Sage Encyclopedia Of Global Warming And Climate Change
0387001670
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English
Pages 1283
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Table of contents :
COVER PAGE......Page 1
TITLE PAGE......Page 3
ISBN 1412958784......Page 4
CONTENTS (with page links)......Page 5
ABOUT THE GENERAL EDITOR......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 7
CLIMATE......Page 8
CLIMATE CHANGE, EFFECTS......Page 9
COUNTRIES: AMERICAS......Page 10
COUNTRIES: EUROPE......Page 11
INSTITUTIONS STUDYING CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 12
PROGRAMS AND CONVENTIONS......Page 14
A......Page 31
C......Page 32
E......Page 33
I......Page 34
M......Page 35
P......Page 36
S......Page 37
W......Page 38
Z......Page 39
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS......Page 40
135 million years ago to 65 million years ago......Page 44
1930......Page 45
1961......Page 46
1975 to 1976......Page 47
1989......Page 48
2004......Page 49
2007......Page 50
ABRUPT CLIMATE CHANGES......Page 51
HISTORY......Page 52
THE DEBATE......Page 53
TYPES OF ADAPTATION......Page 54
ADAPTATION AND UNCERTAINTY......Page 55
ADAPTATION ASSESSMENT......Page 56
LESSONS LEARNED FROM ADAPTATION......Page 57
AEROSOLS......Page 58
AFFORESTATION......Page 59
AFGHANISTAN......Page 60
AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 61
CONTRIBUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 63
AGRICULTURAL SOLUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 64
AGULHAS CURRENT......Page 65
AIR FORCE, U.S.......Page 68
ALABAMA......Page 69
ALASKA......Page 70
ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS......Page 71
ALASKA CLIMATE RESEARCH CENTER......Page 72
ALBANIA......Page 73
ALBEDO......Page 74
ALGERIA......Page 75
ALLIANCE OF SMALL ISLAND STATES......Page 76
HISTORY......Page 78
RAISING PUBLIC AWARENESS......Page 79
USES AND EFFECTS......Page 80
BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS......Page 81
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY, OVERVIEW......Page 82
DEFINITIONS......Page 83
USE OF ALTERNATIVES......Page 84
WIND POWER......Page 85
COST OF ALTERNATIVES......Page 86
ACTIVE SOLAR ENERGY......Page 87
USE AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 88
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS......Page 89
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY, WIND......Page 90
MECHANICS......Page 91
IMPACTS......Page 92
WIND POWER IN ACTION......Page 93
AMERICAN COUNCIL FOR AN ENERGY-EFFICIENT ECONOMY......Page 94
AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER......Page 95
AMERICAN GAS ASSOCIATION......Page 96
AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION......Page 98
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY......Page 99
ANDORRA......Page 100
ANIMALS......Page 101
THE ICONIFICATION OF ANIMALS......Page 102
HUMAN-INDUCED MASS EXTINCTIONS......Page 103
BIRD REPRODUCTION AND GLOBAL WARMING......Page 104
BALEEN WHALES AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 105
BEYOND POLAR BEARS AND PENGUINS......Page 106
AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH......Page 107
REPUTATION......Page 108
MIXER OF THE DEEP OCEANS......Page 110
ANTARCTIC ICE SHEETS......Page 111
ANTARCTIC METEOROLOGY RESEARCH CENTER......Page 112
DATA COLLECTION......Page 113
ANTHROPOGENIC FORCING......Page 114
ANTICYCLONES......Page 115
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA......Page 116
APPLIED ENERGY SERVICES, INC.......Page 117
ARAKAWA, AKIO ( – )......Page 118
ARCTIC OCEAN......Page 119
MARINE LIFE......Page 120
SEA ICE......Page 121
PROBLEMS WITH THE ARCTIC RECORD......Page 122
ARGENTINA......Page 123
ARIZONA......Page 124
CLIMATE HARDSHIP......Page 125
ARKANSAS......Page 126
ARRHENIUS, SVANTE AUGUST ( – )......Page 127
ARRHENIUS’S GREENHOUSE LAW......Page 128
CARBON DIOXIDE FLUX......Page 129
THE ATLANTIC MERIDIONAL OVERTURNING CIRCULATION......Page 131
THREATS TO COASTAL COMMUNITIES......Page 132
ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT INFORMATION PROGRAMME (UK)......Page 133
SHIFT IN SUPPORT......Page 134
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION OF SOLAR RADIATION......Page 135
ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER......Page 136
IMPROVEMENTS......Page 138
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION......Page 139
ATMOSPHERIC EMISSION OF INFRARED RADIATION......Page 140
ATMOSPHERIC GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS......Page 141
IMPROVEMENTS......Page 142
ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH AND INFORMATION CENTRE......Page 143
ATMOSPHERIC VERTICAL STRUCTURE......Page 144
ATTRIBUTION OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 145
HUMAN-INDUCED CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 146
A COUNTERARGUMENT......Page 147
THE KYOTO PROTOCOL......Page 148
AURORA......Page 149
AUSTRALIA......Page 150
AUSTRIA......Page 152
AUTOMOBILES......Page 153
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES......Page 154
HYDROGEN-POWERED VEHICLES......Page 155
AVIATION......Page 156
NEW TECHNOLOGY......Page 157
REDUCING IMPACTS......Page 158
AZERBAIJAN......Page 159
BAHAMAS......Page 161
BANGLADESH......Page 162
SEA LEVEL RISE AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 163
BELARUS......Page 164
BELGIUM......Page 165
BENGUELA CURRENT......Page 166
BERLIN MANDATE......Page 168
BHUTAN......Page 169
BIOGEOCHEMICAL FEEDBACKS......Page 171
BIOLOGY......Page 172
CONSERVATION BIOLOGY......Page 173
THE TRAGEDY OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 174
EVOLUTION AND EXTINCTION......Page 175
BIOMASS......Page 176
BLIZZARDS......Page 177
BOLIVIA......Page 179
BOTANY......Page 180
AREAS OF STUDY......Page 181
CLIMATE ZONE CHANGES......Page 182
BOTANICAL EVIDENCE FOR GLOBAL WARMING......Page 183
BOTSWANA......Page 184
BP......Page 185
BRAZIL......Page 186
BROECKER, WALLACE ( 93 – )......Page 188
BRYAN, KIRK ( 929– )......Page 189
THE BRYAN-COX CODE......Page 190
BRYSON, REID ( 920– )......Page 191
BUDYKO, MIKHAIL ( 920–200 )......Page 192
GLOBAL WARMING, SNOWBALL EARTH, AND NUCLEAR WINTER......Page 193
BULGARIA......Page 194
BURUNDI......Page 195
BUSH (GEORGE H.W.) ADMINISTRATION......Page 196
BUSH (GEORGE W.) ADMINISTRATION......Page 197
REJECTING THE PROTOCOL......Page 198
CALIFORNIA......Page 201
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY......Page 202
CAMEROON......Page 203
THE KYOTO PROTOCOL IN CANADA......Page 204
ENERGY IN CANADA......Page 205
CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES......Page 206
A PARADISE LOST: THE CANADIAN ARCTIC......Page 207
CANADIAN ASSOCIATION FOR RENEWABLE ENERGIES......Page 208
CANTOR FITZGERALD EBS......Page 209
CAPITALISM......Page 210
CARBON CYCLE......Page 212
CARBON DIOXIDE......Page 213
THE KEELING CURVE......Page 214
CARBON EMISSIONS......Page 215
CARBON FOOTPRINT......Page 216
CARBON PERMITS......Page 217
CARBON PERMITS VS. CARBON TAXES......Page 218
CARBON SEQUESTRATION......Page 219
CARBON SINKS......Page 220
THE EARLY EOCENE CLIMATIC OPTIMUM......Page 221
FROM HOTHOUSE TO ICEHOUSE......Page 222
CENTER FOR CLEAN AIR POLICY......Page 223
CENTER FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY......Page 224
POLICY INVOLVEMENT......Page 225
CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH......Page 226
ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC ISSUES......Page 227
CENTER FOR OCEAN-ATMOSPHERIC PREDICTION STUDIES......Page 229
OCEAN MODELING......Page 230
RISK ASSESSMENT......Page 231
CENTER FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT (INDIA)......Page 232
CHAD......Page 234
CHAMBERLIN, THOMAS C. (1843–1928)......Page 235
CHAOS THEORY......Page 236
CHARNEY, JULE GREGORY (1917–81)......Page 238
CHEMISTRY......Page 239
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 240
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING......Page 241
GREEN CHEMISTRY......Page 242
CHILE......Page 243
PALEOCLIMATE RECORDS......Page 244
RECENT CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 246
CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY......Page 247
CLEAN AIR ACT, U.S.......Page 248
CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM......Page 249
CLIMAP PROJECT......Page 251
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT......Page 252
THE CLIMATES OF AFRICA......Page 254
THE CLIMATES OF ASIA......Page 255
THE CLIMATES OF EUROPE......Page 256
THE CLIMATE OF THE AMERICAS......Page 257
CLIMATE ACTION NETWORK......Page 258
CLIMATE CHANGE, EFFECTS......Page 260
WATER RESOURCES AND TEMPERATURE RISE......Page 261
FRESHWATER SUPPLY ISSUES......Page 262
