hich

T he d ating e vidence f rom s ection 6 i s e specially i nteresting. T he d eposits ( laminated s ilts) c ontain s mall a mounts o f c harcoal m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith c learance o f w oodland a round t he

m arsh. T he f irst d efinite e vidence f or h uman a ctivity i s a n a braded p rehistoric ( hand-made) r imsherd, p robably o f B ronze A ge d ate, f ound n ear

t he t op o f

t he a lluvium ( with e vidence o f d ry s ummer c onditions).

O ver t his, t he s tony c olluvium ( representing t he p hase o f r apid e rosion) c ontained h eavily a braded e arly R oman p ottery a nd R oman t ile. T he a bsence o f m edieval m aterial a t, o r b elow, t his l evel, s uggests t hat t he e rosion t ook p lace i n t he R oman p eriod, a nd t hat m edieval p eriod t he h illside h ad b ecome m ore o r l ess s table. T he

s uggestion o f a r easonably l ong p eriod o f r elative

b y

t he

s tability

s ince t he s evere e rosion i s t o s ome e xtent s upported b y t he p rofile c haracteristics. T hese s how f ewer s tones i n t he u pper c olluvium , a nd t he p resence o f a r eddened a nd s lightly t extured ( Bt) h orizon, i ndicati ng a r eduction i n t he s everity o f t he f orces o f e rosion f ollowed b y a p eriod

o f

s tability w hich l asted l ong e nough t o a llow t he s low p rocess

o f d ownward m ovement o f c lay p articles t o p roduce a s ignificant o f c lay e nrichment

d egree

i n t he l ower h orizon.

S ection 2 8 p roduced R oman p ottery ( probably o f t he e arly p eriod) i n t he p lough-soil d irectly o ver a v ery s ilty a lluvium, p erhaps i ndic ating a n e arly d rying o ut o f t hat p art o f t he m arsh, w ith a s oil i n e xistence b y t he R oman p eriod. I n s ection 3 , f ound d eeply b uried ( 50cm , b elow t he s urface) v ium,

w ith g leyed s ilty c lay a bove i t.

f rom t he p resent r iver,

o n f lat l and,

h owever, R oman t ile w as i n t he s ilty-clay a llu-

T his s ection i s

a nd i t s eems

l ess t han 1 0m

l ikely t hat t he t ile

m ay s imply h ave w ashed i nto t he m arsh i n R oman t imes. T hese t hree s ections i ndicate t he v ariability w ithin t he m ajor m orphological u nit D . I n o ther w ords, d ifferent p arts o f t he m arsh, p articularly a round i ts

e dges,

h ave

b een

a ffected b y d ifferent p rocesses a nd

r ates

o f

a lluviation, c olluviation a nd s oil f ormation, a nd w e w ould t herefore e xpect h uman e xploitation o f t his u nit t o b e s imilarly v aried.

2 06

T he

s oils

( Fig.9:1.) bar ns a nd

o n

t he

s outh-facing

s lopes

o f

C olle

d ella

T orre

a re n oticeably d ifferent. I nstead o f t he r ed-brown c lay s ilts o f t he e astern s lopes a nd t he n orthern e nd o f t he

R occhetta p lain, h ere t he s oils a re l ight-brown t o y ellow i n c olour a nd c ontain m ore s tones i n t heir p rofiles. T hese l ight-brown a nd y ellow s oils a re a p rominent f eature o f t he s outh-west p art o f t he p lain, a nd c ontinue a s f ar a s M asseria V acchereccia, w here o nce a gain s ome r ed b rown c lay l oams o ccur.

S ections 1 4,

1 5 a nd 1 6 a re e xamples o f

t hese

s oils. T hey a re c olluvial i n o rigin, a nd a re l ess f ertile t han t he r ed-brown s oils, s upporting p oorer v egetation. T hey a lso a ppear t o b e r elatively y oung s oils s ince t he h orizons c haracteristic o f m ature s oils a re p oorly d eveloped. G iven a c onstant c limate, a n u ndisturbed s oil d evelops d istinct l ayers o r h orizons. M any f actors a re i nvolved, s uch a s t he m ovement o f p articles a nd c hemicals u p a nd d own t he p rofile b y w ater, p lants r oots a nd o ther l iving o rganisms, a nd t he o ccurrence o f c hemical r eactions w ithin t he s oil. T he w eakly d eveloped p rofiles o f s ections 1 4, 1 5, a nd 1 6 s uggest t hat t hey a re i mmature s oils, h ave h ad r elatively l ittle t ime i n w hich t o d evelop.

w hich

S ection 1 6 i s a u niform c olluvial d eposit c ontaining m ore a ngular s tones t owards i ts b ase. W ithin t his d eposit w ere e leven p ieces o f e arly m edieval p ottery, s imilar t o 9 th-lOth c entury s herds f rom S an V incenzo. A s t his p ottery w as d eeply b uried a nd r elatively u nabraided, e ven t hough o f s oft f abric, i t s eems l ikely t o b e m ore o r l ess u ndist urbed s ince i ts i ncorporation i n t he c olluvium . I t f ollows t hat o n t hese s lopes s evere e rosion w as p robably t aking p lace d uring a nd j ust b efore t he e arly m edieval p eriod. W e c annot, o n t he e vidence o f t hese s ections, b e s ure o f t he c onditions w hich p revailed h ere i n t he R oman p eriod,

b ut

t aking

i nto a ccount t he e vidence f rom t he p rocesses w hich

a ffected t he e ast f acing s lopes, i t s eems p robable t hat u ntil A ges c ertain a reas o f p oorer s oil a round t he p lain ( of w hich

t he D ark t his i s

o ne) w ere l eft a s w oodland o r a s p ermanent r ough p asture. T hen, i t w ould a ppear t hat a n a ttempt w as m ade ( not l ater t han t he e arly M ediev al p eriod) t o c ultivate t he g round. T his c ultivation l ed t o s evere e rosion a nd t he l oss o f s oil a nd c lay d own t he h illslopes, t he a reas o n w hich t he s oils a re s till p oorly d eveloped.

p roducing

S ummary F igure 9 :3.

s hows a s ection a cross

t he n orthern e xtremity

o f

t he

R occhetta p lain, f rom w est t o e ast, a pproximately f rom t he c rest o f C olle d ella T orre t o t he r iver V olturno i n i ts g orge. I t i s s emis chematic, b ased o n t he p ublished m ap f or t he a rea ( 1:25,000) f ield o bservation r ather t han a ccurate l evelling. ( This c aveat p articularly t o t he d etails o f t he t erraces o f t he V olturno T he s ection i s i ntended t o i llustrate t he r elationship b etween

a nd o n a pplies g orge). m ost o f

t he s oils d iscussed a bove a nd t he m ajor g eomorphological f eatures. p lain

i s a t S oil

t his u nits

T he

p oint r ather n arrower t han f urther t o t he s outh. 1 -4

( sections 3 -10)

f orm a c atena.

U nit 1

i s

v ery

t hin. I t m ay r epresent t he r emnants o f a B rown M editerranean s oil ) d eveloped u nder w oodland o ver t ravertine a nd t runcated b y e rosion. U nit 2 i s t o s ome e xtent s imilar, p robably a lso e roded, a nd i s a p oorly d eveloped, h umus-rich, b rown s andy l oam o n d eeply w eathered t ravertine. U nit 3 c ontains w hat a ppear t o b e R ed M editerranean s oils d eveloping o n c olluvium ( discussed a bove). A t t he b ase o f t he s lope ( section 6 ) t hey c over

t he a lluvium w hich i s

t he p arent m aterial 2 07

f or

t he g leyed a lluvial

s o u l p u t n u m b e r

m a j o r g e O m b r O h 0 1 2 o u c a l i t S

S e c t i o n a c r o s t h e R o c h e t a p l a i n .

R I V E R T E R A C E S A N D R I V E R

I

2 -

LL

c ,

20 8

s oils o f

s oil u nit 4 ( the p resent-day a nd f ormer m arsh).

U nits 5 a nd 6

a re t he r endsina a nd t erra r ossa s oils o f t he t ravertine p lateau . U nit 7 w as n ot e xamined i n d etail, b ut a ppears t o c ontain c olluvial a nd b uried s oils l ike t hose i n u nit 3 . T he i mmature c olluvial s oils o f t he s outh-facing s lopes

( eg s ections 1 4,

1 5,

a nd 1 6)

a re n ot

i ncluded.

C onclusions O n t he e vidence c ollected d uring t he e nvironmental s urvey w e m ay r each t he f ollowing c onclusions c oncerning t he e nvironmental h istory o f t he R occhetta p lain: 1 .

I n t he e arly p rehistoric p eriod ( upper p alaeolithic-mesolithic(?)) m uch o f t he p lain w as a m arsh, c ontaining a reas o f s tanding w ater i nterspersed w ith s hallow c hannels o f s lowly r unning w ater, a s w ell a s t he u pper r eaches o f t he V olturno r iver. S lightly h igher a reas b ordered a nd i n s ome p laces p rojected i nto t he m arsh, p roviding s uitable l ocations f or c amps f rom w hich h unter-gatherers c ould r each b oth t he u nusually l arge w etland z one o f t he m arsh a nd t he d rier a reas a round i t.

2 .

T he

s oils m ost o bviously s uitable f or

t he i ntroduction o f

f arming

u sing t he t echnology a vailable i n t he e arly p rehisLoric p eriod w ould h ave b een t hose o n t he t ravertine p lateau. T hey a re f riable, e asily w orked,

w ell-drained,

a nd w ere p robably l ess d ensely w ooded

t han a nywhere e xcept t he m arsh. 3 .

T he r endsina s oils o n t he p lateau a re t hin a nd f requently i nterr upted b y a reas o f b edrock. T heir p roductive c apacity i s l imited. I n c ontrast, t he d eep, r ich s oils w hich h ad f ormed u nder w oodland o n t he s lopes a round t he p lain a nd o n t he t erraces o f t he V olturno g orge w ould, o nce t hey h ad b een c leared o f t heir t ree c over, h ave g iven m uch g reater y ields. T he p resence o f B ronze A ge, a nd p artic ularly l ater B ronze A ge/early I ron A ge p ottery i n t he r emnants o f t hese s oils

i s c onsistent w ith a n e xpansion o nto

t hem i n t he

l ater

p rehistoric p eriod. 4 .

B y

t he

e nd o f

t he p rehistoric p eriod a nd d uring

m ost o f t he p lain h ad b ecome m uch d rier. i n s ummer, s ufficient t o c ause t he s oil

t he R oman

p eriod

A d istinctly d ry p eriod s urface t o d ry a nd c rack,

w as a ffecting e ven t he l ower p arts o f t he m arsh. A s tudy u sing m ore d etailed m orphological u nits w ould b e n eeded t o d iscuss t he v ariation a round t he m arsh, b ut t he m ain d ifferences w hen c ompared w ith t he p resent d ay a re t hat t here w ould p robably h ave b een a s lightly w ider a rea o f s tanding w ater a nd w aterlogged s oil t han a t p resent, a nd t hat t he V olturno w ould h ave f looded m ore e xtensively. 5 .

D uring t he R oman p eriod t here w as c ontinued a nd p robably f airly i ntense c ultivation o f t he t ravertine p lateau. I n a ddition, t he e ast-facing

h illslopes w ere c ultivated,

s lope m ovement o f 6 .

c ausing e rosion a nd d own-

s oil a nd s tones.

S ubsequent a ttempts t o c ultivate a reas o f p oorer s oil, s uch a s t he s outhern s lopes o f C olle d ella T orre, r esulted i n s evere e rosion. T his t he

w as c ertainly u nder w ay b y t he e arly m edieval p eriod, e vidence

b etween

a t p resent a vailable m ay h ave

t he 6 th a nd 1 0th c enturies A D. ° 2 09

s tarted

a t

a ny

b ut o n t ime

7 .

T here

t he n orth e nd

o f

t he p lain i n t he S amnite, R oman a nd e arly m edieval p eriods d emonstrated b y t he a rchaeological s urvey a nd e xcavations), a nd

i s a d iscrepancy b etween t he i mportance o f

( as t he

r ather s mall a rea o f c atchment. U se o f

l evel, h igh-class, a rable l and w ithin i ts t he f ormer m arsh ( major u nit D ) a s a w inter

g razing a rea w ould e nable

t he m uch m ore e xtensive m ountain p astures

t o t he e ast t o b e e xploited. T his, t ogether w ith p olyculture o n t he m oderate h illslopes ( unit C ), a nd a rable o n t he b etter l and ( E a nd F ) m ight b e s ufficient t o e xplain t he c oncentration o f S amnite a nd R oman s ettlement, p articularly i f r elatively l ow-order m arket o r a dministrative f unctions w ere a lso i nvolved. T he m onastic c omp lex,

h owever,

m ust

s urely h ave r elied o n r esources

o riginating

o utside t he t erra. W e h ave s een t hat a ttempts w ere m ade t o i ncrease p roduction i n t he e arly m edieval p eriod, b ut t hat t his r esulted

i n s oil e rosion.

T he

i nherently l ow p roductive c apacity

o f a h igh p roportion o f t he t erra w as i nescapable, a nd d eclining y ields, a s f orest s oils o xidised a nd l eached, c ould n ot f or l ong b e c ountered b y i ncreased e ffort ( e.g. o n t erracing s teeper s lopes) a s t he l aw o f d iminishing r eturns w ould a pply. 7 T he m onastery l acked a s ubsistence b ase c ommensurate w ith i ts

2 10

s ize.

N otes 1 .

A

b rief r eview o f t he 1 980-81 s urvey c an b e f ound i n

T he

S an V incenzo

s urvey,

M olise,

I taly,

P .P.

H ayes,

S ociety o f A ntiquaries

O ccasional P apers ( New S eries) 6 ( in p ress). 2 .

E .M.

B ridges,

W orld S oils

3 .

W e a re i ndebted t o E ric H ansen o f i dentification o f

4 .

D .

B riggs,

( Cambridge,

t he l ithics

1 970),

5 8.

t he U niversity o f B uffalo

f or t he

f ound i n t he S an V incenzo s urvey.

S ources a nd m ethods i n G eography:

S oils

( London,

1 977),

8 4. 5 . 6 .

7 .

B ridges,

o p.

W e

g rateful t o C athy C outts

a re

c it., 5 7. f or p reparing t he f igures a nd

D ebbie H odges

f or t yping t he m anuscript.

W .B.

a nd R .J.C.

M organ

M unton,

1 971), 9 .

211

A gricultural G eography

t o

( London,

C hapter 1 0:

T HE U PPER V OLTURNO V ALLEY I N R OMAN T IMES b y J .R.

D ominating C ampania s tand

t he t he

P atterson

f ertile p lains o f s outhern L azio a nd n orthern M ainarde a nd M atese m ountain r anges; o ver 2 000

m etres i n h eight, t hey s erve t o d ivide t he p lain f rom t he u plands o f t he i nterior, t he a ncient S amnium. B etween t hem f lows t he R iver V olt urno; a lready s ome d istance f rom i ts s ource, a nd j oined b y i ts t ribut ary t he V andra, i t s kirts t he M atese, m eets t he C alore, f lows t hrough C apua, ( the a ncient C asilinium), a nd c rosses t he r ich T erra d i L avoro o n i ts j ourney t o t he s ea. N ow m uch r educed i n v olume b y t he e ffect o f t he h ydro-electric p lant a t i ts s ource, t he ' storied V olturno', t he ' Samnite

s tream',

t his a rea,

o nce

n evertheless p layed a v ital p art i n t he h istory

t urbulent,

l ater p rosperous.

T his p aper s eeks

o f

t o w rite

t he h istory o f t he l and a round i ts u pper r eaches, c ombining t he n ew e vidence p rovided b y t he U niversity o f S heffield's f ield-survey w ith t he i nscriptions o f t he v alley a nd s cattered r eferences t o t he a rea i n t he a nciint l iterary s ources, t o i lluminate a h itherto o bscure a rea o f S amnium.

I

b egin b y c onsidering t he i mportance o f t he

a rea

a round

V enafro, w hich s eems t o b e e ssential f or t he p roper u nderstanding o f t he u pper p art o f t he V olturno; t hen c onsider i n t urn t he i ndividual a reas

i nvestigated d uring

T he V enafro a rea; ( i)

t he c ourse o f

t he S an V incenzo S urvey.

a g eographical h istory

T he V olturno v alley a s a r oute b etween C ampania a nd A bruzzi/Molise T he

c left

c ut b y t he V olturno i n t he h igh

m ountains

s eparating

L azio a nd C ampania f rom t he M olise i s c learly t he k ey t o t he s ignific ance o f t he p osition o f V enafro, w hich s its e xactly o n t he r oute f rom t he t owns o f C ampania t o b oth t he A bruzzi t o t he n orth, v ia t he u pper V olturno v alley, a nd t he c entral p lain o f S amnium t o t he e ast, v ia I sernia. B oth r outes a re f ollowed b y m odern r oads; s trada f rom V enafro t o C astel d i S angro i s b uilt

t hough t he s upero n h uge c oncrete

p illars a nd i gnores t he l andscape, t he o ld r oad, v ia P izzone c rosses t he w atershed a bove A lfedena a nd d escends t o t he S angro v alley f rom t here. E ven a t a n e arly s tage, t he l inks b etween t he S angro v alley a nd C ampania s eem c lear; 4 th c entury B C f ibulae o f a t ype c ommon i n C ampania V enafro)

h ave

b een

f ound

a nd a t A lfedena.

D uring

t he

i n c emeteries a t P ozzilli

( to

t he

e ast

o f

2

R oman h egemony

i n t he a rea,

h owever,

t he I sernia

-

C astel d i S angro - S tqmona r oute s eems t o h ave b een t he m ore i mportant r oute t o t he n orth ;J t he c hoice o f t he C astel d i S angro s ite f or t he R oman municipium i n t he t erritory o f t he A ufidenates ( as o pposed t o t he o ppidum a t t he m odern A lf9dena, o r a ny o f t he o thers i n t he a rea) r einforces

t his

i mpression." ' 213

H owever, t he

p erhaps m ore s ignificant w as

t he r oute f rom C ampania i nto

h igh c entral p lain o f S amnium v ia V enafro a nd I sernia ;

e specially

a fter t he f oundation o f t he L atin c olony a t A esernia i n 2 63 B C l ed t o t he t own b ecoming t he m ajor c entre f or R oman r oads i n S amnium. V enafrum, t oo, o ccupied a n odal p osition i n t he R oman r oad-system o f t he a rea; a lthough t he V ia L atina s eems t o h ave b y-passed t he t own i tself o n i ts w ay

t o T eanum a nd C asilinum,

V enafrum w as

c onnected w ith

i t b y m eans o f d iverticula; f rom A d F lexum ( S. P ie ro i n F ine) t o t he n orth a nd A d R ufras ( nr. P resenzano) t o t he s outh. T his r oute a long t he V olturno v alley f rom S amnium t o C ampania w e k now t o h ave b een a m ajor p oint o f c onflict b etween R omans a nd S amnites d uring t he S amnite w ars;

i n

2 96 B C,

C ales, a nd v alley. 6 ( ii)

f or i nstance,

t hen r eturned

t he S amnites s acked

t he a rea

t o S amnium w ith t heir l oot v ia t he

a round V olturno

T he i mportance o f V enafro A n

i nteresting p iece o f

V enafrum

i n

s pecific e vidence f or t he k ey p osition o f

t he r oad n etwork c omes

f rom

C icero,

w ho

d escribes

h oy

P ompey t ravelled f rom T eanum t o L arinum b ut ' eo d ie m ansit V enafro'. T he t own's p rosperity s eems t o h ave b een l inked t o i ts p osition o n t he b order b etween C ampania a nd S amnkum ; o fficially, d espite i ts h aving b een a S amnite t own o riginally, i t s eems t o p .ve b een c onsidered a t own o f C ampania. P liny s peaks o f i t a s s uch, a s d oes P tolemy, w ho r efers t o V enafrum, T eanum , S uessa, C ales a nd s ix o ther t owns a s ' inland t owns o f t he C ampanians ' . 10 S tra o c learly d istinguishes V enafrum f rom S amnite A llifae a nd A esernia, 1 t hough o ther p assages i n h is t ext s eem t o b e c oncerned m ore w ith t he p osition o f V enafrum i n r elation c entury,

t o o ther t owns o r a reas h e w ishes t o d iscuss. 12 I n t he h owever, w e f ind e vidence f or t he i nvolvement o f

p raeses S amnii d amage c aused i n A D 3 44. 15 b oundaries,

4 th t he

i n t he t own's a ffairs, K9bably a s a c onsequence o f t o t he t own b y a n e arthquake L 4 - p ossibly t hat r ecorded W hether t his i mplies a f ormal c hange i n r egional

r ather

t han a n o bligation o n t he p raeses t o h elp a ll

t he

a fflicted a reas, i s p erhaps d ebatable. T he e ssential a spect t o n ote i s t hat V enafrum s tood o n t he v ery e dge o f C ampanian a nd S amnite t erritory, o n a m ajor r oute i nto t he i nterior. H owever, i t w ould b e a m istake t o u nderestimate t he i mportance t o t he l ocal i nhabitants o f t his l ocal

t ype o f i nstitutional q uestion ; t here w as e vidently c onsiderable c oncern w hen V enafro w as t ransferred f rom t he p rovincia o f T erra

d i L avoro T o c es t o

t o t hat o f M olise i n 1 861!

j udge

1 6

f rom t he a ccount w e c an c ompile

f rom t he v arious r eferen-

t o t he t erritory o f V enafrum i n C ato, i t w ould s eem , e conomically, h ave b een v ery m uch p art o f t he s outhern L atium/northern C ampania

a rea. C ato ( who m ay h ave o wned a n e state s omewhere a round C assino) r ecommends t he p urchase o f s hovels t iles a nd r opes a t V enafrum ; 1 7 a t own k nown f or V enafrum a rea c ontract o ver

i ts ' ager o ptimus'. 1 T he c haracteristic s eems t o h ave b een t he o live ( Cato o ffers

f or o live-growing l and),

t he R oman w orld.

i n t he

1 9

T he

a nd V enafran o live o il w as k nown a ll

i mplication m ust b e

t erritory o f V enafrum w as

p roduct o f t he u s a s pecimen

t hat o live

o rganised e fficiently,

p roduction

a nd o n a l arge

s cale; p robably m aking c onsiderable u se o f s lave l abour. P resumably t he o lives w ere g rown o n t he h illsides s loping d own t o t he v alleyb ottom, m uch a s t hey a re t oday. A R oman o live-press w as f ound i n e xcavations a t P ozzilli.

2 0

214

W ine a lso

s eems t o h ave b een p roduced i n t he a rea f or

o utside i t. 21 well-exploited

c onsumption

A ltogether, V enafrum a ppears t o h ave h ad a r ich a nd t erritory; i t i s a fter a ll s aid b y C icero t o h ave b een

c eleberrimus. 22 E vidently i t h ad m ore i n c ommon w ith t he C ampanian p lains t han t he S amnite u plands. A nalysis o f t he i nscriptions o f V enafrum t ends t o c onfirm t his i mpression. C ertain i mportant i ndividuals a rea ; most

a re f ound t o h ave h eld o ffice i n m ore t han o ne t own i n t he o f t he e xamples o f t his p henomenon c ome f rom t he s econd

c entury A D. F or i nstance, S ex. P ulfennius S alutaris, a fter a n e questrian m ilitary c areer, b ecame c urator o f t he c alen prium o f S uessa A urunca, c urator t empli e t a rcae V itrasianae a t C ales' 3 a nd p atronus o f t he c olony o f V enafrum. T he P ulfennii e vidently f ormed a n i mportant f amily a t V enafrum ; t he c learly r elated S ex. P ulfennius S alutaris M . Luccius V alerius S everus P lotius C ilo w as a l p p atronus o f t he c ity a fter b eing q uaestor p ro p raetore i n A chaea. 24 S imilarly t he c itizens o f I nteramna L irenas s et u p a d edication t o L . G abinius C osmianus, w ho i s c urator r ei p ublicge a t A letrium a nd I nteramna, a nd a dvocatus o f V enafrum a nd C asinum . A t a l ower l evel, S extus P ublicianus B athyllus w as A ugustalis b oth a t V enafrum a nd a t P uteoll. 26 I t t hus s eems c lear t hat t he l ocal a ristocracy o f V enafrum w as c losely i nvolved i n t he a ffairs o f o ther n earby c ities t oo, a nd m ight b e c onsidered p art o f a ' Campanian a ristocracy r ather t han a ' Samnite' o ne. T herefore, t hough V enafrum h ad l inks w ith S amnium, i t s eems t o h ave l ooked t o t he w est m ore t han t o t he e ast. T he V olturno v alley: m ent T he

l iterary

t he l iterary a nd e pigraphic e vidence f or s ettle-

s ources

s eem c lear in7 t heir v iew t hat

t he

S amnites

l ived i n s cattered v illages a nd h amlets, z o n f ortified h illtops o r o n t he p lains, p roviding c entres f or t he e xploitation o f t he s urrounding c ountryside, o f i t

f or s tock-rearing o r a rable f arming.

O ften t he p rosperity

t he p agus o r v icus w as l inked t o t he e xploitation o f c ommunal l and, w ould s eem. C onveniently, o ne o f t he a reas i n w hich t his t ype o f

i nsediamento p aganico-vicanico h as b een m ost t horoughly i nvestigated a buts o nto t he a rea c onsidered i n t his p aper; t hat i s, t he u pper S angro v alley a round A lfedena a nd C astel d i S angro. T here w e f ind a w hole s eries o f f ortified s ites ( seven o r m ore 28 ) ; i ncluding t hose a t C ampo C onsolino a bove t he m odern v illage o f A lfedena, a nd t hat a bove C astel d i S angro. E xcavations a t A lfedena ( of t he a ncient s ettlement a nd t he c emetery) w ould s uggest t hat t he s ettlement 00 t he s ite l asted i n o ne f orm o r o ther u ntil t he m id 2 nd c entury A D, 29 e ven t hough t he R oman m unicipium o f

A ufidena s eems

t o h ave b een a t C astel d i

S angro;

i t w ould

s eem t hat t he R omans s elected o ne o f t he v arious o ppida i n t he u pper S angro v alley t o b e t he a dministrative c entre f or t he a rea, a nd t he c hoice d evolved u pon t he C astel d i S angro s ite b ecause o f i ts p osition o n t he r oad b etween S ulmona a nd I sernia ( see n ote 3 ). K ey p oints t o n ote h ere a re l ate s tage I s

t he m ultiplicity o f s ites a long t he v alley a nd t he f airly

t o w hich t races

t here

V olturno v alley?

o f

t he v icus - b ased s ystem s urvived.

e vidence t o s uggest a p arallel s ituation i n T he e pigraphic e vidence w ould s eem t o

s everal i nscriptions r ecording ' quasi-municipal'

t he

u pper

s uggest s o,

b usiness,

a s

f or e xample

p ublic b uilding, a re f ound i n d ifferent p arts o f t he t erritory o f V enafrum . T he b est e xample i s t hat o f R ufrae, s ituated o n t he V ia L atina; t he s ite, n ear t he m odern P resenzano, h as p roduced a s eries o f i nscriptions 3o a nd i s a lso m entioned o ccasionally i n t he l iterary 2 15

s ources. 31

C learly t he v icus p rospered a s a r esult o f i ts p roximity t o t he m ain r oad, b ut i t w as e vidently a n o ppidum i n i ts o wn r ight b efore t he R oman r oad w as b uilt. V enafrum, t oo, s eems t o h ave b een a

f ortified

o ppidum ;

u pper p art

o f

r emains

t he t own,

o f c yclopaean m asonry w ere

f ound

a nd t he e arliest s ettlement s eems

i n

t he

t o h ave b een

w here t he c astello n ow s tands. F urther t o t he e ast, t here s eems t o b e e vidence f or a n i ndependent v icus a t C apriati a V olturno, w hich h ad i ts o wn a queduct, 32 w hile a t P ozzilli, e xcavation r evealed a n e xtensive c emetery, e i m ore r ecently, t races o f a n a rea o f h abitation h ave b een

d

d iscovered. T he s ettlement i s o n t he p lain, c lose t o t he V enafroI sernia r oad. S imilarly w e m ight h ypothesise t he e xistence o f a s ettlement n ear t he m odern § , M aria d ell' O liveto w here t he V enafrum a queduct e dict w as f ound; i ti ts eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat a m onument o f t his k ind w ould h ave b een e rected o nly w here a c onsiderable n umber o f A t uary,

p eople w ould h ave b een a ble t o

s ee i t.

c haracteristic f eature o f S amnite c ulture w as t he r ural s ancs erving t he a rea o f c ountryside a round, p erhaps f or a nnual

f estivals. p articular e xception ;

S ometimes

a

s anctuary m ay h ave b een

a ssociated

w ith

s tand t he r emains o f o ne s uch s anctuary-site, u nder t he c hapel o f M adonna d ella L ibera. 35 I t s eems t o d ate t o t he l ate 2 nd/early c entury

B C;

a

v icus, o r p agus. T he V enafrum a rea s eems t o h ave b een n o i n a n o live g rove j ust o utside t he m odern t own o f V enafro

w hether o r n ot

t he i st

i t c ontinued i n u se w hen V enafrum b ecame a

c olony u nder A ugustus i s n ot c lear, i n t he a bsence o f e xcavation a t t he s ite, b ut a p arallel f or c ontinued u se i s t he s ituation a t S ulmo, w here t he r ural s hrine o f H ercules C urinus w as ' taken o ver b y t he m unicipal a uthorities, a nd s o e scaped t he a bandonment s uffered b y m any o ther S amnite s anctuaries d uring t his p eriod. 3b A nother s anctuary i n t he a rea, n ot y et i dentified a rchaeol3eically, w as t hat o f t he M agna M ater, a ttested b y t he L iber C oloniarum ; s imilarly a t S esto C ampano, V enafrum a nd R ufrae, t he l imina a ttested, b uilt b y o ne S ex. L epos, I t

m ust t hus

A ufidena,

p resumably h ave b een f or a s hrine. s eems c lear t hat t he c ontained

t he

3 8

t erritory o f V enafrum,

i solated

v illages

b etween H erius

a nd

r ural

l ike t hat

o f

s anctuaries

c haracteristic o f S amnite s ettlement - i n s o f ar a s w e c an t ell f rom t he f ragmentary e pigraphic e vidence. U nfortunately, i t i s d ifficult t o s ee h ow t he v ici c hanged i n r esponse t o t he a rrival o f ' capitalist' a griculture i n t he V olturno v alley, i n t he a bsence o f e xcavation a t a ny o f t hese s ites. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote, t hough, t hat t he v ici a t R ufrae a nd C apriati a V olturno h ad r esidents w ith r esources a nd l ocal p atriotism e nough t o b uild a queducts t he i st c entury B C; s ide-by-side, p erhaps

f or t heir v ici e ven a t t he e nd

o f

i t t hus l ooks a s i f v ici a nd l arge f arms e xisted e xploiting d ifferent t ypes a nd a reas o f t erritory

s imultaneously. T he u pper p art o f t he v alley W hich t erritory? B efore c onsidering t he s urvey-evidence f rom t he u pper p art o f t he v alley, i t w ould b e w orth p ausing t o c onsider t he q uestion o f i ts t erritorial a dscription; w as t he R occhetta p lain, f or'instance, i n t he t erritory o f V enafrum ; o r i f n ot, i n w hich t erritory w as i t? A t f irst s ight w e m ight e xpect t he a rea a round t he s ource o f t he V olturno t o b elong t o t he t erritory o f V enafrum, g iven t hat t he V olturno s upplied 2 16

t he V enafro a queduct w ith w ater; w e m ight r easonably e xpect a c ity t o o btain i ts w ater-supply f rom i ts o wn t erritory. H owever, v arious c onsiderations i nstead s uggest a p ossible a dscription o f t he S an V incenzo a rea t o A ufidena o r A esernia. c onsidered

T he t hree p ossibilities m ust b e

i n t urn.