CHANGING ECOSYSTEMS AND WEATHER......Page 263
CLIMATE CHANGE KNOWLEDGE NETWORK......Page 264
CLIMATE CYCLES......Page 265
CLIMATE FEEDBACK......Page 267
CLIMATE FORCING......Page 268
CLIMATE IMPACTS LINK PROJECT......Page 269
CLIMATE MODELS......Page 270
COMPUTATIONAL POWER......Page 271
DATA......Page 272
STEADY TEMPERATURE RISE......Page 273
CONTROVERSY AND IMPROVEMENTS......Page 274
CLIMATE ZONES......Page 275
THE KÖPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM......Page 276
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 277
CLIMATIC DATA, ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS......Page 278
CONTEMPORARY METHODS......Page 279
CLIMATIC DATA, CAVE RECORDS......Page 280
CLIMATIC DATA, HISTORICAL RECORDS......Page 281
MEETING CRITERIA......Page 282
CLIMATIC DATA, ICE OBSERVATIONS......Page 283
INDIRECT ICE OBSERVATIONS......Page 284
ICE OBSERVATIONS OF ALPINE GLACIERS......Page 285
CLIMATIC DATA, INSTRUMENTAL RECORDS......Page 286
TRULY GLOBAL......Page 287
FLUVIAL AND FOSSIL SEDIMENTS......Page 288
CLIMATIC DATA, NATURE OF THE DATA......Page 289
PROXY VARIABLES......Page 290
CLIMATIC DATA, OCEANIC OBSERVATIONS......Page 291
CLIMATIC DATA, PROXY RECORDS......Page 292
CLIMATIC DATA, REANALYSIS......Page 293
GLOBAL AND REGIONAL SCALES......Page 294
CLIMATIC DATA, SEA FLOOR RECORDS......Page 295
CLIMATIC DATA, SEDIMENT RECORDS......Page 297
PAST CLIMATE CONDITIONS......Page 298
CLIMATIC DATA, TREE RING RECORDS......Page 299
CLIMATIC RESEARCH UNIT......Page 301
CLINTON ADMINISTRATION......Page 302
CLOUD FEEDBACK......Page 303
CLOUDS, CIRRUS......Page 304
CLOUDS, CUMULUS......Page 306
CLOUDS, STRATUS......Page 307
TYPES OF COAL......Page 308
PRE-MINING CONDITIONS......Page 309
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 310
MITIGATION OF COAL-BASED POLLUTION......Page 311
COLOMBIA......Page 312
COLORADO......Page 313
COLORADO CLIMATE CENTER......Page 314
COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 315
THE LAMONT-DOHERTY EARTH OBSERVATORY......Page 316
CONTEMPORARY SCHOLARSHIP......Page 317
COMOROS......Page 318
THE KYOTO PROTOCOL......Page 319
HEALTH......Page 320
COMPUTER MODELS......Page 321
EARTH SYSTEM MODELS......Page 322
MODEL GRIDS......Page 323
MODELING STRATEGIES......Page 324
CONDENSATION......Page 325
CONGO......Page 326
CONNECTICUT......Page 327
DEFORESTATION......Page 328
APPROACHES TO CONSERVATION......Page 329
ROOTS OF CONSERVATION......Page 330
ROMANTICISM AND CONSERVATION......Page 331
CONVECTION......Page 332
COOPERATIVE INSTITUTE FOR ARCTIC RESEARCH......Page 334
CORIOLIS FORCE......Page 335
CORNELL UNIVERSITY......Page 336
COSTA RICA......Page 337
CRETACEOUS ERA......Page 338
CROLL, JAMES (1821–90)......Page 340
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY......Page 341
CUBA......Page 342
CULTURE OF ENTERPRISES......Page 343
MEDIA AND CULTURE......Page 344
CURRENT......Page 345
CYCLONES......Page 346
CYPRUS......Page 348
CZECH REPUBLIC......Page 349
301......Page 351
DEFORESTATION......Page 352
DELAWARE......Page 353
GOVERNMENT ACTION......Page 354
DENMARK......Page 355
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, U.S.......Page 356
PIVOTAL AGENDA POINTS......Page 357
WATCHDOG OFFICE......Page 358
CLIMATE CHANGE TECHNOLOGY......Page 359
DEPARTMENT OF STATE, U.S.......Page 360
REDUCED EMISSIONS......Page 361
LINK TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 362
DESERT RESEARCH INSTITUTE......Page 363
DESERTS......Page 364
EROSION......Page 365
BIODIVERSITY......Page 366
TREE RINGS AND POLLEN......Page 367
SEA-FLOOR SEDIMENTS AND ICE CORES......Page 368
AGRICULTURE......Page 369
DEVELOPING WORLD SOLUTIONS......Page 370
DEVELOPED WORLD RESPONSES......Page 371
THE UNFCCC......Page 372
DISEASES......Page 373
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 374
DOLDRUMS......Page 375
DOMINICA......Page 376
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC......Page 377
DORIS DUKE CHARITABLE FOUNDATION......Page 378
DRIFT ICE......Page 379
DROUGHT......Page 381
HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF DROUGHT......Page 382
RECENT DROUGHTS......Page 383
DYNAMICAL FEEDBACKS......Page 385
EARTH’S EARLY CLIMATE......Page 387
EARTH COOLED......Page 388
EARLY HUMAN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 390
EARTHSHINE......Page 391
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT......Page 392
MODELING DIFFICULTIES......Page 394
ASSUMPTIONS OF CURRENT ECONOMIC MODELS......Page 395
ECONOMICS, IMPACT FROM CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 396
MODELING THE ECONOMICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 397
INDIRECT EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 398
MONETARY IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 399
ECOSYSTEMS......Page 400
BIOMES AS GROUPS OF ECOSYSTEMS......Page 401
EDISON ELECTRIC INSTITUTE......Page 402
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABILITY......Page 404
STUDENTS AS SOCIAL ACTIVISTS......Page 405
EKMAN LAYER......Page 408
EL NIŃO AND LA NIŃA......Page 409
THE NIMBLE ATMOSPHERE......Page 410
EMISSIONS, BASELINE......Page 411
EMISSIONS, CEMENT INDUSTRY......Page 413
EMISSIONS, TRADING......Page 414
ENERGY......Page 415
ENERGY, RENEWABLE......Page 416
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES......Page 417
RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL......Page 418
ENERGY BALANCE MODELS......Page 419
ENERGY EFFICIENCY......Page 420
FOCUSED RESEARCH......Page 421
ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE......Page 422
ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT ACTION IN THE THIRD WORLD......Page 423
ACTION TEAMS......Page 424
ENVIRONMENTAL FINANCIAL PRODUCTS, LLC......Page 425
THE VARIOUS APPROACHES......Page 426
THE ORIGIN OF THE DISCIPLINE......Page 427
SOURCES OF INFORMATION......Page 428
THE HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP......Page 429
THE ANNALES SCHOOL......Page 430
RELATED DISCIPLINES......Page 431
PRECIPITATION PATTERNS......Page 433
FORESTS......Page 434
THE WAY FORWARD......Page 435
REGULATION AND FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE......Page 436
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH......Page 437
PARTNERSHIPS AND PROGRAMS......Page 438
EQUATORIAL COUNTERCURRENT......Page 439
EQUATORIAL GUINEA......Page 440
TWO PRIMARY FACTORS......Page 441
ERITREA......Page 442
ETHICS......Page 443
EUROPEAN COMMISSION......Page 445
EUROPEAN UNION......Page 446
EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION......Page 448
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE......Page 450
THE PRESENT ATMOSPHERE......Page 451
FORMATION OF THE EARTH AND ATMOSPHERE......Page 452
THE EMERGENCE OF LIFE AND OXYGEN......Page 453
RECENT CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE......Page 454
FEEM (ITALY)......Page 457
FIJI......Page 458
FINLAND......Page 459
INLAND AND RIVERINE FLOODING......Page 460
HUMAN IMPACT......Page 461
CLIMATE CHANGE AND FLOODING......Page 462
FLORIDA......Page 463
FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY......Page 464
FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 466
FOOD MILES......Page 467
FOOD PRODUCTION......Page 468
CLIMATE CHANGE AND FOOD PRODUCTION......Page 470
FORAMINIFERA......Page 471
FORCED CLIMATE VARIABILITY......Page 472
FORESTS......Page 473
FOREST CARBON STORAGE......Page 474
FOUNDATION FOR INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 475
JOSPEH FOURIER WAS......Page 476
FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 478
GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORIES......Page 479
SUBSIDIARY BODIES......Page 480
FRANCE......Page 482
FRIENDS OF THE EARTH......Page 483
GABON......Page 485
GAIA HYPOTHESIS......Page 486
GAMBIA......Page 487
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY......Page 488
NATURE AND SOCIETY......Page 489
REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY: PEOPLE, PLACE, AND REGION......Page 490
GEOPHYSICAL FLUID DYNAMICS LABORATORY......Page 491
GEORGIA (NATION)......Page 492
GEORGIA (U.S. STATE)......Page 493
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY......Page 495
GERMANY......Page 496
GLACIERS, RETREATING......Page 497
STUDYING PRESENT-DAY ICE......Page 499
GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH PROGRAM (GARP)......Page 500
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE......Page 501
GEF-SUPPORTED PROGRAMS......Page 502
GLOBAL INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE (GISPRI)......Page 503
GLOBALIZATION......Page 504
ADDITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS......Page 505
METHANE......Page 506