V enafrum? T he w ater-supply a rgument l oses i ts f orce w hen w e c onsider t hat a p ossible s ource o f w ater n earer V enaf r um w as a pparently i gnored i n f avour o f t he V olturno. 39 F urthermore, a c omparable p roject, t he S erino a queduct s upplying t he t owns o f C ampania, b uilt b y O ctavian i n t he l ate 3 0's/early 2 0's B C,

w hich w as a pparently c rosses t he t erri-

t ories o f s everal c ities e n r oute f rom t he S erino v alley t o M isenum. 40 P resumably, t he i ntervention o f O ctavian h elped s olve t he a dministrat ive p roblems w hich w ould h ave r esulted f rom t he b uilding o f a c hannel a cross t he t erritories o f s o m any i mportant t owns. H ence t he q uestion; I f s uch a n a rrangement c ould b e m ade t o w ork i n t he c ase o f t he S erino a queduct, w hy n ot a t V enafrum? A part f rom t he a queduct a nd t he l inking p resence o f t he V olturno, t here i s n o o ther e vidence t o l ink t he S an V incenzo a rea w ith V enaf r um. A ufidena? A ufidena

s eems

t o

b e a

p ossibility,

b ecause

t wo

i nscriptions

r ecording t he t ribe i n w hich t he m ajority o f A ufidenates w ere e nrolled h ave b een f ound o n t he R occhetta P lain - t hat i s t he t ribe V oltinia. H owever, t he m ain o bjection t o s eeing t he S an V incenzo a rea a s p art o f t he t erritory o f A ufidena i s t he h igh m ountain-ridge w hich h as t o b e c rossed, i n o rder t o r each t he S angro V alley ; a nd t he f act t hat t he t erritorial ' capital w as o f c ourse a t C astel d i S angro, c onsiderably f urther p lained

a way. a way,

H ow a re t he m entions o f t he t ribe V oltinia t o b e t hen , i f w e a re t o r eject t he A ufidena a dscription?

e xT he

t wo m ust b e c onsidered i n t urn. T he f irst o f t hese, C IL I X 2 697, i s t he t ombstone o f C n. A franius C n. f . V ol. P riscus S abinianus, e rected b y h is f ather C n. A franius S abinus. I nteresti uly, a nother m ember o f t he A franius f amily i s a ttested a t A esernia a long w ith A bullia U tia, w ho c leayly s eems t o b e r elated t o A bullius U tius, a c urator v iae u nder H adrian 4h a nd a b enef actor o f A esernia. 43 W e m ay t herefore s urmise t hat A franius w as a m an o f s ome

o f

i mportance,

w ith c onnections

i n A esernia.

A s econd i nscription r ecords o ne C . H erius S abinus - a lso a m ember t he t ribe V oltinia, b ut s pecifica ly s aid t o h ave b een a s evir

( Augustalis, p resumably) a t A esernia. 4 I ronically, w e m ight e xpect t he s pecific m ention o f t he t own A esernia h ere t o i ndicate t hat w e a re h ere n ot i n t he t erritory o f A esernia, o n t he g rounds t hat t he r eference t o t he t own w ould b e o tiose i n t hat c ase. H owever, a s tone f ound i n I sernia i tself 45 c ommemorates a I V v ir A eserniae; a lso, i nterestingly, a m ember o f t he t ribe V oltinia. W hat a re w e t o m ake o f t he m atter, t hen? P erhaps t he b est e xplanation i s t hat t he s pecific r eferences t o A esernia a re i ncluded b ecause t he i ndividuals c ommemorated w ere n ot m embers o f

t he n ormal A esernia t ribe,

T romentina,

b ut h ad m oved t o A esernia ( or i ts t erritory) f rom e lsewhere i n S amnium: a part f rom t he p eople o f A esernia, a L atin c olony w hose R oman c itizens b elonged

t o T romentina,

a nd a f ew o ther c ities, 2 17

t he r emainder o f

t he

S amnites s eem t o h ave b een e nrolled i n V oltinia a fter t he S ocial W ar. " T hus H erius m ight h ave m oved f rom A uf i dena, B ovianum, S aepinum o r s ome o ther M aius

S amnite m unicipium t o C lemens) t o A esernia,

t ional

( and

i nteresting)

t he R occhetta p lain; o r s omewhere i n i ts

f urther p ossibility i s

a nd t he I V v ir ( C. t erritory. A n a ddit hat

i n a reas

s uch

a s

t his t erritorial a dscription d id n ot m ean v ery m uch t o t he i nhabitants o f a c ommunity o r o f a n a rea f ar f rom t he c apital o f t he t erritory; a nd t hat t he r emnants o f t he i ndependence o f p agi o r v ici m eant t hat a m an w as i dentified m ore w ith t he l ocal d istrict t han w ith t he n earest m unicipium . T herefore, d espite t he f act t hat t he i ndividuals m entioned i n t he t wo i nscriptions b elonged t o t he t ribe V oltinia, i t s eems l ikely t hat t heir c onnections w ere w ith A esernia, r ather t han w ith A ufidena. A esernia? T he d irect t he c learest a ntiquity p art f or t hat v iew t he s ame s tone

l ink a ttested h ere b y H erius

s evirate p rovides p erhaps

e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he S an V incenzo a rea w as i n o f t he t erritory o f A esernia ; w hile a dditional s upport c omes f rom t he f act t hat a n O ffillia i s c ommemorated o n a s H erius; n umerous O ffilliae a re a ttested a t A esernia,

b ut n ote o ne a t V enafrum. 4/ O ne H erius i s r ecorded a t S esto C am2ano ( see n ote 3 8), b ut t he f amily s eems t o h ave o riginated i n A tina," ° o n t he o ther s ide o f t he w atershed f rom t he u pper V olturno b asin. I f

t he R occhetta p lain i s c onsidered t o b e p art o f

t he

t erritory

o f A esernia, t hen a f urther p roblem r emains; h ow f ar d own t he V olturno d id t he t erritory o f A esernia e xtend? H ere t he t opography o f t he a rea m ight p rofitably b e m entioned; t here i s a s ignificant - g orge' a t C olli aV olturno w here t he r iver c uts b etween M onte S an P aolo a nd t he h ill o n w hich C olli s tands, w hich m ight r easonably r epresent t he d ividing l ine b etween t he t wo t erritories. S everal i nscriptions w ere d iscovered a round S capoli, t he n orth-west

p resumably f rom v illas o verlooking t he R io A cquoso, t o o f t he ' gorge' a t C olli, a nd t he i ndividuals t here

r ecorded s eem t o h ave l inks w ith A esernia r ather t han V enafrum . 2 695 a nd 2 696 c ommemorate C . A finius 3 .1. A ntiochus a nd C . S pun i f . S purius r espectively ; a re r elated t o A finia P hieris,

C IL I X A finius

i t s eems c lear t hat t hese i ndividuals s acerdos, r ecorded o n a n i nscription

d iscovered d uring t he c ourse o f t he c urrent e xcavations o f t he a bbey o f S an V inc wo. I t i s i lluminating t hat f urther A finii t urn u p a t A esernia,"' o ne o f w hom i s a V I v ir A ugustalis. 50 A gain t here a re A finii k nown f rom V enaf r um. C IL I X 2 730, t he t ombstone o f

n o P .

M odioleius M . f . S extanus, o f t he t ribe T romentina - t he t ribe o f t he m ajority o f A esernians - w ould s eem t o p rovide f urther e vidence f or a n A esernian l ink . T he a rea s urveyed; 1 )

a r egional a nalysis

T he R occhetta P lain

T he s ource o f

( proportion s urveyed a pproximately 1 00%)

s o-called R occhetta p lain e xtends t o t he n orth-east o f t he t he V olturno, t owards t he a bbey o f S an V incenzo; b eyond w hich

t he r iver c urves s harply, d elimiting t he p lain o n i ts n orth a nd e ast s ides, t hen f lowing s outhward i n t he d irection o f V enafro. I t i s v ery f ertile,

a nd

T he t he

r idge

i ntensively f armed.

R oman s ettlements i n t he a rea o f a t

i ts e ast/south-east e dge, 2 18

t he p lain s trikingly p resumably

b ecause

f ollow o f

t he

p lain's

d ampness

i n a ntiquity.

I t s eems c lear

t hat u ntil

t he

E NEL

e lectrical p lant a t t he s ource o f t he V olturno w as b uilt i n t he 1 930 s, t he R occhetta p lain w as r egularly f looded, b ecause o f t he c opious s pring c rosses

f orming t he r iver a nd t he s hallow g radient o f t he s tream a s t he p lain. E ven t oday t here a re f ew h ouses b uilt o n i t.

i t

P robably t he m ost i mportant s ite o n t he p lain i n a ntiquity w as t hat l ater o ccupied b y t he e arly h ediaeval a bbey. O n t he s ame s ite, w hich c ontrols a ccess t o t he p lain f rom t he n orth ( perhaps t he e asiest a ccess r oute) s tood a L ate R oman v illa c omplex, i tself p receded b y a l arge s ite o f R epublican d ate, e xtending o n b oth s ides o f t he r iver. T his l ast i s n otable b oth f or i ts s ize a nd f or t he r ich s catter b lack-glaze p ottery w hich i dentified i t. T est t renches e xcavated 1 983

r evealed

a

r ubble a nd m ortar s urface

o ver

t he

n atural

o f i n

r ock,

a ssociated w ith p ottery o f R epublican d ate. T his s urface h ad e vidently b een o pen t o t he a ir, a nd m ay h ave b een s ome k ind o f y ard. U nder t he C rypt C hurch a nd i n a rea ' G ( to t he s outh), s ubstantial f oundation w alls h ave b een d iscovered, w ith R epublican p ottery.

p arallel t o e ach o ther; a gain T he i mplication m ust b e t hat

m edieval m onastery o verlies a n e arlier b uilding o f T he

s ize

o f t his R epublican p eriod s ite,

a ssociated t he e arly

s ome i mportance.

a nd t he c ontinuity

o f

s ettlement h ere, w ould s uggest t hat t he R occhetta p lain a nd i ts s urroundings r epresented a r esource o f s ome i mportance; t he s ite s eems m ore f itted t o t he a gricultural e xploitation o f t he p lain t hat i ts d efence. A nalogies

B ut h ow w as t his r esource e xploited f rom o ther p arts o f S amnium w ould s uggest

m ay

h ave b een i mportant

w ell

d iscuss

t he p ossibi 4ty o f

i n t he a rea ;

i n R oman t imes? t hat t ranshumance

a nd C ato

d oes,

i n

f act,

t ranshumance b etween t he L azio p lain a nd

t he

C entral A ppennines. J M oreover, b ronze s tatuettes o f H ercules, o f a t ype a ssociated w ith t ratturi ( drove-roads) e lsewhere i n S amnium, h ave b een f ound i n t he V enafro a rea. 5Z I t w as t he u pper s lopes o f t he h ills o verlooking

t he p lain w hich w ould h ave p rovided

t he b est p asture;

t he

p lain i tself w ould p robably h ave b een u sed f or a rable f arming f or p art o f t he y ear w hen i t w as n ot w aterlogged. I t

i s

t empting t o i dentify t he R epublican s ite w here

m ediaeval a bbey l ater s tood w ith a v icus o r v illage,

t he

t hat

e arly

w hich a long w ith a

s eries o f s mall v illas a long t he r idge, e xploited t he a rable l and o f t he p lain, b ut a lso c ollected r evenue f rom t he t ranshumant f locks u sing t he h igher p astures. 53 T his h ypothesis i tself, e xplain f ully e ither t he s ubstantial f oundations,

h owever, o r t he

d oes n ot r emarkable

w ealth o f t he p ottery f inds o n t he s ite. T here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat t here m ay h ave b een a s anctuary i n t he a rea o f t he p lain; a r ecently d iscovered i nscription r ecords a v otive o ffering b y A finia P hieris, a s acerdos, w hile C IL I X 2 652 s eems t o p rovide r egulations f or a s anctuary. C IL I X 2 661, a t ravertine b lock f ound i n t he a rea, a lso p rovides e vidence f or l arge-scale b uilding; a ' quasi-municipal' i ns cription o f t he t ype p reviously d iscussed. I t t hus s eems p ossible t hat

t his

s anctuary w as

i n f act o n t he s ite l ater o ccupied b y t he e arly

m ediaeval a bbey, a nd, i ndeed, o f t he o ratory o f S an V incenzo d iscovered b y p aldo, T ato a nd T aso, t he f ounders o f t he m onastery. 5 4 S uch a n I dentification w ould h 2lp t o e xplain t he o therwise s urprising f eatures o f t he R epublican s ite.' 5 T he R epublic

s ituation

s eems

t o h ave c hanged

a nd t he e arly y ears o f t he E mpire. 2 19

i n t he l ast

y ears

o f

V ici i n S amnium s eem

t he t o

h ave

s uffered

a d ecline a round

t his

t ime,

a pparently m ade

w orse

b y

A ugustus p olicy o f e ncouraging t he m unicipia. C ertainly t he v icus a t t he S an V incenzo s ite s eems t o h ave b een i n d ecline b y t his t ime: s ome f ragments o f A rretine p ottery w ere fund i n t he f ields b etween t he l ate m edieval c hurch a nd t he V olturno.'" I t w ould s eem t hat t he e arly i mperial s ettlement w as m uch s maller t han t he v icus i t r eplaced; p erhaps i t w as o nly a s ingle v illa. A rretine w are i s f ound e lsewhere o n t he p lain, a nd t he m ajority o f t he i nscriptions f ound d ate f rom t he e arly E mpire - t he i nterrelationships b etween t he f amilies a ttested o n t hese s uggest t hat t hey f orm a c oherent b ody o f e pigraphic d ocumentat ion, a nd a re u nlikely t o h ave c ome f rom v ery f ar a way. U nder e arly E mpire w e m ust i magine a s eries o f m edium-sized v illas a round p lain, a gain e xploiting i ts p otential a s a rable l and.

s ites

t he t he

B y t he l ate E mpire, t he s ituation h ad c hanged c ompletely; o nly t wo o n t he p lain h ave p roduced A frican R ed S lip p ottery; o ne b eing

t he v illa-complex o n t he s ite o f t he e arlier v icus; w hich h ad o nce a gain b ecome t he f ocus o f t he p lain. A t s ome s tage b etween t he i st c entury a nd t he 4 th c entury A D, t he w idely a ttested p rocess o f e statea gglomeration t ook p lace.

I t s eems r easonable t o s uppose

t hat t he p ace

o f t his c hange m ay h ave b een s lower i n a n e conomically i solated a rea l ike t he u pper V olturno v alley, t han i n t he m ore r eadily a ccessible a reas o f C ampania a nd L atium . S capoli/

t he r oad t o A tina ( selected a reas o nly s urveyed)

T here s eems o f

t he v alley o f

t o h ave b een a R oman r oad l eading a long t he s outh s ide t he R io A cquoso,

w ith a s eries o f

f arms

s ituated a long

i ts. T wo o f t hese s ites f ound i n t he 1 980-81 f ield s urvey p roduced b lack-glaze w are, a nd e ight t erra s igillata; a nd a n i nscription w as d iscovered n ear t he r oad d uring q uarrying o perations. 5 7 P resumably t he r oad l ed u p f rom t he ' gorge' a t C olli a V olturno t o t he p ass o ver t he A tina a nd t he M elfa v alley. A s o n t he R occhetta p lain, t he s ettlements d isappear ( or a t l east d o n ot p roduce a ny f ine w are) a fter t he e arly E mpire. s outh o f

H owever, o nly a s mall p art o f t he l argely w ooded h illsides t he R io A cquoso w ere s urveyed, s o t he a bsence o f a l arge l ater

c entre s hould n ot c ause t oo m uch s urprise. d iscovered a nswer

d uring

t he

t his d escription;

V alle P orcina

M aybe t he c lassical r emains

r ecent c onservation o f

M adonna

d elle

G rotte

t he c hurch's n ame i s c ertainly s uggestive!

( approximately 5 0% s urveyed)

T he a rea s eems t o c ontain a s eries o f s mall b y b lack g laze, b ut o ne b y t erra s igillata a lone.

f arms - m ostly d ated T he f ield s urvey h as

p roduced n o e vidence f or a m ajor c entre f or t he a rea i n t he l ater p eriod, b ut g iven t he p artial c overage t his m ay n ot b e t oo s ignificant. T he s ite k nown a s ' le G rotte', d ated t o t he R epublican p eriod, i s c learly a s ite o f s ome i mportance, t hough. T o t he e ast, t wo i nscript ions a re k nown f rom S . M aria d elle G razie; o ne r ecording O ffillii, a n ame

a lready

f amiliar

M unatius C rispus, C astelvecchio N otable

o f

t ribe T romentina.

a nother a ttesting

o ne

M .

5 8

( approximately 7 5% s urveyed) p rimarily f or e asy a ccess

l arge e state-complex, A frican

f rom S an V incenzo

t he

R ed S lip.

t o V enafro,

w hich p roduced b lack g laze, A nother o f

t he f ew s ites 2 20

a nd a p articularly t erra s igillata a nd

i n t he v alley t o

p roduce

A frican R ed S lip w as n ear C olle C astellano,

a nother e xample o f a

l ate

R oman s ite n ear a n e arlier S amnite s ettlement. T he C astelvecchio a rea i s n otable f or t he n umber o f s ites f ound; p erhaps b etter l and t here ( and e asier a ccess t o t he V ia L atina, A esernia a nd b eyond) l ed t o e arlier f arming

h ence t he m arkets o f V enafrum, a gglomeration a nd ' capitalist

i n t his a rea .

S elvone/Pantano b asin ( approximately 9 0% s urveyed) A f lat b asin s urrounded b y h ills;

a p articularly i nteresting a rea

b ecause o f i ts i ndependence a nd i solation, i t a ppears t o h ave b een p art o f t he t erritory o f V enafrum. T he a nalogies w ith t he R occhetta p lain a re i nteresting; b oth w ere s urveyed a lmost t otally, t hat h ere a lso s ettlement a voided t he b asin i tself;

a nd i ts

i t i s n ame

c lear w ould

s uggest t hat i t w as t oo d amp f or b uilding t o t ake p lace. T he b asin s eems t o h ave b een a s ingularly p oor a rea, b eing n otable b y t he s tandards o f t he s urvey f or t he a bsence o f f inewares. O ne s ite i s m arked b y t erra s igillata, a nother b y b lack g laze a nd A frican R ed S lip; p erhaps t he s urvivor ( as o n t he R occhetta p lain t ) a s a gglomeration t ook p lace.

O ne i nscription w as f ound i n t he b asin.

5

C onclusions W orthy o f p articular n ote i s t he a pparent p overty o f V olturno v alley. T here i s o nly a h andful o f l arge s ites,

t he u pper a nd v ery

l ittle f ine w are h as b een f ound - i n t he c ase o f A frican R ed S lip, o nly a f ew f ragments. T he e xception t o t his p attern, o f c ourse, i s t he L ate R oman s ite a t S an V incenzo o n t he R occhetta p lain. S imilarly v ery f ew a mphora f ragments w ere f ound. T he i mpression w e g ain o f t he i solat ion o f t he u pper p art o f t he v alley i s r einforced b y t he e vidence f or t he s urvival o f a v icus-based s ettlement p attern t o a l ate s tage, p erhaps i nto t he E mpire. L inked w ith t he s urvival o f t he v icus i s t he e xistence o f a n a gricultural s ystem a pparently b ased u pon t ranshumant e xploitation a nd s ubsistence a griculture, a gain u ntil a f airly l ate s tage; l ater

f ollowed b y s tage b ecame

U nfortunately,

a s eries o f m edium-sized f arms w hich a t a gglomerated i nto a s eries o f l arge

a s till e states.

t his p rocess c annot y et b e c learly d ocumented.

I t

i s

w orth d rawing a ttention t o t he d istinction b etween t he s ituation a round t he R occhetta p lain a nd t hat, s ay, a round C astelvecchio, n earer V enafro. T he s urvey e vidence w ould s uggest t hat t he C astelvecchio a rea, w ell p laced f or a ccess t o t he V ia L atina, A esernia, V enafrum a nd C ampania,

w as m uch m ore c losely i nvolved

i n t he ' capitalist' e conomy o f

t he V enafro p lain, d iscussed e arlier, t han t he a reas f urther u p t he V olturno v alley, w hich w ere e conomically m uch m ore b ackward. T he S an V incenzo

S urvey

t hus

a llows u s

t o o bserve c losely a nd

b etter u nderstanding o f a n a rea o f a nd a n o bscure c orner o f S amnium ;

t o c ome

t o

a

t ransition: a n o utpost o f C ampania, a nd t he r esults r eflect t his q uite

c learly. W e m ay w ell w onder w hether H orace's R egulus, ' tendens V enafranos i n a gros' h ad i n m ind t he l arge o live-growing e states o f t he V enafro p lain, o r t he ' rusticorum m ascula m ilitum p roles, S abellis d octa

l igonibus v ersare g lebas...'

o f

2 21

t he u pper V olturno V alley. 60

N otes I a m v ery g rateful

t o P eter H ayes,

w ho d irected t he S an

V incenzo

s urvey i n 1 980-81; t o A manda C laridge w ho h as e xcavated s everal t renc hes i n t he r epublican v icus a t S an V incenzo, t o R ichard H odges a nd J ohn M itchell f or v aluable d iscussions o f t hese q uestions. l ike t o a lso t hank M ichael C rawford a nd N icholas P urcell h elpful c omments o n a n e arlier d raft o f t his p aper. 1 .

F or p revious d iscussions o f

t he e pigraphy o f

t he a rea,

I s hould f or t heir

s ee e speci-

a lly: G . C otugno M emorie s toriche d i V enafro ( Naples, 1 824); R . G arrucci, V enafro i llustrata c oll a iuto d elle l apidi a ntiche ( Rome 1 874); F . P . L ucenteforte, M onografia f isico- e conomico-morale d i V enafro ( Cassino, 1 877-1880); S . D iebner, A esernia-Venafrum ( Rome, 1 979); 2 .

A .

V iti,

R es P ublica A eserninorum ( Isernia,

O n t he f ibulae, s ee: G . G uadagno, ' Su u n t ipo d i f ibula d el I V s ec. a .C.', A tti d el s econdo c onvegno s ulla p reistoria-protostoria e s toria d ella D aunia ( San S evero, 1 980), 2 23-46. O n P ozzilli-Alfedena l inks: p oli d i C ampo C onsolino', s ec.

3 .

1 982).

T .

a .C.

( Rome,

M ommsen,

1 980),

F . P arise B adoni, " Alfedena , l a n ecroS annio - P entri e F rentani d al V I a l I

8 4-106

C IL I X ( Berlin,

( esp. 8 8).

1 883),

2 03-4.

S ee:

C IL I X 2 802

= I LS

5 896. 4 .

O n t he s ite o f A ufidena: A . L a R egina, ' Note s ulla f ormazione d el c entri u rbani i n a rea s abellica', A tti d el c onvegno d i s tudi s ulla c ittä e trusca e i talica p reromana ( Bologna, 1 970), 1 91-207 ( esp. 2 00-202).

5 .

O n t he r oad-system a round V enafrum : T . M ommsen, C IL X ( Berlin, 1 883), 6 99; H . N issen, I talische L andeskunde ( Berlin, 1 902), 7 969 7; K . M uller, I tineraria R omana ( Stuttgart, 1 916), c ol. 3 71; O . C untz

( ed.),

' Venafro',

I tineraria R omana I ( Leipzig, Q uaderni d ell'

v ersitä d i R oma, 6 .

L ivy X ,

2 0.6.

7 .

C icero,

A d A tt.

8 .

E .T.

S almon,

I ( 1964),

V II,

1 3a.

1 916),

4 5;

L a R egina,

I stituto d i T opografia A ntica d ell' 5 5-67

( esp.

U ni-

5 5).

3 .

S amnium a nd t he S amnites ( Cambridge,

1 967),

2 90-91.

F or t he o ld t own: A .Maiuri, ' Venafro, i scrizioni o sche', N Sc. ( 1913), 4 05-7. F or t he C yclopaean w alls: L a R egina, ' Venafro' ( note 5 ), 9 .

6 3-64.

P liny, N H. I II, e x d iscriptione d icta,

A quinum,

1 0.

G eog.

I II,

1 1.

G eog.

V ,

3 .10.

1 2.

G eog.

V ,

4 .3;

5 . 6 3: ' regio e a aT iberi p rima I taliae s ervatur A ugusti. I ntus c oloniae C apua a b X L p . c ampo

S uessa, V enafrum,

1 .59.

4 .4;

4 .11.

2 22

S ora

1 3. C IL. X , S amnii). 1 4. R .

4 858

T homsen,

( praeses S amnii);

T he I talic R egions

C IL.

X ,

4 863 ( rector p rovinciae

( Copenhagen,

1 947),

e arthquake d amaged A llifae a nd A esernia ( CIL I X, C IL IX, 2 638), a s w ell a s V enafrum ( CIL X , 4 858).

2 13-217.

2 338 = I LS

T he 5 588,

1 5. E . C apocci, ' Catalogo d e t remuoti a vvenuti n ella p arte c ontinent ale d el R egno d elle D ue S icilie', A tti R . I st. d 'Incoraggiamento a lle S cienze N aturali I X ( Naples, 1 6. F .P. 1 7.

L ucenteforte,

C ato,

1 861),

M onografia ( note 1 ),

D e R e R ustica,

1 35,

3 37-378. 1 3.

1 36.

O n p alae: K .D. W hite, A gricultural I mplements o f t he R oman W orld ( Cambridge, 1 967), 1 7-20. O n f unes t orcularii: K .D. ( Cambridge, 1 975), 3 -4. F or C ato's e states: t ics 1 8. 1 9.

( Brussels,

C ato,

I .

1 975),

D e R e R ustica,

a re

H orace,

F arm e quipment o f t he R oman W orld

S hatzman,

S enatorial W ealth a nd R oman P oli-

2 58-59.

1 36.

F or C ato's c ontract: T here

W hite,

D e R e R ustica,

n umerous m entions o f

O des I I, 6 .

1 3-16,

3 1; J uvenal, S at. V , 8 6; G eog. V , 4 .3. 2 0. L a R egina,

' Venafro'

S at.

C icero,

P ro P lancio,

2 3. C IL,

X , 4 873

2 4.

C IL.

X , 4 864.

2 5.

C IL.

X , 4 860

2 6. C IL. 2 7.

X ,

S almon,

2 9. O n

t he

( 1901),

l iterature:

P liny, N H X V,

E pig. X II ) 6 3, X III,

7 -8, X VII,

1 01;

S trabo,

( note 5 ), 6 7. 2 7.6

( quoting G alen).

2 2.

( mid 2 nd c entury A D).

( late 2 nd - e arly 3 rd c entury A D).

S amnium a nd t he S amnites

B alzano,

A micis,

4 .67;

1 889.

S trabo, G eog. 2 8. V .

I I,

M artial,

2 1. A thenaeus, D eipnosophistae I , 2 2.

1 46.

t he V enafran o live i n

A ufidena C aracenorum ( Rome,

i n N Sc.

( 1902)

A uf i dena c ol.

( note 8 ),

5 0-52.

L ivy I X,

1 3.6;

V , 4 .11. 1 923),

3 3-36,

a nd V .

d e

5 17-18.

e xcavations:

2 25-636 L .

M ariani,

L . N Sc.

M ariani, ( 1901),

M on.

A nt.

4 42-51;

L incei

X

V .de A micis,

N Sc. ( 1902), 5 21-25; L . M ariani, i n A tti d el c ongresso i nternaziona le d elle s cienze s toriche, R ome, 1 903, V ( 1904), 2 43ff; A . L a R egina, ' Note s ulla f ormazione' ( note 4 ), 2 00; A . B edini e t a l., ' Alfedena ( AQ); s cavi d el 1 974 n ella n ecropoli', N Sc. ( 1975), 4 098 1; A .La R egina, ' Il S annio', H ellenismus i n M ittelitalien ( Götting en,

1 976),

I ,

2 19-54;

L .Franchi d 'Orto a nd A .La 2 23

R egina,

C ul-

t ure A driatiche d 'Abruzzo e d i M olise ( Rome, 1 978), 4 47-48; F . P arise B adoni a nd M . R uggeri G love, A lfedena, l a N ecropoli d i C ampo C onsolino; S cavi 1 974-1979 ( Chieti, 1 980); F . P arise B adoni, ' Alfed ena, l a n ecropoli d i C ampo C onsolino', S annio - P entri e F rentani d al V I a l I s ec.

a .C.

( Rome,

1 980),

8 4-106;

S tudi E truschi X LVIII ( 1980), 5 76-84; F . ' Necropoli d i A lfedena ( Scavi 1 974-1979); l ogia 1 -42. 3 0.

r elativa

A ION ( Sez.

F . P arise B adoni,

i n

P arise B adoni e t a l., p roposte d i u na c rono-

A rcheologia e S toria A ntica) I V

( 1982),

C IL X , 4 829-4841. T he v icus h as i ts o wn a queduct ( CIL. X , 4 833 = I LS 5 759; A ugustan), a nd a edificia p resented b y O ctavian i n 2 9 B C ( CIL X , 4 830 = I LS 8 0).

3 1.

L ivy V III, V III,

2 5;

V ergil,

3 2.

C IL X , 4 890

3 3.

F or

7 39;

S ilius I talicus,

P unica

( late i st c entury B C).

t he P ozzilli

c emetery:

t ani d al V I a l I s ec. t lement: 3 4.

A eneid V II,

5 66.

C IL X ,

S .

C apini,

a .C.

S .

C apini,

( Rome,

i n S annio - P entri e F ren-

1 980),

1 12-28;

i n S tudi E truschi X LIX ( 1981),

4 842 = I LS 5 743.

O n t he V enafrum a queduct

and f or t he s et4 56. i nscription:

T .

M ommsen, ' Edict A ugusts ü ber d ie W asserleitung v on V enafro', G esamm elte S chriften I II ( Berlin, 1 907), 7 5-97; A . M aiuri, V . C imor elli, F . F rediani, ' L'acquedotto A uguste° d i V enafro r iassunto e r ilievi a c ura d ell' E nte V olturno', C ampania R omana I ( 1938), 1 631 85;

A .

M aiuri,

' Colli a V olturno;

r esti d ell'acquedotto d i V enafro

e c ippi t erminali', N Sc. ( 1926), 4 34-37; A . P antoni, " L'editto A ugusteo s ull' a cquedotto d i V enafro e u na s ua r eplica a lle f onte d el V olturno', R end. P ont. A cc. X XXIII ( 1960-1961), V iti, ' Una d isposizione A ugutea s ull' a cquedotto A rcheologia 3 5. 3 6.

L a R egina,

( Roma)

1 55-171; A . d i V enafro',

I II ( 1965), 6 5-66.