NITROUS OXIDE......Page 507
GLOBAL WARMING EFFECTS......Page 508
INDIRECT EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 509
GODDARD INSTITUTE FOR SPACE STUDIES......Page 510
GORE, ALBERT, JR. (1948– )......Page 511
GREECE......Page 513
GREEN BUILDINGS......Page 514
GREEN CITIES......Page 515
GREEN DESIGN......Page 516
DESIGN FEATURES OF A GREEN HOME......Page 518
GREENHOUSE EFFECT......Page 519
RESULTS OF ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT......Page 521
CARBON DIOXIDE......Page 522
GREENLAND CORES......Page 523
MONITORING OF THE GREENLAND ICE SHEET......Page 525
GREENPEACE INTERNATIONAL......Page 526
GRENADA......Page 527
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT......Page 528
PREVENTION AND ADAPTATION......Page 529
GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTION......Page 530
GUINEA......Page 531
GULF STREAM......Page 532
GULF STREAM ORIGINS......Page 533
GUYANA......Page 534
HADLEY, GEORGE (1685–1768)......Page 537
HADLEY CIRCULATION......Page 538
HAITI......Page 539
HANSEN, JAMES (1941– )......Page 540
EARTH SYSTEMS STUDIES......Page 541
MILLIONS OF YEARS......Page 542
RESEARCH INSTITUTES......Page 543
HAWAII’S UNIQUE ENERGY PROFILE......Page 544
BACKGROUND......Page 545
TEMPERATURE INCREASES AND EXTREMES......Page 546
EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS......Page 547
AIR QUALITY......Page 548
HEAT, LATENT......Page 549
HEAT, SENSIBLE......Page 550
HEINZ CENTER......Page 551
THREE PROBLEM AREAS......Page 552
EARLY MODELS......Page 553
MODELS AND CLIMATE CHANGE ANALYSIS......Page 554
EARLY ATTEMPTS TO UNDERSTAND THE CLIMATE......Page 555
INTERDISCIPLINARY COLLABORATION......Page 556
SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT......Page 557
INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA......Page 558
METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 559
HOLOCENE ERA......Page 560
HONDURAS......Page 561
HOT AIR......Page 562
HURRICANES AND TYPHOONS......Page 563
HYDROFLUOROCARBONS......Page 565
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE......Page 566
WATER SHORTAGES......Page 567
THE END OF THE FIRST ICE AGE......Page 569
UNKNOWN......Page 0
THE PERMIAN AND CENOZOIC ICE AGES......Page 570
ICE ALBEDO FEEDBACK......Page 572
ICE COMPONENT OF MODELS......Page 573
ICELAND......Page 574
IDAHO......Page 575
ILLINOIS......Page 577
STEPS TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS......Page 578
SEA-LEVEL RISE......Page 579
INCIDENCE AND SEVERITY OF STORMS......Page 580
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS......Page 581
SOCIETAL IMPACTS......Page 582
INDIA......Page 583
INDIANA......Page 584
CLIMATE CHANGE GOALS......Page 585
IRES MISSION......Page 586
INDIAN OCEAN......Page 587
INDONESIA......Page 588
HISTORICAL ROOTS......Page 589
CHALLENGES TO INDUSTRIALIZATION......Page 590
ROLE OF ENERGY......Page 591
INSTITUTE OF ENERGY ECONOMICS (ARGENTINA)......Page 592
INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)......Page 593
FEEDBACKS......Page 595
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS (ICSU)......Page 596
CURRENT GOALS......Page 597
INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR (IGY)......Page 598
INTERNATIONAL GEOSPHEREBIOSPHERE PROGRAM (IGBP)......Page 599
EARLY PRACTICAL APPROACHES......Page 600
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR CLIMATE PREDICTION......Page 601
INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ENERGY SOCIETY (ISES)......Page 602
PUBLICATIONS FOR DEBATE AND DIALOGUE......Page 603
INTERNATIONAL UNION OF GEODESY AND GEOPHYSICS (IUGG)......Page 604
INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE......Page 605
IOWA......Page 606
IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 607
DEVELOPMENT AND DEFORESTATION......Page 608
IRELAND......Page 609
ISRAEL......Page 610
ITALY......Page 611
FOUR DECADES OF INITIATIVES......Page 612
JAMAICA......Page 613
KYOTO PROTOCOL......Page 614
JET STREAMS......Page 616
RESEARCH ISSUES AND METHODS......Page 617
FOUR CORE RESEARCH AREAS......Page 618
JORDAN......Page 619
JURASSIC ERA......Page 620
KANSAS......Page 623
KAZAKHSTAN......Page 625
EMISSIONS......Page 626
KEELING, CHARLES DAVID (1928–2005)......Page 627
STEPS TO REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING......Page 628
KENYA......Page 630
KIRIBATI......Page 631
KOREA, NORTH......Page 632
KOREA, SOUTH......Page 633
KUWAIT......Page 634
KYOTO MECHANISMS......Page 635
ACCOUNTING UNDER FLEXIBLE MECHANISMS......Page 636
KYOTO PROTOCOL......Page 637
THE THREE MECHANISMS......Page 638
KYRGYZSTAN......Page 640
LAND COMPONENT OF MODELS......Page 643
LAND USE......Page 644
LATVIA......Page 646
LDEO CLIMATE MODELING GROUP......Page 647
LEBANON......Page 648
LESOTHO......Page 649
LIECHTENSTEIN......Page 650
LCA AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 651
LINDZEN, RICHARD (1940– )......Page 652
REJECTING ANTHROPOGENIC CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 653
LITTLE ICE AGE......Page 654
LORENZ, EDWARD (1917– )......Page 656
LOUISIANA......Page 657
LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 659
LUXEMBOURG......Page 660
MADAGASCAR......Page 661
PROGRESS......Page 662
PROGRAMS......Page 663
MALAWI......Page 664
EFFECT OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 665
THREAT TO ITS EXISTENCE......Page 666
MALTA......Page 667
PIVOTAL MODEL......Page 668
MARINE MAMMALS......Page 669
CONTROVERSY AND UNDERSTANDING......Page 670
MARSHALL ISLANDS......Page 671
MARYLAND......Page 672
HUMAN-INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS......Page 673
ADDRESSING HUMAN-INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS......Page 674
PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES......Page 675
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES......Page 676
MAURITIUS......Page 677
BACKGROUND......Page 678
NATURAL CAUSES AND HUMAN IMPACT......Page 679
THREE ATTRIBUTES......Page 680
CLIMATE MODEL MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT......Page 681
CHALLENGING THE IDEA OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 682
INTERNET COVERAGE......Page 683
EVALUATING ONLINE INFORMATION......Page 685
RECOMMENDED WEBSITES......Page 686
CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE EVENING NEWS......Page 687
CLIMATE CHANGE AS A MERCHANDISE......Page 688
MERIDIONAL OVERTURNING CIRCULATION......Page 689
MESOSPHERE......Page 690
MESOZOIC ERA......Page 691
WIDELY DISPUTED......Page 692
METHANE CYCLE......Page 693
MEXICO......Page 694
MICHIGAN......Page 695
CONSEQUENCES OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES......Page 696
THREE STRATEGIES......Page 697
MIDWESTERN REGIONAL CLIMATE CENTER......Page 698
MILANKOVITCH, MILUTIN (1879–1958)......Page 699
MILANKOVITCH CYCLES......Page 700
MINNESOTA......Page 701
PROGRAMS......Page 702
MISSISSIPPI......Page 703
PROGRAMS......Page 704
MISSISSIPPI STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 705
MISSOURI......Page 706
MIXED LAYER......Page 707
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS......Page 708
MODELING GLACIAL INCEPTION......Page 710
MODELING OF OCEAN CIRCULATION......Page 711
MODELING OF PALEOCLIMATES......Page 713
APPLICATIONS OF PALEOCLIMATE MODELING......Page 714
MONACO......Page 715
MONSOONS......Page 716
SOUTHWEST MONSOON......Page 717
AMERICAN MONSOONS......Page 719
ADDRESSING HUMAN-INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS......Page 720
MONTREAL PROTOCOL......Page 721
MOROCCO......Page 723
MOVEMENTS, ENVIRONMENTAL......Page 724
AGRICULTURE......Page 725
THE GREEN STATE......Page 726
MOZAMBIQUE......Page 727
MUNK, WALTER (1917– )......Page 728
AWARDS AND ACCOLADES......Page 729
MYANMAR......Page 730
NAMIBIA......Page 731
AWARDS......Page 732
GLOBAL WARMING AND POLITICIZING SCIENCE......Page 733
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA)......Page 735
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENERGY SERVICE COMPANIES (NAESCO)......Page 739
NATIONAL CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH (NCAR)......Page 740
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA)......Page 742
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION......Page 745
NATSOURCE......Page 747
NATURAL GAS......Page 748
THE INCREASING VALUE OF NATURAL GAS......Page 749
NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE COUNCIL (NRDC)......Page 750
NAVY, U.S.......Page 751
ORGANIZATION OF THE NAVY......Page 752
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 753
NEEDS AND WANTS......Page 754
LIBERALISM......Page 755
NEPAL......Page 756
NETHERLANDS......Page 757
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION......Page 758
NEVADA......Page 759
NEW HAMPSHIRE......Page 760
ADDRESSING HUMAN-INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 761
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 762
NEW MEXICO......Page 763
ADDRESSING HUMAN-INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 764
NEW MEXICO CLIMATE CENTER......Page 765
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 766
NEW ZEALAND......Page 767
NICARAGUA......Page 768
NIGER......Page 769
NITROUS OXIDE......Page 770
NITROUS OXIDE AND GLOBAL WARMING......Page 771
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOS)......Page 772
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NGOS AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT AGENCIES......Page 773
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AS LOBBYING FORCES......Page 774
EXAMPLES OF IMPORTANT NGOS......Page 775
CRITICISMS OF NGOS......Page 776
NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION......Page 777
CLIMATE CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION......Page 778
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 779
NORTH DAKOTA......Page 780
NORWAY......Page 781
NUCLEAR POWER AND THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 782
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO NUCLEAR POWER......Page 783
THE FUTURE OF NUCLEAR INTERESTS......Page 785
EXAMPLES OF MODELS WITH OCEAN COMPONENTS......Page 787
OCEANIC CHANGES......Page 788
WATER DENSITY......Page 789
OCEANOGRAPHY......Page 790
OECD ANNEX 1 EXPERT GROUP ON THE UNFCCC......Page 793
OECD CLIMATE CHANGE DOCUMENTS......Page 794
OECD DOCUMENTS AND POLICY......Page 795
OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH......Page 797
OHIO......Page 798
ADDRESSING HUMAN-INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 799
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 800
HISTORY OF OIL CONSUMPTION......Page 801
CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF OIL CONSUMPTION......Page 802
OIL, PRODUCTION OF......Page 803
CRUDE OIL......Page 804
LAND USE ALTERATION......Page 805
CHANGING ATMOSPHERE......Page 806
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 807
OMAN......Page 808
KEPLER’S LAW OF EQUAL AREAS......Page 809
ORBITAL PARAMETERS, OBLIQUITY......Page 810
ORBITAL PARAMETERS, PRECESSION......Page 811
OREGON......Page 812
ADDRESSING HUMAN INDUCED CONTRIBUTIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 813
OREGON CLIMATE SERVICE......Page 814
OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY......Page 815
OECD INSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION......Page 816
FULFILLING THE OECD MISSIONS......Page 817
OXYGEN CYCLE......Page 819
CHANGES TO MARINE LIFE......Page 821
PALAU......Page 823
PROXY DATA......Page 824
CLIMATE EXTREMES......Page 825
PALEOZOIC ERA......Page 826
PANAMA......Page 827
PAPUA NEW GUINEA......Page 828
PENGUINS......Page 829
BIOL 436: POPULATION ECOLOGY AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 831
HEALTH VARIABLES......Page 832
PERFLUOROCARBONS......Page 833
PERU......Page 835
PEW CENTER ON GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 836
UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH INTERNATIONAL DIALOGUE WITH BUSINESS......Page 837
PHILIPPINES......Page 838
PHILLIPS, NORMAN......Page 839
PHYTOPLANKTON AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 840
HISTORY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATE AND PLANTS......Page 841
PLANTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 842
CLIMATE CHANGES AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT......Page 843
PLEISTOCENE ERA......Page 844
PLIOCENE ERA......Page 846
POLAND......Page 847
POLAR BEARS......Page 848
HUMAN EFFECTS ON POLAR BEARS......Page 849
CONSERVATION OF POLAR BEARS......Page 850
CURRENT INTERNATIONAL POLICY......Page 851
FUTURE OUTLOOK FOR INTERNATIONAL POLICY......Page 852
POLICY, U.S.......Page 854
HISTORY OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE U.S.......Page 855
THE GEORGE W. BUSH ADMINISTRATION......Page 856
CLIMATE POLICY: STATE AND REGIONAL LEVELS......Page 857
CONCLUSION......Page 858
POLLUTION, LAND......Page 859
TYPES OF WASTE......Page 860
WAYS TO MINIMIZE WASTE......Page 862
POLLUTION, WATER......Page 863
MAJOR TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS......Page 864
PHYSICAL WATER POLLUTION......Page 865
CONCLUSION......Page 866
THE CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 867
RISING SEA LEVELS......Page 868
PORTUGAL......Page 869
PRECAMBRIAN ERA......Page 870
PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE......Page 871
CLASSES OF SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTY......Page 872
PRECIPITATION......Page 873
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING ON PRECIPITATION......Page 874
ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT......Page 875
IMPACTS TO CONSIDER......Page 876
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS......Page 877
AWARENESS RAISING......Page 878
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY......Page 879
FACTORS THAT MAKE PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF CLIMATE CHANGE DIFFICULT......Page 881
EDUCATION......Page 882
QATAR......Page 883
PROXY DATA......Page 884
CAUSES......Page 885
IMPACTS......Page 886
RADIATION, ABSORPTION......Page 887
RADIATION, INFRARED......Page 888
RADIATION, LONG WAVE......Page 889
RADIATION, MICROWAVE......Page 890
RADIATION, SHORT WAVE......Page 891
RADIATION, ULTRAVIOLET......Page 892
RADIATIVE FEEDBACKS......Page 893
RAINFALL AND GLOBAL WARMING......Page 894
RAINFALL PATTERNS......Page 896
REFUGEES, ENVIRONMENTAL......Page 897
RESPONSES......Page 898
LEGAL REGULATION......Page 899
PROBABILITY AND UNCERTAINTY......Page 900
MODELS AND REGULATION......Page 901
SOVEREIGNTY AND REGULATION......Page 902
ANCIENT RELIGIONS......Page 904
CONTEMPORARY RELIGIONS......Page 905
RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICY PROJECT (REPP)......Page 906
MORAL AUTHORITY TO USE AND DEPLETE RESOURCES......Page 908
RESOURCE ALLOCATION......Page 909
RESOURCES FOR THE FUTURE (RFF)......Page 910
REVELLE, ROGER (1909–91)......Page 911
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 913
RICHARDSON, LEWIS FRY (1881–1953)......Page 914
RISK......Page 915
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE RISKS......Page 916
ECONOMIC RISKS......Page 917
ROMANIA......Page 918
ROSSBY, CARL-GUSTAV (1898–1957)......Page 919
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT......Page 921
GREENHOUSE GAS REDUCTION......Page 922
ROYAL METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY......Page 923
RUSSIA......Page 924
RWANDA......Page 925
SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS......Page 927
SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES......Page 928
MEASURING SALINITY......Page 929
PROCESSES AFFECTING SALINITY......Page 930
SAMOA......Page 931
SAN MARINO......Page 932
SAUDI ARABIA......Page 933
SCHNEIDER, STEPHEN H. (1945– )......Page 934
SCRIPPS INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY......Page 936
SEA ICE......Page 937
SEA LEVEL, RISING......Page 939
SEASONAL CYCLE......Page 942
SEAWATER, COMPOSITION OF......Page 943
SENEGAL......Page 944
SEYCHELLES......Page 945
SIERRA LEONE......Page 946
SINGAPORE......Page 947
SINGER, S. FRED (1924– )......Page 949
SLOVAKIA......Page 950
SLOVENIA......Page 951
SMAGORINSKY, JOSEPH (1924–2005)......Page 952
SNOWBALL EARTH......Page 953
CHALLENGES TO THE SNOWBALL EARTH THEORY......Page 954
SOCIAL ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 955
SOILS......Page 957
SOLAR ENERGY INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION (SEIA)......Page 958
SOLAR WIND......Page 959
SOLOMON ISLANDS......Page 960
SOMALI CURRENT......Page 961
SOUTH AFRICA......Page 962
SOUTH CAROLINA......Page 963
SOUTH DAKOTA......Page 965
SOUTHERN OCEAN......Page 966
EFFECTS OF ENSO......Page 968
SPAIN......Page 970
CLIMATE, BIOGEOGRAPHY, AND EXTINCTION......Page 971
CLIMATE DYNAMICS AND LIFE ON EARTH......Page 972
ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 973
DIRECT EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SPECIES EXTINCTIONS......Page 974
INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PERSISTENT CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 975
CLIMATE-RELATED EXTINCTIONS INVOLVING OTHER HUMAN ACTIVITIES......Page 976
SRI LANKA......Page 977
STANFORD UNIVERSITY......Page 978
STOCKHOLM ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTE (SEI)......Page 979
STOMMEL, HENRY (1920–92)......Page 980
STRATOSPHERE......Page 982
SUDAN......Page 984
SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 985
SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE......Page 986
SUNLIGHT......Page 987
SUNLIGHT AND THE DANGER OF SKIN CANCER......Page 988
SUSTAINABILITY......Page 989
FUTURE PLANNING......Page 990
SVERDRUP, HARALD ULRIK (1888–1957)......Page 991
CAREER HIGHLIGHTS......Page 992
SWEDEN......Page 993
SWITZERLAND......Page 994
SYRIA......Page 995
TAJIKISTAN......Page 997
TANZANIA......Page 998
TATA ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE (TERI)......Page 999
TECHNOLOGY......Page 1000
THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ABATING CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 1001
THE SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES......Page 1003
TECHNOLOGY AND REGULATION......Page 1004
TENNESSEE......Page 1005
TERTIARY CLIMATE......Page 1006
CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 1008
LOCAL ACTION......Page 1009
THAILAND......Page 1010
TROPICAL OCEANS......Page 1012
THERMODYNAMICS......Page 1013
THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION......Page 1014
THERMOSPHERE......Page 1015
THUNDERSTORMS......Page 1017
TONGA......Page 1019
RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 1020
PUBLIC AWARENESS......Page 1021
TOURISM......Page 1022
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND TOURISM......Page 1023
THREATS TO TOURISM......Page 1024
TRADE WINDS......Page 1025
TRANSPORTATION......Page 1026
FOSSIL FUELS......Page 1027
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS......Page 1028
TREXLER AND ASSOCIATES, INC.......Page 1029
TRIASSIC PERIOD......Page 1030
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO......Page 1031
TROPICAL TROPOPAUSE......Page 1032
TROPOSPHERE......Page 1033
TSUNAMIS......Page 1034
TUNISIA......Page 1036
TURKMENISTAN......Page 1037
TUVALU......Page 1038
TYNDALL, JOHN (1820–93)......Page 1039
TYNDALL EFFECT......Page 1040
UGANDA......Page 1043
UKRAINE......Page 1044
UN CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT/EARTH COUNCIL INSTITUTE: CARBON MARKET PROGRAM......Page 1045
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES......Page 1046
UNITED KINGDOM......Page 1047
THE UN CONVENTIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 1050
THE UN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION......Page 1051
FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 1052
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP)......Page 1054
UNDP GOALS AND INITIATIVES......Page 1055
GOALS AND ACTIVITIES OF UNEP......Page 1056
INTERNATIONAL FOCUS ON CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 1058
THE DIVISIVE ISSUE OF GLOBAL WARMING......Page 1059
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES......Page 1060
U.S. WITHDRAWL FROM THE KYOTO PROTOCOL......Page 1061
A NEW U.S. PLAN......Page 1062
UNIVERSITY CORPORATION FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH......Page 1064
UNIVERSITY CORPORATION FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH JOINT OFFICE FOR SCIENCE SUPPORT......Page 1065
UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA......Page 1066
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA......Page 1067
UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM......Page 1068
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY......Page 1069
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE......Page 1071
UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO......Page 1072
UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE......Page 1074
UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA......Page 1075
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA......Page 1076
UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII......Page 1077
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS......Page 1078
UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS......Page 1079
UNIVERSITY OF MAINE......Page 1080
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND......Page 1081
UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI......Page 1082
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN......Page 1083
UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA......Page 1085
UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE......Page 1086
UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA......Page 1087
UNIVERSITY OF READING......Page 1088
UNIVERSITY OF ST. GALLEN (SWITZERLAND)......Page 1089
UNIVERSITY OF UTAH......Page 1091
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON......Page 1092
UPWELLING, COASTAL......Page 1094
UPWELLING EQUATORIAL......Page 1095
URUGUAY......Page 1097
U.S. GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH PROGRAM......Page 1098
UTAH......Page 1099
GRASSROOT EFFORTS......Page 1100
UTAH CLIMATE CENTER......Page 1101
UZBEKISTAN......Page 1102
VALIDATION OF CLIMATE MODELS......Page 1103
COUPLED GLOBAL CLIMATE AND REGIONAL CLIMATE MODELS......Page 1104
VANUATU......Page 1107
VENEZUELA......Page 1108
VERMONT......Page 1109
VERMONT LAW SCHOOL......Page 1110
VIENNA CONVENTION......Page 1111
VIETNAM......Page 1112
VILLACH CONFERENCE......Page 1113
VIRGINIA......Page 1114
VOLCANISM......Page 1116
VON NEUMANN, JOHN (1903–57)......Page 1118
VOSTOK CORE......Page 1119
WALKER, GILBERT THOMAS (1868–1958)......Page 1121
WALKER CIRCULATION......Page 1122
WASHINGTON......Page 1123
WASHINGTON, WARREN (1936– )......Page 1126
WAVES, GRAVITY......Page 1127
WAVES, INTERNAL......Page 1128
WAVES, KELVIN......Page 1130
WAVES, PLANETARY......Page 1131
ROSSBY WAVES AND CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 1132
WEATHER......Page 1133
WEATHER PREDICTION AND FORECASTING......Page 1134
THE SUN, THE AIR, AND THE WEATHER......Page 1135
SEVERE WEATHER......Page 1136
WEATHER WORLD 2010 PROJECT......Page 1137
WESTERN BOUNDARY CURRENTS......Page 1138
WESTERN REGIONAL CLIMATE CENTER......Page 1139
WEST VIRGINIA......Page 1140
WIND GENERATION......Page 1141
WINDS, EASTERLIES......Page 1142
WINDS, WESTERLIES......Page 1143
WISCONSIN......Page 1144
WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION......Page 1146
WORLD BANK......Page 1148
THE WORLD BANK AND CLIMATE ISSUES......Page 1149
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT NETWORK......Page 1150
WORLD BUSINESS COUNCIL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT......Page 1151
OBJECTIVES OF THE COUNCIL......Page 1152
WORLD CLIMATE RESEARCH PROGRAM......Page 1153
WORLD HEALTH PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES......Page 1155
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION......Page 1157
GOALS AND ACTIVITIES......Page 1159
DEPENDENCY THEORY......Page 1160
WORLDWATCH INSTITUTE......Page 1161
WORLD WEATHER WATCH......Page 1162
WORLD WILDLIFE FUND......Page 1163
WYOMING......Page 1165
YEMEN......Page 1167
YOUNGER DRYAS......Page 1168
ZAMBIA......Page 1169
ZIMBABWE......Page 1170
BOOKS......Page 1171
ARTICLES......Page 1173
PERIODICALS......Page 1174
INTERNET RESOURCES......Page 1175
A......Page 1177
B......Page 1178
C......Page 1179
E......Page 1181
H......Page 1182
N......Page 1183
R......Page 1184
T......Page 1185
W......Page 1186
APPENDIX......Page 1187
A......Page 1205
B......Page 1211
C......Page 1214
D......Page 1226
E......Page 1228
F......Page 1232
G......Page 1234
H......Page 1239
I......Page 1241
K......Page 1244
L......Page 1247
M......Page 1248
N......Page 1253
O......Page 1256
P......Page 1257
R......Page 1262
S......Page 1265
T......Page 1271
U......Page 1275
V......Page 1278
W......Page 1280
Y......Page 1282
Z......Page 1283
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
Global Warming and Climate Change
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
Global Warming and Climate Change S. George Philander GENERAL EDITOR
VOLUMES 1 - 3
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road housand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: order @ sagepub.com SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/ I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 33 Pekin Street #02-01 Far East Square Singapore 048763 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of global warming and climate change / S. George Philander. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4129-5878-3 (cloth) 1. Global warming–Encyclopedias. 2. Climatic changes–Encyclopedias. I. Philander, S. George. QC981.8.G56E47 2008 363.738’7403--dc22 2008006238 his book is printed on acid-free and recycled paper. 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 GOLSON BOOKS, LTD. President and Editor Creative Director Managing Editor Copyeditor Layout Editors Proofreaders Indexer