' Venafro'

( note 5 ), 6 3.

O n t he

t emple o f H ercules C urinus:

d ell'

a rcheologia

A .

L a R egina i n,

a lla s toria s ociale',

D d'A

I V/V

' Contributo ( 1970-1971).

4 43-59. 3 7.

F . B lume, F eldmesser

K . L achmann, A . ( Berlin, 1 848-1852)

3 8.

C IL X , 4 882. F or l imina, D izionario E pigrafico I V, 3 4

3 9.

L ucenteforte,

M onografia

R udorff, I , 2 39.

D ie S chriften d er r ömischen

s ee: E . d e R uggiero, ( Rome, 1 959), 1 073.

( note 1 ), 6 9.

2 24

G .

C arettoni,

i n

4 0. A E

( 1939),

1 51

( Serino, 3 17-324 A D).

O n t he S erino a queduct: A . S tudi R omani I II ( 1939), N aples

( Cambridge,

M ass.,

M aiuri, ' Virgilio e N ola', Q uaderni d i 3 -12; J .D'Arms, R omans o n t he B ay o f 1 970),

7 9-80;

I .

S gobbo,

" L'Acquedotto

R omano d ella C ampania', N Sc. ( 1938), 7 5-97; O . E lia, ' Un t ratto d ell' a cquedotto d etto " Claudio" i n t erritorio d i S arno', C ampania R omana I ( Naples, 1 938), 9 9-111; M .W. X XIII, 2 , ( 1959), c ol. 2 057. 4 1.

C IL I X,

4 2. C IL 4 3.

F rederiksen,

' Puteoli',

P .-W.

2 691.

I X,

2 655.

C IL I X,

2 653 = I LS 5 560

4 4. P ublished i n A .

( a).

P antoni,

S an V incenzo a l V olturno 4 5. D iebner,

L e c hiese e g li e difici d el m onastero d i ( Montecassino,

A esernia - V enafrum ( note 1 ),

1 980),

1 41-42.

I s. 6 6.

4 6.

L .R. T aylor, ' The v oting d istricts o f t he R oman R epublic', P apers a nd M onographs o f t he A merican A cademy i n R ome X X ( 1960), 1 07-14.

4 7.

O ffillii a t A esernia: C IL I X, 2 672, 2 681, 2 734, D iebner, A esernia-Venafrum ( note 1 ), I s. 5 6.

4 8. H erii a t A tina : C IL X , 5 067, 5 068, 5 087, 5 118. C IL X , 5 068 r ecords Q . H erius O ctavius I ustus, m unicipium a nd f lamen D ivi T raiani. 4 9. A finii 5 0. C IL 5 1.

a t A esernia:

I X,

C ato,

C IL I X,

2 677, 2 694, 2 695,

2 735,

2 736,

2 737;

p atronus o f

t he

2 696.

2 677.

D e R e R ustica,

1 49.

O n t ranshumance b etween L azio a nd t he A ppennines, s ee a lso: E . G abba a nd M . P asquinucci, S trutture a grarie e a llevamento t ransum ante n ell' 5 2.

I talia R omana ( Pisa,

1 979),

1 46.

A . d i N iro, I l c ulto d i E rcole t ra i S anniti P entri e F rentani; n uove t estimonianze ( Salerno, 1 977), 4 6-7; D . G iampaola, ' Venafro', S annio - P entri e F rentani d al V I a l I s ec.

a .C.

( Rome,

F or a d iscussion o f t his t ype o f e xploitation, S trutture a grarie ( note 5 1), e sp. 2 1ff.

5 4.

C hronicon V ulturnense,

5 5.

F or a d iscussion o f t he p ossible i dentification o f t hese r emains w ith t he ' City o f S amnium?', s ee: J .R. P atterson, ' A c ity c alled S amnium',

F ederici,

i n t his v olume.

2 25

I( Rome,

1 938),

G abba,

3 60.

5 3.

e d. V .

s ee:

1 980),

i n

1 11.

5 6.

S ite 1 97;

o ne f ragment w ith s tamp i n p lanta p edis

' CMURI',

a ppa-

r ently f rom t he w orkshop o f C amurius a t A rretium ; s ee: A . 0x8 a nd H . C omfort, C orpus V asorum A rretinorum ( Bonn, 1 968), n o. 3 97. S ee a lso: P antoni, L e c hiese ( note 4 4), 1 27-53, f or a nother s tamp, a gain i n p lanta p edis, P . C LO. P ROC.', f rom A rretium. S ee: O xg a nd C omfort „ o p. c it., n o. 4 54. 5 7. V iti,

R es P ublica A eserninorum,

5 8.

C IL I X,

2 735,

2 663.

5 9.

C IL X , 4 989a.

S ee:

6 0.

H orace,

O des

I II,

D iebner,

5 .55,

( note 1 ),

1 82.

A esernia-Venafrum ( note 1 ), 2 55-56.

6 .37-39.

L ist o f a bbreviations A E:

L 'Annge E pigraphique

A ION ( Sezione A rcheologia e S toria A ntica): A nnali d ell'Istituto U niversitario O rientale d i N apoli: S eminario d i S tudi d el M ondo C lassico. S ezione d i A rcheologia e S toria A ntica C IL :

C orpus I nscriptionum L atinarum

D d'A :

D ialoghi d

I LS:

I nscriptiones L atinae S electae

M EFR:

M elanges d e l 'gcole f rancaise d e R ome.

M on.

A nt.

L incei:

A rcheologia

M onumenti A ntichi p ubblicati p er c ura d ella R eale A ccademia d ei L incei

N Sc.:

N otizie d egli s cavi d 'antichitä

P .-W.:

A . P auly, G . W issowa, W . K roll, R eal-Encyclopädie d er k lassischen A ltertumswissenschaft ( Stuttgart, 1 893-

R end.

P ont.

A cc.:

R endiconti d ella P ontificia A ccademia R omana d i A rcheologia

2 26

C hapter

1 1:

T HE T ERRA O F S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO I N T HE 8 TH T O 1 2TH C ENTURIES:

T HE H ISTORICAL F RAMEWORK b y C hris W ickham

I ntroduction H istorians h ave l ong r ecognised t he i mportance o f

t he m onastery o f

S an V incenzo a l V olturno i n t he 8 th t o 1 1th c enturies. i n t he e arly 9 th c entury, i t m ay h ave r ivalled i ts

A t i ts h eight, n ear n eighbour

M ontecassino, a nd t here w ere f ew o ther m onasteries i n t he d uchy a fter 7 74, p rincipality) o f B enevento t hat c ame c lose t o t hem. t hat

w e

h ave m uch d irect h istorical i nformation

a bout

t he

( or N ot

m onastic

c omplex i tself; t he S heffield e xcavations s ince 1 980 h ave t ransformed o ur u nderstanding o f i t, a nd h ave s hown f or t he f irst t ime j ust h ow r ich a n I talian m onastery c ould b e i n t he 9 th c entury. w ith a t endency t owards s ocio-economic s tudies a nd s ettlement m onastery

a n

A s a h istorian i nterest i n

h istory, I w as d rawn t o S an V incenzo n ot s o m uch f or t he i tself b ut f or t he e vidence i n t he m onastic c hronicle/

c artulary a bout

i ts i mmediate t erritory,

t he t erra S an V incentii,

t he

t erra o f S an V incenzo. I h ave b een a ided i n m y o wn r esearches b y t he f act t hat f ield-survey o f t his z one h as b een a n i mportant f eature o f t he S heffield p roject, a nd t his a rticle, a n E nglish v ersion o f p art o f a b ook t o b e p ublished b y t he U niversity o f Sena, i s i ntended t o s erve a s t he h istorical s ide t o t hat f ield s urvey. B ut i t a lso h as i ts o wn m ethodological p reoccupations, a nd i t i s w orth b eginning w ith a d iscuss ion o f

s ome o f

T he

t hese.

t erra o f

S an V incenzo h ad o ne i mportant

c haracteristic:

i t

c onsisted o f a s ingle g iant b loc o f l and, a lmost a ll i n o ne m ountain v alley, t he u pper V al V olturno, w here t he m onastery w as s ituated; t his b loc o f l and r emained i n S an V incenzo's h ands f rom t he 8 th c entury t o t he 1 040's, w hen s uccessive i nroads b y l ay n eighbours r emoved m ost o f i t a nd S an V incenzo b egan a b rusque d ecline. V alleys o wned b y o ne b ody o r p erson a re a t t he o pposite e xtreme t o n ormal m ediaeval I talian l andholding, c ommon i n

w hich w as v ery h ighly f ragmented,

t he e arly m ediaeval

c entral A ppennines;

b ut

t hey w ere n ot

m ost o f

u n-

tem d erived

f rom f iscal l and, w hich w as o nce p redominant i n t he r egion. T he o nly e ffectively d ocumented i nstances a re m onastic, n ot s urprisingly, a s m onastic

c artularies f orm a lmost a ll t he e arly m ediaeval d ocumentation

f or t he r egion; M ontecassino's t erra o f S . B enedetto a djoined t hat o f S an V incenzo, a nd w as e ven l arier; a nd t he t erritory o f S ubiaco, n earer R ome,

w as

n ot

m uch s maller.

S uch v alleys

f orm a n

i nteresting

a nd

i mportant g roup: t hat o f w hat m ight b e c alled ' laboratories', z ones w here o ne o wner c ould m ore o r l ess d o e xactly a s h e c hose b y w ay o f a ltering t he s ettlement-pattern ( not t o s peak o f m ore f undamental c hanges) w ithout i nterruption, a t t he 1 0th c entury a bove a ll, t his t iated m ento'.

l east f rom o utside f orces. i s w hat S an V incenzo d id:

i n t he v alley t he p rocess k nown t o

2 27

A nd, i n i t i ni-

t he I talians a s ' incastella-

I ncastellamento c ould b e

t ranslated l iterally a s ' encastling',

i f

t his d id n ot l ook r ather t oo m uch l ike a t erm i n c hess. I t d enotes t he a ppearance o f a n etwork o f f ortified c entres, ' castelli', a ll a cross I taly i n t he 1 0th t o 1 2th c enturies, i n t he c ontext o f t he s low b reakd own o f t he p olitical a nd i nstitutional b ases o f t he 7 th-9th c entury L ombard-Carolingian s tate. ' Castelli c annot, h owever, b e s o e asily t ranslated a s ' castles'; a c astello i n I talian ( Lat. c astrum/castellum) i s m ore o r l ess a ny w alled s ettlement f rom a s mall c astle t o a l arge v illage. I p ropose t o u se t he I talian t erm e xtensively. N ot b ecause i t i s v ague - i nside i ts l imits, i ts m eaning i s p recise - b ut b ecause t he s ociological i mportance o f i ncastellamento i n a ny g iven a rea d erives p recisely f rom t he i ssue o f w hat s ort o f c astello i s i nvolved i n e ach i nstance. I n N orthern I taly a nd m uch o f T uscany, c astelli w ere m erely a n a ddition t o t he s ettlement p atterns t hat a lready e xisted ( concentrated o r d ispersed), a nd h ad a c lear d efensive a nd p olitical c onnotation. T hough a ssociated w ith a s low t rend f rom c . 9 00 o nward i n t he

d irection o f

s ettlement-concen Uation,

m ittent ,

t his

t r en d w as v e ry i n ter-

a nd o ften r eversed i tself. I n S outh-Central I taly , o n t he h and, i ncastellamento w as g enerally c losely a ssociated w ith a

o ther

s harp c oncentration o f s ettlement-patterns; i t h as i n t his c ontext b een m ade f amous b y P ierre T oubert, a s a r esult o f t he p ublication i n 1 973 o f h is e normous b ook o n L azio, n orth a nd e ast o f R ome. c omparison w ith T oubert's d ata ( one, b y n ow , a mong m any)

I t i s a s a t hat I w ould

p ose t his a rticle a nd t he b ook f rom w hich i t d erives. 5 T he 1 0th 1 2th c enturies w ere n ot t he o nly p eriod o f s ettlement c oncentration

t o i n

m ediaeval S outh-Central I taly, a nd i n s ome p laces n ot t he f irst, b ut t he p henomenon i n t his p eriod d oes s how a c onsistency a nd e ven s elfc onsciousness t hat i s r emarkable, a nd d eserves s tudy o n i ts o wn. w as t he p eriod w hen t he m odern s ettlement p attern o f t he g reat b ulk

I t o f

t he I talian p eninsula s outh o f ( say) S iena w as e stablished a nd i ndeed f inalised; n ew s ettlements a fter 1 200 a re t he e xception r ather t han t he r ule.

B ut

i t w ould b e m isleading t o s ee i ncastellamento i n i tself a s

t he s ame p rocess a s t he c reation o f t hese n ew c oncentrated s ettlements, a s i t i s o ften t aken t o b e; o ne o f t he p urposes o f t his a rticle i s p recisely t o s how h ow t he t wo c oncepts c an b e d isentangled. I s hall a lso h ave i n m ind c omparisons o f m y o wn. N otably w ith t he d iocese o f V alva ( now S ulmona) i n t he c entral A bruzzo, o n w hich I h ave p ublished a s tudy, a s p art o f a s eries o n A ppennine s ociety . V alva h ad c lose l inks a nd p arallels w ith t he V al V olturno - i ndeed, t he t wo a re p hysically q uite c lose, e ven i f s eparated b y t wo h igh w atersherds. S an V incenzo w as q uite a s ubstantial l andowner i n V alva, g eneral p roblematic o f t he r elationship b etween s ocial

t oo, a nd s tructure

t he a nd

g eography i s v ery s imilar i n e ach. I t i s i mportant n ot t o f orget t hat t hese a reas a re m ountain v alleys; g eography i s o f c rucial i mportance i n t heir

f ormation.

N ot

t hat o ne c an r ead o ff t he e conomic

g eography

t he p resent d ay a nd a pply i t t o t he e arly m iddle a ges, o f d espite t heir s uperifical ' backwardness', t hese v alleys h ave t heir w hole e conomic f ramework s everal t imes B ut m ountains p lay t heir r ole n onetheless; c assino

a nd

V alva

i n t he l ast 2 000 S an V incenzo a nd

a nd T oubert's S abina c an b e s een a s

d iscuss p lem e lsewhere a s a s w ell.

s uch a g roup;

a

o f

c ourse; c hanged y ears. M onte-

g roup.

b ut t he i ssue w ill r ecur

h ere

S an V incenzo w as t he s ubject o f t he e arliest o f t he c lassic a rticles o n i ncastellamento, t hat o f M ario d el T reppo, a ppearing i n 1 955. 7 H e a lso c overed, i n a w ay s till v ery l argely a cceptable t oday, 2 28

t he

w hole

s ocio-economic d evelopment o f

t he v alley f rom 7 00 t o

1 100.

T his c ertainly m eans t hat t he b asic w ork o n e conomic c hange i n t he v alley d oes n ot n eed t o b e r edone, a nd d el T reppo's w ork r emains a s a f oundation ; n evertheless, t here i s s till s pace f or m ore d etailed w ork o n s ettlement c hange. D el T reppo w as i nterested i n a ll S an V incenzo's l ands, w ith t he r esult t hat o ne s ingle p art o f t hem c an e asily b enefit f rom a p articularised l ocal s tudy. I ncastellamento w as a m ajor t heme, b ut o nly o ne p art o f a 7 0-page a rticle; t he l arge a mount o f c omparative w ork t hat h as b een d one s ince 1 955 m akes t he t ime r ipe f or r etesting s ome o f i ts a ssertions, u sing d ifferent a pproaches. A nd, m ost i mport ant, t he a rchaeological w ork i n t he v alley c arried o ut b y t he U nivers ity o f S heffield, t he b asic j ustification f or t his b ook , h as a lready t ransformed o ur u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o f t he m onastery a nd t he s ettlement h istory o f i ts s urrounding t erritory. I l eave i t t o t he o ther c ontributors t o d iscuss t he s pecifically a rchaeological e vidence, p articularly f or t he m onastery. H ere, I a m c oncerned t o r emain i nside t he h istorical p roblematic, w ith w hich I a m m ore f amiliar; Iw ill u se t he a rchaeological m aterial f or m y s ettlements ( as i t h as a ppeared i n t he

f irst

f our

s easons o f w ork,

1 980-83)

a s i t

f its

i nto

m y

o wn,

p redominantly h istorically-oriented, a rguments. A n a rchaeologist w ould h ave w ritten a d ifferent a rticle, a nd R ichard H odges a nd P eter H ayes, I n d ue c ourse, w ill d o s o. T he r esultant d ifferences i n e mphases w ill b e, i n m y v iew, a p ositive f eature, e vidence a s t hey a re o f t he n ew w ays i n w hich a rchaeology a nd h istory h ave d iverged a nd d eveloped i n r ecent

y ears.

T he t erra o f S an V incenzo b efore 8 81 S an

V incenzo

B eneventan

a l V olturno w as

b rothers,

P aldo,

f ounded f rom F arfa i n 7 03 b y

T aso,

a nd

T ato.

T his

t hree

f oundation

i s

d escribed i n a n 8 th c entury l ife w ritten b y o ne o f t heir s uccessors a s a bbot, t he F rank A utpert, p robably i n t he 7 70's; w e t hus h ave a n e arly n arrative s ource f or t he f irst y ears o f t he m onastery, t o c ompare w ith w hat

i s

a lmost

o ur o nly s ource f or

C hronicon V ulturnense,

w ritten

b y

t he

r est

o f

i ts

h istory,

J ohn t he M onk i n t he

T he C hronicon u ses o ther n arrative m aterial - b its o f E rchempert, t he C hronica C asinensis o f L eo M arsicanus - b ut o therwise w e h ave r ely o n i t f or a ll o ur n arrative h istory, a nd a lso, a s i s u sual C entral

I taly,

f or

a ll o ur d ocuments. 8

S ome o f

t hese

t he

1 110's-20's.

a re

o r t o i n

f orged,

o thers a re i nterpolated, a nd y et o thers a re c learly m iscopied; b ut a t l east J ohn s eems t o h ave m anipulated h is m aterial l ess t han h is n eighb our a nd c ontemporary a t C assino, P eter t he D eacon ; t he g reat b ulk o f t he 2 00-odd d ocuments r ecorded i n t he C hronicon, r anging b etween 7 00 a nd t he 1 060's, a re t rustworthy. 2 00 d ocuments a re, i n f act, r ather f ew b y

t he s tandards

- b oth F arfa a nd t hese 2 00 a re o f

o f

t he g reat m onastic c artularies a nd

C asauria h ave l eft u s c onsiderable i nterest.

t wo t o t hree T hey. a re,

e xtremely r ich i n c harters f or t he p rocess o f a re, i n f act, m ore o f t hese f or S an V incenzo C entral I taly p ut A t

t he

c ollections

t housand - b ut i n p articular,

i ncastellamento; t here t han f or a ll t he r est o f

t ogether.

f oundation o f

t he m onastery,

P aldo a nd h is b rothers

w ere

p atronised b y t he d uke o f B enevento, G isulf I ( 689-706), w ho g ave t hem a v ast t ract o f l and, t he c ore o f t he f uture t erra S an V incentii. E xactly w hat G isulf g ave i s n ot w holly c ertain, f or t he s urviving d iploma ( CV 9 ) i s o bviously f orged, b ut i t c an b e r econstructed f rom l ater d ocuments. H is g ift w as a mplified b y A rechis I I i n 7 58/60, 2 29

A lledena A

•

. ..

• ••R ionero

Montenero

F or l i

S . Sp ina

S .V I N CE NZ O

M . Mare

e 2030 m

t i occh'e tta p la in \ Rocchetta

•. ..

•

.\

TERRA OF

•

• Casa L orenzo • Vaccherecc ia 8 th-14th

F icus *( Pesc iu)

Caste lnuovo

•\-

A Scapo li

M ONTECASS INO

Cerasuo lo

Cari l it %

* 1 3th-14th

M .Fa lconara

* Menne l la •

1 3th-14th

• Cerreto Montagu i la •

. O live l la (Co l ic Caste llano)

* Le Mura • Aguafondata

8 th —f 4 th

A L VOLTURNO

‘ a

3 50 m R occarav indo la L

-

/

Chron icon V u lternense ( CV )

( * Med ieva l s i tes f ound i n t he f ie ld / -

-E dge o f t he med ieva l t erra c .850-1040

L_ _

äkM.

. A Cas tru m f ro m t he 1 0 th c en tury t ranscr ip t ions o f t he C V

S .Cr ist ina O the r s i tes 1r o m1Oth c en tury

VENAFRO

d ocu men ts ,des igna ted c as tru m i n t he CV t ext

F ig.

1 1:1

T he

t erra o f

J

/

Morcano

S .N icandro

: 1 000 m

VI

Toro/

S Mar ia O liveto

+ Churches f ro m t he'

d a ted f ro m t he p o ttery f ound

• •

1 0th-11th

S .E leuter io d i F ilignano?

v i t icu s• • THE T ERRA OF S. V INCENZO -

• Macch ia

S an V incenzo a l V olturno.

2 30

.

w hose r ather a bbreviated d iploma ( CV 1 2) g rants t o S an V incenzo m ost o f t he s outhern t hird o f t he l ater t erra, g ives i ts b ounds, a nd n otes t hat t his t erritory a buts o nto t he l and g iven i n t he n orth b y G isulf;

G isulf

i s t hus l ikely t o h ave b een t he d onor o f t he n orthern t wo t hirds. T he f irst f ully a uthentic r oyal d iploma t o S an V incenzo m entioning b ounds i s, h owever, C V 7 0, a p recept o f L ouis I I f rom 8 66; t hese b ecame t he d efinitive T hey w ith

b ounds o f t he t erra,

a nd a re m arked o n M aps 1 1.1 a nd 1 1.2.

c oincide o n t he s outhern s ide w ith t hose i n A rechis's t he a ddition o f s ome e xtra l and o n t he f ertile a nd m ore

s outhern t ip o f 8 07-36

d iploma, p opulous

t he t erra t hat S an V incenzo h ad a ccumulated i n g ifts i n

( se9 b elow,

p p.233-34).

G isulf's g ift m ust h ar c onsisted o f

s ome 3 00 k m , w hich b y 8 66 w as i ncreased t o o ver 4 00 k m . I t a djoined t he c ore t erritory o f M ontecassino, w hich w as f ormed a cross t he s ame p eriod, a lso m ostly I rRm d ucal g ifts, b ut w hich a t i ts e ventual w idest c overed

a f ull 8 00 k m

.7

S an V incenzo p ossessed t he w hole o f t his t erritory u ntil t he m id1 1th c entury. I t w as n ot, h owever, u ntil t he e arly 1 0th c entury t hat i ts i nternal s tructures a re d irectly d ocumented, f or o nly t hen d id t he m onastery b egin t o e xploit i ts t erra t hrough s urviving l eases. B efore t hat, o ur h istorical i nformation i s f ragmentary, a nd f or p roblems o f s ettlement n early n onexistent; m ost o f i t i s b est d isplayed i n t he c ontext o f t he f ull a rchaeological f ield s urvey r eport, w hen t hat i s f inished. H ere, m y p urpose w ill b e t o p roduce a b rief i nterim s urvey, s o a s t o p ut m y h istorical d iscussion o f t he i ncastellamento o f t he v alley i n c ontext. M uch o f w hat f ollows i n t his s ection i s t herefore p rovisional. The a rticle,

p olitical a nd

h istory

o f

S an V incenzo d oes

i s d iscussed e lsewhere.

n ot

T he m onastery,

c oncern w ith

t his

C assino,

p layed a n a ctive p art i n t he p olitics o f t he 7 70's w hen t he L ombard k ingdom o f t he N orth f ell t o C harlemagne, f or i t w as r ich a nd s trategic ally p laced, a nd h ad, b esides, m any F rankish m onks. O ne o f t hese, G iosug, w as a bbot i n 7 92-817, a nd u nder h im a nd h is i mmediate s uccess ors t he a bby r eached t he f irst p eak o f i ts r eputation, r eceiving l arge n umbers o f g ifts f rom a ll o ver S outhern I taly. I t w as d oubtless t hese g ifts t hat f unded a w ave o f c hurch b uilding i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he m onastery. T he 1 2th-century c hronicle l ists n ine c hurches b uilt o r r ebuilt b etween 7 83 a nd 8 56. T he S heffield e xcavations o f s ome o f t hese s how i naccuracies i n t his l ist, b ut s how a lso t hat i t a ctually u nderstates, b y a l ong w ay, t he e xtent o f b uilding i n t he p eriod. F rom t he o ther a rticles i n t his b ook i t c an c learly b e s een h ow f ar a t t hat t ime t he m onastery w as t he f ocus f or a n e xtensive a nd e xceedingly r ich c ommunity. T he g ifts a nd t he c hurch f oundations b egan t o d ry h owever, a fter c ivil w ar b egan i n 8 39 a nd t he A rabs b egan t o r aid; c . 8 62 t he r aiders h ad t o b e b ought o ff b y t he m onks, a nd i n 8 81 A rabs s acked t he m onastery i tself, T he s urvivors f led w ith t heir a bbot, f or

3 3

y ears.

W hen t hey d id,

k illing m any o f i ts i nhabitants. M aio, t o C apua a nd d id n ot r eturn

i n 9 14-6,

t hey h ad

c hurches a nd r evive t he e conomic i nfrastructure o f t his

c ontext, T he

f rom 9 45,

t hat w e b egin t o

t erra o f S an V incenzo h as

u p, i n t he

f ind

t o

r ebuild

t he t erra.

i ncastellamento.

I t

t he i s

i n

1 0

t ended t o b e r egarded a s a c learance

z one p ar e xcellence; t he f orests a nd p astures, o mnipresent i n 7 00, w ere c leared i n p art i n t he 8 th-9th c entury, b ut t hen a bandoned; t he 1 0th c entury a bbots h ad t o s tart f rom s cratch. L et u s s tart w ith t he g eography o f t he a rea. 231

N ot a ll o f t his i s t rue. S an V incenzo s tands n ear

t he

n orthern e dge o f

R occhetta,

a s mall f lattish t ravertine p lain,

a round w hich c urves

t he p iana

t he V olturno f rom i ts s ource 2 km

d i

a bove

t he a bbey. I t i s t he r eal f ocus o f i ts t erritory; a ll t he v alleys o f t he t erra c onverge h ere, p articularly t he v alley r unning u p b ehind t he s triking b ulk o f t he l ate m ediaeval c astle o f C erro ( recently m ade f amous b y a 2 00 l ira p ostage s tamp) a s f ar a s t he h igh p asture l and o n w hich R ionero S annitico s its b eside t he d rove-road f rom C elano i n A bruzzo t o F oggia i n P uglia, a nd, o n t he o ther s ide, t he v alley t hat r ises p ast C astel S an V incenzo t o t he w atershed a bove t he o ld R oman a nd S amnite c ity o f A lfedena ( see F ig.11:1, f or n ames). T he whole s cene i s s trikingly b eautiful, f or S an V incenzo i n e ffect s its a t o ne o f t he p oints w here t he l imestone o f A bruzzo m eets t he s andy c lay r ocks o f M olise; t he g reat 2 000m b ackbone o f t he M ainarde i s p arallelled b y t wo l imestone r idges g etting p rogressively l ower ( Castel S an V incenzo, o n a t ravertine p lug, i s a t t he e nd o f o ne o f t hese), a s t he l imestone b reaks o ff i nto t he m ilder ( but b arren) c lay h ill-country t hat r uns f rom h ere t o t he A driatic c oast. I t i s t his s ection t hat G isulf g ave t o t he o riginal f ounders o f t he m onastery: t he n arrow u ppermost v all eys

o f

t he V olturno a bove C olli.

N arrow,

b ut

n ot

u ninhabitable,

h owever; t he l and b elow S capoli a nd s outh o f C erro i s q uite f ertile, a nd s o i s s ome o f t he p iana d i R occhetta. T he n orthward e xtension o f t he t erritory o ver t he w atershed i n t he S angro v alley, f urthermore, i ncludes

s ome o f

t he h igh q uality n atural

p asturelands a round A lfedena.

T here i s n o r eason t o s ee t his g ift, t hen, a s t he c ession o f m arginal a nd v alueless l and; a nd t here i s e ven l ess r eason f urther d own t he v alley,

b elow C olli a nd F ornelli,

f or h ere t he V olturno s uddenly w idens

o ut i nto a n a lluvial p lain, c ontinuing d own t o p ast t he R oman c ity o f V enafro. A p art o f t his p lain w as a lready c ontained i n G isulf's g ift; A rechis a dded m ore, T his m ust a lways

a nd h ave

s o, i n s maller q uantities, b een t he r ichest p art o f

V incenzo, a nd i t s till c entres o f M olise. 1 1 T he

e arly

i s;

a ccounts o f

i t

i s i n f act o ne o f

t he f oundation o f

S an

d id h is s uccessors. t he t erra d i S an t he m ajor

V incenzo

a grarian

a re

t orn

b etween t wo t opoi: i ts p osition i n r emote u nutterable w asteland, a nd t he c hurch's a ntiquity a s a c hristian s ite. A utpert's 8 th-century l ife s tresses t he s ilva d ensissima, t he h aunt o f t hieves a nd w ild b easts, b ut a lso s tates t hat a c hurch e xisted t here, w hich t he 1 2th-century C hronicon a ttributes t o C onstantine, o n h oliday t here a fter h is e xhausting c hurch-building i n R ome. P antoni, S an V incenzo's C assinese e xcavator, f ound a s ubstantial a mount o f R oman m aterial i n t he i mmed iate v icinity o f t he c hurch; h e i solated a n umber o f s eparate s ites, w ith o ccupation f rom a t l east t he 3 rd c entury B C t o t he 6 th A D. S heffield e xcavations h ave f ound a l ate R oman v illa, i nto w hich

T he t wo

8 th-9th c entury c hurches a re s et. T he R oman l evels h ave l ate R oman p ottery r unning a t l east i nto t he e arly 6 th . D espite a s terile l ayer b etween t his a nd t he c hurches, i t i s n ot d ifficult t o g uess a t a c ertain c ontinuity f rom A ntiquity i nto t he 8 th c entury o f a s ettlement c entre,

t he

o r s et

o f c entres,

i n a nd a round S an V incenzo. 12

S uch c ontinuity i s l ess a pparent e lsewhere i n t he t erra, t hough v isible d iscontinuities c ertainly d o n ot n ecessarily d emonstrate

e arly m ediaeval a bandonment. T he t erra was s peckled w ith s ites i n t he L ate R epublican a nd E arly I mperial p eriod, n ot d istributed e ntirely e venly, b ut m atched w ith a ll t he l ow-lying f ertile a reas o f t he v alley. I n t he L ate R oman p eriod, e ach o f t hese f ertile a reas w as s till o ccup ied, t hough s eldom w ith m ore t han o ne s ite. S uch a p rocess o f L ate 2 32

R oman

c oncentration,

w hatever

i ts t enurial m eaning,

i s q uite

w ell-

d ocumented e lsewhere i n I taly, f or i nstance i n t he S outh E truria s urvey-areas n ear R ome. B ut, a t a ny r ate i n t he 6 th c entury, t here w ere s till s everal c lear f oci o f R oman o ccupation i n t he v alley, p erhaps w ith c ultivation b reaks b etween t hem, a s i ndeed t here o ften s till a re ( there c an n ever h ave b een a nything o ther t han s ilva d ensissima o n t he h ills t he 6 th c entury, a s

o n e ither s ide o f t he V olturno). f ar a s w e c an s ee, t hese s ites

A t t he e nd o f c eased t o b e

o ccupied, a t l east b y a nyone u sing r ecognisable p ottery. I t m ay s oon a fter t his p oint t hat s ome o f t he i nhabitants b egan t o m ove i nto t he h ills. E xcavations o f t he 8 th-9th c entury l evels a t m onastery

h ave

p roduced c haracteristic w ares t hat h ave b een f ound

b e u p t he o n

t wo h ill s ites, V acchereccia a nd L e M ura a bove F ilignano, a nd p erhaps a t hird, C olle C astellano, ( see F ig.11:1), a nd n owhere o n t he v alley b ottoms.