J. Geofrey Golson Mary Jo Scibetta Susan Moskowitz Mary Le Rouge Kenneth W. Heller Stephanie Larson Oona Hyla Patrick Deborah Green Summer G. Ventis Barbara Paris J S Editorial
SAGE REFERENCE Vice President and Publisher Project Editor Cover Production Marketing Manager Editorial Assistant Reference Systems Manager
Photo credits are on page I-79.
Rolf A. Janke Tracy Buyan Janet Foulger Amberlyn Erzinger Michele hompson Leticia Gutierrez
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
Global Warming and Climate Change CONTENTS About the General Editor
vi
Preface
vii
Reader’s Guide
ix
Introduction
xvii
List of Articles
xxxiii
List of Contributors
xliii
Chronology
xlvii
Articles A to Z
1–1120
Resource Guide
1121
Glossary
1127
Appendix
A-1
Index
I-1
Encyclopedia of Global Warming and Climate Change About the General Editor S. George Philander, Ph.D. Knox Taylor Professor of Geosciences, Princeton University Research Director, ACCESS S. George Philander, Knox Taylor Professor of Geosciences at Princeton University, and Research Director of ACCESS (African Centre for Climate and Earth System Science) in Cape Town, South Africa, has a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Cape Town, and a Ph.D. (Applied Mathematics) from Harvard University. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Geophysical Union, and the American Meteorological Society. Philander’s research interests include the oceanic circulation, interactions between the ocean and atmosphere that result in phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña, paleoclimates (including the recurrent Ice Ages of the past three million years), and future global climate changes. His two books for laypersons, Is the Temperature Rising? he Uncertain Science of Global Warming, and Our Afair With El Niño: How We Transformed an Enchanting Peruvian Current Into a Global Climate Hazard relect his keen interest in improving communications between scientists and laymen. he goal of the African climate center, which Philander is currently directing, is to give Africa its own voice on environmental issues such as global warming.
Preface PLANET EARTH HAS become the concern of every-
one. he activities of conservation biologists are now of interest to economists and political scientists who wish to ind out whether certain environmental problems are best solved by regulations or market forces. Businesspeople, government oicials, and politicians have become involved in science. To be useful to such a diversity of people, the nearly 750 entries in this 3-volume encyclopedia cover a vast range of topics afecting global warming and climate change. he entries amount to more than a catalog of terms; they are all part of one story about global warming and how it is likely to afect our world. Scientiic objectivity have been the watchwords for the editors of this encyclopedia, yet diferent perspectives that various authors have on some of these issues are part of a conversation that citizens or students concerned about the environment ignore at their own risk. Even the title of the work, Encyclopedia of Global Warming and Climate Change, was carefully considered to include paleoclimatology in the discussion of weather, climate, and the current debate about global warming. he authors of the entries include geographers, political scientists, chemists, anthropologists, medical practitioners, development experts, and sociologists. hey are experts in their ields of specialty; many are researchers with extensive ieldwork experience; most of the entries on emerging techniques
and technologies were written by innovators. As the volumes intend, it has become increasingly essential to bring the multiplying global warming issues, concepts, theories, examples, problems, and policies together in one place, with the goal of clearly explaining an emerging way of thinking about people and their planet. Among the selection of articles, speciic country entries are included, rather than climatic or environmental regions, to give the reader the opportunity to get information on the status of global warming—its causes and efects—by country, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe. Also included are articles within speciic categories, including: atmospheric sciences; climate; climate change efects; climate and society; climate feedbacks; climate models; institutions studying climate change; oceanography; paleoclimates; programs and conventions; and people studying climate change. Pedagogical elements of this encyclopedia include the 4-color Introduction by General Editor Dr. S. George Philander, in which the reader can get a “bird’s-eye view” of the sciences behind global warming. Also included in the work are a chronology of climate change, resource guide, glossary, and appendix of charts and table graphically presenting relevant data. Altogether, we hope the encyclopedia provides some groundwork for further discussion and spur possible action to curb global warming. vii
Reader’s Guide his list is provided to assist readers in inding articles related by category or theme. ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES Aerosols Anticyclones Atmospheric Absorption of Solar Radiation Atmospheric Boundary Layer Atmospheric Composition Atmospheric Emission of Infrared Radiation Atmospheric General Circulation Models Clouds, Cirrus Clouds, Cumulus Clouds, Stratus Condensation Convection Coriolis Force Cyclones Doldrums Evaporation and Transpiration Evolution of the Atmosphere Hadley Circulation Heat, Latent Heat, Sensible Hurricanes and Typhoons Hydrological Cycle Intertropical Convergence Zone Jet Streams Mesosphere Monsoons
Precipitation Radiation, Absorption Radiation, Infrared Radiation, Long Wave Radiation, Microwave Radiation, Short Wave Radiation, Ultraviolet Rain Stratosphere hermosphere hunderstorms Trade Winds Troposhere Walker Circulation Waves, Gravity Waves, Internal Waves, Kelvin Waves, Planetary Waves, Rossby Weather Winds, Easterlies Winds, Westerlies CLIMATE Abrupt Climate Changes Aerosols Albedo ix
x
Reader’s Guide
Anthropogenic Forcing Carbon Cycle Chaos heory Climate Cycles Climate Forcing Climate hresholds Climate Zones Climatic Data, Atmospheric Observations Climatic Data, Cave Records Climatic Data, Historical Records Climatic Data, Ice Observations Climatic Data, Instrumental Records Climatic Data, Lake Records Climatic Data, Nature of the Data Climatic Data, Oceanic Observations Climatic Data, Proxy Records Climatic Data, Sea Floor Records Climatic Data, Sediment Records Climatic Data, Tree Ring Records Detection of Climate Changes Earthshine El Niño and La Niña Gaia Hypothesis Global Warming Greenhouse Efect Greenhouse Gases History of Climatology History of Meteorology Hydrological Cycle Internal Climate Variability Methane Cycle Milankovitch Cycles Monsoons North Atlantic Oscillation Oxygen Cycle Seasonal Cycle Southern Oscillation Sunlight hermodynamics Volcanism World Systems heory CLIMATE AND SOCIETY Adaptation Alternative Energy, Ethanol Alternative Energy, Solar Alternative Energy, Wind An Inconvenient Truth Automobiles Bush (George W.) Administration Capitalism
Clean Air Act, U.S. Clinton Administration Coal Conservation Culture Ecological Footprint Education Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Framework Convention on Climate Change Geography Globalization Greenhouse Efect Greenhouse Gases Gross National Product Health Industrialization Maximum Sustainable Yield Measurement and Assessment Media, Books and Journals Media, Internet Media, TV Movements, Environmental Needs and Wants Nuclear Power Oil, Consumption of Policy, U.S. Population Preparedness Public Awareness Regulation Religion Resources Risk Social Ecology Sustainability Technology Tourism CLIMATE CHANGE, EFFECTS Adaptation Agriculture Animals Arctic Ocean Attribution of Global Warming Aviation Desertiication Deserts Diseases Drought Economics, Cost of Afecting Climate Change
Reader’s Guide
Economics, Impact From Climate Change Ecosystems Floods Food Production Glaciers, Retreating Hurricanes and Typhoons Impacts of Global Warming Oceanic Changes Plants Polar Bears Rainfall Patterns Sea Level, Rising Species Extinction hermohaline Circulation Transportation Tsunamis CLIMATE FEEDBACKS Biogeochemical Feedbacks Climate Sensitivity and Feedbacks Cloud Feedback Dynamical Feedbacks Evaporation Feedbacks Ice Albedo Feedback Radiative Feedbacks CLIMATE MODELS Atmospheric Component of Models Climate Model Computer Models Energy Balance Models Historical Development of Climate Models Ice Component of Models Land Component of Models Modeling of Ice Ages Modeling of Ocean Circulation Modeling of Paleoclimates Ocean Component of Models Simulation and Predictability of Seasonal and Interannual Variations Validation of Climate Models COUNTRIES: AFRICA Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Brunei Darussalam Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon
Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Congo, Democratic Republic of Côte d’Ivoire Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Principe Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe COUNTRIES: AMERICAS Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize
xi
xii
Reader’s Guide
Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States of America Uruguay Venezuela COUNTRIES: ASIA Afghanistan Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia China East Timor Georgia (Nation) India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Korea, North Korea, South
Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Seychelles Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan hailand Turkey Turkmenistan Ukraine United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen COUNTRIES: EUROPE Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy
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Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia (FYROM) Malta Moldova Monaco Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania San Marino Serbia and Montenegro Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom COUNTRIES: PACIFIC Australia Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu GLACIOLOGY Antarctic Ice Sheets Drift Ice Ice Ages Little Ice Age Sea Ice Snowball Earth GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES Air Force, U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Department of State, U.S.
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Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) Goddard Institute for Space Studies National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Science Foundation Navy, U.S. Oice of Naval Research United Nations World Health Organization World Meteorological Organization INSTITUTIONS STUDYING CLIMATE CHANGE Alaska Climate Research Center Alliance to Save Energy American Council for an Energy-Eicient Economy American Electric Power American Gas Association American Geophysical Union American Meteorological Society Antarctic Meteorology Research Center Applied Energy Services, Inc. Atmosphere, Climate and Environment Information Programme (UK) Atmospheric Research and Information Centre BP Canadian Association for Renewable Energies Cantor Fitzgerald EBS Center for Clean Air Policy Center for Energy Eiciency Center for International Climate and Environmental Research Center for International Environmental Law Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies Center for Science and Environment (India) Climate Action Network Climate Change Knowledge Network Climate Impacts LINK Project Climatic Research Unit Colorado Climate Center Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research Cornell University David Suzuki Foundation Department of Energy, U.S. Desert Research Institute Edison Electric Institute Environmental and Societal Impacts Group Environmental Defense
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Environmental Development Action in the hird World Environmental Financial Products, LLC Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) European Commission FEEM (Italy) Florida State University Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Friends of the Earth Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Global Atmospheric Research Program (GCRP) Global Environment Facility (GEF) Global Industrial and Social Progress Research Institute (GISPRI) Greenpeace International Harvard University Heinz Center Idaho State Climate Services Indiana University Institute of Energy Economics (Argentina) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) International Council of Scientiic Unions (ICSU) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) International Research Institute for Climate Prediction International Solar Energy Society (ISES) International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean (JISAO) Kyoto Mechanisms LDEO Climate Modeling Group Marshal Institute Midwestern Regional Climate Center National Academy of Sciences, U.S. National Association of Energy Service Companies (NAESCO) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Natsource Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) New Mexico Climate Center OECD Annex I Expert Group on the UNFCCC OECD Climate Change Documents Ohio State University Oregon Climate Service Oregon State University Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Penn State University Pew Center on Global Climate Change Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) Resources for the Future (RFF) Royal Dutch/Shell Group Royal Meteorological Society Scripps Institute of Oceanography Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) Trexler and Associates, Inc. UN Conference on Trade and Development/Earth Council Institute: Carbon Market Program United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) University Corporation for Atmospheric Research University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Joint Oice for Science Support University of Arizona University of Birmingham, Meteorology and Climatology Department University of California University of Colorado University of Delaware, Center for Climatic Research University of Florida University of Hawaii, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology University of Illinois, Department of Atmospheric Sciences University of Kentucky, Agricultural Weather Center University of Leeds, Institute for Atmospheric Science University of Maine, Institute for Quaternary Studies University of Maryland, Department of Meteorology University of Miami University of Michigan University of New Hampshire University of Oklahoma, Weather Radar University of Reading, Department of Meteorology University of Utah, Department of Meteorology University of Washington, Atmospheric Science Department Utah Climate Center Weather World 2010 Project Western Regional Climate Center Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute World Bank World Business Council for Sustainable Development World Meteorological Organization
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World Resources Institute Worldwatch Institute World Wildlife Fund OCEANOGRAPHY Agulhas Current Antarctic Circumpolar Current Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Benguela Current Current Ekman Layer Equatorial Undercurrent Gulf Stream Indian Ocean Kuroshio Current Meridional Overturning Circulation Mixed Layer Modeling of Ocean Circulation Paciic Ocean Peruvian Current Salinity Seawater, Composition of Somali Current Southern Ocean hermocline hermohaline Circulation Upwelling, Coastal Upwelling, Equatorial Western Boundary Currents Wind-Driven Circulation PALEOCLIMATES Cenozoic Era Cretaceous Era Earth’s Climate History Greenland Cores Holocene Era Jurassic Era Mesozoic Era Milankovitch Cycles Orbital Parameters, Eccentricity Orbital Parameters, Obliquity Orbital Parameters, Precession Paleozoic Era Pleistocene Era Pliocene Era Precambrian Era Quaternary Era Tertiary Climate Triassic Period
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Vostok Core Younger Dryas PEOPLE Arakawa, Akio Arrhenius, Svante August Bolin, Bert Broecker, Wallace Bryan, Kirk Bryson, Reid Budyko, Mikhail Chamberlin, homas C. Charney, Jule Gregory Croll, James Fourier, Joseph Gore, Albert, Jr. Hadley, George Hansen, James Keeling, Charles David Lindzen, Richard Lorenz, Edward Manabe, Syukuro Milankovitch, Milutin Munk, Walter Phillips, Norman Revelle, Roger Richardson, Lewis Fry Rossby, Carl-Gustav Schneider, Stephen H. Singer, S. Fred Smagorinsky, Joseph Stommel, Henry Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik Tyndall, John Von Neumann, John Walker, Gilbert Washington, Warren PROGRAMS AND CONVENTIONS CLIMAP Project Framework Convention on Climate Change International Geophysical Year (IGY) International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP) Kyoto Conference Kyoto Protocol Montreal Protocol Toronto Conference Vienna Convention Villach Conference World Climate Research Program World Weather Watch
Encyclopedia of Global Warming and Climate Change
An Introduction S. George Philander Princeton University
IN ITS 2007 report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a large,