T here m ay b e a s ettlement b reak,

t hen,

i n m ost o f

t he v alley,

b ut t here i s n o r eason t o t hink t here w as a p opulation b re 4 4 n o-one c ould c laim t hat t he v alley w as y et f ully c olonised. L J

e ven

i f

T hese 8 th-9th c entury s ites p resent p roblems o f t he i nterpretation o f o ur e vidence o f p re-incastellamento s ettlement-patterns, w e

c ome o n t o t his,

b ut b efore

w e m ust l ook b riefly a t w hat c an b e e stimated

o f

t he t enurial s tructure o f t he t erra b efore 8 81; w e p robably a lready h ave a ll t he e vidence f or t his, a s i ts b ase i s i nevitably d ocumentary. T here i s n ot m uch o f i t. T he m onastery h ad s laves ( servi, f amuli) i n t he 9 th c entury, a ccording t o a necdotes i n t he C hronica C asinensis o f t he 1 1th c entury a nd t he C hronicon V ulturnense o f t he 1 2th. T his i s d oubtless t rue, b ut i t t ells u s l ittle a bout a gricultural e xploitation ; s laves i n t he 9 th c entury c ould b e a nything f rom h ousehold s ervants t o i ndependent t enants. T here i s n o r eason t o t hink , a t l east, a s d el T reppo d oes, t hat t hey w ere p lantation s laves, a c ategory e xceptionally r are i n e arly m ediaeval E urope; i n C entral-Southern I taly m ost o r a ll t he r eferences t o s ervile a griculturalists i n t his p eriod a re i n f act b etter s een a s e xamples o f t he c onduma, t he w vile t enant f amily r egarded a s a s ingle u nit w ith i ts p lot o f l and. T his i s b rought o ut p articularly c learly i n a n i mportant g roup o f s even g ifts t o S an V inc enzo

i n

d ocuments d ating f rom 8 07-36,

w hich c ome t o

f orm

t he

n ew

s outhern e dge o f t he t erra. T hese s even a re i n f our c ases g ifts f rom l aymen a nd i n t hree f rom p rinces o f B enevento ( Grimoald I V a nd S icard); a lmost m iraculously, t heir b oundaries f it e xactly i nto a j igsaw, m akes i t c lear t hat t hey m ake u p a t riangle o f l and b etween S . O liveto a nd t he V olturno, p lus t he m ountains t o t he w est. t hese b locs o f l and a re c alled c urtes ( 'manors o r ' estates')

w hich M aria

S ome o f a nd s ome

t he v aguer w ord t errae, b ut a ll a re s ingle u nits g iven t ogether w ith s lave f amilies i n g roups o f 3 -5, f ar t oo s mall a n umber t o p ostulate a nything e xcept a l oose o rganisation b ased o n c lusters o f t enants. T his s ort o f c ellular s tructure i s e xtremely c ommon i n d ocuments f rom S outh-Central I taly ; i t i s s een a gain i n a t ext o f t he 8 80's i n w hich t he m onk S abbatinus b ewails t he b urning o f t he m onastery a nd l ists m onastic p roperty w hich h e h ad s upervised i n t he t erritory o f I sernia; t he e state

r un

f rom S .

A ngelo d i I sernia c ontained 2 5

c asis d e s ervis

n ear t he c hurch ( a f air n umber, b ut w ithout a ny v isible o verall s truct ure) a nd s everal h abitations b elow t he c ity a t t he r iver f ork; t hose o f t he o ther e states a bout w hich h e g ives d etails - m ostly f ocussed o n a c hurch, a s a t C apriati, o r F orli, o r I grcino - a re s imilar g roups o f s ervile t enant-houses a nd n othing e lse. T here d oes n ot s eem , t hen, t o b e a reas;

a ny e vidence o f l arge-scale o rganisation o f p roduction i n t hese e states a re p resented s imply a s c ongeries o f ( usually s ervile) 2 33

t enant

p lots.

W e t ern

c annot w ith c ertainty e xtend

o f e xploitation i nto t he

l atter

w as

a

t he h ypothesis o f

t erra,

s izable b loc o f

a c onduma

f or t he s imple r eason

r ecently f iscal

l and,

u nlike

p at-

t hat

t he

t he

f ar

s maller u nits, l argely o wned b y l aymen, i n t hese s urviving 9 th-century t exts. E lsewhere i n C entral I taly, f iscal l and w as o ften o riginally o rganised

t hrough n otably i ndependent

t enant c ultivation.

B ut i nsofar

a s S an V incenzo m ay h ave e stablished o r r egulated s ervile t enure, o r o ther f orms o f d ependent t enure, i n i ts t erra, c ondumae a re m ore l ikely t han a ny m ore e laborate f orm o f o rganisation. F arfa h ad n o d ifficulty i n b reaking a f ragile m anorial s ystem o f a grarian o rganisation w ith i ts c astelli

i n t he 1 0th c entury;

v ery f ragmented T he

a t S an V incenzo,

t enurial p attern,

8 07-36 g ifts

w ith t he l ikelihood o f a

i t m ust h ave b een e ven e asier.

1 6

a re t he o nly p re-10th c entury d ocumentary s ource

t hat g ive u s a ny c lear i ndications o f s ettlement p atterns. I n t he a reas a t t he s outhern f ringe o f t he t erra - a s, i ndeed, p robably i n t he V enafro p lain i n g eneral - s ettlement m ust h ave b een d ispersed. T he p roof i s f airly s traightforward: t he g ifts s how c ontiguous b locs o f l and, a s w e h ave j ust s een , e ach w ith a f ew f amilies o f s laves o n t hem . T hese b locs e ach h ad t heir o wn n ames, F racte, M azzano, T oro, a nd s o o n , a nd w ere a pparently i ndependent o f w ider

t erritorial u nits;

t hey c annot

i n a ny p ossible i nterpretation b e u sed t o m ake u p a p attern t hat i s o ther t han d ispersed i nto g roups o f a f ew f amilies, a nd i t i s a rguable w hether t hese l oci c an b e e ven d escribed a s s ettlements i n a ny u seful w ay. B ut i t w ould b e e xtremely r isky t o e xtend t his p attern i nto t he e x-fiscal u plands o f t he g reat b ulk o f t he t erra. T he 8 07-36 g ifts w ere o f a reas w hich m ay h ave h ad p rosperous a griculture b ased o n s lavet enants f or c enturies. W e c ertainly c annot s how t his f or t he t erra i tself, o rigins

a nd i t i s i ntrinsically u nlikely ; i ts g eography a nd t enurial w ere t oo d ifferent. I ts s ettlement h istory i s n ot l ikely,

t hen, t o h ave b een a ny m ore s imilar. I ndeed, a s w e h ave s een , t here i s a m ove t o t he h ills a mong t he i nhabitants o f a t l east t wo a reas o f t he t erra. I t w ould n ot b e u seful t o d escribe t his m ove t o t he h ills a s s ettlement c oncentration, o n t he o ther h and; w e h ave t oo l ittle e vid ence. S ettlement c an b e d ispersed o n h ills a s e asily a s i t c an o n p lains, a fter a ll. A nd t he a s y et s ketchy e vidence f or 8 th-9th c entury h ill s ettlement s eems t o s how t he s urviving c eramic m aterial o n t he s lopes o f t he h ills, r ather t han o n t he b rows, c oncentrated c astelli w ere g enerally p laced. A ll

t his

i s c ertainly v ery v ague,

w here 1 0th-llth c entury

s till.

c ongeries o f u ncertainties, w e c an c arry s ome f orward i nto o ur d iscussion o f i ncastellamento: s ettlement

i n t he

N onetheless,

i n t his

s imple o bservations t hat t he p atterns o f t o h ave

b een

c onsistent; t hat o n i ts e xtreme s outhern f ringe t hese p atterns e vidently h ighly d ispersed; a nd t hat i n s ome a reas s ettlement h ad

l ate 9 th c entury t erra a re v ery u nlikely

w ere l eft

t he p lain a nd, f or w hatever r eason, w as b eginning t o c reep u p t he h ills. O ne s ettlement, o f c ourse, m aintained a r oughly c oncentrated f orm : m oment.

S an 1 7

V incenzo

i tself.

M ore t han t his c annot b e

2 34

s aid

a t

t he

S ettlement a nd i ncastellamento i n t he u pper V olturno i

T he p atterns o f i ncastellamento i n t he V olturno v alley:

t he c entral

a nd n orthern a reas o f t he t erra T he m ain p roblem o f m ento o f

t his

s ection i s t he n ature o f

t he t erra o f S an V incenzo,

t he i ncastella-

a nd i ts p urpose a nd c ontext.

S an

V incenzo h ad a w hole v alley a t i ts d isposal; n onetheless, i t i s i mport ant t o u nderstand t he c onstraints u nder w hich t he m onastery o perated, a nd w hat s orts o f c hoices i t m ade. A s y et, m ost o f t he e vidence f or t his i s h istorical, a nd i t i s t he h istorical, a s o pposed t o t he a rcha eological, c ontext t hat I i ntend t o d iscuss. T he a rchaeological s urveys h ave a lready, n onetheless, p ut a n ew p erspective o n s ome o f t his material, a nd w ill b e p articularly i mportant f or t he s tudy o f t he p eriod a fter 1 150, w hen o ur d ocumentary e vidence r uns o ut. T here w ill b e p roblems i n o btaining m aterial f rom m any p ost-10th c entury s ettlem ent s ites, f or t he s imple r eason t hat m ost o f t hem a re s till o ccupied b y v illages, b ut s o f ar, i n 1 983-4, s urvey w ork h as b een c arried o ut o n s even a bandoned h ill-top v illage s ites. T hree o f t hese w ere a bandoned f airly l ate, o r f or s pecific r easons, i n f avour o f n eighbouring s ites, a nd s o d o n ot r epresent t ypical ' failed s ettlements: V acchereccia, C olle C astellano, a nd C erasuolo. T he o ther f our a re m ore p roblematic; t wo, I l S eggio ( Pesclu) a nd V alle P orcina, a re c ertainly f ailed s ites, a nd s o f ar h ave o nly b een s ketchily s tudied; t wo o thers, s ites a bove F ilignano a nd M ennella, t hough v ery i nteresting, d o n ot h ave a ny 1 0th1th c entury d ocumentation, a nd a re t herefore d ifficult t o u se a s p arallels. A s a g roup, t hey a re b est s tudied i n t he c ontext o f t he f inal s urvey r eport; e ach s ite w hen I c ome

Iw ill u se t he s pecific e vidence a vailable f rom t o t he r elevant d ocuments. S ee F ig.11:1 f or a ll

n ames m entioned. T he h istorical d ocumentation f or t he 1 0th-llth c entury t erra

c on-

s ists v ery l argely o f i ncastellamento l eases: s ome 1 7 i n t otal, t og ether w ith f our o r f ive a ssociated t exts, d ating f rom 9 39 t o 1 066. T hey a re f illed o ut b y e ditorial c omment, v arying i n r eliability, b y t he 1 2th-century c hronicler J ohn t he M onk, b ut e ssentially g ive u s a b eam o f l ight o n t he m oment o f i ncastellamento a nd l ittle e lse. T his d oes n ot d etract f rom t heir i mportance, h owever. T hey a re n ot a ll i dentical i n f ormat, a nd t hey f all e asily i nto f our g eographical g roups: t he c entral z one o f t he t erra, f rom S an V incenzo t o S capoli; t he e astern t riangle o f l and f ormed b y t he V olturno, t he V andra/ V andrella, a nd t he w atershed; t he v al d i S angro i n t he n orth, r epresent ed b y a s ingle c harter, d ifferent i n t ype f rom t he o thers; a nd t he s outhern r iver-valleys a nd p lain b etween S capoli a nd V enafro. T his d iversion w ill b ring o ut b e

f ound

s ome o f

t he d ifferences i n s ettlement

i n t he t erra a nd a long i ts e dges.

T hese d ifferences

t hat

c an

I s hall

u se a s I g o a long t o t ry a nd e stablish t hree p oints: f irst, t hat t he i dea t hat t he w hole o f t he v alley w as a bandoned i n 8 81, o nly t o b e r ecolonised a fter 9 14, i s a c onsiderable o verstatement; s econd, t hat t he

m ilitary a spect o f S an V incenzo's

t ant; a nd s ettlement

c astelli w as u nusually

t hird, t hat S an V incenzo w as s trategies.

T here w as n o d oubt

i nconsistent

i n J ohn t he M onk's m ind

t hat

i n i ts

u nimporc hoice

o f

t he u pper V olturno

w as e mpty i n 9 14/5, w hen t he m onks r eturned t o S an V incenzo, a nd h e w as v ery g raphic a bout i t: S an V incenzo w as a bandoned f or 3 3 y ears, i n q uibus n ullius h ominis h abitacio, s ed t antum b estiarum p ossessio f uit; 2 35

a bbot R aimbald

( 920-44)

s ettled i mmigrants a t S .

M aria O liveto q uoniam

h is t emporibus p ene o mnis h ec r egio v acabat h abitatoribus, r arusque v iator a ut a gricola v idebatur; i n c .950 i n S . S alvatore i n A life ( outs ide t he t erra) l ocus i ste b estiis e t a vibus l atibula p rebens, h ominib us o mnino v acabat. O ne s hould n ot t ake t his a s s o e xact a p icture a s m any c ommentators h ave a ssumed. N o c ontemporary t exts d escribe s uch t otal d epopulation. T he l ast t wo q uotes g loss c harters f or r ich a reas w here s ome c ontinuity o f o ccupation i s p articularly l ikely ; a nd t he c harters t hemselves, h ere a nd e lsewhere, o ften i ndicate p reexisting e xploitation s ettlement

o f t he l and.

i n t he v alley,

T here w as c ertainly l and c learance a nd n ew a nd s ome c harters h ad e xplicit

p roems t o

t his

e ffect, b ut t hat i s n ot s urprising; c learance i s s till p ossible i n t he v alley t oday, e ven i f c ertainly n o l onger e conomic. T here i s n othing t o s uggest t hat t he A rabs s ystematically h unted a ll t he i nhabitants o ut o f

t he

e ffort t oo

v alleys o f

t he t erra - w hy s hould t hey h ave g one

f or s o l ittle r eturn?

e asy,

a s p ostulates.

T abulae r asae a re a lways T hat t he t erra o f

t o

s o

m uch

t oo c onvenient,

S an V incenzo w as e xtens-

i vely s ettled a nd r ecleared a fter 9 14 d oes n ot l ose a ny o f i ts f orce i f w e i magine t hat a m easurable p roportion o f i ts p opulation c ontinued t o l ive t here t hroughout t he p eriod o f t he a bandonment o f t he m onastery. T he n ew p attern o f v illages t hat w e f irst s ee i n t he 1 0th c entury n ot c reated i n a s ocial v acuum. 18 O ur

f irst

t ext

f or

t he c entral z one

i s C V 9 2

( 945)

w as

f or C astel S an

V incenzo; i t i s t he s econd o f t he r un o f l eases f or t he t erra, t he f irst b eing s ix y ears e arlier, f or S . M aria O liveto ( below, p .243). B y t he t ime C V 9 2 w as s et o ut, m onks h ad b een l iving a t S an V incenzo a gain f or 3 0 y ears. ( The c hurch o f S an V incenzo i tself w as a pparently n ot r ebuilt u ntil c .1000; t he m ain c hurch w as f or t he w hole c entury t he c lose-by c hurch o f S . S alvatore.) C astel S an V incenzo l ies j ust o ver 2 k m f rom t he m onastery, a nd h as a lways b een c losely a ssociated w ith t he m onastic s ettlement. l um t hat m any m onks

I t i s q uite c onceivable t hat i t w as t his c astelf led t o i n 8 81, s aving t heir l ives f rom t he A rab

a ttack ; t here w as a s imilar o ne b uilt i n p erhaps t he 8 60 s a t Montec assino. 19 B ut a s a p ermanent s ettlement i t w as p robably o nly r ecently e stablished i n 9 45. C V 9 2 l eases t o f our m en l ands p er c ircuitu i psum c astellum q uod e st i n l oco p ropinquum i pso m onasterio S an V incentii, i n w hich t hey m ust l ive w ith t heir f amilies a nd a nimals, f or 2 9 y ears. T hey a re t o c lear a s m uch l and a round t he c astello a s t hey c an, a nd r estore t he v inee q ue i bi s unt i nculte, a nd h arvest a s o ther m en h arv est t here; t hey o we a r ent o f q uarter o f t he c rops, a fter a n i nitial p eriod o f f our y ears. T hey a re f ree t enants, b ut t he m onastery h olds c ertain j udicial r ights o ver

T he

T his

i s

r ent

i s

a f airly

t hem.

t ypical S an V incenzo l ease,

f airly s tandard.

T he m onastery's

i n m any

j udicial

r espects.

r ights

w ere

s eldom e xplicit i n l ater l eases, b ut m ay n ot h ave b een n ecessary : O tto I , p erhaps b elatedly, g ranted t hem t o t he w hole t erra i n 9 62. T he r esidence o bligations a re u niversal f or a ll S an V incenzo's c astello c harters;

s o i s

t he a bsence o f a ll m ilitary o bligations.

T he l ease i s

o bviously f or c learance ( and r e-clearance), t hough t hese f our a re n ot t he f irst m en t here; t here i s t oo m uch u nused l and n ear t he c astello t o w orry a bout

t he s pecification o f

V incenzo t exts. c haracteristic:

b ounds,

t oo,

u nlike a ll

s uccessive

S an

B ut t he f rame o f r eference o f C V 9 2 i s p articularly t his a nd a ll s uccessive r eferences t o c ultivators i n

t he v alley a re t o f ree c ultivators, f arming o n r easonably d ignified a nd s ometmes g enerous t erms, i n i ndependent u nits. T hough t he w ord c urtis, 2 36

t he t raditional L atin w ord i n I taly f or ' manor',

s ometimes a ppears,

i t

n ever d efines a ny o rganic e state s tructure a t a ll. W hatever t he p rec ise n ature o f t he 9 th-century e xploitation p atterns i n t he t erra, t hese

n ew p atterns m ark a d ecisive a nd c onscious b reak.

T he

c astrum

h as b ecome t he e conomic u nit, a nd e ven t hen i t i s n ot a n i ntegrated unit o f e conomic o rganisation ; i t i s s imply a p lace w here p eople l ive ( with s ome f orm o f c ollective i dentity) a nd w hose i nhabitants h ave s imilar c ontracts. A t o ne sUoke w e h ave m oved i nto t he c astrale', i n T oubert's w ords. C astel

S an

V incenzo r emained

t he m ost

' seigneurie

i mportant c astello i n

t he

t erra ; i ts t erritory a pparently i ncluded t he m onastery i tself, a nd i t i s a lmost c ertainly t he c astro/castello S amnie, w ith i ts o wn j udges, w here s everal 9 80's l eases w ere d rawn u p. Z1 I ts p recise b ounds a re n ever s pecified,

b ut w e d o h ave o ne l ease f or l and

i nside

t hem,

b eyond

t he m onastery o n t he e astern e dge o f t he p iana d i R occhetta. T his i s C V 11 ( 973) f or l ocum q ui d icitur c asa L aurenti, n ow C asa L orenzo, a n ame t hat h ints a t p ast o ccupation ( and d ispersal), t hough t he t enant n ow l ives i n C astel S an V incenzo. T he l ease i s f or a s mall a nd e xactly q uantified p roperty ( arable o f 1 00 x 9 0 p assus, v ineyard o f 2 0 x 1 6) o n e xtremely m arginal

l and,

t he s teep w ooded s lopes b etween t he p iana a nd

t he r iver V olturno, 2 00 m b elow . T he r ent m ust h ave b eta m iscopied f rom a nother t ext - i t i s u nreasonably l arge f or s uch a s mall a rea, a nd i ncludes n o w ine. T he t enant i s a n ew i mmigrant f rom V alle T rita i n V alva, a nd w e m ay t herefore b e s eeing a nother i nstance o f l and r ec learance; b ut, i f s o, t he p rocess o f c learance m ust h ave b een v irtua lly c omplete i n t his a rea, f or C asa L orenzo i s o n v ery b ad l and. T here t erra,

w ere

S capoli

t wo o ther c astelli e stablished i n t his

a n r ' V acchereccia,

w hich a ppear i n,

9 85 w ith v ery s imilar l eases ( CV 1 42, 1 65); p redates t he l ease, b ut p robably n ot b y m uch,

z one

o f

t he

r espectively, 9 82 a nd

i n e ach c ase t he c astello f or t hey a re n ot r eferred

t o i n a 9 62 c harter. B oth a re e xplicitly f or c learance, w ith a c ommon f ormula b y w hich t he m onks t ake n ote t hat t hey h ave a l ot o f p roperty t hat i s n ot p roperly e xploited, a nd m eet t o d ecide t hat t hey m ust f ind m en q ui a n os p er c onvenencia l ibellario o rdine t ollere d eberet e t a d c ultum p erduceret. T he m en t hey f ind ( four f or S capoli, s ix f or V acc hereccia) h ave, t his t ime, t hree y ears g race w ithout r ent, a nd t hen o we a m odius o f w heat a nd b arley p er h ouse ( and, f or S capoli, t wo m odia o f w ine p er t ractoria), ( i.e. p ulling l oads).

a nd o ne p ig i n 1 1 ( or 2 0) a nd h orse s ervice T hey h ave t he p ower t o s ell t heir l ands a nd

h ouses, e ither b ack t o t he m onastery o r t o t heir f ellow b oni h omines i n t he c astello, a nd t o l eave a t a ny t ime: g enerous t erms, t hough f airly f requent i n t hese l eases. T hey m ust l ive i n t he c astello; t he S capoli t ext

h ere

d eparts

j ust h abitare,

t he

b ut

f rom t hat

f or V acchereccia,

r equiring

t he m en

n ot

c asa f acere a d h abitandum.

S capoli a nd V acchereccia a re c lose t ogether, a nd c learly c ome i nto s ame c ategory. T here a re t wo i mportant d ifferences b etween t hem,

h owever.

T he

f irst i s

t he

f act

t hat S capoli s till e xists a s a

p opu-

l ated c entre, a nd V acchereccia d oes n ot, h aving b een r eplaced a s t he m ajor c entre o f i ts a rea b y t he n earby ( more d efensible) s ite o f R occ hetta, p robably i n t he 1 2th c entury. T his i n m y v iew i s e vidence o f a g reater f ailure

c oncern f or m ilitary p reparedness a fter 1 100, a nd n ot o f t he o f t he s ite, w hich, i ndeed, c ontinued t o b e o ccupied i n t he

l ate m iddle a ges. V acchereccia

( which

B ut i s

i t n ot

d oes a llow a rchaeological

i nvestigation

l ikely t o b e e asy i n t he c ase o f 2 37

f or

S capoli),

a nd a s mall e xcavation w as u ndertaken t here i n 1 982. S everal p ottery h orizons w ere f ound w ith a s omewhat c onfused s tratigraphy: t here w as, a s w e h ave a lready s een, p re-10th c entury m aterial, b ut h orizon, t entatively d ated t o t he 1 0th-llth c enturies.

a lso a f urther T he m aterial

w as f ound s lightly b elow t he h illtop, o n w hich, r emarkably, t here w as n o e vidence o f e arly m edieval o ccupation. A ll t his s hows t hat t he s ite w as n ot t otally u noccupied w hen S an V incenzo f ounded i ts c astello; w e m ay p erhaps s ee i ncastellamento h ere a s t he f ocussing o f a p reviously e xisting o pen s ettlement o f s ome k ind i nto t he t ighter n ucleus, n o d oubt d efended, o f t he c astellum o f 9 85. B ut o ne m ust r emark o n t he a pparent a typicality o f a f ortification o n a h ill s lope, i nstead o f o n a s ummit. e xcavation.

T his

p roblem w ill b e d iscussed i n t he p ublication o f

t he

2 2

T he s econd d ifference i s i n t he s ize o f t he b ounds f or t he t wo s ettlements. V acchereccia's a re n ot e asy t o i dentify, b ut a re c erta inly s mall-scale, a nd l argely c onsist o f l and a lready o ccupied b y t enants, w hich d oes s omewhat l imit t he f orce o f t he c learance r hetoric i n i ts c harter - V acchereccia's t erritory c ertainly m ostly l ay i n t he f lat l and o f t he s outhern p iana d i R occhetta. S capoli'e b ounds a re t otally d ifferent. T hey a re v ast, c overing s ome 8 0 km o f m ostly m ountainous l and, p erhaps a f ifth o f t he w hole t erra, s tretching a long t he f lank o f t he M ainarde f rom M . F alconara j ust s outh o f S capoli r ight u p t o t he S angro, t o t he w est o f t he p robable b ounds o f C astel S an V incenzo. M ost o f t his l and i s t otally u ncultivable, o r e lse t oo d istant f rom S capoli t o m ake t he t erritory a nything o ther t han n otional. W e m ust c onclude h ere, a s w ith C astel S an Vincenzo, t hat c ultivators c ould s imply c lear a s m uch l and a s t hey w ere a ble, a nd - i t s hould b e n oted - w ithout p aying m ore r ent ( except f or v ineyards). B ut S capoli, l ike V acchereccia, h ad f ertile l and f airly c lose, a cross t he t orrent i mmediately t o i ts s outh, w hich w as l ong s ettled; t here i s n o r eason t o

t hink t hat c learance s tarted f rom s cratch.

T hese f our t exts a re a ll t hat s urvive f rom t he c entral z one o f t he t erra, b ut t hey s how a c ommon r un o f c haracteristics: t hat o f c leara nce-leases

f ocussed

d efine t he z one. t otally

o n c oncentrated s ettlements,

T here i s n o r eason t o

u noccupied,

b ut

s ome o f

i magine

i t d id h ave t o

w hose

t hat t he b e

t erritories l and w as

r e-cleared.

e ver T he

c lose a ssociation b etween c oncentration a nd l and-clearance, w hich d el T reppo p ointed o ut i n 1 955, i s h ere e vident, a nd i s s omething w e s hall r eturn t o.

T he e astern z one o f t he t erra i s r ecorded f irst i n 9 72, i n t wo l eases, a nd t hereafter i n t wo c ourtcases a nd t hree o ther l eases i n 9 819 5. B ut f irst w e m ust o bserve t hat t his w hole z one, r ight u p t o t he r ivo M erdaro, w est o f C erro ( now t he t orrente I emmare?), w as i ncluded i n a g ift o f 9 64 f rom t he B eneventan p rince P andulf I t o h is c ousin L andulf G recus, a lready c ount o f I sernia, a s p art o f t he e stablishment o f t hat c ounty. T his g ift c onsisted o f a b loc g rant o f t he w hole t erritory o f t he c ounty a s h ereditary p ossession, w hich a pparently m eant i n t heory t hat t he l and o f t he w hole a rea w as t he c ount's ( alt hough L andulf

i ndependent t hus

o wners

a re

c ertainly

h ad s ome r eason t o b elieve

d ocumented

t hat t hese p arts

i n o f

I sernia). t he

t erra

w ere r ightly h is, a nd i n o r b efore 9 81 h e i nvaded t hem, c laiming ( in t he s ubsequent c ourtcases) t hat t he l ands w ere f iscal p roperty 2 38

( puplice)

a nd b elonged

t o

t he c ounty o f I sernia.

o n h is w ay s outh t o h is d efeat a C rotone, h ear n o m ore o f I serniese c laims.' 3

T he E mperor O tto I I,

f ound a gainst h im ,

a nd w e

T he e xistence o f t his t hreat m ay w ell e xplain o ne n otable f eature o f t he i ncastellamento t exts o f t he e astern z one: t hat t he t erritories o f t he f ive c astelli f or w hich l eases s urvive h ad m uch t he s ame b ounds, a nd i n p articular a ll o f t hem i ncluded V alle P orcina, t he r ich h ills lopes b elow F ornelli a nd t he w ooded p ebblebank b etween t he V olturno a nd t he V andra, t he a rea, b eyond d oubt, t hat L andulf w as m ost i nterested i n. A bove a ll, t his a rea i s t he c ore o f t he t wo l eases f rom J uly 9 72 w ith i dentical b ounds a nd f ormularies, t hat c oncern t he l oca o f V adu T raspadini i n t he f irst, a nd a d S . A ngelum a nd B antra i n t he s econd ( CV 1 09-10). B oth a re e xplicitly t o f ound c astelli, a nd t he b ounds s urround a ll t hree p laces m entioned; S an V incenzo m ust h ere h ave b een c reating a c ommon t erritory w ith t hree s ettlement f oci, a s a c ounterposition

t o t he c laims o f

t he c ount

o f

I sernia.

A s a

d efence

a gainst I sernia, i n o ther w ords, b ut n o m ilitary s ervice i s m entioned, a nd t he c ontext i s n ot n ecessarily m ilitary ( cf b elow, p p. 2 46-47). T he t hree l oca a ll b ecame c astelli b y 9 81, b ecoming V adu P orcinum ( i.e. V alle P orcina), C olle S . A ngelo ( mod. C olli a V olturno) a nd B antra o r V andra ( mod. F ornelli). C olli a nd F ornelli s till e xist ; V alle P orcina i s n ow a bandoned. S urvey-work on4 t he l atter h as a s y et n ot s hown C V 1 09, f or V alle P orcina, i s a p ottery p redating t he 1 3th c entury. 2 l ease t o 1 6 h eads o f f amilies ( at l east f ive a re r epresentatives o f f rgraches, g roups o f b rothers), i ncluding a n A laman a nd a m an f rom P enne; C V 1 10, f or C olli a nd F ornelli, i s t o 2 2 m en ( in 1 4 f amily g roups),

t wo m en f rom M arsica,

o ne f rom V alva,

o ne f rom T eano.

D espite

t his e lement o f i mmigration, w hich o ught t o m ean n ew c ultivation, n o c learance i s m entioned, a nd t he r ent i s p ayable a t o nce: o ne m odius e ach o f w heat a nd b arley p er h ouse, t wo m odii o f w ine, a nd o ne p ig i n e leven; t his i s p erhaps n ot s urprising, a s t he a rea i s o ne o f t he r ichest i n t he t erra, a nd s ettled f rom a t l east R oman t imes. T he f oundation o f t he c astello i n e ach c ase t herefore t akes o n a n i mportance o f i ts o wn, a nd t his t ime i t i s e xplicit: e t d ebeant i nfra p redictos f ines f acere c astellum u bi i lli v oluerint, e t i bidem f acere c asas e t a reas e t h ortos, e t h abitare i bi c um f amiliis e t a nimaliis e t c um c ausa s ua:

o ur

f irst e xamples,

i n f act,

o f

t he a ctual f oundation

o f c astelli. A fter d oes 1 64).