international panel of scientists, all experts on the Earth’s climate, concluded that human activities, specifically those that cause an increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, have started affecting the Earth’s climate. The panel further predicted that far more significant climate changes are imminent. This report, and Al Gore’s documentary An Inconvenient Truth are persuading a rapidly increasing number of people that human activities can lead to possibly disastrous global climate changes. Those nonscientists are passionate about being wise and responsible stewards of the Earth, but at present they are handicapped because they take the words of the scientists on faith, and accept the reality of the threat of global warming without grasping the scientific reasons. This is most unfortunate, because our response to the threat of global warming is far more likely to be effective if it were motivated, not merely by the alarms scientists sound, but also by knowledge of how this very complex planet maintains the conditions that suit us so well. We need an awareness of how extremely fortunate we are to be the Earth’s inhabitants at this moment in its long and eventful history, and an understanding of how our current activities are putting us at risk. The purpose of this encyclopedia is to help the reader learn about the intricate processes that make ours the only planet known to be habitable. This encyclopedia covers, in addition to the science of global warming, its social and political aspects that are of central importance to the ethical dilemmas that global xvii
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warming poses: (1) How do we find a balance between regulations and freedom? (2) How do we find a balance between our responsibilities to future generations, and our obligations to the poor suffering today? The first dilemma, which generates strong emotions, has caused an unfortunate polarization of a complex, multifaceted issue. The extremists who find regulations abhorrent assert that there is no evidence of global warming. (They are sometimes referred to as deniers or skeptics.) Their opponents, Earth’s temperatures the believers, claim that global warming is underway, and is already causing environmental fluctuate in a relatively disasters. For believers, the second dilemma narrow range; the Earth, assumes global warming is already contributing to the suffering of the poor and therefore unlike its neighbors Venus is an urgent priority for everyone. They refuse to accept that, for the many people who are and Mars, is neither too so poor that they have nothing to lose, global warm nor too cold. warming is not an urgent issue. Dilemmas 1 and 2 call for compromises and hence for an objective assessment of the scientific results. The IPCC reports, which provide such an assessment, are explicit about uncertainties in the available results and hence favor neither the deniers nor the believers. The magnitudes of the uncertainties vary, depending on the time and region under consideration, and depending on whether we focus on temperature, the height of the ocean surface, rainfall or some other parameter. The following is a very brief synopsis—a bird’s eye view—of the discussion of these topics in the numerous entries of this encyclopedia. This information hopefully
TINY FROM AFAR: In our solar system, Earth, third planet from the sun at left, is dwarfed by giants Jupiter and Saturn. The order of the planets starts with Mercury, which is closest to the Sun, then Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and controversial Pluto.
provides a basis for the development of an effective response to the threat of global warming. Let us assume that we are aliens from another galaxy, in search of a habitable planet. On entering this particular solar system, our attention is at first drawn to the large, spectacular planets Jupiter and Saturn which are adorned with splendid rings and many moons. Earth, tiny by comparison, is a faint, blue dot from afar. Closer inspection shows that two of the Earth’s main features are chaotically swirling white clouds, and vast oceans that cover nearly 70 percent of the surface. Both are vitally important to the Earth’s most impressive feature of all: a great diversity of life forms that require water in liquid form. The abundance of liquid water means that, on the Earth, temperatures fluctuate in a relatively narrow range; the Earth, unlike its neighbors Venus and Mars, is neither too warm nor too cold. The Earth’s main source of energy is the sun, but this planet would be far too cold for most of its inhabitants were it not for its atmosphere, the thin veil of transparent gases that covers the globe. (If the Earth were an apple, its atmosphere would have the thickness of the peel.) This veil, by means of an intricate interplay between photons of light and molecules of air, serves as a shield that provides protection from dangerous ultraviolet rays in sunlight. The atmosphere serves as a parasol that reflects sunlight, thus keeping the planet cool; and as a blanket that traps heat from the Earth’s surface, thus keeping us warm. The blanket is the greenhouse effect, which depends not on the two gases nitrogen and oxygen that are most abundant, but on trace gases that account for only a tiny part of the atmosphere, .035 percent in the case of carbon dioxide. The most important greenhouse gas is water vapor, which is capable of engaging in escalating tit-for-tats (or positive feedbacks in engineering terms.) If atmospheric
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SATELLITE VIEW: A photograph from space of a setting sun shows how thin the atmosphere is. If the Earth were an apple, its atmosphere would have the thickness of the peel.
temperatures were to increase by a modest amount, then evaporation from the oceans will increase, thus increasing the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere. The result is an enhanced greenhouse effect that increases temperatures further, causing more evaporation, even higher temperatures, and so on. The consequence could be a runaway greenhouse effect—this is thought to be the reason why Venus has no water today. The Earth was spared this fate because The westerly jet streams are it is further from the sun than Venus, and is sufficiently cool for the air to become satuso intense that some bands rated with water vapor, in which case clouds of latitude are known as form. Clouds present the following question: Is their net effect cooling, because of the sunthe Roaring Forties and the light they reflect, or warming because of their greenhouse effect? The answer depends on Screaming Fifties. the type of cloud. Occasional glances at the sky reveal that there are many, many types. Uncertainties about future global warming stem mainly from uncertainties concerning the types of clouds that are likely in a warmer world. Simulating these fantastical, ephemeral objects is the biggest challenge for scientists trying to reproduce climate in computer models. If the atmosphere were static, we would be confined to a band of mid-latitudes, because the tropics would be too hot, the polar regions too cold. Fortunately, the atmosphere has winds that redistribute heat and also moisture, cooling off the lower
Introduction
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latitudes, while warming up higher latitudes. The circulation that effects this redistribution includes surface winds that are easterly (westward) in the tropics, where they converge onto the regions of maximum surface temperature at the equator. There the air rises into tall cumulus towers that provide plentiful rain. Aloft, the air flows poleward, cools, and sinks over the subtropical deserts. Some of the air continues further poleward to join the westerly jet streams that are so intense that some bands of latitude are known as the Roaring Forties and the Screaming Fifties. This atmospheric circulation, despite its chaotic aspects that we refer to as weather, creates distinctive climatic zones—jungles and deserts, prairies and savannahs—that permit enormous biodiversity. In the tropics, the atmospheric circulation, and hence the pattern of climatic zones, are strongly dependent on patterns of sea surface temperature that influence how much moisture the winds take (evaporate) from the ocean, and then deposit in rainbearing clouds. The most surprising feature in the sea surface temperature patterns is the presence of very cold surface waters right at the equator in the eastern Pacific Ocean. (When he visited the Galapagos Islands, Charles Darwin commented on the curiously cold water at the equator where sunlight is most intense.) To explain this we need to explore the oceans, the thin film of water that covers much of the globe. The average depth of the ocean, 3.1 miles or 5 kilometers, is negli