9 81

C V r ecords a l ease f or F ornelli

( II p .239),

t hough

i t

n ot s urvive ; o ne f or C olli d oes, h owever, d ating f rom 9 88 ( CV T his t ime t he l ease i s t o 4 0 m en ( in n ine f rer ches), m ostly n ot

t he s ame

p eople a s i n C V 1 10,

t hough a f ew n ames

r ecur.

T he r ent

i s

v ery s imilar t o C V 1 09 a nd 1 10. T his t ime, l and c learance i s e xplic itly m entioned, b ut t his m ay b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t he b ounds f or C olli a dd a n ew t ract o f l and, a n otably i nfertile m ountain r idge, M onte F alconara, o n t he w estern s ide o f t he V olturno. T he c astello w as a pparently s uccessful a nd e xpanding. A fter

t his d ate,

t wo m ore s ettlement-foundations a re r ecorded

i n

s urviving t exts. T he f irst w as C erro, f ounded i n 9 89 ( CV 1 67). H ere 1 5 m en ( some f rom C orniliano n ear T eano, a nd o ne f rom n ostro l oco C astel S an V incenzo?) a re r equired t o b uild a nd i nhabit t he c astello, t o b e p laced i n a n a ppropriate s pot i n l oco u bi d icitur a d C errum. C erro m ay p ossibly h ave b een a p reexisting s ettlement o f s ome k ind, f or a r oad f rom i t i s p art o f t he C V 1 09-10 b ounds, a nd t he l and i s q uite 2 39

g ood;

b ut a s a c astello i t

i s e vidently n ew.

t he w hole a rea d elineated i n 1 09-10,

I ts b ounds i ncorporated

b ut a lso a v ast a rea t o i ts

n orth ,

a s f ar a s t he S angro, w here i t m et t hose o f S capoli; t his w hole a rea i s e xactly t hat p art o f t he t erra w hich f ormed p art o f t he g rant t o t he c ount o f I sernia i n 9 64. T he l ease i s e xplicitly f or c learance, w ith a t hree y ear p eriod o f g race, a s a t V acchereccia a nd S capoli ; t he r ents a nd r ights a re w ell i nside

t he n orms w e h ave s een.

T he f inal f oundation d ates f rom 9 95, a nd i t i s f or l oco u bi d icitur a d F icus, t hough t he c hronicler g losses t his a s c astro P esclu; C olle S tefano a lso a ppears a s a n ame f or i t i n t he 1 040 s-50 s a nd 1 150. T his i s p robably t he s mall s ite i dentified i n 1 980 a t I l S eggio, a t 7 50m o n a h igh h ill s pur o n w hat i s n ow C olle S tefano, 4 km n orth o f F ornelli ( and 2 km n orth o f t he F onte d el P esco), w hich s howed 1 3th-15th c entury p ottery. T he 9 95 c harter ( CV 1 66), h owever, r efers t o n either P esclu n or C olle S tefano, a nd d oes n ot, u nlike t he c harters w e h ave s o f ar d ealt w ith, g ive a ny r eference t o a c astello a t a ll. T his c annot b e c hance; r eferences t o c astelli a re f irmly e mbedded i n t he 1 0thc entury f ormularies w e h ave s o f ar s een, a nd i n C V 1 66, w hich i s o therwise v ery s imilar t o o ther t exts, F icus i s, t hen, a n o pen s ettlement, b ounds a gain i nclude

t hose o f C V

t hey h ave c learly b een r emoved. q uite p ossibly d ispersed. I ts

1 09-10,

b ut a re i ncluded i n t hose

o f

C erro. I i S eggio i s i n h igh a nd n ot a t a ll f ertile l and ( it i s n ow m ostly p asture); n ot s urprisingly, t hen, C V 1 66 i s a c learance l ease, w ith a p eriod o f g race o f, i n t his i nstance, f ive y ears, a nd t hen a r ent

a nd

r ights a s

i n C V 1 64 f or C olli.

T he e ight l esees ( of

w hich

f our r epresent f rerZches; o ne o f t hese i s f rom T ermoli) a re c learly t he f irst i nhabitants, f or t he t ext s tates t hat i f n ew i nhabitants e ppear i n t he n ext s ix y ears, t hey a re t o b e a ccepted o n t he s ame t erms. ' I n t he e astern z one, o ur p attern o f c astelli a s f oci f or c learance d oes n ot w ork p articularly w ell. W e h ave o ne c astello, C erro, t hat i s f ounded ( though, l and).

i n a t erritory c learly e armarked f or f irst-time c learance l ike S capoli, b eside a p ocket o f g ood a nd p robably s ettled B ut F icus, i n a s imilar c learance-territory, i s e vidently a n

o pen s ettlement i n 9 95, e ven i f i t b ecame a c astello ( as P esclu) b y t he 1 2th c entury. A nd t he t hree c astelli o f C olli, F ornelli, a nd V alle P orcina, b esides b eing i n r elatively r ich ( and t herefore p erhaps o ccup ied)

l and,

a re n ot

p rimarily i ntended a s

c learance f oci

a t a ll.

O ther

e xplanations f or i ncastellamento i n t his z one a re n ecessary , w hich l ay s tress o n i ts p olitical v ulnerability; t o t his I w ill r eturn. A g ood p roportion o f t he i ncastellamento l eases f or L azio a re l argescale l ong-term l eases t o n obles, w ho a re r esponsible f or e stabl ishing F urther

t he c astelli t hemselves, a lmost a s e ntrepreneurial v entures. s outh t hese a re r arer, a nd i n t he t erra o f S an V incenzo o nly

o ne s urvives, t he s ingle n orthern z one o f t he t erra,

l ease r ecorded i n t he C hronicon f or t he t he V al d i S angro. T his i s C V 1 07 ( 975)

f or A lfedena, a l ease t o A nseri a nd h is b rothers, c omital f amily f or n eighbouring V alva. I t i s a l ease. b ounds y ears,

T he

l essees,

( basically a ll a re r esponsible

w ho

l ease h alf

m embers o f a v icer eal r e-population

t he c astello o f A lfedena and i ts

t he V al d i S angro p art o f f or t he s ettling o f m en:

s cripto c astello o rdinare e t m ansemus i bi h omines

t he t erra) f or 2 9 d ebeamus i n s uprai nside

t wo y ears,

o r

e lse t he c harter i s v oid. T here a re a lready m en w orking t he l and, a nd t he c astello p reexists t he l ease ( indeed, t here w as o nce a R oman c ity t here), b ut S an V incenzo w ants m ore i nhabitants. Y et t he m onastery, 2 40

2 41

t his t ime, i s h appy t o e ntrust t he t ask t o l ocal n obles, a nd, s triki ngly, n o r ent i s r equired. T he c ontext o f t he l ease must b e s een a s p olitical. T he V al d i S angro w as a n e xposed e dge o f t he t erra o f S an V incenzo i n t wo r espects. F irst, i t a butted o n t he l and o f t he m onast ery a lso

o f B arrea r ecently g ranted t o M ontecassino, w hich i ntermittently l aid c laim t o ( in c . 1 020 B arrea's

s imilar c oncerns

t o p ut m en i nto t he n ewly f ounded

p erhaps a s a r esponse t he e dge o f V alva,

S an V incenzo a bbot s howed

R occa I nter M ontes,

t o t he e xpansion o f A lfedena). S econd, i t l ay o n f rom w hose s outhern v alleys s everal o f t he n ew

l awless n oble f amilies o f t he 1 0th-llth c entury c ame. T he b est-known o f t hese a re t he B orrelli, w hose e xpropriations o f S an V incenzo's l and a fter 1 040 a re t he c hief s ubject o f c hronicle e ntries i n t he C hronicon. J ohn's l ands;

t he r ather e xiguous 1 1th-century T he A nseri ( the f u ll A nseri i n

n arrative) w ere t heir p redecessors i n S an V incenzo's S angro l ess v iolent, b ut n ot p repared t o p ay a ny m ore r ent. S an

V incenzo f ound i tself h ere i n a c lassic s ituation f or a m onastery o f t he p eriod: f orced t o l ease a way l and t o a void h aving i t s eized, e ither b y a r elatively f riendly a nd p otentially l oyal f amily, o r w orse. B ut w hat i t r equired i n i ts l ease i s t herefore o f s ome i nterest: i t i nsisted o n t he s ettlement o f i nhabitants, a r equirement, n ote, n ot s trictly n ecessary i f t he a im o f t he t ext w as

w e s hould m erely t o

e stablish a s tronghold. S an V incenzo c ould a fford n ot t o g et e conomic a dvantage f rom a m arginal p art o f i ts t erra, a nd m aybe i t h ad n o c hoice, b ut i t w ished t o e stablish a h uman ( and t herefore e conomic) p resence s taked.

t here; i nhabitants, i n a v isible c astello, m eant a c laim W e m ay s ee a p arallel w ith t he e stablishment o f t he c astelli

i n t he e astern z one i n 9 72. 26 T he A nseri h ad

t heir l ease r enewed i n t he 1 010's,

b ut

t hat w as

t he

l ast t ime; i n t he 1 040's t he B orrelli o verthrew t hem. W hat s ort o f t enurial a rrangements t hey m ade w e c annot t ell; t hey d id m ake a t l east o ne l ease w ith S an V incenzo, b ut i t d oes n ot s urvive. t ers f or t he t erra p ostdate 9 95, u nfortunately, a nd p eters l atest a bout

O nly t wo c hart he C hronicon

o ut b oth a s c hronicle a nd d ocument c ollection a fter 1 040 ( the c harter d ates f rom 1 066). B ut w e h ave s ome n arrative d etails t he d epredations o f t he B orrelli b etween 1 045 a nd 1 053;

s tarting

w ith t he V al d i S angro, t hey s lowly i nvaded m ore a nd m ore o f t he t erra, e nding u p w ith s omething o ver h alf o f i t. T hen, h owever, i n c . 1 059, t hey m ade a t reaty ( through p apal m ediation) a nd g ave s ome o f t heir g ains b ack. T his a greement, a s r eported i n t he C hronicon, e ffectively g ives u s a f ull l ist o f w hat t he s ettlements o f t he e astern a nd n orthe rn z ones o f t he t erra h ad b ecome. T he B orrelli a re l isted a s h aving o ccupied A lfedena, M ontenero, t he n ow a bandoned s ettlement o f M alac occhiara e ast o f M ontenero, a nd R ionero, a ll i n t he h igh l and i n t he e xtreme n orth o f t he t erra; i n t he u plands o f t he e ast t hey h ad A cquav iva, C erro w ith S pina ( a d ependent s ettlement o n t he p lateau a bove C erro), C olle S tefano, o verlooking t he V andra),

L icenoso ( a l ost c astrum t o i ts n orth-east, a nd T enzunusu ( strategically i mportant, b ut

u nidentified). T hey a lso h eld C olli, V alle P orcina, F ornelli, F ossa C eca ( further s outh, a bove C apriati), a nd e ven S capoli, a ll o f w hich t hey g ave b ack. 2 7 M any o f t hese u ndocumented s ettlements m ust h ave b een n ew c reations o f t he 1 1th c entury. T hey i n f act c onstitute a ll t he s urviving s ettlements o f t he t wo z ones e xcept o ne o r t wo i solated g roups o f h ouses: t he m odern d istribution o f s ettlement w as, t hen, a lready f ully e stablished i n t hese p arts o f t he t erra b y 1 050. B ut n ot a ll o f t hem w ere c astelli. c astella a nd v illas, t hat i s

t o

T he C hronicon i n f act r efers t o t hem a s s ay o pen s ettlements. W e k now a lready, 2 42

o f c ourse, t hat C olle S tefano w as n ot a c astello ( one m ight g uess B örelli w ere t he p eople t o t urn i t i nto t he c astrum i t h ad b ecome

t he b y

t he

m ay

1 110's);

t he o pen s ettlement p attern f or F icus/Colle S tefano

w ell, h owever, h ave b een a m ore c ommon f eature o f t he u plands t han w e c an s how t hrough t he s urviving d ocuments. T he f inal s ettlement o f t he u plands b etween F ornelli a nd A lfedena, w hich i s w hat t hese n ew 1 1thc entury n ames c onstitute, i s l ikely t o h ave b een c arried o ut ( at l east i nitially) t hrough v illae l ike C olle S tefano q uite a s m uch a s t hrough c astella l ike C erro. i i

T he s outhern z one o f t he t erra; V incenzo a nd M ontecassino T he

f ourth

z one,

t he m ilitary p reparedness o f S an

t he s outhern h ills a nd t he p lain w est

o f

t he

V olturno, i s d ifferent a gain. H ere, w e h ave t hree l eases f or l and t hat i s f ully p art o f t he t erra, f ive c harters f or S . M aria O liveto, o n i ts b orders,

a nd a lso s ome t exts

f rom t he C assino a rchive

V enafro a nd n eighbouring u pland v illages

( Viticuso,

T aking t he p laces i n c hronological o rder, M aria O liveto,

f or t he p lain o f

C ardito).

w e s hould s tart w ith S .

S an V incenzo's p roperty s ince b efore 8 33, w hich,

t hough

c ontiguous t o t he t erra, h ad n ever b een a bsorbed i nto i t; d oubtless b ecause i t w as a c hurch, w hich w as a lways s een a s a n i ndependent t errit orial c entre. 28 I t w as t he c entre o f t he f irst o f a ll t he 1 0th c entury l eases, C V 8 7 f or 9 39. T his i s a c learance l ease, w hole n orthern s ection o f t he V enafro p lain, t o 1 9 i mmigrants

f or t he ( one f rom

V alva)

l and

i n

1 0

f amily g roups;

t hese s ocii h ave

t o r e-clear

p asture a nimals, a nd p ay r ent a s t he m en o f V enafro d o. t his e xposed a rea, t hough n aturally p rosperous, h ad t emporarily d epopulated b y t he A rabs,

b ut,

i f s o,

a nd

I t m ay b e t hat a ctually b een

i t a butted o n s ome

l argish t erritories w ith c ontinuous s ettlement; o ne o f t hese, a n f iscal e state n ear S . N icandro ( between S . M aria a nd V enafro),

e xw as

g iven t o t he m onastery i n 9 55 b y a f our-generation g roup o f m ajor a ristocrats ( CV 9 4). B y 9 50, S . M aria w as r eorganised t hrough a n ew l ease t o f or t he H ere,

1 4 m en ( all a lready t enants i n 9 39, o r t heir k in), c hurch i tself a s w ell a s f or i ts b loc o f t erritory

t he

c anon i s p artiary,

t his t ime ( CV 9 5).

w ith t he m onastery t aking a n e xtraordi-

n arily l ow p roportion - a t enth o f t he g rain ( wheat, b arley, m illet), t ogether w ith a p ercentage o f t he p igs, a nd o f t he w ine c rop ( after a 1 0 y ear p eriod o f g race), a s o ther s harecroppers ( parcionarii) p ay i n t he V enafrano. N o c astello i s r eferred t o i n t hese t exts; t he f ocus o f S . M aria's t errito-r y i s s till t he c hurch. 9 50 i s a l ittle e arly f or i ncastellamento, p erhaps, a nd P andulf's i ncastellamento d iploma f or S an V incenzo

i s

c haracteristic

o nly f rom 9 67, o f

t exts

b ut

t he t erminology o f

f rom o ther p arts o f

t hese c harters

S an V incenzo's

i s

p roperties

i n t he p lain o f V enafro a nd s outhwards t o T eano, d ating f rom 9 36 t o 1 028, n one o f w hich m ake a ny r eference t o c astelli. T his a bsence d oes n ot p rove a nything d irect a bout s ettlement-pattern, b ut i t d oes s how t hat t he t erritorialisation a ssociated w ith c astelli w as n owhere p resent o n t he p lain ; w e s aw d ispersed s ettlement o n i ts n orthern f ringe i n t he e arly 9 th c entury ( above p .234), a nd t here i s n o r eason t o t hink t hat t his p attern h ad c hanged. I n t he c ase o f S . M aria, i n f act, w e k now t hat i t d id n ot c hange u ntil l ate; i t i s r eferred t o s imply a s a c hurch i n c onfirmations t o S an V incenzo t hrough t he 1 0th a nd

1 1th

l amento i ndeed

c enturies.

2 9

A nd w e h ave w hat i s m ore o r l ess a n

c harter f or t he v illage, f rom a s l ate a s 1 066 t he l ast c harter i n t he C hronicon. A ctually, 2 43

i ncastel-

( CV 2 06); i t i s e ven h ere t he

c astello i s n ot m entioned i n t he t ext,

b ut a c oncentrated s ettlement i s

- t he a rea [ = a rea] q ue e st i ntus i psis t erris e dificatam, s even h abitatores d e l oco S . M aria q ue d icitur O livetum;

i nhabited b y t his i s t he

f irst ' time S . M aria i s u sed a s a p lacename, r ather t han s imply a s t he t itle o f a c hurch. T he C hronicon, a t t his p oint w ritten o nly s ixty y ears p lain S .

l ater, s ays o f t his t ext t hat t he N ormans w ere d evastating t he o f C apua, a nd a bbot J ohn V h omines, q ui [ ] c irca e cclesiam

M aria q uod d icitur

O liveto a ssumens,

c astrum c onstituit i n m ontem,

q uod n unc e sse v idetur. I t i s n ot c ertain w hether w e c an s ay t hat J ohn i ncastellated S . M aria a t t he s ame t ime a s h e i ssued t he c harter, f or t he c harter d oes n ot m ention a c astello, b ut t he c astello m ust h ave s oon b een b uilt. F rom a ll t his, s ome p oints a re c lear. S . M aria i s o n a s pur p eculiarly s uitable f or i ncastellamento, b ut i t h ad n ot y et b een i ncastellated i n 1 066. C V 2 06 d oes r ecord t hat b y 1 066 i t h ad b ecome t he c entre o f a s ettlement t hat s imply b y i ts p osition w as d efensive, b ut i t w as n ot u ntil t hen o r s oon a fter t hat i t w as f ortified, f or e xplicitly m ilitary r easons. A nd t he c harter i tself i s i n f act s imply a n a grarian l ease, w ith a e mmer, h emp, c hick p eas, V enafro p lain, t he a rea m ilitary d uties s pecified

r ent s till a t 1 0% - o f w heat, b arley, m illet, w ine, a nd p igs, f or t he w hole o f t he n orthern o f C V 9 3 ( see b elow). N ot e ven h ere a re a ny i n a l ease. S an V incenzo's l ow-key r esponse

t o m ilitary d anger p ersisted l ate, o f S outh I talian h istory.

M aria

i n o ne o f

t he m ost u nstable p eriods

T he N ormans d id a t l east p ush S an V incenzo t o i ncastellate O liveto. B ut t he 1 060's w ere n ot t he f irst t ime i ts l ands

t his

s outhern z one h ad b een t hreatened.

A s e arly a s

t he

9 60's,

S . i n t he

c ount o f V enafro P aldefrit c laimed p roperty h ere, w hose b ounds s how i t t o b e i n t wo c ontiguous b locs, f ocussing o n t hree c hurches, S . M aria O liveto, S . C ristina, w ell t o i ts s outh, a nd S . Q uirico i n M orcano, a pparently j ust e ast o f S . M aria. 9 64 p ro p arte p alacii, o n b ehalf o f r ights

i n t he s ubsequent c ourt c ase

P aldefrit o ccupied t hese l ands i n t he f isc, b ut c ould n ot p rove h is ( CV 9 3),

a nd l ost.

W ith s o m uch o f

t he p lain o f V enafro i n m onastic h ands, a nd m ore a dded i n 9 55, t he c ount m ay h ave f elt u nder t hreat, a nd r eacted; h e d oes n ot s eem t o h ave h ad t he s ame j ustifications a s t he c ount o f I sernia a l ittle l ater. B ut S . M aria w as n ot i ncastellated a gainst V enafro, e ven t hough t he c ounts r emained a t hreat ( they o ccupied C erasuolo i n c . 1 020, a nd a lso F ilignano, a s w e s hall s ee). T his r esponse i s d ifferent f rom t hat t o t he c ounts o f I sernia a nd t he A nseri/Borrelli; w e c an s ee n o c onsiste ncy i n S an V incenzo's r esponses M ost c lause; c omplex , m arkers

t o

t hreats i n t hese d ecades.

. of C V 9 3 i s t aken u p w ith a v ery l ong a nd d etailed

b oundary

t he d elineation o f l and i n t he p lain w as c learly e xtremely w ith c ountless r oads a nd d itches a nd c isterns a nd s tone - a g ood s ign o f f airly f ull e xploitation A e ven, p erhaps,

r especting

t he

s quaring o f

t he R oman c enturiation. 3 "

B ut

j ust

t he

p osing o f s uch a p ossibility a s t his s hows h ow f ar w e h ave c ome f rom t he t raditional p roblematic o f t he t erra o f S an V incenzo, t he c learing o f v irgin l and.

W e a re h ere,

o f

c ourse,

o utside

t he

t erra,

p roperly

s peaking. B ut t here a re u ndoubted s imilarities b etween t he p atterns i n t he S . M aria O liveto t exts a nd t hose o f C erasuolo a nd O livella, t he t wo d ocumented t erritories i nside t he s outhern z one o f t he t erra. T here m ay h ave b een a s ettlement b reak i n e ach c ase - l ess l ikely f or O livella, h owever, t he r icher o f t he t wo; b ut i nitial r eorganisation o f t he l and, a nd/or i ts a nce,

a ssociated w ith c astelli,

i n n either c ase w as t he r esettlement a nd c lear-

t o w hich t here a re n o r eferences 2 44

i n a ny

o f

t he 1 0th-century t exts.

T he f irst o f t he t erra l eases i s C V 1 12 ( 962) f or l and C ausa, i .e. o n t he s tream o therwise c alled t he r io S . P ietro,

a d i psa r unning

d own f rom t he s ettlement o f C erasuolo V ecchio t o t he V olturno. C eras uolo V ecchio i s n ow a bandoned ( its i nhabitants s eem t o h ave m oved t o m odern C erasuolo i n t he 1 8th c entury), t hough i ts b uildings a re p artially t raceable i n t he s crub; o nly M aiolica h as s o f ar b een h ere. T he 1 2th-century r ubrics t o C V 1 12 m ake c lear t hat a d b ecame t he s ettlement o f C erasuolo. B ut, j ust a s i n t he a d

s till f ound C ausa F icus

c harter, n o c astello i s m entioned i n t he t ext. B y 1 064 i t e xisted, f or P aldo c ount o f V enafro g ave 3 /8 o f i t i n t hat y ear t o C assino, h aving e xpropriated i t f rom S . V incenzo i n, p erhaps, a round 1 020. t ion o f t he c astello m ay w ell p ost-date t he l atter e vent.

T he f oundaT he t enants

o f C V 1 12, e ight m en i n f our f amilies, a re a ll i mmigrants f rom F rancia ( so s ays t he t ext, b ut m aybe t hey a re j ust I talian F ranks - t heir n ames a re f airly s tandard I talian o nes); t he l and i s p erhaps, t hen, n ewly c leared, t hough t he s pecifications i n t he t ext a re f airly v ague. A s m -ch r ent i s t o b e p aid a s i s d emanded o f t he f ree m en o f t he c urtes o f , n V incenzo a nd S . M aria O liveto. 31 9 62 s eems t o h ave b een t he y ear 1 1 w hich S ar V incenzo r eorganised m ost o f t he s outh o f t he t erra, f or mach o f t he Est i s i ncluded i n C V 1 08, a l ease f or l oco u bi d icitur a d i psa O livElla, m ost p articularly t he f ertile l ands a long t he w estern b ank o f t he V olturno. A gain, t he l ease i s n ot f or i ncastellamento, a nd t he c learance f ormulae s eem c onventional; t he s ingle f amily i n t he l ease m ust p ay r ent a s d o t he l ocal i nhabitants. T his i s i mportant e vidence o f p reexisting o ccupation, b ecause C V 1 13 ( 965 o r 9 66), f or l and i nside

t he s ame b ounds,

h as a f ormulary m ore o r l ess i dentical t o

t hat f or S capoli a nd V acchereccia ( above, p . 2 37), c omplete w ith t he e xpansive p roem a bout t he a bsence o f t enants o n S an V incenzo's u nexp loited l ands, a nd a t hree-year p eriod o f g race w ithout r ent. O livella d oubtless r equired s ome c learance, b ut t he t hree t enants o f C V 1 13 w ere e vidently b y n o m eans t he f irst i n t he z one. W here w as O livella? 1 13, f ar f rom c iting a c astello, d oes n ot e ven s pecify a p lace, m erely a v ague

i bi h abitavehritis;

C V 1 08,

e qually v aguely,

r efers

C V b ut t o

m en q ui h abitant e t l aborant d e i psis t erris i n i amdictis l ocis. O nce a gain, t hese l ands w ere n ot e xploited t hrough a t erritorial p attern b ased o n a c astello. T here i s c ertainly n o r eason t o c onclude t hat a ny o f t hese t enants n ecessarily l ived i n a c astello, e ither. B ut w hen O livella i s d ocumented a s a c astellum, i n t he 1 2th c entury, i t d id n ot c hange e xisted

i ts n ame, u nlike C erasuolo a nd P esclu, a nd m ay t herefore h ave f rom t he f irst. T he c astello w as q uite p ossibly o n w hat i s n ow

c alled C olle C astellano, r ight i n t he c entre o f O livella's b ounds, a s mall h ill i n t he b end o f t he t orrente R ava. H ere s ome e xploratory a rchaeological w ork h as s hown o ccupation t races a nd a w all, a ssociated w ith p ottery f rom t he 1 0th-12th, p erhaps 8 th-12th, c enturies. W hat w e m ay b e s eeing h ere i s a s mall c astello a s a f ocus a nd r efuge-centre f or a n a rea, b ut t oo s mall t o a ct a s t he c entre f or a ll i ts p opulation - a v ersion o f w hat T oubert w ould c all a ' habitat c entr6". I f t his i s s o, i t

c ould

s ettlement T he F ilignano. O livella,

h ave e xisted t here f rom t he p atterns a rea I t a nd

f or

i n g enera1.

f irst,

w ithout

d isturbing

t he

3 2

w hich w e c ould d o w ith d ocuments

i s

t hat

a round

a ppears i n t he b oundary-clauses o f b oth C erasuolo a nd i n a n umber o f c onfirmations, a s t he c ella o f S .

E leuterio i n F undiliano, a c hurch f ounded i n t he 8 50's, a nd t his, c oupled w ith t he a bsence o f L eases, m akes t he a rea l ook l ike o ne w here 2 45

i ncastellamento n ever o ccurred.

A t F ilignano,

n ow p laced o n a v alley

b ottom , t his m ight s eem l ikely; b ut s urvey-work a t L e M ura, o n t he r idge o pposite, h as s hown u p a n e xceptionally c lear i nstance o f a l ate m edieval c astello, w ith M aiolica f ound i n t he c astello i tself, a nd p ottery o f t he 8 th-9th c entury ( as a t Vacchereccia) a nd o f t he 1 0th1 2th ( as a t C olle C astellano) i n t he t erraces i mmediately b eneath i t. S o f ar t his i s o ur f ullest p ottery s equence f or a s ite, a nd o ne w ithout a ny d ocumentary r ecord, t hat i s i f t his i s n ot t he m edieval s ite o f F ilignano i tself. W hen r esearch o n i t i s c omplete, w e m ay, f or o nce, h ave

a n a vailable a ccount o f e xactly w hat h appens

t o a

s ettlement

i n

t he i ncastellamento p eriod, w hich w ill s hed l ight o n t he d evelopment o f o ur d ocumented s ites. I t c ertainly w arns u s a gainst a ssuming a reas w ere u noccupied

t hat

j ust b ecause t hey h ave n o s urviving d ocuments. 3

T he s outhern z one o f t he t erra h as a c onsistent p attern o f l easing i s c learly d istinct f rom o ther p arts o f t he z one, t hough t here a re

p arallels i n t he r emoter u plands o f t he e ast, a t F icus a nd n orthwards: h ere, t he m onastic r eorganisation a nd p artial r esettlement w as n ot o rganised t hrough c astelli. S ome o f t he s outh i s n atural c learance t erritory ( Cerasuolo); c ally v ery v ulnerable,

a nd, i mportantly, s ome o f t he s outh i s s trategif or t he m ain r oute f rom C ampania t o S an V incenzo

p asses b y S . M aria O liveto a nd O livella. B oth o f t hese t wp w ould h ave b een g ood r easons f or S an V incenzo t o i ncastellate i ts s outhern l ands, b ut i t d id n ot, o r a t l east n ot w ith t he c ompleteness t hat w as n ormal f or i t e lsewhere i n t he t erra. T he e xact n ature o f t he s ettlement i n t he s outhern z one i s n ot w holly c lear, a nd w as p robably n ot c onsistent. C erasuolo m ay b e a l ate, e ven n on-monastic, c astello; S . M aria O liveto i s

c ertainly l ate a s a c astello,

a nd s eems t o h ave

f ormed s lowly

a nd

b elatedly e ven a s a s ettlement c oncentration ; O livella m ay b e e arly a s a c astello, b ut d id n ot c ontain a ll t he i nhabitants o f t he z one; ' Le M ura', b ut

w hatever i ts

d id

n ot

E leuterio. t erritorial

s tatus,

p erhaps,

c ould w ell h ave f ormed v ery e arly i ndeed,

w holly r eplace t he o pen s ettlement

a round

S .

B ut a ll o f t hese c ontrast n otably w ith t he s harp o rganised r eorganisation t hrough s ettlement c oncentration i n o ther

p arts o f t he t erra. W e h ave t o s ee t his a s c hoice. t o i gnore t he t hreats o f t he c ounts o f V enafro, a s

S an V incenzo c hose i t d id n ot t hose o f

t he c ounts o f I sernia. O nly t he m ilitary d anger o f t he N ormans i nduced i t t o f ortify S . M aria O liveto. A nd t he o ther t wo c astelli t hat d omin ate t he C ampania r oad, R occaravindola a nd M ontaquila, o n o bvious s trong-points,

w ere n ot b uilt

b y S an V incenzo e ither;

t hey o nly

a ppear

i n t he C atalogus B aronum o f 1 150, a fter t i ge w hole o f t he s outhern o f t he t erra h ad p assed i nto N orman h ands. M ontaquila i s i n t he a rea a s O livella, r easons ( it i s r ecorded a gain. d efence V incenzo,

i s

z one s ame

i n f act, a nd s eems t o h ave r eplaced i t, f or m ilitary o n a f ar b etter s trategic s ite); O livella i s n ot C astelli a re, a s w e k now, m ulti-functional; b ut

u sually s upposed h owever,

t o

b e o ne o f

t hese

f unctions.

F or

w e c annot s how d efence m attering s o v ery m uch,

S an a t

l east i n t he d ocumentary e vidence t hat s urvives ( what a rchaeological e vidence t here i s w e w ill, i t i s t o b e h oped, s ee i n f urther e xcavat ion); a nd, i n t his s trategically c rucial z one, n ot a t a ll b efore 1 050. T he

r elative u nimportance o f m ilitary m atters

f or S an V incenzo

i s

b est s een i n a c omparison w ith w hat w e k now o f i ncastellamento i n t he t erra S . B enedicti, t he i mmediately c ontiguous t erritory o f M ontec assino, w here t he c ontext i s n otably d ifferent. C assinese i ncastellam ento c an b e p laced i nside a g eneral f ramework o f r epopulation a nd c learance, l ike t hat o f S an V incenzo. B ut t he m ilitary e lement i s f ar 2 46

c learer a nd f ar m ore e xplicit,

r ight f rom t he f irst c astelli o f A ligern

( abbot 9 49-85). O nly o ne i ncastellamento c harter s urvives f or C assino, t hat o f S . A ngelo i n T heodice ( founded b y A ligern b efore 9 67), b ut t here i s f ar m ore i nformation a bout C assinese a ffairs i n t he C hronica C asinensis t o b ack i t u p t han t here i s f or S an V incenzo i n t he C hronicon V ulturnense. 35 S . A ngelo's c harter i s c ertainly a c learance c harter, f or t he c arefully p arcelled-out s pace a round t he c astello ( one m odius o f l and f or e ach o f t he s ome 3 6 f amilies) i s i nculta; b ut t he t ext l ays g reat s tress o n S . A ngelo's w alls. M ontecassino i s i n f act s ufficiently f abricatores,

c oncerned a bout t hese t o p rovide i ts o wn m agistros a nd f eed t hem u sque d um i lli i n m ura d e e odem c astellum

f abricaberint. S an V incenzo, b y c ontrast, n ever m entioned w alls t o i ts c astelli a t a ll. T oubert q uite r ightly, r efers t o t his t ext a s s howing ' un s ouci d 'urbanisme v illageois', a nd r egards i t a s t he p rototype o f h is ( if

c astelli a s p opulation c entres, a s o pposed t o C assino's s trategic a lso i nhabited) c astelli, o r t he n ew w ave o f e ntirely m ilitary

c astelli e xplicit A

o f t he N orman p eriod. Y et i t i s a lready m ore m ilitarily t han S an V incenzo's m ost s trategic c astello-lease, C V 2 06. r einforcement

o f

t his c ontrast

( so f ar,

b ased

o n

a

s ingle

c harter) i s f ound i n t he p olitical e xperience o f t he n ewly i ncastell ated t erra o f S an B enedetto. T here i s c onsiderably m orP e vidence o f m ilitary a ffairs. F or a s tart, C assino, u nlike S an V incenzo, f ought t he N ormans, a t l east w hen i t w as n ot u sing t he N ormans a gainst e nemy l ocal c ounts ( and i ts o wn c astelli). C assino's l ocal m ilitia, i ts f ighting

s trength,

e ven s ay ( at l east,

c ame e xplicitly f rom i ts c astelli. u ntil t he l ate 1 1th c entury)

A nd w e

c annot

t hat t his m ilitia w as

a l ocal a ristocracy; c astelli m ay h ave h ad t heir pr imores, b ut t he i nh abitants a re u niversally d epicted a s a cting, a nd i t s eems, f ighting, t ogether. F urthermore, c astelli w ere n ot e ntirely s ubject t o C assino's c ontrol; t hey r evolted. F irst, t he h abitatores ( including r ustici) o f P ignataro i n 9 97 r ose u p; t hen, i n t he h eight o f C assino's p roblems w ith t he c ounts o f A quino a nd t he N ormans, s o d id C ervaro a nd S . A ngelo i n T heodice ( twice) i n 1 039-43; o thers f ollowed i n t he n ext c entury. T he m onastery u sed t he N ormans a gainst i ts c astelli, a nd t hen i ts c astelli a gainst t he N ormans. T aking S . A ngelo i n 1 043, i t r azed i ts w alls;

b ut o nce t he N ormans w ere h unted o ut i n 1 045,

i t r ebuilt t hem o n

a l arger s cale. T he m ilitary c ontext a nd p urpose o f t hese c astelli i s a bundant - a nd, o f c ourse, d ouble-edged. T he r evolts s how t his l ast p oint; a nd, a lthough t here i s n o e xplicit l ink, t he m ilitary c apacity o f t hese c entres c annot b e e ntirely u nrelated t o a s eries o f m onastic c harters g ranting w ide c oncessions o f r ights t o a n umber o f c astelli, s tarting i n 1 061, w hich h ave n o p arallel s o e arly i n t his p art o f I taly. B ut C assino k ept i ts l ands, h olding t hem a gainst a ll c orners, i n t he t roubles o f t he 1 1th a nd e arly 1 2th c enturies. S an V incenzo, b y c ontrast, f ound i ts t erritory r educed b y 1 100 o r s o t o a r ump o f f our o r f ive v illages a round t he c entral m onastic c omplex . B ut t hen, a s w e h ave s een, S an V incenzo c annot b e s hown i n t he p ossession o f a ny m ilitia, o r a ctive i n a ny m ilitary w ay. T he m onastery i ndeed n ever a cquired

a f ull m ilitary c apacity,

a s

i ts e xemption i n t he

C atalogus

B aronum s hows ( Cassino o wned 6 0 k nights). O ne c annot h elp f eeling t hat i ts c hoice h ere w as t he w rong o ne. I ts l oss o f l ands l ed t o i ts e clipse a s a p olitical a nd e cclesiastical f orce. I n t he e nd, i t s lipped u nder t he w ing o f t he m ore r esilient C assino i n t he 1 2th c ent ury, a fter s everal d ecades o f b ad r elations; n ot s urprising u nder t he c ircumstances, t o g ive

b ut

t o C assino

e xacerbated b y t he l and

t hat

t endency o f

t he c ounts o f

t hey h ad r emoved f rom S an V incenzo. 2 47

.g nafro

O ne f inal a spect o f C assino ' s i ncastellamento i s m ore p roblematic, h owever: i ts r elationship t o s ettlement p attern. W e d o n ot h ave e nough d ocuments f or C assino t o b e a ble t o s ay m uch a bout l ocal c ont rasts i n s ettlement-patterns, b ut t here i s e vidence t hat d espite t he g reater m ilitary p reparedness o f t he t erra d i S an B enedetto, a nd, o ne m ay a dd, c onsiderable e vidence f or l and c learance, i ncastellamento i n t he s ense o f s ettlement-concentration w as n ot c omplete a t a n e arly d ate. D espite t he p lethora o f e arly i nhabited c astelli, i t w as s till i ncomplete i n R icher f ortied

1 045 w hen, c astelli

a fter t he e xpulsion o f t he N ormans, a bbot a nd i bique r usticos, q ui h actenus i n v illis

h abitaverant, m anere c onstituit,

a nd e ven i ncomplete i n 1 107 w hen a bbot

O tto d id t he s ame ( in a lmost e xactly t he s ame w ords, a b it s uspic iously). 37 O nce a gain, n either d efence n or c learance a utomatically b ring u s t o s ettlement-concentration, o r n ot a t o nce; M ontecassino, l ike S an V incenzo, c ould a nd d id e xercise c hoice o ver t he m atter. i ii

E conomy,

p olitics,

a nd i ncastellamento

S an V incenzo d id n ot s ettle a nd r eorganise i ts t erra a ll a t o nce; i t t ook o ver f ifty y ears. A bbots R aimbald a nd L eo ( 920-57) e stablished S . M aria O liveto a nd C astel S an V incenzo; P aul I I ( 957-81) t he s outhern z one, V alle P orcina a nd A lfedena; J ohn I II a nd R offrid ( 981-98) t he c entres a t S capoli, V acchereccia, C erro, a nd F icus. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t his p eriod o f c astello-building a lso m arks a l arge g ap i n t he c hurch-building a ctivities o f S an V incenzo's a bbots; a fter R aimb ald's i nitial r ebuildings, t he C hronicon r eports n o r eestablishment o f c hurches u ntil t he g reat r ebuilding o f t he m other c hurch o f S an V inc enzo b y J ohn I V ( 998-1007), w ho, i n h is t urn, i s n ot k nown a s a c astello-builder.

T he C hronicon o mits c hurch-building e lsewhere,

b ut

i s u nlikely t o b e m istaken a bout t he m other c hurch ; i t t ook e ighty y ears f or t he m onks t o c ome t o r ebuild i t. T he r eason f or t his c hoice o f e nergies m ust b e t he g reat f inancial s tringencies S an V incenzo w as i n, w ith s o m any o f i ts l ands l ost; t he a bbey n eeded t o b ring i ts o wn t erra i nto c ultivation b efore i t c ould e ven f inance i ts p rincipal c hurch.

T he l eases m ade b y t he m onastery o f o utlying l ands,

e specially

i n A bruzzo, t o l ocal n obles f or l arge i nitial s ums s how a s imilar p reoccupation; S an V incenzo w as p robably i n e ffect a lienating i ts o uter t erritories i n o rder t o i nvest ( to u se a u seful a nachronism) i n c astello-building i n t he t erra, t he e ssential b ase f or e conomic r evival. 38 T he l eases I h ave d iscussed h ere s how t he s low r eestablishm ent o f o rganised e conomic a ctivity i n t he t erra t o t his e nd, w hether o r n ot t hey d eal w ith l and c ontinuously o ccupied i n t he 8 81-914 p eriod. A nd

t his

s low

p rocess w as

s ettlement o f f amilies ( Marsica, V alva, F orcona, b y

t he g enerous W hether

t erms o f

o ld o r n ew,

i n p art a chieved

t hrough

t he

s ystematic

f rom A bruzzo a nd e lsewhere i n c entral I taly P enne, T ermoli, T eano), a ttracted, d oubtless, t he l eases. t his

r eorganisation m arked a b reak.

I t

w as

c ertainly r un t hrough a n ew e conomic s tructure, t hat o f f ree t enancy, ' tenure c astrale', a s T oubert c alls i t. T he s ites f or t he s ettlements w ere

l argely n ew,

t oo,

w hether o r n ot

t hey w ere y et c astelli:

o ne m ust

n ote t he n umber o f t imes t he l oci i n t he l eases a re d escribed a s a d ( ipsa) x - F icu, C erru, C ausa, O livella, S . A ngelum. O f t hese, maybe C erro w as a n e xisting c entre; i n t he t erra d i S an V incenzo,

f ew o f t he o thers w ere. I ncastellamento u nlike m any o ther a reas, m eant a c om-

p letely n ew t erritorial n etwork. s ize,

i f

t he

T he n ew s ettlements v aried g reatly

t enants m entioned i n e ach l ease w ere a nything n ear 2 48

i n t he

f ull

n umber:

M aria C olli

t here c ould w ell h ave b een a h undred i nhabitants

i n

S .

O liveto i n 9 39 a nd V alle P orcina i n 9 72, a nd n ot m uch l ess i n i n 9 88 a nd C erro i n 9 89. O ther s ettlements m ight h ave v aried

b etween t wenty a nd s ixty a t l east a t f irst.

T he l argest

s ettlements,

t hough, w ere p robably a lready l arge f or 1 0th-century M olise; e ven i n t he 1 6th c entury t he 1 532 c ensus f or t hese v illages s hows m ost o f t hem a s h aving l ittle m ore t han 2 50 i nhabitants e ach; S an V incenzo's r es ettlement, e ven t hou e fficiently c arried o ut. O ne

f inal

p oint a bout

i n t hese t exts: a s r eference t o s heep.

An ot

s tarting

t he a ttitude

f rom

z ero,

w as

e vidently

t o e conomic e xploitation

s hown

i n V alva i n t he s ame p eriod, t here i s n ot a s ingle P igs a bounded, i n h erds o f t wenty o r m ore, a nd

s eem t o h ave b een u sed a s t he b est m eans o f e xploitation o f t he e xtens ive w oodlands o f t he t erra, a t l east u ntil t hey w ere c leared; t he e xtensive o verlaps i n t he b oundaries o f o ur l eases o n M onte F alconara a nd ( less c ertainly) i n t he p ebblespit a t t he b ase o f V alle P orcina p robably s how p ig-runs h eld i n c ommon b y v illage c ommunities. B ut t he p ledges i n a nimals t hat e nd a n umber o f o ur t exts l ist c ows, p igs, s ometimes h orses; n ever s heep. T he c ore o f t he m ajor f ocus o f o vine p astoralism i n r ecent t imes, e astern f ringes h ave,

t erra h as n ot b een a b ut i ts n orthern a nd

a nd A lfedena a nd R ionero a re s heep c rntres s till.

E ven o ur A lfedena l ease, h owever, a lthough i t h as a p ledge i n o ther a nimals, m akes n o r eference t o s heep. S an V incenzo h ad n o i nterest i n s heep p roduction i n i ts h eartland. T his f its w ith t he f tRt n ot r ecorded a s b eing i nvolved w ith i t e lsewhere, e ither. v T his

p icture

i s d ifferent o nly i n d etail

t hat

i t

f rom t hat p resented

i s

b y

d el T reppo. B ut t he a spect o f t he r eorganisation o f t he t erra o f S an V incenzo t hat m ost c oncerns u s i s t he p attern o f i ts s ettlement. I n t his r espect, w e h ave n ot y et e stablished a ny s ort o f s ynthesis, b ut o nly a b reakdown o f t he p atterns t hat w e m ight h ave b een l ed t o e xpect. C astelli h ave a d efensive p urpose, i n t he t raditional h istoriography, w hich i s s till e choed o ften e nough, a nd i s o ften, f airly o bviously, v alid;

c astelli h ave a n e qually c lear p urpose i n m any i nstances a s

f oci

f or c learance a nd/or a grarian e xpansion, ' points o f r eference w here t he l ife o f t he c ountryside w as m eshed e ver m ore f inely', i n t he p hrase o f d el T reppo i n h is d escription o f t hese c astelli. B ut t he d istribution o f t he c astelli a cross t he t erra d oes n ot e xactly f it t his s econd f ormulation. S ome c learance-zones o f t he t erra, l ike t he c entral z one, o r C erro, o r p erhaps A lfedena, w ere c leared b y t enants l iving i n c astelli;

o thers,

l ike F icus a nd C erasuolo,

w ere n ot,

o r n ot a t f irst.

S ome l owland a reas w ere r eorganised i nto c astelli, t hough t here w as s ome c ontinuity o f s ettlement, a s w ith t he V alle P orcina g roup; o thers, p articularly t he a rea a cross t he V olturno b etween O livella a nd S . O liveto, s eem t o h ave l argely r emained d ispersed f or s ome M ilitary d efence, a s w e h ave s een,

h owever, d oes n ot w ork a ny b etter a s a n e xplanation ; t he s outh o f t he t erra i s t hat p art w hich l ies a cross

i ts m ain e ntrance, m onks f ortified S . s ome

M aria t ime.

b ut i t w as n ot u ntil t he 1 060's o r l ater t hat t he M aria O liveto a gainst t he N ormans. O nly l ater w ere

c astelli p robably m ilitary.

R occhetta m ay b e a l ate m ilitarisa-

t ion o f t he l ess d efensible V acchereccia; C erasuolo a nd P esclu m ay, a s c astelli, h ave b een t he c reations o f L ombard l ay l ords, e xpropriators o f m onastic l ands; M ontaquila a nd R occaravindola p robable c reations o f t he t heir N orman s uccessors.

w ere, e qually, O nly t hese l ast

t he t wo

i n t he t erra j ustify t he f amous e xplanation o f i ncastellamento g iven b y t he c hronicler J ohn, a ccording t o w hom t he N ormans s ibi o mnia 2 49

d iripientes, v illae

c astella e x v illis e dificare c eperunt,

t hus r emoving

t hose

w hich h ad p redominated i n t he h appy p eaceful c ountryside b efore

t he A rab a nd N orfan i nvasions; n o s ociologist. 4L T he p roblems g et

J ohn,

t hough a c ompetent c hronicler,

e ven m ore c omplex i f w e a bandon,

a s w e

m ust,

w as

a

s imple d ichotomy b etween ' castelli a nd d ispersed s ettlement. S an V incenzo's t erra i s l ess m isrepresented b y t his d ichotomy t han m any a reas o f c entral I taly, b ut i t m ust b e b roken d own n onetheless. I ncastellamento, a s In oted i n t he i ntroduction, i s n ot t he s ame a s s ettlement-concentration. E lsewhere, I h ave c haracterised t he p rocess a s b eing c omposed o f t hree s eparate l evels: f irst, c astelli a s d efens ive s tructures, d itched a nd w alled a nd/or f enced; s econd, c astelli a s t he c entres o f t erritories, w ith p olitical/judicial r ights, s uch a s c ourts, m arkets, a nd ( more m undanely) t he w arehouses o f l ords; t hird, c astelli a s s ettlements, a gglomerations o f p eople. M ore p roperly, t he t hird g roup n eed n ot b e ' castelli' a t a ll i f u nfortified; o nly i f c ombined w ith l evel o ne o r l evel t wo d o t hey b ecome t rue c astelli. I ncastellamento m ay j ust b e a c ombination o f l evels o ne a nd t wo, w itho ut a ny s ettlement-concentration a t a ll; b ut i ts s ociological i mporta nce i n c entral I taly d erives a lmost t otally f rom t he f act t hat l evel t hree i s e xtremely o ften a ssociated w ith i t. S an V incenzo n ever l ocalised i ts j udicial p owers i n i ts t erra, t hat

l evel

t wo i s a bsent t here.

A nd,

a lthough S an

V incenzo's

s o n ew

c oncentrated s ettlements w ere m ostly c alled c astelli a nd d oubtless, t hen, h ad w alls f rom t he f irst, o ne c an s ee e ven h ere s ome d istinctions a t t he m argins o f t he g roup, a s i f l evels o ne a nd t hree w ere t wo c ircles n ot q uite e xactly s uperimposed: n ot q uite e very c astello w as a c oncentrated s ettlement, o r v ice v ersa. O livella s eems t o h ave h ad a c astello t hat w as f ar t oo s mall t o b e m ore t han a f ocus a nd r efuge f or a s till m ostly d ispersed a rea. C onversely, S . M aria O liveto s eems t o h ave b ecome a c oncentrated s ettlement a round t he c hurch f irst, a nd o nly t hen a f ortified c astello. Im ust e mphasise t his l ast d evelopment, f or I

f ound

i t

t o b e n ormal

i n m ost p arts o f

1 0th-llth

c entury

V alva;

t here, t oo, c oncentration c ame f irst, a nd i ncastellamento o nly l ater, f or d ifferent r easons. B ut i n t he t erra o f S an V incenzo, t oo, t he l ack o f i mportance o f t he d efensive a spects o f c astelli m eant t hat i n e ffect t he c astelli w e a re d iscussing w ere i mportant a lmost e xclusively i n t heir f unction a s a gglomerations; l evel o ne, t he p hysical p resence o f d efences, m ay o nly h ave s erved t o g ive t hem a d efinition. W hat w e s hould b e d iscussing i n t he t erra o f S an V incenzo, t hen , i s n ot i ncastellamento b ut s ettlement-concentration ( at e st i n e very i nstance, n ot j ust w ith S . M aria O liveto.

i nitially),

a nd

I f w e a re t o a ttempt a n e xplanation f or t he s ettlement p atterns o f t he 1 0th c entury t erra, w e m ust d o i t t hrough a nalysis o f t he m icror egional d ifferences w e h ave l ooked a t. T here a re i ndeed p arts o f t he t erra w here c oncentrated c astelli a re t he f oci o f c learance a nd r esettlement: i mmediate e ast,

t he c entral z one, w ith t he a ddition o f C erro t o i ts i s t he m ost u nambiguous i nstance. H ere, a t t he h eart

o f S an V incenzo's p roperties, w e s ee a n umber o f c oncentrated s ettlem ents t ake t he w eight o f t he m ost e xplicit a nd l argescale c learancel eases. W e m ay c ontrast t his w ith t he n orth-east o f t he t erra, w here F icus a nd o ther v illae w ere t o b e f ound; h ere, c learance o f p retty m arginal t erritory w as n ot c arried o ut t hrough c astelli, a nd i t c an b e s uggested

t hat

t he n orth-east,

p oorer l and o n t he f ringe o f t he t erra, 2 50

was c leared l ess s ystematically, w ith l ess c oncern f or o rganised r econs truction, a nd p erhaps a t l ess c ost. A lfedena, h owever, h ighly m arginal e conomically ( at l east i n t he a bsence o f s ystematic p astoral ism), was a c arefully c onstructed c oncentrated s ettlement; a nd t his b rings u s t o a nother f unction o f c astelli, w hich I h ave c alled p olitic al. W e s ee t his m ost c learly w ith t he e astern c astelli o f 9 72, V alle P orcina, C olli, a nd F ornelli; h ere, t he s ignificant e lement i s t hat a ll t hree l ay i n l and c laimed b y L andulf c ount o f I sernia, l and t hat h e h ad a ctually b een g ranted i n 9 64, a nd w hich h e t ried t o o ccupy b etween 9 72 a nd 9 81. I n t his i nstance, i ncastellamento w as n ot f or c learance, f or t he l and w as a lready a t l east p artially o ccupied, i n a m anner t hat d id n ot y et r equire t he e stablishment o f c oncentrated s ettlement a cross t he V olturno a t O livella a nd S . M aria O liveto. I nstead, S an V incenzo w as m aking i ts o wnership e xplicit i n t he e ast b y p utting t he p opulation o f t he a rea i nto d efinable, v isible c oncentrated u nits, a nd i ndeed a dding t o t hat p opulation w ith i mmigrants. O ne c ould c all t his p rocess ' defensive', b ut i t i s n ot ' strategic - s trong-points o n t he r ivers w ould h ave b een a dequate f or t he l atter, a nd a c oncentration o f p opulat ion w ould c ertainly n ot h ave b een n ecessary. S an V incenzo's i ncastell amento w as a d efence a gainst a s pecific p olitical a nd t erritorial c laim

r ather

t han a m ilitary t hreat;

i ndeed,

m ilitary o bligations o r

e ven w alls a re n ot r eferred t o i n t he l eases. T he t erritorial a spects i s e mphasised b y t he f act t hat t he t hree v illages a re g iven a c ommon b oundary:

t hey a re s een a s a s ingle

( threatened) u nit.

T he e stablish-

m ent o f n ew i nhabitants i n a s ingle c entre a t A lfedena, e ven f or n o e conomic a dvantage t o S an. V incenzo, m ust f it t his p attern; t he m onast ery f elt

u nder

t hreat

f rom t he n orth a s m uch a s f rom I sernia.

B ut

i n

i ts s outhern r egion, d epsite i ntermittent c laims a nd e xpropriations b y t he c ounts o f V enafro, i t d id n ot w orry s o m uch, a nd e xploited i ts l and h ere t hrough m ore t raditional ' pre-castral' s ettlement p atterns. W hen L andulf G recus h ad g iven u p h is c laims t o t he e astern z one, i t w as n o l onger n ecessary t o s ettle a ll o f i t t hrough c astelli, a nd s o i n 9 95 F icus

w as

f ounded a s a n o pen

p eriod 9 60-1060 s aw S . c rystallise a s a n ucleus,

s ettlement.

C onversely,

p erhaps,

1 040 s, w ith t he a rrival o f t he B orrelli a nd t hen t he N ormans, V incenzo i ncastellate f or s pecifically m ilitary r easons. T hese d ifferent p atterns c an a ll, v arying i mposition b y t he m onastery o f s ettlement-concentration

t he

M aria O liveto i n t he e xtreme s outh s lowly t hough n ot y et f ortified. B ut o nly a fter t he

f or

d id S an

i n m y v iew, b e e xplained b y t he S an V incenzo o f i ncastellamento/

t wo d ifferent

s orts

o f

r easons:

t he

r ationalisation o f c leared l and, a nd t he p resentation o f a p olitical r esponse t o t hreatening n eighbours. T he p atterns a re c ertainly c omp lex, o ther

a nd m y e xplanations a re o f c ourse c ircumstantial; t here m ay b e r easons f or s ome o f t hose d evelopments, w hich e scape u s i n t he

s ingle c hronicle a t o ur d isposal, a nd w hich m ight h ave b ecome c learer ( or, i ndeed, m ore o bscure) i f J ohn t he M onk h ad k ept m ore t han o ne o r t wo l eases f or e ach s ettlement. B ut t he i mportant p oint i s t hat a c omplex m ade

s et o f e xplanations i s n ecessary,

d ifferent

c hoices

i n d ifferent

f or S an V incenzo

i nstances.

C hoice i s

e vidently a lways

a

p ossible e lement i n h istorical p rocesses, t hough ( of c ourse) c ond itioned b y t he u nderlying t endencies o f a g iven m oment, o f a g iven c onjuncture. C astelli d o n ot b uild t hemselves, a nd S an V incenzo w as t he s ole o wner i n t he z one; i t e xercised i ts c hoices a bout w here a nd w hen t o b uild t hem p recisely b ecause i t w as s ufficiently l ocally p owerf ul t o b e a ble t o c hoose. S o i t c oncentrated t he c learance s ettlements c losest

t o

t he m onastery ,

a nd n ot

t hose f urther a way; 251

s o

i t

f ounded n ew

c entres i n t he V alle P orcina a gainst I sernia,

b ut n ot a round S .

M aria

O liveto a gainst V enafro. S o, i ndeed, i t m ust h ave c hosen t o m aintain a l ow m ilitary p rofile i n g eneral u ntil t he l ate 1 1th c entury a nd b eyond, u nlike M ontecassino, t hough h ow ( and h ow f ar) i t c hanged i ts p rocedures h ere m ust r emain l argely u nknown, o wing t o t he a bsence o f 1 1th-century t exts. W e w ill n ever k now, f or e xample, w hen o r h ow S . M aria O liveto b ecame c oncentrated a nd t hen f ortified, a nd e ven l ess e xactly w hy; t he s ame g oes f or F icus, u nless a rchaeology y ields m ore e vidence. T he

r elationship b etween e conomic d evelopment/land-clearance

c oncentrated V incenzo's c entration

s ettlement

i s c ommon i n 1 0th-century

I taly.

E ven

a nd S an

p olitical c astelli w ere f ounded i n a w orld i n w hich c onh ad a n e conomic c ontext, a nd t hey w ere b eyond d oubt t he

s tronger f or i t. B ut S an V incenzo d id n ot a lways c oncentrate s ettlem ent, e ven w here i t w as i ncreasing c ultivation , a s i n t he m ore m arginal n ortheast, o r i n t he m ore d eveloped s outh. A s a r esult, a t f irst s ight p aradoxically, t he t otal c ontrol b y a s ingle o wner o ver a z one m eant t hat s ome o f i t w as l ess c oncentrated t han m any p laces i n c entral I taly, n ot m ore. T his i s l argely b ecause S an V incenzo f elt l ess t hreatened t han m any o wners, w ith a l arge b loc o f l and i n a r elatively o ut-of-the-way p lace. W e m ust a lso, h owever, r ecognise t hat S an V inc enzo w as b anking o n p eace; i n t his i t w ould b e b etrayed. B y 1 200, t he w hole v alley w as c astelli; t he p attern w as f ixed. T his i s p erhaps f ortunate f or u s, f or f rom t hen o n n ight d escends o n t he v alley - n o c entury b etween 1 000 a nd t he m odern p eriod i s m ore t han f ragmentarily d ocumented. t ime o nly ;

T he 1 0th c entury l eases, t hen , g ive u s a s ingle s lice o f i t i s, n onetheless, e nough t o g ive u s a t ype-example o f h ow

i ncastellamento c an h appen. I t m ay b e a typical, b ut i f i t i s s o, t his i s o nly i n i ts c ounterposition o f e lements t hat a re o therwise p erfectly c ommon e lsewhere. 43

2 52

N otes 1 .

I l p roblema d ell'incastellamento i n I talia c entrale:

l 'esempio d i

S an V incenzo a l V olturno ( Florence, 1 985). I w ould l ike t o t hank S teven B assett f or r eading t his a rticle a nd f or h is a cute c ritic isms, R iccardo F rancovich f or h is h elp o n a n umber o f c rucial i ssues, a nd R ichard H odges f or h is c ollaboration o ver t he l ast f ive y ears i n M olise: f or t he a rchaeological d ata t hat u nderlies m uch o f t his a rticle, o f c ourse, b ut a lso f or f ruitful a nd c ont inuing

d isagreement.

M uch

o f m y o riginal

r esearch

w as

m ade

p ossible b y a g rant f rom t he B ritish A cademy's S mall G rants F und. 2 .

C .J.

W ickham,

m edioevo:

3 .

S tudi

s ulla

c ontadini,

( Bologna,

C assino

L .

m ap: 1 968),

a t

d egli

A ppennini

s ignori e i nsediamento

V alva ( Sulmona)

c assino,

s ocietä

t erritorio d i

1 982), 3 1-32.

F abiani, e nd.

n el

n ell'alto

L a t erra d i S .

S ubiaco:

L .

B enedetto

T ravaini,

i

' Rocche,

( Montec astelli

e v iabilitä f ra S ubiaco e T ivoli', A tti e m emorie d ella s ocietä t iburtina d i s toria e d 'arte, l ii ( 1979), 6 5-97, a t 9 1-97 ( and m ap b etween 7 2 a nd 7 3). 4 .

S o,

f or e xample,

A .A.

S ettia,

' Lo s viluppo d egli a bitati r urali

i n

a lta I talia,' i n V . F umagalli a nd G . R ossetti ( eds.), M edioevo r urale ( Bologna, 1 980), 1 57-99, a nd n ow h is l arge g eneral s urvey, C astelli e v illaggi n ell'Italia p adana ( Naples, 1 984). 5 .

P .

T oubert,

1 973). ( as 6 .

L es s tructures d u L atium m Uilval,

F or s ubsequent b ibliography s ee W ickham,

i n n ote 1 ) a nd S ettia,

W ickham,

I ncastellamento

o p.

2v ols.

( Rome,

I ncastellamento

c it.

( as i n n ote 1 );

i dem, V alva ( as i n n ote

2 ). 7 .

M ario

d el

T reppo,

a bbazia d el m edioevo', ( 1955), 8 .

T exts: 1 929-33)

' La

v ita e conomica e s ociale i n

u na

g rande

M ezzogiorno: S an V incenzo a l V olturno n ell'alto A rchivio s torico p er l e p rovincie n apoletane l xxiv

3 1-110. C hronicon V ulturnense, e d. V . F ederici, 3 v ols. ( Rome, ( henceforth C V ; C V + a rabic n umber w ill i ndicate n umbers

o f c harters; w ith r oman a nd a rabic n umber, p age r eference), i ncorp orating A utpert's l ife ( CV I , 1 01-23); C hronicon C asinensis, e d. H . H offmann, t ary o n C V I taliano 6 7-123, F or t he T reppo,

l iii ( 1937), 1 47-236; l vii ( 1943), 7 1-114; l xi ( 1949), 1 73-80; H offmann, D eutsches A rchiv x xii ( 1966), 1 79-96. p olitical h istory o f S an V incenzo b efore 8 81, M ario d el ' Longobardi, F ranchi e P apato i n d ue s ecoli d i s toria

v ulturnense', 9 .

B ounds

M GH S criptores x xxiv ( Hannover, 1 980). F or c ommens ee V . F ederici, B ulletino d ell'Istituto S torico

A rch.

s tor.

p rov.

n ap.

l xxiii ( 1953-54),

d iscussed b y d el T reppo ' Vita e conomica'

( note

3 7-59. 7 ),

4 2f.

A ll a re r easonably e asy t o l ocate, a lthough t he m ountains h ave m ostly c hanged t heir n ames, a nd a re i nconsistently l isted i n t he d ocuments ( see n ote 3 6 b elow). T hose o f C V12, t hough i n g eneral a uthentic, a re i n p art a nachronistic i f C V 1 ,308 i s r ight t o a scribe

t he f oundation o f

S .

E leuterio i n

2 53

F ilignano,

n amed

i n

t hem, l and

t o

C omino 1 0.

8 53-56.

N orth o f

( see W ickham, V alva,

T hus

( cf.

d el T reppo,

A .

f iscal

a nd a lso w estwards i n t he V al d i

C V 3 0).

F ranchi e P apato s ignoria c apuana s ee

t he t wo t errae t here w as m ore

3 1-32),

' Vita e conomica',

3 1-73;

i dem.,

' Longobardi,

( note 8 ), 5 0-59; N . C ilento, L e o rigini d ella ( Rome, 1 966). F or t he c hurches a t S an V incenzo

P antoni,

L e c hiese e g li e difici d el m onastero d i S an

V incenzo a l V olturno ( Montecassino, 1 980), a nd R ichard H odges, ' Excavations a nd s urvey a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno, M olise: 1 980 , A rcheologia m edievale v iii ( 1981), 4 83-92; i dem., 1 981 , A rcheologia m edievale i x ( 1982), A rcheologia m edievale x ( 1983), 3 63-80. 1 1.

B ase m aps:

I stituto g eografico m ilitare,

1 53 a nd 1 61 a t 1 :100,000 a nd 1 :25,000. g eologica d 'Italia, s heets 1 53 a nd 1 61. i ng

C lub

( Milan, 1 2.

C V I , 8 9;

1 3.

I taliano,

1 959),

s heets

G eology: i dem., S oil u tilisation:

C arta T our-

C arta d ella u tilizzazione d el s uolo d 'Italia

1 11,

1 45-47;

P antoni,

i dem.,

' 1981 ,

3 02-06.

t he S heffield e quipe.

o p.

c it.,

1 27-53;

d el

T reppo,

' Vita

H odges, ' 1980 , 4 86-

Io we m uch t o t he a nalysis o f t he d irector o f t he f ieldwork

L ate R oman p arallels:

' Venafro', Q uaderni d ell'istituto d i U niversitä d i R oma i ( 1964), 5 5-67. S ee

1 982 ,

C arta d 'Italia,

c hanging l andscape o f S outh E truria ( London, t he n earest R oman c entre, V enafro, s ee

1 4.

...

s heet 1 5.

H odges ' 1981 , 3 08; ' 1982 , 3 77-78. t he f ield s urveys t o P eter H ayes, f or

2 99-310;

e conomica',

T .W. P otter,

T he

1 979), 1 40ff. F or A driano L a R egina,

t opografia a ntica

4 7-56,

f or

w hat

d ell'

f ollows,

a lthough h is p icture d iverges i n s ome d etails f rom m ine. S laves: C hron. C asin. I , 3 5; C V I , 3 64. C ondumae: d el T reppo, o p. c it., 5 4f., 1 981), 1 5.

a nd r eferences i n C . 1 52f.

E arly m edieval I taly

( London,

C V 3 1, 3 5, 3 7, 5 0, 5 2, 5 8, 5 9; I , 3 72f. A ll t he l and w as p robably f iscal i n o rigin. E xceptions t o t he c urtes a nd t errae a re t he u pland z ones c alled t erra e t m ontes ( CV 1 2, 5 8), w hich a re p oss ibly g ualdi ( Wickham, V alva, 2 9-33), w ith m uch m ore i ndependant c ultivators; o f t hem.

1 6.

W ickham,

i f

s o,

t hough,

M anorial s ystem i n F arfa: r eview

o f T oubert b y H .

( 1977), e states,

w e c an s ay n othing a bout w hat b ecame

T oubert,

S tructures,

4 50-93,

a nd t he

H offmann i n Q uellen u nd F orschungen l vii

1 -45, a t 7 -13. I n A bruzzo, e ven o n S an V incenzo's m anorial s tructures w ere m ore f irmly r ooted t han o n t he

u pper V olturno:

W ickham,

V alva,

1 7-33,

5 9-64.

1 7.

C V 3 5, f or S esto C ampano, s hows a c lear e xample o f d ispersed s ettlement i n t he s outh V enafro p lain . C f. H odges ' 1981 , 3 08 f or h illtop s ettlement i n t he t erra, a nd C hapter 1 2 i n t his v olume.

1 8.

C V t he

I ,

3 70 a nd I I, d estruction.

m aintained

4 2,

8 5 f or r eferences;

I sernia,

C V 7 4 a nd I , 3 72f.

a lthough a lso s acked b y

a gricultural s tructures 2 54

i n i ts

t erritory:

t he

f or

A rabs,

C V74 a nd I ,

3 72f;

E rchempert,

H istoria

b ardorum e t i talicarum, 1 9.

C V I ,

3 63;

i tal.). 2 0.

e d.

C hronicon S .

c .48 G .

H annover,

B enedicti c c.12,18

S an V incenzo a nd S .

F or a ll t his

( in M GH S criptores r erum l ongo-

W altz,

S alvatore:

s ee d el T reppo,

1 878).

( in S cript.

C V I I, 4 1,

' Vita e conomica',

r er.

l ang.

3 42.

e sp.82-91;

T oubert,

S tructures, 3 05-549 p assim . J udicial r ights: C V 1 15, 1 16. R ights t o i ncastellate, h owever, w ere c onceded i n 9 67 ( CV 1 24) b y P andulf I . A nd i n f act m ost o f t he c astelli o f S an V incenzo p ostd ate 9 67, a lthough b y n o m eans a ll n ew s ettlements a fter 9 67 w ere c astelli. 2 1.

C V 1 42,

1 64-6,

2 02.

S ee J ohn P atterson f or c autionary n otes

i n

C hapter 8 . I n 9 62 C astel S an V incenzo w as s till t he o nly c urtis i n t he t erra, a longside S . M aria i n O liveto ( CV 1 12); i t i s l ikely t hat n o o ther p laces w ere y et r eorganised, a nd a ll t he o ther 2 2.

l eases a re l ater.

H odges, ' 1982 , 3 77-78; t he e xcavations w ill b e p ublished i n f ull i n R ichard H odges e t a l, ' Excavations a t V acchereccia P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome l iv ( 1984); m eanwhile s ee a b rief r esum8 i n C hapter . F or o ther i nformation o n t he v illages

s ee

G .B.

M asciotta,

I l M olise d alle o rigini a i n ostri

g iorni i ii ( Cava , 1 952), 4 51f, 5 15-9; F ederici, B ull. I st. S tor. l xi ( 1949), 1 17-18. T he o ther t wo m odern v illages i n t his z one, b oth

i n

t he o riginal t erritory o f S capoli,

P izzone i n 1 295, 2 3.

G ift:

F .

c c.393-94 2 4.

F or

U ghelli,

I II,

C olle

9 0.

C f.

S tefano:

o nly

a ppear

l ater:

i n 1 453.

I talia S acra v i

( cf.CV 1 68).

C ourt

t he t ransformations o f

2 39; 4 91. 2 5.

C astelnuovo

( 2nd.

c ases:

e dition, V enice,

C V 1 51-52

t he n ames s ee C V 1 09-10,

M asciotta,

r eferences i n C V

M olise i ii,

I II,

B aronum, e d. E . J amison ( Rome, 1 972), T he o nly o ther s urviving d ocument

7 7,

1 720),

( 981).

2 39;

1 52,

1 64;

H odges,

8 4,

9 0;

I I,

' 1980',

C atalogus

n .740; H odges, ' 1980 , 4 91. f or t his z one i s C V 2 02

( 1011/45), f or 3 2 i nhabitants o f F orli d el S annio ( just o utside t he t erra t o t he n orth-east), a l ease f or 5 8 y ears a t a f airly n ormal r ent. T his t ext i ncludes n othing o f u se f or s ettlement h istory; F orll, h owever, w as a r elatively o ld s ettlement, i n t hat i t 2 6.

i s d ocumented b efore 8 81

A r isen : C hron.

C V 1 07, C asin.

T reppo,

( CV I ,

w ith I II,

I I,

3 4.

' Vita e conomica',

7 8,

B orrelli: 1 02-10;

3 72f). 8 4. C V

B arrea: I II,

W ickham,

C V 9 9 w ith n ote;

7 9, 8 4, 8 9-91; V alva,

9 1f;

C .

c f.

d el

R ivera,

P er l a s toria d elle o rigini d ei B orrelli c onti d i S angro', A rch. s tor. p rov. n ap. x liv ( 1919), 4 8-92. P arallels t o C V 1 07: T oubert, 2 7.

C V

I II,

t reaty.

S tructures, 9 0.

I t

3 22-23n. i s w orth r emarking t hat

t he B orrelli k ept

T he C atalogus B aronum l ists a ll t he p laces

t he

t he

B orrelli

r etained - n n. 7 31, 7 40, 7 58-59, 1 079, 1 086, t hough n ot a ll r emained i n t heir h ands - b ut m akes n o r eference t o t hose t hey g ave b ack ( except F ossa C eca, n .757). T his i ndicates t hat S an 2 55

V incenzo

s till

h eld

m ilitary s ervice,

t hem,

f or t he m onastery

t he o bject o f

t he C at.

B ar.

w as

e xempt

l ists.

f rom

S ee b elow,

p p. 2 46-47, a nd d el T reppo, ' Vita e conomica', 1 09f. ( The e xempt ion p ersisted, f or C harles I o f A njou c onfirmed i t i n 1 277: R egistri d ella C ancelleria A ngioina x v, e dd. R . F ilangieri a nd J . M azzoleni ( Naples, 1 961), 3 8-39.) A fter t he 1 050's, t hen, t he n orth-east

b oundary o f

S an V incenzo,

t he

t erra m ust h ave p assed n orth o f

t hen a long t he V olturno,

C astel

c utting e astwards t o

t he

n orth o f C olli a nd F ornelli; t his w ould h ave c ut o ff a bout h alf t he t erra, b ut m ostly t he p oorest b its. ( Much o f t he r est w as l ost 2 8.

t oo,

C V 5 8

t hough;

s ee b elow,

( better t han I ,

3 15,

n ote 3 4). w hich s ays t he c hurch w as g iven t o S an

V incenzo i n t he 8 50's). 2 9.

I ncastellamento d iploma:

C V 1 24

( cf.

n ote 2 0 a bove).

D ocuments

f or t he p lain: C V 8 8, 9 6-97, 1 33, 1 37, 1 58, 1 69, 1 98-200. S . M aria a s a c hurch: s ee e specially C V 1 44, 2 04. A c astello i s m entioned a t T orcino, s outh-east o f V enafro i n 9 36 ( CV 8 8), b ut i t i s a bandoned ( !) - o nly m uch l ater, i n 1 103, i s t here r ecorded t here a r eal c astrum, s ituated a mong f ragmented l ay p roperties: d ocument e dited i n G . M orra, ' Gli e pigoni d ella n obiltä l ongobarda d i V enafro', A lmanacco d el M olise 1 980, 2 42-71, a t 2 68-69. 3 0.

3 1.

E ven C assino p ossessed a c orner o f t his l and, b etween M orcano a nd t he r iver: s ee C V I I, 6 5f, a nd t he C assinese t exts o f 1 086 a nd 1 094 i n M orra, o p. c it., 2 65-68. C erasuolo:

C V

I I,

1 10,

1 21;

H odges,

' 1980 ,

4 91.

F or t he c ession

o f 1 064, o f ( among o ther p laces) C erosuolo a nd C erreto p lano, w ith-out d oubt t he f razione b etween C erasuolo a nd F ilignano, s ee C hron. C asin. I II, 1 7, a nd E . G attula, H istoria a bbatiae c asinensis. A ccessiones ( Venice, 1 734), 1 68. I g uess a t a round 1 020

f or

V itecuso, i n c .1018 3 2.

I t

t he

o ccupation

b ecause

t he

c ession

a lso

i ncludes

a C assinese c astello o ccupied b y t he c ounts o f ( Chron. C asin. I I, 3 7); c f. b elow, n ote 3 6.

i s u ncertain h ow f ar d own t he t erritory o f O livelle

V enafro

e xtended,

a nd w hether i t i ncluded t he l ands g iven i n b its t o S an V incenzo i n t he e arly 9 th c entury ; b ut i f i t d id n ot, w e h ave n ot f urther e vidence o f t he l atter. C V 1 14 i s a m emoratorium c onfirming C V 1 08. C astello: C V I I, 1 10; H odges, ' 1980 , 4 91 a nd C hapter 1 2in t his v olume. S ee a lso P ierre T oubert, ' Les f godalit8s m gditerr angennes: u n p roblAme d 'histoire c ompar e, i n S tructures f godales e t f godalisme d ans l 'occident m gditerrangen

( Rome,

1 980),

5 . 3 3.

F ilignano: 1 12, 5 2,

1 14-15,

c itations 1 44,

a nd H odges,

f or t he 9 th-llth c enturies i n C V I , 3 08;

1 85,

' 1981 ,

1 87,

2 04;

3 08,

c f.

M asciotta, M olise i ii,

w here h e e quates

C V

2 49-

i t w ith t he l ater

m edieval d eserted v illage o f L e M ura. T he c ounts o f V enafro g ot t heir h ands o n F ilignano t oo: A rchivio d i M ontecassino, c aps. X XXIV, f asc. 1 n . 4 ( 1032), a 1 4th c entury c opy o f a d ivision b etween c ount A udoald a nd h is n ephews. H ere, F ilignano i s n otably n ot c ited a s a c astello, u nlike t he o ther c entres i n t he t ext.

2 56

3 4.

C at.

B ar.

n n.

M ontaquila, o p. 3 5.

c it.,

7 43,

7 51,

C erasuolo,

1 36n.) a nd S .

T he d ocument o f P andulf

7 53,

S .

7 63 f or R occaravindola,

E leuterio i n F ilignano

F ilignano,

( pace J amison,

M aria O liveto.

l acks a d ate, b ut t he c astello i s c ited i n a d iploma I i n 9 67 ( Chron. C asin. I I, 2 a nd r eferences c ited

t herein). E dition : L . T osti, S toria d ella b adia d i M ontecassino I ( Naples, 1 842), 2 23-26. F or w hat f ollows s ee P ierre T oubert, ' Pour u ne h istoire d e l 'environnement e conomique e t s ocial d u M ont-Cassin,' C omptes- r endus d e l a cademie d es i nscriptions 1 976, 6 89-702; i dem, ' La t erre e t l es h ommes d ans n ormande a ux t emps d e R oger I I: l 'exemple c ampanien,' p otere e p opolo n ell'etä d i R uggero I I ( Bari, F abiani, T erra d i S . B enedetto i 1 57-90 a nd

l 'Italie S ocietä,

1 979), 5 5-71; r eferences c ited

t herein. 3 6.

R evolts:

C hron .

C asin.

I I,

2 0,

6 8-73;

I V, 7 9.

M ilitary s ervice:

C at. B ar. n . 8 23. C harters o f r ights, e specially f or C ervaro a nd S . A ngelo: F abiani, o p. c it., i , 4 21-34. G ifts o f t he c ounts o f V enafro: s ee t he C erasuolo g ift ( above, n ote 3 1), w hich w as a lso p art o f a s eries o f c omital d onations o f l ands p reviously r emoved f rom C assino i tself a nd i ncastellated b y t he c ounts, p articularly C ardito, A cquafondata a nd V itecuso, o n S an V incenzo's b orders ( Chron. C asin. I I, 3 7, I II, 1 7, I V, 2 5, 7 5; M orra, o p. c it., 2 647 1). T he f inal t hrow o f t he m onks o f S an V incenzo i n r eply t o t he s uccess o f C assino w as a c ourt-case i n f ront o f L othar I II i n 1 137, i n w hich t hey c laimed t hat a ll o f t hese l ast n amed c astelli h ad a ctually b een S an V incenzo's p roperty, c iting C V 7 0, L ouis I I's c onfirmation. T he b oundary o f C V 7 0 i n f act d id n ot i nclude t he c astelli c oncerned, b ut i t i s c lear t hat n o-one r ealised t his ( the n ames o f t he m ountains i n t he b oundary c lause m ust h ave b een a lready t oo v ague), a nd P eter t he D eacon h ad t o r apidly f alsify a 6 th c entury i mperial d iploma t o e nsure C assino's v ictory. t his s ee C hron. C asin. I V, 1 18. 3 7.

C hron.

C asin.

3 8.

N ew c hurches:

I I,

7 3;

F or a ll

I V, 2 9.

a bove,

n ote 1 9.

L eases t o n obles:

C V 7 4,

7 6, 9 0

( for 8 85-926, e xplicitly f or t he r estoration o f t he d estroyed m onastery); 8 9, 1 56, 1 61-62, 1 73-75 ( for 9 36-96). C f. T oubert, S tructures, 5 21-27 3 9.

f or F arfa.

T he

t wo 1 0th-century l eases f or S .

t o

a lmost

t hey h and, t han

t he s ame p eople,

M aria O liveto

t hus r einforcing

( CV 8 7,

9 5)

a re

t he s upposition t hat

a re n early c omplete l ists o f f amily h eads. O n t he o ther C astel S an V incenzo a nd O livella c ertainly h ad m ore p eople t heir r espective d ocuments m ention. M any o thers m ust h ave

e xpanded r apidly, a s c an b e s een f or C olli ( CV 1 10, 1 64). T he 1 532 c ensus: s ee M asciotta, M olise i ii, s .v.; o ut o f t he v illages o f t he 1 0th-century l eases, o nly C erro ( about 5 00 i nhabitants) a nd F ornelli C olli,

( about 4 00)

1 037

a re l isted a s b eing r elatively l arge

i nhabitants i n 1 795,

2 57

w as n ot

l isted).

( though

4 0.

S ee W ickham,

V alva,

7 0-83,

a nd

i dem,

' Pastoralism a nd

u nder-

d evelopment i n t he e arly m iddle a ges', S ettimane d i S tudio x xxi ( 1983), f or d iscussions o f t his p roblem. H ow S an V incenzo o btained i ts w ool i s n ot k nown. P ledges i n a nimals: C V 9 2, 1 07 ( Alfedena), 1 09-10, 1 67, 2 06. T he s uperimposed b oundaries o f V alla P orcina p erhaps h ave a p olitical p urpose, h owever: s ee a bove, p .238-39. C ommon p asture s hared b y s everal v illages i s d iscussed i n M . N obili, ' Le m appe c atastali c ome f onte, i n F umagalli a nd R ossetti, o p. c it. ( as i n n ote 4 ), 5 7-78. T he r esults o f t he c urrent e xcavations w ill g ive f urther a bout t he p roblems o f s heep. 4 1.

Q uote b y d el T reppo,

' Vita e conomica',

8 3.

N ormans:

i nformation

C V I ,

2 31.

G iovanni d i B erardo o f C asauria, w ho a ttributed i ncastellamento t o l ay l ords, w as m ore s ophisticated i n h is d escription a nd m ore a ccurate i n t he s pecific c ontext o f C asauria: s ee W ickham, V alva, 1 05-07. 4 2.

S ee W ickham, V alva, 1 09-10. T he o nly c astello i n t he u pper V olturno ( apart f rom C astel S an V incenzo - a bove, n ote 2 1) w ith a j udge, a c lassic i ndicator o f t he s econd l evel, w as S . M aria O liveto ( CV 2 06), t echnically o utside t he t erra a nd t here-fore, p resumably, t hought o f a s j uridically i ndependent. G ood g eneral d iscussions o n d efences a re P . D elogu a nd L . T ravaini, ' Aspetti d egli a bitati m edievali n ella r egione s ublacense,' A rchivio d ella s ocietä r omana d i s toria p atria c i ( 1978), 1 7-34; D avid A ndrews, T he a rchaeology o f t he m edieval c astrum i n C entral I taly', i n G . B arker a nd R . H odges ( eds.) A rchaeology a nd I talian s ociety ( BAR S 102,

4 3.

O xford,

1 981),

3 13-34.

F or c omparisons b etween S an V incenzo a nd o ther a reas o f i ncastell amento i n C entral I taly s ee W ickham, I ncastellamento.

2 58

C hapter 1 2:

' By

S AN V INCENZO A L V OLTURNO A ND I TS R EGION B ETWEEN T HE 5 TH A ND 1 1TH C ENTURIES b y R ichard H odges

e xamining t he a bundant o bjects d ug u p

f or t he f irst

t ime r eveal t he a tmosphere o f

a rchaeologists,

w hich

t he i nterior o f a p easant's

h ut, t he p lan o f a v illage, t he o rganisation o f a n e state, o r t he t ools t o b e f ound i n a c raftsman's w orkshop, i t i s p ossible t o u ncover e conomic r eality a nd t o l ay b ear, w ith t he h elp o f s ome q uantitative d ata, t he m echanics o f g rowth a nd d ecline'. 1 S o w rote G eorge D uby i n h is r ecently p ublished b ook T he C hivalrous S ociety ; a rchaeologists s hould n ot u nderestimate t he i mportance o f h is e ncouragement.

W e n eed

o nly e xamine D uby's r esearch o n t he o rigins a nd r ise o f t he E uropean e conomy t o a ppreciate w hy h e s ets s uch s tore i n a rchaeological e nquiries. T he d ecline a nd f all o f c lassical i nstitutions i s, t o b egin w ith, a m atter o f l ingering c ontroversy. H ence, t he f orm e arly medieval i nstitutions t ook r emains a n e ven g reater c ontroversy. S ome h istorians r egard t he w orld o f l ate a ntiquity, t he 5 th-7th c enturies a s a p relude t o t he r ise o f t he M iddle A ges. T hese h istorians, a s a c onsequence, w ould h ave u s b elieve t hat t he 8 th a nd 9 th c enturies w ere p eriods o f s low e conomic a nd s ocial g rowth i n w hich i ndusties a nd c ommerce p layed l eading r oles.' D uby,

t owns, v illages, h owever, l ike a

n umber o f m edieval h istorians, 3 h as t ended t o c hallenge I nstead, P irenne's t hesis p rovided a m ore v iable s olution,

t his m odel. a lthough t he

d etail o f P irenne's a rguments h ave l ong s ince b een s urpassed b y m odern r esearch. 4 H ence, t he w orld o f l ate a ntiquity i s c onsidered b y t his s chool o f h istorians t o b e a c ulmination o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic d ifficulties w hich b egan t o o verwhelm t he e arly e mpire i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies. C lassical i nstitutions u nderwent a c onsiderable c hange i n l ater R oman t imes, a nd w ere v irtually e xtinguished i n t he 6 th o r 7 th c enturies t o b e r eplaced b y a p rimeval e conomy i p w hich t he h ousehold a nd p etty c hiefs f ormed t he p olitical s pectrum. C ontrol o f s carce r esources a nd t he d evelopment o f a n a grarian e conomy, i t i s a rgued, l ed t o t he r ise o f a C arolingian a ristocracy, a nd f rom t here t o t he i ncegt ion o f i ntegrated r egional e conomies i n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies. A rchaeologists,

a lthough t hey

t end

t o

f ind i t e asiest

a nd d escribe t he m echanics o f c hange m ost c learly, w ith

t hose

w orlds.

s eeking

c ontinuity

T his c onclusion,

b etween t he

i t c an b e a rgued,

t o

m easure

h ave t ended t o s ide

c lassical

a nd

m edieval

i s a r esult o f t he u ncriti-

c al m ethodological b ases o f m uch m odern f ield a rchaeology - a p oint w hich r equires a b rief e xamination b efore w e c onsider t he p ossibility o f

t esting

t hese m odels.

A rchaeology c onsists o f

t hree i ntersecting s pheres o f

i nformation.

A rchaeologists c ollect i nformation o n s ettlement p atterns, t heir p rod uction-distribution s ystems a nd, t hirdly, t he c ultural e xpressions o f t hese s ettlements. H owever, a s a rchaeologists o r a s h istorians w e c annot s imply e xamine t he p ast o r i ndeed t he p resent w ithout a ny 2 59

r ecognition o r a ttempt t o r ecoenize t he u nderlying p rocesses

g overning

t he f orm t hat s ocieties t ake. S lowly, f or e xample, w e a re b ecoming a ware o f t he c omplex i nter-relations w hich g overn t he m odern w orld. T hese i nter-relations m ean t hat n o c ulture o r c ountry i s a n i sland ; e veryone i s i nextricably l inked a nd h ence o ur h istorical t rajectories a re m uch c loser t han m any t oday w ould c are t o b elieve. I n t he s ame w ay, a nthropologists, a rchaeologists a nd h istorians h ave b een a nalyzing t he e volution o f t hese p rocesses i n d ifferent s ocio-political c ircumstances. T he p rincipal a chievement o f t his r esearch h as b een t o d iscover t estable h ypotheses a bout p ast p an-cultural s ystems i n w hich t he c apitalist e conomic m ode d id n ot e xist. P easant m arketing s ystems a nd e conomic s ystems f ounded o n l ess c ommercialized p rinciples, y et m aintained b y c omplex p olitical i nstitutions, h ave b een s crutinised i n m any p arts o f t he w orld a nd u ndoubtedly c ompel u s m echanics o f p ast e conomies m ost c arefully. E ric R .

W olf i n h is

b ook ,

t o

e xamine

t he

E urope a nd t he p eople w ithout h istory

h as a dvanced t he m ost p ertinent a ccount o f t he r elationships o r c onnect ions, a s h e c hooses t o d escribe t hem , w hich f orm t he s uperstructure o f t he m odern c apitalist w orld. W allerstein's w orld-systems

H is a nalysis d raws g reatly u pon I mmanuel a pproach i n w hich t he h istory o f t he

m odern c apitalist w orld i s r ationalized t o a s equence o f c ore ( imperialist) e conomies o n w hom a n a rray o f p eripheral r egions a re d ependent. T he r elationship b etween c ores a nd t heir p eripheries, h owever,

l eads

c ollapse C arol A .

o f c ertain c ores a nd t heir r eplacement b y n ew p olities. ° S mith h as e xamined t he s ame i ssue f rom a g eographical s tand-

p oint.

S he

t o

s ystemic

f eedback

t hat

i nvariably

c auses,

h as c onstructed a m odel o f s patial r elationships

t hg

b etween

t he e lite a nd t heir d ependents i n r egions w here d i gerent e mphases u pon t he c ontrol o f p roduction a nd d istribution e xist.' H er m odel i s a n i mportant l andmark i n a rchaeology, a nd o ne n o l ess i mportant i n h istory f or i t f rees u s f rom a d ependence u pon C hristaller's c entral-place t heory, t he u nderlying s patial r elationship w ithin t he m odern c apitalist w orld ( Fig.12:1). I nstead, S mith's m odel p rovides f ive s tages i n w hich t he e lite p ossess d ifferent a uthority o ver r egional r esources, m anifested i n t he s ettlement f orm, i n s ettlement h ierarchy, i n t he d istribution a nd s cale o f p roduction a nd i n t he c haracter a nd s ize

o f c ommerce. 10 T he r elevance o f S mith's m odel t o a rchaeology i s i mmediately a pparent. F ield s urveys c over r egions a nd d etect s ettlem ent h ierarchies; e xcavations, h owever s elective, r eveal e vidence o f b uildings,

p roduction a nd d istribution.

A s S mith's m odels e xplicitly

d emonstrate, w e c annot m istake a c ompetitive m arket s ystem f or a s ystem s uch a s h er s o-called s olar c entral-place s ystem i n w hich o ne r ather t han a h ierarchy o f m arkets e xist; i n w hich c raft s pecialization i s c oncentrated i n o ne p lace r ather t han i n m any a s c ompetitive m arket s ystem ( cf. T able 1 ).

i s a t rait

o f

t he

I t w as t o e xamine S mith's m odel a s w ell a s t o i nvestigate t he p rocesses d etermining t he t ransition f rom t he a ncient t o m edieval w orlds

t hat

l ed u s

t o i nitiate

t he S an V incenzo p roject

i n M olise.

T he

a im o f t he p roject w as t o s tudy a n i mportant m onastery a nd i ts i mmediate r egion i n o rder t o d iscover w hat f orm m onasteries t ook i n t he C arolingian p eriod;

w ere

t hese c entral p laces w hat C arol A .

S mith c alls

s olar c entral-places, a nd w hat n ew l ight w ould t his d iscovery s hed u pon t he o rigins a nd d evelopment o f t he m edieval w orld? W ith t he s upport o f t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica d el M olise f ive s easons o f f ield s urvey, e xcavations a nd a llied r esearch h ave b een u ndertaken a t S an 2 60

2 4 ! " N • 2

4

5

F ig.

1 2:1

C arol A .

S mith's r egional m odels;

1 ,

a n u nbounded n etwork

s ystem w here e xchange i s d irect a nd n o d ivision o f l abour e xists; 2 , a b ounded h ierarchical s ystem w here e xchange i s d irect a nd t he d ivision o f l abour i s l ow ; 3 , a s olar c entralp lace s ystem w ith a n a dministered m arket a t

t he h eart o f

t he

r egion ; 4 , a d endritic c entral-place s ystem w ith a m onopolizi ng c entral-place ( gateway c ommunity) o n t he e dge o f t he r egion ;

5 ,

a n i nterlocking c entral-place s ystem i n w hich

c ompetitive m arkets

i ndicate a h igh d ivision o f 2 61

l abour.

T able 1 :

T he a rchaeological c orrelates o f C arol A .

S mith's r egional

e xchange s ystems S mith's m odels

S ettlement s ystem

P roduction

D istribution

1

U nbounded n etwork

n o s ite h ierarchy

m inimal

m inimal

2

B ounded h ierarchial

h ierarchy; s mall e lite s ites

m inimal,

e lite s ites

b etween e lite s ites

h ierarchy = c entral a dministrative/ i deological s ite

l ow-level, f ocused a t

m inimal, f ocused a t

c entral

c entral

p lace

p lace

n etwork

3

S olar c entral-place n etwork

4

5

D endritic c entralp lace n etwork

a t

m inimal,

l arge f rontier c entral-place;

l argely l argely c oncentrated c oncentrated

l imited r egional

a t c entral

a t c entral

h ierarchy

p lace

p lace

I nterlocking

h ierarchy o f c or n-

p roduction

d istribution

c entral-place

p etitive m arkets

a t a ll l evels o f

f ocused o n m arket

m arket

h ierarchy

h ierarchy

V incenzo

a l

V olturno a nd e lsewhere w ithin i ts e states

i n

t he

u pper

V olturno v alley. F irst

w e

h ave e xcavated e xtensively a round

t he e ntrance a rea

o f

t he e arly m edieval m onastery a t S an V incenzo, r evealing t he s equence o f b uildings n ext t o t he w ell-dated p ainted c rypt b elonging t o A bbot E piphanius t ime ( 824-42) ( see c hapter 1 ). T hese e xcavations p rovide t he S oprintendenza w ith a n a rchaeological p ark,

a nd h ave

e nabled u s t o

d ate t he d evelopment o f t he s ettlement a s w ell a s i ts m aterial c ulture c losely. S maller e xcavations a nd a w ide-ranging s urvey o f t he m onastery's o ther z ones h ave p rovided u s w ith s ome b asic i dea o f t he t opography o f t he a bbey ( Fig.12:2). W ithin t he t err2 w e h ave c arried o ut a s ystematic f ield s urvey. N aturally, t he 5 0km. c overed i n t his s urvey c oncentrated u pon t he l and n ow b eing c ultivated i n t he p lough z one; s urvey t he t he

t he w ooded s lopes a nd h illtips w ere l argely u nexplored. T he f ocused u pon t he p lateau o n w hich S an V incenzo l ies a s w ell a s

V olturno v alley a nd t wo o ther m ountain b asins w here, a ccording t o 1 2th c entury C hronicon V ulturnense, t here w ere e arly m edieval

s ettlements ( see C hris W ickham's p aper, c hapter 1 1). T his s urvey h as b een c omplemented b y a n e nvironmental s urvey t o d etermine t he r ecent h istory o f t he l andscape, e nabling u s t o t hrow f urther l ight o n S an V incenzo's r esources ( see H ayes a nd J ones, c hapter 9 ). F inally, w e h ave l ocated t wo e arly m edieval s ettlements, a djacent t o t he s urvey z ones, w hich h ave b een s electively e xcavated. T he p easant s ettlements a t C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia b egin t o e nable u s t o p ut t he m onastery a t S an V incenzo a l V olturno i n p erspective. T hus w e h ave t he d ata c ompatible w ith u sing a nd t esting S mith's m odels.

2 62

0 c r

• ,

g e r e e '"

0 0 0

2 63

T o b egin w ith,

i t i s n ecessary t o o utline t he s equence o f

m ents i n t he u pper V olturno, t hese d iscoveries. F irst,

i n

e arly

b efore c onsidering t he

i mperial R oman t imes

s ettle-

i mplications

t here w as a

f airly

o f

d ense

p attern o f v illas a nd c ottages i n t he V olturno. 11 B arker a nd L loyd h ave d iscovered m uch t he s ame d ensity o f f arms i n t he B iferno v alley s urvey, r emains

f urther t o t he s outh. C lose t o S an V incenzo i tself t he o f a l arge v illa c overing a bout o ne h ectare h ave b een

d iscovered, a nd i ts e state e ncompassing t he R occhetta p lain c ontained s everal c ottages a nd s maller v illas ( see P atterson's p aper, c hapter 1 0). T he s ettlement p attern a mounts t o a h ierarchically o rdered r egional s ystem w hich c an b e l inked t o t he f ortunes o f t he p rovincial R oman t owns o f I sernia a nd V enafro

( to t he s outh)

a nd A lfedena

( to

t he

n orth). A s i n t he n eighbouring B iferno v alley, 13 t hese v illas a nd f arms w ere a lmost a ll d eserted a round A .D. 4 00, a nd o nly i n o ne c ase c an w e d emonstrate t hat a n e arly i mperial v illa c ontinued

t o b e o ccupied u ntil

t he 6 th c entury. T he e xtensive d epopulation a nd t he a ccompanying c hanges t o t he s ettlement p attern s uggest a m igration o ut o f M olise e very b it a s s ignificant a s t hose o ccurring e lsewhere a t t his t ime i n E urope. W e h ave f ound, h owever, o ne v illa d ating f rom this u nsettled e ra. B eneath t he b enedictine m onastery a re r emains o f t he 5 th t o 6 th c entury v illa w hich s uperceded t he e arlier v illa o n t he o ther s ide o f t he r iver V olturno. T he l ate v illa i s d ated b y o ver a h undred s mall b ronze c oins, p ottery a nd b rooches t o t he p eriod c . 4 00/425 - 5 00/525. T he r emains c onsist o f a R oman b ridge, a c hurch, 7 c emetery c hurch a nd a s outh r ange ( all o n o ne l evel b y t he r iver), a nd a l arge r esidential t ower o n t he t errace i mmediately a bove t his. I n t he s urvey a n umber o f s imilar s ites w ere d iscovered a s

B iferno v alley w ell a s s mall

c ottages i n t he z one c lose t o t he A driatic S ea. C ottages o f t his p eriod s eem t o b e a bsent i n t he V olturno v alley, a nd t he r ecent e vidence s uggests t hat l ater R oman S an V incenzo w as a l arge e xample o f a t ype o f v illa t hat w as s paced a t r oughly 4 km i ntervals d own t he v alley. 14 T he c entury,

v illa a t S an V incenzo w as d eserted i n t he e arly t o m id 6 th a lthough t he c emetery c ontinued t o b e u sed, a nd l ater R oman

g raves w ere e ven c ut i nto t he r esidential t ower i tself. T he v illas a nd c ottages i dentified i n t he B iferno v alley w ere e vidently a bandoned a t a bout t he s ame t ime, a nd h ere i s t he p oint a t w hich h illslopes a nd h illtops w ere f irst o ccupied. E xcavations a t V acchereccia, 4 kms f rom S an V incenzo h ave p roduced c rude, h and-made w ares w hich p ost-date t he l ate R oman w ares a nd p re-date t he e arliest m onastic w ares. T hese c rude v essels 7 th

i mitate

c entury

s outhern t o t his

l ate R oman t able-wares a nd b elong

v eieels

n ow

k nown f rom s everal

t o a c ategory o f 6 th-

s ites

i n

c entral

a nd

I taly. A p ennanular b rooch f rom V acchereccia a lso b elongs e lusive p eriod a nd i s f urther p roof t hat w ith t he u nstable

p olitical c ircumstances o f g overnment a nd w ith i t,

t he J ustinianic a nd L ombardic

s tratified s ettlement s ystems,

p eriods,

l ocal

c ollapsed.

A

f urther i llustration o f t his p eriod c omes f rom t he e xcavations o f D 85, a h illtop s ite o verlooking a b ridge a cross t he B iferno v alley. I nvestigations h ere i n 1 978 f ound a s mall a mount o f d iagnostic l ater R oman r ed-painted p ottery, s imilar t o t ypes f ound o n t he c ottages i n t his z one. T he p resent c onclusion i s t hat t his w as a r efuge o r f ort c ommanding

t he

b ridge

a cross

t he B iferno, 2 64

s imilar

t o

s everal

n ow

d ocumented

i n L azio.

1 6

I n t he 8 th c entury e vidently s elected a w ild,

t he t hree m onks w ho f ounded l argely d epopulated r egion.

S an V incenzo A ccording t o

t he 1 2th c entury C hronicon V ulturnense, t hey r efurbished a c hurch t hat w as a lready h ere; t his w e h ave e xcavated. I t s eems t hat t he m onks p robably o ccupied l ater

t he c emetery c hurch a nd t he s outh r ange o f

R oman v illa

( chapter 1 ).

T he s mall c ommunity

t he r uined

p resumably

t ook

o ver l imited r esponsibility o f t he h illtop v illages a t V acchereccia a nd ( ?) C olle C astellano, a s w ell a s, a t m ost, a nother s ix t o t en c ommunities. A bout A .D.

8 00 S an V incenzo a l V olturno w as m assively t ransformed.

T he t iny 8 th c entury m onastery c overing n o m ore t han h alf h a. w as s uperceded b y a n ew, p lanned m onastery t hat c overed n early f ive h a. T his m onastery a mounted t o a s mall t own w ith i ts o wn b uilders, t ilers, g laziers, g lass-workers, s miths, a nd p robably, p otters. T here i s s ome e vidence t hat t he h interland o f t he m onastery w as m ore i ntensively f armed i n t his p eriod, b ut t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat c ommunities l ike t hose a t C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia w ere i n a ny w ay e nlarged o r d eveloped a t A t

C olle

C astellano

t his t ime. ( Fig.12:4.)

r emains o f

a

c lassic

h illtop

v illage h ave s urvived. T he d wellings w ere c ut i nto t he r ocky c rown o f t his i solated h ill a nd s urrounded b y a l arge e nclosure w all. N o t races o f a ny d wellings h ave b een c onclusively d iscovered, a lthough t he r uins o f a c hurch o r t ower s till s tand t o a n i mpressive h eight a t t he s ummit o f t he h ill. T wo e xcavations o f t he d eep m idden w hich f ormed a gainst t he

l ower

s ide

o f t he e nclosure w all h ave p roduced a r ich

a rray

o f

d ebris. A lthough t his m aterial h as y et t o b e a nalysed w e c an i dentify s ome S an V incenzo-type w ares i n t he l arge p ottery a ssemblage, a s w ell a s a l ot

o f i ron s lag,

a c ollection o f s mashed r oofing t iles s cavenged

f rom l ocal c lassical s ites a nd a h igh p ercentage o f p ig b ones. C olle C astellano i s i mmediately a bove a s mall R oman f arm a nd c ommands a r ich e cological n iche, b esides b eing w ell p ositioned o n t he m ain t horoughf are f rom V enafro t o I sernia w hich l eads i nto M olise. B y c ontrast, V acchereccia l ies o n t he s outhern e dge o f t he R occhetta p lain 4 km f rom S an V incenzo. T he e arly m edieval s ettlement w as d iscovered o n t he m iddle s lope o f t his l ong h ill, u p a bove a R oman f arm o f i st t o 4 th c entury d ate, a nd c lose t o g ood f arming l and. V acchereccia, h owever, w as a n u nfortified s ite; t he r emains d iscovered i n t he 1 982 e xcavat ions a mounted t o a s olitary f arm s et w ithin t he v estigial r emains o f a s mall s tone e nclosure s imilar t o t he e nclosures s urrounding R omanI n t he d eep m idden b elonging t o p eriod f arms t hroughout t he e mpire. 1 / t his f arm w e f ound a p ennanular b rooch, h and-made p ottery a nd S an V incenzo t ypes o f p ottery. T he s ettlement, e ven t hough i t w as p osit ioned b elow t he c rown o f t he h ill, s till c ommanded a s plendid v iew o f t he V olturno v alley, a nd m ay h ave o verlooked a n o ld R oman l ane t hat t hen l ed t o t he m onastery. B oth s ites d iffer m arkedly f rom D 85 i n t he B iferno v alley ( Fig.12:5.). T he e xcavations a t D 85 s howed t hat t he 6 th o r 7 th c entury.

c entury s ite w as a lmost c ertainly r e-occupied i n t he T wo c oncentrations o f d wellings w ere b uilt u p a gainst

s outh-facing

s tone

c ircuit o f w alls,

a nd a n

i solated

c hurch,

9 th t he v ery

d ifferent i n f orm f rom t hose e xcavated a t S an V incenzo, d ominated t he e astern e nd o f t his p rominent h ill. T he d wellings t hemselves a re a p rototype o f t he w ell-known l ater m edieval h ouses f rom t his r egion, b ut s urprisingly a ll t he e vidence s uggests t hat t his w as a n e lite s ite. 2 65

F ig.

F ig.

1 2:3 V acchereccia a s

i t i s

1 2:4 T he m odern h ill o f C olle C astellano;

t oday.

t he s ettlement w as

l ocated o n t he s ummit, a nd t he e arly m edieval e nclosure w all i ncluded p art o f t he m iddle s lope.

2 66

T he h igh p ercentage o f v essels,

a nd

b otanical m ent f or s uccessor.

t he

i mported r e-painted p ottery,

f ragments o f g lass

e xcellent a ssemblages o f a nimal b ones

a nd

p alaeo-

r emains a ll i ndicate t hat D 85 w as d rawing u pon a w ide c atchi ts r esources. A c lue t o i ts s tatus m ay c ome f rom i ts T he s ite w as a lmost c ertainly s acked i n t he l ater 9 th

c entury a nd a bandoned i n f avour o f G uardialfiera o n t he n orth s ide o f t he B iferno. G uardialfiera w as t he s eat o f a b ishopric b y N orman t imes, a nd t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat t his m ay h ave o riginated i n e ither t he 9 th o r 1 0th c enturies. T he s ystematic d emolition o f t he c hurch a t D 85 m ay b e s ome p roof o f

i ts s tatus.

The n ext p hase i n t he s ettlement s equence t ends t o c onfirm o ur h istorical e xpectations. F irst, t he a bbey o f S an V incenzo w as s ufferi ng s ome d ecline b efore i t w as s acked b y t he n orth A frican r aiders i n 8 81. T races o f t his s acking h ave b een f ound a t t he s outh e nd o f t he s ite a s w ell a s i n t he e ntrance o f t he m onastery ( chapter 1 ). T he 1 0th c entury f ew o f

a bbey w as a m uch p oorer a ffair; t he m onks s eem t o h ave t he 9 th c entury b uildings, a nd t heir m odifications a re

m akeshift.

D uring t his p eriod,

h owever,

u sed v ery

S an V incenzo e ndeavoured t o

r estore i ts f ortunes b y f ounding n ew v illages a nd b y e ncouraging e xisti ng o nes t o i ncrease t heir a gricultural p roduction b y c olonising t he w oodlands. T he C hronicon V ulturnense i ncludes a f ine s et o f c learance c harters m ostly s panning t he l ater 1 0th c entury, eich h ave b een b rilliantly s tudied b y d el T reppo a nd C hris W ickham " a nd f orm t he h istorical e vidence f or i ncastellamento i n t his r egion. T he a rchaeology t ends

t o c onfirm t he d ocumentary e vidence.

A t V acchereccia t he a ggregated m id-slope s ettlement r emained w here i t w as a fter t he s ix m en o f t he c ommunity w ere g ranted a c harger b y S an V incenzo i n 9 85 ( Fig.12:3.). T he f arms m ust h ave b een d otted a long t he h illslope, a nd o nly m oved t o t he s ummit o f t he h ill i n t he 1 2th o r 1 3th c enturies. 1 9 C olle C astellano, b y c ontrast, w as d eserted a t t his t ime. I t

s eems

l ikely t hat t he v illagers m oved

t o a n ew s ite

d escribed

a s

O livella i n a c harter o f 9 62, w hich o n p lace-name e vidence i s a h igher p eak a s hort w ay t o t he n orth. L ike D 85 w hich w as s ucceeded b y G uardialfiera, o pting f or a

w e m ust p resume t hat t he c ommunity a t m ore d efensive l ocation a t a bout t his

O livella w as t ime, t hough

p ossibly o ne t hat a lso e ncompassed a g reater r ange o f a gricultural r esources. W e c an b e s ure t hat m any o ther v illages w ere f ounded a t t his t ime, w hile o thers w ere g reatly e nlarged. T est-pits a t F ilignano, P orcina a nd S elvone i n t he t erra o f S an V incenzo h ave p roduced s imilar p ottery

t ypes d ating t o t his p eriod.

M eanwhile i n t he B iferno v alley a

s mall f ound

d eserted v illage b elonging t o t he p eriod o f i ncastellamento w as n ear t o G uglionesi a nd w as a lmost c ertainly t he l ost s ite o f V etrana. 2 0 T his v illage w as s ystematically s urveyed i n 1 979, a nd e vidence w as f ound p ertaining t o p ossibly a s m any a s a d ozen h ouseholds a s w ell a s a c hurch w ithin t his d efended p romontory. T he c ommunity w as d ependent u pon l ocal c eramics, u nlike f or e xample, D 85, b ut a lpine s oapstone w as a lso f ound h ere. t he

1 5th

c entury,

A s imilar

s ite,

d eserted m uch l ater i n

w as a lso d iscovered a t P ortocannone,

6 km

t o

t he

s outh. T his t oo w as f irst i nhabited i n t he 1 0th o r 1 1th c enturies, a nd t he m iscellaneous d ata c ollected f rom a ll t he o ther d eserted v illages A s i n t he B iferno v alley t ends t o p oint t o a s imilar p attern. 21 m ight h ave i magined, t he d ocumentary s ources c omposed m ostly c harters

r eflect a m ajor i njection o f e nergy i nto t hese r egions

w e o f

l eading

d irectly t o a s ubstantial i ncrease i n a gricultural p roduction a nd a s imilar r ise i n p easant p opulations. T his c hange i s e very b it a s g reat 2 67

a s t he d ecline n oted e arlier a round t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury. A s w e m ight h ave r ealized, i t a ccompanies t he s low e xpansion o f r ural m arkets l ike I sernia a nd V enafro a ttested a rchaeologically b y t he p attern o f c hurch b uilding. 22 T his a gricultural g rowth m ay h ave f unded t he s ubstantial r ebuilding o f S an V incenzo i n t he 1 1th c entury w hen a n ew c loister w as c onstruced t o t he s outh o f t he a bbey. I t m ust a lso h ave e nabled t he m onks t o m ove t he a bbey t o a n ew p osition o n t he e dge o f t he p lateau s ome 1 2th

4 00m f rom t he o ld s ite t owards t he e nd o f t he c entury. B ut c entury a bbey f ailed t o r egain i ts C arolingian s tatus u nlike

t he i ts

n ear n eighbour, M onte C assino. I nstead, i ts l ands w ere t aken a way b y s everal l ocal l ords a nd i ndeed b y M onte C assino a s w ell. I n t his u ncertain p eriod t he v illagers f rom V acchereccia w ere m oved t o a s mall, n ucleated s ettlement o n t he s ummit o f t he h ill, a nd t hose a t O livella a ppear t o e xists. 23

h ave m oved t o t he n eighbouring p eak w here M ontaquila s till I n t he 1 4th a nd e arly 1 5th c enturies, t he d esertion o f a t

l east o ne i n t hree v illages a nd t he n otable c ontraction o f

t he r est

i s

a t elling i ndication o f t he g reat E uropean d epression. S imilarly, t he r eoccupation o f h ills l ike C olle C astellano a nd V acchereccia b y i solated f arms i n t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies r eflects t he f inal p hase o f s ettlement e xpansion i n t his r egion. T his, o f c ourse, w as f ollowed b y

a p eriod o f

1 9th c entury, d ay. N o

i mmense s ettlement c ontraction w hich b egan i n t he p eaked

a rchaeologist

i n t he ' thirties a nd p ersists,

e ven s o,

o r h istorian c ould d eny t hat t he

t his

V olturno

a nd

B iferno v alleys a re m arginal a reas i n t he h istory o f I taly a nd a s a w hole. Y et m arginal a reas, a s a ny T hird W orld c ountry e xperience

t he

s ame

p rocesses

t hat a re b etter

l ate

t o

d ocumented

E urope t oday,

i n

r ich,

l iterate a nd w ell-populated z ones. E ric R . W olf's b ook, E urope a nd t he p eople w ithout h istory r eveals t he p lace o f t hose 1 9th a nd 2 0th c entury m igrants f rom r egions l ike M ol e i n t he g reat, b ut h ighly i ntricate T he a rchaeology o f t his m igration i s p rocesses t hat m ake u p h istory. p lain t o s ee. T here i s n o r eason, t herefore, t o d oubt t hat t he s ettlem ent d ata w e h ave c ollected f rom e arlier p eriods i s s imilarly a pprop riate f or a nalyzing t he m omentous t ransition f rom t he c lassical t o m edieval w orlds. U sing S mith's f rameworks w e c an m easure t he r elations hips b etween t he s ettlements i n t his r egion, a nd t hen r elate t he s equence t o t he b roader E uropean i ssues w hich n ecessarily c oncern u s. F irst,

l ate

R oman S an V incenzo r epresents a t ype o f

c ommunity

i n

w hich g reater e mphasis w as p laced u pon t he t win f actors o f d efense ( hence t he n ucleated s ettlement p attern) a nd r itual. T he e vidence o f e arly 5 th c entury t raded p ottery f ollowed b y a l ong s pell i n w hich l ocal w ares a re p redominant p oints t o a n i ncreasing e mphasis r egional r ather t han a s tate s ystem. T he g reat n umbers

u pon a o f l ow

d enomination b ronze c oins c onfirm t his. O nly w here c ommerce p ersisted a nd f lourished, a long c oastal z ones s uch a s t he m outh o f t he B iferno o r t he

a rea n ow w ell-documented b y P aolo P eduto a round S alerno,

d H

h igh l evel i ntegration b etween t own a nd c ountry p ersist. r egional t erms C hristaller w ould h ave a rgued t hat t he s udden

s ome

I n c hange

a round A .D. 4 00 m eant t hat a c ompetitive, c entral-place m arket s ystem w as r eplaced b y o ne i n w hich g reater e mphasis w as p ut i n r egionally a nd s ub-regionally a utonomous c entres. 26 W ith s o m uch s urvey a nd e xcavated a rchaeological d ata b eing n ow a vailable, w e c an r eadily d iscover t hat t his p attern i s q uite c ompatable w ith t rends e lsewhere i n t he d eclining 2 68

western p rovinces o f S econd,

t he

t he R oman E mpire. 2 7

m ove

t o h illtop s ettlements a nd w ith i t t he

m arked

d ecline i n r egional e conomic s ystems i s i n t his c ase a n i llustration o f t he b ounded h ierarchical n etwork d escribed b y S mith. P roduction w as m inimal, d istribution w as m inimal a nd e ven w ith t he a dvent o f t he f irst b enedictine m onastery, t he r ange o f s ites - t he p hysical d ifferences b etween t he e lite a nd t heir d ependents - w as m inimal. A rchaeology c onfirms t he s ame 9 ättern i n m ost r egions o f w estern E urope i n t he 7 th a nd 8 th c enturies. B y c ontrast, t he l ater 8 th a nd 9 th c entury m onastery w as a massive, p lanned s ettlement w ith a h igh p roductive a nd d istributive c apacity l argely d eveloped f or i ts o wn n eeds. I ndeed, a ll t he i nvestm ent a ppears t o h ave b een m ade t o s ustain t he t ier u pon t ier o f i mages t hat w ere a n e mbodiment o f t he C arolingian m ovement. T he a bbey w as a s ettlement o f i nternational s tatus f or a b rief p eriod, d esigned i n m any r espects t o p romote t he B enevantan d ukes i n t he p olitically s ensitive m arch b etween t he w orld o f C arolingian i nfluence ( central I taly) a nd t he s outh I talian o utpost o f t he h eretical G reek c hurch a nd g overnment. H ence, t his g reat a dministrative a nd d emographic e ntity p robably e qualled f or a s hort p eriod t he e ntire p opulation o f t he r egion. I nteraction b etween S an V incenzo a nd i ts r egion, h owever, a ppears t o h ave b een m inimal a nd t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he m onastery i nduced t he p easantry o f t he V olturno t o i ncrease a gricultural p roduction. I n s hort,

S an

V incenzo i s a n e xpression o f a

C arolingian-period

c omposed o f t hree e lements p redicted b y C arol A . c entral-place s ystem.

S mith f or

e state a

s olar

B y t he l ater 9 th c entury t he a bbey's f ortunes w ere i n d ecline, a nd s ubsequently S an V incenzo w as a r egional c entre l argely d ependent u pon i ts a grarian r esources. I n k eeping w ith t he s udden i nception o f c omp etitive m arkets t hroughout 1 0th c entury E urope, w e c an d iscover f rom o ur a rchaeological a nd h istorical s ources t he p oint w hen g enerating s urplus p roduction s uddenly b ecame m eaningful o nce a gain. I ncastellam ento i s t he e xpression o f t his n ew t rend i n t he e conomy. R egularly s paced, r egularly a dministered e states p roduced r evenues w hich m ight b e u sed i n p art t o m aintain t he s till s mall c ommunity a t t he n ew a bbey, b ut i n l arge m easure m ight b e e xchanged i n t he i ncipient c ompetitive m arkets t hat a ll a cross E urope a re a f eature o f R oberto L opez's f amous 1 0th

c entury c ommercial r evolution.

I n e very s ense m aterial

r eflects t he e xistence o f a n ew s ocial a nd e conomic o rder. p roduction, f or e xample, v irtually c hanged o vernight, a s s hows

c ulture P ottery P atterson

e lsewhere i n t his v olume. O f c ourse,

w e m ust n ow e xplain t he s equence b riefly o utlined h ere,

a s w ell a s m easure s ome o f t he v ariables w hich c onstitute t he c omponents o f t his f ar-reaching t ransition. W e m ust a lso b e c areful t o e mphasize t hat w hile t he g eneral p rocesses m ay b e s imilar t o t hose d escribed

f or o ther r egions o f E urope,

t he v ariables

- t he

d etailed

c ultural c haracteristics m ay b e l ocalized. N onetheless, t his s equence r eveals t he p rocess f rom t he w orld o f l ate a ntiquity t o t he t urn o f t he m illennium

t o

b e l argely i n s tep w ith t he m odel a dvanced b y D uby

a nd

o thers w ho h ave c autiously r evised P irenne's o riginal t hesis. A rchaeology e mphasizes t he m agnitude o f c hange i n t he 5 th, 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies C arolingian

p articularly; e ra

a nd

t hus

i t

s heds

h elps u s 2 69

i mportant t o

n ew

u nderstand

l ight t he

u pon m eaning

t he o f

c t O

, t 4 . ,

2 70

i ncastellamento

a nd

t he o rigins o f

t he 1 0th-llth

c entury

c ommercial

r evolution. M olise, i t n eeds t o b e s tressed, w as a m arginal r egion b ut n ot a n i sland. I n l ate R oman a nd m edieval t imes i t e xperienced t he c ourse o f h istory a s i t d oes t oday, a nd l ike a ny m arginal r egion t hose p rocesses a re a ccentuated r ather m ore t han t hey h ave b een i n w ellb uffered z ones w hich c onstitute t he w ealthier a nd b etter-known c ores o f t he a ncient, m edieval a nd m odern w orlds. H ence, I s hould l ike t o e nd t his p reliminary a ccount o f o ur r esearch i n M olise b y l iberally p arap hrasing E ric W olf i n c laiming t hat a rchaeology e nables u s t o r ecognize t hat a nd

t he p eoples w ho h ave a sserted a p riveleged r elation w ith t he

p eoples

t o w hom h istory h as b een d enied e ncounter

d estiny.

271

h istory a

c ommon

N otes I s hould

l ike t o e xpress m y d ebt

t o C hris W ickham f or

e ncouraging

m e t o b egin t he S an V incenzo p roject i n o rder t o i nvestigate t hese h istorical i ssues, a nd t o P eter H ayes w ho d irected t he s urvey o f t he r egion i deas.

a nd

h as

p roved a g reat s ource o f

s timulating

G eorge D uby,

2 .

S ee, f or e xample, t wo r ecent p apers t hat e ach i n a s timulating f ashion f ollow t his l ine o f t hought: B ryan W ard P erkins, " "La a ttomedievale',

1 977),

a nd

1 .

c itta"

T he C hivalrous S ociety ( London,

c riticism

A rcheologia M edievale

1 0

1 1.

( 1983)

1 11-24;

C .R. W hittaker, ' Later R oman t rade a nd t raders', i n P . G arnsey, K . H opkins a nd C .R . W hittaker ( eds.), T rade i n t he A ncient E conomy, ( London, 3 .

G eorge

1 983), D uby,

1 63-80. T he E arly G rowth o f t he E uropean E conomy

( London ,

1 974). 4 .

S ee,

f or

e xample,

t he

r ecent a ttempt t o

r e-examine

P irenne's

t hesis u sing a rchaeological i nformation f rom r ecent e xcavations: R ichard H odges a nd D avid W hitehouse, M ohammed, C harlemagne a nd t he o rigins o f E urope ( London, 1 983). 5 . 6 .

D uby,

o p.

D uby,

o p.

E conomics 7 .

T his P ast

8 .

1 0.

i s

( note 3 ).

c it.,

( note

( London,

1 982),

• 3 );

s ee a lso

R ichard

B inford's,

I n P ursuit o f t he

T he M odern W orld S ystem ( London,

1 974);

W olf, E urope a nd t he P eople w ithout H istory ( Berkeley,

C arol A .

D ark A ge

1 983).

S mith,

' Exchange s ystems a nd

E ric

1 982).

t he s patial d istribution o f

e lites: t ies'.

t he o rganisation o f s tratification i n a grarian s ocieI n C arol A . S mith ( ed.), R egional A nalysis, v ol. i i,

( London,

1 976),

S mith,

i bid.;

3 09-74. R ichard

H odges,

' Method

a nd T heory i n

A rchaeology', A rcheologia M edievale, 9 ( 1982), 1 1.

S ee J ohn P atterson's

1 2.

G .W.W. M olise',

1 3.

H odges,

c hapter 7 .

t he c entral t heme o f L ewis

( London,

I mmanuel W allerstein, R .

9 .

c it.,

B arker, ' Rural s urvey',

B arker,

J .

c hapter 1 0, L loyd a nd D .

M edieval

7 -38.

i n t his v olume. W ebley,

' A c lassical l andscape i n

P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 4 6

( 1978),

3 5-51.

L loyd a nd W ebley, i bid.; J ohn L loyd a nd G raeme B arker, s ettlement i n R oman M olise: p roblems o f a rchaeological i n G raeme B arker a nd R ichard H odges

a nd I talian S ociety

( Oxford,

1 981),

272

2 89-304.

( eds.),

A rchaeology

1 4.

T he

c ottages o f t he B iferno v alley d ating

t o t his t ime

a re

m en-

t ioned i n J ohn L loyd a nd S ally C ann, ' Later R oman r ed-painted p ottery f rom t he B iferno v alley', A rcheologia M edievale 1 1 ( 1984), ( in p ress); I a m g rateful t o J ohn L loyd f or p ermitting m e t o r ead t his p aper i n a dvance o f i ts p ublication. S imilar c ottages a re d escribed w ithin t he l ocality o f S an G iovanni d i R uoti, a lthough t heir e xact d ate h as y et t o b e p ublished: C laude M . R oberto a nd A lastair M . S mall, ' Recherche t opographique a utour d e S an G iovanni d i R uoti ( Province d e P otenza) I talie d u S ud', i n D onald R . K eller a nd D avid W . R upp ( eds.), A rchaeological S urvey i n t he M editerr anean A rea 1 5.

S ee

( Oxford,

1 983),

1 87-90.

H elen P atterson's p aper i n t his v olume,

a nd h er r eport i n R .

H odges e t a l. ' Excavations a t V acchereccia ( Rocchetta a l V olt urno): a 7 th t o 1 2th c entury s ettlement i n t he u pper V olturno v alley', P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome 5 2 ( 1984), 1 48-94. 1 6.

H odges a nd W hitehouse,

1 7.

H odges e t a l,

1 8.

M ario d el T reppo, ' La v ita e conomica e s ociale i n u na g rande a bbaz ia d el M ezzogiorno: S an V incenzo a l V olturno n ell'alto m edioevo'

o p.

c it.,

o p.

c it.,

( note 4 ).

( note 1 5).

A rchivio s torico p er l e P rovicia N apoletane s ee C hris W ickham's c hapter i n t his v olume. o p.

c it.,

X XXV

( 1956), 3 1-100;

1 9.

H odges e t a l,

( note 1 5).

2 0.

R . H odges a nd C .J. W ickham, ' Vetrana: u n v illaggio a bbandonato a ltomedievale p resso G uglionesi n elle v alle d el R iferno, M olise', A rcheologia M edievale 8 ( 1981), 4 92-502.

2 1.

P ortocannone a nd o ther v illages i n t he B iferno v alley a re d escribed i n R ichard H odges a nd C hris W ickham, T he e volution o f h illtop v illages i n M olise', i n G raeme B arker, A rchaeology a nd H istory o f a M editerranean V alley ( Cambridge, f orthcoming).

2 2.

G . C arbonara, I ussu D esiderii: M ontecassino e l 'architetture c amp ano-abruzzese n el u ndecismo s ecolo ( Rome, 1 980).

2 3.

S ee C hris W ickham,

c hapter 1 1.

2 4.

E ric.

c it,

2 5.

P aolo P eduto,

2 6.

T his

R .

W olf,

o p.

( note 8 ).

C aputaquis M edievale I I ( Naples,

i s d iscussed b y R .Paynter,

1 984).

M odels o f S patial I nequality:

t lement P atterns i n H istorical A rchaeology ( London, 2 7.

H odges a nd W hitehouse,

2 8.

I bid.,

o p.

c it.

c hapters 2 a nd 3 .

c hapter 4 .

273

1 982),

S et-

1 35-41.